Antonio Sebastiano Minturno’s De poeta: a translation

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I I

75-13,227 BIEHL, James W . , 1940ANT0NI0 SEBASTIANO HINTURNO'S DE POETA: A TRANSLATION. Southern Illinois University, Ph.D., 1974 Language and Literature, general

I Xerox University Microfilms, AnnArbor, Michigan48ioe

©

1975

JAMES W. BIEHL

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.

ANTONIO SBA0KANO NZNTUBNO'S 01 P O P At A TBANS1AXI0N

*y J « M 8 V. Biohl, B.A., H.A.

A Diaaortatiaa Subadttod la Partial Falfillaaat of the Stqairmiita for the Doctor of FbdLloaophy Degree

OoportMBt of Biglleh la tho Graduate School Southern DLliaoAa VhlTaraity May 197*>

S O U T H E R N

ILLINOIS

U NI VE RS I TY

AT

CARBONDALE

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

_____________J u n e 5____________ iq

74

I hereby recommend that the dissertation prepared under my supervision by _________________________ JAMES W. BIEHL_____________________________________

Entitled __________________ANTONIO MMTURNO. DE POETA IN SIX BOOKS _________________ TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN WITH INTRODUCTION BY JAMES BIEHL_______

be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the D O C T O R OK PH ILO SO PH Y degree.

f t

In Charge of Dissertation

Head of Department Recommendation concurred in

Tvtilijto**% •din Committee for the Final Examination

I

TABLE OJ CONTENTS

Translator1s Introduction Translator's Nota

.........

il

...........................

xLi

Nintumo's Introduction..................................

1

Book One

7

.........................................

Book T w o .................................................. 1 H 28k

Book T h r e e .................

Book F o u r ................................................... Vt1 6 2k

Book Five

Book S i x .............................................................................................................................. 7 3k

i

•INTRODUCTION

Antonio Sebastiano Nlntumo (1500?-157**) expressed the engaging humanism of hie day as bishop, poet, and scholarly critic*

During

his life he shared the enthusiasm and dedication to the revival of learn­ ing that was the intellectual atmosphere of Italian city states— Naples, Pisa, Rome*

He enjoyed the support of aristocratic patronage— of the

Colonna and Pignatelli families.

As bishop he followed Pope Julius Ill's

directive to participate in the Council of Trent* of that participation are matters of conjecture*

The nature and extent However slight our

knowledge of Minturno's ecclesiastical activities may be, our information about his literary activites is much more precise.

The list of his

published opera includes Letters (15^9), L'amore innamorato (1559), Rime et prose (1559), Do ooeta libri sex (1559), L'arte poetics (1563), Bpjgrammata

et elesiae (156*0, Poemata. ad Antonium Columnam (156*0,

Poemata. ad Ccnsaluum Pvretium (156*0, and Poemata Tridentina (1564). Of these nine works, only two are prose treatises on oriticism, and only the D5-2-403.) Virgil coapared Aeneas unaoved by tears and deaf to any voice to a longdived oak tree* Aren as when northern Alpine winds, blowing now hence, how thence, eaulously strive to uproot an oak strong with the strength of years, there cones a roar, the stea quivers and the high leafage thickly strews the ground, but the oak clings to the crag, and as far as it lifts its top to the airs of heaven, so far it strikes roots down towards hell.... (ICL. 63* Aen. 4.VH-**6.) He coapared ferocity with the tiger, violence with the lion, speed with the horse*, swiftness in act with the eagle and the falcon; force with a whirlwind and torrent, fear with a she goat and a deer, treachery with a wolf, the power of withstanding with a rock* A r m aa a cliff that juts into the vast deep, exposed to the raving winds and braving the aain, that endures all the stress, all the aenance of sky and sea.... (ICL. 6k t Aen. 10.693-693*) He coapared the claaor of the aultitude with the twitter of birds.

How

clearly he showed a aan prepared to battle is like a bull* ...even as a bull, ere the battle begins, awakes a fearful bellowing, and, essaying to throw wrath into his horns, charges a tree's trunk; he lashes the winds with his blows, and paws the sand in prelude for the fray. (ICL. 6kt Aen. 12.103-106.) How brilliantly Virgil showed the knowledge of a bold deed and fear of punlshaent in the wolf:

164 And lot even as the wolf* when he ban slain a shepherd or a grant steer, ara hoatila darts can pursue bin,' straightway plungas by pathlass ways anong tha high nountAins, oonaoioua of a raoklaaa deed, and slackening bia tail claps it quivering banaatb hia bally, and aaaka tha woods. (ICL. 641 Aan. 11.809-813.) Conoaming tha eagle's fights with tha sarpant Virgil aptly says: And, as whan a tawny sagla, soaring on high, carrias a sarpant aha has eanght, har faat antwinad and har claws slinging tight, bat tha woundad anaka writhes its sinuous eoils, and roars its bristling sealos, and hisses with its south, towering aloft; aha no lass with crooked beak assails har struggling viotin, while her wings flap tha air. (ICL. 6kt Aan. 11.751-756.) About Mistletoe ha anya: As in winter's cold, aaid tha woods, tha Mistletoe, sown of an alien tree, is wont to blooa mkth strange leafage, and with yellow fruit unbrace tha shapely stans. (ICL. 6 3 * Aan. 6.203-207.) Ha presents tha tsapast of tha heavens no lass correctlyt ...even as when rising blasts, caught in tha forest, aumur, and roll their dull Moaning, betraying to sailors tha onoowing of tha gala. (ICL. 64: Aen. 10.97-99.) Virgil presents tha inextricable pattern of tha labyrinth: As of old in high Crate 'tis said tha labyrinth held a path woven with blind walls, and a bewildering work of craft with a thousand ways, where tha tokens of tha course wara oonfuaed by tha indisooverable and irretrace­ able aaaa. (ICL. 631 Aen. 5-588-591.) The Manner of telling increases one's knowledge of tha thing. respect historians work vary like potts. to explain a daad or tha plan for a dead. whether thpy persuade or deter.

In this

They introduce details either They digress to enbellish,

So to*,write.'poena, especially of this

popular kind, writers of .stories provide anoh help. flow great can a poet be who ignores the rules of rhetoric and

1$5 does not excel in the method of spooking which rkotorioiono sdvootte? What non would deserve praioo if ho did not know how to properly invent, arrango, oppress, aanorise, and spoak?

Who would aerit praioo if ho

had not loarnod how to arrango, toll, distinguish, Maintain,rofuto, or suaaarise?

Only rheotSriciana can toach thoso things.

soamoh for thoir knowlodgo soaewhere olso,

Should posts

they will not bo known.

Without rhotoric how can a post shino in persuading and in praising? If any nan think ho knows which rulos aro proper for an orator, but in fact is ignorant of such rulos, ho will oertainly bo scorned in courts, in the senate, and in asseably.

Don't think the greatest authors looked

this civil discipline. In Virgil Jupiter nnsnnrm an asseably to deal with the gods' discord. By rebuking and advising ho exhorts then to arrango a loaguo. opens, but the speech degenerates into insults and curses.

Debate

Venus takas

the Trojans' side and oaits no arguaent by which she aay reconcile Jove and Aeneas.

She wants to gain Jove's pity.

awescae jealousy in Juno.

On the other hand she excites

What could be narration.

Thara ara many variatias of poems.

If we divide than into

thair respective elaaaaa and count them, wa would paroaiva just how many variation: thara ara.

Comedies belong to one, tragedies to anothar, and

still aora kinds raaain.

Vo aust diaouaa thaaa ona at a tiaa whan wa

considar tha individual gonraa.

Tha baginning of a work ia that part which praparas listanara' ainda for tha aattara to ba spoken.

This ia accomplished by randaring

tha ainda amenable, opan to instruction, and attaativa. plainly teach how to affaot thaaa thinga.

Rhetoricians

Tha poet nakoa a listener

receptive to learning whan ha briefly and clearly explains what ha intends to treat.

An orator presents this material in prefaooa with a rhetorioal

division into parts.

A nan stirs attention when the things proposed

seam great, new, or admirable, or when ha refers tha material to everyone, to many, to famous man, to tha immortal gods, or to soma state, tribe, or nation.

Virgil tails us that ha will speak about a great man and

about that man's sufferings: ...till ha should build a city and bring his gods to latiun; whence cane tha Intin race, tha lords of Alba, and tha walla of lofty Bona. (ICL. 63: Aen. 1.3-7.) Virgil shows us ha will discuss weighty matters abomt this great hero's deads worthy of admiration, and events pertinent to tha gods, to tha Intin name, and to those marvelous cities. Bona and Alba.

In these opening

words ha tells why ha undertook tha natter.

Ha seams to supply tho

reason in order to make it more acceptable.

Ha strives for favor from

his own persona, characters of his adversaries and listeners, and from tha vary subject itself.

Ha uses his own character much as Terence does

in prologues whan ha speaks of his own acconplishenanta and duties without arrogance.

Terence explains away crimes and suspected dishonesties

191 whispered about*

Ha talks about tha threatening difficulties.

a prayer and adds a supplication.

Ha offers

Virgil, too, coonends his own parson

in tha Georgies. I Bust assay a path whereby I, too, aay rise from earth and fly victorious on tha lips of aen. I: first, if life but reaain, will return to ay country, bringing tha Musas with as in triuaph froa tha Aonian peak) first I will bring back to thee, Mantua, tha pains of Iduaaea..*. (IflL. 63* Qsor. 3 .8-12.) Terenoe procures hiaself good will froa his adversaries' parsons. first arouses their hate, than their oontaapt. by first praising thea. judgnent.

Ha

Virgil wins his listeners

Then he coaaits hiaself to their faith and

He says he undertook the labor for their sakes.

As far as

the aatter itself is concerned, first he extols his subject with praise: The wondrous pageant of a tiny world— chiefs great­ hearted, a whdle nation's character and tastes and tribes and battles— I will in due order unfold to thee. (ICL, 63: Poor. 4.3-5*) With these lines Virgil gains attention:, as well. 'In.the following quotation Virgil shows why he will not handle soae things.

Hither they

are vulgar or negligible: Other thanes, which else had charaed with song soae idle fancy, are now all trite. Who knows not pitiless Airyatheua, or the altars of detested Busiris? (ICL. 63: Qeor. 3.3-5.) With these lines he coaaends his own labor, and he appeases God in his introduction by appealing for divine aid. Plato orders that ancient praotiee preserved in any beginning. in his panpgyrios. self. say*

The orator usually does so twice

Poets first invoke aid for the proposed natter it­

Hoaer, for exaaple, asks the Muse to tell hin what he should Then, after tunning to God, poets show the aatter they endeavor to

write about, as Virgil does in the beginniqgs of his poeas.

In the

narration when soaething aoriting divine revelation appears, poets

usually invoke tha gods* Awake now, lkatol

Who wara tha kings.... (ICL. 6kt

A m . 7.37.)

Now fling wida Balloon, ya goddasaaa, and waka your song. (ICL. 6kt A « . 7.6?1.) Thaaa practioas should ba kapt throughout tha pons.

In tha eoursa of

any apaaoh wa should both kaap and inoraasa good will.

Whan wa taaoh

we aaka tha listanar nora aasily taaohabla than by siaply indicating what is to ba said.

Wa naka tha listanar attantiva aithar by axclting tha

aind or by capturing it with pleasure.

Wa should oftan invoke godhaad,

aapaoially if tha nattars requiring explanation ara too grant or too •bscura.

Wa can invoka a god's halp if tha nattars ara of antiquity or

ooncarn tha futura. preter.

Thasa would ba inexplicable without a divine inter­

In any event even if you kaap these rules through tha entire

poaa, they still claia beginnings as their own special and proper place. Obviously in beginnings they ara so necessary that without than a poaa's opening would have no force. Tha virtues of beginnings ara that they teach, delight, entioe, and even lapel.

They draw their power first froa those places in tha

action which intend to nova tha passions. Than they draw force froa those places which look to showing emotions.

Bhetoricians advise about.these.

Still it is unfitting to explain this whole abundance in tha beginning of a work.

Tha richness need only ba explained enough to gently stir

tha listeners' alnds, and than enough to ba dear and lucid.

Unless tha

listeners understand our purpose as soon as possible wa fail to acoooplish tha v ary purpose of a beginning.

Tha poet should avoid using an overly

daring netaphor or arehaio language.

Ha should avoid overt use of

poetio license and a prolonged or tiresouo speech. speech seas overworked or excessively wordy.

Nor should his

Tha recurrent tension of

193 of tho audience

m tq b

u s

.

Aren after tho audience haa reoeived ust wo

cannot at once uae that liberty which usually occurs aore freely with aindo well disposed and warned to us*

This is especially true when

we have not reached the point where our natural richness prevents our license froa being: noticed because of our profuse brilliancei

How open

and dignified is Virgil's introduction: A m s I sing and the nan who: first fron the coasts of Troy, exiled by fate, cane to Italy and lavlnian shores. (ICL. 63: Am. 1.1-3.) How fittingly he excites certain enotions with these lines: ...nuoh buffeted on sea, and land by violence froa above, through cruel Juno's unforgiving wrath.... (ICL. 63: Aen. 1 . 3 - 0 With these he also pleases.

He mtices the listener, even when he

shows a pious nan enduring so nany hardships en land and sea because of Juno's wrath: ...till he should build a city and bring his gods to latiug. (ICL. 63: Aen. 1.5-6.) We aught net te pranise in the introductions things whose fora surpasses what we intend to treat! greater things than we now suggest. evidence.

Here we want to follow with such Honor and Virgil give clear

Aren Horace advises: And you are not to begin as the Cyclic poet of old: "Of Priam'a fate and famous war I'll sing." What will this boaster produoe in keeping with such southing? Mountains will labour, to birth will cone a laughterrousing nouse I How nuoh better he who aakes no foolish effort: "Sing, Muse, for no the nan who on Troy's fall Saw the wide world, its ways and cities all." Not sacks after flaae does he plan to give, but after saoke the li^t, that then he nay set forth striking and wondrous tales— Antiphates, Scylla, Charybdis, and the Cyolopa. (ICL. 19^: A.P. 136-1^5.)

19* That la ths nanner we should uss in.van introduction so that wa ara not carriad fttrthar than tha aattar daaumds. •■inant authors vara oaraful of this.

In anciant tiaes tha aost

As soon as they proposed what they

vara going to say thay explained their proposal. of brevity.

Ha invokes whan ha proposes.

briefly for tha sake of clarity.

Honor was aost observant

Virgil parforas tha saaa task

Nevertheless there ara those who digress

either to praise tha non their poaa concerns or to talk while they hesitantly choose what to say. approves.

Indeed Papinius does both, but nobody

Too ought not iaitate hia.

When Virgil sought the gods'

help in the Georgies, he seaaed to produce a wider introduction.

He

invoked the aany rural gods and praised Caesar Augustus, whose favor he desired. In fiirlpides' prologues when he repeats past events to add thaa to his plot, he seeas to narrate rather than propose his subject aatter. this exposition he tells what he will undertake to portray. narration the beginnings have alternate functions.

By

In such a

This is especially

true whan we encounter naterial where the poet aust invoke God. Awake now, firsto I Who were the kings, what was the tide of events, how stood aneient Iatiua.... (ICL. 6*1 Aw . 7.37-38.) Now fling wide Helicon, ye goddesses, and wake your song— what kings were roused to war.... (ICL. 6k 1 Aen. 7.6Al-6*2.) Sonatinas this occurs in the beginning of the entire work.

An epic

poet aay give an individual book its own introduction if the book is to treat separate natters.

Virgil does this in his Qoorgioa.

I have

not considered orators or aen who speak in public or in the senate. They should keep the order of an introduction whioh the rhetoricians teach.

These teachers have prescribed aany rules idiieh are superfluous

to relate here.

195 What follows after tho introduction io called narration. pertains the unfolding of the action.

7

To this

One kind of narration explains

the plot or everything ?the poet proposes to say.

There is a second kind.

In this the poet digresses beyond the plot.

He does this for the sake

of

The material is not foreign

amplification, coaparlson, or pleasure.

to the aotion.

The poet aay injeot it to eoaplain or accuse.

often injects short stories to give pleasure. the Carthaginians. suicide.

Homer

Virgil does it to blaae

He shows Dido vanquished by violent love contemplating

Sonetiaes the digression clarifies or embellishes the subject

aatter* oonneoting it with events past or to caae. to praise, to describe, to explain.

They frequently occur

This is the case when Virgil praises

Augustas, when he describes Aeneas' shield, when he tells of Hercules' saored tasks, and when he draws on certain ideas froa philosophy. In considering the nodes of narration we may note three. is simple.

Qauricus spoke about it yesterday.

poets use it.

In it the poet hiaself speaks.

The first

Qlthyraobic and lyric He assumes no persona.

The second kind is a certain imitation belonging to tragic and condo poets.

The poet replaces his own persona with another.

of narration unites both these.

Heroic poets use this.

The third kind Sometimes they

speak through themselves, sometimes through characters they introduce. If we look to what is narrated, we find a wide variety of narratings. When a poet deaoribes characters, causes, plaoes* tiaes,.actions, violent emotions, modes, and instruments, this is narration.

Virgil desoribes

a character in this way: Hsus was guardian of the gate, aost valiant of warriors, son of Hyrtacus, whom Ida the huntress had sent in

7

She Imtin narratio as Quintilian or Cieero use it means a statement of facts} generally I use "narration" as an equivalent.

196 Aeneas' train with fleet javelin and light arrows. At hie aide was luryalus--none fairere aaong the Aeneadae, or of all who donned tha Trojan arms— a boy who ahowed on his unshaved cheek the first blooa of youth. (ICL. 6ki Aen. 9.176-181.) In this description we can see soae details of character portrayal. Ve will find nany other exaaples which express the appearance* manner* action, fori:one, or type of charaoter.

This line explains causes *

There was an ancient city, the hone of Tyrain settlers. (ICL. 631 Aen. 1.12.) For Virgil had saidi Tell ne, 0 Muse, the cause. (ICL. 63t Aen. 1.8.) He often describes place* There in a deep inlet lies a spot* where an island forms a harbour with the barrier of its aides.... (ICL. 631 Aen. 1.139-160.) There lies in sight Tenedos, an island well known to fane.... (ICL. 631 Aen. 2.21-22.) He gives a description of tiaet It was the hour when for weary mortals their first rest begins, and by grace of the gods steals over thee aost sweet. (ICL. 631 Aen. 2.268-269.) In the dawning spring, when icy streams trickle froa snowy mountains, and the crumbling sled breaks at the Zephyr'a touch.... (ICL. 631 Poor. 1.43-M.) ...till the third sunaer has seen hin reigning in IsLtium and three winters have passed in camp since The Kutulians were laid low. (ICL. 631 Aen. 1.263-266.) Headers often meet explanations of actions* But meanwhile the Trojan band draws near the walls, with the Itursean chiefs and all their mounted array, marshalled by number into squadrons. The war-steed prances neighing o'er all the plain, and, fighting the tight-drawn rein, swerves hither and thitheri far and wide the field bristles with the steel of spears, and the plains are ablase with uplifted arms. likewise, over against them,

197 Measapus, and tha flaat Latins, and Coraa with hia brother,and naid CaaiUa's troop, ooaa into view, con­ fronting thsn on tha plain. (ICL. 6kt Ajn. 11.597-605.) Virgil expresses Motions— both haw and why they affect a nan: •. .whan tha biar ia aat down, oaata hiaaalf upon Pallas, and ollnga to hin weeping, and nooning, and aoaroa froa Borrow at tha laat doaa hia speech find opan way. (ICL. 64* A n . 11.1^9-151.) Thus ha swiftly daahad into tho addat. In that aingla haart aurgaa a vast tida of shaaa and aadnaaa singled with grief, and lova atung by fury, and tha eonsciousnaaa of worth. (ICL. 6kx A an. 10.870-872.) Ha indioataa whathar tha aotion ia pitiful or moving: ...and uplifte thair ohiaf fron tha aarth, vdiara ha bafoulad with blood hia seemly ordarod locka. (ICL. 6ic poetry grows by a magnificent

and splendid provision of deeds and words, and by the very majesty of its own magnitude. events happen.

Poets should vary it to please,

fittingly aany

Unless the poet situates then outside the proposed notion,

he will not preserve the theory of plot, nor the heroic node of writing. If the plot keeps all these,7then what has been introduced fron outside seems connected with it.

If thife.is sc, -that plot may not be one, or

it may be so complex and so long that it exceeds the bounds of magnitude and satiates the audience.

In the end the whole thing nay be unaanagable,

and the audlenoe may think theworkwwrittan in thenhisteric? rather than poetic style.

The historian repeats at length and pursues the subject

he narrates even further. certain order.

He collects materials by a series and in a

He fastens these saae diverse matters together, as is,

for him, apt and suitable.

The poet includes many things which so •J

coalesce in the plot that they seem to be in the plot. should be situated outside it. these externals.

Nevertheless these

The poet himselfJ does not narrate

He does not bring in new aetors to play them out.

Homer made Ulysses narrate what had happened to him, as Virgil did to Aeneas.

They did this so as not to intrude on those events that they

have bound together with the matters in the notion, and to provide a richer handling of the material.

(They would handle these more richly

if they introduced part of the plot in like nanner.) Otherwise the poems wander outside the bounds of proper magnitude. f

I think this is enough to refute the objections. the rest of this natter. Cossus.

Let us go on to

Or do you object, Cossus?

I approve of just about everything you are maintaining.

There is not the slightest doubt in my mind.

I ask nothing nore than

that you perfeotly complete tha assigned taak. Synccrus.

I would not ipiore your pleasure for anything!

Aa

va have shown, you oan find four kinds of plots In tha epic methods simple, complex, pathetic, and 'bannered." The Iliad is an example of the simple and pathetic; the Odyssey's plot is complex andumannered." Unexpected recognitions and wanderings do not complicate the Iliad. Here and there Homer's events move and excite the aind. he expresses various manners.

In the Odyssey

He shows Ulysses first recognised by

Alcinous, then by his nurse and the shepherds.

The Aeneid is at first

concerned with imitation of manners, thereafter especially with depicting violent Motions.

The first six books are like the Odysseyt for the most

part they express manners. imitation of the Iliad.

Ve see the last six books are pathetio in

It seems Virgil used a fifth kind, joined from

the pathetic and the "mannered."

Just as we have said the Odyssey con­

tains a mixed plot, so does the Aeneid.

Yet the Aeneid is a magnificent

poem, large, excellent, outstanding in its dignity.

By usage and praotice

Virgil correctly taught how nature is the guide in writing. No poem oan claim to be more regular in its rhythms and meters than the heroic, none grander, fuller, or more harmonious. poem particularly allows strange words and metaphors.

The heroic

If epic poets use

another verse form, either simple or mixed from a variety of poems, they surely stray far afield from decorum.

Indeed, this method of narrating

excels all other for its consistency of portraying and its sublimity. Senarii and verses in which four of the feet are equal have great speed. The latter are lively for dancing) the former suit actions.

Poets who

write a variegated and mixed poem, like Cheremon. are far removed from this poetry. the heroic.

Thus the epic poet wrote poetry in no other verse form than He shewed this one by its very nature to be the most suited

258 of *11 tbvthat Hothod of spooking. is oollod horoic.

By tho boat of rights such a poot

Tho hoooio poem oxcols in tho grand our of ita rhythns

and tho dlfpiity of its asters, and ia particularly fittod for showing horoio doods and words.

For tho saao roason, rhetoricians taught that

longer parts of speech suit tho greatest subject natters*

Honor writes

the Iliad appropriately without using Archilochus' or Anacreon's brevity. Their genre entails light and less important subject natter, and so their poetry requires a light and tripping verse.

Horace says this about Honor:

In what neasure the exploits of kings and captains and the sorrows of war nay be written, Honor has shown. (ICL. 194: A.P. 73-74.)

Honor is that nan who especially deserves praise in this natter and nany others*

It seamed to Aristotle that of all the poets only Honor

understood what he as a poet nust do.

When the poet imitates he will

be careful in speaking to put on the persona of the one acting. poet does this first of all when he hinself says little. obtrude himself as an imitator.

An epic

He should not

Instead he should introduce those doing

the acting as speaking nearly everything.

Having begun with a few details

Honor immediately introduces a nan or woman, or he begins to express their character*•

Beerything he portrays is "mannered."

Nearly all

other poets, as they themselves admit, try their hand at nanners occasion­ ally, with infrequent and limited success. ing Honor.

Virgil cane closett in follow­

His introduction is brief, as you can plainly see.

After

saying a few things on his own, he yields to another character. To nove and please his audience the poet should gain their admiration.

Ivory genre should pursue whatever excites adniration.

Men particularly attribute this to the tragic poet. also excellent in this. his own persona.

The epic poet is

He shows a character acting instead.,of using

In this poetry nany things show theoselvea worth ad-

259 miring thmtt should thoss case things bo viewed in tragedy or somo othor genre, would bo lsughod at. a fleeing Heotor on stage?

Wouldn't you laugh to soo Achillea pursuing Wouldn't you laugh at Aohilles using a nod

to forbid anyone from assaulting Heotor with his weapons?

And this

because Aohilles fears someone will snatch away this glory for himselfi Or what of Aeneas hotly pursuing a fieeing Turnus? Hor less, though at times his knees, retarded by the arrowwound, impede him and deny their speed; does Aeneas pursue, and hotly press, foot to foot, upon his panting foe. (1CL. 64* Aen. 12.746-748.) Turnus, even as he flees, even then upbraids all the Butulians, oailing eaoh by name, and clamouring for the sword he knew. Aeneas in turn threatens death and instant doom, should one draw nigh, and affrights his trembling foes with threats to rase the town, and though wounded presses on. (1CL. 64: Aen. 12.758-762.) Who doesn't tremendously admire these same episodes in the epic genre?

Of course, here the events that might excite laughter if we saw

them on stage are left to the imagination.

Whether the heroic poet puts

on another persona, whether he himself relates soae matters, he fits the words, meanings, rhythms, figures and ornaments of speech to both the individual characters and subjects. admiration.

By this aptness he earns esteem and

It is obvious that what is admirable pleases.

Sveryone

heightens a tale of strangeness and marvels thinking to please and delight by his telling.

First events then words, move admiration.

We readers

judge events admirable that have been considerately, not mindlessly, fashioned, admirably devised and them,in an order that is both marvelous and,at the same tine, related and logically connected. Who does not adaire the divinity of Virgil's genius and the ex­ cellence of his art when he reads how Juno stirred the winds?

Their

fence drove Aeneas to Idbya when he wanted to sail to Italy Stem Sicily.

260 Juno, vo read,called"on Tisiphaae or Aleeto to stir war botwoon the latino and Trojans.

Wo road that oho aont Iria, who urged Turnus to attack

tho enemy's camp. doath.

Juno oxoltod Juturaa to free hor brother froa laalnont

By Jove's ooaaand Mercury rooallod Aeneas froa Idbya to Italy.

Wo road that this aaao king descended to tho underworld to aee his father. Tho Aonoid oontaina nany other details like those.

Apparently, little

action occurred without the gods' involvaaentf we admire even the in­ cidents which did not appear to happen by divine will. that judiciously devised and marvelously fashioned.

We acknowledge

You will admire

these sane things no less if you notice how appropriately and orderly the poet connected one with the other.

The poet stands out as admirable

by his rhythms, diotion, the force of his meanings, and by the dignity of the language.

The poet will use dialogue when he deals with matters

requiring poetic eloquence. Though in order to effect admiration the poet pretends, never­ theless lie mixes in details that are proven. not approve?

Who admires what he does

Homer and Virgil both taught how the poet should pretend.

For there is a certain kind of proving which deceives man's intelligence. Conditions of logic can make it necessary that if A is, B must be. example, we conclude that if the sun is rising, it must be day.

For

In the

same way we conclude from a careful gathering of events, or from probabilty, or from a combination of these.

After details have been united which

usually happen before an event, with it, or after it,there seem to be consequenoes which always follow.

This brings up something jimportant.

The man whoddees not in the least perceive the differenoe between a consequent detail

and an adjunct detail is certainly deceived.

great praise rests on his having "proved" the detail. this.

The poet's

Arerybody likes

For example, the Trojans' war with the Xatins was waged because of

261 Aseanius' hunt!

Juno'a power drove Aeneas to Idbya, turning hia froa

tha kinARoa of Italy to Idbyan ahoraa.

Slnca thaaa ara "falaa" tha

audlanca approves thea with admiration.

This is asapcially true of what

tha poet portrays about tha gods' aaotiona in a haaan aanner and about their attitudes toward thaaselves and toward nan, such as their loves, aarriages, relatives, births, educations, friendships, wars, deceptions, and strifes between parties.

Then the poets tell of new and adairable

doings of the human race or of the other aniaals. unusual and unexpected.

These activltes are

Consider Cadaus being changed into a dragon.

Alcyon into a bird, Teiresias into a wcaan, Caeneus into a boy, and the aany other wonders in Ovid.

He shows foras changed into new bodies—

winged aan, Tritons, Sirens, Gorgons, Pegasol, Zaestrygoniana, Cyolopes, and Centaurs.

The aonstrous and unbelievable we find adairable and

pleasing to our ears, as when the poet gives life to lifeless things, or makes the normally silent speak: ...but at the cooing of ay Hiyllis all the.woodland will be green...• (ICL. 63: fcl. 7.59.) ...thy cradle shall paar ferth flowers-for thy delight (ICL. 63: *gl. 4.23.) These are delictful and less aonstrous; the poet, I think, uses thea to phesaeaaad gratify.

They are not eoapletely incredible.

following lines are too unbelievable.

The

They please less.

...a piteous groan is heard froa the depth of the aound, and an answering voice coaes to ay ears. (ICL. 63: A n . 3.39-40.) Hoaer tells us about a talking horse.

These things far surpass huaan

oapaoity, and yet they are said to be true and worth your credence. CTurnusj espies a giant stone.... (ICL. 64:

A m i . 12.896.)

This scarce twice six chosen aan could uplift upon

262 their shoulders.... (ICL. 6kt

Aen. 12.899.)

And now, continuing our dlseussion of what belongs to hsroio poetry, wo cone to arrangesant v tho ordor in which natters are properly gathered. Ve begin with the poet's announcing what he will say 1 A n a I sing and the nan who; first Aron: the ooastsof Troy, exiled by fate, cane to Italy and Iavinian shores. (LCL. 631 Aon. 1.1-3.) The poet usually gives the reason for his undertaking.

Be justifies

his topic and gains the listener's attention. ...such buffeted on sea and land by violence Aron above, through cruel Juno's unforgiving wrath*.•• (LCL. 63* Afil- 1.3-4.) Next,,the poet shows how causes precede events, as the order of narrating denands.

Before beginning to explain the proposed action, he tells who

the principal agent will be and why he, as poet, is teaching.

Sonatinas

it happens in the course of his story that he grandly repeats what is of ancient senory: There was an ancient oity, the hone of Tyrian settlers. (ICL. 631 Aon. 1.12.) And sa on.

Poets also explain the cause of actions joined with the plans,

asi ...that here should be the capital of the nations, should the fates perchanoe allow it, was even then the goddess' ain and cherished hope. (LCL. 63: Aen. 1.17-18.) The plan and will of Juno that the Carthaginians beoone nasters of events, is, in brief, the explanation of events. which the poet nust tell and describe. Boner's Odyssey.

The exposition depends on that This is plainer and clearer in

Hons- does not say such about the death of Ulysses'

oonrades or hbsht Ulysses1'long wandering. Be lightly passes over why Ulysses, so faaous and very dear to the gods, is denied return to his

263 homeland.

Thus whether the port explain* cauaea or a few actiara, thia

knowledge certainly makes the aattera diaouaaed eaaier to underatand. Then he begina the narration of the propoaed aatteri Hardly out of eight of Sicilian land were they apreading their eaila seaward, and aerrily ploughing the foaming brine with brasen prow, when Juno, nuraing an.undying wound deep in her heart, thua to herself spake: (ICL. 63* Aen. 1.3^37.) Notice here that in the beginning of this kind of narration, the poet assuaes another eharaoter.

She deliberates with herself:

"What! I resign ay purpose, baffled, and fail to turn fToa Italy the Teuerlan king!" (ICL. 63* Aen. 1.37-38.) .W« regard Homer as the principal author in thia genre.

He too,

introduces a character who provides an iaportant narration or character who ia planning aoaething iaportant.

This introduction of the characters

deliberating reveals their plana and the a sailings of their actions. The poet aay do thia in the beginning of the poaa or elsewhere before he explains what is to happen. or of thebeginning of a war.

This occurs in any revelation of affairs The gods' plans are manifest*

"Mighty sons of Heaven, wherefore is your Judgment reversed, and why strive ye with hearts so discordant?" (ICL. 6k t Aen. 10.6-7.) The port shows men's plana, as when the latin ambassadors reported what Diomedes had replied. "That ere now, 0 latina, we had determined on our country's weal, I both oould wish, and it had been better." (LCL. 6ks Aen. 11.302-303.) Whereas these discussions often contain diverse meanings, the former, the gods',are told from two points of view, as befits the ehamacter. Sometimes a far-fetched and fictional character explains the plans of things to be done.

Virgil introduces thm^livsr Tiber.

aid from the god against the Kutulians.

Aeneas seeks

The River seems to advise in

264 drtau.

Virgil introduces Iris to reveal to Tumua an opportunity to

attack whan Aeneas la abaant.

But bafora Virgil axplaina tha buainaaa

undertaken, ha talla what ia tha kingdom 'a or state's condition and what the goveraaent ia. King Imtinus, now old, ruled over landa and towna in tha cala of a long peace. (LCL. 6kt Aen. 7.45-46.) Not far hence, builded of ancient atone, liaa tha peopled city of Agylla.... (LCL. 64* Aen. 8.478-479.) Tha poet also axplaina auguriea, portanta, and oraclaa. ...but tha aged aoothaayaer reatrain a than with prophecy of fate.... (LCL. & f: Aon. 8.498-499.) But divine portanta, with manifold alama, bar tho way. (LCL. 6kt Am. 7.58.) Tha poet doaa not paaa ovor manners and customs in silence. Bafora tha city, boys and youths in their early bloom are a-training in horsonanahip..•. (LCL. 64: Aon. 7.162-163.) Hare 'twaa auspicious for kings to receive tha sceptre, and first uplift tha faces. (LCL. 64: Aon. 7.173-174.) Be speaks of sacrifices: Xt changed that on that day the Arcadian king paid wonted homage to Amphitryon's nighty son.... (LCL. 64: Aen. 8.102-103.) A little later Brander tells why the sacred event was instituted and restored. The heroic poet deals with many mattera involving war.

Before

the war begins Virgil describes the general: Himself, too, amid tho foremost, moves Tumus, of wondrous frame, holding sword in hand, and by a whole head o'Ortopping all. (LCL. 64: Aen. 7.783-784.)

265 Historians do tho saae thing* using soro words.

Bocsuso tho poot ro-

poatodlj dopiots tho sannors of a oharactor and expresses tho kind and extant of tho charactor'a actions ho doos not nood to protract his description.

To describe a character's aotion requires few words:

To orown tho armay cones Caailla, of Volscian race.... (LCL. 64: Aon. 7*803.) More follows about Caailla.

Tho poet's description also uses comparison,

especially in depicting a battle! Down froa his car leapt Tumua; on foot he aakes ready to close with the other. And as when froa soae lofty outlook a lion has seen a bull stand afar on the plain, meditating battle, on he rushesf even such seeaed the coaing of Tuxnus. (LCL. 64s Aen. 10.453-456.) And on both aides the poet notes resources, strengths, reserves, political alliances, provisions for total mobilisation, the kind and quantity of supplies, numbers of cavalry and infantry, kinds of arms, and all other practicaldata.

He tells whether the action is on

and Virgil serve as warrant for this prescription.

land or sea. Honor The poettells of

legates dispatched: Venulus too is sent to mighty Diomede's city to seek aid. (LCL. 64: Aen. 8.9.) He indicates a declaration of war and the grounds for it: A custom there was in Hesperian Latium... (LCL. 64:

Atm. 7.601.)

The poit describes regions, sites, rivers, mountains, locations, supply routes, and oaapsites. conducting business.

He describes where something should be done befsse This happened, for exasple, when King Iatinua pro­

poses a field for asking peaoe with the Trojans where they nay plan an agremant: There is an ancient domain of mine bordering the Tuscan river.... (LCL. 64: Am. 11.316.)

266 Or the lands Aantaa will rule: A plaea thara la, by Oraaks naaad Hasparia.... (LCL. 631 Aan. 1.330.) Tha poata also tails if thay find anything in thoaa plaeaa worth remembering1 ...Strophades tha Qreek naaa thay baar— islands sat in tha grant Ionian asa, whara dwall drand Calaano and tha othar Harpias, ainoa Riineue1 hoosa was olosad on than, and in faar thay laft thair foraar tablas. (LCL. 63* Aen. 3.210-213.) In thasa plaoas tha poata sonatinas digraas to includa origins of oities, tha oft-told laganda of how tribas bagan, thair manners, and thair dasiraa. This omanant affords nuch plaasora and adairation.

Virgil's Bvander

tails about graves: In thasa woodlands tha nativa Fauns and Nynphs onca dwelt, and a raea of nan sprung fron trunks of traas and hardy oak.... (LCL. 6k t Aan. 8.31^315*) Sinoa this explanation of nattars plaoas details bafora our ayes, It provides anballlahnant and evidence.

Tha poet divests hiasalf of his

own persona, and details tha leaders' plans, or rather stratagans: Aeneas— so runour tails,and scouts sent forth report tha tidings true— has insolently thrown forward his light-armed horse, to sweep tha plains; hiasalf, o'erpassing tha ridge, narehes by tha nountain's lonely steeps upon tha town. Snares of war I lay in an over-arched pathway 'nid tha wood, to block with amed troops tha gorge's double jaws. Do thou in battle array await tha Tyrrhene horse; with thea shall be tha valiant Messapus, tha Iatin squadrons, and Tiburtua' troops taka thou too a captain's charge. (LCL. 6kt Aan. 11.511-519.) Poets show an army's order and tha dispoaition of battle lines: And now all tha army was advancing on tha open plain, rich in horses, rich in broidered robes and gold— Mesaapua marshalling tha van, tha sons of Tyrrhua tha rear, and Turnua thair eaptain in tha odntre of tha line. (LCL. 61ft Aan. 9.25-29.) Mow I certainly think it superfluous to advise you what to do bafora

267 dealing with an iaportant situation.

Introduce aen who encourage,

persuade, urge, excite, confria, deter, chide, and r«dnd, aen who do what the situation deaands and what prudent and brave aen would do. In a war do not oait the events prior to battle.

Tell about the clever­

ness of generals or their iaprudenee in. drawing up a battle line, selecting a battlefield, foraing a plan, the eagerness..or fear of soldiers, preaonitions of victory or defeat.

Do not oait what happens in battle,

the fights of those battling, the shouts, enoouragcaents, wounds received, slaughters, panic,prayers, and vows. "May thisright hand,ay deity, and the hurtling dart 1 poise, now aid ael I vow thee, Iausus, thy very self, clad in spoils stripped froa the robber's corpse, as ay trophy of Aeneas." (ICL. 6k t Aen. 10.773-775.) Do not oait what follows the battle— the enemy fleeing, the carnage on both sides, captives, victory offerings to the gods, victory trophies erected, unburied bodies, decaying bodies; •..began to pay the gods his vows of victory. A nighty oak, its branches lopped all about, he plants on a sound, and arrays in the gleaaing eras stripped froa Mesentius the chief, a trophy to thee, thou Lord of War. (w L . 6k i Aon. ll.A-8.) Now father Aeneas, now Tarchon, had set up pyres on the winding shore. Hither, after the fashion of their fathers, they each brought the bodies of thtir kin.... (ICL. 6k : Aen. H.1&-186.) Showing the joy of the victors and sorrow of the vanquished has power to stir enotions. But within the walls, in the city of rich latlnus, is the chief uproar and the long wail's largest portion. Here aothers and their sons' unhappy brides, here the loving., hearts of sorrowing sisters, and boys bereft of sires, call curses on the fell war and on Turnus' nuptials. (ICL. 6kt Aen. 11.21}-21?.) It is worthwhile showing beforehand the nature of the ground, its location, the defenses readied, the fighting out of doors, natters

268 relevant to those besieged end the strengths of the attackers.

Then

the poet should tell what usually happens in a siege and attack.

After

the battle the poet sight tell how cruelly and greedily and how ferociously the city was captured, plundered, and burned, and how the inhabitants were slaughtered.

Virgil certainly shows all these things in the attack

of the Trojans' easp.

In the destruction of Troy he can also teach how

to depict these natters.

He can tell about asking a truce and settling

on term* to bury the bodies. For twice six days they aade truce, and, with peace inter­ posing, Teucrians and Iatins o'er the forest heights roased scatheless together. (ICL. 6k i Aen. 11.133-135.) However because the entire war aust be finished with the single cosbat of Aeneas with Turnus, and the covenant and treaty ratified, Aeneas bsgoat Now be the Sun witness to ay call, and this larth, for whose sake Z have been able to endure such travails, and the Father Almighty, and thou his consort, Saturaia— now kindlier, now at last, I pray, 0 goddess: and thou, faaed Mavors.... (ICL. 6ki Aen. 12.176-179.) latinus began in this fashion: By these sane Powers Z swear, Aeneas, by larth, Sea, Stars, LatanAAe two-fold offspring, and two-faced Janus, and the night of gods below, and the shrines of cruel Bis: nay the great Sire hear ay words, who sanctions treaties with hiA thunderbolt! (ICL. 6*t: Aen. 12.197-200.) Z oait each one's supplications for divine guidance. With such words they sealed faith between then, said the gasing lords| then over the flaae duly slay the hallowed beasts, and tear out the live entrails, and pile the altars with laden changers. (ICL. 6kt Aen. 12.212-219.) Now certainly nay events occur contrary to expectation.

Chance

or fortune cause aany things which affect us with hope, fear, joy,

269 sorrow, adairation, and tarror. and pattern of events.

Sonatinas thaaa iaaua froa tha meaning

Tha poat ahould uniformly dapict than all.

In a doubtful or aabiguous aattar you aay not oait what aan hara dona by rashness, boldness, tarror, danger, traaohariaa, dacait, prudanea, or virtua.

Fay attantion to tha impact of suspicion, ruaor and report.

Do not oait atorn, tha raging of tha saa, famine, pestilence, freeming cold, heat, nor anything like thaaa.

Sonatinas tha poat aust connect

things in an historian's fashion, as whan things happen in many plaoas at one and tha saaa tiae.

With matters of this kind, tha poat aust use

a special aethod, seeing that one and tha saaa action -contains aany interrelated details.

Hara tha poet's aethod maintains tha proper order

so that tha narration does not jump froa this to that. everything in its proper place and do so clearly.

Ha will explain

Virgil tells of

Aeneas' journey to Srandar whereby ihe attics aid against tha Rutulians. The narration aovas from Evander to Tarchon.

Then Virgil goes on to

discuss tha attack which tha Butulians aeanwhile press against the Trojans.

After describing this Virgil returned to explaining how Aeneas

returns with Struscan reinforceaents and frees his aen Aron tha saiga. Ha accomplishes this aovaaent by passing on to what requires exposition as soonaas ha has explained Battens of iaaediate concerni And while in tha far distance such dead befall, Saturaain Juno sent Iris froa heaven to gallant Turnus.... (ICL. 6k: Aan. 9.1-3.) Next ha will unfold in tha gods' council: Meanwhile there is thrown open the palace of omnipotent Olympus, and the Sire of gods and King of aen calls a council. (LCL. 6kt Aan. 10.1-2.) After having returned to the aaae siege, he will begin again about Aeneas' journey.

270 Thus they had clashed In stubborn warfare's conflict: and Aeneas at Midnight was cleaving the seas. (LCL. 64 j Aen. 10.146-147.) Anyone easily knows what place in a poen's plot episodes hold if he reembers what has been widely and clearly taught on this subject. In heroic poetry the poet first retains his own persona, then takes on another in his speaking.

This exposition of events prevails unless he

introduces seasons who explains what is happening in the episodes.

He

hinaelf will narrate nany things in the exposition; in unfolding the rest of the action he will narrate less.

Before introducing a character who

will speak, the poet adds details to clarify the forthconing narration. Therefore his high council, the foreaost of his people, he susMons by royal coaaand and convenes within his lofty portals. They assembled, stressing to the king's palaee through the crowded streets. In their aidst, eldest in years and first in regal state, with little joy upon his brow, sits Iatinus, and now bids the envoys, returned froa the Aetolian city, tell what tidings they bring back, and deaands full answers, each in order. Then on all tongues fell silence, and, obedient to his word, Venulus thus begins. (LCL. 64t Aen. 11.234-242.) Because readers coae across exaaples like these everywhere, I need not propose any aore. It appears, then, that in gathering the Material he has divinely devised, the poet will have used the above aethod.to suitably and properly arrange individual aatters.

He will excite pleasure and adsira­

tion no less by inventing than by arranging these. heroic poca.

But enough about the

Let us now turn to the bucolic.

^TtV'T

It seeas we should.

To finish what you started you

aust talk about this genre. fiyncerus.

Obviously hexaaeter verse is the oldest of all.

do not read old poetry written in any other verse fox*.

Ve

Sinoe bucolic

and heroic poetry both use this aeter, both deservedly appear to be the

271 oldest.

The ancients credited Pythius with the heroic* Nonius with the

bucolic, and Apollo with both.

Pythius sang of victory and the death of

the huge aonstrous beast at Delphi.

In bucolic poetry Apollo sang of

loves while he pastured Adaetss' herds.

Soae say Mercury becaae the

author of bucolic poetry when Apollo was a shepherd.

Soae follow Virgil

and sake Ibui the creator. With ae in the woods you shall rival Ban in song. Ban it was who first taught aan to Bake aany reeds one with wax; Ban cares for the sheep and the shepherds of the sheep* (ICL. 63: Bel. 2.31-33*) Soae say Mercury's son* Daphnis* invented pastoral songs in this aeter. Who would agree that the poea first caae to light when Iacedaeaonian shepherds performed the rites impossible for Diana's virgins during the Persian War?

At any rate because those first ancients were leading a

pastoral life and were honoring the gods as best they could* we should believe that shepherds used this poea in sacred rites.

Since the Greeks

have everything of this kind written in Doric, the aen who founded this genre were thought to have Doric naaes.

Everyone knows the Dorians had

places for feeding their flocks all over Greece.

Thus soae aen say these

poeas began in the Peloponnesus, others say in Sicily. Moschus was the first aan to deserve distinguished praise in the pastoral.

Theocritus far surpassed hia and is easily regarded a principal

figure in the genre.

Virgil imitated Theocritus and enriched the Iatin

language with hia eclogues. poetry.

These are the two brightest lights of bucolic

They have demonstrated what it is and hew to write it.

With

then as guides* by Hercules, none of you would go wrong! Who does not know the material and aethod of writing this genre employs? Both aethod and material are lowly and alight and suited to shepherds.

The rustic is content with simplicity.

It does not pursue

272 incisive and weighty meanings nor.: tha ornaaants of diction. find seven of Virgil'a ecloguaa ao written. Ihaocritua idylla.)

You will

(Virgil calla thaaa eclogues,

Or do you think Virgil'a singling graver aatara with

a paatoral plot deserves criticism?

Do you agraa that what tha ahapharda

say Virgil undaratood as transferred to something alas? seems truly aaatarful.

In thia Virgil

Hia rural lowly charaotara apeak everything in

a aiaple ruatic way, but into thair sport ha slyly injects acne serious aattara to elevate a work which in itaalf night be naked and trivial. Although ha never disposes of the external appearance suitable to a character, he does invest the character with an internal polish. external he correctly fashions what ia sonewhat hidden. Augustus and Follio.

He deplores Caesar's downfall.

has loat hia land; he rejoices to feel good fortune. custom.

In the

He praisea

He complains he Thia ia a poets'

In fictions they embrace the hidden truth; in a game they intend

the serious. Virgil does not abandon the pastoral character in the three eclogues which are considered less bucolic. has returned. then.

In Follio he shows the golden age

Hen leading a simple rough life are said to have flourished

When the ahepherds honor Si1anus, he sings, according to Virgil,

a song appropriate to both a god and an old man.

How?

The song is elegant

and varied; its variety attests and maintains the singer's dignity. In it we legitimately meet many diverse matters.

Take Callus.

Virgil

introduces hia as one who would relieve lovers fervor and withdraw to mountains and groves.

Still Callus would live a time in the fields and

be: ...the shepherd of a flock of yours, or the dresser of your ripened grapesI (LCL. 63: fcl. 10.36.) Hew he would have preferred to follow the beautiful!

Indeed he pursued

273 this in rustic language and aantentiae.

Thus ha first taught what to

consider abhorrent to the bucolic aethod.

He taught the correct way of

touching on thea so they aight seea aore becoming.

Virgil never begins

a bucoloie without preparing his listener's aind* Sicilian Muses, let us sing a soaewhat loftier strain. Not all do the orchards please and the lowly taaarisks. If our song is of the woodland, let the woodland be worthy of a consul. (LCL. 631 fcl. if.1-3.) Virgil aakes these remarks as if in a rustic poem it were absurd to handle anything unbecoming a consul. Because this genre is clearly unpretentious, it is aost like the comic.

The aoreic retreats from ornamentation, the huabler it is.

genres introduee lower types of characters. polished; pastoral characters aore crude.

Both

Comic characters are aore Coaedy consists of the

ordinariness of domestic affairs; pastoral deals with leading a rough life in utter solitude.

In both sometimes the poet hiaself begins, or

he has someone speak in his own person. kind.

Terence uses prologues of this

Sometimes Virgil opens the introduction of a poea with a brief

prow. My last task this— *vouchsafe ae it, Arethusal (ICL. 63* Igl. 10.1.) My Muse first deigned to sport in Sicilian strains, and blushed not to dwell in the woods. (ICL. 63* Jtel. 6.1-2.) Sometimes Virgil also explains the argument* Corydon, the shepherd, was aflaae for the fair Alexis*.• (ICL. 63* Sol. 2.1.) Daphnis, it chanced, had made his seat beneath a whispering ilex, while Corydon and Thyris had driven their flocks together*.• (LCL. 63* fcl. 7.1-2.) All of these have the force of beginning.

In the eclogue about Silenus,

2?b after ha had said a few things beforehand, he unfolded the arguaent. This is called the narration. The lads Chronis and Mnasjllos saw Silenus lying asleep in a cave... (LCL. 63* Egl. 6.13-lJO Evan a bucolic consists of an introduction and narration.

In the in­

troduction the bucolic poet proposes first before invoking the Muse, as in "Pharsaceutria": ...the Muse of Bason and Alphesiboeus I will sing. But thou, ay friend, whether even now thou art passing the crags of great Tiaavus, or skirting the coast of the Illyrian aain... (LCL. 63: Eel. 8.5-7.) Virgil also did this in the Aeneld and the Georgies.

When he invokes,

Virgil iaitates Hoaer: Sicilian Muses, let us sing a soaewhat loftier strain. (ICL. 631 Egl. **.1.) Then when he invoked, as: My last task thia— vouchsafe ae it, Arethusal A few verses I aust sing for ay Gallus, yet such as Iycoris herself aay readt Who would refuse verses to Gallus? (LCL. 63: Eel. 10.13.) Virgil connects both parts when he says: ••.begin!

Let us tell of Gallus* anxious loves.... (ICL. 63: Eel. 10.6.)

Bather, he usually speaks beforehand either to render what he has proposed agreeable and thus prepare the way for what he ia about to discuss.

(He

splendidly shows what the Material is concerned with, as in the "Silenus.** Or he speaks first to expose the arguaent and to ahow what he aust say. This happens in "Mellbasus," "Silenus,*' "Pollio," "Gallo," and "Alexia." This I reaeaber, and how Thyria, vanquished, strove in vain. Froa that day it is Corydon, Corydon with us. (LCL. 63: Eel. 7.89-70.) Although in the bucolic the poet introduces ppople who speak.

275 the poet never coupletely deserts his own persons.

He does so occasionally

as in "Pollio." He say use another character through the entire pom, as in "Tityrus," "Daphnis," and "Palamon,"

In several eclogues such as

"Gallo," "Alexis," and "Riaraaceutria," he uses his own persona for a few natters, other personae for aany. an introduction.

Where he hinself speaks he has

It is not at all necesmry elsewhere.

The characters

he has speaking introduce the natter in the introduction and tall what the eclogue will handle.

In "Tityrus" who does not inaediately notice

the ease of the one and the conplaint of the other over the lost field? In "Palamon" who fails to notice the strife and the shepherds' reproaches? By introducing a character in "Neliboeus" Virgil splendidly clarifies the entire subject natter.

Those who wish nay observe these sane things

in Theocritus' Idylls. As we have taught, bucolic pastry is closest to ccuedy.

In the eclogues readers find rustic conedy as if these were

pastoral dranas.

"Silenus" holds the chief place.

There the exordiun

of the entire p o m is where the poet plainly states why he is about to write a bucolic pom.

When he would inpose a goal for the work, he

speaks in this way: My last task this— vouchsafe ne it, Arethusa! (LCL. 63*

Eel. 10.1.)

My Muse first designed to sport In Sicilian strains, and bluahednot to dwell in the woods. (LCL. 63s Sgl. 6.1-2.) Those last lines reply to the previous quote, as if Virgil wanted to show whoa he initated.

Many n n agree about the last eclogue.

"Tityrus" to be the first, and this is undoubtedly true.

They want

Virgil hinself

recalled this with the pom's distinguished beginnings You, Tityrus, lie under your spreading beech's covert, wooing the woodland Muse on slender reed... (LCL. 63s fel. 1.1-2.)

276 Ia these lines ha ahowa that Alexia and Falaeaion art hiaown characters: Thia frail raad I will give you. firat. Thia taught aa "Corydon wets aflana for tha fair Alexis"; thia too: "Who owns tha flock? Ia it Meliboeus?" (LCL. 63* fcl. 5.85-87.) Thaaa deserve aantion bacauaa thay are.faaous parts of tha work.

But

perhaps it is unnecssary to say that what poata have written they intended to be regarded as individual poena and thaaa require no particular arrange­ ment. faitui It In unnceasary to try to place those poena into sone order. In the narratio Virgil shows what he has proposed through his own personal Now ia cone the last age of the song of Cuaae. (ICL. 63: Jfcl. 4.**.) Or he nay explain through another persona, as in "Alexis": 0 cruel Alexis* oars you natght for ay songs? (ICL. 63: & 1. 2.6.) In "Maliboeua": Is Nynphs of Idbethra* ay delight. (ICL. 63:

®cl. 7.21.)

There ia also narration in "Silenus^!1 But here the poet has joined the proposition with the unfolding of the arguaent: The lads Chroais and Mnasyllos saw Silenas lying asleep in a cave.... (ICL. 631 *gl. 6.13-10 The poet joins the proposition with the introduction before going onto narrate what has been prcnised: for he sang how* through the great void* ware brought together the seeds of earth* and air, and sea.... (ICL. 63: Eel. 6.31-32.) When we spoke about what constitutes a p o m we covered the requireamts of the narration and introduction.

Che who thinks that the bucolic

is one p o m divided into prom and narration aay say the exordiua is the introduction of "Silenus." Than what remains all pertains to the process

277 of narrating.

You nay paroaiva that soae aelogaaa have baginninga of

thia kind which taka tha placa of axordia. narrations.

We proparly call thaaa

But Ian aot at all clear how tha whole poea can be one.

The nateriala contained in such a poea do not fit aa well as those which a single action includes. Virgil calls eclogues?

What about tha parts of a bucolic poea which

It is difficult, alaost unnecessary, to define

how aany they ought to be. not be aore.

Soae say there should

Soae say Virgil was aore circumspect than Theocritus, who

exceeded that nuaber. plays.

Virgil makes thea ten.

They aaintain that the eclogues are like pastoral

Individual plays of coaic poets do not have aore than ten acts.

It is possible that in the bucolic the plot includes aore than a single act contains. What parts contribute to the foxa and force of a bucolic? include the sane four which we have said pertain to all genres.

We should Even

song and spectacle approach this genre, for we meet shepherds singing to the accoapaniaent of a reed. theaters.

Soaetiaes we find their songs recited in

Aa with any other genre, plot— the poem's soul— should be one

and complete.

The plot should be one not in the sense that one action is

portrayed in the entire work, but that in individual eclogues the poet should express one thing.

Neither aa I satisfied with what either

Theocritus or Virgil included in the entire bucolic poea, things indeed aany and varied, though by their manner, order, and series they can be so joined to one another that they seen to aake up one action.

Strictly

speaking, the poets do not at all introduce those who are acting, but they show who are talking; they do not mention what aen have done, but what they have said.

Virgil drew Tityrus replete with ease, singing

in the shade about his loves for Amaryllis, and Meliboeus driven froa his father's lands because of the lost field.

He is said to have created

278 this occasion to bind ths plot together.

In ths plot it is Malibosus

who laasnts his own fortune and adairss Tityrus1. Tityrus, who dslivsrs a'-particular public stateaent, deserves ths fans and favor of his own groat tranquillity.

In "Hosris" Virgil portrays a aan who seeks ths city.

In "Ariue" (if Arius was ths aan in poassssion of Virgil's sstats) hs makes a plot out of Arina' bringing ths goats. tions also figure in ths plot. act.

Ths shsphsrds' oonvsrsa-

In "Pharaacsutria" Virgil aads Mosris

Ths post not only introduces hia singing but also perforaing sacred

acts involving aagical ritos.

In "Paiaeaon" he portrayed shsphsrds acting

by presenting their debate, for you aust understand that ths debate is the action. In the pastoral you aust carefully preserve appropriate description in every action and in every variety of Banners.

Note what the shepherds

do, suffer, aanage, say, how they are affected, what is their aental disposition, what ia their habit and custoa.

This is the stuff of reality.

In a pure aiaple kind of language and aeaning Theocritus showed how to handle things like these.

He thought.the power of Doric speech aost

effective to acconpliah this.

He could not have effected the sane results

with Attic or any other Greek language. that plainness.

Virgil did not avidly follow

We should consider this fact the cause of his divine

dignity and Honan suhlinity.

He so teapered that unapausing aiaple aode

that it seeaed aore beautiful and aore pleasing. adairable in that very plainness. aust excite adairation.

He proved hlaself

Even in the plainest genre the poet

How correctly he portrayed the rustic lover

in "Alexis," arguaentative aen in "Pklaeaon," and the upright honest shepherds in "Daphnis'M

What shout his use of aententiae. his siailes,

ccaparisons, and style of speech? Didn't he take everything frca the ccanon aiddle usage of rustic nan's speech? Froa the aany exaaples I

279 will show you a few.

Young non, idiat of thooo rustic comparisons?

As for oa tho litho willow yiolda to tho polo oUvo, oa for os tho lowly Coltio rood yiolda to criason rose— bods, so far, to ny aind, doos Anyntas yiold to you. (ICL. 63: *gl. 5.16-18.) Your lay, heavenly bard, is to no even os sloop on tho gross to tho woory, os in suanor-hoot tho slaking of thirst in o dancing rill of swoot wotor. (ICL. 63: Eel. 5.V5-^7.) Horo wo rock os such of tho chill blasts of Boroos os tho wolf of tho nuabor of shoop, or rushing torrents of their bonks. (ICL. 63: Eel. 5.51-52.) How pastoral are those aiailosl Thus I know puppies wore like dogs, and kids like thei* dons: (ICL. 63: Eel. 1.22-23.) [Danootos] Banefdl to tho folds is the wolf, to tho ripe crop tho rains, to trees tho gales, and to no tho anger of Amaryllis! cMenalcaaj Swoot to tho corn is a shower, to tho newweaned kids the arbute, to tho brooding flock tho bond­ ing willow, and to mo Asyntas alone! (ICL. 63: Jfcl. 3.80-83.) Tho poplar is most dear to Alcidea, tho vino to Bacchus, tho myrtle to lovely Venus, and his own laurel to Phoebus, fhyllis loves hazels, and while Phyllis loves this, neither tho ayrtle nor laurel of Phoebus shall outvie tho hazels. (ICL. 63: Jfel. 7.61-6^.) What of those amplifications froa examples? No such joy has tho rock of Parnassus in Ihoobus; as such marvel to Rhodope and Iaaarus is Orpheus. (ICL. 63: Eel. 6.29-30.) Tho daughters of Proteua filled tho fields with unreal lowings,yot not one was led by so foul a love for boasts. (ICL. 63: &1. 6.A8-5O.) Amplifications froa circumstances: ...both in tho bloom of life, Arcadians both. (ICL. 63: Jfel. 7.^.) Prom similaritiest 1

280 ...neither ia craal Love sated with tears, nor the grass with the rills, nor the bees with the clover, nor goats with leaves. (LCL. 63* Bel. 10.29-30.) Froa excess1 ...that Cordrus* sides nay burst with envy. (LCL. 63*

tol. 7.26.)

Virgil esqpresses loves : delates, saucy girl, pelts ne with an appletthen runs off to the willows— and hopes to be seen first. (LCL. 63* Eel. 3.6^ 65.) And through cenparison: Galatea, child of Nereus, sweeter to ne than Hybla'a thyne, whiter than swans, lovelier than pale ivy... (LCL. 63* Eel. 7.37-36.) How siaple is thia chiding: Was it not better to brook Anaryllis' sullen rage and soornful disdain? or Menalcas, though he was swart and you are fair? (LCL. 63: lol. 2.1**— 16.) And the analogy that follows: The white privets fall, the dark hyacinths are culled1 (LCL. 63: &1. 2.18.) Virgil shows rustic exclanation: Ah, shall X ever, long years hence, look again on ay country's bounds, on ny hunble cottage with its turfclad roof— shall I, long years hence, look anaaed on a few ears of corn, once ny kindgdoa? Is a godless soldier to hold these well-tilled fallows? a barbarian these crops? See to what strife has brought our un­ happy citizens! For these have we sown our fields1 (LCL. 63: Eel. 1.67-72.) He rebukes hinself through dissenbling: Now, Meliboeus, graft your pears, plant your vines in rows! (LCL. 63: &1. 1.73.) Isn't this rebuke taken right froa the fields? Ah, Corydon, Corydon, what sadness has gripped you?

281 Your vine is but half-pruned on tha leafy ala. ( ICL. 6 3 : Icl. 2.69-70.) What of thia request? Ia mossy springs, and graaa softer than slaapt and tha green arbutua that ahielda you with its scant shade, ward tha noontide heat froa ay flock. Now ooaaa tha auaaar'a parching, now the buda awall on tha gladaoae tendril. (ICL. 63: B3l. 7.^5-^8.) And linaa joined with ooapariaon: Nay aueh longing asize Daphnis aa when a heifer, jaded with tha aaaroh for her mate amid wooda and deep groves, ainka down by a water-brook in the graan aedge, all forlorn, nor thinks to withdraw before night'a late hour— may such longing seize him, and may I care not to heal it! (ICL. 63: Egl. 8.85-89.) What about thia humor.

Doesn't it seam suited to country life?

Even voice itaalf now fails Moerla; wolves have seen Moeria first. (ICL. 63: Egl. 9-53-5^.) How properly he shows ruatic emotional Now even the cattle court the cool shade; now even the green lizards hide in the brakes,and Thestylia pounds for the reapers, spent with the scorching heat, her savoury herbs of garlic and thyme. But as I scan your footprints, the copses under the burning sun ring with the shrill cicala 'a voice along with mine. (ICL. 63* Eol. 2.8-13.) There is also this concluding line with a metaphor: Shut off the rills now, my lads; the meadows have drunk enough. (ICL. 63: &1. 3.111.) Virgil also includes hyperbole: ...at whose rivalry the heifer marvelled and forgot to graze, at whose sang lynxes stood spell-bound, and rivers were changed and stayed their course. (ICL. 63: Eel. 8.2-Jt.) Then indeed you might see Fauns and fierce beasts sport in measured time, then stiff oaks nod thair tops. (ICL. 63* fel. 6.27-28.)

282 Ctae could cite six hundred aore examples. Not* also in this poea that part of tha. epaaah ands1on.tha fourth foot.

That should ba a dactyl.

Theocritus usad thia vary often in that

position; Virgil paid laae attention. by thair speed.

Vernas of this kind show joy

Thay saaa to consist of dactyls for tho aost part.

Both Theocritus and Virgil are careful about this, as: nos patriae finis at dulcia linquious area; nos patriaa fugiaus: tu, Tityre, lentus in uabra foraosaa rasonara docas Aaaryllida silvas. (LCL. 65: Jfcl. 1.3-5.) This is enough about tha bucolic genre and tha whole of epic poetry.

Do you think I oaitted anything that you think I noted and

kept through daily study and. use? Scortianus.

We especially hoped to hear these things froa you.

Syncerus. We have certainly covered aany things today.

What you

ask of ae and what reaains to be said about art we should postpone until toaorrow. Cossus. loves.

Syncerus, you have given us extensive reasons for our

But we want to ask you not to procrastinate this discussion any

further. Syncerus.

lea,indeed.

tation about all of poetry.

We will work hard to finish this dispu­ But let it be done aore festively.

I will

revcedve you with aoderate and honorable show, if not with a aagnificent and adairable display.

Thus we aay all celebrate this merry day together

free froa care with a banquet and discussion.

Let us aake tomorrow's

gathering for the second hour, unless you desire otherwise.

If anything

reaains to be said, we will take care of it after dining. Aravina. See how generously and cheerfully Syncerus receives usl He was not satisfied to teach us with learned discourse; he wants to

283 feast us as well!

With what you said about ths bucolic poea, Syncerus,

you have shown youself the ruler in that.

And by right the faaous things

you have written in this genre sees to fit in your kinggea.

You are the

beat to sing; you have carried this poetry with magnificent glory froa woods to seashore, froa fields to the sea, from flocks to the fishes. Indeed all of us were thinking only Theocritus' simplicity and Virgil's dignity had portrayed this. Synoerus.

I know of your great affection for ne, Gravina.

It leads

you to sake this partial judgment about ne. Sii— nnHim- Atough tine reaains to suggest soae part of the future discussion.

Why should we lose this opportunity?

Young sen, strive

to seise this opportunity! Scortianus.

We are grateful to you for handling the natter.

We

ask you to lend this work your authority so that nothing pertinent is oaitted. Syncerus. Since all of you have said I should do this to please the young aen, I will bend te your wishes. with a walk.

Sitting has fatigued us.

First let us refresh ourselves

28b

BOOK THREE

I am about to write what Voplacus and Gauricus taught about dramatic poetry, though no single genre includes all those teachings. I think it would be quite worthwhile if I recall a few of those men who, though quite different from one another, gloriously flourished in drmatlc poetry. poet we would pursue.

Using the ancients' opinion we may learn about the Regardless of the discussion I am bound to un­

fold about the tragic poet in making this book, I do not think it peripheral if I refer to what the most educated ancients felt about men who wrote tragedy and comedy. in Old Comedy, Menander in New.

Those ancients recommend Aristophanes Those who prefer Menander to Aris­

tophanes seem to prefer New Comedy to Old, and some, actually compar­ ing the two, set Menander before Aristophanes for both particular and general excellences.

To Aristophanes they ascribe what is detested,

offensive, theatrical, and scurrilous. most nothing of the kind.

To Menander they attribute al­

These ancients find Aristophanes' diction

crude and without skill— unworthy of an educated man.

Such is the

kind of drama which is founded on strife and natural occurrences. Aristophanes uses Imposed and fictitious names.

While the ancients

say Aristophanes often uses these things rudely and dully, they also maintain Menander is sparing, decent, and becoming. reproached In Aristophanes.

Showy language is

In him they perceive the tragic and the

comic, the lofty and tha eloquent, the lowly and the meek, the obscure and the trite, the pompous and vaunted, and the trifling.

They per-

285 celve what excites peevish loquacity and nausea. replete with variety and inconsistency.

They perceive language

Aristophanes does not at­

tribute to anyone what is suitable and proper.

He does not give

majesty to a king, dignity to the orator, simplicity to a woman, hu­ mility to the common man, or what is distasteful and annoying to the marketplace.

His language seems the product of

chance and rashness.

The result is that you cannot tell whether son or father, old woman, country fellow, god, hero, slave, or freeman speaks. The ancients glowingly praise the language in Menander. priate diction suits and agrees with him.

Appro­

In Menander what Is done

through passion, what is presented through disparate manners, and what fits various characters seems unified.

These seem to be spoken .

with normal consistency of speech and are agreeable with one another. If there is need to digress, such as when the subject matter itself demands speech which is unusual and less fitting, Menander returns to what is proper and to the original force of his language, like a flute player hitting the wrong note but immediately returning to the proper key.

We approve of the skilled craftsmen, not the man who fashions

foot gear, clothing, or head gear equally suited to husband and wife, young and old.

Indeed, Menander uses that diction suited to nearly

every nature, class, or age.

As Aristotle says, since as a young man

he came far in the craft of writing and met death at the peak of his creativity and teaching, youth is the time writers progress in speaking by leaps and bounds. final work.

Compare Menander's early plays with his middle and

The longer he lived, the better his plays became.

Among playwrights, same write for the masses, the crowd; others write for a limited audience.

Pleasing both, you might say, is not an

286 easy matter.

Man do not think Aristophanes pleases many.

men do not approve of him.

Prudent

The troublesome masses found his poetry

wanton and shameless, like a prostitute who, after she has lost her virginity, Imitates a chaste maiden.

Serious men use their authority

to spurn and abhor the ill-mannered and shameless poetry.

Clearly

Menander proved himself witty and urbane, suited to any class with the greatest hilarity.

He presented poetry appropriate for the exer­

cise of virtues and the arts on stage In the gatherings of families, in readings at banquets.

He showed that poetry Is a discipline, the

most fitting contest of all, and the most beautiful of those things which the Greeks held In honor.

Menander obviously revealed his eminent

power of speech. Am I right?

Why do educated men flock to the theater if not to

hear Menander's poetry? At what other time have theaters been filled with the most learned men when comedies were playing? quets?

What about ban­

Is there anything to which table and drinking more

yield their place?

justly

Just as painters use the flowery and vegetable

greenness of colors for the onlooker's tired eyes, so Menander pro­ vides relaxation to philosophers and energetic men as a relief from the intensity of their business and thinking.

He pleases the mind and soul

as if by a flowering meadow furnished with shade and a gentle breeze. Of the many comic actors In Athens, those merited special praise who acted in Menander's comedies.

These plays seem generously sprinkled

with that salty wit arising from the same sea which gave birth to Venus. Aristophanes' witticisms are more bitter and cruel.

They wound more and

have a biting sting. Not everyone knows that Menander preserved the power of appropriate

28? writing worse.

in his language or his characters.

But Aristophanes did far

Whatever Is crafty and cunning we do not regard as courteous,

hut tainted with evil manners.

What Is boorish is not safe, but dull.

We scorn rather than joke about the ludicrous. are not funny; they are shameful.

The affairs of paramours

One might think that in his poetry

he wrote nothing with moderation, preoccupied as he was with the dis­ graceful and impure.

He tells about contemptible and annoying things

in a hateful peevish way. I by no means agree with this estimate of Aristophanes.

I am al­

most convinced that he produced nothing unseemly, tasteless, ungraceful, and inelegant if one views the Old Comedy he worked with. ducing what the genre demanded.

He was pro­

Thus what offensive matter it contains

should be attributed to the argument of the subject matter, not to the man's nature.

Indeed he is far from blame.

Rather he achieved fame be­

cause he bound humor to the ancient harshness of insulting people. Everyone knows how eagerly the Athenians approved of Old Comedy and how thoroughly they enjoyed it.

They noticed that in a free state nothing

was more excellent for pleasing the audience and correcting morals. fore the loss of freedom this faculty of wrtlng was not abrogated.

Be­ Nor

do I see why such writing might not attract the common people with pleas­ ant Jokes or attract educated men by the examples of recondite learning since these things hold the educated man's attention.

Honestly, now,

didn't Aristophanes assign appropriate action and speech to his characters? But these matters relating to comic poetry will be clearer when we in­ troduce Pomponius.

He will speak about comedy.

Now let us show our feelings about tragedians.

Whoever has dili­

gently and carefully read their writings knows their value.

As Timocles

288 teaches, this htman life provides us with much cause for sorrow. fore we should search to lighten the soul's care and trouble.

There­

No one has

found a better way to forget personal pain than by recalling someone else'a misfortune.

The poor man will find one poorer in the tragedy of Telephus.

By this example a man may better endure poverty. himself with the example of Fhlloctetes. look to Alcmaeon and Orestes. to Nlobe.

The lame man may console

The demented and mad may

One who has lost his children may look

The man whose eyes cause pain may look to Oedipus' blindness.

The old man who encounters adverse fortune may look to Oeneus' and Priam's unhappiness.

By seeing that another's misfortune is more serious than

his own, a man may endure his unhappiness with equanimity. The Greeks regard three men as superior to the rest in their display of unhappy situations.

Of these three available for comparison,

Aeschylus achieved fame for providing a stage, ornamenting the chorus, decorating actors' appearance, and arranging the whole tragedy.

He

gave the outer garment the design and splendor which priests used in the solemn celebrations of festivals, movements in dancing which the

Aeschylus also instituted many

Greeks call schemata. With these he

instructed the chorus so that by their dancing they taught the subject matter.

Who says Aeschylus lacked plots?

He handled the kind of

action which was simple and mannered, not complex and violent. used serious,lofty language.

He

In it he speaks poorly about what he has

imitated beyond the mean with high-sounding language newly made, com­ pounded, or translated.

Such a mode he finds overblown and pretentious.

Thus you judge the poem pompous and dbsaare. One might think it more tragic than to employ the force of opinions and excite more violent pas­ sions.

One might think it more tragic becmise he Introduces cruder and

rougher men, or because he usually deceives the spectators with the

289 Introduction of men who are silent. disorderly in many crude matters.

Perhaps the reason is that he seems

Nevertheless the Athenians loved

Aeschylus so much that after he died they diminished their financial sup­ port to those who wanted to perform his plays. Men especially praise Euripides because he devised many things in his art which none had yet considered.

He was the first to Introduce

his material with a prologue, and by unfolding the argument of matters he led< the audience to understand future actions.

We praise Euripides

because he is clearly, extensively, and splendidly versed in every kind of plot.

We praise him because he renders dignified speech, with balanced

phrases, speech with splendid diction, pleasant rhythms, charming emotions, and quite a variety.

Nonetheless Aristophanes slandars him because he

nearly always begins in the same way and because when he introduces dif­ ferent characters, he does not provide suitable language for individuals. Aristophanes chides him for making the events and behavior he portrays unhappler and worse.

Aristophanes criticizes him for portraying shame­

less women because Euripides was fond of women and because he uses soft effeminate language in a poem whose very nature is serious.

Also Eu­

ripides is criticized because he abuses the freedom of digressing in choric songs and digressing where the subject matter should really be unified.

Euripides varies the kinds and modes of song more frequently

than is fitting.

Finally, to please the masses he presents certain por­

tents where they are uncalled for. some extent.

Obviously he pleased his audience to

When his death became known, all the Athenians mourned.

Sophocles himself rent his garment because of the poet's death and led the actors with wreaths on their heads into the theater. we find very much simplicity and ancient dignity* perceive artifice and art.

Thus in Aeschylus

In Euripides we

290 Sophocles lived after Aeschylus and was several years older than Euripides.

He deserves primacy in tragedy since he la more serious than

Euripides* more pleasant than Aeschylus.

He seasoned the ancient

severity with such sweetness that he is called the Attic Bee.

In the

pleasantness of his digressions and in the harmony of his rhythms he so maintained the middle way that he never abandoned tragic dignity. kept that severe dignity

of action whereby he pleased.

He

He was admirable

in his arrangement of a work* sharp and magnificent in his language. He was truly a tragic poet— providing proof and pleasant in his devising. He was serious and insistent in the force of his meanings.

In the proper

place he was sharp and particular in the seriousness of his diction. Sophocles was most effective in expressing emotions— first in the ’'man­ nered" way* then in the pathetic.

He was sublime in the authority of

his characters* fittingly providing what suited each. chleved marvelous fame in every method of his plots. to his own citizens.

Finally* he aHe proved himself

After Antigone was given* they made him a general

in the Samian War. Thus you see how strong these three are and how evidently different are their talents and powers.

Aeschylus had resonance and simplicity;

Euripides had pleasantness and a sharp wit; Sophocles had power and dignity.

Certainly all of these are famous.

he was like one of these.

No one was famous unless

Now as for our Latin poets who are regarded

as easily the beat* nothing that they wrote remains* at Least nothing that I recall.

In comic poetry we have Terence and Plautus for Menander,

although there is quite a gulf between each and between Menander and them.

Now it is time to again recall the discussion of those most

learned man.

Thus the man we call poet may very plainly know what

principles he should preserve.

291 Since those men seemed refreshed by the sight of sea and hills and by their little walk, they turned the conversation to the other matter.

The young men looked to Sunxnontlus because they were very much

afraid that any delay might interrupt the discusaIon on comedy. gave the signal, and Summontlus understood their wish.

They

Seeing that

they had walked enough* he began to speak. Summontlus. Let us return to the assembly so that we do not miss the promised opportunity. Syncerus. Men have frequently asked about and debated both sides of this question.

The man who hosts a banquet may not conanan that there

be an order for reclining at table.

Rather he may allow the guests to

settle the matter among themselves.

There are three alternatives.

guests may be seated as each one's dignity demands. the place he thinks he deserves. brings.

The

Or a man may take

Or a man may take the seat fortune

After Faulus Aemilius had conquered the Persian king, he gave

a public banquet to celebrate the joyful occasion.

It was said to have

been very well provisioned, with marvelous appointment and beautiful or­ der.

He prepared a delightful banquet for his friends with the same

skill used to draw up the most awesome battle line for his enemies. attended to each power properly and organized appropriately.

He

Homer

quite deservedly was accustomed to call the chief and most Important men kosmetoras laon. He did so because they decide1things well through the best administration of details. rectly equip them.

They fittingly organize states and cor­

As we see in Plato, has not God himself placed or­

ders in a world devoid of order and from the deformed and ugly made .a world most beautiful and adorned? or subtracted.

To this creation nothing can be added

God gathered Individual things in their own place.

was formless God adorned with a form so fitting and so perfect.

What

292 Vopiscus and Gauricus, certainly these things are important. However, we plainly see nothing of consequence in a pleasant, freely given banquent if it lacks order.

Certainly the men who pre­

pare the foods and organize the banquets will take care about what they serve first, next, and last.

They will take care for the plac­

ing of perfume, crown, dancing, and what need be added.

They will

not pay attention to the order of guests' reclining at table.

They

will give no regard to the principle of age, dignity, or like dis­ tinctions.

What suits a man is given to him.

On the other hand, it

is customary to say none of us is wiser than Bias.

He used to pro­

hibit any one of his friends from making himself a judge.

He felt

that it was not fitting that we wish to be critics and judges of so many acquaintances, guests, and other men.

This is especially true

because the question of preference does not relate to cattle but to people.

No man should be judge so that no offense be given to friend­

ship and familiarity, not even the smallest.

If a man is regarded as

absurd, Menelaus uses such an occasion for a proverb. himself an arbiter.

Unasked, he made

So the man seems far more absurd who wishes himself

arbiter and judge of the banquet supplies and makes decisions about a matter of little interest to the invited guests. invited to a contest but to a banquet.

They do not see themselves

At this there should be nothing

distasteful, unpleasant, or annoying. The guests do not ask that we judge who is excellent.

Indeed, that

A

is not an easy matter to decide.

Some men seem to have precedence by

age, others by dignity, still others by friendship and necessity.

The

reclining of friends at table was designed for a union of life and for binding friendship with the closer bonds of good will.

The banquet

takes its origin from that most delightful custom and most pleasant as-

293 sembly wherein friends enjoy themselves at a meal.

Here exists an

incredible bond and union of minds with each other.

Why is it we try

to dissolve that force of love united and joined with such a great bond by using dissent and turning the love into intense hate?

Are you unaware

that we excite the flames of jealousy and the glowing torches of anger with the unrestricted ambitions of friends? honor to some, less to others.

Why?

Because we grant more

If the order of drinking and serving,

together with the speeches, greetings, and invitations more often follows the seating arrangement, the banquet will be magnificent for the moderate man, proud and haughty for the simple, frugal man, regal for the acquain­ tance and for the man among friends.

But if in other matters we main­

tain equality which prudently guards society's foundations, why shouldn't we undertake to recline at table in a friendly, brotherly fashion without any Inflated egos? Garbo. If I come here as a listener and not as the judge of this ancient argument, let me plainly say what I feel.

All right?

Citizens

and young men especially should be accustomed to recline at table, seated with understanding and humility, not pride and arrogance.

Let

them keep the place to which they are naturally entitled, for none af­ fords better opportunity for friendship. important guests.

Why?

Consider the older, more

If we receive them like the others, don't we seem to

shut them out and lead in pride, since we have no accommodation for those who excel?

Custom and law are very old.

the more honor he has.

The greater a man’s authority,

Why is it that in reclining, drinking, and serving

no more is given to such a man?

Consider Homer where Hector says:

Son of Tydeus, above all others were the Danaans with bwlft steeds wont to honour thee with a seat of honour u d « . t . u d full cup..... (LCJ,, 170: n . 8.161-163.)

& Thus he arranges the order with the first and highest degree of honor. Men praise Alcinous because he ordered his son, Laomedon, to yield his seat to a guest. dearly.

Laomedon was sitting next to his father who loved him

You even find the distinction of the same things among the gods.

When Neptune came to the gods'assembly, he sat in the middle, as if seats of this kind sutled him.

However, Minerva--as Homer presents her—

always had a place near Jove. Nonetheless, nothing should be taken away from others in order to be bestowed on one.

For surely if you take away what belongs to one,

you make it common property. to him.

Whatever anyone's dignity demands is proper

Virtue, age, knowledge, magistracy, and the rest of that kind

owed to individual men follow in turn. anyone worthy of honor.

It is very annoying to cheat

Nor does it seem troublesome to me to distinguish

degrees of honor at table.

It is hardly necessary to invite many men to

dinner whose importance is identical.

Many seats hold positions of

honor.

Their distribution may be handled quite easily and without of­

fense.

A place is agreeable which is first, middle, or near a friend,

neighbor, teacher, or near the man who convened the banquet.

Thus if

anyone distributes the honors of reclining in this way to those with some worth, he may jovially receive other men with a certain courteous generosity.

So he leaves no place for envy, where there are many ranks,

and men quite similar in dignity or born with a harsh disposition, s ee to it that they employ some contrivance.

At table they give the dis­

tinguished place to a parent, if one is present.

If not, the place

goes to a grandparent, mother-in-law, uncle, or to any man bound to the host by friendship or by the prerogative of blood relative.

Such is the

principle of duty they confess to have received from Homer.

Homer's

295 Achilles serves as example when he honors Patroclus* memory with the chariot race.

When Achilles perceives that Antllochus and Menelaus are

ready to fight for the prize, he removes the cause of the dispute.

He

shows that he would give the privilege to Eumelus, who was first in the race but came in last because of a broken chariot. Achilles sympathizes with Eumelus and honors him.

In this way

By this act he re­

moves the cause for strife between Antllochus and Menelaus.

Virgil's

Aeneas imitates him and removes the vying of Sallus with Euryalus in this way: Your rewards remain assured to you, my lads, and no one alters the prizes' order; be it mine to pity the miBchance of a hapless friend! (LCL. 63: Aen. 5.348-350j) So no place for offense remained, Nisus said: The first crown I had earned by merit, had not Fortune's malice fallen on me, aB on Sallus. (LCL. 63: Aen. 5.355-356.) Thus he bestows on the noble youth, a lordly prize. (LCL. 63: Aen. 5.361.) Gravina. Perhaps we should not agree with you, Carbo, that we may view knowledge, patriotism, kind, age, virtue's ornament, great wealth, magistracy, and every power of nature and fortune In a banquet as in the theater, assembly, or senate. banquet be arranged in its order. and deciding.

We may otherwise command a

We may ask an opinion in advising

Should the flight of the soul.be restrained by wine? t

Nor should we believe that dinner feasts were instituted for glory In­ stead of pleasure.

A person's dignity is Irrelevant for banquets.

Ban­

quets are for comparing, harmony, joining of studies and similarity of manners, as if those men have been received into a single community of life.

Would an architect place Attic stone before barbarian stone because

296 of nobility?

Does a painter reserve the best place for the most

costly color?

Does a shipbuilder prefer Isthmian pine or Cretan

cypress?

Doesn't any craftsman distribute the parts of his own ma­

terial to render a perfect work when thoae are arranged and suitably joined with one another?

What of God?

Did God, whom Pindar calls the

best maker and the begetter of men, situate fire above and earth below in every kind of thing? bodies demands?

Or did God arrange materials as the use of

Large animals covered with shells and a rocky skin have

earth in their shoulders and upper parts (according to Empedocles)* They have earth not in the area which reflects its nature, but in the area which the arrangement of members requires to fulfill its function. Therefore the absence of order is always detestable and evil, even if it intrudes on men while they revel.

A man shows his own wickedness through

some unspeakable kind of evils which he should foresee and be careful of by using an orderly arrangement in things as befits them. Carbo.

Does it seem to you that I spurn order?

Is it through envy

that we do not know the principle and harmony of arranging men? Gravlna. Of course it is not envy, if you agree to hear me.

I

arrange a banquet the way Epaminondas was accustomed to draw up his army. I doubt that Panmenes the Theban maliciously accused Homer of being ob­ livious to the matter of affection because Homer had arranged nation with nation, tribe with tribe. nearest his dear friend.

It was obvious anyone might take the place Thus the army was in harmony and agreeable.

It had an invincible power by the very close binding of kindred souls. Thus I might command that the rich man not recline with the rich, the youth with the young, the prince with prince, and friend with friend, but such an order is unskillful and unfruitful for preparing and in-

397 creasing good will. needs.

I would seat men according to what suits their

I would place the lover of learning beside the learned man,

the moody, difficult man next to the gentle, kind one, the calm, silent man next to the wrathful, the moderate man besides the pompous, arrogant one, the youth who is a good listener next to the garrulous old man.

If

I see a wealthy generous man, I would seat him beside an honest poor man in the hope that, from the fullness of drinking, something might flow the next day. poet from the poet.

I would separate the sophist from the sophist, the

Hesiod knew this long ago:

...beggar is jealous of beggar, and minstrel of minstrel. (LCL, 57: Og. 26.) I would separate litigious, spiteful men stirred to quarrel.

Between

them I would place men born with a softer, gentler disposition, so as to repel any arguments.

I would gather anolnters, sportsmen, and farmers.

Indeed, in some men similarity is quarrelsome and warlike, as in roosters, in others, quieted and peaceful, as in jackdaws.

I would

call together lovers, not only those in whom love is outstanding (as Sophocles says), but also those passionately in love with women. who burn with the same fire may not desire the same thing.

Men

Yetthey

adhere to one another like burning iron joined with flame. Syncerus. Although this is debatable and a subject for disputation here, I am happy that you men are who you are. myself to be a host of banquet and conversation.

I have clearly shown I have little fear that

at tomorrow's banquet I would be marked fay this or that punishment.

What­

ever the place, whatever the order at table, certainly none of you will be envious.

But in arranging a dialogue, I must abide by this method.

Since

none of you has the faculty which embraces all learning, no one con excel in what he undertakes.

Nonetheless, I want the man to speak about the

298 matter he has most studiously treated. tragedy.

First I order Vopiscus to discuss

Next Gauricus may talk about comedy and Carbo about lyric poetry.

Gravina should tell how epigrams, elegies, and iambics should be written. I myself will go no further with the matter you have earnestly asked of me. I think there remains for us to talk about this art. about epic poetry and about all poetry.

Much has been said

So the elder will give the younger

this favor here by allowing them to speak first. Gravina. Why not? these remaining matters.

You will have deservedly explained to them They have been treated divinely by the Greeks,

less happily by our own poets.

Both were very educated in Greek.

Syncerus. Summontlus, I ask you to take care of arranging this discussion.

You may serve as critic and judge of the participants should

anything be imperfectly handled.

You will amend anything offensive in

the disputation. Summontlus. Syncerus, why make me gj:ammarian7 critic?

Would you make me

Would that I might amply justify your generous trust so that you

might rightly call me Aristarchus. no delay now.

I accept your conxnission.

Do as Syncerus cotmnanded.

Vopiscus,

You see everyone prepared to

learn from you how to write tragedy. Vopiscus. How I wish Janus Anyslus were here.

He exercised him­

self in this genre for a long time and wrote much that is famous and worthy of inxnortality.

He could have discharged this duty and satisfied

your expectations far better. tragedy.

I have very little practice in writing

How will I answer what you demand?

Or willit satisfy you to

hear what Aristotle taught about the subject? Summontlus. Perhaps we will hear these things from Anyslus at another time.

Now we ask you to pay your debt.

You owe us, seeing that

299 Syncerus himself commanded you.

Not to obey him Is criminal, especially

In this place! Vopiscus. Yes,

I should obey and am happy to do so.

not quite accomplish what you want, be kindly disposed. was obvious I submitted to a command. am very grateful to you, Syncerus. tragedy.

But If I do

After all, it

Let me detain you no longer.

1

You have left me little to say about

Of the matters which should be taught about poetry, you have

said Just about everything today. Syncerus. Do you think to escape with that remark? going to say many things about that genre?

Aren't you

Why do you say I have ex­

plained much when I was treating something elBe? Vopiscus. I do not want to avoid this task.

Don't think I am

resolved tofurther repeat what you explained.I could omit sides, I am

them.

Be­

afraid totorment you by repeating this cabbage!

Syncerus. Dismiss that scruple!

Go on as seems best.

Vopiscus. I will willingly pursue the subject and do what you coranand.

I think I should first speak about the functions of a tragic

poet, then about the things he treats. tragedy.

Next I think I should define

Finally I will speak about the parts contained in a tragedy.

Therefore, just as the best poet speaks in verses, as Syncerus taught, in order to prove, please, and move, so these same functions properly pertain to the tragic poet.

As was heard in yesterday's dis­

cussion, I think this will cleanse the listeners' minds from violent passions.

By rights the tragic poet fashions his plot, as does the

comic poet. depicted of

Still hepresents

the example of life and morals clearly

those menwho seem to excel the rest in dignity, power, and

every advantage of fortune.

By human error they sink into extreme un-

300 happiness. affairs.

Thus we see Chat we ought not trust to prosperously flowing

We see that there is nothing here below so durable and stable

that it is not transitory and mortal.

Nothing is so firm and strong

that it cannot be finally overturned.

Nothing is so happy that it can­

not become sad, or so high that it cannot be made lowest.

Having seen

such a great change of fortune in another person, we are careful not to let anything troublesome happen to us beyond our hope and expectation. Should that which usually befalls humanity happen, we may endure it with a calm mind.

This same poet delights with song and spectacle.

(We may

omit telling of that pleasantness which comes first from delightful witty speech, then from decorous and elegant speech.) show what does

not please.

The tragic poet does not

Nor does he excite without pleasing.

excites us and draws us by the force of his language. dignity of meanings we are emphatically moved.

Stirred by the

The poet excites ad­

miration whether he leads us into pity, fear, or both. as to concern that kind of excitement?

He

What is so tragic

What seizes us with such great

excitement, such horrible, pitiable, and unexpected events of things? Consider Hlppolytus' awful cruel deat, Hercules' hideous, fearful in­ sanity, Oedipus' sad exile. But the kind of thing in which this poet Is versed is not slight or mediocre.

It Js magnificent and noteworthy.

persona, great and admirable events.

It embraces famous

It imitates the ancient situations

of heroes— what they did and endured.

It does not portray everything,

but what had a pitiable or fearful outcome. you find both the virtuous and corrupt.

Among its extraordinary men

You find men between these ex­

tremes who neither excelled in virtue nor defiled themselves with the great shame of vices.

They bear all the blame for the misfortune into

301 which they have fallen.

Certainly It is absurd to lead on stage either

good or evil men who have been affected by mere misfortune.

It would be

both unbecoming and wicked to show the best men fallen from a happy prosperous fortune into a sad adversity. dignation.

It would provide no special reason to fear.

test rather than pity the fall. sinful men rouse no pity. crimes.

Indeed, this would cause in­ We should de­

Misfortunes that occur to corrupt

Such men seem to deserve punishment for their

Misfortune which befalls one who does not deserve it gains our

pity and similarly terrifies us. ferent from good men.

We know that we ourselves are dif­

We regard ourselves as different from evil men.

We perceive nothing deserving horror from the misfortunes of evil men. Certainly we are indignant if the innocent, saintly man suffers evil. Even if the adverse fortune or an evil man profoundly stirs our humanity, (because we ought to closely follow what happens in human affairs), this fortune by no means is pitiable because we think the misfortune deservedly occurred.

Therefore, in this play the poet introduces a man from among

those who rest on the highest rung of reputation and fortune.

Such a

man is not outstanding either for the highest virtue or vice.

He becomes

pitiable and sad because of some human error, e.g. Oedipus, Thyestes, and the other men distinguished by a brilliant family and reputation.

For

the same reason tragic fortune is not something which renders some man happy out of his misfortune and misery.

Why would he want that which is

either fearful or pitiable? It may happen that either this pity and fear arise from viewing a machine (as when a mechanism is used to move the audience), or pity and fear arise from the very nature of the subject matter. poetic.

This is truly

The poet should so construct the plot that the action of things

302 themselves terrifies the listener and moves him to pity— without any viewing.

A man who listens to Oedipus' story is moved in this way.

of apparatus is alien to poetic art. office is to prepare the

Use

It is more relevant for those whose

festival games.

However horrible it may be,

it is still considered more extraordinary than fearful in the way required of poetry.

Although it affords enough pleasure, we should not seek

every kind of pleasing in tragedy, only what is properly given to it. The man who notes that the tragic poet's duty is to lead the listener to admiration clearly understands what pertains to tragic pleasure. ters deserve admiration which either affect pity or strike fear.

Mat­

Those

matters are even more admirable which consequently happen beyond our hope or expectation.

As Syncerus very learnedly maintained, what stems

from chance causes little admiration.

We admire what we think happened

divinely, or by its own certain force, or rather by hard work. happened with the statue of Itytius.

So it

It collapsed and killed the spec­

tator who had killed tytius. Matters worthy of admiration happen either to those who are friends, friends by necessity, or enemies joined by no necessity, or to neither. What is marvelous or pitiable if an enemy kills an enemy, or is about to kill one? What can affect one in a human way cannot excite pity. what

happens to neither friend nor enemy seem to deserve pity?

Does

Therefore,

only one thing ought to be pitiable, namely those actions of friends and of men related by blood.

We pity if brother kills or seems he would kill

brother, if son kills parent, or parent kills his child.

We meet Medea,

who would kill her children, Alcmaeon who would kill his mother, Erlphyle, and Orestes who would kill his mother, Clytemnestra. Eteocles kill each other.

Polynices and

These stories have so been handed down that

303 they cannot be changed.

There are a few writers from whom we expect

examples of this kind. A poet should either correctly invent things to be presented on stage for the first time or he ehould properly use what the ancients devised.

In order to more clearly explain what we have said about this

genre, we should be careful to use the pitiable action which the ancients customarily employed.

Either a knowledgeable or an imprudent man may act.

A prudent man may not complete his action when he would act criminally. Or when an ignorant man acts, he is about to recognize that he did not know what he was about to accomplish.

Most noteworthy of all is the

instance where an imprudent man is about to kill someone. nizing the person, he does not kill him. Merope recognizes her son.

After recog­

For example, in Cresphontes.

In Helle the son recognizes his mother.

In Iphiaeneia the sister recognizes her brother.

When they recognize

whom they Intend to kill, they restrain hands and minds from the crime. Next is the situation where an act committed through Imprudence is recog­ nized.

This criminal act is less sinful and less evil; the very recog­

nition produces amazement.

This happens to Telegonus.

he has unknowingly killed his father.

He learns that

The recognition is in the plot.

Oedipus' knowledge that he has unwisely killed his father is outside the plot.

Then there is the instance where the crime will have been com­

mitted with full knowledge. kills her children.

Such is the case of Medea.

She knowingly

What is least approved is someone's prudently begin­

ning what he does not finish.

Nothing is less tragic than a crime, es­

pecially when it is at odds with exciting the listener. sometimes find it done.

However, you will

In Antigone when Haemon shows himself to Creon

and seems so upset that he would kill himself, he does not complete the

act.

These are Haemon's words spoken with his father, threatening death: So she

shall die, but one will die with her. (LCL. 20: Ant. 751.)

The messenger tells how Haemon struck at his father in vain: But the son glared at him with tiger eyes, Spat in his face, and then, without a word, Drew his two-hilted sword and smote, but missed His father flying backwards. (ML, 20: Ant. 1231-1234.) Not many things of this sort have happened which can afford pity and fear.

There are few men from whom we may seek tragic material.

It

is a fact that not very many families Inspired all the beautifully writ­ ten tragedies.

If we want to write any other tragedies, we will try to

devise again the sorrow and laments of these same families.

Except for

Oedipus, Alcmaeon, Thyestes, Meleager, Telephus, and Orestes, who besides a very few have provided an occasion for writing tragedy?

Why do men who

devise plots of this kind borrow their arguments from fortune rather than from art?

They retain the true given names.

Rarely does it happen that

they use fictional materials, as comic poets do, and thenthesematerials are mixed with the real events. names.

Whatever the matter, Agathencreates

his

In the Madness of Hercules Euripides calls madness lyssa. In

Prometheus Aeschylus Introduces Power and Force. kratos and bia.

He Invented their names—

Still these fictions please as if they were true.

We do not accept the traditional plots to such an extent that we think we have no power to change these or add new materials to them, or mix the materials.

Haven't many poets conceived the same plot?

Sophocles and Euripides handled Antigone.

Both

Euripides and Sophocles— and

later Euphorian and Neophron— wrote about Medea.

Many approve of these.

Both Aeschylus and Sophocles wrote on Oedipus and Phlloctetes. Euripides' Bacchanals and Phoenician Maidens?

What about

Isn't the one the same

305 plot as Aeschylus' Pentheus. and the other the same as his Seven Against Thebes?

The men who followed would not have completed so many tragedies

from the same materials If they were not to add or change anything.

Nor

would they have devised new plots If they were allowed to portray nothing besides the traditional.

Though rare, sometimes they happened to give

tragic poets new material for writing.

Just as they could present on stage

those Virgillan women, Dido and Amata, whom Virgil made suffer a pitiable and sad death, so we may mix materials from which to fashion tragedy. Therefore in these things which we find suitable to change or add or pro* duce on Btage for the first time, let us remember to observe what Syncerus taught • Summontlus. Vopiscus, in your efforts not to exceed the limits of Aristotle's decrees, you seem to have enclosed this kind of writing in narrower quarters.

Recall Christ's saving death which he willingly and

freely sought in order to restore life to the mortal man.

He should not

deplore a tragedy if the events which happened to a good man seem to be born ignominiously rather than pitiably. be brought on stage.

These events no less deserve to

Though Christ is God, he is also man.

he is a good and just man, gifted with the highest virtue?

Why do I say I speak thus

because he is found to be the light of righteousness, the sun of justice, the fount of virtue.

What he suffered he not only endured because of the

divine plan, but also freely and willingly.

Those sufferings carry no

pity because they were for man's common good. still deserve our gratitude.

If they please less, they

Christ bore cruelty, impiety, and evil.

He surely did not deserve these miseries, especially from the nation which owed him the highest consideration. good.

He had brought them so much

For their sake he willingly assumed the true essence and appearance

306 of man.

They offended and Insulted him.

The death Is neither pitiable

nor lamentable in which he escaped a sad painful lot to appear far more glorious and blessed.

Now who will grant you that there is no tragic

matter in what an enemy inflicts?

In both Euripides' Rhesus and Daughters

of Troy people received unusual misfortune from their Greek enemy. Hermione, Neoptolemus1 wife, would have killed Andromache (Neoptolemus1 mistress) and Molossus, her stepson, had they been closer at hand. Neoptolemus himself suffered death from his enemy, Orestes. Vopiscus. Summontlus, you have begun a long disputation and have hit on a subject worth discussing. where.

I was planning to discuss it else*

I was about to explain the tragic matter and the kind of material

which especially concerns the poet.

Since Aristotle passed down the

rules, is there any wonder if he should confine the matter so narrowly? This material can be extended further.

The limits can be widened.

is no reason to doubt Aristotle's word.

There

He knew about the double plot.

The things Syncerus taught today are based on that same author.

We are

about to be taught them in turn. It is fitting you properly and particularly grant me that what is tragic affords the most fear or pity, as we have said. ceives from an enemy is certainly distasteful.

But what one re*

It does not stand out as

so horrible or so pitiable that it seems cause for wonder.

What is

there to admire In hostile acts done by a hostile man or an unfriendly act done by an enemy?

This Is quite common.

it if it is a new kind of misfortune.

Yet we rightfully admire

We should wonder at what the

Greeks cruelly and inhunanly did to the Trojans.

This is horrible.

The

enemy does not excite our amazement.

The action which is uncommon, since

it is totally without humanity, does.

How much more amazing would that

307 action be if it were done by friends?

You cannot deny that Medea.

Iphigenela. Oedipus. or Electra. or any other tragedy of that kind is more beautiful than Andromache. Andromache could appear as more truly tragic whether she had killed her son or wished to kill him, whether Hermione the wife had killed Neoptolemus rather than his enemy, Orestes. Whoever writes it would see whether a tragedy can be written about Christ our Savior, God and Lord*

To me that kind of death seems so

cruel and inhumane that someone might present that famous, glorious death and Induce the greatest pity for the act of our salvation.

Surely no

man has been born with such a barbarous, harsh, and unfeeling disposition that he might not pitiably weep. ignominy and shame Christ endured. sorely insulted! pered.

He would weep if he considers the great How cruelly he was scourged!

How pitiably killed!

How

Christ's body was divinely tem­

It was affected by the sensitivity and inadequacy of nature so

that Christ might feel every pain and all the force of sorrow. suffered nothing with indignation and annoyance.

Still he

With his constant and

great soul, and gifted with virtue surpassing the heroic, he conquered all the bitterness of his suffering and even death itself.

We should be

very glad that the same death broughtus our desired salvation and eternal life.

Likewise we should grieve at what happened so Inhumanly to the

savior of men and author of our happiness for our sakes. Many men were present who wept and groaned from the immensity of their sorrow.

Indeed, the greatest sorrow affected Mary, his mother.

Still we should believe she bore the torment and death of her son with constancy and composure, not unbecomingly.

She was aware of the pro­

vidence and will whereby he might die in that way. to terrify the soul were not lacking either.

Details which ought

According to Sacred Scripture

308 the aun'i light failed, the h M v m btou < shrouded la darknesa, tha earth quaked, rooka split span, and tha daad raaa frou thair teubs ta Ufa.

8a nany terrifying events happanad that no ana oeuld imagine

anything aora tarribla. adairation.

Tha oonaequenoea of his daath also oansa intanaa

Daath was oenqueredf tha powar of sin was daatroyad.

Mankind'a

enemy and tha prlnoa of hall was thrust dawn into hall's deepest raoaaaaa and bound in tha tightast bonds. D a Ikiripidea' Childrsn of Barculaa Maearla fraaly gave haraalf ta ba sacriflood so that har brothors night ba victorious.

Tha Pythian

oracls had foratald that tha brothara would not ba victorious or unharnad unions sons virgin wars sacrifiesd to Caraa as a viotis.

Jolaus ahowad

that ha truly adnirod tha brava spirit of Bareulas* daughter and that ha pitiod bar.

Ha said aha had dacidsd to dia for har brothara' safaty not

by aeeidant but by har own gsnsrous will.

So it is a faet that ttirythsus

was dafaatad and dalivarad into his captor's hands.

Tharofora if it s a a u

wa daoida to dsfins tragady sora widely, and if thara is anyona to whoa sousthing foarful, pitiabla or worth our adairation happens, it is so baoausa naithar tha good man, antagonist, or anaay is excluded. teggSQ^^a. -I oartainly approva of this. Vopiscus.

Continua as you plannad.

Sinca wa havs spokan about tragady as a oatagory, lot us

now diseuss its dafinition.

Man dafina it as an laitation which expresses

an outstanding, serious, soaawhat couplata action included in a oartain aagnituds.

Its language is pleasing so that its parts are particularly

joined to each In its own place.

It doss not use siaple narration but

tha introduction of those characters who act and apeak in such a way that they excite pity and fear and thus purge thia kind of nalady. for imitation, enough was said in tha first dialogue.

Is

It is in tha sane

category as tha arts of painting and fashioning, whioh wa taught containa

309 all tha poetic art. serious.

Who doubta that tha action should ba outstanding and

first of all tha aotion is of faaoos oharaotars whoa tragic

pacts strive to portray.

Secondly tha notion inoludas natters worth

adniring and ranaabering.

Syncerus vary clearly showed how it .may be one,

whole, and ooaplete. As for nagnitude, what nora nay I say?

Synoarus hiasalf taught

aore than was necessary whan ha disoussad plot.

Certainly it is not

pertinent to tha tragic faculty to prescribe tha boundaries of length in stage shows and in viewing.

If a hundred tragedies were to be presented

on stage and in a oontest (which they say happened), they should be tined by a clepsydra.

The tragic action need be extended as far as the nature

of the aaterial demands, until the change of fortune is accomplished. Nevertheless, as has been noted, the action should be concluded within a day, or at most two days.

Since every ccaplete action has a beginning,

middle, and end (as was established today), we should consider both how long it should last and where it should begin.

A poet correctly begins

his action when he begins at the proper place.

He should not begin with

the last natters or stray far afield.

In AJax Sophocles didn't begin

with the judgment about Achilles' arms. Ulysses, Ajax went strangely insane.

Since they had been given to

Sophocles began with the insanity.

Because of it Ajax planned to kill hiaself.

In Oedinus the Kins Sophocles

did not begin with the father's Border, but with the oracle, which demanded expiation for that death to free the city of plague.

In the

Maidens Ihripides did not start with the war waged against the Thebans.

He began with the peace unnecessarily disturbed by Jocasta.

cursed brothers would fail to kill one another.

In Alceatia Ikiripidea

did not begin with Admetus' fatal luck, but with the fact that Alcestia would die for her husband's welfare.

The

310 We say that language based on a regularity of aetera and the delightfUlnesa of rhythns and song ie pleasing.

In addition to the

eweetneaa of songs they alao oaploy those things in this kind of speaking which please a great deal.

They do not use then only as in dithyranbie

poetry in whioh nothing reaohea the ears without song and danoe. they use thea separately,

feoh has its own place.

But

This ie so because

soae things are fashioned only with verses, such as prologues and episodes.

Others oaploy singing, as in the chorus' songs.

enters dancing, although its Makers who are dancing.

Xhe chorus

are not always

The rules for Torses and songa should be considered elsewhere

whan the rules of speaking are set down. That poet is said to narrate aiaply who never assuaes another persona. it.

The tragic poet so positions his own persona that he never usas

Besides a on doaand that the alaple aethod of narration never be used

in this iaitation.

The aharaoters who act and speak should be introduced.

Next heroes are introduced and a an of outstanding fane. gods are introduced. all or correctly.

This occurs when the arguaont cannot be explained at

In Aloestie Dtripidee introduced Apollo and Charon}

in the Daughters of Troy Neptune and Minerva. thing in Ajax.

Souotiaes even

Sophocles does the sane

Sods are introduced in endings where the end of the plot

cannot be unfolded.

In frostos we aeet Apollo; in Androaache Thetis;

in Iphiaeneia.Balias. In Mjppolytua Venus begins, Diana concludes. Za» Mercury begLns, Minerva ends.

Sonatinas one of the gods carries a

great part of tho action, as Dionysius in Bacchanal s. Pronetheus involves the gods. aajesty.

In

Most of Aeschylus'

They capture our adairatioa with a certain

They hold tho speotators with the greatest spiritual pleasure,

hrlpides does this better and aore often than all others. oarelUl about introducing tho gods.

Ve should be

If we introduoo that too often where

311 neither the subject natter nor place desands, tho andloneo'o delight at thoir appearance

nay seaa too strainod.

esploya tho character of a god.

A qualified poot n o w rashly

If you diligoatly exaxdne Jbripidee' or

Sophoclos' poetry, you will oaoily undorotand.

Horace taught this:

And lot no god interrene, unless a knot cose worthy of such a deliverer.... (ICL. 194: This say be done in sore than one way* requires a divine interpreter.

A. P. 191.)

d deity should explain what

Soaetiaea this occurs in the exposition

of the arguaent, as we have shown.

Or a deity should set where the gods'

power is required, such as in unfolding the end of an action. speaks to Theseus about Hippolytus.

Diana

She recognises that he was aost

solicitous end respectful to the king.

She defends him frca the

accusation and places the blaae on Phaedra and Venus.

Thetis consoles

Feleus, her husband, and explains what aust be done.

Minerva is present

to reaove Ion's doubt} she shows who his parents were.

She shows what

the fates have in store for bin and Xuthus' offspring.

Minerva also in­

tervenes to protect Orestes and tell hia what has to be done.

Apollo is

introduced to explain the argunent and to bring Alcestis wealth. Tragedy does not shun slaves and shepherds uhai there is need, even though these be hunble characters.

I need not tell you this.

poet introduces aessengers who are of this olass. job.

The

Heroes never do their

Tou will discover nan who plow with oxen introduced in Inhi.veneia

and Oedipus.

Howsver I think 1 have said enough about how pity and fear

are excited to drive off the aaladies of the spirit.

We have spoken

about the poet's duty and the notarial with which he works. Thersfore we need only discuss the parts of a tragedy, ereate the fora and essence of the poca, stance.

ficae parts

others create the body and sub­

Syneerus taught that there were six parts— plot, oharaoter,

312 diction, thought, song, and spectacle. and song frou another art.

Tho tragic poot takes spectacle

Becaase Synceras has dearly spoken at

length about the individual parts which the poet should know, he re­ lieved ae of such labor.

I will explain the appropriate aaterial yet

to be oovered about the poet as we have defined hiu. As for plot the poet should understand what Sjncerua extensively explained. soul.

Rot only is it tragedy's uost important part; it is the very

The plot is to be of one fauous action.

It is to be an iuitation

which is whole, oouplete, and where necessary, great.

Next the poet

should connect those details whioh happened necessarily or appropriately. The w h d e natter should be so unified and suited that nothing can be added or subtracted but that the whole is dtered and its coupletanaas perverted. Plot is sinple which eubruoes a single action.

Such a plot is without

recofiition or any unexpeoted change of things being done.

Such is the

plot in Medea. Antiacne, and Hecuba, where a pitiable and terrible crine is eouuitted. iuprudently.

Nevertheless nothing is recognised and nothing undertaken A plot is ccuplex which either includes a recognition or

has saue unexpeoted change} perhaps the plot has both these so entwined in the very substance of the subject natter that they necessarily happen or seen credible. Sjncerus very dearly defined what recognition is and why there is this change of things.

Nevertheless we should not overlook that fact

that a tragio change steuuing frcu an unexpected error is sad and nournful.

So it is whan the action goes beyond our expectation and hope

and is changed for the better, as in the tragedy Inhijceneia.

When

Iphigoueia and Mann's priests are about to sacrifice Orestes, whan she hersdf does not know, and have oounandad all preparations be nsde for the

313 sacrifice, the imprudent nan rwrMla himself by the letter. things aha racogniaas har brothar and Joyfully saves bin. different frou har original intent.

What about Ian?

By certain This ia indaad

Ha is trying to

attack Crausa and draw har from Apollo's altar whara aha has flad. Doaan't ha oonsidar har dangaroua and unfriendly?

Whan Ion learns Crausa

is his mother, ha thinks far differently of har.

However the natter ended

with unexpected happiness for both. A recognition is of characters or of things. recognition of those characters in tha plot. Iphiganaia, and she racogniaas hia. characters outside of tha plot. father.

First there is a

Orestes racogniaas

Than there is tha recognition of

Oedipus recognises ha has killed his

Sonatinas whan tha charaoter is in tha plot, tha event itself is

outside tha plot.

Oedipus discovers that Joeasta (a charaoter Sophocles

introduced) is his nother and she is polluted by tha incest with hia. This Sophocles brought in fren outside the plot.

Electro. in which

Orestes is recognised, will serve as a plot connected by a single < recognition.

It is hardly the case that the change was accomplished

without any recognition of the things that either Creates or ELeetra are trying to do. goals.

Indeed the recognition was a great help in achieving their

With his sister's help Creates kills both Clytcaneatra and

Aegiatheus right away. to XLeetra.

The recognition only causes unexpeoted advantage

She beeones joyful, though she has sorrowed at the falsely

announced death of Creates. we are speaking about.

This change is quite different frou the one

Certainly nothing was changed in what either

Creates or his sister are planning.

Both were plotting the deaths of

Clytcanestra and Aegiatheus. Ton will discover what is inplied and contained in an unexpected

31^ •▼•at by Ehripidea' portrayal in the Madness of Hercules.

When Iyoua

baa approached Hercules' wife and la about to kill her children, Hercules unexpectedly kill* tha oan.

Sophocles' Oadinua shows bow both th••#

kinds or* conneoted. That plot is pathstic which has sons pitifully sad and unhappy ending beoanse of Borders, wounds, pains, or son* such thine, as in Ajax, Hjppolytus. and Hercules.

The "Bannered" plot portrays sanners

and eaotiona, such as SUripides' Qreates. Ian, and Helena.

Although

these plays do not contain what disturbes in a pitiable way, still they ■oat beautifully show that saaeane has been affeoted. plot shows the will and habit which guards a non.

The "Bannered"

We will better know

both the pathetic and the "nannered" when we speak about behavior end eaotions.

Now we should not overlook the sisple plot about which we have spoken.

Aeschylus used it very frequently.

and pathetic plot.

Sophocles used the caaplex

Shripides used both the pathetic and the aannered.

You will soaetiaes find that the ooaplex plot pleased hia. Ion end Iphiaeneia in Tenrica are both this coaplex type. true that these kinds cohere with one another. ceive one kind joined with another. and Hecuba have siapla plots.

The plots of It is quite

You will frequently per­

We have shown that Medea. Antiscno.

Oedipus the Kins'e plot is caaplex.

Who

doubts that these seae plots ore pathetic? The plots of Inhiseneia in Taarica and Ion are coaplex, but they ore also fnonnered."

We find that

Banners ore portrayed in pathetic plots, passions in the "aannered" plot. We deduce the naae of any category froa the nature of the noteworthy aaterial. Men judge a plot the aost beautiful and best Bade of oil which has (os we have said) an unexpected ohange joined with a recognition,

fortune

315 can bo altarad frou agraoabla to diaagraoabla, than frcn sad to happy, lhoaa plota aro of ona kind and axpaoially tragio which antail no rariaty of eharaotara, no diaaiailarity of oronto loading to an unhappy and disaatroua ooneluaian, no divaraion froa tha plan of tha argunant, aa Hacuba.

Maidana. and Thyaataa.

Thoaa plota aro twofold or aixod whioh hava a donbla conatruetion. Thay hava diffarant oharaetora and diaalailar aranta. pitiabla and happily. eaaa in Qraataa.

Hranta which aaaa

Wa judga thia aora conic than tragio.

Suoh ia tha

In thia plot Ckaataa (froa whoa tha tragady took ita

nana), KLactra, and fyladaa aro judgad battar paraona. ara conaidarad woraa.

Manalana and Halan

Hararthalaaa aueh tarribla thinga happan to tha

firat group that it aaana no aafa plaoa waa loft to than. Halan aaaa to proapar iananaaly. railad hopa of aafaty.

Monalaua and

Chraataa and eoupany ara offarad a

Manalaua and Halan anoountar tha graataat oriaaa.

At laat whan both aaaa in iaainant dangar, thay obtain battar fortuna with Apollo'a halp.

Tha anaaiaa aaong thaa bacoaa friandly.

Ilaotra alao

would bo thia way if Qraataa wara to aooapt Aagiathaua aa a friand aftar killing hia aothar in hoatila raranga. What of Ion? happily?

What about Iphixanaia in Taurioa?

What about Aleaataa and tha raat of that kind which and

In what eatagory do thay balong?

haring a doubla plot?

Should thay ba ragardad aa

If thay ara laaa uniflad it ia baoauaa thay lack

tha raqoisitaa for anding with a faarfol and pitiabla arant. Thoaa plota ara alao nixad whara tha poat introduoaa huaoroua and hnnbla oharactara with tha nora outatanding non, aa in Aaripidaa* Cyclona and aatyr playa.

Wo will talk about thia kind latar.

axeito tha audionea'a ahouta and applauaa.

Thoaa doubla plota

Tha aaaaaa approra unaxpactad

happinaaa rathar than tragio aiaary, joy rathar than narrow.

316 The tragic poet for tha Boat part aaaa tha plot of ona kind, aaaing that it ia tha aoat effective kind.

Thia kind ia aspaciallj approved

baoaoaa no aad fortuna ia cbangad to happy. fortune beeones adverse and aad.

Inataad tha happy prosperous

Thia doaa not occur bacauaa of perversity,

but baoanaa of aaaa outstanding flaw in tho eharadtar.

Thia flaw wa ragard

aa naithar right nor wrongf good or aril. Ha will all agraa that in a tragady tha poat should aaa that an notion ia sorrowful, and tha fortuna aabiguoua— whether it have a aad or happy ending.

Tha fortuna of thoaa nan ia aotad out whioh oontaina tha

greateat dangar.

In addition to plot nan want a part of tragady to ba

what tha Greeks eall apiaodaa. tha plot to anrioh tha poaa.

Tha poat introduoaa thaaa froa outaida Obviously tragady and plot ara not tha aaaa.

In a diaeuaaion Synoarua wary olaarly ahowad tha nature of thaaa apiaodaat how to include than with plot, how to diatinguiah than froa plot, tha place thay occupy in tragedy, and how tha epic poat uaea longer apiaodaa and wore frequent onea than tha tragio poat.

There reaaina for us to

give axaaplaa both in beginning and in narrating.

Whan tha poat begina

to unfold tha plot, ha uaually introduoaa certain aateriala froa outaida. Aa haa bean decided today, tha poat should explain tha subject natter universally.

Thus wa nay easily distinguish between what aateriala are

in tha plot and whioh are outaida it. Wa can consider tha universal in tha Madness of Hercules.

Whan tha

nan faaoua for tha greatest virtue returns froa tha underworld (a aan distinguished by hia reputation for great deads), ha finda Thebes ruled by a tyrant.

Ha discovers his father-in-law and brothera-in-law have

bean killed} hia own wife, children, and parent ara in great danger. Hereules kills tha tyrant.

Whan about to ohlebrate his noble victory,

317 he is stlud by nadneas - as ftiripidea shows, while Saneoa portrays hia ssissd by ths furies Juno has sant. ohildrsn in a pitiabla fashion.

Thus hs kills his own wife and

After finally cosing to his sansas ha

would hava coaaittad suicida had ha not listanad to a friand who advises hia to leave Thabaa.

Bayond this aooount is tha ganaral plot.

Iycus

has killad Creonj tha kingdoa is lost; lyous claias tha ohildrsn. rulad Thabas orually.

Ba

Tha fact that ha andangarad and psrsacutsd Negara,

Asphitryen, and Baronins' sons is ontsida tha plot. tha events following Haroulas' ratnrn. azplaining tha action undertaken.

Next in tha plot ara

Tha poat introduoaa thasa bafora

Ssneoa does this.

After tha action

begins, ha shows what Thasaus narrates about tha underworld whan Asphitryon has asked: Add do thou, great-hearted companion of our groat son, unfold his heroic deads in order. CICL. 62t Bare, fur. 6k6-6k?.) In Seneca Juno begins to explain har reasons for sanding sadness and exciting tha fhriea froa their places in hall. this outaida tha plot on whioh it depends. notarial is in tha plot.

Vs ought to place all

In Biripides' version tha

Juno sands Iris to stir sadness in Berculos.

Nonetheless that tragady contains all thasa things whioh wa said ware introduced fron outside.

In Uppolytua tha plans Ihaedra devises with

har nurse era outside tha plot.

So ara Oedipus' conversations with

Antigone in tha Thebaid and Atreus' conversations with tho servant in Threaten.

In nearly every tragady you paroeive certain natters undertaken

and introduced in tha beginning.

Sonatinas tha poat interjects a few

things whan ha begins to explain tha actions of tha plot.

As Aristotle

teaches, natters so introduoed oan hava a place before tha ohanga of fortune! thay can hava no place after It.

Thus wa divide tha whole of

318 tragedy into two parts. change.

Tha first part lasts until tha fortuna hagina to

It ineludaa naarly all tha nattara outaida tha plot and auch of

tha plot aa mil.

Tha othar part contains tha ehanga of fortuna and all

tha remaining nattara up to tha conclusion.

As Syneerus taught, tha first

part ia callad tha complication, tha aaoond tha denouement. Soortianua. annoy you.

Vopiacua, I hava noticad that none who interrupt

No interruption of your speech prevents you fron easily re­

turning to tha point of digression. tha rapid course of your apeeeh.

So I do not hesitate to interrupt

It seans to na wa should inquire how

those various changes of fortuna correspond with one another in Hercules furana. Though Iycus enjoys ruling, ha neats an unhappy and— Hercules kills bin. These oppressed by hia tyranny think his death heralds battar tines.

Thay ara than innediately caught up in aad, nournful events of

Hercules' insanity. Vopisoua.

Would you place Iycus' death outaide the plot?

Scortianus, you ask scnething worth talking about.

have nade ne rananber what I should not omit.

lou

Aa you have eorreotly noted,

there is a double change of fortune in that tragedy.

Hither the plot

nust be present as of two kinds, or if you oontand it ia one, it will be appropriate to place the other event outside the plot. said that plots which include veiled endings are nixed.

For it has bean However the

things which the poet introduces fron outaide are beyond the notion. Thus if we propose the poet bring onstage the evants which pitifully happened beoanae of Hercules' insanity, we place the rest of events outaide the plot.

But if the poet proposed to depict what happened

following Hercules' return from hell (aa it seans feripides did), than we understand the imitation to be twofold.

Sonetinea it ia a fact that nany

events whioh induce pity sten froa the sane oause.

If anyone includes

319 these things in one tragedy, I don't want you to think tho plot ought to bo aultipla or tho sane argument ahould contain pitiful events whioh are beyond tho conceived notion*

In tho Daughters of Troy you will find

asny people nffootod by tho sane Misfortune so that non captured in the fortunes of war experienced various oases of unhappy luck. There only roasins to say that the spectators should not see what is terrifying and stirs pity and laaantation, e.g., when Nodes killed her sons, Hercules his wife and children, Xteoeles and Folyniees each other, and Ajax hiaself.

Messengers ahould recount these.

Sane things

should be done on stage; others ahould be referred to as conpleted actions. Still what the ears perceive aovea the aind less violently than what the eyes perceive.

To avoid giving offense, things which outrage (if shown)

should be heard rather than seen.

Horace correctly renarks i

HLther an event is acted an the stage, or the action is narrated. Less vividly is the Bind stirred by what finds entranos through the ears than by what is brought before the trusty eyes, and what the spectator can see for hiaself. Yet you will not bring upon the stage what should be performed behind the scenes, and you will keep auch froa our eyes, which an actor's ready tongue will narrate anon in our presence; so that Medea is not to butcher har boys before the people, nor impious Atreua cook huaan flesh upon the stage, nor Procne be turned into a bird, Cadaus into a snake. Whatever you thus show as, I discredit and abhor. (ICL. 194 x A. P. 179-188.) Sonatinas there even appears on stage what seeaa fearful or pitiable. This is the case when Orestes is plagued by furies and Medea is shown carried aloft by a chariot of dragons.

Though the example of Medea has

aore portent than terror to it, we renounce such things as slaughters, parricides, aad tortures aa if th«y were unworthy to be seen and abhorrent to the aind.

So we consider two classes of things whioh the ears rather

than eyes perceive.

Oae is what occurs within the building on stage, such

as whan Medea cuts her children to piecesi

320 What shall I do?— how flaa ay aother'a hands? (ICL. 12*

Med. 1271.)

Hecuba gouges out Polyuestor's eyea* Ah, I aa blindad of aina eyes' light— wratohi (ICL. 9: Hoc. 103*0 And aha killa hia ehildraa* Ah aa, ay childran— ah tha awful aurdar! (ICL. 9*

Hoc. 1036.)

The aaoond olaaa ia what has baaa ooaplatad, auoh aa Clytomnestra's adnltary.

Since both offand, naithar olaaa belongs on staga.

No ona ahould think I aaka tha tragic aattar and plot identical baeauaa wa hava dafinad aach aa an iaitation of sons eonplatad action. In that part of a tragady called tha complication, wa aay that aaaetiaea tha poat plaeaa nay things which are ontaida tha plot.

Tragedies do

not use aateriala which belong to tha aaaa argnaont and entail tha aaaa action.

It will be necessary for thoaa to be tha aaaa if tha poat affects

naithar tha complication nor denouement in tha aaaa way.

In Oadinua

naithar Sophocles nor Aeschylus would use tha aaaa complication and denouement.

What Sophocles used la absent in Aeschylus' tragedy.

feought about tragio plot. Suaaontius.

Let us now talk about characterisation.

Do aa you suggest.

You hare omitted nothing about plot

whioh wa ahould know. Yoniacua.

With tha principle of characterisation wa will show what

pertains to passions and how tha tragic poet expresses both. to what Synearus extensively discussed today.

Hold fast

Wa think characterisations

ara of tha kind whereby someone'a natural abilities, disposition, nods or life, emotion, aad habits ara declared through action. passions show how a man so affected is acting.

Wa say that

Thus thay can excite pity

321 or

m m

intense Motion.

Xa tho oao category wo find expressed a so. who

«ro gentle, hard, gMerous, niaerly, aoderate, intMperato, virtuous, and

corrupt.

In tho othor oategory aro pitiAle, unhappy non, aon with lives

full of hardabip and calanity. lot us uao exaaples.

To aako thoao diatinotiona aoro evident,

When wo portray what kind of aan a parson is, wo

ahould show hia such in hia aotlona and words. HippoJytus' aannors and doairoa.

Seneca corrootly portrays

Bo is a aodost aan with a rustic rathor

than rofinod disposition. [Hlppolytusj Thors ia no lifo so froo sad innocsnt, nono whioh bottor chorishss tho snciont ways, than that which, forsaking eitloa, loros tho woods. (ICL. 62 1 Hippol.

)

cHippolytusj Oo girdlo tho shadowy woods and tho topaost ridges of tho aount, yo sons of Cooropal (ICL. 62i Hippol. 1-2.) cBippolytusj I abeainate t h M all, I drsad, shun, ourso t h M all. Bo it roason, bo it instinct, bo it wild rsgol 'tis ay joy to hats thM. (ICL. 62: Hipool. 366-568 .) cHifpolytusj Great rulor of tho gods, doos t h M ao oalaly hoar crlaM, so calaly look upon thM? (ICL. 62t Hippol. 671-672 .) [KLppolytus] Bogono, lira, lost thou have thoy wish; and lot this sword, polluted by thy touch, quit ay ehasto aids. (ICL. 62i Hippol. 713-71^.) Bow proporly Sm o c s serosa od tho naturo of a perverted loro in Phaodra. [Phaedraj Who givM as bach to griof sad again sots in ay aoul this foror diro? How bloat was ay uaccnaeiouMoss of self! [Bippolytusj Why dost thou shun tho swoot boon of lifo restored? (ICL, 62i Hippol. 589-591.) 2h her despair A s hates lifo.

At tho sight of Hlppolytus she takM hope

and urges herself to dare that she planned. desirM. A o lores.

But A o cannot speak of her

No Io m can A o openly state her great affection for A o aan

322 [Riaedraj Mother— that naae is too proud and high; s humbler name battar salts my feelings. Call so sistar, KLppolytua, or slave- yaat slave is battar. (ICL. 6 2 i gjpool. 609-612.) [Phaedra] Baa, a king's daughter lias fallan at thy knaas, a suppliant. Without spot or stain, pur#, innocant, I an changed for thaa alona. With fixed porposa hava 1 hunblad aysalf to prayer; this day shall bring an and either to ay nisery or ay life. Hava pity an her who loves— (ICL. 62i Hippol. 666-671 ,) With these words Seneca gains our pity. [Riaedraj KLppolytua, now dost thou grant aa fulfilment of ay prayer; thou healest aa of ay aadnass. This is beyond ay '• prayer, that, with ay honour sarad, 'tis by thy hands I die. (ICL. 62: Hippol. 710-712.) Seneca aakas Theseus violent, raging, and too quick in deciding: qTheseusj How fulfil tha aad boon, 0 ruler of tha sea! Let Hlppolytus sea tha bright day no aore.... (ICL. 62: Hippol. 9*5-946.)

In Theseus Seneca was describing a certain iaage of a parent.

Whan ha

hears of his son's calanity (which ha had called down on tha boy ), ha weeps and bursts out in thasa words: [Theseus3 0 nature, all too potent, with how strong ties of blood dost thou hold parental how wa cherishdkkee, taken against our wills1 Quilty, I wished hia dead; lost, I lament him. (ICL. 62: Hippol. 111V1117.) With Atreus Seneca excellently portrayed tha tryant's barbarity.

Atreua

reproaches himself saying: [Atreusj 0 undaring, unskilled, unnerved, and (what in high natters I deem a king's worst reproach) yet unavenged, after so many crimes, after a brother's treacheries.... (ICL. 7 8 : Threat. 176-178.) Inter Atreua says: [Atreus 3 This mighty palace itself, illustrious Felops' house, nay it e'en Kail on me, if only on my brother, too, it fall. (ICL. 78: Threat. 176-178.)

323 Bren though Atreus shows hiaself to bo violently upset* nevertheless ho ▼ory oloorly describes tho innate inteaperanco of his own soul.

In that

sano eharaotor Seneca showed tho plan of an aril aind. [Atreua 3 Ho oould not bo caught ware ho not bont on catching. Aron now ho hopoa to gain ay klngdoa; in thia hope ho will faeo Jo t o aa ho brandiahoa hia thunder-bolt t in thia hopo will bravo tho whirlpool's rago.... (ICL. 781 Throat. 288-291.) La Hatolloa Sonoea expressed noithor tho wickodt iaprudont, nor unfaithfhl sorraat. CAttendant2

Does public disapproval deter thee not? (ICL. 7 8 * Throat. 20k.)

[Attendant3 Ho nood to adaoaiah ao{ both fear and loyalty shall shut that in ay heart* bat rather loyalty. (334-335.) Cb tho other hand in hia portrayal of Phaedra's nurse ho ahowod an old weaan trusted sad erafty( shaaolooa and inaolsat. [Nurse3 ...it ao unruly a passion weighs on thy soul, soora thou thia fane; scarcely doth fane favour truth.... (ICL. 62: Hippol. 268-269.) [Nurse3 Her sin has boon found out. inactive and aghast?

0 soul, why dost stand (ICL. 62:

Hippol. 719-920.)

Airipidos1 Hecuba portrayed tho affeotian of a aothor in a wonderful way.

Lot ao quote a few things in Iatin fron that tragedy: [Hecuba3 Lo, in ay turn thine hand* thy board, I touch. That grace of old roclaiaing, now thy suppliant. Not froa nine arms tear thou ay child away* nor slay ye her: suffice tho already dead. In her 1 joy* in har forgot ay woes: For aany a lost bliss she ay sOlace is: My city she* nurso, staff* guide for ay Foot (ICL. 9: Hoc. 275-281.) [Hocubaj Odysseus, slay not her in any wisoi But ao, load ao unto Achilles' pyre: Stab ao* spare not: 'twas I gave Paris birth (ICL. 9: Hoc. 385-388.)

3* "scubaj Yet ye~at least with ay daughter slay: «n twice so Aomp a draught of blood shall aink To oarth and to tho doad who clalaoth thia. (ICL. 9* Hoc. 391—393-)

K

Thoro aro aaay aoro linoa liko thia.

In Bolyxona ho ahowod tho spirit of

kings, yot a woaan by ao aoana lacking foalnino tondornoaa.

Thoao linoa

aaggoat tho kingly spirit: r&olyxonaj I see, Odysseus, how thou hid'at thino hand Bonoath thy vesture, how thou turn'at away Thy face, loot I ahould touoh thy board. Fear not: Froa Zoua aafo art thou, froa tho Suppliant'a Chaapion. I will go with thoo, both for that I aust, And that I long to dio. And, woro I loth, A coward girl life-craving woro I prorod. For, whoroforo should I live, whoso airo was king (ICL. 9: Hoc. 3^2-3^ j) Thoao linoa ahow hor aoved by woaanly oaotion or a oortain innato toadornosa: CPolyzonal But aothor, darling aothor, give thino hand, Thy door, doar hand, and lay thy ohook to aino: Since noror aoro, but thia last tiao of all Shall I bohold tho nun*a boaa and his a t . Receive of all ay grootinga this tho last:— 0 aothor— broast that boar ao— I pass Southward. (ICL. 9* Hoc. '•09-41'k) Holon and Moaolaus aro everywhere introducod as born with soil naturoa. In Airipidoa Holon doos not even groot KLootra at thoir first Booting. Sho doos not oabraoo Coctra, aa was tho euataa.

Ihstoad oho ouraos hor

and displays hor own evil disposition. ”alonj Clytaanostra1a daughtor, Agaaoanon's child, octra, aaid a woary whllo unwod, Haploss, how could yo, thou and tho striekon ouo. Thy brother Qrostos, slay a aothor thus? X ooao, as unpolluted by thy speech, Since upon Aoebus all thy sin I lay. (ICL. 10: fe. 71-76.)

K

Sho aakes this final rcaark to exaggerate Obentos' and XLootra'a inpiety, as if they aado a god responsible for tho eriae and tried to justify tho

K5 parricide by his authority. sin.

Sho faala that god la absolutely davoid of

Several linos indioata tha dispoaition of KLectra'a indlgnit spirit

toward Halan. cllactra] Halm, why tall thoa what thyaalf nayat saa— Tha pitaons plight of Agaaonnon'a son? (ICL, 1 0 1 fe. 81-82.) Elaotra ealls har by no nana othar thanher raal ona. this was sonatinas offensive. appaars.

In anciant tiaas

Manalans shows his depravity whan ha first

Ha controls tha nan in whosa bahalf war was daolarad against

tha Trojans and Troy dastroyad. to Sparta, his rightful kingdon.

Oa his raturn to Gkraaca ha doas not travel

Ha goas to Argos where ha trios to rob

QrastOs of his kingdon.

According to Honor Manalans sparad tha ananias

who pronisad hia nonoy.

Ha saisas his brothar's son In ordsr to rala Argos.

Ha apaaks as a jealous anany. CManplans3 And lookad to clasp daad Agaaannon's son Qraataa, and his aothor, in loving ams.... (ICL. 101 : arianoa angar?

What do

Who doubts

As for young aan,

just as thsy dssirs aors strongly, so thay ara aora violently aovsd by a wrathful spirit. tiaa or placa.

No doubt it is sasy to bscoas angry ovar a parson,

Virgil aptly raaarksdt

"Nay, oitissas," orlas Turnus, ssising tha aouat, "oonvana a oouneil, and ait praising paaea; yonder thay ruah upon tha reala in oraa" No aora ha spake, but up he sprang, and sped swiftly forth froa tha hiah halls. (ICL. 64t Aan. 11. 459-462.) This tiaa sssaad suitable to hia to onploy tha incentives of anger: Straightway tha ainds of tha people ara confounded, thair bosons shaken, and their passions roused by no gentle spur. (ICL. 6kt Aan. 11. 451-452.) Seising tha oooasian Aleeto forced Turnus to take up araa.

Far eras ha aadly shrieks, aras he seeks in couch and chaaber; lust of the sword rages in hia, tha aecursed fronay of war.... (ICL. 64: km. 7. 460-461.)

339 Men affected in this way anally grow heated by Taxation and angar.

Howarar, va ara aapaoially angered by forgetful and ungrataful

aan, aapaoially if thay have baan joinad to ua by aoaa naoaaaity.

Wa

ara angarad if thay apaak or aot aallcioualy or virtuonaly, aa Ihripides' Qraataa to Manalana.

Wa ara angry with thoaa who fail to

honor or eabraee ua with thair usual enthuaia*, oara, and habit.

Wa

iaagina that thay would not hava failad in thair duty unlaaa thay intandad to alight ua.

Thia ia aapaoially trua whan thay prafar eeaeone

alaa to ua, aa Sqphooles' Ajax to Agaaaunon.

Againat our viahaa thay

prafar lnfarior nan, aa if to inault ua, a.g. Houar'a Agaaaanon to Calohaa and Aohillaa.

Wa aran grow angry with frianda.

aay likaly aspaot a kindness rathar than inault.

Frau than wa

Wa ara angry if thay

ara not afraid to say or do auoh, aa Antiphon'a Plaxippus to Nalaagar. Wa ara angry with thoaa who ara unkind and unfair to ua yet faaous for thair faimeae and kindneas toward all nan, a.g. Virgil'a Dido to Aaneaa. Wa regard har piety toward the gods and har parents and har olenanoy toward all othar aan aa singular. toward Aaneaa.

Wa aaa nothing of these in har attitude

She considered hia an aboaination to all huaanity:

False ona! no goddess was thy Bother, nor was Dnrdanus founder of thy lino, but rugged Canoaaua on his flinty rooks begat thee, and fyrcanian tigresses gave thaa suok. (ICL. 631 A m . *». 365-367.) Lo! thia ia tha pledge and faith of hia who, thay aay, carries about with hia hia oountry'■ hoae-godsI Who bora on hia shoulders a father outworn with age! (ICL. 63* Aan. 4. 59*-599.) What if aan of aril Uvea and disapproved reputations aeaa to deapiae ua? Aren't we justified In being angry with thaa. Ulysses angar at Theraltaa for exaapla.

Who is not angry with aan who

are bold in their iasulta and painful ouraea?

xi

i.-

Taka Honor's

Thia is aapaoially trua if

3*0 it happens whan wa ara with people whoae approval va daaira. trua if it happens with people present whan we sdnire.

Thia ia

We ere angry

with insults before nan whoae respect we desiref or with nan we respect, or with nan we think should respect us.

Virgil's Turnus insults Dranees

before the king and senate of Xatiun. He heaves a groan, and fren his boson's depth breaks forth with this cry. (ICL. 6k t A n 11. 377-378.) Whoa is not angry with non who sharply nock and scorn hin?

In Virgil

Ascanius is angry with Nunanus. "Qo, nock valour with haughty words! This answer the twice captured ffcrygiana sand back to the fe&tulians." (ICL. 6kt Aan 9. 63^ 633.) Aren't we angry with people who ridicule our appearance, disposition, actions, and desires?

So Honor's Baris is angry with Hector.

Hector

accuses Baris of curling his hair with a curling iron. ...cast not in ay teeth the lovely gifts of golden Aphrodite. Not to be flung aside, look you, are the glorious gifts of the gods, even all that of thonselves they give, whereas by his o n will could no nan win then. (ICL. 170i n 3. 6^ 67.) Who does not revile those who rejoioe at a stranger's misfortunes or nook the dead with insults?

In Sophocles Teucer isangry with theAtrides

who donot enuhtcto bury Ajax's body.

Would wo take less offense if we

did not care what evils happen to or threaten us? Thus Senses introduces Medea angry with Jason, Riaedra angry with Hippolytus, and Virgil's Dido angry with Aeneas.

Are we less angry at non who aay offend us in these

things we should fight for?

Suoh is the kind of injurythat affects

parents,ohildren, wives, neighbors, friends, us by the bond of oharity.

or anyoneelse joined to

Suoh is the anger Hercules has for Iyous

3*1 who ruled Thebes at Croon's death; auoh is Aansas' wrath with Turnus and ths Sutulians at Fallas' death, or Achillas wrath with Hsotor and tha Trojans aftar Patroolus was slain.

Ooasa't it sonatinas happen

that you restrain your angar lass if sonaona keeps secrets fron you or speaks too lata to you? Aren't you angry if an evil nassaga arrives for you, or if sonaona brings annoying and upsetting news? Suoh is tha nannar Seneca's Oedipus received tha news Creon reported fron tha oracle. Sophocles' Oedipus was angered at Teireaiaa' replies. and contempt? proper nane?

What about spite

Isn't it disrespect if sonaona does not call you by your Doesn't that anger you?

Menelaus addresses Sophoeles

Teuoert Stop, sirrah, bear no hand in raising up a corpse, I charge thee.... Suenelansj (ICL. 21* A£. 10*7.) Honor's Agamemnon taught the value of calling one by nane. avoids offense and extends good will.

The practice

So he coonanded Menelaus*

But lift up thy voice wheresoever thou goest, and bid non be awake, calling each nan by his lineage and his father's nane- riving due honour to each, and be not thou proud heart but rather let us ourselves be busy. (ICL. 170* II. 10.66-70.) Since these are the things which anger us, obviously their opposites anuse us.

Gentleness is opposed to anger.

Gentleness1novas us to nore

easily control anger, nakes us slow to revenge and nore inclined to bear with equanimity.

Thus we beeone nilder toward those who imprudently or

inadvertantly have done something (without contempt) which angered us. Thus was King Iatinus disposed toward the Trojans who rashly exoited the Iatin shepherds against themselves and were forced to fight. disposed toward non who ask favors and entreat.

So we are

We see Aeneas' inclination

342 toward tha I*tins who had coaa to ask hia: ...tha bodiaa that lay atrawn by tha sword o'ar tha plain thay prayad hia to raatora and auffar to raat banaath an aarthan aoond. (ICL. 64: Aan. 11. 103-104.} Qontlanass baflts thoaa who baaidas asking for a favor also oarry ant thair duty.

Aohillaa ia kind to Prian who waa asking hia for Haotor'a

body to bury.

So it aaaaa Halanna taught corractly:

••.nighty Juno's powar honour thou first with prayor; to Juno joyfully ohant vows and win ovar tha nighty niatrasa with suppliant gifts. (ICL. 63* Aan. 3. 437-439.) Wa should look no loss kindly on thoaa who adait dafaat and yiald to ua. Aanaaa saaaad ha would apara Turnus' lifa. on Turnus.

Than ha saw Pallas' girdla

That raopanad hia woundad aoul and rakindlad hia angar.

Man

aaaa to hava tha m m o attltuda toward ua aa thay hava toward thaasalvas. It griavas a aan to hava aotad thus toward othara who adait thia.

If

latinua offandad tha Trojana, thay suraly forgot it* ...oft chiding hlasalf that ha gava not raady walcoaa to Cardan Aanaaa, nor, for hia oity's aaka, adoptad hia aa son. (ICL. 64* An. 11. 471-472.) Wa ara kind to thoaa whan upright nan hava approval.

Tha latins approval

of Aanaaa whan tha aabassadora ratumad with what Oioaada said about hia. Wa faar aaaa of thaaa aan just aa tha latins fsarad tha Trojana whan thay haard tha raport on Moasdat 0 happy paoplaa of Saturn's raala, sons of old Auaonia, what ohanoa vazaa your cala and luraa you to provoka warfara unknown? (ICL. 64* A w . 11. 232-234.) Soaa aan wa aabraoa with ravaranea, aa Aohillaa aabraosd Priaa. Prian attaats to this*

Virgil's

3^3 Nay, not no with hia foe Aria* daalt that Aohillaa whoaa aonahip thou falaaly olaiaaat, bat ha had raapaot far a auppliant'b rights and truat. (LCL. 63 1 Aan. 2. 5UO-5k2.) Sana nan uaa no daeait, aa whan wa do a aarloua thing.

80 tha Trojana

ahowad thanaalvaa receptive to Achaananidaa. I know that I an ona fron tha Danaan ahipa, and own that I warrad againat tha goda of Hina. (ICL. 63: Aan. 3. 602-603.) Man incitad and deeaivod by angar ehow ua aril. softana towarda hia father, Thaaaua. bringa Hippolytua a pitiabla daath. and honor ua.

Ihiripides' Hippolytua

Theseus' dira and awfol curaa Va ara kind toward thoaa who raapaot

Gbriooaly Aanaaa waa nora diapoaad toward tha Latina ba-

oanaa thair anroya honorad hint

0 grant in glory, grantor in arna, thou haro of Troy, how with ny praiaaa nay I axtol thaa to tha aky? An 1 to narrol firat at thy juatioa or at thy toils in war? (ICL. Ski Aan. 11.12^126. ) Cartainly wa prafar good will to aril.

Whan Sophoolaa' Ulyaaaa dafanda

Ajax, ha aaya: [Ulyssesj With na hia worth outwaighs hia anaity. (ICL. 21 1 Aj. 1357.) Ulyaaaa thought thay wara panlahlng Ajax harahar than ananiaa daaorrad. Ulyaaaa thought Ajax, idio had killed hinaalf, deserved tha burial Agaaeanon and Manelaua would deny bin. qUlyaaaaj

Tea, yat I hated hia so long aa hate waa honourable. (ICL. 21 1 Aj,. 13^7.) Ulyaaaa* point waa that no one ahould hate tha dead.

Virgil eorreotly

introduces King Latinos' anroya who apeak to ask a farori

No war, thoy plaad, ia wngad with vanquishod aan, boroft of air of h n r m , (ICL. 6k t An. 11. 1 (LCL. 91 IA. 1375-1376.)

396 My body unto Hollas I resign. Sacrifice so, rase ye Troy. (LCL. 9*

IA. 1397-1398.)

We should be careful to portray correctly what is proper to any nature or any character.

Even though a womanly nature is imperfect and

a wicked nature is servile, still let both be properly expressed. depict Menelaus as barely upright.

Poets

He incorrectly showed himself to be

wicked toward Orestes because the situation did not demand it. see to it that we give anyone what is suitable.

We should

Wouldn't it be unfitting

if we introduce a brave aan crying like a woman, or a woman being bold like a aan? Cossus. What about Macaria?

I remember your mentioning her.

Was

Euripides1 characterisation unbecoming because he showed her nobly sacrificing herself for her brothers' victory? Voniscus.

This certainly seems true.

the heroine, Hercules' daughter. Qravina. Beware, VopiscusI hostility of women!

But remember that she was

To her}excellence was becoming. Lest you incur the hatred and

If you argue like Aristotle, fortitude and prudence

befits them. Voniscus.

Certainly we would do well to follow the opinion of the

ancient philsophers which Plutarch approved.

Let us assert that there

is no virtue in which aan and woman cannot equally excel. matter deserves consideration elsewhere.

But this

Now let me quote Horace's

rules for expressing emotions. As men's faces smile on those who amile, so they respond to those who weep. If you would have me weep, you must first feel grief yourself1 Then, 0 Telephus or Peleus, will your misfortunes hurt met If the words you utter are ill suited, I shall laugh or fall asleep. Sad tones befit the face of sorrow; blustering accents that of anger; jests become the merry, solemn words the grave. (ICL. 194: A. P. 101-107.)

397 Thus a character should act and spaak conaiatently with hia natural ability, diapoaition, and emotion.

Horace rulea that we depict a character

according to hia fortune. Nature firat ahapea u b within to meet every change of fortune: ahe bringa joy or impela to anger, or bowa ua to the ground and torturea ua under a load of grief; then, with the tongue for interpreter, ahe proclaima the emotions of the aoul. If the speaker's worda sound dis­ cordant with hia fortunes, the Bomana, in boxes and pit alike, will raise a loud guffaw. (ICL. 194: A.P. 108-113.) ...then, 0 Telephus or Peleua, will your mis­ fortunes hurt me: if the words you utter are ill suited, I shall laugh or fall asleep. (ICL. 194: Thus those exiled a m are introduced.

A. P. 104-105.)

Surely they would be ridiculous if

they showed anything on their faces or in worda which did not fit men driven into exile. ...so, too, in Tragedy Telephus and Peleua often grieve in the language of prose.... (ICL. 194: A. P.95.) A poet should also not neglect anyone's condition, station, office, family, nation, or the place of birth and education. speak like slaves, and matrons sealous nurses are reversed. Colchians as cruel.

like maids; Medea and fhaedra and the Men regard the Assyrians as cunning, the

Having been born and raised in Colchis, Medea her­

self is introduced as harsh and fierce. Thebans skilled in military matters. prinoiple of age.

The Argives appear bold, the

The poet should also abide by the

Creon fittingly says seme things as an old man,

Haemon some as a young man. speak?

Otherwise heroes

Is it important how Nestor or Achilles

In Achilles you find the following.

He is a youth quickly

angered, easily stirred to quarrel, proud, eager for glory, avid to conquer.

He is prepared to follow where his appetite leads.

He does

398 not hesitate to attempt tho vory difficult. roputable; ho aota pleasantly. Thoao you will readily discover.

Ho purauoo what ia

Lot me cait the many oxaoploa froa Hoaor. How beautifully Hkiripidee portrayed

hia pleaaantneas and eagerness for decorum.

Clyteanestra calls him

and he replies * £Achillea] Qreat Queen of Shamefastness, what lady here/ Behold I crowned with peerless loveliness? (LCL. 9* IA. 821-822.)

[Achilleaj talk'

Tot shame were this, that I with wcaen

[Clyteanestra] Stay— wherefore flee? Nay, give me thy right hand To clasp, the prelude to espousals blest. [Achillesj How say'st?— mine hand in thine? Ashamed were I Before thy lord of such unsanctioned touch. (LCL. 9: IA. 830-85«t.) [Achillesj Nay, bring not forth thy dauther to my sight, Nor, lady, risk we the reproach of foolsJ For this thronged host, of all home— trammels free, Loves evil babble of malicious tongues. (LCL. 9 : IA. 998-1001.) We have talked at length about plot and the technique of character­ isation.

Four other categories remain for us to consider.

Seeing that

speech is fitted to words and sentences, then we should plainly consider thea when treating the rules of speaking. spectacle?

But what should I say about

Undoubtedly this pertains to another's craft and to the poet.

Spectacle has treaendoue power to show and express the action. appropriately suited to actions. lamentable.

It is

The poet shows us what is fearful and

He will teach the ehoragus and actor because he will have

invented the terrible or fearful matter.

The actor uses action, the

ehoragus spectacle, to render more forcefully what the poet depicted in verses.

Consider the extraordinary event in Airipides when Medea is

drawn through the heavens by crested and winged dragons yoked to a chariot.

399 Would tho actors havo shown this without instructions froa Euripides? Tho means of their effooting fiiripides* directive was completely theirs to implement.

In addition to that pleasantness which the tragic poets

seek* actors usually invent certain delights or portents.

These not

only please the audience's eyes, hut they uplift their souls with admiration and marvelous pleasure.

Men find the admirable and horrible

tragic, but not the prodigious and monstrous.

Therefore, critics blame

Biripidea because he uses the "machine" in tragedy, even at the play's end. there.

Men have ordered nothing from outside the plot to be included Critics suggest that anything from a non-poetic art which is

advantageous should be used in situations outside the plot.

They say

such situations are those which happened previously or would happen subsequently.

Since these must be done divinely, they are reported to

men. Next the poet should be careful to see that the actor is suitably costumed so that he represents the character who speaks and acts. follow from appearance; appearance and face reflect the soul.

Words

What is

more inappropriate than an unhappy man assuming a joyful pose or a beggar experiencing good fortune but appearing sad? Also respecting characterisation, remember that the appearance of kings and princes is unsuitable for lowly needy men. or purple clothes. clothing.

Prosperous men were given gold, scarlet,

Less fortunate men wore black, gray, or iron-colored

A hunter or athlete would have a scarlet or purple cloak en­

folding hia hands.

Teiresias had a woolen cloak like a net which enclosed

almost his entire body.

Dionysius wore saffron, Thyrsus a garland.

Hercules appeared with a club and a lionskin. more discarded, unfashionable clothes.

Philoctetes and Telephus

Men playing Atreus and Agamemnon

400 used clothing of many colors and quits similar.

Other tragic costumes

which pertained to men were skins; some were called nebrides in Greek, others diptherao.

Tragic costume included tiaras, miters, scepters,

swords, bows, quivers, lictors' staffs, and heralds' staffs, and finally nearly every kind of armor.

Important women who ruled wore a purple

mantle with long white sleeves covering the elbow. a mantle either bluish gray or yellow. classification of masks. servants, others of women.

Humbler women wore

And how varied, how diverse is the

Some are of old men, some of young, some of Each kind is distinguished from the rest

by the appearance and shape of the mouth.

Among the old men one is

introduced with a shaven chin, the whitest hair, and long cheek bones. Above the forehead is a distinguished hat with hair thrown under. old man is distinguished before all in age.

The

There is a mask of a man

with white, curled hair, solid chin, eyebrows missing, a moderate hat. There is a dark man somewhat pallid, with a sprinkling of gray.

There

is a black man, with curly beard and curly hair, a rough face and a great hat.

We see a ruddy man with a little hat, curled hair turning

somewhat yellow-of unusual color. paler, as if he might be sick.

We see a aan more blond and somewhat

Of the older youth the best is pictured

without a beard, reddish with thick black hair and pleasing color.

Che

youth has curly hair golden-colored, proud with a hat from which hair protrudes, eyebrows elongated giving a gloomy and harsh look.

Another

is altogether like that one, but younger; he is likewise curly-headed. Another youth is gentle, handsome, with shining color and golden hair. His mask is like a beautiful god.

Another is base, swollen with pride,

somewhat spiteful, a little sad, worn out, with yellowing hair.

Another

of the same name has remarkable hair, more graceful than the former; also

401 he is younger.

Thsrs is a pals nan, parched, vary lean* dry akin,

reddish hair with a band. a ghost or wounded nan.

Ha has a sick man's color, tha appearance of Further there is a nan of very similar pallor.

His face is the best of all the rest. sick or in love.

He is so pale he seems either

Servants also have nore than one appearance.

Otoe

wears skins and has a pale face, sad eyes, crooked nose, flattened eyebrows, a full generous beard, carefully trinned hair and a hat. The messenger is certainly vivacious; he is vigorous, rough, ruddy, with a tall, wide,and hollow hat.

His beard is like a wedge.

Another

messenger or even a herald is misshapen, reddish, beardless, with a splendid hat and loose hair.

What of women's many masks?

There is an

old woman preeminent in dignity and age, somewhat pale, with medium sized hat, distinguished gray, white hair. called the old woman. somewhat reddish.

She is quite properly

Next is a little old woman, free born, with

She has gray hair, turning yellow, a small hat,

hair loose to the shoulders, and seems to labor under some misfortune. Then there is an old serving woman with wrinkled skin, and a lambskin hat resembling a helmet. hair and scanty hat. completely white.

We also find a serving girl with half cut

She is white, almost pale— though not growing

Her younger worker clothed in animal skin is hatless.

She has long black hair, is pale, and

has a sad face.

is like her except for the half cut hair.

We also meet a partially

shorn young girl hardly affected by paleness. virgin.

She wears her hair gathered

Theother woman

Next we see the young

and arranged under her cap, somewhat

plain, hair cut in a little circle. Another virgin shows she has endured much unhappiness by her hair arrangement bound into a circle. the women ahe is most like the first virgin.

Of all

Finally we see a young

402 girl with a fresh tender feoej she is portrayed like Danas— a wholly beautiful little girl* Horace says this about scenery equipment: Thespis is said to have discovered the Tragic Muse, a type unknown before, and to have carried his pieces in wagons to be sung and acted by players with faces smeared with winelees. After him Aeschylus, inventor of the mask and comely robe, laid a stage of small planks, and taught a lofty speech and stately gait on the buskin. (LCL. 194: AP. 275-279.) However Sophocles is said to have invented stage decoration.

In the

beginning when tragedy was a simple song (which we will discuss in its own proper place) it was being sung in honor of Bacchus. ancient time was using a simpler material in representing.

That rustic When a more

educated age followed, poetry became more polished and richer. number of actors reportedly increased.

Masks, mantles, cothurni, and

other important apparatus were discovered.

Each man has his own costume{

each has a mask to seme degree appropriate. clothed in a Creek pallium.

The

Ulysses is introduced

Thus he is dressed whether forced to

battle, pretending insanity, betraying his wisdom, defending his comrades, or whether Ithacans (like lacriana) use the pallium.

Dramatists adorn

Achilles and Nepptolemus with a diadem because of a degree of kingly freedom,

fiven though they never attain the scepter, they are not like

the other Gtreek princes under Agamemnon's command. that same Achilles is presented without ornament.

At Patrocius' death Aotaeon is shown

homed, Riineus blind, Thamyris with one eye bluish gray, the other black, and Argus with many eyes.

In Sophocles Tyro is pale, beaten to

death by a stepmother with iron-like lashes. daughter of Chiron, changed into a horse.

In fiuripidea, Erippe the

In general, aren't these

fictive characters each noted by his own particular form:

Amnis, Mane,

*03 Amymone, Qorgo, Justitia, Mors, Erimnya, Rabias, Oestrus, Injuria, Centaurus, Titan, Qigas, Indus, Triton, Urbs, Suada, Musas, Hours, Nymphs, Pleiades, daoait, drunkenass, sloth, envy and ths rast of that kind proainant in comedies?

Poets who won priase in this worthy genra

wars favorable to the chorus and all scenic apparatus.

The nan who

presented tha chorus and sat the scene they called a ehoragus, as if ha ware tha leader of the chorus and the examiner. in Aeschylus Agamemnon.

Such a one appears

Xenocles and Aphidnean showed Philocles as a

ehoragus in the second year of the twenty-eighth Olympiad. As far as song is concerned does anyone doubt musicans— not poets— claimed authority over all method of singing?

But let us put aside those

matters pertinent to the tragic poet and to the chorus.

Up until now

we have spoken about those things which comprise the tragic poet's aim and power.

We have talked about their kind.

Now let us show how many

parts a tragedy has— unless you order otherwise. Suamontius. Go on, Vopiscus.

Finish what you began.

Your discourse

on tragic matters has been so clear and ample you have omitted nothing. Vopiscus. My first desire is to satisfy you.

In our division

let us follow that most accomplished author, Aristotle.

Let us divide

all of tragedy into four parts, which in Greek are called prologue, episode, exodus, and choric matters.

Aristotle prescribed that they

each be entire and correct. The prologue is the poem's beginning. mind for seeing and listening.

It prepares the spectator's

It has the same validity with tragic

poets as the exordium has with orators and the proem with heroic poets. The ancients first introduced those men who were conversing at the beginning before the chorus entered.

With these characters onstage

hoh little by little the argument became clear. the action concerned. a different fashions

They clearly showed that

Before EUripidea no one is found who began in Ha was first to introduce the character who opened

the subject natter and explained the argument. the pedagogue begins.

In Sophocles' KLectra

The prologue consists of what he says to Orestes.

In Seneca's Oedipus. Oedipus and Jocasta speak first. that same Oedipus and Antigone begin. Euripides' Bhesus the chorus begins.

In the Thebaid

In Aeschylus' Persians and in Ekiripides does not depict someone

in a few words, who thus begins speaking, so that by narrating he shows the argument of the plot, as in Hecuba: [Polydorusj I come from vaults of death, from gates of darkness, Where from the Sods aloof doth Hades dwell, Polydorus, born of Hecuba, Gisseus' child. And Priam.... (LCL. 9 : Hec- l-*0 Polydorus tells who he is and what has happened to hia because much of the plot depends on this information. is in the action.

Finally he briefly surveys what

Euripides invented this method of beginning and used

it in nearly all his own poetry.

It is by no means universally approved

because he repeats far more than is fitting and he begins the narration where it is hardly necessary.

Such is the case in Medea:

Would God that Argo's hull had never flown Through those blue Clashing Bocks to Colchisland, Nor that the axe-hewn pine in Pelion's glens Ewer had fallen, nor filled with oars the hands Of hero-princes, who at Pelias' hast Quested the Golden Fleece! My mistress then, Medea, n'er had sailed to Ioloos* towers With love for Jason thrilled through all her soul,. . (LCL. 12: Med. 1-8.) !Rie poet could have oovered the same material more briefly if only he had taken care to do so.

In Iphimeneia:

*♦05 'ganaiinonj Three daughters Leda, child of eetiua, bare, Phoebe, and Clytemnestra mine own wife, And Helen. ( ICL. 9* IA . *t9-51.)

K

In this tragedy Agamemnon speaks first in his conversation with the servant.

This is the exposition of the argument• Sometimes poets

summon characters from outside the argument to explain the subject matter.

This is extrinsic usage; the Greeks call auch a character

protatikos.

When appropriate, the poets even summon divinities.

Characters of this kind appear in the plot once and never again. Generally poets introduce one such character.

Euripides introduces

Venus in Hjppolytua. Mercury in Ion. Seneca presents Juno in Hercules Furens. Sometimes poets introduce two such characters. Thyeatea presents Tantalus and Megara.

(Seneca's

Euripides presents Apollo and

Charon in Alcestis, Neptune and Minerva in Daughters of Troy.) Seneca uses them for prologue, Euripides for an episode. Minerva speaks first with Ulysses.

In Sophocles' Ajax

Obviously the one has been placed

in the story, the other has been summoned from outside the argument. We also find examples of where it is either appropriate or necessary that a god intervene.

Thus the prologue contains all the material

prior to the chorus' entrance, although sometimes the entering chorus makes the prologue. Episodes are those parts which fit between the complete and extensive choral songs.

Everyone knows that characters' actions

separate the choric songs. other, then with the chorus.

These characters first speak with each Also in Ehripides1 prologues are

characters the poet himself introduces before the chorus enters. Thetus.

Why do you call that part an episode which sometimes

has a place other than between choral songs?

Isn't it another part

k06 since it talks about plot, is spoken in exordia, and encompases narration? Please remove this snail doubt fron ay mind, Vopiscus. Vopiscus. I shall be glad to do so. origin froa both the functions you describe.

The name,episode, took its Both are valid.

Che kind

of episode pertains to the force and form of the work) the other kind pertains to the body.

The first is reviewed in those parts of a play

which indicate the kind of poea we see.

The second use is pertinent to

those parts which indicate how great a poem is.

Episodes refer to matters

extraneous to the plot because the poet interjects thea between parts of the plot.

Similarly the saae name refers to those matters placed between

choric songs.

This is so because, as we will show, ancient tragedy was

little more than simple choric song.

The ancients designated as episodes

those parts which later poets interjected between choric songs to increase the poem's length,

fyisodee also enriched the plot.

them to adorn the plot's form.

Finally poets used

Sometimes poets introduce material from

outside before the chorus' entrance, as in the Phoenician Maidens. Here the pedagogue, who is a foreign character, speaks with Antigone.

From

a hill he shows her the enemy caap, the Argive leaders, and any place under attack.

Sometimes material in addition to the subject matter is

introduced between choric songs.

Such is the case in the Phoenician

Maidens when Polynices, Jocasta, and Etsocles converse after the chorus has entered.

Sometimes the chorus itself walks about and digresses with

a heightened, solemn kind of speech. argument's limits. surely adorn a poem.

This prelude never exceeds the

You will find examples in Ehripides.

All of these

Next episodes occur between parts of a play.

They increase the poem's size.

They are found after the chorus has

entered and occupy intervals between songs.

These episodes may be

40? essential or nonessential to the plot.

But now I think my discourse

should return from this digression— unless some difficulty still bothers you. Thetus. You have removed my doubt.

Proceed with the discussion

I seen to have interrupted. Vopiscus.

Let me continue what I had begun.

The chorus enters

either after someone already introduced has explained the argument, or rarely (as in Aeschylus1 Persians) when the play begins. things of the chorus:

We ask three

it is to move, stand still, and mourn.

The

chorus moves as a unit, as in Iphigeneia: I have come to the Aulian sea-gulf's verge, To her gleaming sands: I have voyaged Buripus' rushing surge From the oity that stands Queen of the Sea-gate, Chalcis mine, On whose bosom-fold Arethusa gleameth, the fountain divine,— Have come to behold The Achaean array, and the heroes' oars That shall onward speed A thousand galleys to Troyland's shores. These two kings lead. (LSL. 9 : IA. 164-173.) Here it explains why it is present. speech.

This entrance contains its first

The entire chorus stands in place whan it begins to sing of the

calamity in the plot: I pity the for this unhappy lot Found of thee: would thou ne'er hadst come thereon. (ICL. 9 : 3£. 1336-1337.) What follows can be called a stationary choral song.

In Qreek it is

called a stasimon, and as Aristotle bids, it should be fashioned without anapests and trochees.

The chorus does not move from plaoe; anapests

and trochees are used in dancing.

In Prometheus the chorus says:

408 fie not alarmed! For this our band hath come in winged rivalry of apeed unto this crag in love to thee, having won our sire'a consent aa beat we might. (ICL. 145: Pr. 127-129.) I behold, Prometheus; and in my alarm for thee there spread o'er mine eyes a mist all filled with tears as I saw they body withering ignominiously upon this rock in these bonds of adamant. (ICL. 145: Pr. 144-147.) Next it mourns and pities since all the remaining action is steeped in sorrow.

The chorus commonly laments with those on stage.

It laments

its own unhappiness, as in Hecuba:

0 breeze, 0 breeze, over sea-ways racing, Who onward waftest the ocean-pacing Fleet-flying keels o'er the mere dark-swelling, Vitherward wilt thou bear me, the sorrow-laden? ( ICL. 9: Hec. 444-447.) It laments the public unhappiness: 0 my fatherland, Illium, thou art named no more Mid burgs unspoiled, Such a battle-cloud lightening spears enshrouds thee o'er All round thee coiled! Thou art piteously shorn of thy brows' tower-diadem, And smirched with stain Of the reek; and thy streetways— my feet shall not tread them, Ah me, again! (ICL. 9 : Hec. 906-91U.) Then another's unhappiness:

0 hapless, how a Qod, whose hand on thee Is heavey, above all mortals heaps thee pain! ( ICL. 9 : Hec. 721-722.) And in Inhimeneia:

0 thou wretch Helen! Through thee and thy sin Comes agony on the Atreida and their seed. (ICL. 9 : IA. 1255-1254.) C&ytemnestraj What burden of anguish did Tyndareus' child on the Banaans lay*

J»09 [Chorus3 I pity thee for this unhappy lot Found of thee: would thou ne'er hadat cone thereon... (ICL. 9*

IA. 1335-1337.)

The chorus turns to the spectators and says: Lo, lo, the great ones of the earth, How blest they be1 Iphigeneia, proud in birth From princes, see; See Clytamnestra, her who came Of Tyndareus— 0 stately name Of Mighty siresI (LCL. 9 : IA. 590-59^.) Hie chorus usually weeps both when standing still and when entering. as in Iphigeneia in Taurica. When it seeks to ingratiate itself to Iphigeneia it speaks in florid doleful song, quite pleasing to the shades of hell.

There is no specified place for weeping in a tragedy.

Yet we

should observe that weeping is proper in situations where unhappiness happens or threatens. These are the rules for the chorus. Once it has entered, it never leaves the spectators' eyes.

As I have show, it first speaks with actors.

After the actors withdraw, it may speak while watching the audience.

It

nay sing as aany times as there are complete acts, except for the fifth. Sometimes the chorus divides.

Che half follows the exiting actors, and

the other half remains on stage, as in Hecuba: Not yet is the penalty paid, but thy time is at hand. (ICL. 9 : Hec. 1023.) Half the chorus says this when the other half followed Hecuba within. Polymestor is about to pay the penalty. the other, as in Hjppolvtus.

Why?

Sometimes one part speaks with

They enter to loose Hiaedra from the

beam-hung noose by which she hanged herself.

After the entire chorus

sang, one part showed Theseus' arrival to the other half.

In Aloestis

4io the chorus enters.

The women comprising the chorus converse, amased at

the silence in Admetus' house.

In Orestes one part here, one there

block the road at Electra's command. approaches,

They watch to see whether anyone

first the entire chorus speaks.

one another.

Then its parts speak with

Undoubtedly the entire chorus never left the theater.

If

the stage has no actors, either the entire chorus sings or (rarely) divided, it watches the audience.

Or its parts converse with each other.

No idle delay thus arises in the play to distract the audience's mental attention fronr the drama. The poet should also obey the rules Horace prescribed: Let the Chorus sustain the part and strenuous duty of an actor, and sing nothing between acts which does not advance and fitly blend into the plot. It should side with the good and give friendly counsel; sway the angry and cherish the righteous. It should praise the fare of a modest board, praise wholesome justice, law, and peace with her open gates; should keep secrets, and pray and beseech the gods that fortune may return to the unhappy, and depart from the proud. (ICL, 194: A.P. 193-201.) The chorus eagerly works as a secondary actor. Such

It acts like any actor.

eagerparticipation finds more praise in Sophocles than inEuripides.

It has its own part in the whole action. author's persona.

So it may undertake the

It is his task to approve the praiseworthy and re­

prove the blameworthy.

His function is to chide, warn, and exhort.

The chorus will care for its own parts.

It will perform a function

proper to men even if«as frequently happens— the chorus consists of women.

Such authority will be preeminent.

In Iphigeneia it approves

what Menelaus said: Right noble speech, and worthy Tantalus, Zeus' son! Thou shamest not thine ancestors. (ICL. 9: IA. 504-505.)

411 It approves what Achillas said: Thou speakest, son of Peleus, worthily Of thee, and of tha sea-born Goddess draad. (ICL. 9:

IA. 975-976.)

Tha chorus praisas Iphiganaia harsalf bacausa she bravely offered to sacrifice harsalf for tha Greeks' victory. Noble tha part thou playest, maiden, isi But Fata and Artemis— ill part is theirsI (ICL. 9:

IA. 1402-1405.)

Sea who, for Illiua'a Phrygia's overthrowing, With her fair hair for death bestarred with flowers, Is to tha sacrificial alter going Besprent with lavar showers-(ICL. 9! IA. 1510-1514.) Tha chorus chides Sophocles' Ajax for having, after perceiving his own madness, spoken with excessive grief unbecoming a man. who desires death not to increase one evil with another. enraged soul to moderation.

It comforts.

It warns Ajax It Btirs the

In Iphigeneia how well it

warns against fraternal strife: Fearful 'twixt brethren words of high disdain And conflict are, when into strife they fall. (ICL. 9* IA. 576-577.) In Sophocles' Electra the chorus warns against excessive grief. Child of a mortal sire, Electra, think, Orestes too was mortal; calm thy grief. Death is a debt that all of us must pay. (ICL. 21:

EL. 1171-1175.)

The chorus in Seneca's Hippolytus warns us not to exceed the demands of the time: Theseus, time without mad awaits thy lamentations. Now pay the rites due to thy son. (ICL. 62: Hipp. 1244-1245.) The chorus favors Hippolytus, whoa everyone presents as just. favorsOrestes, Electra, Antigone, Oedipus at Colonus,whom poets

It also portray

412 •a unhappy.

It approves Polynices' demands.

responses.

It disapproves of Eteocles*

In Seneca It prays for Oetavia: Ye gentle breeses and ye zephyrs mild, that once caught Iphigeneia wrapped In an airy cloud, and bore her from the altar of the cruel maid, this maiden, too, far from her dire punishment bear ytteeee

(ICL. 78: Octav. 973-977.) And in Euripides' Orestes: 0 power of Zeus, of Zeus— eternal power, Come, aid my friends in this supremest hourI (ICL. 10:

Or.

1299-1300.)

2h the Phoenician Maidens it weeps for peace and fraternal unity. Electra it berates Aegisthus.

The chorus governs and curbs Lemophon's

anger toward the herald in the Children of Hercules. Oedipus1 anger toward Teiresias and Creon. from Creon.

In

It calms and soothes

It defends Oedipus and Electra

It sides with Menelaus against Agamemnon.

It faithfully

conceals the cause of Phaedra1s sorrow as it had promised in oath.

No

one doubts that the chorus vigorously upholds kings' laws and edicts. It honors justice, modesty, frugality, and watches over every kind of virtue.

With continuous cantioa it praises all of these.

Authors

themselves teach that the chorus is excellent and sings accompanied by flute.

Authors would have simpler rhythms and modes at the beginning.

The pleasantness and elegance of art made these songs far more polished. Horace says: The flute— not, as now, bound with brass and a rival of the trumpet, but slight and simple, with few steps— was once of used to lead and aid the chorus and to fill its breath benches not yet too crowded, where, to be sure, folk gathered, easy to count, because few— sober folk, too, and chaste, and modest. But when a conquering race began to widen its domain, and an ampler wall embraced its cities, and when, on festal days, appeasing the Qenius by daylight drinking brou^it no penalty, then both time and tune

413 won greater licence. For what taate could you expect of an unlettered throng just freed froa tolli rustic nixed up with city folk, vulgar with nobly-born? So to the early art the fluteplayer added movement and display, and, strutting o'er the stage, trailed a robe in train. (ICL, 194: A.P. 202-215.) However, there are many kinds of singing. is strange.

What the tragic chorus sings

It has little song and a great deal of imitation.

coincides more with the actors who are imitators of heroes. leaders and kings were heroes. men.

chorus.

The ancient

The people are represented by a class of

From this the chorus is usually assembled.

and sad suits the chorus.

It

Thus what is lamentable

Gentler harmonies and little passion siit the

Because of these it can endure a disaster.

proper to man's aortal condition.

This is human and is

Men under the authority and power of

others (especially weaker men) are more inclined to be emotionally moved than more powerful men.

Therefore the method of singing which pertains

to action is absent from a tragic chorus. singing hypo-Dorian and hypo-Phrygian.

Aristotle calls this kind of

Certainly nothing is more un­

fitting than that the chorus be a lazy guardian, and idle supporter, or merely kindly disposed toward those on stage. What the chorus sings should suitably fit the plot. chorus usually digresses in songs.

But the chorus should not g> beyond

the subject matter into those things which are extraneous. the Creeks are at fault here.

The tragic

Certainly

Their songs have too much variety.

They

abuse their literary freedom by longer repetitions and digressions. Because they wander in uninspired and inelegant digression, they affect novelty in their license.

Granted they assemble a host of words; they

seem to have no judgment on the subject matters.

Aren't the words some­

what insipid which the chorus narrates in Euripides' Hippolytus?

As it enters it explains what is heard about Riaedra.

Either the chorus

covers familiar ground, as in Iphigeneia: I pity thee for this unhappy lot Found of thee: would thou ne'er hadst come thereon (ICL. 9;

IA. 1336-1337.)

Or in turns to a pleasantly enjoyable digression at intervals: 0 what bridal chant rang with the crying.... ( ICL. 9 :

IA . 1 0 3 6 .)

As they say, the ohorus wastes a whole speech in nonsense rather than in harmonious sounds.

As we have stated, the chorus' principal duties are

to lament and pity the disaster related in the matter onstage. Depending on the demands of the plot, the chorus will consist of either women or men.

What would have been more indecorus than introducing

a male chorus in Hecuba or a female chorus in Rhesus? Members of the chorus should be of the one sex, the same as the person they favor or aid.

We should note that in the extant tragedies we can perceive that

the Sophodean chorus usually consists of old men (though an assembly of women was introduced formerly). often female*

Euripides' chorus is rarely male, most

He usually makes the chorus citizens or inhabitants of

the place when the action took place.

Sometimes he uses a chorus of

foreigners, such as the captive Trojan women in the Daughters of Troy* Some men prescribe that the number in a tragic chorus be fifteen. add three to Sophocles' chorus of twelve. twenty-four.

They

A comic chorus contains

Originally the primitive tragic assembly had fifty persons.

This number prevailed before Aeschylus wrote the Ihmenidea.

Such a crowd

would have seemed too imposing and distasteful to the audience. smaller number was established by law for Aeschylus.

A

The chorus itself

entered on stage in a three-part line, with files of various numbers. Or

VI5 the line had five divisions, each rank having three numbers. ohorus also entered one at a time.

The

Just as some call the chorus a fourth

actor, so the place of the ohorus was called the parascenium because it was in front of the scena. But if a fourth actor interrupted, it was considered beyond choric concern. Ag— emnon.

They say this was done in Aeschylus'

Indeed the chorus finds this part in the entire poem.

we have said this is the chorus' function. another function.

As

Sometimes the chorus has

The chorus may praise or entreat the gods.

In

Hippolytus a band of young men who were accompanying Hippolytus praise Diana.

In Oedipus a crowd of boys strives to appease Apollo with prayers.

This is placed outside the plot.

I am not speaking of the tragic poet

here, nor am I handing down rules at this time. the pattern.

Agathon first established

He called the interjected material intercalary, as if it

had been summoned and interjected from outside the plot. no more of this in Agathon than in any other tragedy. intervenes?

Is a song of that kind interjected?

You will find

But what

Is some continued speech

connecting one thing with another suited to the entire episode? that should be avoided. doesn't fit the plot.

Certainly

The chorus should not intersperse anything which Similarly the poet should avoid moving one part of

the tragedy into another or transferring an entire episode. The exodus occupies the last place in a tragedy. follows it, and it contains some event. death.

In Iphigeneia

some fortune.

No choric song

In Hecuba we hope for Polymestor's

we await a better outcome.

Thus the exodus comprises

Sometimes the poet introduces a god to explain the ending.

In Euripides' Iphigeneia in Taurica and Ion we meet Minerva.

Diana appears

in Hippolytus. Thetis in Andromache, Apollo in Orestes, and Castor and Pollux in Helen.

Sometimes a machine achieves the image of a portent, as

V|6 Ehripidee' portrayal of Medea's flight.

The exodus is also called the

last choric song because the actors are finally leaving.

Nothing else

happens* as in Hecuba: To the tents* 0 friends* to the haven fare. (ICL* 9:

Hec. 1293.)

These are the traditional teachings about the parts of a tragedy. Soortianua. style.

Vopiscus* you have taught much with learning and

I would be very grateful to learn why poets use a chorus in

reciting the poetry— unless you intend to treat this elsewhere.

Comic

poets have instructed the tragic poets that it is possible to omit the chorus* if they so choose.

The ancient comic poets use a chorus.

Subsequent poets received it from comedy. Vopiscus. Undoubtedly this is the place to answer your question* Scortianus.

You have properly admonished me to check my speed and re­

trace the ground I omitted.

Yoxr question will be answered if we explain

the origin of that kind of plot. comedy have religious origins.

Everyone agrees that both tragedy and When a goat was sacrificed to Dionysus at

the public festivals, a holy assembly of singers called a chorus sang the dithyramb around the altars. praises of its god.

This is the song which includes the

The same chorus played at dancing* for the wine was

abundant and free flowing.

So the chorus poured out certain shouts and

funny sayings* which are called phallio songs. custom* and it continued for sometime. fashioned from a purple akin.

This was the earliest

Using the fig tree* genitals were

While the dancers were singing they wore

these images between their thighs, or a phallus bound to their necks. A goat was the prize for those singing Bacchus' praises. so they would not falter* the prize was wine.

For the dancers,

The Qreeks called these

417 games festivals.

Virgil speaks about them in this way:

For no other crime is it that a goat is slain to Bacchus at every altar, and the olden plays enter on the stage; for this the sons of Theseus set up prizes for wit in their villages and at the crossways, and gaily danced in the soft meadows on oiled goat-skins. (ICL, 63s Qeor. 2. 380-3f&.) Thus tragedy comes from the dithryambs while comedy derives from the phallic songs.

Certainly the one gave ipetus to the other.

The

dithyrambs were serious and grave, but the phallic songs sought jokes and dancing. The Dorians claim the origins of both forms. The Siciliansclaim comedy.

They say Spicharmus of Megara and ftiormus of Syracusewere

its

authors and were far earlier than the Attics, Chionides and Magnes.

The

Peloponnesians claim tragedy; they boast of %>igenes the Sicyonian.

They

offer the vocabulary as proof.

The words from which comedy takes its

name— drama, fabula, coma— are Dorian. and vicus.

The Greeks called them pajrus

Chi the other hand, in Attica the Athenians maintain poetry

was invented because of the Bacchic rites, games, and Bacchic masks. Although the chorus sang Bacchus' praises, it also lamented Icarius* and Erigones' misfortune. the mask.

Their misfortune was said to have inspired

Thus nothing about the early origins of tragedy is clear

except the chorus' song.

It contained admirable events.

characters were aepearated from the chorus.

At first only one was

separated so that he might respond to the others. third were separated.

Next a second, then a

Finally the action increased to such a degree

that it had to proceed in five acts. the first to use five.

later the

If Horace is credible, Thespis was

However some say he was sixteenth in succession

from Epigones of Sicyon; others say he was second in succession from that most ancient writer.

Next, according to Aristotle, Aeschylus

V|8 diminished tha chorus* introduced two actors* and established the first parts of acting.

Then Sophocles gave the ction a third part and was first

to use three actors in his works.

Finally tragedy reached the point

Horace refers to: Let no play be either shorter or longer than five acts. (ICL. 194: A. P. 189.) Thus you see ancient tragedy was once a simple song sung by a chorus. Little by little it changed in an effort to please. and action enriched it.

Characters' dialogue

Although the chorus' role and material were

diminished to render the poem more formal and beautiful* still poets for the most part retained the chorus. which the work flowed.

First I have shown the fount from

Next I have clarified at length how the chorus

has great authority to approve* refute, rebuke* and admonish. unhappy man. dignity.

It regrets the vagaries of fortune.

It views

It looks to its own

This is considered especially tragic and quite pleasing.

Equally important is its function when actors leave the stage.

It does

not fail to hold the spectators with pleasure or to raise the effects of tragic matters with some annoyance.

Poets often wanted the chorus to be

in the action, but especially in the place where the parts of the play are distinct from each other. of parts.

This enables us to clearly see the division

With Menander and his followers the comic poets completely

omitted the chorus, subsuming it within.

So it was very difficult and

tiresome to distinguish the five separate acts of comedies unless the text was careful to mark them with words and meaning. tinctly separate the acts. and distinguishing.

These would dis­

But this is the usual principle of separating

When the actors leave the stage or yield to the

chorus (where we hear it only), then we understand the act is finished.

419 We define an act in this way so that it is a whole part of soae complete dramatic action. same play).

Such is the case in Act I of Iphigeneia (to cite the

Agamemnon is speaking with a servant.

for having summoned his daughter.

We learn of the plan to write his

wife a letter so that she will not come to Aulis. stands in place.

The chorus enters and

The brother Menelaus intercepts the letter.

brothers quarrel. Clytemnestra.

He berates himself

The

The message arrives that Iphigeneia has come with

Menelaus pretends to seek Agamemnon's favor.

Agamemnon not to allow Iphigeneia to be sacrificed.

He urges

In Act II Clytemnestra

enters leading her daughter to her prospective husband.

She speaks about

her daughter's wedding; Achilles is agitated as he tries to conceal the plan for slaying Iphigeneia. matter.

He goes to Calchas to consult about the

In Act III Achilles seeks the king's tent.

that they have stayed in Aulis too long. future kinsman.

He wants to explain

Clytemnestra greets him as a

Unaware he wonders at the greeting.

The old servant

entrusted with the letter reveals the king's plan and exposes the entire matter.

Clytemnestra begs Achilles to defend the maiden who is endangered -

by the pretended wedding. strength.

Achilles promises to defend her with his

In Act IV Clytemnestra complains to Agamemnon because he has

decided to kill their daughter.

In a long argument she tries to dis­

suade him from sacrificing her.

Agamemnon declares it is not his idea.

Iphigeneia is to die. pleads for her life. her at the council.

With tears and lamentation Iphigeneia herself Achilles shows he was a little tardy in protecting He may be stoned by the whole Creek army.

he is not slow to fight for her safety. dire straits.

He shows

So the matter seems to be in

Since the sentence is beyond change, Iphigeneia shows

herself ready for sacrifice.

She persuades her mother to stand aside.

420 Should one maiden be safe with the resulting battle of all the Greek princes or the loss of the entire cause? changes for the better.

In the last act fortune

It is announced that when with great pomp the

virgin is led to the altar for sacrifice, she seems to vanish unharmed before the eyes of all present.

Note also the fourth act of Oedipus.

As in Iphigeneia. the matter seems dire indeed.

Or we see disaster, as

in Hippolytus or Ajax. Dire and disastrous events occur in the flioenician Kaldena.

In Act V the things which have happened are announced.

Or

the fifth act shows the matter change from difficulty to happier fortune, as in Orestes, then end most unhappily as in Medea.

This part also

contains the ending where a poet introduces a god to unfold the argument. Or it presents some portent artfully contrived. produces the danger as in Orestes. Hecuba.

Sometimes the third act

Or some unhappiness enters, as in

In that play Act I shows Polyxena's life endangered.

II she has been taken away.

In Act

When a plot contains many unhappy events, it

is necessary to present same of the misfortune before the fourth or fifth acts.

Misfortune proper to the third act does not belong in the

second; misfortune proper to the fourth does not belong in the third. Nor should the fourth contain matter proper to the fifth. Hecuba Biripides presents Polyxena in mortal danger. announced she has been sacrificed. is brought in.

In Act II it is

In the third act Polydorus' corpse

The fourth shows Polymestor coming to Hecuba and asking

why he has been summoned. Act V.

In Act I of

Hecuba blinds him and kills his children in

However in the Phoenician Maidens Aot IV shows that the message

about Menoeceus'death was reoelved; disaster..

Act V included all the rest of the

The final act nay afford no evil,

for the better, as in Alcestis.

fortune is to be changed

It may follow what pertains to the

**21 unhappiness which has happened, as in Ajax's tomb. She first act not only contains the prologue and soae episodes; it contains the plot's beginning. place.

Also the chorus enters and takes its

(I an aaaxed Seneca neglected this!)

As for the episodes and the

other parts of tragedy, I think I have discussed them clearly enough. The chorus closes nearly every act as well as the entire story.

When it

cones upon anyone's death in individual acts,it is accustoaed to sing. Certainly in the fifth act when the story should be finished, the chorus uses very brief and grave sententiae without song, as in Hecuba: To the tents, 0 friends, to the haven fare; The yoke of Thraldon our necks must bear. Fate knows not pity, fate will not spare. (ICL. 9: Hec- 1293-1295.) And in Iphigeneia at Aulis: Pass, Atreua' scion, to Phrygia's land with joy And with joy from the battle-toil come, bearing the glorious spoil Of Troy. (ICL. 9:

IA. 1627-1629.)'

The poet concludes the rest of the acts with a brief choral song, the third and fourth in Orestes.

Nor am I unaware that this distinct and

precise division is hardly found in every tragedy. discovering the division is quite difficult.

Indeed in some

I approve of that.

You

will find that Euripides and Sophocles— or principal models for imitation— always separate the parts of a tragedy distinctly and fittingly in this way.

Because a plot cannot include more than five acts, individual

characters nay not exit more than five times. sparingly done in tragedy. five times.

This has been more

Almost nowhere do you see a character leave

Nor is it necessary they exit when an act ends.

may exit at the beginning.

Actors

It is sufficient for actors to be silent so

1*22 that they seem to have loft the stage.

After Euripides' Hedea once

leaves the stage in Act I, she does not seem to have left the stage before going inside to kill the children.

This occurs in the last act.

Up until that time she seems to have stood before the doors. assume that in some act she left and returned. Agamemnon has left, Clytemnestra greets him.

We must

In Iphigeneia although Hecuba is lying on the

floor before the doors both when Talthybius and when Polymestor come to her.

This may often happen with the entrance of a new character.

The

act begins, whether the character ended the prior act and has not as yet entered, or whether the character returns from within. Talthybius enters.

In Hecuba

In Iphigeneia Clytemnestra begins the second act,

Polymestor the fourth.

Achilles begins the third act after Clytemnestra

has withdrawn. Individual acts are divided into parts which grammarians call scenes.

In these, characters act and often speak with themselves or the

chorus.

Sometimes an actor speaking alone makes a scene, such as

Euripides' Hecuba or Seneca's Megara. character endeavor to speak.

Horace orders that no fourth

Such a rule presents confusion in the dialogue.

Introducing many characters is sometimes permitted. though.

Che must be careful

You will find the ancients were careful not to obscure the dis­

tinction between characters as they spoke. speaking was dear. fifth character.

Each character's place of

This plainly happens where there is a fourth or

In comedy we find a fifth character can be introduced

who talks a little to himself or very occasionally interrupts others. Frequently in a tragic scene the poet introduces two characters, or at most three.

These may speak with each other or with the chorus.

chorus interrupts the dialogue with few words, or rarely at all.

The It does

k23 not interrupt except when two are speaking.

Where three characters act

onstage, the chorus interrupts only after the third is silent.

It

frequently happens the chorus is heard between scenes, as if it were alone.

This occurs in Hecuba: I have hasted hitherward; the pavilions of my lord, 0 my queen, have I forsaken, in which I sojourn here. (ICL. 9* Hec. 98-99.)

And in Iphigeneia: Stand we, Chalcis* daughters, near. (ICL. 9:

la. 598.)

This occurs most often in Medea. It is certainly difficult to define how many scenes may be placed in one act.

Certainly no more than is suitable.

longest in all plots I have read. seven scenes.

Act I of Medea is the

Unless memory fails me, it contains

The entrances and exits of characters divide those scenes.

You certainly see this in both Sophocles and Ehrlpides. all acts be of equal length. longer.

In Iphigeneia the first and fourth are

Other plays have other acts longer.

principles.

Nor is it fitting

There are two guiding

First we must look to what ia occurring on stage.

must be mindful of the audience. the act can be longer.

Where the audience is more attentive,

The act should be shorter where we think the

audience is bored or tired of listening.

Speaking and acting follow the

rest of things— beginnings find minds more prepared to watch. first act is usually longest.

Thus the

Sometimes it happens that middles or

endings have more action than beginnings. of things demands.

Then we

We must follow what the order

The act with the most action should be longest.

not doubt the spectators' attention.

The action itself is paramount.

Do If

the matters are most appropriately unified and connected, the spectators

k2k will not take offense. Now let us consider the parts of a tragedy* first part.

Next is the protasis.

if it were a proposition. the epitasis.

The prologue is the

It explains the part of the plot as

It shows the threatening danger.

It shows the action becoming critical.

or something evil awaits.

last is the catastrophe.

for the batter or, as usually happens, for the worse. The protasis is Act.I.

the epitasis, Acts IV and V are the catastrophe.

The danger increases The end of the

argument is revealed through the reversal of things.

these parte using Hecuba.

Then comes

Fortune may change We may illustrate

Acts II and III are In Iphigeneia the pro­

tasis includes the first and second acts, epitasis the third and part of the fourth.

In the catastrophe Clytemnestra despairs of Achilles' saving

her daughter, and Iphigeneia is led to be sacrificed, the good news about her.

finally is heard -

This is what I have to say about this portion

of my topic. Trajan. a tragedy.

Vopiscus, you have said so many things about the parts of

You have taught so lucidly and analytically.

you have left anything more to say about it. the first, second, and third parts do.

I doubt whether

Still I do not know what

Of the actors introduced,

neither the one who leaves first or most often is called the actor of the principal parts.

Nor is the actor who rarely leaves called the

principal actor of the other parts. first parts) does not enter on

Terence's Rionnio (who dominates the

stage before the second act begins.

Ha

does not appear more frequently than Geta. Vopiscus.

Undoubtedly that remains to be fully explained.

If

you listen to the prologue of Phormlo as diligently as you attend the rest, the point is clear enough.

Here it ist

*23 I produce a new comedy is Vthe Claimant," but becauee Efcormio is the and the chief actor in Let me clarify.

of which the Creek title X name it "Rionti.o,11 principal part in the drama the intrigue. (ICL. 23* Phortn. 24-28.)

I have noticed that when the ancients divided the action

Into parts, they introduced two actors to do the first and second parts. Those who expanded the subject matter to three parts introduced a third actor.

Their desire was for the principal actor (as Terence teaches)

to act the most important part, the second actor the next important part, and the third actor the least important part.

You will easily discover

in scenes what we call the tripartite principle of parts. two or three tragic actors at most converse. bears the principal part. is said to act more.

In these,

Whoever acts the most

Perhaps the actor who plays several characters

This is the case of the actor who puts aside one

mask and assumes another.

This is also true of the actor who portrays a

character central to much of the play, or who does both.

Should an

actor occupy the principal place unless he stands above all the others in his atting?

Thus Demosthenes called Aeschines the worst actor because he

lacked even the third parts! If we believe Demosthenes, the ordinary function of the third actor was to portray kings. kind had the smallest part of the action.

A character of that

Demosthenes said Aeschines

played the part of Creon in Antigone (the third part in the play). actors performed in this way*

Those

whoever had the second or third parts

could sometimes apeak more clearly than the principal actor.

The

secondary attor would not apeak strongly, as is the oase with Creon. Still he is very important. increased.

The other parts grew as the number of actors

Thus if was customary to ohoose parts corresponding to his

426 abilities.

The best actors received the principal parts:

the others

received individual parts depending on their significance to the action. As we have certainly seen, the names of actors were mentioned on stage in the order of their appearance, i.e. who acted the first, second, and third parts.

Poets usually watched this order.

As with good poets, so with

actors— the aost active appeared in the last act. this, though aagy do. the principal actor.

I do not approve of

Whoever acts the BOBt in the protasis is regarded Whoever dominates the epitasis holds second place.

The chief actor of the catastrophe has the third part.

In the catastrophe

of Terence's The Mother-in-law the character has neither the third nor the fourth part because it seems to resemble Bacchus' prostitute.

It

seems to ae I have said enough about actors, the parts of a tragedy, and the chorus. There remains for ae to show the meter used in his poem.

For in the

beginning when tragedy was a simple song in which the sacred chorus was singing the praises of LdLber Pater around the altar, then especially the poet used dance, and whatever was pleasing. four equal feet.

Since it had the most speed, it was most appropriately

suited to dance movement. all seriousness.

He used that meter with

Then having discarded the comic, he turned to

He used verses of six feet, adapted to the proper

magnitude of that genre.

He also noticed that this meter was, by its

very nature, marvelously adapted to both action and dialogue.

Horace

correctly says of the iamb: Bage armed Archilochus with his own iambus: this foot comic sock and high buskins alike adopted, as suited to alternate speech, able to drown the claaours of the pit, and by nature fit for action. (ICL, 194: A.P. 79-82.)

U2? For just ae comic poets followed the lightness of iambics,so tragic poets followed the gravity of the heroic style in speaking.

They understood

that hexameters were the gravest and best adapted to expressing action of the greatest import.

This is so because hexameters do not ocour so

spontanously in daily conversations and in talking. out by their own force so often as are iambics.

Meter should embrace

whatever material its nature finds most suitable. iambics to heroics in writing.

They are not poured

Men also preferred

Next those meters are named tragic which

are fashioned from iambs, dactyls, spondees, choreus, and anapests. uneven places they allow all the same feet.

In even places they only

accept those feet which begin with a short syllable. modes and rhythms. and elsewhere.

In

Verses use different

They often unite many kinds of songs both in choruses

Thus we designate tragedians' poems as "mixed" in as

much as their connections are not varied in the same manner.

Fart of the

time they are fashioned from one and the same meter, and that in two parts.

This may be achieved with a certain unbroken continuation.

is the kind in prologues.

Frequently they are hexameters, as:

Adsmm profectus e profundis manibus. Or dissimilar intervals, as: Ducite anum hancce forms o famulae. All those are anapests, and they perfectly include two equal feet perfectly.

Among these you may find monometers of uneven intervals

interjected* 0 sacra tellua. Didici sensi. VIsu miaerua. Praemia Poscens. Seme of this kind occurred in the chorus' entrance:

Such

428 Ad te celeri praecurri Hecuba* Pad* tentoria herilia liuquans Part of tha tine they are composed of varied rhythmic moderations.

We

sea this in comparison when some singers reply to one another with a certain similarity.

The chorus sings such kinds.

three, or more parts.

Those may have two,

We see the two part in Orestes:

Bieu. Aligerae aeripedes. Potniades Deae. The three part is in Hecuba: Mihi erumnan Atreopos. These are five part: Patria, heudolor, Ilium. Each of the two following are dissimilar.

These next are four parts:

Aura pontica aura. Nothing dissimilar follows, or if it does, it follows loosely because these lines are hardly written by any metric law.

Sometimes they hardly make

one converaio. as in those choric lines: Nondum dedisti, at foraitan poenas dabis. Sometimes poets use many parts not of a single kind.

This is especially

true if those parts are separated by characters' speeches, or if the chorus replies to an actor, of if anything completely dissimilar interrupts uneven convoraiones. or if something is interjected for the sake of praising or exclaiming.

For example:

Ihopina, mira, nova aspicio, malls. Prognata ab aliis alia contingunt mala. Until Agamemnon enters and says: Gkiatam eepultum quin venis Hecuba tuam? For the song is changed.

You may also plainly see that those meters are

Cure. 31^.) And so thay fan tha paraita bacauaa ha pratandad to ba tirad fron hia journey.

Tha paraaita rafuaad wind.

Ha ia asked what ha ultiuately

wants: [Cure.] To aat, to aat, ao ae to have a...ar...happy homa-coning. (ICL. 6l : Cure. 316.) Thus the rejected ambiguitycauaed laughter.

What tha Creeks call

hoaonymia ia also contained in this kind, i.e., when different things are signified by the same name.

For example, whan young Argyrippua said:

[Argyr.j You have lost a man who would have freed you and bean your patron, my lada. [Leon.3 Lord! I haven't loot any such, no indeed seeing I never had any such. (ICL. 60:

Aa. 621-622.)

Hare patron ia understood aa defender rather than master of tha house. This happens with Mercury: [Mar.2 I'11 soon make thaa hold thy tongue miscreant 1 [Soe.j No chance: modest fashion.

she's charperoned in nice

(ICL. 60: Am. 3J»7-3t8.)

513 Linguaa [tongue: doea not mean the same to both. Mercury saya:

In the aaae play

"I'll soon be making an exalted man of thee, an thou

decampest not."

Sosia asked:

"Itaalted?

How is that?"

Mercury

replied, "You shall be carried off on people's shoulders— no walking— once I take my club to you."

(ICL. 60:

Am. 357-358.)

And when the

soldier asks: [Ther.3 Where shall I find Curculio now? [Ca.] Curculio? A weevil? In amongst the wheat, most likelyj I warrant you will find five hundred curculioa, for that matter, instead of one. (LCL. 61: Cure. 586-587.) The soldier means Curculio the man; the pimp meant the insect.

The

same is true of Olympio's meaning fish: [01.3 Want some little dogfish? rl^ys.: What for, when my wife's at home? She's "little dogfish" enough for us— why, she's always barking. ( ICL. 61: C as. k< & .) And in the Two Menaechmuses: [Men.S.3 What parasite of mine are you looking for, young man? [Cyl.3 Brush. [Mea. j Brush? I've got that safe in the knapsack. Look! [Men.S.3 What brush is that? Che you clean your shoes with? (ICL. 61: Men. 28^ 285; 391.) With these words the meaning seems cleverly confused, and this is beyond our expectation.

The reply was unexpected.

Unless a word signifies

different things, an alternate response is of little use. power to be in the word.

Cicero very correctly said:

We judge the

"Yet the jest

arouses wonder rather than laughter, except when it also falls within

51^ some other category of the laughable."

(ICL. 3*f8 * De Or. 2. 62. 25^.)

The changing of a name (which the Creeks call paronomasia), adding, subtracting, or changing letters, or even syllables contain much conic material, aat [Chrys.j Cad! I suppose he'll change my name for me the minute he gets back, and transform me fron Chrysalus to Croasalus an the spot. (ICL. 60* Bacch. 36I-362.) And when Bacchia asks* [Bacch.j How's that? What are you afraid of? The couch's tempting you to be naughty with me? [Hstoc. 3 It's not so much the couch as the couch's alluring oocupant I'm afraid of. You^re a dangerous animal. (ICL. 60* Bacch. 5^-55.) And: cHen.S.3 Whether you are Cylindrus or Piatonus, be hanged to you! (ICL. 61: Men. 295.) The servant calls the parasite, Saturio: [Sat.3 By the Lord, sir, thou dost speak a lie, and it ill beseems thee. 'Tie no Sate-urio who arrives, but a Starvurio. (ICL. 165* Pers. 102-103.) The soldier says to the parasite, Curculio* [Ther.3 You be damned, with all your throes of throat and belly! (ICL. 61 * Cure. 611.) Moreover it may happen that the same word affords humor either by lengthening, shortening, or even by a kid of alteration, such as* Aedepol nae ille ob longis malis dedit mlhi magnum malum. Verum tu magnum malum habebis, si hie suum officiua facit. Ehimvero, inquit Sosia, praegnanti oportet, et malum dari, Ut quid abrodat sit, animo si male esse occeperit.

515 Syllables are added in this way: Ob isthuo omen ooinator oapies quod te oondeeet. Quid aetuis? ne aihi daanua in Bpidaano duas. Ipse hanoe aeo articulo aait fidioinaa. Hea iethic hoao te artioulatia concidit senex. Bven letters are changed. Aren't these witty lines? Tenax ne pater eat eius? Iamo aedepol pertinaux. Tune es Ballio? Iaao vero ego eius sua subballio Nunc ego nolo aihi e Gelasiao te catagelasiaua. There are soae words with the middle letters omitted, and all the rest reaaina the sane: Arare aavelia, quaa sic aaare. Mittaa hodie huic suo die natali aalaa rea aagnaaet maturaa. It is thoroughly delightful where adding one letter changes the meaning; Quid tu? nua aedicua quaeso es? Lnmo aedepol una littera plus sum. Turn tu aendicus es. With the change of letters syllables are also dropped: Ergo oratores populi suaaates viri Suaai accuabent, Ego infiaatis infiraus. This is the case where words have a change of one letter and an additional syllable: Atque is mores hoainua aoros, et aorosos efficit. Adding a syllable makes a verb froa a noun* and is delightful. Auribus peraudienda sunt, ne dentes dentiant. What about ohange of casesf which is called traductio, where one or aore words are placed close together?

Isn't that charming and amusing?

Studete hodie aihi, mans in soenaa affero. Naa bona bonis ferri reor aequoa aaxuae, Ut aala sails; ut qui mali, habeant aala; Qui boni, bona, bonos quod oderint boni, bonos Base oportet, vosque ideo estis boni*

516 quandoquidem Senper odiatis nalos, at lage, at laglonlbus Bos fugitaatie, qui rita succaasit bonisf Huic vos nunc paritar banaa boni operam data gregi, Qui bonus ast, at hodia ad bonos affert bona. This change of casas has a plaasnt antithesis achieved by changing tha cases of more than one noun.

Tha following lines have a comparison:

Amphitiyonen arbitror its cooiter Amphitryo Accipiet, ut dudum no met ego ilia alter, Sosia Soslan Next is an example of change of casas with one noun: Quid opus ast speculo tibi, quae tuts speculo speculum as maxinun? These changes of letters and cases are joined in this way: Trina, triplicia, tribus modis, tria gaudia, Artibus tribus, tar denaritas dain laetitias da tribus, Fraude partas, par maliciam, at par dolum, at fallaciam. In liballo hoc obsignato ad te attuli pauxillulo. Hare not only cases but also letters, syllables, and words deriving from tha sane source are changed.

For Trina. ter, tria, and triplicia are

different, but they have the sane origin. Allquid allqua aliquo nodo alicunde ab aliquibus allqua Tibi spas ast fore mecum fortunan. Those show a certain frivolity.

In these however, even tha gander ia

changed: Si quoius nunc ast, Boiua Boian terit. There are sona where the changing of the noun is twisted beyond bending. Quia Bacchi Bacchas natuo, at bacchanal tuum. Tha sane word ohanges tha character, tine, and node: Iandiu acio qui fuit, nunc qui ast is ipsus sclat. This kind wonderfully pleases whan joined with quivocation: Mihi quoqua adsunt tastes, qui illud, quod ago dican, assent!ant. Qui tastes? Tastes. Quid

teaticularia? «nia uno aat eat. Nec vobia praeaeate aliquis, niai servos Aphrlcanua eat. Here Amphitryon speaks ao aabiguiously that you do not know whether he accepta the witneaaea on behalf of thoae who give teatiaony or for ahaae. And in the Hopei Bonaa, eat, quod habeas gratiam aerito aihi, Qui te ex inaulao aalaua feci opera mea. And: Oggannia Neo gannio, nec latro. In Three Bob Day the joke is aoaewhat funny in the change of syllables in the naae: Eat principium noaini Callicias? Non eat. Callippua. Non eat. Calliclemidos? non eat. Callinicua? Non eat. Callimachus? nihil agia..* An Chaerea? an Charmidea? Hem, Iathic erit, qui iatua Di perdant. Certainly invented names are funny, especially when they are multisyllabic or aade from many words, aat Therapontiganus, Polymacheroplacides. The laughter is increased if the surname, or patronym, ia given: Ab Therapontigono Platigidoro ailite, and Theodoroaedes Theaaurochrysonicochryaides, and Nisi quotidianua aexqui opua confeceria, Sexcentoplago noaen indetur tibi. That lino contains paronoaaaia > Noaen eat lenae Multibiba, atque Merobiba. What of this expressed by sound? Tax tax tergo erit neo, non ouro. And in Aristophanes: Breoeoeoex, breoeoeoex, coax, coax. Aa Cieero saya, even the meaning of a naae can have a point when you turn

518 it to humor and tall why someone ia oalled thus. [Iycoj Greetings, Summanusl

Why that name?

Inform me.

[Curc.j Wall, whan I have gone to bad drunk, accidants occur to my clothaai so thay call ma Summanus. (ICL, 611 Cure. *flWtl6.) [Pen.j Tha young fallows have given ma tha name of Brush, the reason being that khan I aat I sweep the table clean. (ICL. 61: Men. 77-78.) [Gel.j I got tha name Qelasimus from my father as a youngster, for even since I was a little shaver I've been a Jolly ass. (ICL. 328: Stioh. 17^175.) The parasite says these about himself. [Croc.j [Gel.j

But a little later:

Good morning, Qelasimus. That ia no name of mine.

[Croc.2 Heavens,.man, it surely was your name. [Gel.j 'Twas, in good sooth. But I wore it out. Now the name forced on me by the facts of life is Nibblenubbin. (ICL. 328: Stich. 239-2^2.) It seems his name had changed because he had too little food to sustain himself.

This method pleases if the context is clear, as: [Hegio.j What was his name? [Riilocr.2 Du?atsdoubloonsandpiece8ofeighteen. [flegio.2 A sort of name applied to him on account of his only, I take it. [Ibilocr.2 Lord, not on account of his being so greedy and grasping, sir. (ICL. 60: Cant. 286-288.)

This is totally concerned with insult. [Pa.2 Very well. [Har.2 Harpax.

Next paraonomasia:

But what is your name?

519 [Ps.j Avaunt, Harpax! You lika aa not! By gad, you shan't gat into this houaa, that's sure! No harpy acts hsra! (ICL. 260: Ps. 653-65^.) Harpax says of hiasalf: [Har. 3 I an wont to snatch my foeman from tha battla lina alive: hence this name of mine. (ICL. 260: Ps. 655.) Psaudolus replies: cPs.2 Huh! Much more likely you snatched brass pots from other folks' houses! (ICL. 260: Ps. 656.) Of if the word has two meanings: [Erg.j The young fellows have dubbed me Missy, on the ground that whatever they'er at their banquets I feel called upon to be with 'em. (ICL. 60: Capt. 69-70.) The lover usually invited a prostitute to dinner, where such a one might play.

However even when the parasite was hardly invited, he frequented

tha banquets.

How humorous is the interpretation of the Punic words:

[Han. Me har bocca. [Mil.j Better you than me. [Ag.] What does ha say? [Mil.3 Declares his back jaw hurts. (ICL. 260:

Poen. 1002-1003.)

There are many more like that. Next is a line which encompasses a very witty definition whereby the force of the name mocks. [Han.2 Who is he? Which aver you want— a pimp or a Iycus. (ICL. 260: Poen. 1333.) What?

Since many words mean tha same thing (these are called synonyms),

don't they have wit? [Xrg.3 For I'm your Jupiter Most High now, myselff and salvation, Fortune, Idght, Gladness, Joy— they're all this identical I! (ICL. 60: Capt. 86*f-865*)

$20 Those synonyms are positioned and combined humorously.

So, too, they

always flatter, even if they do not mean the same thing: [Mil. j Ah, my joy, my darling, my life, my delight, apple of my eye, lips of my love, my salvation, my soul kiss, my honey, my heart's desire, my peaches and cream, ay soft little cheese— (ICL. 260: Poen. 365-36?.) [Leon.3 Well then, call me your lttle sparrow, hen* quail, call me your little lambskin, kidlet, or calfyboy, if your prefer. (ICL. 60: As. 666-66?.) JBpithets also cause laughter; either they mean the same thing or different things.

[Quintilian teaches that appositua is the correct translation for

epithet.3 These may intend to flatter, as: [01.3 ...once I get what I came here to the city for and marry that girl you dote on**that sweet, soft little Casina that works here with you— .... [lys.j Step along prettily, my pretty dear. (ICL. 61: Cas. 107-108; 854.) Or they may insult, pointing out the body's ugliness: [Har.3 I'm stopping outside the gate here, at the third inn, the place of that old dame built like a barrel, limping, lumbering Chrysis. (ICL. 260: Ps. 658-659.) They may note shaaefulness of manners: [Sim.3 I am looking for man here, a bad one, a lawbreaker, foul, faithless godless. (ICL. 260: Ps. 975-976.) Or they may intend to mock: [Milph.3 Oh, my Achilles, come, grant my prayer, graciously save that gracious lady, draw forth from the wella of your mercy, 0 capturer of cities and slayer of kingsI (ICL. 163* jftl. 1054-1055.) Certainly these lines also contain other kinds of humorous details.

In

addition to flatteries, insults, and mockeries contained in the meaning, they also have a diminutive of a word joined with a change by the addi-

521 tion of lettora and syllables- e.g., bellam. and tenellaa. bellam and bellatulaa.

But pulchram pulcher is paronomasia.

Than too, syllables

are changed in these, i.e., the Bind is spoken of as falsiloauua. falsificum. and falsi iuriua.

But I am speaking about the force which

is expected to be in the words called epithets.

Sometimes in one epithet

there is a certain witty method— auxillum argentarium. argenteaa. verbeream etatuaa. ferreum negotium.

factam

cum aanubinarium.

Genus Qeryonaceun. etc.. Plautus certainly wrote six hundred of that kind, most of which are words used metaphorically, rare words, or new coinages, for example, gaminissiaua. berberabilissime. patruissime. occisissimus, ipsjaaimuB. or compounds like legiruplo. turpjlucrioupidus. flabelliferae. and eandaligeridae. some pleasure.

There are many more like this, all of which provide

How chaining and humorous are those words;

Torruchus fuit cerconicus, Crinnus, Cerocobolus, Collabus, Oculicrepidae, Cruricrepidae, Ferriteri mastigiae. Diminutives of words are remarkably witty, whether we flatten Meum corculum, melliculum, verculum, And Mi Melphidisce, mea ocmmoditas, mea salus. Whether we insult: Ebriola, solae nugae. Or whether we mock, as in Aristophanes: Soceatidium, Shripidium. Or in Plautus: Its ut oceepi dieere, Lenule de iliac pugna Pentethronica. Not only do shortened names provide some pleasure, as: Stephaniscidium vel meum, si amabilitas tibi nostra placet, si tibi ambo aooepti simus Stephanium.

522 And in Terencet Sed videone ego Philotion? Riilotis, salve aultum.

unde haec advenit?

And a little later: Tu bene vale Philotion. Aedepol Syrisce te curasti molliter. (Here the servant flatters hinself•) Diminutives are also used as adjectives, such as Bellatula casina, mollicuius caaeus. amor blandiloauentulus.

-

Hie nonsensical is humorous, as is the useless

repetition of the same word.

For example* in Amphitryon:

Xta profesto* nunc profecto vapula ob mendacium. Non aedepol volo profecto. At pol profecto in gratiia Hoc quidem profecto certust, non est arbitrarium. In Casina: Quin suspendis te. Quin es ipsa mlhi negavit eiuB operam se morarier. Quin es ipsa me allegavit; qui istam arcesserem. Quin nlhili facio. quin me perdis. quin bene est. Quin allquid aegrefacere. quin faciam lubens. Nonquam tibi hodie* quin erit plusquam mihi. Quin hercle Di te perdant postremo quidem. Two old men spoke in Epidicue: Ego sum Periphanes* At ego apoecides. fit ego sum Epidlcus. The attractiveness of these words is aided by facial expression, voice, and gesture.

In Stichus:

Iamne abisti Qelasine, vide quid es capturus consilii. Egone, Tune, mihine, tibine. In Three Bob Day: Xhonee es? Ipse enimvero sum. Ain tu tandem is ipsus es? Ipsus inquam Charmides sum. Ergo is ipsusne es? Ipsisslaus.... We also find heu in Peeudolus and in The Hope. again, often in humorous contexts.

It is repeated again and

Also what could be said in few words

523 ia scarcely said in many superfluous words* Carthaginian we find jgggne, Egone. frequently interrupted.

For example, in The IAttle

The dialogue which follows is

What about in the Captives?

Doesn’t the

parasite spead humorous nonsense? Meum Gnatum? Tuum Gbatum et geniuo meum. Et captivum ilium aulidensem? Ma ton Ap6llo. Et aervolum, Stalagnum, meum qui Gbatum surripuit? Na£ tan K6ran. Iamdiu? Na£ tain Prainisten. Venit? Na£ tan Sign!an. Certon? Na£ ton Rirousin&na. Vide sis. Na£ ton AlAtrion. Ergasilus' swearing in Greek increases the laughter in Xatin cities. The same is true when we multipy lies, as in the Haunted House: [Th. 3 Anything new come up at the forum to-day? [Si.2 Yes. [Th.j Indeed, what? [Si.j A funeral procession. [Th.3 Ha! house.

A new one— a funeral procession leaving the

[Si. j They said the corpse was alive not long ago. (ICL. 163: Most. 999-1001.) Or when we invent absurd and the humorous details, as in Three Bob Day: [Swindl.3 I left him at the court of Hhadamas on Cecropian Isle.... [Swindl.3 To begin with, we voyaged to Pontus to the land of Arabia. [Charm. 3

Dear me!

So Arabia is really in Pontus, eh?

[Swindl.3 It is: not the one where frankincense grows, but the one where they make wormwood and gallinaceous origanum. (ICL. 328: Trin. 928j 933-935.) There are some others of this kind.

In the Comedy of Asses:

[Lib.3 Here's the way this door has been trained: once it sights some bully in the distanoe earning towards it, it bawls for the porter directly. (ICL. 60: As. 390-391.)

The last two examples have their gaiety in the meaning rather than in the language.

Sometimes both forces are delightfully Joined, as in

Curculioi [Cure.] I'll tell you. Why, because the Persians, Paphlagonians, Sinopians, Arabs, Carians, Cretans, Syrians, Rhodes and Iycia, Qobblenia and Qucsleania, Centauriattaglia and Chsnipplearmia, the whole coast of LLbya and the whole of Gtrapejusqueezia, in fact a good hand of all the nations on earth, have been sub­ dued by him single-handed inside of twenty days. (ICL. 61: Cure. 442-448.) Here several names are invented, after a parasites' manner.

And in the

Little Carthaginian: rAnta.j To continue, pimpling, my account of that Pentetronic affray when on one day I slew with these two hands aiXty thousand flying men. [Lye. 2 Flying men, eh? [Ante.j Such was my statement, sir. cL/c.2 You mean to say that anywhere there are flying men? cAnta.j There were.

But I destroyed them.

[Lyc.j How could you? rAnta.j Thus. My legions I equipped with birdlime and with slings; within they laid leaves of coltsfoot. (ICL. 260: Poen. 470-478.) All of this is concerned with a man who would have killed flying men. The ridiculous invention of names is nonsense ptre and simple: C^rrg.j Who was the wight I succoured at Weevil Field, where the coemtander in chief was Battlebooaaki Mightimercenarimuddlekin, the grandson of Neptune? (ICL. 163: Mil. 13-15.) Sigaristio shows he is crafty with the name he gives himself: Sag.j listen then, and I'll tell you: Qabblealotadori irleellerinsky Slushjabberotikin Cashsqueeseroutaki S Whatouoncehavegrabbedstein Neverletengetber. There you are 1

525 These trifles are charming, both in devised and metaphorical language: [Hegioj Bless my soul! no wonder they fight shy of it. You need many recruits, of many aorta, too: why, in the first place you need Pad-u-ans; and there are several kinds of Paduans: you need the support of Bologna, and you need Frankfurters too; you need Leghorners and you need Pis-ans, and furthermore you need every fighter in fin land. (ICL. 60: Cant. 158-164.) When the parasite speaks, he invents and transfers everything to a daintiness.

These lines are almost a riddle of foolish sayings: [I4b.j

You won't take me where stone rubs stone, sir?

[Dem.2 What do you mean?

Where in the world is that?

[Lib. j There at the Clubbangian-Chainclangian Islands, sir, where dead oxen attack living men. [Dea. ] Bless my soul! At last I get your meaning, libanus— the barley mill: where he might be beaten with ox-hide whips. I daresay that's the place you mention. (ICL. 60: As. 31-34.) Here the poet obscurely works his way around the joke, i.e., the servants are forced into iron fetters and cry out as if flogged and scourged. may trifle even with the addition of a letter, as at, bat.

Sometimes

the sport derives from the silly repetition of the same word, such

sb

these lines about a dog: [Th.2 Ibo intro igitur. [Tr.2 Mane sis videam, ne canis— [Th.] Agedum vide. [Tr.2 let! abi, canis, est.! abin direota? abin hine in malam vrucem? at etiam restaa? est! abi istinc. [Si.2 Nil pericli est, age modo. quam feta.

tarn plaoidast,

[Th.2 I'll go inside then [Tr.] Hold on, sir, please!

Let me see whether the dog—

We

526 [Th.] Yea, yes do see! [Tr.3 S-s-st1 Set out, you curl S-s-st! Get out, damn you! Get to the devil out of thie! What! You won't budge? S-s-St1 Get out of that I [Si.3 There'a no danger. Come, come, now! She'a aa gentle aa any bitoh in pup. ( ICL. 1 6 JI Moat. 8^8-852.) Without the aid of pronunciation, thia leaves us cold. foolishness ia not tasteless.

Sometimes the

For example, when we reply to a word, not

the meaning, in thia way: [Th.3 Tell me this: what sort of a son did I leave here, when I went away? [Tr*3 Oh, one with feet, hands, with fingera, ears, eyes, lips. ( ICL. 163: Most. 1117-1118.) What about Plautus' young Charinua? being foolish?

You think he dreams, but isn't he

Yet insane with the overwhelming force of love, he

doesn't think he is being foolish: [Char.3 Now am I come to Cyprus! [Hut.3 Come on, follow me, and see the girl you're after! [Char.3 I have asked for her, but found her not! [fiht.3 I'll disregard my mother's anger nowl [Char.3 I'll pursue ay search still further! Now have I reached Chalcis! There I see a host of mine from Zacynthusi I tell him what has brought me thither, and inquire if he has heard it rumoured who carried her there and who possesses her. [Hut.3 Why don't you drop that nonsense and step inside with me? [Char.3 Hy host replies that at Zacynthua they grow figs, not bad ones. [fitt*3 That’s no lie.

527 [Char.j But as for my sweetheart, he affirms that rumours reached him that she is here in Athens1 [BUt.2 That Zacynthian is a perfect Calchas. [Char.j I embark, I set out forthwith! Now I am at home, now I have returned from exile! Well, well, SUtychus! My dear fellow! How have you been? What of my parents? Are my mother and father well? So good of you to invite me! Much obliged! Tomorrow with you, today at home. That is the fit and proper programme. (ICL. 163: Merc. 937-9^9*) We may judge this humor to turn on the meaning rather than the language because what he says provokes laughter rather than how he says it. Humorous dream materials are also categorized with the nonsensical material.

The following trifles are concerned with words: Quid dare velia, qui istac tibi investiget, indicetque? Eloquere propers, celeriter. Nummos trecentos. Tricas. Quadrigentos, traaas putridas. quingentos. oassan glandem. Sexcentos, curculiunculos minutos fabulare. Dabo septingentos. os calet tibi. Num git frigefactas? Mills dabo. Somnias*

Perhaps there are also other kinds hinging on the foolish* As Cicero says, "There is another kind of joke, depending upon language

and quite humorous, which proceeds from your seeming to

understand an expression literally, and not in the sense intended." (ICL. 3^8* .Be. (h> 2. 6k. 259.) [Ismt.j I'm glad to report, sir, that your family has been increased by my efforts. [Dam.2 Well, I don't like that! I don't care to have other people's efforts increase my family. But how about all this? (ICL. 61: Cist. 777-778.) In my judgment these lines are not effective unless they can be under­ stood in more than one sense. about wine:

little is lacking from this inquiry

528 [Pal.3 Wall?

You like it, ah?

[La. 2 LLka it I [Pal.j Yea, and wouldn't I lika to taka a goad and jab it into you? (ICL. 6l: Cure. 131-132.) Certainly wa think thaaa have wit, because they are other than expected. As Cicero says, it is by nature that our own error pleases us. as if we have been deceived in our expectation.

We laugh

There are many unexpected

things in language which move us to laughter. [Th. 2 None of that taking in for met Whatever it is, I had rather go wrong than have anyone take me in. (ICL. 163* Host. 8^5-) [Bal.3

1 long to set my teeth in him at once.

[Si. 3 Qi?

You'll eat that fellow up at once? (ICL. 260: Pe. 1125.)

[Ag.3 But just bear this in mind— never yet have 1 bemired her lovliness. [Mil.j Then I'll be off to a fish pond or pool somewhere and look for mire. [Ag.3 What for? [Mil.3 For this— to bemire the pair of you. (ICL. 260: Poen. &2-2$k.) Unless the words perduetare, admordere. limare— could mean several things, we would hear nothing beyond our expectations.

Again:

[Mil.3 Want to give him something now he'll hate? [Ag. 3 I long tol [Mil. 3 All right! Clive him me. [Ag.3 Gh, go to the deucel [Mil.3 Tell me in sober earnest: him something he'll regret? [Ag.3 I long tol

do you want to give

529 [Mil.j All right 1 Give him thia same me. He'll have something he'll hate and regret both, I promise you. (ICL. 260: Poen. 159-161.) [Pal.2 How has he thought fit to go to sleep? [Luc.3 With his...eyes, I suppose. (ICL. 163*

Mil. 825.)

[Char.2 How could he see her? [Acan.2 With is eyes. [Char.2

what way, I mean?

[Acan.j Opening 'em wide. (ICL. 163: Merc. 182.) There are countless examples of this kind.

There are those which deceive

us, so that our own mistake is hidden from us.

For example:

[Jup. 3 Wait, wait! I'll swemr to it— at your dictation— that I believe my wife is virtuous. If I deceive you in this, then, Jove almighty, I invoke thy cures upon Amphitryon for evermore. [Ale.2 Oh not

His blessing, his blessing! (ICL. 60: Am. 931-935.)

Jupiter swore to Alcmena that he was taking her for a wife in place of Juno.

Amphitryon was in place of someone (not himself)whose appearance

he had assumed.

Alcmena understood differently.

[Tox.3 If you do buy her, by Jore, I warrant she'll never stay your slave for one revolving moon. [Lor.2 Gad * Precisely what I want! (ICL. 163:

Pers. 627-628.)

That very clever servant told the maiden, idiom the pimp intended to buy, that she would be freed as soon as possible.

The pimp was convinced he

would buy her very soon because of the sweet face she had.

Certainly

this language can be called somewhat deceptive, not entirely devoid of equivocation.

As Cicero says, "Jests dependent upon language further

include such as are derived from allegory, from the figurative use of a

530 single word....”

(ICL. 3^8:

De Or. 2.63.261.)

occurs with Plautus' servant, Idbanus. money for the son from?"

Allegory, for example,

Ordered by his master to procure

by his own devices, he asked, "Where in the world

Damaenetus repliedi [Dam.j Cheat me out of it. [Idb. j What awful nonsense you do talk I You're telling me to strip the clothes off a naked man. (ICL. 60: As. 91-92.)

These have been said from the figurative use of a word: [Phron.] Why, bless your heart, you don't think

my door will bite you, darling, that you're afraid to enter? (ICL. 328*

True. 352-353.)

%

[Cal.3 Why are you not...weeping? [Ps.3 My eyes are made of pumice-stone.... [Cal.j Oh, *tis dreadful, Pseudolusl Nowhere can I find her dearest wish to send back to her. [Ps.2 Her dearest wish being what? [Cal*3 Something in silver. [Pa.3 You want to return her dearest wishes in silver, when you get 'em in wood? (ICL. 260i Ps. 75l ^5-^8.) His mistress had given letters to the young lover. of him, i.e., a wish for silver to free herself. inverted, a form of allegory.

She had asked a favor However the words are

In it we may present one thing with the

words, another with the meaning.

For example, the young lover, pointing

to his mistress, said: [fltr.3 Isn't it just like gaming at a beautifully painted picture? [Bfc.3 triM what you say, ay hide is about to be beautifully painted by Apelles and Zeuxis— the pair of 'em— painted withjdgments of elm. (ICL, 61 1 Ife. 62^-626.)

531 frequently metaphor, riddle, proverb, or irony are contained in an inversion.

Metaphor ia common, aat rPal.j But just look thereI The rainbow drinks! By £ove, X believe it'll rain to-day! (LCL. 6l: Cure. 133-) [Lib.2 Xou might aa well order me to go a-fishing in the air, yea, and to take my caating-net and do some deep sea— hunting. (LCL. 60 1 As. 99-100.)

A riddle oonaiatB of a more obscure inversion of words, ast [%. 3 dad, if the old fellow discovers it, I fear he'll make the elm switches cling to me like parasites and lick me to the bone. (LCL. 61* B&. 310-311.) [Mes«3 Didn't I tell you that was the way they did here? These are mere falling leaves compared with what'll happen if we stay here the next three days; then trees will fall on you. (LCL. 61* Men. 375-376.) [Aat.] You've learned your letters* them, let others learn.

seeing you know

[Din.3 I will, if I can only repeat my lessons at school, so aa not to forget. (LCL. 328* True. 735-736.) The prostitute's maid speaks with the lover as if the custom of whoring wore a game of letters.

And this bit of wit*

[Sag.3 Ah there, ah there| of the horns. [Tox*3 Bt?

Get away!

Better beware

How's that?

[Sag. 3 Because there are a pair of oxen in this wallet. (LCL. 163* Pars. 316-317.) These were the coins he carried from the sale of cattle. also pleasant.

Proverbs are

Menaeohama fruitlessly sought his brother abroad for six

years* [Mea.3 You're hunting for a knot in a bulrush. (LCL. 61* Men. 2^7.)

552 When th* pimp ignored *11 th* insults directed at himi [Pa.] We're pouring words into a broken pot: our efforts wasted. (ICL. 260: Va. 369.) We see that same pimp when young Callidorus said: [Cal.2 Dear dearI The awful way I wasted all I brought you, all I gave you. cBal.] Your assets being dead, you now make speeches, poor fool, you're whipping a dead horse. (ICL. 260: to. 238-261.) The servant being flattered by his master: cHil.3 Why, all this blarney you're giving me is nothing but pure piffle, as they say, rian que belles ballvemes. (ICL. 260: Poen. 136-137.) The remark of Terence's servant is

very well known:

[Davuaj No, Sir, I'm Davus, not Oedipus. (ICL. 22: And. 19^.) We laugh at deceit: [Milph.2 Oh, my Achilles, come, grant my prayer, graciously save that gracious lady, draw forth from the wells of your mercy, 0 capturer of cities and slayer of kings1 (ICL. I63: Mil. 105it-1055.) The prostitute's clever maid wanted to seem truthful to the soldier. She said this to mock him.

The lines depend on their meaning.

laugh at open mockery, for example, "0 philosopher1" or: [Or.3 Oreatings, you Thales. (ICL. 260:

Aid. 1003.)

rDor.j ...you idol of the public*.•• (ICL. 163: Pars. *tl8.) [Cleoat.j ...but there he is ooming out— that pillar of the senate, that bulwark of the state, that neighbour of nine, who furnishes my husband with a place to disport himself ini (ICL, 61: Cas. 536-537.)

We may

533 And when the lawyers spoke * [Couna. 2 Nothing good of our own do ve bring you, or give you, or promise you, or, for that matter, wish you to get. cfyc.3 By gad, I believe you: such is your benevolence. (LCL. 260 * Poen. 6kl~6k3.) Thus, as Cicero holds, "The opposition of verbal contradictories Is one of the chief embellishments of diction, and this same device is often witty aa well."

(LCL. 3*f8* De Or. 2.65.263.)

For eocample:

£pero Uhy did you keep calling me father, then? [Aero.3 That's your fault, not mine. Shouldn't I term you father, when you address me as your daughter? (LCL. 61* JJ9. 587-588.) [Chrys.] ...if he's got rods on the farm, well, I've got a back on my person. (LCL. 60* Bacch. 365.) In the Two Menaechmuses the woman asked her father to be her advocate against her husband, but the father defended the man: [Vifej

Retained by me, you plead his case.

[Father3 If he has done anything out of the way, I shall, be a great deal more severe with him than I have been with you. (LCL. 61 1 Men. 799-800.) This kind contains what the Greeks call antithesis. [Phaed.j

I'm a poor damned wretoh.

[Le.2 But as for me. I've found complete salvation! [Iflrco] Farewell, warrior. [Thar.3 "Farewell," is it? [1*00] Or fare the other way, to the end of your life, if you like. (LCL. 61 i Cure. 135-136* 55 3-530 Old Bemiphn excused himself for having purchased his son's mistress and

33*» using the whore himself* [Bht.] So that was why you purchased her, young lower. Eh, old boy? (LCL. I63* Here. 976.) What about the following argument?

Isn't it witty?

CM11.3 Oh, I do, do, Implore you, his joy— and my abomination— his breastiful friend— my cantankerous foe— light of his eyes— my eyesore— his honey— my henbane. (LCL. 260* Poen. 392-394.) Young Lasbonious pitied a certain youth* [Stas.3 You pity others, but have no pity for yourself, or shame either. (LCL. 328* Trin. Jtfl.) When that same man was asked by PhiIto to betroth his sister to Riilto'i son, he rmaained silent. [Stas.3 0 damnl He said "Agreed" plenty of times when he shouldn't and now he should, he can!t. (LCL. 328* Trin. 503-500 Sometimes figurative language is used.

A young lover complains because

he did not have the means to buy his love from the pimp* [Sal.3 Veil, buy oil on credit and sell it for cash. (LCL. 260* PS. 301.) [Din.3 You girls have your tongues and talk soaked in ho&ey; your hearts and deeds are soaked in gall and bitter vinegar. (LCL. 328* True. 178-179.) Sometimes we even find comparison* [Bal.3 He feels ashamed at not having paid* I feel annoyed at not being paid. (LCL. 260* Ps. 282.) The sane word may be used in a different time context, as when two servants argue about a trunk.

The one says he knows whose it is*

[Or.3 I know the man it belongs to now, you know the nan it used to belong to. (LCL, 260* Bud. 967.)

535 The other says: [Trach.] That trunk there--I've known ita owner for a long tiae. c0r.] Bi? VhatT [Trach.3 And I know how it was lost. [Or. 3 Well, 1 know how it was found, and I know who found it, and I know who owns it now. (LCL. 2601 Aid. 963-965.) This is the ease response the rival has givm. But idly ■■ I spending tine with all these kinds?

In the usages nan

oall tropes there is alnost no change in language or figure of apeeoh which does not possess some wit. not displeasing.

Similar words which sound alike are

For example, when the wife chides her husband for being

in love though old: [Cleat.] You, Now, why are you stammering? Why are you so awfully anxious for this match? (LCL. 61x Cas. 267.) A cook tells that he is made more worthless by man's greed * [Coe.] ...nemo ilium quaerit qui optimus et oariasimust ilium condueunt potius qui viliasimust. [Coe.] ...not a soul looks for the best and most expansive1 instead, they hire the cheapest. (LCL. 2601 Ps. 805-806.} This example contains four similarities:

it has the same number of

syllables, it begins and ends similarly, and it contains,paronomasia. Words repeated to express amotion please us: [Labr.] Ah, bulrush, bulrush, you're in luak.... (LCL. 260: Bud. 523.) The shipwrecked nan envied the bulrush for being dry. [Ag. ] Oh, unelel

Oh, unolieet of unolest (LCL. 2601 Foen. 1197.)

These repetitions occur where the soldier mocked the country men.

536 [Fhron.] Ho may be squalid, he may bs unkempt, but he's lovely and ohorning to ms. (LCL. 3281 True. 93*0 Andt [Hegio^ ...and furthermore you need every fighter in fin land. (LCL. 60* Cant. 162-163.) In a quarrel, repetition may be very charming.

For example, in an

argument of servants one said! [Gr.3 You just keep those squabs of yours and your fish and your game for yourself, and leave me to ay garlic and my lot. Your lot is happy, mine is miserable. Very well, very well! So long as a good time is coming to me, and a bad time to youI [Tr.2 You seem rather wrathy, Orumio, because I am having the good time, at present, and you the bad one. But that is quite ae it should be— 1 am the man for the ladies, you for the lowing herd. line fare for me and husks for you is quite correct. (LCL. 163* Most. 47-5^.) Sometimes the beginnings of sentanoes sound this way: Ab eo ab illis; postquam video ae sic ludificaries, Fargo ad alios, venio ad alios. The last two clause structures are the same. the context are omitted.

Words easily understood from

Sometimes this is gracefully done for the sake

of modesty. [Bal. j And tell ae, did you use to— you know what? (LCL. 260: Ps. 1178.) Now certainly there is some charm in doubting: [Han.S.3 Whether you are Cylindrus or Pistonus, be hanged to youI (LCL. 61: H m . 295.) And in a question: [Sos.3 Ye immortal gods! For heaven's sake, where did I lose myself? Where was 1 transformed? Where did 1 drop ay shape? 1 didn't leave myself behind at the harbour, did 1, if I did happen to forget it? (LCL. 60: Am. ^55-^57.)

53? And in correctingt All a mistake, sir} "Amphitryon's associate" I meant, sir, really 1 did. (LCL, 60: Am. 36k.) [S o b . j

[Cal.3 He's the man I caught. [Ps.3 What? Caught? [Cal.] Brought, I should say. (LCL. 260*

Ps. 711.)

[lys. 3 I made a mistake— the bailiff, I meant to say... [Cleost.] Let you marry her? [lys.] Yes, let me— oh-h-hl 1 didn't mean to say that! (LCL. 61: Cas. 6?^; 366.) Sometimes it happens that they show they have soon returned to the road they just left,as: [lys.j Let managed to

him— good Lord, no, let me— ah, at last I've get back to the right road! (LCL. 61: Cas. 369.)

A certain pretence of error seems to belong to these words.

The following

corrections are also very amusing: [Ear. 3 Are you Ballio? [Ps. 3 No, no, but in me you see his Sub-Ballio. (LCL. 260* Ps. 607.) [Her.3 AhI'twas an evil hour for thee, when thou earnest here, thou pinnacle of impudence, with thy premeditated lies and patched-up fabrication. [Sos«3 You're wrong, I vow: I've come with my tunic patched up, not my fabrications. [Her. 3 Ha, lying again! feet, not thy tunic.

Thou dost clearly came with thy (LCL. 60*

Am. 366-369.)

Those two reproach eaoh other as if they were speaking improperly.

If

anyone wishes to appraise other arrangements of words, he will perceive some humor in eaoh of them.

538 Now let ua look at other changes of speech besides the examples we have provided.

These are also delightful and humorous.

Don't we

laugh at metaphors where one living thing is substituted for another? [Char.] ay father's a regular fly— you can't keep anything from him.... (LCL. l63t Merc. 3&1.) [Han.] These girls my daughters? So nail they were, and now so bigt Don't you see? They're tragediennes1 natural for them to be set up on buskins. (LCL. 260* Poen. 1162-1160 Vhat of that maiden who was afraid she would be carried off by the soldier? [Ant.] Oh, you darling, do please hold me tight! I have a horrible fear of kites- the horrid creature— and of one's carrying off this little chick of yours, maybe. (LCL. 260: Poen. 1292-1293.) One activity may be taken for another, as when the servant Palaestrio called the servant Sceledrus to him.

The boy said:

[Inc.] Sceledrus is.•.not at...leisure. [Pal.] Si?

How's that?

[luc.] He's...asleep and ...swigging. (LCL. 163* Mil. 818-819.) He wanted to say that one snores! [Luc.] Snoring, I...meant...to say. But seeing snoring is... much the same as...swigging— .... (LCL. 163: Mil. 820.) When another of the servants was about to leave, he said that a ship turned about t [Or.] If you're the look-out on that craft, I'll be helmsman. Drop the rope, you lubber! (LCL. 2601 Sid. lOlJf.) Either mode mqr prevail.

For example, that maiden remarks how her young

53* lover is upset and sewed to upset others. C*g.3 So even my own dogs baric at me? (LCL. 260* Poen. 123^.) Something inanimate may be used for others of the same category! [Ps.] Yes* and I had said I'd give it to him long ago and wanted to open fire on our old man. But somehow or other he smelled it out beforehand. (LCL. 260! Ps. 4*06-408.) Here the servant tried to deceive his master.

The inanimate may be used

for something living! [Pal.2 This is her despatch-boat coming out* her go-between..*• (LCL. 163: Mil. 986.) The inanimate may substitute for the animate! [Bal.2 ...was his blade a good fit for your scabbard? (LCL. 260! Pa. Il80.) This is obscene.

The animate may be used for the inanimate.

A servant

pretends to be outraged because the merchant had knocked on the doors! [LLb.j 1 don't want you to beat that door— it's a fellow servant of mine. (LCL. 60s As. 386-387.) The inanimate* may be transferred to the animate* like an old man*

For

example the slave is suggesting that the farm* which the master counted on for dowry* is very poor.

He says!

[Stas.] Moreover, sir* when every one else has a whopping harvest, that farm yields three times less than you sow. [Hiil.] Ahat Precisely the sort of place to sow wild oats* if they can be killed in the sowing. (LCL. 328* Trin. 529-532.) Or to a man like a parasite.

A maiden recognises her parents' ring taken

from her and says! [Plan.] For heaven's sake, don't keep me from my parents!

t(Jure.} Bi? I? Have I got your mothor and father tuckad away under the stone here? (LCL. 6lt Cure. 60^-605.) Something living nay be attributed to the inaninate: [Bpo

Where are the arms of Stratlppooles?

[Th.j Qadl

They deserted to the enemy. (LCL. 61* Ip. 29-30.)

I do not want to spend much more time on this.matter, but the metaphor is very witty when one of the servants speaks as if to declare the law* [Th.] What do you already hold the praetorahip? ]Th.] Well, Epidicue, there's one thing missing from your praetorahip. [Ip.] So? What? [Th.] I'll tell you* rods, elms.

two lictors and two bundles of (LCL. 61*

The liotors were

Bp. 25* 27-28.)

the praetor's public executioners.

However, the bundles

of rods were the trademark of the lictors' office, used to punish criminals But floggera punished servants by whipping, of them in the above quotation.

Not very different from this usage is

substituting one name for another. metonymy.

lictors were used in plaoe

We call it denominatio: the Creeks

We signify the thing invented by using the inventor's name.

Soeia did this when Amphitryon spoke, "Bacchus has excited you to anger." "No, today I oalled on neither Bacchus nor Ceres."

He had not drunk or

eaten anything yet.

After a shipwreck his

The same applies to the pimp.

girls fled to the temple of Venus. tried to steal them away.

He was afraid to seize them, yet he

When asked what he would do he said*

[Iabr.j Tetoh Vulcan; he's at odds with Venus. (LSL. 260* Bxd. 761.) We nay show what supports a thing by that which is supported* [Phil.j ...my darling.... (LCL. 60*

Ae. SSk.)

5*1 Or, "My desire, my darling, my life, my pleasure!1" Or on the other hand! [Fhaed.j See you how it opens— the bower of bliss beyond compare? (LCL. 6li Cure. 93.) FUrthexmore we frequently show the use of cause for effect. [Or.] Oh Lord! I fancied I'd have a wild wild time with this catch, catching it in such wild wild weather! (LCL. 260! ftid. 1186-118?.) Or vice versa, as the pimp here when the servant spoke to [Tr.3 Tell us to pound his face you, sir?

hismaster!

in with the money, will

[Mis.j I won't be bothered a bit by pounds of money. (LCL. 1631 Moat. 620-621.) The following ia alao that kind! [Leon.3 ...how I do wish I had a pole! [LLb.j

What for?

[Leon.] To whop those asses, if they happen to braying in the wallet here. (LCL. 60i As. 589-590.) He had sold asses and is carrying money in a small bag. stitute another name for a proper name. antonomasia.

start

We also sub­

Coraificius called this

It is also called proaoainatio. You will find it done

humorously, as! [Bar.3 Fhrewell, Sir Toothcracker. [Hstoc.j The same to yourself, Sir Integument. (LCL. 60! Bacch. 605.) The one threatened he would break that one's teeth; whmi asked who he was, the other replied he was the skin of a soldier's body.

You see Plautus

uses one-who-knocks-out-teeth in place of stones.

Or, if you prefer,

for fights.

And!

He substitutes nutcracker for teeth. [Leon.3 Ah there, you whip developer!

5*2 [Lib. 3 How goes it, gaol guard? [Leon. 3 Oh you fetter farmer. [lib.3 Oh you rod tickler! (LCL. 60: As. 297-298.) Sometimes many things are bound together.

These may signify the same or

something different, partly this or partly that.

They have a single

significance, e.g. when the servant calls the pimp with these insults1 [Tox. 3 Ah, there, you putrefied pimp, you mixture of mire and public dung-pit, you indecent, infamous, iniquitous lump of illegality, you blot on the community, you hungry, hateful money-hawk, you nasty, greedy, grabby miscreant. (LCL. 163: Fere. 4o6-4lO.) Or the pimp insults the servants [Lor.3 See here, you idol of the public, you haunt of hangdog menials, you liberator of harlots, you whiplasher, shackle-waster, miller's metropolis, lifeslave, you swilling, stuffing, stealing runaway. (LCL. 163* Pars. 418-421.) What of circumlocution?

Doesn't it sometimes involve humor?

[LLb.3 You won't take me where stone rubs stone, sir? [Lem.3 What do you mean?

Where in the world is that?

[Idb.3 There at the Clubbangian-Chainclangian Islands, sir, where dead oxen attack living men. (LCL. 60* As. 31-34.) This is superfluous trifling, as we have shown when we discussed foolish talk.

There are shorter circumlocutions, as when the servant describes

his master's stupidity and foolishness. [Sal. 3 Now, sir, my master is circumcompassed with an elephant's hide, not a human being's, and he has no more smioe than a stone. (LCL. I63* Mil. 235-236.) And the servant who cursed his fellow servant 1 [01*3 I hope to Heaven-—

w [Chal. 3 That you'll be carrying a chain and yoke, yea I (LCL. 61* Cas. 389.) He wanted that nan to give in* [Her.] Whither doOt stroll, thou who conveyest Vulcan pent within yon horn? (LCL. 60* Am. 3^1.) That nan carried the lamp, but this circumlocution is very short* [Cong.3 You running ae down, you? You five letter man, you I You T-H-I-E-F! (LCL. 60* Aul. 325.) He wanted to say "thief".

The other one shows this when he says*

[Anthr.3 Five letter man yourself1 Yes, and five times — penned I (LCL. 60* Aul. 327.) Because this abounds with unnecessary words, it commits the fault of perissologia. i.e. superfluous elaboration. varieties of altered speech.

We may pass over the other

Let us examine exaggeration which exceeds

the limits of truth by overstatement or under statement. much laughter.

It excites

As ikbius says, if it is appropriate, it deserves the

name of elegance.

Otherwise it deserves the name stupidity.

accomplished in many ways.

It is

We may exaggerate details to overstate a

defect t [Ad.3 ...they're so ugly that I vow I do believe they'd drive our very Venus from her shrine. (LCL. 260: Poan. 323.) Or use resemblence* [Ps. 3 When affairs take a bad turn can he make a quick turn? [Char.3 Faster than a top. (LCL. 260*

Pa. 7^5.)

Or comparison* [Chaer*3 You're up to more turns than a potter's wheel. (LCL. 61* Ife. 371.)

5M> [Pal.3 ...for I do believe there'a more humanity in a vultureI (LCL. 163* Mil. 10^3.) [Erg. 3 ...but he was even more than that to met he was my only onlyI (LCL. 60: Capt. 150.) We may intend to show cunning, barbarity, or charity.

This resembles

comparison* [T0X 3 The lover that firat set out on the highways of love with an empty purse went in for harder labours than Hercules. (LCL. 163* Pers. 1-2.) This exaggerates a lover's trials.

By certain marks comparison is used

to increase the parasite's reputation, as when Epignomus said* cEpig*] The fact is, I believe room cam still be made for one man like yourself to lie in. cPamph.3 Yes, yes, I suppose it should be done. [Qel.3 Oh, you beacon of the commonwealthI t;Epig. 3 1 you can H e compactly. cOel.3 Between iron wedges, event Just a wee wee bit of room, big enough to bed a puppy in— that’s room enough for me. (LCL. 328* Stich. 617-620.) To make an old man's greed appear greater* ciyth.3 Lord! He wouldn't make you a loan of his hunger, no sir, not if you begged him for it.... tfyth.3 Why, when he goes to bed he strings a bag over his jaws. [Anthr.3 What for? cfyth«3 So as not to chance losing any breath when he's asleep. [Anthr. 3 Oh yeal And he puts a stopper an his lower windpipe, doesn't he, so as not to chance losing any breath while he's asleep? (LCL. 60* Aul. 311; 302-305.)

5*5 These three exanples can be combined in the category of understatement* The parasite is satisfied with the worst place and with reclining between the iron wedges.

What doesn't an old man do to lose the least of all?

For example i I^Qel.] Dear, dear, I do suspect that I'm the son of old mother Hunger herself, for never since my birth have I had my fill. (LCL. 528* Stich. 155-156.) So he increases his poverty and diminishes his wealth. We may also

exaggerate by metaphor, as when the old woman wanted to drink the wine: [Eal.] Come on, quick! Pour it into the pit! Hurry up and flush the sewer! (LCL. 6li Cure. 123.) Sometimes signs are employed in the metaphor: [Ap.3 No more of him for me! Why, it was Vulcan in his wrath begot that villain: whatever he touohes he consumes entire; stand near him, and he gets you boiling hot. (LCL. 61: Ifc. 673-67*.) By exaggerating the truth Plautus showed how treacherous Epidicus was. Occasionally the exaggeration increases, as in Terence where we find an admirable kind: [Mene.] Any one of the terms used for a fool is a cap for my head, blockhead, wooden-pate, ass, leaden-wit: not one of them fits him, for his folly is a size too large for nay of 'em. (LCL. 22: Heaut. 876-878.) These fit the speaker. others.

They are exaggerated to show the foolishness of

The poorer language applies to the person being talked about,

as if the speaker eould find no better means to reveal that person's stupidity. Certainly there are many methods of understatement.

Plautus

frequently uses phrases like non nauci. non terunci. and non flocoi.

5V6 With the parasite Plautus shows there in no one whom he excited to laughter with jokes: [Sr. 3 ...not a one of 'em was even willing to act like a cross dog and at least show their teeth, no matter if they wouldn't laugh.... I'm nothing but ricin and bones, I feel for you so. (LCL. 60*

Cant. ^85-^86} 135.)

[Sos.j Good gracious, 1 don't know where in the world 1 am,... (LCL. 60* Am. 336.) [Ther. 3 I will at onoe so serve thee that the ants will scatter thee hereabouts bit by bit. (LCL. 61* Cure. 576.) With these examples there is no doubt that you can show something is exaggerated, if you wish.

Ve present these to note that they would be

considered especially important.

Next those are very delightful wherein

two or three kinds of hyperbole are joined.

This line contains a

metaphor with an inversion of words* [Mes.3 As for these fellows here, I'm going to seed down their faces for them directly and plant ay fists. (LCL. 61* Hm . 1012.) The following includes a comparison with the same changes, a repeated quarrel and naranomasia. [Biel.3 Now here's the way it strikes me, Megadorusyou're a rich man, a man of position* but as for me, I'm poor, awfully poor, dreadfully poor. Now if I was to marry off my daughter to you, it strikes me you'd be the ox and I'd be the donkey. When I was hitched up with you and couldn't pull my share of the load, down I'd drop, I, the donkey, in the mud; and you, the ox, wouldn't pay any more attention to ae than if I'd never been born at all. You would be too much for met and my own kind would haw-haw at ae* and if there should be a falling out neither party would let ae have stable quarters* the donkeys would chew me up and the oxen would run me through. It is very hazardous business for donkeys to climb into the ox set. (LCL. 60 * Aul. 226-235.)

5^7 Usually these are the types of humor which the best authors teach belong to language . We maintain that a good number of these derive from the force of meaning as well.

(We have noted the faot more than once and

can clearly perceive it in the above examples.) Now let us see what we can properly say of the modes of humor dependent on subject matter. they are funny.

There are many— if we count them all— and

Indeed they are drawn from all parts of arguments, and

they allow for all arrangements of sentences.

Why? Because those who

seem to speak wittily doubt, reply, affirm, deny, refute, grant, rebuke, admonish, pretend, deceive, disparage, mock, scorn, threaten, choose, curse, admire, and finally burst into emotions. narration.

First of all there is

This notes and primarily places before our eyes the things

which seem likely. (This is the special virtue of narration.)

Then it

presents the things which seem somewhat disgraceful— which they say is the fount of humor.

It shows what has been done in such a way that the

facial expressions, manner of speaking, and character of the one relating are all depicted so that the audience thinks they are done or taking place then.

As Cicero teaches, it may happen that what we can relate is

sprinkled with little lies or is fabricated, which is more comic, as if it were a little fable. example of this.

The narration of Plautus' Chrysalus is an

Plautus aptly shows a man convinced of the judgment

that Chrysalus has not returned the old but has deposited it in the temple of Ephesus,

fie has succeeded in preventing its theft by pirates.

ttioobulus (this was the name of the man who put aside the gold) says: cNic. 3 Could I have been snob an imbecile as to trust the fellow when his very name, Archideeiides, fairly bawled out that I'd be damnid easy, if I did trust him with anything? (LCL. 601 Bacch. 283-285.)

5W This is a funny speech.

Nioobulus foolishly thinks tho story cleverly

contrived by his servant is true. huaoroualy.

Ho interprets the guest's name very

Then he adds that tho gold has boon secretly deposited by

Nioobulus's son with Theotimus, a priest of Diana, Hegulobulus' son.

He

persuades Nioobulus to sail to Ifehesus and retrieve the gold from the priest.

That recitation is stretched out longer and is humorous

throughout.

But it has certain witty characteristics, as when Nioobulus

asked whether this Theotimus is a rich man. eh?

Healthy?

inquires*

Chrysalus replies*

"Healthy,

And he with gold soles on his shoesI" And Nioobulus

"What makes him so high and mighty?"

so rich| he doesn't know what to do with gold." thinks this is the gods' truth, and he says*

Chrysalus says*

"He's

Nioobulus foolishly

"Wish he'd give it to met"

(LCL, 60 1 Bacch. 331-33**-) What deceives the master of a house is funny, Ifeidicus relates about Stratippocles, the master's son who is returning from military service and about his mistress, the lute player. tells about the dead man who returns to haunt the house.

Tranio

Pardaliaca tells

of Casino, as if that raging woman has taken a sword to kill Stalio. servant Olyspio tells of the new bride who received him poorly.

The

He has

been beaten back by her battling because a rival servant has taken the virgin's place.

What about Brgasylus, the parasite?

How charmingly he

recounts when he begins* cXrgO Hhy, when I left here a little while ago, I went up to some young fellows in the forum. "Good day," says I. "Where are we going to lunch together?V Sudden silence. (LCL. 60* Cant. V78-479.) What Stasiaus humorously tells fhilto about the farm is not muoh different from these previous examples,

first of all, he says*

5*»9 [Stas.j Wall, to begin with, sir, whenever that land's first ploughed, why, in every fifth furrow tho oxen drop dead. [Phil. 3 lord lore us I Your farm must be the site of the mouth of hellI [Stas.3 And then the grapes, sir— they hang there and rot before they're ripe. (LCL. 3281 Trin. 523-526.) Becpunting dreams fits the same category: [Caen.] 1 seemed to see a monkey trying to climb up to some swallow's nest. But she couldn't pull them out. (LCL. 260: Bud. 598-600.) Daemones, who is telling the dream, takes the swallow for his daughter, and the

monkey for thepimp who tried to abduct her from Venus' temple.

And: [Bern.3 I seemed to have bought a beautiful shegoat. (LCL. 163: Merc. 229.) This dream contains much of The Merchant.

Amusing portents are also

related, as: [Qel.3 ...a weasel popped off with a mouse right in front of my feet. Propitious omination, that, with a largessI Beyond a peradventuret (LCL. 328: Stich. 460-461.) That parasite interprets the p>rtent this way: [Qel.3 Yes sir, just as that weasel found its sustenance to-day, I hope to find mine too. That's what the omen means. (LCL. 328: Stich. 462-463.) later in despair he says: [Qel.j I'll never trust a weasel after this, that's settled. Why, a more unsettled beast I never knew. A beast that shifts from place to place ten times a day.... (LCL. 328: Stich. 499-501.) Omens are also employed and agreeably interpreted:

550 [loro.2 As for that he-goat that's such a nuisance to you on the farm, I want him gelded, by all means. [Bern.] That's no omen, that's no augury 1 like! I'm afraid my wife will treat me as if I were the goat! (LCL. 163* Merc. 272-275.) Who doubts that recounting fables has a good deal of chum? [Ant.^ Once upon a time there was an old man— the same as I am. He had two daughters— the same as 1 have now. They were married to two brothers— the same as mine are now to you. [Epig. ] 1 wonder what this monodrama will end inr. [Ant.] The younger brother had a lute-girl and a flut e-girl that he had brought from abroad— the same as you have now. But that old man was wifeless— the same as I am now. (LCL. 3281 Stich. 538-5^^) No need to repeat the whole fable here.

The old man (father-in-law) asks

the youth (son-in-law) for a concubine and got his wish.

Although the

entire telling is delightful, there are several witty sayings.

The youth

said that the old man is close-fisted for asking the means to feed his concubine. quest.

The old man said the youth is unfair for refusing hisre­

The same wit occurs in Stichus when the parasite tells about

the auction he would hold.

Also there is the contract which beginsx

[Bar.] "Diabolus, son of Qlaucus, has given to Cleareta, Madame, a present of eighty pounds to the end that Philaenium throughout the coming year may spend her nights and days with him." (LCL. 601 As. 751-75**.) Quoted letters, of this kind have humor and quite a bit of wit. also propose humorous arguments.

Then they also digress, speaking

comically about themselves or their own affairs. men and other people's affairs.

Characters

Or they reproaoh other

Sometimes these are taken from historyt

551 [Chrya. 3 The two sona of Atreua have the name of having done a mighty deed. (LCL. 60* Bacch. 925*) Chrysalua alao tella what he would do to hie maater when he tella what the Creeks had done to the Trojans.

Since this is a long narration it

includes many various figures of speech.

Those are very short when the

youth feels he is annoyingly reproached by his teacher.

He said:

[Hatoc .3 It's a Hercules 1*11 be* I'm thinking, and you a Idnus. [lydus.3 Oreat heavens1 I have more fear of your actions forcing me to be a Hioenix and to convey to your father the news of your death. (LCL. 60s Bacch. 155-157.) [Syra3 Yes, you just be what I...want you to be, and you'll never grow old. (LCL. 61* Cist. ^8.) [Chrys.3 AhaI Your son has made a Bellerophon of met I myself brought the letter to have myself tied up. Very wellI (LCL. 601 Bacch. 8lO-8ll.) What more?

Every pleasant narration, every imitation, every bit of sport,

and finally that continuous humor in which both the characters and actions of men are said to be described, are contained in the subject matter. To show things spoken briefly and sagaciously, it is also true that we laugh at the likeness placed in the subject matter. or something like a similitude, or a comparison.

This has similitude,

The following are

examples of something like a similitude* [Syra3 But a courtesan, you know, is nruoh like a prosperous city* she can't get along by— >herself, without plenty of men. (LCL. 61* Cist. 80-81.) cAst*3 A courtesan ought to be like a bramble bush, and make certain that any man she touches gets stuck of stung..•• dAst.j A lover's like a hostile city.

552 [Din.3 How do you mean? [Aet.j The sooner he can be stormed and sacked, the better for his girl friend. (LCL. 328: True. 22^-2255 170-171.) But similitudes are very funny if something is represented by a certain likeness of things seen elsewhere? [Hem. 3 Tell me, have you ever seen a wall painting showing the eagle making off with Catameitus, or Venus with Adonis? [Pen.2 Often. with me?

But what have such pictures got to do

[Men.1 Come, cast your eye on me. (LCL. 6lx Men. 1*»3-1^5.) [Lys.] If youerer saw a picture of a lover, well, there one isl for to my way of thinking, a decrepit old dotard is just about as much use as a picture painted on a wall. (LCL. I63* Mere. 313-315.) Sometimes the invented image is shown as if it is happening before our eyes: [Tr.3 Do you see the picture, sir, where one crow is making game of a couple of vultures? [Th.3 Gracious, no, I don't see it. [Tr.^But I do, sir. Why, the crow is planted between the pair of vultures and he's pecking at the pair of 'em in turn. For mercy's sake, sir, look this way, toward me, so as to see the crowl See it now? Th.j I certainly do not discern any crow there at all. [Tr.j Well then, sir, look that way toward yourselves, and since you can't distinguish the crow, see if you can't, perhaps discover the vultures. [Th.j No picture of a bird at all do I perceive here, so have done with it! [Tr.] All light, sir, I'll let it pass, and make allowances, lour eyesight isn't what it used to be. (LCL. 163: Most. 832-&>+0.)

553 Thus the servant wittily mocks his master.

He uses the vultures for

Theopropides and Simot the crow for himself.

He is mocking both.

Com­

parisons which provide humor are done in many ways: [Cal.3 Are you ashamed of nothing? |Bal.] Or you of being shown up as a gallant that has got nothing, an empty nut? .[Bal.j 1 trust you? [Ps. 3 Why not? [Bal.3 lordI Because I'd as soon trust you as tie up a runaway dog with a string of lambs' Intestines. (LCL. 260: Ps. 370-371; 318-319.) [Cure.3 In my humble opinion, the whole pimp tribe occupies the social position of lies, gants, bugs, lice, and fleas: You are a pest, a plague, a general nuisance, of no good to anybody, (LCL. 61: Cure. **99-501.) [Tr. 3 ...and you'll win as easily as a fox eats a pear. (LCL. 163: Host. 559.) [Ast.3 Mercy me, I wouldn't think the man could be so snappish, if he lived on mustard. (LCL. 328: True. 315-316.) [lamp.3 She's a bad piece of goods, ma'am; she's a wily one. [fhan.3 Yes indeed, so it seems.... [Lamp.3 It's a mischievous, pestiferous animal she's Imitating. [Phan.3 Mercy me, what one? [lamp. 3 The caterpillar, that twists round and twines itself up in young vine leaves, ma 'am. That's the same sort of twisting twaddle she's begun on. (LCL. 61: Cist. 707; 728-730.) What of those comparisons? How wittyl [Pistoc.3 Oh, lyduB, you are a barbarianI I fancied you were ever so much wiser than Thales and here you are, sillier than a barbarian babe in arms- your age, and not knowing the names of the gods I (LCL. 60: Bacch. 121-12**.)

55*» PLstoclerus maintains there is a god Kissykisaysweetkins{ Lydua denies it.

A threatening Chrysulus mocks the soldier: tChrys.] You may have a sword, but we've got a little spit at home: if you get me roused, I'll up with it and stick you fuller of holes than a squealing ahrewmouse. (LCL. 60: Bacch. 887-889.)

Sometimes this kind is perpetually gay as in the Comedy of Asses: tCle.] You miss the point? This profession of ours is a great deal like bird-catching. (LCL. 60: As. 215.) These also include witty metaphors, as the young Diniarchua in Truculentus. [Din.2 It's like an expert that throws his casting net in a fish pond. (LCL. 328: True. 3^35.) He compares the prostitute to a fisherman, the lover to a fish. noted certain examples which seem somewhat amusing to me.

I have

In The Rope

one of the servants says he then wants half of the trunk: I>Qr.3 I've seen a kite after something, and still get nothing, though. (LCL. 260: Itad. 112^.)

As if from the example of the kite he asks in vain I cPhron.] Of course I know that you have a fiancee and a son by your fiancie, and a wife to marry, and that your mind is elsewhere now and I'm only a poor forsaken girl. I know, you'll leave me. But just the same, consider the wee mouse and what a canny little beastie he is. He doesn't ever entrust his welfare to a single cubbyhole, but has another refuge all picked and ready, if one is blocked. (LCL. 328: True. 865-870.) Here the courtesan persuades the young man to imitate the mouse and not be satisfied with a single bed. drawn from similarity.

Also an argument may be pleasantly

For example when the parasite pretended to have

been sent by the soldier, he related several nonsensical things about the soldier,

Iycua the banker says:

555 tlffooj I believe you do cone from him— you talk such twaddle. (LCL. 61: Cure. *f52.) Even the remarkable is funny.

For example* that same parasite gave the

fiotive letters from the soldier to that very banker and said: [Cure.] Berel

Look at the seal.

You recognize it?

[Lycoj Why shouldn't 1? A bucklered warrior cleaving an elephant in twain with his blade. (LCL. 6l: Cure. 423-^2^.) The same method applies to dissimilaritea.

For example, the cook begins

talking about the prostitute to an old unwilling tysimachus in front of his wife.

The cook said that she wasn’t bad.

Lysimachus replied:

[Cook] She’s not bad. [lys.] But you are! (LCL. 163: Merc. 765*) And when the parasite said: [labr.] Oh-h-hI than me?

What man alive*s more miserable

[Charm.] I am, Iabrax--ever so much more. (LCL. 260: Bud. 520-521.) The pimp asks how: £Charm.] Because 1 don't deserve misery and you do. (LCL. 260: Bud. 522.) And Agorastocles advises his servant to go home and hang himself because he will never hear words of the kind the mistress has then spoken. Milphio says he will do it when the master hangs himself. [Ag«] Ah, but I— I love this girl! (LCL. 260: Sometimes the humorous derives from opposites.

Poan. 313.) For example when the cook

asked whether he would prepare dinner for friends or enemies, the pimp repled:

556 [Bal.j I? Cad, to friends, of course! [Cook] Why not invite your enemies instead of friends? (LCL. 260: Ps. 8?9-880.) He promised to season the dinner so pleasantly; [Cook] ...once a man tastes a dish seasoned by me 1 shall have him gnawing off the ends of his own fingers. (LCL. 260: Ps. 88>884.) Many kinds of amusing things are found in reproaching and refuting. foolish or apparently foolish are easily rebuked.

The

Old Aegio has called

his servant, Tyndarua, a sower, a sower of wickedness, and a reaper especially!

Tyndarua makes those metaphorical names more foolish when

he says: [Thnd.] Couldn't you manage to slip in "harrower"? (LCL. 60: Capt. 662.) The maid who is seeking the lost chest has said it is no great gain: [lamp.] Odd there wasn't a gang of slaves in one casket. (LCL. 61: Cist. 735.) In The Haunted House the master was amazed that a dead man had come and spoken to him in his sleep.

The servant showed that his amazement was

very foolish: [Tr.] It Is odd he didn't speak to him when he was wide awake, considering he's been killed these sixty years! (LCL. 163: Most. 493-494.) The following lines are that kind: [Staph.] I suppose so! So I'm to keep watch inside, am I? You aren't afraid anyone'll walk away with the house, are you? (LCL. 60: Aul. 82.) When that very greedy old man orders him to stay in: cBiol.] ...if Xfcme Fortune herself comes along, don't you let her in.

557 [Staph.] Qoodness me, she won't get in* she'll see to that herself, I fancy. Why, she never comes to our house, at all, no matter how near she is. (LCL. 60* Aul. 100-102.) And* [Phil.] The gods are really rioh, real abundance and real standing are the right of gods, but we poor mannikins, once we have breathed out our little triflet of existence, are rated with an equal rating— beggar and lofty plutocrat alike— when we go dead to Acheron. [Stas.] It's a wonder you wouldn't take your money there with you. When you're dead I hope you'll do credit to your condition. (LCL. 328* Trin. ^90-^96.) Stasimo rebukes Philto for foolishly desiring it.

And*

[Acan.] What is it you want, then? [Char.] I'll tell you. [Acan.] Proceed, proceed1 [Char.2 Well, but do let's speak gently1 [Acan.] Are you afraid of rousing the audience from their slumbers? (LCL. 163* Merc. 159-160.) When Pinacium has said he will destroy all the spiders' work with brooms and he will discard their webs, Gelasimus said* [Qel.x Then the poor things will freeze. (LCL. 328* Stich. 3^9.) Pinacium makes that reproach more inappropriate by replying* [Pin.] HuhI Think they're in your own fix, do you, with only one outfit? (LCL. 328* Stich. 350.) These are also that kind* [Bp.] Why did he buy her? [Th.] She won his heart. [%>. ] How many hearts has that fellow got? (LCL. 61* Jfe. *15.)

558 Young Stratippoeles' foolishneaa is noted. for her heart. beaten.

He has bought another lady

Hilphio asks Adelphasium not to act so that he will get

She says: [Ad. 3 Do you expect me, my dear man, to stop his thrashing you more than his tricking me? (LCL. 2601 Poen. 399-^0.)

Ve also reproach fairly and admonish in a quite friendly way: [Pas.] There's no young man alive that I love more. [Iys.] He's a boy, a boy, sillyI fieally you know, it's not long ago that his teeth dropped out. (LCL. 163: Merc. 5*+0-5kl.) Here the thinking of both is deceived.

Pasicongma thinks she will be

a boy's mistress; lysimachus thinks that she is an old man's lover. [Cal.3 Hal

Go, Pseudolust

[Ps.] A sword?

And!

Bring a swordI

Why that?

[Cal.] That 1 may end his days, and mine! [Ps.] Why not just end your own? For his will soon be ended by starvation. (LCL. 2601 Ps. 3^8-350.) And! [Charm.] Why blubber, you ninny? Lord, man, you've got enough to pay off everyone, so long as that tongue of yours will wag. (LCL. 260I Rud. 557-558.) The parasite rebuked the pimp who complained that a shipwreck had re­ duced him to poverty.

In Three Bob Day when the old man asked the name

of the person who had given the gold, the swindler replied: [Swindl.] I must have swallowed that name unawares just now. [Charm.] It's a poor sort that keeps his friends shut up inside his teeth. (LCL. 328* Trin. 908-909.) Again we may humorously admonish in this way. servant!

When the lover beat the

559 [Plan.] Now, now, dear, don't strike a atone, or you'll bruise your handI (LCL. 61* Cure. 197.) And* [Th.] I'll soon have you in a circle of firewood and flaaea, you gallowsbird! [Tr.] I wouldn't. baked.

Folka find me tastier boiled than (LCL. 163:

Moat. llHf-1115.)

Pretence produces a wittier admonition* [Pa.] Give me your sole attention. [Cal.] My aoul is not here. [Ps.y Well, summon it. (LCL. 260*

Pa. 32.)

And* [Gel.j Where have you been? What's your hurry?

What are you bringing?

[Pin.] Keep your noae out of other folks' business. (LCL. 328* Stich. 320.) By admonishing we also mock a curse.

That is a biting admonition when

the servant asked the cooks he had hired which was faster.

One replied*

[Anthr.] I am, and a whole lot better, too. [fyth.] At cooking I mean, not thieving. (LCL. 60* Aul. 322.) We may wittily refute in many ways.

We may plainly deny*

[Her.] I tell ye, any manthat comes this way shall eat fists. [Sos.] No you don'tl I don't care about eating at this time o' night. It wasn't long ago I dined. (LCL. 601 Am. 309-310.) And* [Char.] You have thrust a sword into my throatI long 1*11 fallI

Ere

560 [Eut.3 Now, now, for heaven's sake, don't lose courage! [Char.3 1 have nomto lose! (LCL, 163: Merc. 613-61*0 And: [Charm.3 I am Charmldes. [Swindl.3 It does you no good to be, by gad, for I bring no gold! (LCL. 328: Trine. 973.) Since he has not yet stated his own name, when he hears the sycophant say he has brought gold, he makes known who he is. And: [labr.3 Bear friend— [Charm.3 I'm not your dear friend. None of your dear friendship for me, thanks. (LCL. 260: Rud. 883.) Meanwhile something beyond reason is falsely substituted for that which you may deny.

It is briefly touched on, as:

[Phaed*3 Silence!

No rough talk to her.

[Pal.3 Rough treatment, then; that's better still! (LCL. 61: Cure. 12*0 And: [Pal.3 See here!

Bid he ever draw wine before?

[Inc.] I never saw...him draw any wine, upon my... word. But it was...that way: He'd give me...orders, then I'd draw it. (LCL. I63: Mil. 8*fl; 8**?-8**8.) And:

[Char.3 ...if I'm neither here, nor in the world to come, where am I? [Zbt.3 Nowhere at all. (LCL. I63: Marc. 606.) Again: [Cal.3 You haven't got my girl Rtonioium for sale?

561 [Bal.3 lord, nol I certainly have not, inasmuch ab I sold her long ago. (LCL. 260: Ps. 3tU-3**2.) And: [Epig.3 No, but here's a possibility. [Gel.3 What? [Epig.2 When the guests are gone, then you come. [Gel.3 Curse youI [Efedg.3 I don't mean to eat, but to wash the dishes. (LCL. 328: Stich. 593-595.) This was said when the parasite asked again and again to be invited to dinner.

By saying no Epignomus mocked him.

Or we contradict, as:

cPs.3 So help me God— [Sim.3 Which He will not: unalloyed.

now comes a flood of falsehoods (LCL. 260:

Ps. 9^3.)

And: [Lin.3 Look here, you. How could she give birth to a child she never carried? (LCL. 328: True. 198.) The maidservant had said that the prostitute had given birth.

And:

[Staph.3 We haven't got any firewood in the house. [Cong.3 Any rafters in it? [Staph.3 Meroy, yes. [Cong.3 here's firewood in it, then: never mind going for any. (LCL. 60: Aul 357-458.) Or we imitate a defense, as: [Cal«3 Why are you not...weeping? [Ps.3 My eyes are made of pumice-stone. (LCL. 260: 2e. 75.)

562 And: [Epig.:] Y* immortal gods I What a man I I do believe a dinner or lunch would induce him to take the higheat place at a hanging. [Gel.3 This is how I'm constituted! there'b nothing I find it nearly ao damned hard to fight as hunger. (LCL. 3281 Stlch. 625-627.) And! [Qicl. 3 Because I am going to report your name to the police this instant. [Cong.] Why? [Ehcl.3 Well, you carry a knife. [Cong.3 And so a cook should. (LCL. 60!

Aul. 416-^17.)

And! [Iabr.] You'll throw me over that way? [Charm.3 Yes, that way.

One drink's enough. (LCL. 260! Bud. 883.)

The parasite has repudiated the pimp's friends as if for his sake.

He

has beentoo little absent,

The

and has not perished in the shipwreck.

following are of the same kind:

[Ca.3 Promised? How? [Fhaed.3 With your tongue. [Ca.3 I now deny it the same way. This tongue was given me to talk with, not to ruin myself with. (LCL. 61i Cure. 705-706.) [labr«3 Swear, yes, *nd I'll swear now, if it gives me any pleasure. Swearing was invented to save property, not wreck it. (LCL. 2601 Hud. 1373-137^.) Or we make light of extolling or indulgence by belittling the offense. These lines diminish a claim to credit! [Flan. 3 I was bora free. [Core.3 So were lots of other folks that are slaving it now. 6li Cure. 696,)

563 And a olalo to favor: [Cal.j Butt °k dear me, I'm dona for by that law regarding minors) Bvaryona's afraid of giving credit. [Bal.j Ths same law binds ma: I am afraid of giving credit. (LCL. 260: Ps. 303-30*0 Because of this law the young lover thinks he will obtain a personal loan since he does not have the legal means to acquire the money. shows the same law to be the reason for not believing him.

The pimp And:

[Bin. 3 ...forgive me for a thing I did when bereft of reason by that cursed wine) [Call.] Fine business, laying the blame on a dumb accomplice that has no tongue) (LCL, 328: True. 828-829.) But sometimes favor is slighted when it seems to be given: [Bal.] But I understand— you don't think much of oil; what wins the day with you is wine. (LCL. 260: Ps. 221-222.) For the pimp threatens to act unless the prostitute requests a great deal of oil from her lovers. a leather sack.

The next day she would be carried to a shed in

However the extolling is made light of when a character

professes what is patently false.

For example, when young Agorastocles

says: [Ag.j Why, that girl can force love out of flint. [Mil.] Qadl And that's no lie, for no flint's as foolish as you, that love her. (LCL. 260: Poen. 290-292.) Hyperbole gives that more wit.

A mistake is belittled in this way:

[Plan.3 You're talking nonsense. [Cure.j A habit of mine— that is the way I pick up an easier living, you see. (LCL. 6l: Cure. 60*f.)

[Cal.] You have perjured yourself, scoundrelI [Bal.] But 1 have stored up cash at home. (LCL. 260: Ps. 3 5 0 In making light of a faulty it is transferred: [Per.3 Why did you keep calling me father, then? [Aero,j That's your fault, not mine. Shouldn't I term you father, when you address me as your daughter? (LCL. 61: Eg. 587-588.) And: [Hair.] See how women act, will you! [Maid;) My goodness, sir, it's more to men than women this mischief's to be laid. It's no woman got her with child, it was a man. (LCL. 328: True. 809-811.) Calliches was accusing the daring woman because the prostitute substituted another child for her own, as if another woman has given birth.

Further­

more they say this is a kind of slighting when causes are imputed, as: [Bal.2 Pluto hasn't wanted him in hell is so that there'd be someone left on earth to cook oblations for the dead. (LCL. 260: Ps. 795-796.) The pimp excuses Pluto for declining to receive the cook.

And:

[Pemph.j Why didn't you invite him to dinner? [Ifeig. j For fear of coming home to go broke. (LCL. 328: Stich. 576.) It seems as if he wanted to absolve himself and be less to blame. Re­ turning home than from wandering abroad he did not invite the parasite to supper. There is also a threefold method of ridiculing. ridicule in this way:

We delightfully

565 [Hegio] Ny meals are perfect terrors, really. [£rg. j Tearers? Do you eat brambles? [Hegio] Veil, things that root in the earth. C&rg. ] A porker does that. [Hegio ] Mostly vegatables, I mean. [Erg.] Open a sanitarium, then. (LCL. 60:

Cant. 188-190.)

Fhr more delightful is the ridicule aided by using some

word:

[Arist.3 X saw you when we were both boys. [Tynd.3 Well, X see you now we are both grown-ups. (LCL. 601 Capt. 630-631.) And: [Hegio] Were you a freeman? [Thynd.3 X was. [Arist.] He certainly was not.

Absurdt

[Tynd.3 How do you know? Or were you my mother's midwife.... (LCL. 601 Capt. 628-629.) We mock someone who is mocking: [01.] My word! If you were a horse, you'd be untamable, you surely would. [Lys.] For what reason? [01.] You're so precious hard to hold. [Lys.] You never tested me, did you? (LCL. 61: Cas. 811-812.) And: [Char.] Take a dose of Egyptian resin and honey; that'll cure you. [Acan.] Yes, by gad, and you take a drink of hot— pitch; that'll drive away your doldrums. (LCL. 163* Merc. 139-1^*0.)

566 And i [Pal.2 Oh, thingI

out I A likely storyI

You saw no such

^Scel.j I don't seem blear-eyed to you, do I? [Pal.2 A doctor is the proper person to consult about that. (LCL. 163: Mil. 291-292.) We insult one who is insulting: [Char.3 A more touchy man than you I don't know. [Acan.] Well, a more abusive man than you I don't know. (LCL. 163: Merc. 140-141.) And I [Eucl.] Yes, and 1 want to know whether my things at home will be safe? [Congo A H 1 hope is I can get safe away with my own things that I brought there. (LCL. 60: Aul. ^32-^33.) And so as to mock we pour out lies, such as: [Charm.] What does your friend look like? [Swindl.3 Well, he is some foot and a half taller than you are. (LCL. 328: Trine. 902.) And: [Pal. 2 Sheer warriors are born of the women he makes pregnant, and his sons live eight hundred years. (LCL. I63: Mil. 1076-1077.) Thus we ridicule a lie with a lie, as when the braggart soldier pours out this nonsense about himself. [Art.3 I remember, sir. Of course you mean that one with the golden armour whose legions you puffed away with a breath, much as the wind does with leaves or a thatch roof? (LCL. 163: Mil. 16-18.) Often we amusingly grant what our opponent objects to:

5*7 [Tr.j You smell of garlic I Ugh, you lump of native filth, you clodhopper, he-goat, pig-sty, mixture of mire and manure1 cQr.j Veil, what do you expect? We can't all swell of imported perfumes, if you do, or dine at the head of the table, or live on the fat of the land like you* (LCL. 163* Most. 39-^6.) We politely overlook what is wrong: [Dor.2 You kindly keep your hands off of me, or I *11 give you a good sound thrashing with this cane! fBaeg.3 Go ahead, I give you leave. (LCL. 163: Pera. 816-817.) And: [Nic.j These sheep are going to give you all the trouble they owe you. cBacch.3 If you owe anything, I '11 forgive it you: keep it yourself— I *11 never come to you for it. (LCL. 60: Bacch. 11^2-11^3.) Now the funniest kind is the method of deceiving someone's thinking or

misunderstanding what has been said.

This includes many varieties.

a few words are taken in a different sense and are spoken, as: [Chrys.2 HulloI

You haven't found Bacchis?

[Pistoc.} Yes, the Samian one. [Chrys. 2 Heavensl do see that no one handles that one carelessly} you know that Samian ware, how precious brittle it is. (LCL. 60: Bach. 200-202.) And:

[Psl.j And you didn't drink, yourself, either? qIu c .] May I be...damned, if I drank, if 1...could have drunk!

£palt] Hi?

How's that?

fLuo.3 Because I...gulped it down. (LCL. 163: Mil. 833-83**.)

Not

568 Often it happens that you seem to misunderstand what you really do under­ stand* which is a certain deception: [Dor. ] Ugh I My heart'b biasing. [Tox.] Give him the— tankard. Put out the...fire, if your heart's blazing* so as to keep your...head from catching. (LCL. 163: Pers. 801-802.) Lines from Terence illustrate this kind of deception: [Fhae.2 I am all of a quiver and chill* Farmeno, at the mere sight of her. [Par.] Courage, SirI Go near this flame and you'll soon be only too warm again. (LCL. 22: Ban. 8^-85.) How sentsntiously amusing are these examples from Plautus: [Sim. 3 Know anyone in this alley, do you? asking you.

I am

[Bal.] X know myself. [Sim.] You claim knowledge which few persons possess. Why, at the forum you can find hardly one man in ten who knows himself. (LCL. 260: Ps. 971-975.) And: [Mer.] What if I should stroke him softly into somnolence? [Sos.] You'd save my life: three nights running.

I haven't slept a wink for (LCL. 60:

Am. 313-310

And: [Hegio] Bring your straps! [Box] You don't want us to go and tie up faggots, do you, air? (LCL. 60: Cant. 658.) This apparent misunderstanding persuades, as later lines reveal.

But

there is no single method of dissembling.

First of all, the man who

pretends to misunderstand is dissembling.

Then, too, the man who talks

569 and reacts in such a way that he flatters is dissembling.

For example:

[Art.3 Bless your soult sir, it really isn't worth while to recount your daring deeds to me who know of them. (LCL. 163: Mil. 31-52.) And Terence's Qnatho: [0natho3 Now he is wise; his arrangement secures his own safety. (LCL. 22: Bjn. 782.) Plautus' old Calliches deceives: [Call. 3 And a lucky boy he is— has two mothers and two grandmothers. What troubles me now is how many fathers he may have had. (LCL. 328: True. 808-809.) This concerns the baby boy whom a mother has substituted for her own after another woman has borne him.

And the servant, Epidicus:

[Bp. 3 I dislike to pardon you— but circustances compel me. Very well, loose me— if it is your humour. (LCL. 61: j£. 730-731.) He disguises what he intensely desires.

And Chrysalus:

Chrys.3 dive it here, if I must. (LCL. 60:

Bacch. 1066.)

Apparently unwilling, he takes that money from his master.

Allied to

this kind is the pretending whereby we imitate the certain opinion of our minds: [Leon.3 AhaI

Splendid!

How long have you been here? (LCL. 60: As. Vt9.)

That crafty servant pretends not to have been seen by the man he has clearly noticed.

And:

[Bp. 3 Why so backward now?

Bind me. (LCL. 61: Jfc. 683.)

To deceive his old master, Epidicus offers himself for binding. delightfully that sycophant pretends: [Sim. 3 Contempt for you? celebrated army man?

Why not, 1 being a (LCL. 260:

Ps. 917.)

How

570 At his master's greeting Pseudolua aayai [Si. 3 Ah. Pseudolusl

And what are you doljig?

^Pa. 3 Standing here in the attitude you note. (LCL. 260: Pa. 457-) What about this rebuke!

How beautiful is the pretence!

[Tr.] You touched that door? [Th.j Touched it, yea!

And pounded it!

[Tr.] Oh, ay God! [Th.3 What's the matter? [Tr.j Lord, what an awful act! (LCL. 16?:

Most. *»55-**56.)

When the pimp spoke, the girl in The Persian wittily pretended to be vexed: [Dor.3 But I'm asking you what your country is. [Daugh.3 What should it...be, if not the...one I'm in now? (LCL. 163: Pers. 635-636.) A pretence may be mocked by pretence, much to our amusement: [Cal*3 Could I rook my father of anything, when he's such a canny old soul? And besides, even if I could, filial affection forbids. [Bal. 3 I understand. Then at night just hug that filial affection, instead of Phoenicium. (LCL. 260: Ps. 280-292.) Ballio pretends he believes in the piety Calldorus pretends to. dissembling to a dissembler he mocks.

By

Truculentus becomes threatening

to Astaphium because she painted her cheeks red so prettily: [Ast.3 Oh dear me! you yelled so.

Why, I merely blushed because

[True.3 Hey? Blushed, did you? As if you'd really left room for colour on any part of you, you wicked girl. You've daubed your cheeks with red chalk and the rest of you with white clay. (LCL. 328: True. 291-29**.)

571 Through pretence Terence's Parmeno end Gnatho wittily mock each other, [Gnatho] You don't see anything here, do you, that you'd rather not? [Par.] You. [Gnatho] Quite so, but not anything else? [Gnatho3 Don't you think Thais will be mightily pleased with the gift? [Par.] You mean to imply that we are not turned out: look here, it's a world of ups and downs. (LCL. 22: Bin. 272j 275-276.) Then other charming things of that kind follow.

When the servant is

mocked by the parasite's deception, he yields with some pretending: [Gnatho] In that case do me a small favour; get me admitted to the lady there. [Par.] On with you, go for yourselff for the moment the doors are open to you since you bring the lass there. (LCL. 22: Bm. 281.282.) These lines are close to what has a veiled suggestion of the humorous, as in Plautus: [Art.] Is there nothing you're ashamed of? [Lem.] Oh Lordl You make me ashamed, my dear, if nothing else would. (LCL. 60: As. 953.) Let me explain with Quintilian's words:

"Indeed the essence of all wit

lies in the distortion of the true and natural meaning of words:

a

perfect instance of this is when we misrepresent our own or another's opinions or assert some impossibility.?

(LCL. 125:

depicts someone else's belief in Amphitryon.

Inst. 6.3.89.) Sosia

He is speaking to Mercury:

[Mar.] The face that thou shalt smite in earnest is bound thereafter to be boneless. [Sos.] Sure enough ■ lttraro*

he's reckoning on boning me like (LCL. 60: Am. 318-319.)

572 The sane la seen in Oripus, the fisherman, from the Rone.

A servant who

was arguing with him about the trunk said: cTrach.] If that fellow's yours, sir, kindly plug him up. ^Or.j So? Heat me to be handled the same way your master handles you, eh? Yours may be used to plugging you up, but ours doesn't use am that way. (LCL. 260: Hud. 1073-1075.) Charmides attentively listens to Imbrex complaining that he has been shipwrecked.

He looks forward to great profit if he can arrive in

Sicily with prostitutes. [Charm.] So you counted on swallowing down the whole island of Sicily at one gulp, you dirty beast? (LCL. 260 s Rid. 5^3-5^.) The same method is in the Two Menaechmuses1 [Doctor] ...do you ever experience a sensation of hardness in the eyes? [Men. ] What? You good-for-nothing, do you take me for a lobster? (LCL. 61! Hen. 9 23- 92 0 And in Truculentus i [Aat.] Yourself now— while you lived I knew you. (LCL. 328* True. 165.) These last examples are peevish in that our own conviction is dissembled. The device is added to what we have said about pretending.

In The Comedy

of Assest [Trader] No one has touched it yet.

Are you in your senses?

[Lib. ] Well, I was thinking you had touched it, seeing you were making this way. I don't want you to beat that door— it's a fellow servant of mine. (LCL. 60s As. 385-387.) In Pseudoluas cfial.] Am for your present wail that you have no money, yout*re complaining to a stepmother.

573 cPls. 3 I My!

Were you ever his father's wife? (LCL. 260i Ph. 313-31**.)

In The Bone* pQr.a What? before?

You never heard tell of the trunk-fish (LCL. 260:

Rid. 993.)

Traohalio asked Oripus to show him what a trunk-fish may be.

And 2

flabr.3 How are you feeling? fOr.j See here, you! medical line?

Tell me this, are you in the (LCL. 260*

Rid. 130*+.)

Conjecture is quite close to this, as in The Braggart Warrior: [Per.3 He's tapping his ohest with his fingers. Intends to summon forth his intelligence, I suppose.... [Arc.;] You could have made a fine clairvoyant, for what you say will all come true. (LCL. 163: Mil. 202; 911.) And in The little Carthafif niaw1 [Mil. j Yes, and I take it they have no fingers on their hands. [Ag.j How's that? [Mil.] Well, here they are with ring-arrayed ears. (LCL. 2601 Poen. 98O-98I.) The servant ridicules the Carthaginians1 appearance.

There are those

which we may speak softly, patiently, calmly at first, then with deception, as in Amphitryon< cMar.j He needs a lusty load of buffets. C&OS.3 Oh lord! and me all done up with that sea trip home! I'm seasick even now.... [Mer.2 Speak up, why earnest thou? [Soe.2 Just to give you some one to punch, air. (LCL. 6O 1 Am. 328-329* 377.) Then even without pretence, as in The Bone:

57* [Deem.j What will you do if they do step over your way? [Imbr.] I'll step— a-way. (LCL. 2601 Rud. 788.) It might be thought he would eay this with anger.

What?

How amueing ia

it when we seem to have mildly replied to a rather serious matter.

For

example, in The Persian: cSag.3 Oh* go to hell! fPaeg.j But you go home! You'll find hell there all warmed up awaiting your appearance. (LCL. 163: Pare. 287.) It is also pleasant when flattering speech is peevishly mocked, as in The Idttle Carthaginiant [Ad. 3 So even my own dogs basic at me? [Ag.3 Qad, then, just you pet them! Try me with a nice long kiss for a tid-bit, and let's have your tongue for a bone. Do that, and I'll make this dog of yours milder than olive oil. (LCL. 260: Poen. 123^ 1236.) Frequently what is said peevishly and ill-humoredly has charm, as in The Captives: [Hegio3 Now be truthful, and you'll be acting to your own advantage and make a bad prospect somewhat better.... [Stal.j Rot!

Don't you suppose I know what I deserve? (LCL. 60: Cant. 959 ; 969.)

In Casing: [01.3 I hope to Heaven— [Chal.2 That you'll be carrying a chain and yoke, yes! (LCL. 61: Cas. 388-390.) And in The Little Carthaginian when the servant begged his master's mistress not to be angry with him: [Mil.] ...get a rope and hang yourself, you and your master and your whole household! (LCL. 260: Been. 398.)

575 In The Pot of Gold tho statement was more moving because although it was fretful, it was not said by a fretful persons C&icl.3 It is surprising Providence wouldn't make a King Philip or Darius of me for your benefit, you viper, you! (LCL. 60s Aul. 85-86.) Old Staphyla said there was nothing in the house worth keeping.

But

genuine persuasion occurs when a person convinces another of something. Braggart soldiers usually do this.

It is very funny.

[Pyrg.] It really is such an affliotion to be so handsome. (LCL. 165s Mil. 68.) Here he believes he is so handsome that he is convinced there is no woman who does not burn with love for him.

Pretences that are suspect

are ridiculed, as in The Pot of Gold: [Biel.3 When he agrees to give he wants to grab! Mouth wide open to gobble down my gold! [Ehcl.j He's got a whiff of my gold. (LCL. 60* Aul. 194? 216.) A greedy, suspicious Xfciclio rashly surmises about Megadorus who is asking to marry the old man's daughter.

In this category nothing is so

effective as the wholly unexpected rejoinder. countless examples of this. to irritate.

In Plautus alone we find

Some are mere replies; others are designed

These lines are intended to irritate*

CPal.j It's a dog she ought to be by rights; she has a keen scent, anyway. (LCL. 6lt Cure. 112.) These refer to the drunken old woman who was amailing the intense sweet scent of old wine.

And*

[Gr.3 Than, by gad, you ought to catch it from the gods, whoever you are, for cooping up your parents in such narrow quarters.

(LCL. 260* ftid. Il*n6-ll*t7«)

576 The girl looking at tha casket says: [Pal. 3 It 1st Oh, my dear parents, here I hold you enclosed withinI (LCL. 2601 ftid. l l M O These are examples of unexpected responses: [Phaed.3 What did you ever see, what will you ever see, more comparable to the gods than I am? [P&l.] You're in a bad way, I see that, and I'm sorry for it. (LCL. 6l: Cure. 168-169.) And: How looks my love to you now? [Mil.} Like a financial loss— which Mercury doesn't love in the least. (LCL. 260: Poen. 327.) And when the cook asks: [Strob.] Now aren't you doing me an injury? [Eucl.] I am, a hideous injury— in not hanging you. (LCL. 60: Aul. 6^3.) When Qelasimus questions, Pinacium replies: jjOel.3 Can't I get the truth out of you? [Pin.3 You can— to-day you eat no dinner. (LCL. 328: Stich. 32*f.) You will also discover lines which have the force of both.

You may both

irritate and reply unexpectedly: [Leon.3 But— this lady you're hugging isn't smoke, is she? tArgyr.j Smoke?

Why so?

[Leon.3 Well, your eyes are watering.... (LCL. 60: As. 619-620.) And: [Rian. 2 la I la! [Pin. 3 Why?

How my eyes bum.

577 [Phan. ] Too much hot air here. (LCL. 163:

Moat. 890.)

Andt [Sim.3 Sh-hl

Shut up.

The house is gaping.

[Ps.] It's a house that's feeling ill, I fancy. [Sin.] How so? [Ps.] Because it's spewing

'

*

gadl

This is also witty and amusing! [Syn.] Something seldom accomplished by adulterers, once they're caught. [Mil.] What is that? [Syn.] Taking my utensils home intact. (LCL. 260t Poan. 862-863.) When you substitute something unexpected for what you deny it is more biting: [Sos.] Sir, I hoped she was going to bear you a son; but it's no child she's got. [Amph.] What, then? [Sos.] A crazy streak. (LCL. 601 Am. 718-719.) Afterwards what was said unexpectedly is humorously corrected: [Idb.] Go on, sir, go onl

Hawk it way upl

[Dim. ] Will that do? [Lib.] Go on. sir, for God's sake, way from the bottom of your gulletI Parther down still, sir! [D*n. ] Ah?

How far?

fldb.j To the door of death, I hope. [L«u ] Kindly look out, my man, look out I [Idb.] Your wife's, sir, I mean, not yours. (LCL. 60! As. 40-Jf3.)

578 That old man hated hia wife.

In this kind we use nartitio.

For example,

when the pimp addresses the servanti [Bal.j It*11 do you good to have me dead. [Pa.3 Pray how? [Bal.] I'll tell youi because so long as I'm alive and live, by gad, you'll never amount to anything. Once I was dead, there'd be no one in Athens more utterly useless than you. (LCL. 260: Ps. 336-338.) In The Little Carthaginian the servant Milphio used definition In this way: [Mil.2 This girl's a cook, Agorastocles, a cook, I do believe: knows all about soaking pickled fish. (LCL. 260: Foen. 2 Faveatque choris, procul absitque profanus, et expers choricorum. It is not easy for me to define the number of verses here. find it has no more than twenty, no fewer than ten.

Usually we

In meters and

rhythms it resembles the song from which it originated.

This part and

the previous part of the chorus (antistrophe and strophe) from which it had derived are not produced by verse and meaning of the same kind, as frequently happens.

Why would it have begun to call the gods in the

Clouds. Knights, Peace, and Birds? It completed one entire part of that, turned back to the audience, and proceeded to something else. By repeating, it completed the same verse form in an equal and identical number of verses.

Still it sometimes happens that the chorus persists in

the same material when it again faces the audience, as it did in the

609 previous song.

You find this in the Achamians and in the Wasps.

In

the Wasps the entire transgressio seems concerned with noting Athenian morals.

Again in the later song the chorus either admonishest complains,

or excites.

This section compares with that which had touched on the

method of disparaging, accusing, and teaching.

Just as it is made from

the same number of verses of the same kind, so each part is concerned with nearly the same kind of matters. about how to restore the republic.

In the Clouds the strophe advises

In the antistrophe it teaches that

the Athenians are in error who do not use lunar cycles to mark sacred days and business days.. The chorus quietly mocks what men believe about the gods.

In the strophe it slanders Cleon, in the antistrophe Hyperbolus.

Therefore the perfect transgressio includes seven parts, while the in­ complete has fewer.

Still if it lacks nothing more than we said is

presented in the digression, it will be nearly complete, as in the Cloudst [Ch.3 0 Spectators, I will utter honest truths with accents free.... (LCL. 178: Nu. 518.) That entire part is trochaic. It may happen that an incomplete transgressio has only one part. In the Clouds when the actors leave the stage in Act III, the entire transgressio is contained in a single song, generally consisting of trochaics.

It is the fifth of seven sections.

varieties of the transgressio.

In the IVogs the first part of the

first transgressio is anapestic. and different from each other.

Now there are more

There are other varieties, simple

Before entering on these songs, the

chorus has sung a piece intended to invoke Bacchus. have four parts.

A transgressio may

Of those which form pairs with each other, we have

the second part in the IVogs and the Birds, the fourth in the Knights

610 and the Peace.

In Peace the first transgressio has five parts.

first three are different from each other. verses not of the same kind.

What follows consists of

They continuously reply to each other

using a corresponding comparison.

A transgressio may be bipartite.

In the Birds the fourth has parts equal to each other. is a three-part transgressio.

The

In the Achamians

Here a number of little verses of one kind

are sung first in a song which has a comparison. Next, young men, I want you to notice that this incomplete transgressio Is made from a song of mixed verse-forms. true when the song is simple or paired. from the song complete in itself.

This is especially

It functions differently

In the finished fourth act of the

Clouds the chorus uses language intended to annoy.

This is absurd when

it predicts what will happen.

In the third act of the Frogs is a simple

song, but of four equal parts.

Here the chorus warns of a future battle

among tragic poets and mocks them.

In Act II of the Knights the song is

divided into six parts, and the chorus insults Cleon.

The chorus sings

a simple song in Act IV of the Frogs, where one of its strophes praises Aeschylus and accuses Socrates of being garrulous.

In the third act of

the Achamians the chorus presents the appearance of its part.

It con­

sists of trochaics and occupies the fifth place in a complete transgressio. That in Act IV of the same play is identical.

And the third act of the

Wasps provides a three-part kind in which some verses of one form are sung first, with the appearance of a digressio intended to censure harshly.

Finally in the finished fourth act of both the Wasps and the

Birds you will find a two-part paired song.

There the chorus not only

notes the amount of difficulty involved in changing the present way of living into the older way, but it also commends the prudence of young

611 Philocleon.

He is opposed to philosophers.

In the third act of the

Birds the chorus criticizes Cleonyrous' vices in a two-part song as well. You even find this in an incomplete transgressio in seven parts. fifth is presented in little verses* as in Peace.

The

These have three

trochaics and individual lines of four feet (when the actors have left after the fourth act). Thetus.

Pomponius, if I correctly understand what you have

prescribed, you seem to have taught that every act in a comedy ends with the transgressio of the chorus, except the last act. Pomponius. Thetus.

Why not? Or does it seem otherwise to you?

I am not yet clear whether there was,a transgressio which

lacked either anapestics or trochaics.

After all, the comic poet himself

says that in the chorus' movements he presents anapests. Pomponius.

I would not have you doubt that this has been said

about the true and complete transgressio. can not use another kind of poetry.

In that which is incomplete you

This is called a transgressio.

although less appropriately, because in it the chorus turns Itself from the proscenium to the theater. kind proposed.

It then miters on material outside the

It, too, deserves to be called by that name.

Now let us turn to the other varieties of choric materials.

We

now recall that the chorus is said to sing first in that three-part song. In it the metrically varied precedes the metrically uniform.

You find

this true in the Frogsi those in the chorus urge one another to sport and dancet tCh.j Now wheel your sacred dances through the glade with flowers bedight, All ye who are partakerB of the holy festal rite, (LCL. 179: Ra. MfO-Wf.)

612 Thia song is varied when the chorus sings a metrically different song interjected between the metrically uniform as in the Achamians: [Ch.3 Quid agis? Quid ais? What will you say? What will you do? (LCL. 178s Ach. ^91.) Next a song is substituted when the different follows the uniform, as in the Birds! ^Ch.3 Junonem ad saturaniam Coelestibus intectie Hegi Deum maximo Paraae comites fuc Be huiusmodi hymenaeo. Mid just such a song hymenaeon Aforetime the Destinies led The King of the thrones empyr6an, The Buler of Gods, to the bed Of Hera his beautiful bride. %men, 0 Hymenaeus! (PPL. 179* Av. 1731-1736.) But if the previous song is added to this song, that would be the kind which occurs whentthe similar songs are joined with the dissimilar by interspersing them. these kinds.

When the chorus enters in the Achamians,it sings

It sings between strophe and antistrophe and unites the

last lines of one with the first of the other.

It sings the first among

themselves; then it sings the dissimilar materials with what has been interjected.

The Greeks call this song a paroedia.

Also the method of

singing some materials first, of singing in between, and of joining the song is noted. Once there was a custom among the Greeks (which Carbo would better discuss when he comes to lyric poetry) to distinguish the parts of poems by drawing certain lines.

Comic poets particularly use three of these;

they are used in tragic poetry as well. line.

The first is a simple straight

The second is a double line, joined by a single angle which bends

in or out.

The third line is curved and bends inward (}). A song which

includes the speeches of characters (we would emphasise this in addition to the choric material that separate the episodes) is written in the same verse down to the period.

Or it has a little appendage of a different

kind* and that is either singlef double, or even occasionally triple where the verse is extended further.

Sometimes the marks are combined.

The straight simple line, then, designates first the conversations of characters among themselves. are noted.

Next, then, different individual observations

It even marks the choric speech, which would be different.

The place of the twisted curved line is where we find the end of what is an absolutely complete song, of a single kind, uniform throughout without an addition of little verses.

This occurs either when the actors enter the

theater, when they have left, or when the scene is changed.

Thus this

marie distinguishes between individual acts and individual scenes.

This

mark also ends a simple choric song, a multiple complete song, and however many sentences or strophes it includes.

This mark ends whatever

has a certain continuous pairing and whatever the song is joined to.

The

double line, which is joined by an external point, prescribes the limits of any song where there is no place for the curved line. A chorus rarely enters after it.

In songs written in pairs the first strophe will be

noted by a line slanting inwardly if something dissimilar were to be interjected.

A double line slanting outwardly ends the other stanza

which seems to echo the first.

Two sets of double lines are used— one

before the beginning, the other at the end of the last verse.

This may

happen again and again where many different sentences are connected, e.g., when a straight line is used in all the rest, the line is doubled for the last.

The same is true for additions.

Certain appendages of little

verses accompany a song of this kind which the double line joined by an

614 external angle ends.

The twinned double line signifies this.

Therefore

a choric song interrupted by actors' conversations may follow either a double or a curved line.

It will be said to be joined.

precedes, it will be said to be sung before.

But if the song

But if it holds a place

between each line or between two lines whether they are duplicates or curved, the song will be said to sung between. this by examples.

It is superfluous to show

One may easily find it in Old Comedy.

Also in this kind when a chorus sings first, sings between, or joins its song, it mocks at one time, admonishes at another; it reproaches at one time, praises at another.

First it invokes, then it prepares to

listen to itself, then it does what the place calls for.

Son&of this

kind may be sung simply; yet sometimes they are sung in pairs.

You may

find them, as in the Frogs, when the actors have not yet left the proscenium in Act. IV: [Ch.3 Dread the battle, and stout the combat, mighty and manifold looms the war. (LCL. 179: Ra. 1099.) You find these interrupted by the actors' words, as in the Knights, when the characters have again entered on stage: [Ch.3 Let out the yard-arm ropeB a bit. The gale has milder got. (LCL. 1?5: J&. V*0.) You will find it in a three-part song, which we show is written in pairs. First aivmotor has part of the following song as in the last act of the Birds: [Ch.3

Hymen, 0 Hymenaeus I Hymen, 0 HymenaeusI

[Pei.3 I delight in your hymns, I delight in your songs.... (LCL. 179: Av. 17*+2-17Mf.)

615 Then the lines preceding the chorus' song as in Act II of the Frogs: [Ch.] And I will with the women and the holy maidens go Where they keep the nightly vigil, an auspioious light to show. (LCL. 179: Ra. Mt6-H9.) Finally the chorus

Ib

said to leave when it sings at the end of all the

action and the ending of the material, as in the Cloudst [Ch.] Lead out of the way: for I think we maysay We have acted our part very fairly to-day. (LCL. 178: Nu. 1509-1510.) And so it was customary for the chorus to follow behind the departing actors.Aristophanes

shows this in Plutus:

[Ch.] 'Tis the end of the Flay, and we too must delay our departure no longer, but hasten away, And follow along at the rear of the throng, rejoicing and singing our festival song. (LCL. 180: PI. 1208-1209.) And in the Achamians: [Di.] And ye must follow in my wake, And sing for Victory hoi

sing hoi

[Ch.] 0 yes, we'll follow for your sake Your wineskin and yourself, I trow. Sing hoi for Victory won, sing hoi (LCL. 178: Ach. 1231-1252.) However the "tenella" belonged to Archilochus.

To Aristophanes it was

the imitation of his sound beautifully played on the flute to signify victory.

Still it was not customary for the members of the chorus to

dance when they left.

(They danced who: they entered.)

Yet in the Wagps

they urge eaoh other to dance when they are leaving, and they portray the manner of tragic dance. Cossua.

They call this song of the chorus the exodium.

Now I seem to clearly understand.

Cratinus maintained

that the exodium had modes of singing to the flute and had flute players which the chorus used when it left.

The eocodium is closely related to

Atellan fables, which are said to be certain humorous songs.

According

6i6 to ancient custom youth bantered these back and forth when the actors departed. Pomponius.

Cossus, you have undoubtedly clarified that misunder­

standing of those who misinterpreted these lines from satyr-drama: ’’Finally the customary exodium returns to the platform."

And*

"The

street poet provokes laughter with the Atellan exodium." But let

us return to the point from which we have digressed.

Sometimes the

chorus is split in half and sings.

is divided in

half, one part sings by exhorting the other.

and Birds they reply to

In the Frogs when it In theWasps

each other with alternating songs.

In the

Achamians when one part disapproves and is indeed indignant over an actor's words, the other part approves and willingly listens. is those in the chorus seem to argue with each other.

The result

Although it is

certainly proper for choric material to be sung at the end of an act, sometimes the chorus sings between stage dialogue before the act is finished.

You find this in the Frogs when the chorus calls the Muses

to view a contest of poets.

That choric material we call transgressio

is quite often sung with a flute. the Birds,

Aristophanes himself teaches this in

though about the chorus.

You clearly understand the rest

which Vopisous discussed. The last part of the whole comedy— when the actors exit— is called the exodus.

There are those who want this to be nothing other than that

choric material which we have shown is called the exodium.

Perhaps we

ought rather approve of these who also include in this part the end of the entire action.

In New Comedy the chorus has no place.

is divided into stage dialogue and songs. the actors themselves employ.

The comedy

Stage dialogue is that which

Cantica are accompanied by flute when the

617 actors are not on stage.

These achieve variety in three ways.

When

choric songs were utterly abandoned, solos were left to comic poets in order to delight the audience.

They seem to have originated in the theater

to fill the gap when the actors left the stage.

Until the actors returned

on stage, the flute players used to entertain the audience with song. Plautus' Pseudolus illustrates this with these little verses: [Ps.3 ...I'd like to retire, myself, for a bit inside, and hold a mental muster of ray hocuspocus. I *11 soon be back, though, and won't keep you waiting. Meantime you'll be entertained by the fluteplayer here. (LCL. 2601 Ps. 571-57*+•) finally we should observe that division whereby a comedy is divided into five parts: Let no play be either shorter or longer than five acts.... (LCL. 19*+: A. P. 189.) Horace taught this, as Vopioous had adequately explained. intend to retrace what Vopiscus extensively discussed and dividing stage action. both comic and tragic poets.

about distributing

The same principle of division applies to Choric materials followed the individual

acts of Old Comedy and tragedy, to divide the acts.

Here I do not

later poets interjected the cantica

These were borrowed from a different art in place of

choric materials which had been entirely annulled by law.

The dialogue

of an individual act— usually called a scene— is divided into no more than ten, no fewer than two scenes. made up of a single seme.

Rarely does it happen that an act is

In the dialogue we should be careful that a

fourth character does not try to speak.

We should be even

that a fifth character does not try to speak (for you fifth character usually walks on).

more diligent willfindthat a

Vopiscus taught the same thing.

the cantica critics prefer that only a single character be used.

In

If

there are two, one would so listen in private that hb is quiet exoept when

618 it is necessary that he converse. There were many kinds of flutes, some in pair, some of different lengths, both treble and bass. had a sharp sound. serious matters.

Poets used the bass in jokes becuase they

They used the treble to produce a grave tone for Then they combined the two.

When the flautist who

played the melodies announced the name of the writer and the actor in the beginning, the audience perfectly knew what kind of play it was about to watch.

Bass flutes signaled a funny comedy.

Treble and bass

signified the play was a mixture of the humorous and the serious.

Thus

you will find a notation in plays telling us in what games the plays were acted, at what time, who the actors were, who composed the music, and who played the flutes. Scortianus. It seems to me, Pomponius— and I do not hesitate to interrupt you so that you may leave nothing doubtful--that the division of comedy into cantica and dialogue is lessened and incomplete.

Or

shouldn't Terence's prologue be counted among its parts? Or Plautus' Grex giving the people permission to leave?

Neither of these belongs

with the stage dialogue or the canticaI Pomponius.

Why not?

about omitting this.

ScortianuB, you have done well to warn me

In Old Comedy the chorus makes an exodus.

Comedy often Plautus' Grex and Terence's cantor make it. an actor frequently performs the function.

Why an actor?

In New

Of both these Would you

agree that those cantica pertain to the form of the action occurring on stage instead of standing apart in the comedy— if you observe the poetic faculty? entirely.

Indeed an artigt other than a poet may produce these

Is there anything in Terence's or Plautus' plots which de­

pend on the cantica?

But let us hurry to our goal.

We need not repeat

619 here that characters nay not leave more than five times.

We need not

restate how episodes, stage dialogue, or Beenes are divided.

We need

not retell why some acts are extended longer than others, nor which character is said to act the first, second, or remaining parts. Vopiscus very clearly handled all these matters.

They should be

observed in comedy no less than in tragedy. Junius. I have a question, Pomponius.

When you first explained

the divisions of the plots, it occurs to me you said comic poets fail when they consider Homan matters in Greek fashion. naturally reticent to ask you this before.

Is that so?

I was

Will you do me the favor of

explaining before you finish speaking? Pomponius.

I will indulge you.

You have correctly warned about what

has been viewed as a fault in comic poets which we in the meantime state is a virtue.

There is a rule that the principle of nationalities and

places may be observed so that we do not attribute something unsuitable to these. others.

Undoubtedly the Athenians have some practices and the Homans But to treat what has been done in Athens— as long as it is not

repugnant to our own custom— seems to me no fault, but the greatest virtue.

Undoubtedly the lines from Terence are taken for a defect: [Gnatho] Our conversation lasted till we came to the market. Up run all the tradesmen delighted to meet me, fishmongers, butchers, pastrycooks, sausagemakers, spratsellers.... (LCL. 22: Bun. 255-258.)

It appears as if those who sold victuals and throat irritations were never in Athens and as if it was forbidden to explain in words what pertains to our own custom.

Thus you clearly see how far our own practices

are employed in Greek fashion.

620 Junius. I certainly do see this and completely agree with your opinion. PomnoniuB.

What more may I say about comic verse?

have already written much about it.

Grammarians

I think I have sufficently discussed

the variety of songs which the ancient poets employed in choric materials when I explained about the chorus.

In the rest of a comedy you will find

senarii or quadrati with dimeters or monometers sometimes interjected. Comic poets used in different ways, three kinds of verse— iambic, anapestic, and trochaic. of four.

They wrote these in verses of six, then of eight, and even

Sometimes they omitted a final syllable, and at other times

they added one.

Occasionally they even dropped a foot from the ianbics

and trochaics and the same number of syllables from anapestics. used senarii of iambics, quadrati of anapestics and trochaics.

They They

used verses shortened in the last syllable as if these were distinguished and special tragic and comic poets very often use an iambic of these kinds for the same reason.

You will find that the prologues of Old Comedy

consist entirely of senarii.

The episodes are either iambic or anapestic.

These may be completed in the same verse, or may have a little appendage in a different measure, sometimes even doubled or in an arrangment joined from assorted rhythms.

Rarely is the little addition in senarii;

frequently it comes in quadrati pf whatever kind.

In it the shortened

measure of the foot very often remains the same kind. is mixed.

Sometimes the sang

We have taught that the choric digressions consists of

quadrati in both trochaics and anapestics.

Sometimes Aristophanes inserts

monometers in the senarii and in the prologues. monometer in the Clouds. kind with quadrati.

He even begins with

Sometimes he intersperses monometers of the same

Now New Comedy imitated Old Comedy and used senarii

621 first in the dialogue, then in prologues,

later it used quadrati.

It

made the rest in both iambics and in trochaics, and then even joined the two.

He joins quadrati of the same hind with senarii of a different

kind by interjecting manometers or sometimes dimeters.

The manometers

are rare, though, and used for the sake of rhythmic pronunciation, or a division or end of a speech.

It has been observed that a little

senarii verse has been used to finish a speech. syllables of a foot which have been dropped.

It includes two equal

For instance, in lady of

Andros when Lesbia concludes her conversation with Archylist ...quod iussi ei dari bibere et quantum imperavi, date; mox ego hue reverter. (LCL. 22: And. if^ - ^ 85.) From quadrati the poet frequently dropped the last syllable; from the senarii he dropped nothing.

It has been noted that little senarii are

used in cantica rather than in stage dialogue.

Nevertheless nothing

remains of the cantica which I may use as an example.

For that our

faith depends on the author. We have clearly shown in what verse dialogue is written.

Old Comedy

observed the xules handed down about the method of these kinds of songs as if they were laws— far better than New Comedy.

In different places

the trochaics may receive the trochee, the choreus, iambus, and dactyl. In equal places they may receive trochee and anapest in addition to the regular meters.

In these, however, the last syllable is missing.

In the

penultimate position those lines require a trochee, or occasional^ in place of it, a choreus.

They mingle those meters with one another.

In

dissimilar places, iambics allow either an iambus or a spondee, or what­ ever the iambics are changed into.

(An iambus is changed into a choreus,

a spondee into either a dactyl or an anapest.)

In equal places iambics

622 not only allow an iambus or a choreust but also an anapest.

Nevertheless

in Terence grammarians allow all these meters in every position within the above limits, except the, iambus in the final position, and they never reject the pyrrhic in place of that.

Thus it is just as absurd when

writers of tragedies and iambics disapprove of nearly everything, but allow irregularity via the dactyl in trochaics, give regularity to an anapest in iambics. there is no place for freer feet. restricted.

Comic poets very often

It seems equally absurd when

It may happen that the freedom iB

Irregularity in trochaics does not allow a spondee.

iambics regular meter does not permit a spondee.

In

But certainly comic

poets neglect the rules of prosody which tragic poets observe.

Just as

they seemed to imitate the habits of life, so they seemed to imitate daily speech.

Iambic verse is special where it uses trisyllabic feet.

These are the principles I hold to, and I advise following them in comedy.

If I seem to have explained more than was necessary I am glad.

I would rather have my effort blamed when, for the sake of duty, I chitted nothing than have it too brief, or obscure.

Bather let it be

too long than found wanting for having omitted something in haste, or for having confused things by including too little.

But if you think

these precepts are fewer than you require, I beg your pardon.

I think

much escapes me which could be agreeably stated about comedy.

I openly

admit that I have not unwisely omitted much that Vopiscus taught when he gave the rules for tragedy.

Therefore,you young men who apply your­

selves to the perfect method of writing comedy as well.

should know those things

Practice the same diligence in comedy that he advised in

tragedy so that you may be admired in theaters for those things which excite laughter and applause.

623 Summontius. to you.

No need to ask our indulgence.

We are most grateful

Today, through you, we have been made wiser.

be very glad.

We ourselves may

In your teaching you have so adequately and distinctly

included not only what others had touched on confusedly, somewhat obscurely, and rather skimpily.

But you have embraced so many things

worth knowing which I had not yet knottxfrom any other source.

Everyone

else whose ears have heard these things should be grateful to you, unless they prefer being accused of criminal ingratitude.

Pomponius, why should

you care how hostile men would receive these teachings?

You did not

compose this disputation on comedy in this way for their sakes, but for our own and our friends'. Syncerus.

A boy has advised me that the tables are ready.

we take our places, all the delight of the meal will vanish. called to table, and most opportunely. about the matter he had undertaken.

Unless

We are

Pomponius has finished teaching

We have filled the understanding of

our minds with the feast of so learned and eloquent a disputation. us gratify our palates with the banquet's pleasure.

Let

BOCK FIVE

Brume, the nost anoient writer of elegies, the beet of prlnoea, used to afy fire wee the eweetest apiee.

Wit is whet Boner oelle divine.

Many people oall it oheritee end pleeaentneae beoause ooimtlese iteea sprinkled with it ere rendered eore egreeeble end pleasing to the teste. Certainly X agree that no eore delightful or eore heavenly provision of a banquet table is available to friend and household.

Xt natters less

what you nay have to eat or drink, so hanfc as with it you nay enjoy the pleasure of conversation.

For wine excites (shattering and trifling talk,

and throws naay non into orasod furious passions.

Indeed it is appropriate

that the words be exaained no less than the friends who nay be joined in banquets.

We nay think the Spartans acted inappropriately when they re­

ceived a guest into a public neal.

Feinting to the doors they used to

say, "Conversation does not enter here."

X den't want you to seriously

consider that ancient saying, "1 hate a guest with an excellent nenory." X don't want to reeled you that the ancients dedioatod both forgetfulness and the ferule to Dionysus.

Xbus what had been said at a banquet was

to be conpletely forgotten or ohaeteaed with childish puaiahnont.

But

if anything has been taken anise in drinking, if sen flushed with wine have spoken acre loosely and freely than befits sober non, let us consider that it deserves a very slight reproach and should be forgotten. In Biripidos' opinion, forgetfulness destroys foolish things for the wise nan.

let us oonpletely forget those done at a banquet.

Bet

only do the hosts sf dinners oppose then« we ales have the nest renowned

62$ philosophers and the aost eloquent authors who dearly voice their disapproval— Plate, Xenopheat Aristotle, Speuslppus, %>iourus, Prytanes, Bieronyaua, and Dion the Acadenioian.

Indeed siaee it was worth the

doing, they wrote femal disoourse on drinking.

And they eorreotly

decided that aea whose lives are spent ia seoiety should be aoeustoned to it.

Thus they bring nothing to that pleasant assesbly of frimda whioh

is shaaeful, inpure, insulting, or finally whioh pertains te evil praotioes.

What eaa be nere alien to the refined sen than to have said

things at hone whioh he would be ashewed to hear in public?

Plutaroh

elegantly and learnedly diseuasee what kind of subjects nay be properly handled in a aynposiua. given a plaoe there.

There are those who do not went philosophy to be

They instance the Persians, who, they suggest,

did right to suaaen concubines, not wives, to drinking parties and dancing.

They would have us bring ausic and the draaatie arts to the

syaposiua, not philosophy.

Philosophy was hardly produced to play any

role but that of a aodest, serious lady.

At a banquet, of all places,

we nay be least inclined to the pursuit and study of aero serious setters. They say Isocrates' friends asked hia to say aeaethiag which the banquet occasion deaaaded, and he replied!

"The substance of ay learning is in­

appropriate for this oooasiea) as for what ia appropriate, I aa unlearned." But a philosopher's aethod is not the saae as an orator's, so that you aay drive rhetoric froa the table lest it destroy its pleasantness by its own clauses.

Would you reject philosophy whioh cabraoea the rules

for living and shews the way in all things?

Thus there ia nothing it

aay not teach whioh falls within its periaeter or tiae.

80 there is no

kind of qpert or reputable pleasure fron which philosophy deserves to be driven away.

Or do you think n sense of ahaae and justice should not be

626 adaitted at a banquet through pretence, i.e., beoausowe respect thalr reputation?

Thua lot ua ao rovol aa if wo aro giving a dinner boforo

tho harah judges of Oraatoa. aolatioa for igaoraaeo.

To bo auro( thla precept afforda ao oon-

Surely it la LLbor Dionysus* - aad lyaiue~ao

ho la eallod by Qreeke--who firat looaoa everything aad thoa especially frooa tho toaguo froa ita beads.

Ho graata speech auoh froodoa.

Isn't

It in tho foollah laprudoat aaa'a spoooh (la whoa aiadlooa aad ahaaefUl chattor abouada) to rotroat froa tho boat conversation at all oosts? Would tho fool have taught about tho dutioa of foaatlag, what boflta a guest, aad how wlao ahould bo uood? banquet* theaselveo?

Has philoaophy abaoat froa tho

Then apparently what tho fool toaehoa by word ho

oaaaot eoaflra by practice. But alnoo it ia utterly abeurd for philoaophy to profoaa that aho ia tho governor of all thiaga aad yet ia igaoraat of tho uoo of Moderation* I gladly agree with thoae who proaoribo aaao law aad apoelflo aothod of philooophisiag at a ayapoaiua.

They advise that thoao preacat at a

banquet ahould firat att aad to philooophiaiag.

If for tho neat part

auoh aoa aro oduoatod in lettera or eager to loaxa thoa (for instance* ia Plato's Smooaiua Secretes. Phaodrus, Aryxiaaehus, aad Fausaaius; ia Calliaa Ghanddoa* Antisthones* aad Homogoaos, aad others like those), they subalt that thoao aoa should philosophise. Dionysus with Muaoa as wall aa with nyaphs.

Bo, they aust control

Tho latter reader hia

gentler and softer with their bodies; tho fomer aake aero delightful begetter of joy by their aoula. learntag aay bo present.

tho aaao aan a

A few aoa devoid of

Just as aaay letters aro silent ia epeeeh,

tho unsounded interjections do not at all ahare ia tho aotad of what is vetoed.

Those daplo non gathered aaeag the oduoatod also ooaprahead a

627 portion of th« laaraimgi a u j of that kind ean haar aa voioa bat a philossphsr's.

Thalr praaaaoa suggast that it ia appropriata for aa to

taka aa axaapla froa PLaistratus, tha Athaaiaa Tjraat.

Ha had aotad

that hia aaaaiaa rajoload at tha diaagraaaaat whioh rsally axiatad batwssa hia aad hia ohildraa.

la tha eonvsnad asssably ha aaid ha sspseially

waatad hia aoaa to obay hia.

Siaoa ha was unabla to paraoada thaa, ha

aaid that ha had daeidad to aubait aad agrsa with thaa.

So, too, tha

skillad, adasatsd aaa will follow hia uasdueatad banquat oaapaaioaa who do aot racsiTS talk about philoaophy at all willingly.

Ha yialda to

thsir coavsrsatioaa proridad that thsy do aot axeaad tho liaita of what ia fitting aad raputabla.

Ha kaowa that aoaa opaa thair aoutha only to

daolaia lika aa omtar. thsy still philossphisa-whaa thay ara ailaat, whoa thay play, whaa thay raquaat with witty, inoisiva languaga, or whoa thay ara aaksd.

Aa Plato aaya, it is aost unjust for a aaa to aoaa just

who is aot, but it ia a spaoial trlbuta to hia diaoratiaa. philosophisaa dissaablas philosophy. ia Joking.

Just aa

Por ha who

Ha daraa what ia aarious whaa ha

kripidarf Maanads ara uaaraad aad wouad thoaa

thay asst without carrying iraa staffs, so aaa twist tha jaata aad wittieiaaa of aaa, who ara truly philosophsra. barbs aad aova wouadad aaa. narrating at a banquat.

Thay sting with thair

Aad Z bailors thara ara auroral kiada of

Burt of thasa ara takaa froa history.

ara takaa froa aattars aithar at hand or rlalbla.

Phrt

Thay iaoluda aaay

exaaploa of philoaophy aad aaay axaaplaa of gaaaroua honorabla aotioaa raflsctiag piaty.

fturt of thaa also iaoita oaa to aaulata tha bast,

aaat raflaad aaa.

If, bsfora all, thaaa aarratioaa iaatill tha aorality

of hard wash, tha driakars laara aad rspudiats tha aara aubataatial ilia of druakaaaaaa.

What alas do you think Hanar aaaat w h m ha iatroduoad

Halaa proparimg tha wins with a gaatla drug?

Ear prolaagad aosauat af

628 A a long journey from Agypt, a pleasant, attractive story, had told tha drinkara shat brave Ulysses had dona and suffered.

Wasn't this drink •

appropriata to oattla tha soul's troubla and drive away grlaf, lika sane healthful nadioina of groat viture?

Nothing can ba found nora excellent

far soothing huaan passions thaa speech, nothing nora suitad to hunan affairs. Wharafora thosa A o philooophiso with truth and civility oanvsraa in a sysposiun.

Thair speech trios to parsoada rathar than ooavince by

tha eonoluaisas of its argon ants.

Tou saa this in Plato.

In tha

Sjspasiun ha disoussas tha priaary and hlghast good and tho gods. doas not longthily artaad tha adducing of proof. aethod, solid and irrasistibla anough.

Ha

Ha doas not fortify his

But ho teaches, convinces,

and ontioas by a dearer, nora fluent kind of discourso, by axanplas, and by atorlas.

And it is fitting that A n t wa soak here ba antiraly clear

and accessible, not rough, obscure, slippery, or difficult.

Otherwise

our words suffocate tha aind aad sense of tha uneducated or terrify aad turn away thair souls.

If tha guests ara forood to struggle in nrns or

in axeroise with tha discus

A a n thay should ba relaxing in danoing and

song, tha banquet baoonas unpleasant, unsuitable, even hurtful.

Honoe

our philosophers should consider light questions by which guests aro usefully aad pleasantly novad.

Thay should dlasiss tha arguaentative

and nora subtle questions whioh twist and torture debaters.

In A a sane

way that wine and conversation ara shared in cannon, all A a guests should beooao participants.

Otherwise A a y seen nora unfit for a banquat

than Aesop's little fox and stork. ia a. A d a stone bowl. opening in its bank. A A

For a joke A a fox served bean soup

Tha stark kept dropping A a food froa A a narrow Tha stork served A a fox dinner A

a Ma l l flask

a long narrow nook, and had no troubla taking A a food A A

its

639 beak.

The fox oould enjoy no food at all. Aad ao it is if philosophers prosaat dotailod questions of dialootio

at a public baaquot.

They say upsot sost sac who aro usable to share in

the sane conversation.

Those sen trade old wires' tales aad silly stories

with eaeh other; they pour out vulgar accounts taken froa off the street. Isn't the host's banquet ruined?

Isn't Dionysus: offended?

Obviously

one should be careful not to present anything of this kind.

Otherwise

you any deservedly hear the question, 'Vhy bring this to Dionynis?" When we ask a question, we should take care that one aay pleasantly reply, and a pleasant reply is given to those questions that are easily answered, that is to say, easily understood. he cannot reply to what he dees not know.

A person is indignant if

He cannot give what he is

asked, or he aay rashly begin talking about what he cannot explain or support, grow confused, and stagger hesitantly.

Certainly questieas are

aere pleasant when the person asked has the answers.

Questions that

nay be unknown and unheard of to nany nen, touch on abstruse subjects, and with these the inquirer can be helpful. a brilliant conclusion. aay be nost effective.

Nor are we aaused only by

Narrating also entertains, snd in that we all We nay answer questions with the greatest

pleasure to which wo knew the answer snd want to give it.

Thus nen who

have traveled various regions or land and aaa very readily answer questions about foreign natters, oustons, and laws of foreign peoples. They describe plaoes and shores willingly.

They consider that thus they

reap their reward, garner favor, and solace thesselvea.

Ia fact, we

often discourse thus of our own will whether asked or not, aad are nost pleased to be asked —

pleased, too, with the aaker.

Ve ought to be

aore retioent lest we appear brash and forward.«tlailors are especially

630 affected by thia aalady.

Bat non noro deairoua of glory want to bo aakod

what thoy aro diffident about apeaking of*

They bluoh ia tho prosoaoo of

aa audioaoo for foar thoy aay aooa to praiao thonselrea. achieved with truo diatiaotioa aro of this kind. lauda hiaaolf.

Non who hare

For a aan ia hatod who

Ho apontaaooaaly tolla what haa happily happonod to hia.

Thia ia tho eaao ia Honor whan Noator would hare Ulyaaoa' doairo for faao known: Coao toll ao now, Odyaaoua, groatly to bo praiaed, groat glory of tho Aohaoana, how yo twain took thoao horaoa* (LCL. 170* KL. 10. 5**-5^5.> Noxt wo ahould bo caroful whon wo aak what aoaoono did or oadurod. Wo aught not aak people to rooall things that aro paiafol or uaaeoaly, that rolato

to fanorala or loaaoa.

whoao aaaory wounda tho aaul again.

Wo ought aot aak about aaythiag olao Hathor wo ahould aak about foaoua

and happy dooda( about hoaora, dutiea, glorioa, how a aaa eroded oaoay aabuah or tho attack of robbora, how ho oaoapod froa a galo or atora at aoa, or uxtroao dangor.

Aa fturipidoa aaid, "Tho aan who haa boon roaouod

quite gladly ropoata tho aooouat." oall a foraor oront.

Virgil aaid that it will holp to ro­

Alao wo aro extroaely ploaaod to toll what haa

fertunatoly and agrooably happonod to frioada and relatives.

And wo

enjoy tolling how ohildron have progroaaod in virtue, loaning, and tho frloadahip of kiaga and prinooa.

Aad certainly whon anyone ia naked

about thoao thinga, seal gripa hia, aad ho ia ploaaod to talk about thoa. How delightful and pleasant ia it for hnntera to bo aaked about doga, a knight about horaoa, a lower about loro affaira, a warrior about wara, aad a prophot about hia diriaatieasi thair wary nature to talk?

What about all aoa inclined by

I r n if thoy know nothing about what ia

aaked, aren't thoy grateful and acred to apeak quite freely if thoy aro

631 aaked to say soaethlng? about aanj things. long spaaoh*

Hoaer's Nestor and Virgil's Srandar war* aaked

Thay pr— ptly took tha opportunity given thoa for a

If, aa happans, tha opportunity ia for a ahortsr spaaoh,

an old aan's graataat plaaaura ia uttarly apoilad.

To sua up, thosa

who wish to bring thasselvea plaaaura rathar than Taxation auat aak tha right questions.

Tha response froa all tha ooapany ia likaly to ba

praise, .not insult{ faTor, not anvyj good will, not hata.

Synoarua'

banquat and laaraad aaaaably will aarra us aa a claar axaapla. with thoa tha foragaiag disputations.

Ha hald

In thoa aany things wars laarmadly

aad plaaaantly traatad aa bafittad aduoatad guasta.

Froa thosa I have

takan a faw things whioh I should not pass orar in ailanoo.

I will

ooaaidar thoa bafora undartaking othar ooaaidarations about tha asking of a peat.

These contain all tha aatters relevant to tha invsatio and

dispoaitio of poena. Synoarua, then, aagnifieently and suaptuously fumiahad a banquet. Tha guasta enjoyed rich aatarial in conversation aa they proposed aany topics and talked aaong thenselves.

Aad so whan all tha dinner guests

grow silent, Suaaontius began to opeak in a jovial aaaner. Suaaontiua.

Whan Siaonldas tha poet apiad a oartain guest at a

ayaposlua raolining so quietly that ha spoke with no ana, Siaonides reportedly said that if that guest ware stupid, ha behaved prudently| if ha ware wise, ha behaved stupidly.

Obviously all you hare ara vary

aoooaplishad in ovary elegance of learning.

Xou should ba careful that

you do not saoa to aot too inelegantly, or rathar, ignorantly, in this happy synposiun.

Aray tall aa, ean a drinker ba regarded as uncultivated

and a stranger to tha Musas by a good arguaout instead of by alienee? To tha Musas belong eloqueaoet to Baoohua tha power of exciting tha

6^2 fore* of eloquence.

Or do you rashly think that in or*ry joyful celebration,

both public and private, or at «r*ry gay dinnert Jo t * haa appointed UeaysUs - and Apollo aa superintendents aad haa suanoned th* Kua*a to their fellowship?

Indeed, the Muaea are aaid to hare nourished Bacohua.

Sine* we should not be quiet here, what is there to talk about rather thaa wiae?

Synoerua haa so wonderfully cheered us with it.

Mor do I

fear in ay settled age that I would be oriticised for praising wine.

It

ia uaually aaid that old *4 * is intoxicatedf Qrarina. for drinking?

Boee anyone think w* hare not drunk the now wine giren ua Hor hare we eoasunod it sparingly, as Hesiod warns— as if

new win* need be spared)

Just as the best honey is at the bottoa of a

eask and the best oil at the eery top, so th* aost excellent win* ia in th* aiddle. Trajanua.

Ton hare hit upon soaething I bar* often sought but hare

not yet diacoeered.

I aa very grateful you hare giren no the opportunity

to question th* origin of such a different rationale for things.

Cer­

tainly it would not be inappropriate to ask this froa an asseably of drinking ooapanions. Qrarina.

Haney is thick.

aakes it thicker.

It has a certain natural ooneretiea that

Ihlok and congealed things hare aor* weight aad reside

at the very bottoa of a oaak.

On the other hand, what is thinner and

looser seeks the highest region beoaua* of its lightness.

And so if a

ooatainer is shaken up and down, both are iasediately born* to their proper plaae.

As for oil, the purer it is, the thinner it is, and the

easier it flows.

It penetrates everywhere.

But th* oil which has a

thiek eaoothness and an airy density will not readily aix of its own aooordt it virtually excludes every other htadd eleaeat.

So it happens

633 that it ia undisturbed by air currants and flows alswly baoanaa of its orowdad eoatiauua of thin partiolas.

Uhan tha oil ia pourad, what

r— a1aa in tha bottaai ia tha worat baoauaa of ita aixture with tha dregs. What ia at tha top ia far auparior baoanaa it ia ao far dlataat froa tha dregs. Since tha powar of wina haa baan aaoribad to tho hoot (by which it ia boat preserved), it viaa for tha niddla plaoa byright, ia no plaoa battar anitad for it*

Suraly thara

What ia bolow ia waahad by dregat

what ia above ooalaaoaa froa tha touch of air.

Thus aan aaoar tha

oaaka aad oover thaa with dirt ao that thay will have lass contact with tha air.

If tha container ia filled, wina doas not evaporate aa auoh aa

if it haa baan drunk.

For whan tha oaak ia plundered frequently and air

enters, than tha wina oaaaaa to foment. tains itaalf by ita own strength. by air ruahiigin.

Tha wina of a full earic con­

It defends itself froa being spoiled

Or does Aristotle1a reasoning saaa profarable to you?

Ha had observed that that oil exuded a sweater aaall and was far auparior whioh was loft in tho drained vaasal.

Thus froa tho aoaa cause by which

oil boooaaa bettor, tha wina beocaes poorer.

What ia unsuitable for oil

is suitable for wins— tho entrance of air destroys tho aging. own nature it coola, and what ia ooolad is aada fresh. bo tasteless if it is chiliad.

By ita

Tho idne will

Oil does not "breathe"! it quite rapidly

grows old baoauaa it ooalaaoaa by a continuous joining of parts.

Thus

when things whioh air touches aro renewed and freshened, in oil what is above is beat; in wftne what ia above is worst. Huaaoatiua.

Sines wo have boon given tha bast wine today, who can

ba silent about it?

Forthamore 1 think I should aay that wine la

generally called aa old nan's ailkl

6* Cmm.

Im , indeed.

If eld aen m e t praise via# for that reason,

wfamt m y young a m do when Aristophanes cello It the ellk of Tema? fluanoatiua.

Ccae then.

Let ue show the power end nature of wine

through the saying* of the ancients.

Would you think the Greeks called

wine oinoa (froa which our word is derived) for any other reason except that it was a boon to asskind, mm Honor noted?

Hoaer said that aen gave

nothing better than wine to the distinguished Menelaus and that it dis­ tracts nan froa his sad troubles.

The aaao is true in the ooado poett

Uphilus:

0 oanibus carissiae prudentibus, Sumaque praedite aapieatia pater, Quaa dulois os liber, ubi aagnos opiritua Suaero huailea, riders tetrieua facia, Fidere tiaeatea, audere quiddaa dibilea. Also Fhiloxeaus elegantly called wine "pulchrifluens" and "oanisenua.M Qravina.

Chaereaon, the tragic actor, oleverly said that wine

readies laughter, gaiety, and aptness dor being taught, prudence, and wisdoa,

Beferring to it Ioohius uses the phrase "a wild youth," "a

youth with a bull's face," "no youth at all," "tho nost pleasant attendant of resounding loves." "breathing heavy wine." and "the guardian of aen." Garbo,

fhnyassis, the epic poet, says this about wine:

Igni par vinca, aortalibus adiuaentua, Solaamque aalorua iagcas, euraequ* levaaen, Convivii pars iueundissiaa, laeticiaeque Dulois asitiae pars sxoptata, coriqu*. Again in Xfcnyassist Vlnua, quo dono a superis praestaatis unquaa Mortales habuere nihil, quo earaina ouaota, Oaais aaicorua ooetus, emesque choreas Coaveaiuat, omcaque avertit oorde dolorea % o t i n non abaque aodo, secus cania turbat.

635 BiwMiM.

Here Phayassis seaas to have boon a bit sparing and

frugal in drinking.

Ha gave tba first little driaka to tha Graoea, tha

Hours, and to Uonyaas*

Ha gave tha aaoond to Vanua and Dionysus.

third ha attributed to Pride and fault. of thaaa hubrin. kai atan.

Tha Greeks eall tha divinities

In thia Btbulua ia a little gentler when ha

portrays Uoagrjau speaking: Trala ago orataraa teapero tantua probiaj Priaua valetudinis; anoria altarua, Nao non Toluptatiai aoporia tartiua Causa, huno nodaatua ubi hauaarit, doaua patat Nan quartua hand noatar arit( aat iniuriae, Quimtusque rixae, aaxtua ao petulaatiae, Inaartqua plagaa, septiaus, praaoonia aat Octavus, iraa nonua, atqua inaaniaa Deoinus, ut inganti furore vulnaret. Nan pataraa in exiguaa fraquana ai funditur Vinua, bibantaa ilicet paaaundabit. Vopjacua.

Mnaaithaua aaid thia:

Vinua dadiaaa ian Decs aortalibua, Bonun aodaata utantibua, oontra nalua. Alinanta praabat, augat at vin corporis, Aniniqua, pluriaa ad aedendun coatulit. In potiona temperature optima Ad aaaitatea, atqua uloeratis fart open. Quotidiania qul bibunt oongressibus. Si taaparantar hanriatue, affioit laetitia, ubi autan exoesserint, iniuria. Sin niaoaatur par pari, insane# faeit, Artua reaolvit, hauatua ubi aat aaraeiua. Itague Tooari nedioua ubiqua DLonysun. Ha ia called thia naae frca lythia. Caaaua.

Tha

Alexia spoke firaly in thia way:

Vinua vior ajailllaua aat quodaaaodo Constanta priaua aetata dafarraat opust, Ponatqua caatuaalias, dafloraat, Ao rursua obdurascat ilia, haac oania, Cua aitigarit. hand aecus vinua rsoana, Achanata, abundat quae supra, daaantia, So sox bibaadua praabat, ao aiatit sa itea, St dulca post hac adaodua paraanaarit.

636 On the other head that

m i

Alexle said elsewhere*

Nil alaile vino ous hoaine, quippe insuavis eat Cva eeaseaeaeit ills, viawa anten vetus Brobatur, ilia aordet, hoo aaiaua hilarat. Thetua.

She poet, Cereaaeus, has these few liaest

Aggreditur vinua aen iapar viribus lgni? Nee secua, atque uadis aestuat la Idbyeis Aat aotus, aut Toreas, occultaque peetore ab iao Bruit| ao prorsua nontea, aniuuaque rapit. Scortianus.

Butt oliaax of %dohaxaus is vary beautiful.

He said

that the banquet advanced froa the sacrifice, and the drinking froa the banquet.

This seeas quite delightful to ne.

Wanton joking progressed

froa the drinking, strife froa the wanton joking, oondeaaation froa the stiife, sad iapxtaonaeat froa the eondaanation. TraJanus.

She natter is corrupt!

ffeiloehorus soys that those who drink act only reveal

who they are, but they also point to ather non influenced by the freedoa of speaking.

So it happens that wine is oorreotly called the truth.

Through it a aen'a soul is revealed. Svmoarua.

Ton have publicly presented nany things about wine froa

the books of the aneienta.

And it is certainly aarvelous how quickly and

fittinglyyou recited so aony verses on the epur of the aoaent.

But I

think there is surely nothing whioh aore plainly shows the power and nature of wine than what Siaaeus of Sauroaeniua handed down by word of south.

He said there was a hoae at Agrigentua oalled Srireae.

When

certain yeung aen were reveling there, they beoaae drunk and asd.

She

result was they thought they were being oeaveyed in a trireae and were sorely troubled by the waves on the oeeon.

And they were so excited

sad driven froa all stability that they were insane.

So they began

throwing the furniture outside, as if they seeaed to have heard froa the helaaaan ordering thoa to duap it all into the sea beoause of the stoxa.

637 Although aaay aen gathered thara and plundarad tha furniture as it was thrown out, still tha youtha,did not refrain froa thalr nadness.

Tha

next day nagiatrates entered thoaa rooaa and askad what had happanad to then.

Tha young nan rspliad that whan thay wara so seasick, thay wara

violently upaat by a huga atom and vara drivan to enpty tha ship of any auparfluoua cargo.

To thoaa vondaring at thia aanaalaaanaaa ona of tha

oldar youths ia raportad to hava aaidi beneath tha aarriage-bad froa faarl"

"0 Tritena, I had cast ayaalf

Aoeordingly tha aagistrataa pardonad

thair aadaaas which had drivan thair ainda froa ita plaoa.

Thay up-

braidad and warnad tha youths not to iaaodarataly fill up on wina aftar this.

Tha youths said that thay ahould ba grataful to tha officials.

"If and whan wa raaoh port aftar baing aaatohad froai tha inaonsa povar of tha saa and tha violant uproar of tha wnvas, va ara aavad. aapaeially honor you as anang tha saa gods as our saviors. happily— and oppontunsly— at hand.

Wa will

You wara

Wa will build you a fina tonpls in

our country." JjggSS&BI*

Those youhg nan would not hava bacons aad at all if

thay had renanbared that DLonyma - had taught Aaphyction, King of Athens, how to nix wins. kind.

Ha was tha first to introduce nixing a drink of thia

Whan aan drank in thia fashion thay began to walk upright.

by drinking straight wins, thay walked with head bant downwards.

Before, For

thia reason thay established an altar in tha tanpla to "Reotua Dionysus of tha Hours,"

who brought forth fruit froa tha vines.

Moreover thay

could hava known that nan usually placed an altar to tha Nyaphs near that to Bacchus. nixing wins.

By it those who drink arc aero profitably reninded about Besides thara was a law that a little unsixed wine sight

ba served after dinner— as such as was tasted before.

This night show

638 the power of the good god.

Aftor thia tho wine w u aixad with watar,

and anyone aight hava auoh.

Whan tha drlnka vara thua aorved, tha

anoianta uaad to call on tha naaa of Jobe Savior, ao that tha drlnkera might ranamber to ba attaativa to thaneelvea in thair drinking. Carbo.

Thara ia a olavar aaying about tha restraint of nixing

which thay uaad to d u g at a banquat, i.a., that thay ahould not drink fiva, or thraa, or four.

In FLutaroh a joking Ariatio axplaina it.

Ha

aaya, "Tha muaieiaaa hava rulea that harmony ooadata of a ana and a half proportion, which tha Gredca call dia nanta and a doubla proportion, dia paaom. What tha Qraaka call dia taaaaron haa a ratio of four to thraa, and it ia far haavlar than tha raat.

In lika nannar tha proportion

of drinking haa a harmony of wina with water."

Whon tha watar ia nixad

with wina, if tha watar pradominataa in a three-to-two ratio, tha drinking oonaiata of fiva parta.

If tha proportion ia doublad par thraa parta,

but not four to thraa, tha drink oonaiata of four parta.

Thoaa driaka

in which watar ia aixad in a thraa-to-ona proportion with tha wina hava alaoat no powar of axoiting tha aonaaa.

A aixtura with a one-to-tvo

ratio nakaa ona inart and nantally aluggiah.

Such drlnka hava tha

affaot of plucking harpatringa and moving ona to drunkannaaa.

Drlnka of

thia proportion do not allow ona to ba aobar or to ba utterly atupefled by tha wina.

Tha naxt driaka, which conpriaa tha proportion of two with

thraa, bring aleep and laad ona to forgot hia troublea, lika beautiful, hamonioua amaio. Bampoaiua.

Having aatan and drunk, wa are aaying much about wina

Certainly wa ahould ba oaraful to liatan to %faippua' wordai "Too auoh wina foroea you to any auoht" Soortlanua.

I want you to ba adviaod that wa hava gathered hare

639 today to finish tho diaouaalan oa pootry. &ugontiu£. 8oartianua.

Jo b , indeed, and you aro right to advise ua ao,

Vo aro daisy saaething olao which interests ua greatly.

The ardor of tha proposed apaaoh say not ho changed.

Carbe, tho parta

of toaehiny about tho following aattors will bo youra. tho raopoaaibility to you.

Synoorua dalayatod

With tho toaehiny about trayie and conic

pootry oqually oeaploto, you aight toll us what wo ahould know about lyric pootry. Carbo.

Thia part could hay# boon joined with thoaa which wore

spoken about tho chorus (all chorio material ia also lyrio and aight bo dispensed with in a few words). discussed it far bettor.

Hither Oauricus or Vopiscus aight hsTo

Still lot no one think ao so impudent that I

would spurn Syaeerus' ocaaands.

I do not eagerly desire what he inposed

on no. first of all let no touch on the things which show the antiquity of lyric poetry.

Whan God brought both the heavens and the huaan race to

light, he adorned then with divine gifts.

It was undoubtedly appropriate

that he show how he ahould be thanked for hia great deserts and generosity.

And no aethed seated aore appropriate for thia then that the

heavens sing in haraony.

If you watch the aovenents of heavenly bodies

in thair constant unfailing notion, which indeed ia an everlasting haraony of sounds, if you look to the power inhering ia ainds by the musical haraony of ideas and by the very beautiful concert of voices whose aethed la beyond explanation, you see that they sing together as if thanking God tho Father and honoring hia with praises.

If they ask anything and

pray for us (it is also their fttnation to nonage huaan affairs and to be present before the Greatest of Kings), they move the Divinity for ua.

&0 They joia their prayers with a harasaisas asdulatisa af rhythna.

^

■ o m aa asa oaas to b«, they decided to hoaor Ood by mo other rite them

the poetic*

Why?

Perhaps there is a eertalm divine power ia nature

wherein they departed froa their foxaer existence when they lived in heaven and they wished to iaitate the heavenly practice*

Za any event

when they worshipped ia public er privatef when they oelebrated in festivals* prayers* rites of thanksgiving* a sacrificial seal, er finally ia every celebration of festival days* they used songs and language bound by the auaieal law of aster*

So it was that the ancients

believed that Apollo and the Muses were presiding in the holiest asseably of the geds to celebrate that begetting and ruling power ever all things t •••and they bade as sing of the race of the blessed gods that are eternally* (LCL. 57* Th. 33-) Be Hesiod taught,

likewise eaoag sen prophets and diviners of holy things

attributed thia saae function and duty to poeta* who were under the gods protection*

That ancient poetry pertained completely to the geds.

It

nabraoed their praises and prayers— either to reestablish divine favor or to ask for help* done well*

In the beginning it also included thanksgiving for things

Then aen anployod praises and psayera either to placate the

wrath of heroes er to seek their aid.

Next it was established that the

virtues and aeeoapllahneats of famous non worth reaenbering wore to be honored by verses* Since no one doubts that Apollo, the author of song, discovered the lyre and fitted its sound to singing poetry of that kind, do we doubt that the first pacts were lyric?

I gladly agree with Flato*

Of

the asay different auaieal instruaeats* nose was acre ancient than the lyre* acne acre suited to acoenpeny peons about heavenly things.

6*1 Beeanaa it baa fair strings, ita aaand la aiapla, aodarata. aany klada of aiaging.

Siara vara

Of these va hava ahova that tha priaary hind ia

that vhiah pertains to tha gods.

A aaooad kind vaa pouring oat laaantationa

and eoaplainta with a plaintive aound. than thara ia tha dithyraab.

Next ia tha kind eallad a paaan;

lava governing thoaa idio play an and aing

to tha oithara vara pronulgatad.

Doubtless instruaants vara aoitad to

thair ova partioolar kinda of aong.

Worda wara aoitad to aeanings,

rhytha and aatar to vorda, tha haraony of atringa and voieea to verses ao that tha linaa aight tharaupon ba aptly fashioned.

And tha lav eantionad

anyona not to oaa ona aathod of aong for anothar.

Tha poata who follovad

oonfnaad tha different kinds of ainging.

Thay aagarly strove to giro

ploaaara and gain favor, baing agraaabla in ordar to win tha andianoaa' haart for theaselves, not to aing vhat vaa worthy and alao propar for ita node.

Thay would oftan aix aaurnful aonga with tha praiaaa of tha goda,

dithyraab with paaan.

And ao whan tha auaioiana found that tha haraoney of

pipaa with atringad inatmnanta aoondad aora plaaaant, poata bagan to aix tha various rhytbas of aonga alao.

Bratiaua of Alius raproaohad tha

old ouatoa of having tho ehorua anbordinata to tha flutaa.

Ha vantad tha

two in haraony. Bat although it ia rfbvioua that ainging with lyraa vaa tha oldaat pootry, atill it ia not svidant vhathar lyric poaty existed bafora haroie pootry.

No doubt both ware uaually aong to tha citharaf thara ara thoaa

vho baliava that iaabio ia aora anoiant than haroie baoaaaa iaabio oooura aora frequently. spaaking. art.

Alao iaabio varaoa praaant thaaaalvaa aora raadily in

It aaaaa as if iaabio varaoa apriag froa nature, haroio froa

Bat if the lyric post Aloaon (vho flouriahad vhon Aliatta'a father,

Ardya, ruled in Iydia) vaa tha firat

lyric poat, aa is add to ba tho

eaae, ho daoidad that sang was not to bo faAioned froa haxaaetara.

Indeed he devised songs of naturally paaaloaata lovers to thair lovea. Doesn't it go without aayigg that a hare would hava existed auoh aarliar? Wara wa to look at aubjeot aattar wa would ba eoaviaoad thia ia trua. Since tha anoiaat poata aang tha praiaaa of goda and haroaa to tha lyre, all that kind waa lyric, whathar it handlad divina aattara in iaabioa or haraiea.

What waa thought to ba a aiapla aoug in tha baginnlng bagaa to

ba variad by a ooaplex arrangauaat of aatara and rhythaa.

In thia

variaty thara ahoaa forth taa faaoua aan who ara proparly oallad lyrio poata* aan*

Of thoaa FLndar daaarvad priaaoy in tha judgaeat of all laarnad

Both aalie and dithyraabio poata ara alao varaad in tha variad

lyrio kiad.

Thua whaa I would speak about lyric poetry, you nay infar I

would lika to aay tha aaaa about aalio and dithyraabio, toot thaaa diffar vary littla froa aaoh othar.

Thay aight aaaily ba diatinguiahad if wa had

tha dithyraabb of Arion, laauat and Riiloxamis, tha auaioal rulaa of Tiaothaua, and aany othar aalio axaaplaa. of poaaa ara oallad lyrio poata.

And all who wrota thoaa kinds

I agree, too, that aalio ia a oatagory

that eould indiuda lyrio, dithyraabio, gaoaio, and anything alaa of that kind)

Tar what alaa ia a neloa— froa which tha naao ia darivad— thaa a

aong?

If it la sung to tha lyra, it ia proparly oallad a lyrio*

A poaa

la dithyraabio if it touohaa oa tha praiaaa of Baeehua and how ha waa bora*

Calabranta usually sang tha dithyraab to tha fluta; tha Ihryglan

soda was waddad to it* tho Dario haraony*

Vhiloxeaus sadsavorad to fit tho dithyraab to

Ha had difficulty happily acooupl ishing thia, ao that

tha dithyraab raturaad to tha Rurygian because nature foread it*

Thia

haraoay haa tha aaaa foroo whioh tha fluta haa aaoug auaioal inatruaaota. Both aova tho aind froa ita noraal atata and dispoaitioa and atir aora violent aaotiona in tha aoul*

Tharafora thia poatry, whioh looked entirely

6»0 to Booekuo, deservedly olaiaod that bantony of aouada whioh aight eapooially salt tho Baoehantos. And whoa lyrio poota won in a ooatest, thoy received a hall u priso ao that tho Old Ceaody oorrootly oallod thoa tanro***^ - Tho prise for dithyraabio poota waa a tripod. wish, wo call lax in latin? that Apollo discovered it.

What of tho gneaic, whioh if you

Waaa *t it aong to tho eithara?

Zt ia aaid

Bo intondod to provide tho lava for living

for tho orudo and rough raoo of non who had not yot loaraod litoraturo. By thia verse thay aight receive lattora aoro willingly and raaaabar thoa-aore oaaily.

Ho dooidod to toaoh by ainging with atrlngod inatruaaata

and by including what had boon arranged in rhythaa and aotara.

Ariatotlo

aaaorta that in hia own tiao hia waa tho euatoa aaoog tho Agathyrai. Juat aa thoaa aoaga waro flrat oallod gnoaea, thair doaeoodanta waro oallod by tho aaao naae oron though thoy handlod different subject aattor. Qaoaoa waro rookoaod aaong thoao writinga whioh aro not diatortod by being handlod by aetora.

And aince thoy oan portray and

proaoat auoh, a aong both Aong and ecaplaoc iaauod forth.

Juat aa their

writera atrove for iaitation, ao thoy wore alwaya aoouatoaod to vary tho finished aonga.

Preferably they ooaprised paired aonga which wore

aung back and forth.

Soaga of thia kind wore arranged with a certain

apooifio rule of rhytha. Thoao non wore oallod aingora who aang about tho goda and tho rlrtuea of tho groatoat non.

Tho aonga wore aung to tho lyre, cithara,

lute, er any other auaioal inatruaont known to tha ago of harooa. fttaaplea of auoh aingora aro Hoaer'a Xhoaiua and Doaodocua and Virgil'a Iopaa.

Non alao oallad thoa aaaatoaranhi.

Tho aaao ia true of hranoaranhi.

who included tho aateriala pertinent to tho goda in their verses.

Tho

o*w poaas which Orphans, Honor, and Haaiod wrota about tha soda, and any materials written in auoh aong, any ba plaoed in that category. ■ a Z have callad poata ara of two kinds* apio rarsat Thus to disouaa.

Tha

Thia lattar group wrota in

tha foraar group wrota in aalio. all thia poatry ia aalio, and thia poatry I hava undartak«n A ohorua of youths uaad to sing tha lyrioj fifty of t h m

fillad a oirola*

Tha wlnnar of tha ooat aat lived tha festival day with

grant celebration.

Tha dithyraabio waa sung at famous festivals and tha

ayatarias of Uonyaus*

b o h ohorua danoad baautifully and appropriately*

Thoaa honoring Bacohua isitatsd tha variad danoa of tha god, and whila danoing wova thair voioas in aultipla aodulationa* ia oallad trrbaaia. paaoa*

Thia kind of

"g

Aoeording to ELato it sesaed to fit noithar war nor

Lot ua explain aoaa things about tha ohorua.

Those vho had bagun

to gLva stataa tha banafit of aaerad laws datandnad that thair own o o m n i t y aight ba gLvsn to oalabrating faatival days of goda and faaoua haroaa*

Man who lad tha ohorua wara oallad chorairiL*

oustoa was corrupted, tha ohoragus waa wiahad that

Iatar whan tha

a hirsd aotor. Plato, vho had

tha goda plaoa Apollo and tha Musas in eharga of

majesty and Dlonyaua

divina

in oharga of tha ganaa, • aanad to hava aatabliahad

thraa choruaas, ona propor to aaoh*

Ha had oonsaoratad an assvbly of

boya to tha Musas in tha stata for which ha waa sstabUshiag laws.

Ha

dadioatad an aaaanbly of youths to Apollo, of nan or avan old nan to 01anyana,

I think ha waa imitating Tyrtaous, who dividad tha ontira

lifa of a nan into thraa agas and aoparatad tha ohoruaaa of Spartans for aaoh ago. Caros.

Tha ohorua night alao eaoaiat of woaan, lika tha ona honoring

Aa Harass saya, that ohorua had ohoai naidons and spotless

youths who aang tho song at tha oscular ganaa of Apollo and HLana.

At

6*5 this tiae a ooapany of noblo ladioa w a aeoustwed to vwerate Juno with prayora and song.

Thua that holy auaieal aaaaably joinad tha

voice, lyres, and even flutaa in its danoe. dancing.

»y of

It autarad tha thaatar while

Oooaaionally as it w a about to ratraat it loft* than raturnad

to tha orehastra and retraced a oirola.

Finally it laft while buying

tha exodiua. And ao lot thoaa of ua who would progress in thia nalio ganra follow thia part in tha aaaa ordar by whioh tho othar aattara wara explainad ralating to eraating a poot.

Lot aaoh aan know that it is hia

Auction to aing in auoh a way that ha both dalights and taaohaa. poat aay plaaaa by alagant baantifully variad rhythaa.

language, by pleasant apaaoh, and by Than ha aay aapaoially plaaaa by aong on

tha oooaaion of aaaa Joyful day. wall ohoaan words giva? dithyraabio poata.

Tha

What?

How auoh plaaaura do joined,

An aagar daaira for thaaa holds both aalio and

1 do not roadily agraa with Cicaro that if you de-

priva lyric poata of aong thara rwains apaaoh naarly unadomad.

Is it

unadornad baoausa it a a w a aora raadily suited to various aodaa of ainging ovar and abova

ovary othar p o w aodsratad by tha usa of anal a?

naarly all poatry, which has aora haraony? rsswblaa tha auaioian?

Of

Of all tha poata, who aoat

But it is hardly trua that thia kind of spooking

ia devoid of rhythaa or that aalio poata ara poorly opokan of.

Thay aing

with a softer and pleasanter haraony of aonga than our ears paroaive be­ cause for a long tiaadiausa haa aada t h w unaeouatwed to judge.

Tha

lyrio is vary effective in pleasing because it suits goda, heroes, and aw.

Xt pleasttiaaaasely whan it celebrates thair honors and virtues in

words and auaic.

By h w v w , no sound ahould delight t h w aora.

X oait

tha fact that awatiaaa tha lyric deals with lovw, gnaaa, banqueta, and othar aattara of that kind which ara aora inclined to grip souls with

6*6 pleasure.

The aan vho understand how auoh good aen do by fit priise and

propar invocation of tho gods will certainly ooo how isportant a work ho fashions.

And it sooas to so that tho aan who ia prdisod by thia plaaaant

song oithor at a banquot or at gaaos can bo inspirod to that for whioh ho eon bo praised even aora.

Ho who listons can bo oxeitod to oxool tho

aan who aorits ao groat honoring, for ovary aan realises that tho highest reward of virtue haa b o w placed in being honored. poet sovos when ho rooonoilos Qod to aan. and noble things.

Wherefore tho lyrio

Ho urges non to do reputable

Ho proelaias when soaething has boon splendidly donet

ho narrates delightfully.

Those aro tho duties of tho lyrio poet winning

high applause.

I think I have said enough about tho fUnotions of this poet. ao turn to hia notarial.

Lot

Although tho learned rhetoricians have fashioned

aany categories for everything, nevertheless, as has been shown, the ability of a aelie poet seeaa properly and especially to reside in praising and in praying.

His prlnoipal notarial oonoeras gods and aen.

In Borneo those are the praises of Mercury whioh begini 0 Mercury, grandson eloquent of Atlas, thou that.... (LCL. 33* £. 1.10.1.) These lines praise hianysue i Beoohus I saw on distant orags--believe ae, ye of after tiae— teaching hyans. (LCL. 33* 0. 2.19. 1-2.) These praise Augustus* Ve believe that Jove is king in heaven because we hearhlo thunders pedl; Augustus shall be deeaed a god on earth for to our aspire the Britons and dread Phrthians.

(LCL. 33* 0. 3.5. X-b.) Aadi

H i m I wished to aing of fights sad oitios woo, Apsllo chockod so, striking loud his lyre. CICL. 33* £. 4.15. l-2fl) Next gods sod son aro praised* What son, what hero dost thou take to herald on tho lyro or clear-toned flute* 0 QLiof (LCL. 33* C. 1.12. 1-2.) When Horace celelsratoa Augustus' victories, he exhorts us to congratulate* Now ia the tine to drain the flowing bowl, now with unfettered foot to beat the ground with dancing, now with Salian feast to dodk the couches of the gods, ay couradeal (LCL. 33* C. 1.37.1-4.)

And* Caesar, 0 citisens, who but now waa said, like Hereules, to be in quest of the laurel purchased at the price of death, rejoins again his household gods, victoriously returning froa the Spanish shore. (LCL. 33* £• 3.14.1-4.) In the Caraen Saeculare he includes a prayer for iaperial Bcae in the anoient aanneri 0 Phoebus, and Diana, quean of forests, radiant glory of the heavens, 0 ye ever cherished and ever to be cherished, grant the blessings that we pray for at tho holy season. (LCL. 33* £.S. 1.1-4.) Thsse are private entreaties for the poet hiaself t What is the poet's prayer to the newly enshrined Apollo? For ldiat is his petition as he pours new wine froa the bowl? (LCL. 331 C. 1.31.1-3.) And* 0 Faunas, lover of tho flying nyaphs, with kindly purpose aayst thou pass across ay boundaries and ay sunny fields, and in thy going be propitious to tho young offspring of the flocks. (LCL. 33* £. 3.18.1-4.) And oa behalf of others*

6*6 0 Vsnus, queen of Cnidos and of Ihphos, foraako

thy beloved Cyprus and betake thyself to the fair shrine of Olyeera, who suaaons thee with bounteous ineenael. (LCL. 33* £. 1.30.1-4.) Now he invokes divine aid for hiaself with those verses* 0 Mercury... ...utter aeasurea to whioh Iyde aay lnoline her reluotaat ears.... (LCL. 33* £. 3.11.1; 7-8.) And* Whither, 0 Baoehus, dost thou hurry as, o'erflowing with thy power? Into what groves or grottos aa I swiftly driven in fresh inspiration? In what oaves shall X be heard planning to set aaid the stars, sad in Jove's counoil, peerless Caesar's ianortal glory? (LCL. 33* £. 3.23.1-6.) Then he exhorts, or rather ooaaands aen to slag the praises of the gods to beg for the safety of the Bowen people* Praise Mans, 0 ye aaidens tender I Praise, 0 ye lads, unshorn Apollo, and 1stona, fondly loved by Jove supreael (LCL. 33* £. 1.21.1-4.) Praising Apollo with this Sapphic he prays* 0 Qod, whoa Niobe's offspring case to know as the

punisher of boastful words, idioa the robber Tityos felt and Phthlaa Achilles when well-nigh victorious over lofty Troy.... (LCL. 33* £. 4.6.1-4.) He praises fortune with this triple song* 0 goddess that rulest pleasant Antiua, aighlpto raise our aortal clay frca low estate or ehaage proud triuaphs into funeral trains.... (IM h 33* C. 1.35.1-4.) These lines pertain to consecration* 0 aaidon goddess, gusrdiaa of hill and grove....

...thine be the pine that overhangs ay dwelling.

(LCL. 33* C. 3.22.1; 5.)

0*9 Bonei w i t M auoh ia tha demonstrative vaia.

la praiaaa aen— Pindar,

Iaaia, Sruaus, Meoaenatea, and, aa I hava aaid, Augustus. praiaaa things too~*plaeea,

villas, vines, foontaina, virtues, generosity,

aodesty, innooanoa, frugality, and leisure. enooqpass tha power of poeaa.

Bat ha alao

Ba alao landkbly aaaka to

Neither ia ha ailaat about hiaaalfi

On ao ooanon or faabla pinion shall X aoar in doabla fora through tha liquid air, a pout atill.... (LCL. 33* £. 2.20.1-3.) Mor about hia own poatryt X hava finishad a aoauaaat aora laating thaa bronsa and loftiar than tha fyraaida' royal pila... (ICL. 33* C. 3.30.1-2.) Ha thanka tha Nuaa, whoa ha praiaaa in lika aannar.

Ha oangratulataa

Foapaiua Varaa,, who haa ratumad to hia own country unharaad, and ha advises hia to diaoharga hia obligation of giving Joys duo thanksgiving. On tho othar hand, ha attacks avil aan, proouraasas, and whoras. inveighs against avarloa, luxury, and covatouanass.

Ha

Ha often laaanta

aoaathing auoh aa a traa at whoaa fall ha waa absent, but whioh fall baoauaa it waa vaighad down. thay ara aortal.

Ha raprovaa tha graad of non vho forgot

Ha reproaches hia friends*

Xooia, art thou looking now with envious aye at tha rioh treasures of tha Arabians, and aaking ready for dire warfare.... (LCL. 33* £. 1.29.1-2.) Ha warns, or rather ehides then* Beast thou not, Pyrrhus, at how great risk thou touohest the vhalfi of tha Qaetulian lioness? (LCL. 33* £• 3.20.1-2.) And* 0 thou, eruol atill and dowered with Venus' gifts.... (LCL. 33* £• *>.10.1.)

650 He warns what a boy will beooae when ho haa lost tho flowor of his youth. Ho says> "Alaa! why lacked I as a lad tho purposo that I havo today? Or why to ay prosoat spirit do not ay rosy ohooks return?" (1CL. 33* £. 4.10.7-8.) Thoao seen to bo persuading. Tibullus.

Ho oonsoloa his friends, Valgiua, Virgil,

Ho Jokes with Tolephns.

Ho oxhorts thoa to guard thoir sonso

of abaao and to preserve religion. too long absent, to return hoao. precepts for right living.

Ho exhorts Augustus, who haa boon Ho guides boys and aaidens with tho

Those linos reveal what Borneo would havo

sold about hiaaelft I sing but of banquets, I sing but of ooabata of aaidans fiercely attacking tho young aen with triaaed nails, easy as is ay wont, whether fanoy free or fired by a spark of love. (IC1. 33* C. 1.6.17-20.) As Horace hiaself says, he deoided that the huaorous, not the serious, aattara were suited to the nodes of the oithara. to dinner, to drinking, to pleasure. own loves, than those of others.

How oftan he invites

How frequently he treats first hia

How properly he honors friendships,

withfrequent letters to his friends.

It is superfluous to teach these.

He professes that he did not laitate Alcaeus once, although noat of hia lyrios are love poaas and the poans have the odor of wine.

Though

Aloaeus very oftan descended to trifles and love affairs, he is a foratdabls scourge of tyrants, so that he shows hiaself better suited to greater aattera. About the natters proper to the lyrio genre, Horaoe speaks in this

toy:

To tho lyro tho Muao grantod talos of goda and children of gods, of tho victor in boxing, of tho horao flrat in tho raoo, of tho loves of swains, and of freedom over vino. (ICL. 19^j A.P* 83-85.) Stesichorus ahoved that vara and faaoua gonorala ean bo talked about in a olio aong.

Siaonidea initatod hia when ho wrote elegiea about tho

affaira of tho Persian kinga. naval battle fought at Salamis.

Ho uaod lyric verae to aing about tho If anyone cloaely oxaainoa Pindar1a

pootry, ho aay aoo that Pindar inoludoa tho aatorial of tho lyrio botvoon pretty wddo boundaries.

It is reported that aost of hia pootry waa con­

tained in seventeen books.

Besides thoao faaoua celebrated gaaoa and

vioterioa that ho sang about in four voluaea of songs, you will alao find poeas for instruaantal aoooapaniaent which wore aung on tho solaan festival days of tho iaaortal goda.

Vo find auoh a song whose beginning

iai Ia there any nobler thoao for our coaaencing or for our closing strains, than to aing tho deop— moned Lit6 , and tho goddess that driveth tho swift steeds? (ICL. 56* Tt . 89a.) Tho following typos aro also in Pindar:

narthonoia. which embraced tho

praiaea of aaidens | enthroniaai, whioh praised kinga aa aoon as they had taken their throne with kingly splendor; baoohioa, whioh wore sacred to Baoohus; danhnanhorioa. for tho oelebration honoring Phoobuai naoaaa. to prdiao aaaa god (thoao waro alao aung specifically to Mars before one enterod battle, to Apollo aftar tho battle); dances to aelebrate aoao joyous occasion; divine prayers and praises oallod hymns; dithyrambs and encomia which praise fhaous men; naenia. said to bo funeral songs. seems to havo remembered those poems.

Horace

*52 ...whether ho rolls new words through daring dithyraabs sad is boras sloag in asssaros frssd froa rule, or slags of gods sad kings, tho progeny of gods, at wboss hand tho Centaurs foil ia death deserved sad by whoa was quonohed tho firs of drsad Chinaera; or when ho sings of those whoa tbs XLsaa psla loads hia exalted to tbs skies, of bozsr, or of stood, sad oadows tbsa with a tributo aoro glorious than a bnndrod statuos; or laaoats tho young boro saatobod froa bis toarfol brido, sad to tho stars extols his provoss, his oourago, sad his goldon virtue, bogrudgiag thoa to glooay Orcuo. (ICL. 33* C. lf.2.10-4odoa. Syraousio aquorua aaanti, aQragioqtta fiagi. Bafnlgat illi honoa, alara ubi Igdo Palopi oolonia aat| quaa aaria potana, Huauaqua Daua continans aaavit, Ut ipsa ax nitido labata prodiit Polgana hnaaro iaa abnmao, Vitaaqna radditus. Quaa aultaqua aira, Mortalinaqua paotora Politaa quidaa vaniloquia aodia Daoipdunt eaaoanaa. J Convaraio. Faoit quaat plaoaant uti Cunota, gratia lata Viaqaa daouaqua praabana; fldaa at invaniant vaoui fiDa, ilia aaapa praaatitit. At dahino aaquitur, quaa Taatia aat gravia, diaa. Vamn anla oanara Honasta da QLia daoarat, Minor nanqua oulpa arit. Tantall puar aaeua ta, Ao vataras dioaa ago. Ubi ratribnarati Aoeubatianai ad aPtlar«, pdLaaqua Sipjrlua Vooatis, aaata aunara Dais, rapuit ipsa ta inolytua — n

669

Bavaraio. Tridanta, actus aaora aaQao; auraia in aquis ad Taota tulit aupraai Suparuaqua hoainuaqua parantis, Quo quidaa anta candidua Vanarat Qaniaadaa Fhr ainiatar at Iori. Atquv oua ipaa abaraa Iatana, diuqua iaa parantua Xnani patitua arBorai fuaua lllioo aat aarMo inaidia proadai, Quod adeo in aquaa ahaNo oalaata aaubra par, Saoant ta quidaa anaa panitua, fturatoqua at inda oaaao ad apulaa Minitiua hi axiaunt faaaa.— i %odua. % o ut furara vantra quanquaa Fataar Oaua, Abait. Cat ilia aaapa poanaa, aala qui diXarit. At ania potaataa apud poli Bonoa habitua ai air© ouiquaa aat. Fuit Tantalua illat aaxiaaa opaa, Sac oonooquara baud potia taaan, Planuaqua aruditaa Ad auppiio iua traXit. Naa parantia iapario Silax aupar ipai iaainat, Ot iUaa carara hie oupiana aisar ^ Disparaat dolora. Convaraio. Quid hoc daniqua triatiua, Itariuaqua aalorua? Cua tribua ilia quartua Habat, aaaiduuaqua laboraa, Surripit quod a Daia Naotar, aabroaiaaqua ut Coapotantibua darat, Unda aorta vacat, Paas, quod affioit, putat qui latara, ilia fallitur. Hand aora, illioat raaittunt Coalieolaa filiua, (Sanaa ad id hoainua Citaa aubditua naei. Nitor iaaqua priaua adarat Iuvanta, ganaaqua flora daoorana, Jtrata aibi habara praaaia — i

670 Swtrdo. Pisa* a Bag* parent* pulChorriaan Hippodaniaa Statuit, aatititqu* Mar* narnormn prop* aolua, InTOcarit undisoMon patr«i. Statin at ill* Aat* vine **t pad**. Sioqn* fatur. Ago, Anioa Cypridia D*a* doAt Noptun* cd tibi Qrata mat, ligato f«rr*An Oanonai laao**n. C*l«rit«r *tian Duoito a* ia ELidcn Quadrigia, d*ouaqu* trlbu*. P«r*n pti* d*e«n tribuaqu* ita viria Aaantibua, ia ip** diatulit l^podu*. Iugal* soboli* oubil*. flabit id p«rioli baud Za*r*. obir* quo* daaiqu* oportat, Quid «rit ut ooio iaglorios agaat Dias* dacoruaqua onaiun *«n*aoaat Inanaa? auboundua at boo nibi quidan aat C*rtan«a. Id *rgo tu patar Praaata, quod axpato. Dixit, naqu* fruatra. Nan oonpotaa p±a* pr*oia Adomat *ua, MunaraQua, currun Deua tun d*dit aureua, Alipadaaqu* pronptoa. ^ ConT«raio. Ita ill* 0*nonaun oapit, Coniug«nqu* pu«llan. Sax gauuit tyraanoa Populia dat* iura p*ritoa. Ianqu* babat pianina Ipa*, quando paraatant Alphaai flu«nta proPa, *dit* tunulo tfciaatua, aran ad inolytan, quo Tr*qu«na turba oonranit. long* oljnpia* rafulgat Gloria ourau PaloPia, ubi o«l*ritaa Ian paduun probatur, *t Quod audcna pot*at valid* ria. Potituaqu* laud* iur* fnaitur Quiot* o*l*bria, nao alt*run“ — i

671 Roverslo. Petit praeterea deaua. Quipp* quottidiana Quae fUerint, auprena Bona erunt. Deoorer* a*d illua M* lyra aooleide Log* oportet equestri. Suaaua *nin alni hospiten Non alius, parit*r Qui pra* oa*t«rl*t adorNor* Terolbus oanorls Conspicui oaratnis. Dous *t*nia HLero Araesoas, hooo* proridme Tuetur, quod intue aniao Volutaa. Nisi abait ill* oelorlter, Futo, lepidiore treadt* i Jfcodua, Canan, ao faoilior* curau Nua*rls reperto, Cito quidaa aotus ad nobil* ourru Croniua. Btenia ipaa ai Muaa oarainua Alit Talidua fulnen. atqu* r*bua Potantes aliia alii aupranaqu* R*g*a capita *ff*runt boni, N* quid supra p*taa Ipsa, at sit, ut alto Huno vitas ita aodgaa looo. Tot autaa *go vlotoribua Reponan, inolytus qui sophia ferar Qraiuganaa p«r ooneis.$h3 (ICL. 561 01. 1.) AgggggHji£*

Horace was right to adair* PLndar.

His iaitation

discourages all th* r*at of non because h* proposed to iaitat* Aloaana rathar than PLndar.

Aa Horae* says, PLndar ia gripped by a groat power,

"like a river froa th* aountain rushing down I" With how gantl* a ooura* h* glides through delightful plaeeal

Bow auoh air do*s h* fly through

lik* a awan and aount on high I How *l*gant and pr*ois*, how serious, profound, and finely wrought ar* his eentenoesl abundant 1 Doesn't h* rang* widely? length but without any offenae? th* aubjeot natter?

How fruitful and

D e m ' t h* unfold hia atorMs at

Doesn't he aptly oult his digreaaion to

Doesn't he auitably return to hia those?

Doesn't he

672 provide a great variety of rhythms and aetara?

Indeed he rarely repeata

a verse of identical arrangeaent which ia in precisely one and the aaaa aode.

In dithyraabioa ha aeeaa to ba carried by irregular rhythas per­

haps for the reasons given.

For who would have thought that tha apodio

lyric, whioh always had a three-part arrangeaent in the aaaa aode with so aarvaloua an order, deviated froa the rule?

The prior parta of a

period— both thoaa whioh the strophe precedes and those which alternate— are completely identical to each other.

They than answer one another with

just aa aany verses of tha aaaa kind and of like asters.

Verses completely

different froa those always differ froa the rest in the saae way.

Then

they are equal to aaoh other. Carbo. Suaaontius, it seeas to ae you have correctly noted both Pindar's divine power and tha rule ha hiaself observed in his poeas. ...whether he rolls net words through daring dithyrambs and is borne along in aassures freed froa rule.... (ICL. 33* £. 4.2.10-12.) As Horace says, perhaps the reason is that when those who were writing dithyrambs began to add imitation to it, they oeased to Halt the poea and alternate tha lyric.

They oaaaad to use tha kind whioh had a pair

since it alternates back and forth.

Sinoe in the beginning the aen

shi-snte froa notion because aany were unkble to not (at first tha chorus consisted of aany prominent aen), they used periods in which they answered to each other.

Thus when later aen produoed a song without a specific

measure, ao long as it pleased, and idion they did not set the tiae by varying verses, they were said to be carried by rhythas freed from the rule.

The more things a poet imitated, the aore he was forced to vary

the rhythas and meters.

Bhetorioians distinguish two kinds of speaking.

One they designate aa a ooaneoted type, linked by conjunction.

Preludes

673 of dlthyroabs illustrate this type.

They oall ths asoond type psrlodlo

and uninterrupted, as in those poeas whioh are alternated and* as we have said, joined in pairs.

But although a Pindaric ode aseas to wander aore

loosely and freely, its kind of iaitation is aore difficult.

The sane is

true where individual periods are extended through a wide variety of rhythas.

In the epodes now extant, the periods run to no aore than

seventeen short verses, amd no less than six.

I have used this saae

measure in the ode I translated, and I eaploy the three-part structure four lines, i.e., twelve stances. but the usage is rare Indeed.)

(You will find a poea with thirteen, Rarely is there a three-part structure;

aore often the structure is repeated three, four, or five tiaea. strophes nay vary in length; the epode aay be shortened.

The

Soaetiaes

strophe and epode are the saae length, even though they share no corre­ spondence in the aensure. You will indeed find an ode divided into eleven aonostrophes.

Individual parts of the ode thus consist of twenty-

two verses representing a variety of rhythaie modes within the saae aeasure.

Hare is a beginning; hicandor tis halilcia te latron eudoaon o neoi kaaaton patros aglaon telesarohou para prothyron ion anegireto koaon, Isthaiados te nikas apoina, kai Neaea aethlon hoti kratos exeure. Ho youths I go one of you to the gleasing portal of Telesarohua, and wake the festal triuaph-song in honour of Cleandros and his eoarades, as a glorious guerdon for his toils, seen as a recompense for his victory at the Isthmus, no less than for his winning the prise in the contest at Neaea. (ICL. 561 Ift. 8.1-5.)

Thaa you will find no cantioua of that kind which is not two-part in seas way at least.

There is also a cantioua which you can divide three

tiaes, four, or aore often.

Their individual periods include verses

which follow a different measuring aaang thmselves, although thoj do not have aore than twmty-two veraea or aeldoa fewer than eight.

When

our own lyric poet dividea a poea into aany perioda, he doea not extend the individual perioda beyond four veraea at a tiae.

Three of theae at

aoat aay have different rhythaa and aetera. Who would preaorihe how aany kinda of pooaa a aelie poet aay uae in writing?

Whan he eelebratea with the greateat variety of singing, there

ia alaoat no kind of verae he doea not uae.

Thoae who would note the

poetry of Pindar and Horace will have perceived this without any difficulty. Men have discovered certain characteristic aarkings used to distin­ guish poeas and parts of poeas* aa Poaponiue Qaurioua has sufficiently explained.

Soxibea aarked individual atrophea with a straight line, the

end of which ia aaaetiaes bent into an angle, except for the last period. They noted the last period with the nark which looks like a atar and ia oallad an asterisk. finished.

With it they ahowed that the poea was completely

But in that kind of poaa which haa an unequal part joined

with equal parta tif a three-part song, four-part or aore was to be re­ peated aa we have taught waa usually done), when the intervals ao divided were finished and distinct froa each other, aen showed thia with a curved line called a corona.

When the song reached its conclusion, they showed

it with an asterisk, aa in any other kind.

Whoever wishes to see this

aethod of notation will observe it clearly in the epode which we translated froa Pindar's Olvaaian Odes. Next I should not oait what is usually inscribed briefly at the front of the pom, i.e., the aaae of the aan for whoa the p o m was fashioned and the reasm why it was sung. short.

Par exaaplei

In PLndar inscriptions of thia kind are

To Heron of Syracuse, who won the horse raoe

675 (lyrio poets oallad tha horsa Riaranions); to Tharon of Aora^a, who won tha ohariot raca; to Megaeles of Athens, who won tha four-horse ohariot raoa; to Psaumis of Caraarina, who won tha four-horse ohariot raca, tha ohariot raoa, and tha horsa raoa; to Diagoras of Rhodaa, who won tha boxing contest; to Iphraaostua of Opus, who won tha wrastling contest; to Asapiehua of Orohoaanus, who won tha foot raoa; to Argotalas of BLmara, who won tha long foot raoa; to Hippoolaaa of Thessaly, who won tha doublestadiun raoa; to Timodenus of Athana, who won tha pancratium; to Midaa of Aoragas, who won aftth hia flutaa. tainad for oantioa to tha gods.

Ton will also find thia cuatoa mainThoaa nay oalabrata a victory with

thanksgiving or oafsty aohiavad through flight. aansthing with prayors.

They nay ask for

In Pindar's book thara is almost no song without

an inscription. Scortianns.

Xt occurs to aa that what you said about mslio postry

our own Minturno was aooustonad ago sings.

to say about tha Tuscan cantica that this

Ha has written many of than.

Almost no ganra existed among

tha ancient lyrio poets which cannot ba found in tha ill-sounding poems of Petraoh.

In tha apodas Patraoh copies those aonga (aueh ia their name)

whose last period alone differs froa tha rest (like an exode). epodes are all alike and of a single mode.

Tha

In tha aonostropbaa ha tries

those whioh have no section different from tha rest.

In tha palinodes

ha copies thoaa tdtioh have a final pair of versos joined with tha first lines, and dissimilar verses joined to middle versaa similar to one another.

Apparently ha calls tha songs palinodio in which tha name is

from tha sound whan tha same mode and rhythm of threes and fours is repeated.

Ha feels It is permissible to call these songs apodio if wa

make ana epode froa six versos.

Ha says thia kind onoa existed; tha

.676 Greeks o«ll it antithetikd.

Zf you ware to writs liko Siaoias of Hhodea,

who wrote the verbal contradictions of the 2 k < so the pose is titled1), you could write any nuaber of verses you wish, either of no single node or as you please.

The first of those which follow he nade equal in

rhythm and neter to the last verse; the second last is equal to the second fron the first, and the rest of the verse in the saae fashion. Septenarii and scnarii strophes are alike in this way, though they are not written in the saae order.

In scnariithe first short verse of the

second line corresponds to the last short verse of the previous line; the second corresponds to the first; the third to the second froa the last, and so on until the entire period is filled.

In eeptenarii the

first is coopered with the first, the second with the second, and the routining in the saae manner.

Minturno, therefore, affirms that acne

things are maintained in Tuscan poetry whioh the Greeks lacked.

In

these he notioed that the epode is connected by an unusual order.

An

epode oonsieting of two feet is sung in septenarii; and epode consisting of three feet is sung in senarii.

In Fetraoh he also noted that a short

song is written as a unit, with no coapariscn to what follows.

He him­

self joined the three-kind part to epodie verse after the method of PLndar.

He imitated other melic poets of

style and connected

dissimilar periods with a beautiful order. But those who write in Tuscan do not have aany kinds of measures. Ih Petrarch's books you will find oertainly no other measure except the hendeeasyllabio and septenarii.

So he plaoes the likeness of difference of rhythas in

especially harmonious clauses.

The exception is the method by whioh

the end of words rhyme with each other.

These are also varied.

verse may be identical; they may be of equal or different rhythm.

The The

677 parts of tho poos nay agree or disagree with ssoh othor. Carbo.

Soortianua, you have uadoubtodly added a naoasaary littla

appendix to tha things I have shown about lyrio poatry. will delight tha parsons plaasad by this genre.

I think thay

And it seeus to aa

that your friend deserves to ba praisad for observing thasa prinoiplas so baautifully.

Ha aarlts tha gratituda of all tha shadas of posts who

wrota poaas in Tuscan rhythas.

Petrarch deserves thanks as tha lsadar in

that aathod of writing bseauas ha was not radical in his poatry. ha urgss tha uaa of tha ancisnts 'aodas.

Instsad

And so with this littla eoaaant

I think everything has been finished and completed which should ba said about tha aalic ganra.

1 think nothing which is further required renains.

auanontius, does anything else occur to you? flmaaontiua.

Carbo, I not only praise you ianonsely, but I an vary

much aaasad as wall. has yet discussed.

You hava extensively and lucidly treated what no one What was desired in this teaching you ware able to

provide, and support it by whatever evidence exists. hava onitted nothing.

It saans to ne you

But Gravina, I order you to undertake what was

delegated to you so that wa nay know how to properly write iambics, elegies, and apigrans. Gravina.

I will comply with your wish, although if Carbo would

finish this part, ha would do it batter. ha olainad antiquity for tha lyrio poets. touched on this kind.

With tha age of ianbic poets For tha noet part ianbic poets

No doubt this poatry is so old that it rivals

tha heroic for priaacy in tine.

Vopiscus and Gauricus made it clear

that just as tragic poatryderived fron haroio, hava derived froai tha conic.

so ianbio la said to

It is agreed that at first tha most in­

fluential began to ba corrupted, and fron tha innemost vitals of souls

678 a paranoial fountain bagan to gush violant passions. vioa flovad throughout tha antira world.

Froa this, rivara of

Whether son sight laugh at

thosa vioas or appoaa than seriously, they vara zealous to oursa thaaa in thair aidat.

As it happans in speaking, so in cursing:

offarad thansalvas.

iaabs freely

Boats who bagan to attack stranga oustons usad tha

varsa aoat suitad and propitious to insult.

They draw tha naaa fron

insults, unlass you prafar it ba derived froa tha certain maiden who was so insulted that she killed haraelf.

Beginning in a shortened first

syllable, these varsas and in a long syllable, because tha insult whioh has arisen fron a slight insignificant causa ends in great ham.

Boner

correctly speaks about strife when ha says that at first its dawning is snail.

Than it soon lifts itself into tha skies, and travels to tha

heights and thrusts its head among tha stars. Who was tha first to write this poetry is a matter of dispute. Sana think Simonides Anorginus was first. hundred and six years after Troy fall.

Thay say ha flourished four

Many say Archilochus was also

first, and by far tha best of tha iaabio poets.

Whan poets orltiaiBed

aonebody's offenses oomnitted in hatred, thosa of a sinner in his wickedness, thay identified tha offender by nans. affective for improving behavior. which would merit reproach.

This seemed to ba

Indeed one was careful to do nothing

This was granted to thosa poets who ware

openly recognised as professional satirists*

Unlike tha oonio poets,

they did not hoatilely pursue tha universal type, but rather tha private individual. Therefore it is the Iambic poet's duty to insult in such a way that hs novas and improves nan.

Certainly the harshness of ianbio poets

not only threatens the shame of an evil reputation, but also disturbs,

679 perhaps profoundly,

for sxaaple, Iycaabus could neither aofton the

injury nor revenge tho insults.

Hs hanged hinsslf.

Lost Archilochus bs

biased for bitterly attacking bln, Horses sayat Bags arsed Arehiloohus with hia own ianbus. (ICL. 19^1 t S 79.) (I.think tha cause was too anoh grisf and tho fury of an uninstruotsd soul knowing not how to anand his aistakss sxospt by bsaring tho dishonor of tha insult.)

Zaabioa dsal with what is reprehensible, reproaching

tho faults and evil practices of non, thoso whioh aro lowd, dotostablo unboooning, and gonorally dlsreputablo.

Thia gsnro snbraoing tho

iaabio faculty justly robukos non who insult tho righteous and attaok tho honorable.

In tho following iaabioa how harshly doss Catullus inveigh

against Julius Caesar and Hanurral Mho oan look upon thia, who oan suffer this, except ho bo lost to all ahaae and voracious and a gaabler, that Manurra should have what Gallia Coaata and furthest BritAin had once? Debauched Bonulus, will you see and endure this? [Ton aro shsnoloss and voracious and a gaabler.3 (ICL. 61 Car. 29. 1-6.) Horace attacks Nona tho ftreedaan in this epode 1 As great aa is tho enaity between lands and wolvoa, by Nature's laws docrsod, so groat is that 'twixt ao and you— you whose flanks are soarred by tho Spanish rope, add whoss logs aro callous with hard shackles. (ICL. 33* fcod. 9.1-4.) Ho attaoks tho poet Mevlus for writing poorlyt Under evil oaen the ship sets sail, bearing unsavoury Mevlus. With foarfUl waves, O duster, reaeaber to lash both hsr sidesI (ICL. 33’ fcod. 10.1-9.) Thoso aro tho aen tho can toaoh us how to write this poetry.

Of

HLppenax, Archilochus, Siaonidos, and tho rest who wrAte effectively in Greek, although they certainly wrote anoh, nearly nothing reaaina whioh

680 ve sight use as evidenoe.

Despite tha fact that tha Iatina wrote laaa

proparly, auraly thay vara no laaa oonea m ad vlth' praialng and aoBatiaaa with eongratulatinf.

Catullus pralaaa a pinnaea; by Ita softness ha

had happily ratumad to hia native land. and Pollux.

Ha dedicates tha ship to Caator

While praialng tha Siraio Peninsula of Banacua ha adviaaa

it to rejoice

at hia aafe

oountry life.Ha prdiaes

arrival.

In hiaepodes Horaea honorstha

Maaeanaa adairably.

Ha invitee ua to rajoiea

whan ha celebrates Augustus' victory at Aotiua.

What?

Isn't that poaa

of Catullus aaatory, like ao aany others? Poor Catullus, 'tia tine you should oaaae your folly, and account aa lost what you see ia lost. (ICL, 6 : Car. 8.1—2*) These Horatirn words aaaa At

to aa fine ironytoward Canidia, tha aoreareas:

length I yield to thy potent skill. (ICL. 33* god. 17.1.)

Ba pretends to ask a favor, ao if tha old voaan'a potions drove hia to lava.

Next ha introduces tha vaaan who denies hia love.

Ha skillfully

aooks tha potion and crltioises it. Tha writer of iaabics will enploy tha aaaa aethod in treating this kind that Carbo told us tha lyric poet uses.

And ha will observe just

as aany parts, except for song and spectacle (although it was custoeuury for iaabics to ba sung also). the iaabuca.

Man oallad that to which thay sang iaabics

I aa aware that othar aen call it tha saabuoa.

Nor would

anyone deny that tha iaabio poet tella a story, as is fitting, and it is real.

Isn't tha asn who oritioises or praises concerned with notion?

What does ha

reproach unless it ba a shaaeful net? What does ha approve

unless it ba

dona wall?

poet digress

tram what ha proposes to treat.

vary few words.

Indeed ha does so briefly. Barely does tha iaabio Should ha digress, it is with

It is superfluous to show that thaiaabio post affords

681 characterisation.

And ha aoves tha graatar part of Motion.

our hata and indignation toward thosa ha criticises. of tha p o M is that

Ha stirs

Another division

whioh contains tha preface and an oration.

But

tha prafaoa nearly always occupies tha beginning of tha entire work, as in Catullus : To whoa an 1 to present ny pretty new book, freshly Moothed off with dry puaioe-stone? To you, Cornelius. (ICL. 6 : Car. 1.1-3.) Then sonatinas it is used with individual posns.

Thia line looks like

a proMt Sparrow, ny lady's pet.... (LCL. 6 : Car. 2.1.) This beginning includes a certain proposition to hold our attention: Who oan look upon this, who can suffer this, except he be lost to all ahane and voracious and a ganbler, that Manurra should have what Qallis Conata and furthest Britain had once? (ICL. 6 z Car. 29.1-4.) Horace wanted to show why he turns the point of his pen against Mena the freednan.

He begins this way:

As grant as is the enedty between lanbs and wolves, by Nature's laws decreed, so grMt is that 'twixt se and vou. (ICL. 33: lbod. *t.l-2.) He shows whan he is laspoonlng when he begins: Under evil oaen the ship sets sail, bearing un­ savoury Mevius. (ICL. 33* ftod. 10.1-2.) He begins this epode pretty skillfully with a question and a prayer: But in the nane of all the gods in heaven that rule the world and race of aen, what seans this tuault, and what the savage looks of all of you beat on ae alone? By thy children, I iaplore thee, if Iuoina, when invoked, oaae to help an honest birth, by this bauble of ay purple dress, by Jupiter, sure to disapprove these acts, why like a atepaother dost thou gase at as, or like a wild beast brought to bay with hunting-spear? (ICL. 33» Bed. 3.1-10.)

682 Tha iaabio poat narrates soaewhat simply, generally retaining hia own persona.

&

doaa ao in two parta, just like tha lyrio poat.

For

althar ha ahowa aoaaona alaa'a spaaoh and actions) aat Tha jdnnaoa you aaa, ay friends, aaya that aha waa onea tha fleetest of ahipa. (XCI•, 6 * Car. ^t.1—2.) Or ha apaaka aa if ha ia portraying hiaaalf apaaking juat aa ha raally ia, although ha fashions aoaaona else. Who can look upon thia, who can auffar thia.... (ICL. 6 : Car. 29.1.) Sonatinas ha alao aaauaaa aoaaona alaa'a persona. Horaoa doaa thia whan ha introduoaa Canidia, askingt Why dost thou pour forth prayara to oara whose gataa ara barrad? (ICL. 33t Ibod. 17.53.) Cartainly both of thaaa ara imitation.

What doaa tha poat who aaauaaa

anothar charactar in apaaking portray if not hiaaalf? hiaaalf apeak.

Ha would aaka

Thara ara, aa ia wall known, a wida variety of poaaa

lika thia, aran though all thia poatry would ooaa undar tha titla of iaabioa, aaaing that it ia proparly writtan in iaabio verse. waa devised to reproach.

Thia poatry

Tha inaulta of apodaa ara quite oftan pourad

out in hsndaeaayllabiea, sanarii, and aaptanarii.

Soma think that thaaa

various kinds of poaaa ahould ba aabraoad in a aingla olaaa.

And if

Quintilian'a atataaant ia valid— "Tha iaabio haa not baan papular with Rowan poafc* aa 4 aaparata foxa of composition, but is found aixad up with othar foraa of verae,"

(ICL. 12? t Inst. 10.1.96.) — than it ia

cartainly unnaeaaaary and inappropriate for ua to divide this ganra into aany categories. Naoct I wish to point out that I hava included tha poatry of iaabioa and some othar poetx7 undar tha aaaa rules of hendeoasyllabiea, whioh

685 Catullus usss to insult.

For hs has a few lyrics lika tha Cawsi

Sacculara. wadding poaas, and soae sapphios. sixad with a variety of rhythas and aatara.

fiiaple as it is* it is not Ha wrote tha entire corpus

in tha aaaa versa and allowed alsoat no othar aster than tha iaab. tiaes an epode intervenes.)

(Soae-

Generally a verse of four feet of the sane

kind follows a sanaril, as in Horaee: lupis at agnis quanta sortito obtiglt, teoua aihi discordia eat. Soaetines even a ooapletely different verae follows! Pettit nihil ae sicut antes iuvat acribere versiculos aaore percussua gravi.... There are two kinds of iaabics. for the iaab.

In the one other feet are substituted

Into the other a spondee is seldom injected and only in

irregular positions.

The foraer was in frequent use aaong the ancients;

the latter, and purer, was less ooaaon.

Although the first kind is

called both coaic and tragic, nevertheless the ooaic generally employs trisyllabic feet, the tragic bisyllabic feet. both interchangeably.

The second kind is properly called iaabio, and

writers of iaabics ordinarily uae it. rules.

The satiric is adds froa

Catullus religiously obeyed its

For an iaab, Horses often uses a spondee, soaetines even a dactyl: Deripere lunaa vocibus possun neis.

Add! Canidia pares vocibus tendon sacris. Occasionally even a choreusi Inxere aatres H i a addietua feris Alltibus atqua canibus hoedoldaa Heotorea. There is possibly another kind, called choliaabus. in the last position.

It requires a spondee

Barely does the position preceding the spondee

allow another foot for the iaab.

Catullus used this often t

68b Suffanus iata, Vara, quea probe nosti, Hoao aat vanuatus at dioax at urbanua. Ihough about laabio poatry.

Now lot ua talk about tha elegy-unless you

decide otherwise. flugagitiua. laabio.

It seaas to ne nothing raaalna to ba said about tha

Tou have left nothing.

ofegsg,

No ana doubts that tha alegy la wary old.

Hlnnaraua la

said to haws flourishad thirty-flva yaars bafora tha Seven Sagas. oalabratad his love for Nanno, tha fluta-girl, in alagiaa.

Ba

Solon la said

to have writtan a nunbar of sarlous things in verse of thla kind.

Ha la

also said to hava usad it to writa tha rulas for propar living, and wa know tha alagiao poan, "Salanls." Still it ia aridant that at first tha alagy was a funeral lanantation with which a w followad tha daad. ia aaan In tha atynology of tha word. than to weep?

Thia

What also doaa £ £ laaain naan

Ovid rightly sayst

...ba thou in tsars, 0 Xlagy, and loosa thlna undasarving hair! Ah, all too truthful now will ba thy naaal— ha, that singar of thy strain, that glory of thlna, Tibullus, lias burning on tha hlgh-raarad pyra, an aapty aortal fraaa. (ICL. kit Aa. 3.9.2-5.) Nor do Cioero'a words asoaps aat

"...that in tha caaa of aan who hava

baaa honourad by tha 3tata a laudatory oration la to ba pronounoad bafora an assaably of tha paopba, and that thia oration is to ba followed by a song to tha ausic of tha flute.

To thla song tha nane ’Nanis' ia given,

a word which signifies a sang of nouraing in Oreek also." (ICL.213* i s * 2.2b.62.)

I aa also aware that tha

sriLoediun. auitanhlua. and enlthanatiua.

naaas of funeral songs are I hava not undertaken to talk

about tha^dirga or in how aany nodes of rhythas and asters it is handled. As Carbo taught, aouming ia expressed not only in lyric poaas, but also

68$ in heroic, as is the east in Statius. to talk about ths slsgy.

Of oourss I intend (by your on— and)

In ths elegy it has bssn propsrly and firmly

established that it inoluds ths funsral dirge.

Ths anoisnts showed that

often, as in thsss words: Vsrsss yoksd unequally first smbraosd laasntation, latsr also ths sentiment of granted praysrt yst who first put forth huabls elegiacs, soholars dispute, and ths oass is still bsfors ths court. (ICL. 194j k . n 75-98.) Thsrs ars thoss who maintain that Thsoolss of Naooa— or rathsr, firstria— was ths first.

When hs bscans insans, hs sang this song.

It was oallsd

slsgy bsoauss whsn hs wsa insans hs frequently oallsd and rspsatsd ths first syllabls of ths word. to Midas.

Thsrs ars thoss who aserlbs ths asms thing

Vhils walling at his parsnt's funsral,, hs frsqusntly inter­

jected ths saas sound.

Thsy say that ths funsral fluts to which slsgias

wsrs sung szistsd bsfors ths dirgs.

Iatsr King Midas was said to haws

discovered ths slsgy whils prsparing to oooasnd his aothsr to ths gods. Thsrsfors it would bs ths slsgiao post's proper function to spsak So pitiably as to load ths rsadsr to pity.

Ths broad class into which

this poatry aost rsadily fit was ths honorific and laudatory bsoauss, as a funsral laasnt, its businsss was to praiss thoss who had diad. turnsd to lighter subjects.

Iatsr it

Boats who had dsvotsd themselves to lovs

affairs and luxuries wrots lovs slsgiss.

Thsy did so aithar to complain

(which was often ths oass), or to show their joy, or to entreat, warn, rebuke, or honor a ai stress.

Or perhaps they excused themselves, bagged

a favor, or expressed seas emotion,

dines ths aaorous type is by its

vary nature plaintive, it rightfully claimed ths affective power of poetry for itself.

Ths slsgy was judged to bs preoccupied with complaints.

Then slsgiss began to inoluds what was sadder, what was happier, and the

686 narration of notions.

Horaos says:

Vsrsss yoksd unsqually first sabraosd lasontation, Iatsr also ths sentiment of granted praysr.... (■CL, 19^1 A. P. 75-76.) Ovid sill ssrvs as svidsnos. in this fora or writing.

Hs trsatsd so many and suoh divsrss things

His aaatory posns ars ths Hsroidsa. Aaorss.

Ths Art of love. and Ths Hsasdiss of Lovs. might bs oallsd ralss.

Strictly speaking thsss

His funsral poems ars thoss which lament ths

dsaths of Tibullus and Drusus; his sad posas ars sntitlsd Tristia and b

Ponto.

Vary few poems ars happy, liks ths slsgy in which that post

oongratulatss Cassar Gsraanicus on this triuaph. and harshness*

Ibis attacks with vigor

Ths contents 6f ths Pasti ars dearly at ths outset

proposed in this way: Ths order of ths calendar throughout ths latin year, its causes, and ths starry sings that set beneath ths earth and rise again, of these I'll sing. (ICL. 255* Past. 1.1-2.) And 1 Hers shalt thou readafresh of holy rites unearthed from annals old, and learn how everyday has earned its own peculiar mark. (ICL. 253 * Past. 1.7-8.) Thsognis of Megnra not only wrote about games and loves; hs also wrote ssntentiae

and rales for living. And hs wrote a very lovely slsgy about

ths rescued people of Syracuse, whose siege had bean lifted.

In this

poetry Callimachus of Cyrene and Philetas of Cos flourished especially.

80 did Antimaohus, whose work, Lrde. is most famous. of his mistress, Leontion, in three books. Colophon. praised.

Hemesianax sang

Both these poets were from

As for our own poets, Aropertius and Tibullus are especially

687 You nay not easily decide what kind of poatry thia balonga to. Tor sane it ia salic, baoauaa in tha beginning it waa accompanied by fluta. Tor othara it ia epic baoauaa it often oontaina tha atoriaa of events and instruction.

Still othara aaa it aa a combination of both.

But isn't

it true that love laaenta, dirgaa, and funeral praiaaa which tha ancients usually aeoompanied with song nay ba judged to ba malic poatry?

What

about tha Haroidoa. Tha Art of love. Tha Remedies of Love, manners( rules for living, and narrations of accomplishments? placed in epic poatry?

Certainly song alone does not make a poem malic.

What kind of poem was not being sung?

Ia heroic poetry called aalio be­

cause rhapaodoi sang tha versa of Honor? called cantors.

Shouldn't they rather ba

In heroic tines these nan ware

Are Orpheus, Honor, and Hesiod regarded as malic poets

for writing about tha virtues of gods and heroes? to the cithers.)

(These poena were sung

Malic poetry waa choricj we do not read that elegiac

poets used a chorus.

like the iambics, these seem as though they should

be counted among the epic rather than malic poets.

Tor we agree that

everything is epio insofar aa it ia like the works of Orpheus, Honor, and Hesiod.

It does not need harmony, or action, or any external

prerequisite.

ELagy, then, is an imitation of sons completed notion.

is an imitation of a complaint, in paired verses of unequal rhythms.

It The

poet presents himself or devises another who laments and expresses what is sad or mournful.

He nay portray less properly something needing no

lament, for this ia a nixed kind of speaking.

At; one time the poet

retains his own personal at another he assumes a strange persona.

When

Ovid deals with Drusus' death in the elegy, he first has himself there to weep over Brusus' death:

0 thou who didst long seem blest, called but of late "the mother of Neroe," now ia the half

688 of that title thin* no nor* (ICL. 232:

Cons. 1-2.)

Sometimes ho m m t i i simply: At length when her tears allowed, thus dolefully she began, though sobbing ohsoksd her In midutteranoe.... (LCL. 232: Cona. 119-120.) Hs shows how Drusus1 dsath has affected his mother.

Sometimes hs assumes

another persona:

0 son, brief fruit, and half the fortune of a twofold birth, glory of thy aged mother, 0 son, idiere art thou? (ICL. 232: Cons. 121-122.) Tor he introduces Id.via who pitiably bemoans her son's death.

Generally

it happens that no one other than the poet himself is speaking, as: Ahl woe is met 'twas Cynthia first ensnared me with her eyes; till then my heart had felt no passion's fire. (ICL. 17: Hies. 1.1.1-2.) And: Let others heap up their treasure of yellow gold; let theirs be many acres of well-tilled grounds. (ICL. 6 : Car. 1.1.1-2.) On the other hand, he may say nothing.

Tor instance:

This missive your Penelope sends to you, 0 Ulysses, slow of return that you are— yet write nothing back to me; yourself cornel (ICL. kit Her. 1.1-2.) And again in the letters which follow.

We also find this type in

Tibullus who makes Sulpioia speak: Boar, spare the youth I lore, whether thy haunt is the plain's fair pastures or the deep woodland of the hills. (ICL. 6 : Car. 3.9.1-2.) Catullus speaks of the look of Berenice in this way: Canon, he who scanned all the lights of the vast sky, who learnt the risings of the stars and their settings....

68* •••that b u i Conon saw as shining brightly aaong ths lights of hsavsn, as, ths look from ths hsad of Barsnics.... (ICL. 6t Car. 66.1-2; 7-8.) Propsrtius prssants a ocaplaining door* I that of old was flung wids to wslooas nighty triuaphs, Tarpsia's portal glorifisd by hsr dhastity....

1 to-day aa bruissd by ths nightly brawls of drunkards, and aadttsn by unworthy hands asks aoan. (ICL. l8 t Kiss. 1.16.1-2| 5-6.) kith thsss words ths door rsflscta a lovsr's ooaplaintst Door pst aors dssply crusl than svsn ay aistrsss' hsart, why ars thy grin portals srsr olossd and auts for as? (ICL. 18t Kiss. 1.16.17-18.) Howsvsr you will find aany nixed kinds, as in Propsrtius: Msthought 1 lay in ths soft ahadss of Hslioon, whsrs flows ths fountain of Bellerophan's stssd. (ICL. 18: Kiss. 3.3.1-2.) And in Tibullus: Asnsas nerer-reating, brother of Cupid ever on ths wing, whoss exiled barks carry ths holy things of Troy.... (ICL. 6 s Car. 2.5.39-40.) Thia aay bs part of what prsosdsd or part of anothsr slsgy. Catullus?

What about

Aftsr addrsssing ths door, how bsautifully hs portrays its

rssponas to hint

Doesn't Tibullus' posa rssaabls a dialogus?

Priapus, tell ae— ao aay ths shsltsring shads bs thins, nor thy hsad bs harasd by sun or snows— .... (IC L, 6 i Car. l.Jf.l—2.) Froa thsss poeas you will sasily grasp ths brsaith and kind of slsgiao action aa wall as its length.

Ths work eannot bs too extensive bsoauss

it is not a uniTsrsal ldnd} it sssks what is particular and happsns individually.

Ho doubt ths parts which asks ths slsgy's fora ars story,

690 characterization, sentanties, and language.

It ia superfluous to apeak

about theae becauae Synoerus and othera have told ua what we should hold about plot and characterization.

That sane man is about to explain what

should be held about aentantiae and figures of apeech.

Again we should

not omit the fact that thia poem ia both pathetic and "mannered.” Aren't the «aotinns gentler where the characteristics of lovers are shown?

When

Propertius praises his mistress in the elegy, he shows that he has written frequently about her: You ask me, froa what source so oft I draw my songs of love and whence ooaea my book that sounds so soft upon the tongue. (ICL. 181 Hem. 2.1.1-2.) ■Having possessed him mistress, he expresses joy: Not so did Atrides rejoice in his triumph over Troy, when the vast wealth of Iaomedon fell in ruin.... (ICL. l8i Hos. 2.1*f.l-2.) He exouses himself for desiring her: Why weopat thou more bitterly than Brlscis torn froa Achilles' side? Why weepat with anxious eyes more sadly than captive Andromache? (ICL. 181 Hag. 2.20.1-2.) How suepioious is a lover's temperament! rivalry!

How ready he is to complain!

hindrance to his desire! his emotions!

How painfully he endures How he detests the smallest

How easily he is both moved and lead to suppress

Propertius and all writers of elegies will prove this.

Although love poetry is "mannered" for the moat part, aometiaes it is also pathetic.

For inatanoes

The girl I love so long is being torn from my arms, and doest thou, ay friend, forbid me to weep? (ICL. l8 t Hem. 2.8.1-2.) Nearly this entire elegy stirs one to pity. pity.

The following has even more

It places the most blame on his mistress:

6*1 So than, Propertius, m a t thou die in thin* earliest youth? May dlot lot hor rejoioe to 000 thoo parishI (ICL. l8t MLso. 2.8.17-18.) Nor or# thsss linss frosi Propsrtius any laaa pitiably spoken: But now, sinoa thou has chosen thia for thy path, 1 will plaid. Brine forth, ya loves, yat sharpar arrows, and vying with ana anothsr piaroa ay haart and 1st tha vital spirit fraa. Orsat glory shall ay lifs-blood bring ysl (ICL. 181 Hag. 2.9.37-^.) Juat aa in tha prsvious alagy Propartiua praaanta his indignation, so hara ha shows tha narveUua powar to lova.

XLagiea pourad out to bawail

aanaona's daath ara both "mannered" and pathatlo.

By Isaanting thsy

produo a pity; by praising and consoling thay express piaty and tha aora rafinad anotiona of thosa who wasp. alagy.

Thasa ara tha parts of a aoumful

What Ovid write to Id.via oan sarvs aa an example.

That division

into proaa and narration (which inoludas tha bulk of tha work) should not oonoarn us hara, inaanuoh as it is sonatinas obasrvsd not only in antira poana, but also in individual slsgiss.

for instance:

Lat othara hasp up thair trsasura of yallow gold; 1st thaira ba many aoras of wsll-tillad ground. (ICL. 6 : Car. 1.1.1-2.) Thia ia tha prosn of tha antira work. what ha is about to consider.

In it tha post olsarly propoass

What follows contains tha exposition of

thosa oattara, aocording aa ha rslatad tha events which captivatad hia. Wa aaa an individual prosn in that alagy: May tha gods aand battar fortuna, nor nay tha draan prova trua which an evil alaap brought na yaatarnight. (ICL. 6 : Car. 3.^.1-2.) This azordiun laata until tha narration, whioh than bsginsi Might's oar of four blaok ataada had alraady travarsad tha fimanant of aithar and bathad its whalla in tha dark blua strsan. (ICL. 6 : Car. 3.^.17-l8.)

692 Propertius begins with s statnnt: I will tell of the Tarpeian grove, of Tarpeia's shaaeful toab, and of the oapture of the house of anoint Jove, (ICL. 181 Peg. 4.4.1-2.) Then he narratesi A goodly grove there was, hidden in a rooky, ivymantled gin, and many a tree made answering murmur to ita native aprlnga. (ICL. 181 P.eg. 4.4,15-16.) Again he propaes by beginning! The priest doth sacrifices be silnt, all that hia aaorifiee aay prosper, and let the heifer fall aaittn before aine altar-heartha. (ICL. 18: Peg. 4.6.1-2.) But then he invokes! My Muse, we will tell of the teaple of Ifclatine Apollo; Calliope, the thne is worthy of thy favour. (ICL. I8i Peg. 4.6.11-12.) T h n he explains! By the Athaaania shores where Phoebus dwells there lies a haven, whose bay hushes the roar of the Ionian sea. (ICL. I8i Peg. 4.6.15-16.) W h n an explanation of the ensuing topic is to be introduced in books like fasti, it is necessary that the subject be proposed first, t h n trnted. deity.

This aay be d n e by invoking soae deity or scaeone like a T h n the narration nay begin.

You will find a pr on to the

individual books of fasti. Young a n , I do not want you to forget how one adorns an elegy with a frequnt but brief digression froa the subject, but the digression does cohere with the subject aatter.

Sinoe this is coaaon in Tibullus, it

will suffice for us to be aiaply reminded of it. lights us exquisitely by exaaples. similar:

The elegiac poet de­

These aay be sought froa what is

693 like aa the maid of Cnoasus lay swooning on the desert atrand whilst the bark of Theseus sped swift away.... (ICL. 18: ELem. 1.3.1-2.) There la also a comparison, as In this introduction* Hachaon healed Fhllootetes' llaping feet, Chiron the song of Ifcillyra opened the eyes of Phoenix. Medicine cures all the anguish of mankind. (ICL. 18* ELeg. 2.1.59-60* 57.) Examples nay be sought from the dissimilar t Not so did Atrides rejoice in his triumph over Troy, when the vast wealth of Imcmedoa fell in ruin. (ICL. 18* Elea. 2.14.1-2.) From an opposite* Not so was Calypso moved with the Ithacan left her and she wept of yore to the lonely waste of wave. (IC^ 18* ELem. 1.15.9-10.) Sometimes they proceed from greater to lesser* Thou mayest praise the beauty of Antiopa, the child of Nyoteus, the charms of Spartan Hermione and all the maids the age of beauty bore* yet Cynthia would make their glory pale* still less, were she compared with meaner beauties, would the harshest judge declare her the less fgir. (ICL. 18* ELem. 1.4.5-10*) What followa is anniificatio. to seek an increase from the lesser* Yet even her shapely form is but the least part of that which frensies me. Yet greater charms are there, for which, Bassus, to die with passion is my joy. (ICL. 18* ELeg. 1.4.11-12.) Those have been derived from verbal contradictories * So fair a maid as she had no shame to sleep beside an aged man, nor to heap kisses on his hoary locks. But thou, faithless, hatest me for all my youth, though thyself at no far distant day shalt be a stooping crone. (ICL. 18* ELem. 2.18.17-20.) Sometimes what has been done is told in its entirety*

69t Tithcmus was oXdf yst Aurora despised him not, nor suffarod him to lis Ionsly in the ohaabars of tha Hast. (ICL. 18 1 Blag. 2.18.7-8.) In thia narration tha poat digresses rathar lengthily.

Sametiaaa idiat

waa dona ia indicated: 'Twas not by art that fhoebe, Leucippus' ohild, firad tha haart of Castor, nor by adornments that Hilaira har aiatar won tha Iowa of Pollux. (ICL. 181 Elaa. 1.2.15-16.) And: Varsa kaapa tha look of Nisua purpla. Vara varaa not, no ivory would hava ahoaa on Palopa1 ahouldar. (ICL. 61 Car. 1.4.6>64.) Furthermore aantantiaa both short and pointad ara used to confirm what baa baan propoaad.

For example:

Langth of tima has taught lions to submit to man; with langth of tima waak watar has aatan through rook. The year'a flight ripana tha grapaa on tha sunny hillaide; tha year's flight oarriaa tha radiant signs along their unvarying round. (ICL. 6: Car. 1.4.17-20.) And: Balisva ma, thou haa no art can make thy form mora fair; Love himself goes naked and hates those that make a craft of beauty. (ICL. 18* Blag. 1.2.7-8.) Many which hava been called from esoteric and recondite writings and selected from tha anoianta' memory ara sprinkled about.

In elegiac

language a kind of apeeoh that ia uniform and mild, elegant and lucid ia required, just aa tha pure, compressed, and sharp kind ia required in iambios.

Besides, many poems of good writers offer themselves to tha

reader, aa aay ba noted.

These who taka note of theae would easily win

honor for themselves. Wall, than, let us briefly pursue tha subject of epigrams, as we hava been asked.

Why is it we find it preferable to many since it is

695 the shortest of poens? kind of writing.

No doubt wo can atato that thia ia th# oldoat

Aa aoan aa tha goda' temples war* adornod with gifts

and aonuaonta bogan to bo aado, it ia evident that tho opigraa bogan. Whan tho oult of aaorod things incroasod, whioh probably aroao with Ban, wo aay suppoao tho opigraa waa establishod.

Voraos woao insoribod on

taaba, on iaagoa, and on tho walla of sacrod buildings.

Thsy boro

witness to a divine cult; they preserved tho aoaory of non. waa an opigraa for than to preserve tho insoribod sang?

What also

Homer wrote nany

such poeaa, and nany would argue that no poetry in the store of literature is older.

A few of these are extant.

For example, he testifies that he

had received a gift froa Midas' children, the Apollo at Delphi.

fhiala had dedicated herself to

It can be translated!

"lord Phoebus, I* Hamer, have given you a noble gift for the wiodaa I have of you: do you ever grant me renown." (ICL. 57: Contest 5 2 0 Also when asked by Midas' relatives to consecrate the asaory of that Rirygian king, he wrote an inscription for the toab. in Herodotus' time.

It was being read

Let ae taanslate it:

"I aa a aaiden of bronco and ait upon the tomb of Midas. While water flows, and tall trees put forth leaves, and rlvara swell, and the sea breaks on the shore; while the sun rises and shines and the bright aoon also, ever remaining on thia mournful tomb I tell the passer-by that Midas here lies buried." (ICL. 57i Contest 32k.) Thus in tho beginning epigrams were aade on toab aonuaents, in asaory of those who had dedicated something to the gods, on the statues of gods and aon, on taaples, on public buildings, and on any magnificent and aeaorablo work. of Caesar:

For instance, Martial's epigram on the Amphitheater

696 Let no barbaric Maaphia tall of tha wonder of bar Pyramids, nor Aaayrian toll vaunt ita Babylon. (ICL. Haim. 8. 1.) Than thaaa poata began to writa about nany othar subjects.

Thay vara

abla to aay anyting briafly, alagantly, and pointedly--whether about a parson or thing, inaninata or animate.

They could write whether tha

subject pertained to praise or to insult, whether it waa aad and serious or faativa and aauaing.

All these aoods fall into this oategory.

history provided tha poet with material.

Often

Soaetiaea both tragio and ooaio

poatry, to say nothing of epic, tha leader and teacher of both, provided material.

Among tha Creek writers was that early poet, Siaonides, whoa

Herodotus recalled.

Alcaeus flourished during tha Vespasians' rules.

Than there was Archies, noble for Cioero'a defense, Athenaeum, Agathias, Antipatas, Palladas, Rtilippus, Antiphilus, Leonidas, lueian, Bianor, lucillus and oountless others whose epigraas are read even today.

Of our

own we have Catullus, Martial, and Ausanius, who translated nany Creek epigraas in his own work. It was their duty to speak in such a way that not only did they aeon to joke and amuse for the adairation of reader and listener, but they were also quite useful.

Through their humor they identified vices

and what ia reprehensible in individuals. witty style.

They disapproved

in smart,

They advised what should be avoided as shameful.

can be no doubt that they were useful.

There

They praised what they thought

■exited praise, for they were plainly showing what should be pursued as reputable.

Of course they stirred the readers* souls.

They excited

men to honor the gods when they adorned the temple entranoes with poems. They excited men to Imitate those who were commemorated by adorning the statues of those famous men.

They cleansed violent emotions when they

697 expressed those things which

hot*

pity or atriks fear into ons.

find very many of these concerned with heroes.

You will

As everyone would plainly

see, these very poets joke, scorn, rebuke, chastise, remind, exhort, priise, and

c o m b and.

Therefore an epigrammatic p o m is that which

briefly and sharply expresses what is noted to be worth remembering. is not always expressed in the sane way.

It

Sometimes the poet shows seme

natter aiaply,ast Gellius had heard that his uncle used to reprove any one who talked of indulgence or used it. (ICL. 6 : Car. 1-2.) Scnetiaes the poet addresses soneonet To this point is my mind reduced by your fault, my Leabia, and has so ruined itself by its own devotion, that now it can neither wish you well though you should beeone the best of women, nor cease to love you though you do the worst that can be done. (ICL. 6 * Car. 7 5 . 1 - 0 There Is even the case where the poet presents his own persona, as through personificationt Fond painter, why dost thou essay to limn my face, and vex a goddess whom eyes never saw? (ICL. 115* Sri-gr. 19.32.) Ausoniua introduces Soho, who speaks* Lord among streams of Ulyricum, next to thee in greatness, 0 Nile, I, Danube, from py source put forth ay head in joy. (ICL. 115* Srf.gr. 19.28.) The same poet presents a conversation: "Whose work are thou?" "Fbeidias'st his who made fkllas' statue, who made Jove's* his third master­ piece am I. (ICL, 115* Sri.gr. 19.33.) This is a union of both personaet Once on the strand of Sicily a sea-dog snapped up a hare speeding before the hounds. Then said the hare*

698 "Against both a u and land direct their ravages, parohanoa heaven alaot since there is a Dog aaong tha stars." (ICL. 115* 19.35.) Thera is no doubt that poms in this fora should bo brief— brevity is a rigid requirement.

For instance Cyrillua (he wrote epigraas in Greek)

felt that to write aore than three verses aakes a rhaneodia. not ah epigraa.

An epigram of two lines is acceptable.

He seeaed as if he

would like to enbrace the subject in a single verse, as in Martial: Cinna wishes to appear poor, and he is poor. (ICL. 95* fciar. 8.19.) I also agree with Paraenion, which I translate* An epigram of many lines does not, I say, conform to the Muses* law. Seek not the long oourse in the short stadion. The long race has many rounds, but in the stadion sharp and short is the strain on the kind. (ICL. Anth. Or. 3*t2.) Some of Martial ia thought to be long.

When he was accused of writing

an occasionally long epigram, he defended himself in this way* Cosconius, who think my epigrams long, you would be useful for greasing axles. On this principle you would fancy the Colossus to be tall, and would de­ scribe Brutus' boy as short. Lean what you are ignorant of* Often two pages of Marsue and of leaned Fedo treat of a single thaae. Things are not long froa which you can subtract nothing; but you, Cosonius, make your distiohs lone. (ICL. 9*h Spier. 2.77.) And so what the ancient poets wanted to be included in a few verse, those who followed in this genre--especially the Iatin poets— decided to produce in aany,thus exceeding the oldest rule of the epigraa.

Z wouldlike you

to imitate the ancients, or rather the Greeks, in this instead of our own poets.

A lengthy work kills both the chara and wit which are re­

quired above all in the epigraa.

Observations serious and witty— which

are called apophthegee— have greater force the shorter they are.

In

699 witty sayings (which this gsnrs resembles) shouldn't brevity bs used? it aors is left to ths undsrstanding than is plainly shown. thing bs pointsd which is spread out widsly? dulls when ws hold it too long.

In

Gan scos-

Ths sharpness of language

If someone takes away the sharpness of

the epigram, what remains with which to please?

Certainly I think it

true that the epigram contains much more than its form seems to allow— which is more proper to this genre than to any other.

As with any other

form, the matters which are explained ought to be no less credible in this genre.

SLther the words or actions should be explained in such a

way as is fitting and proper for the truth.

For example:

When chaste Arria was offering to her foetus that sword which with her own hand she had drawn from out her breast: "If thou believest me," she said, "the wound I hare inflicted has no smart} but the wound thou shall inflict— thia for me, foetus, has the nart." (ICL. 9^: Boigr. 1.13.) It is quite likely that she spoke as it happened. He, snatched away in my ninth three years' span, jealous lachesis, counting my victories, desmed old in years. (ICL. 95: folitm. 10.53.) This same poem quite beautifully depicts both characteristics and emotions, as in the previous example. When chaste Arria was offering to her foetus that sword which with her own hand she had drawn froa out her breast: "If thou believest me," she said, "the wound I have inflicted has no smart} but the wound thou shalt inflict— this for me, foetus, has the smart." (ICL. 9*»: Jbigr. 1.13.) Martial shows how intensely Arria loves; he leads the listener to pity. In Aunonius, lais dedicates a mirror to Venus: But for me there is no profit in this, for to behold myself such as I am I would not, such as I was, I oannot. (ICL. 115: Ifaigr. 19.65.)

TOO Ausoniua plainly atataa that tha old woman ia borad with old age.

And:

A Spartan aothar alinging har son's ahiald, "Raturn with thia," aaid aha, "or upon it." (ICL. 115* tolar. 19.H.) Thia olaarly expressed tha Spartan nothar'a manly spirit.

Certainly it

ia no laaa aatoniahing that a Spartan man aaid that following whan hia aon, who had achieved a glorioua death in battle, waa being carried in to tha great wailing of all* "Veep ye for others* a son needs not any tears, being mine, so glorious, and a S Baoauaa it can ba seen by all, by heaven, I will not ahow how thia poet portrays hia own emotiona.

How he adorns his speech with a short,

pointed kind of aententiaal Ha illustrates hia theme with such great elegance and splendor of language.

Just aa ha doaa not treat one kind of

subject matter, ao he does not follow a single method in the selection of sentences and vocabulary. loosely and gently.

He treats relatively insignificant things

The humorous he treata with wit and urbanity.

sad he treata seriously.

The aerious he deals with passionately.

all this according aa the poem'a brevity allows.

The He does

Although he uses

appropriate language, sometimes he usea it in a transferred aense.

Some­

times he changes the words, *fashions his own, combines them, carries them over, seises words to overpower, uses them to threaten, seeks them from antiquity, borrows them from a foreign language, arranges them variously, and combines various figures of speech.

But you will encounter nothing

harsh, insolent, or out of date. Veil then, you need an exordium in epigrams, don't you? the beginnings of books are just like proems.

For instance*

Let not barbaric Memphis tell of the wonder of her tyramids, nor Assyrian toil vaunt its Babylon. (ICL. 9*ti tolar. 1.1.)

Very often

701 And so forth.

Thsrs is nothing in tho opigraa itaolf whereby the

division into prologue and an oration is maintained.

If there ia some­

thing which has the advantages of an exordiua, it includes nothing more because the p o m is short. While ay book is new and with its edges not yet smoothed, while the page, not well dry, fears the touch, go, boy, and bear a trifling present to a dear friend who has deserved first to possess my trifles. (ICL. 9*f» Bpjgr. 4.10.) Or do you think these lines contain both parts and in than is proposed that the p o m is about?

As:

Do you ask, Flaccus, that sort of girl I like or dislike? I dislike one too yielding, end one too ooy. That middle type between the two I approve; 1 like not that which racks me, nor like I that which oloys. (ICL. 9L* Eoig. 1.57.) Finally what about the verse in which these poms are written?

I aust

claia that I aa not sure it is the kind from which either heoric or elegiac poetry is written. elegies are aade.

Generally it is the saae as that froa which

Sometimes epigraas were written in iambics or

hendeeasyllabios; sometimes even hexameters.

Martial notes:

"You make your epigraa in hexaaeters," says Tuooa, as I know. Tuooa, that is usual, in fact, Tueoa, it is allowable. (ICL. 9Ut Ibiar. 6.65.) Martial was even faaillar with season: Fulchre valet earlnus et taaen pallet. Charinus has good health, and yet he ia pale. (ICL. 9^: Baiitr. 1.77.) We have also discovered that the ancients occasionally used epodes in this genre: Unaa iuveneaa pastor forte aaiserat, nuaeruaquo iussus reddere aedeftoisse ooaquerebatur, sequi quae noluissm ceteras.

702 A nMthwrd chanced to have loat a single heifer, and, bidden to deliver up the tale, complained that 1 waa missing because I would not follow the others home* (ICL. 115* Ifcd.gr. 19*75.) Ausonius speaks of Myron's heifer*

Ausoniua also divides his hexameters

in half, or rather dactyls of three feet with an extra syllable.

The

Greeks call this poms an amhtheedmarea. Fain would I have such a mistress as aay lightly start a quarrel* (ICL. 115* fclgr. 19.89.) Nor aay you spoil it by saying that other methods of rhythms and meters can also be used in epigrams*

But I think it is sufficient to have

shown those which are used more frequently.

No one who knows that this

is the oldest poetry of all would have doubts about what verse was first used*

One should believe that in the beginning these were written in

the verse forms that poets first used*

And what waa that fora? Recall

that epigram, -having neither spectacle or harmony, this belongs to the same category as epic. These are what I have maintained about this poetry.

They certainly

sealed to me worth teaching. Coasua.

Since any of you who have discoursed on the poetic

faculty have discharged your office defining the poet so abundantly and clearly, surely nothing remains to be said. those things which are aaked of you,

Yes, nothing remains except

Synoerus, again and again.

An

explanation of these previous matters need not be extended further*

Yet

1 think many kinds of poems will remain whose method has not been ex­ plained to me*

I beg a favor of you.

Let me ask what you plainly think

about these before that pleasant but longer disputation begins. Syncerus. Coasua.

You begin, Cossus. What epic poetty is, what tragic, oomie, melie, iambic,

elegiac, and finally epigramsatic poatry ara, and how aaoh of thaaa ara writtan, I hava plainly raoaivad froa thosa aan who axtansivaly dlsooursad on tha ganras.

Ithvnhallic is tha poatry which was being sung at tha

fastival of Dionysus when phalluses ware worn. containing Dionysus' victory also. India into Greece.

Thryaabic is tha poatry

On his triumph ho brought it from

Oschophorica is tha poatry distinguished youths

ware singing while they carried tho vine branches with grapes in cele­ bration of Minerva Sciradis.

Dpilaamia poatry was recited cither to ward

off tha plague or to give thanks because tha gods had turned it away. SI111 ware sung to mock.

Proaulla ware sung first.

Bafora entering a

contest, tha parson playing tha cithara sung these proem-like poems to obtain tha audience's good will.

Also there ara many epjthalaaja and

monodia which you ara aware of and have found. mentioned all these enough.

It seems to me I hava

As for what category they belong to and by

what method and manners of rhythms they should be made, this utterly escepOs me.

Therefore, Syncerus, I earnestly pray you again and again to

Instruct me. I an aware that Silli can partially be inoluded in stage poetry and that enilamia can be partly classified with malic poetry.

The

marriage song is composed of both hexameters and some other arrangement of meters.

One character is introduced in it, and nany others too, I think.

I feel it would be a worthwhile thing for you to do if you clarified what kind of poetry this is. Syncerus.

You should ask thia of Carbo.

He handled lyric poetry

in its division rather distinctly and luoidly. Carbo.

But Cossus decided I should be excused if he asked something

beyond what I had undertaken. Cossus.

The law stipulates that a person aay make some judgment

about the accuser's status if he had grounds.

(This aot is referred

70k to aa dlvinatio. on

mcaaination as to which of several acoussrs present

is aost proper to eonduet the accusation.) I was afraid that I might not adduoe pertinent material from the person lawfully solicited. Syncerus, I would not allow you to summon into the discussion anyone appropriately asked. the discussion?

But idiom else should I ask hut the man who arranged

Ha may supply what has bean omitted and— in ay view— is

needed. Summontius. Since you call me judge and critic of this day's assembly, it is not beyond ay power to step in and then to defend ay opinion.

X do not believe this discussion has been arranged according

to religion or that it aay be sinful to ask what seems as if it should be expected of anyone beyond what was distinctly commanded.

Indeed you

have received us into the banquet so generously and with such ease, that surely each of us has the right to ask what he thinks should be explained, although it was not scheduled to be discussedI Syncerus.

Veil of coursel

And because you have judged it so,

Suamontius, aay that which Cossus asked be conceded at once.

We should

repeat the distinction Vopiscus aade in the first disputation. three sources froa which all variety of poeas aay be taken.

The first

claias facts— described in their distinctions froa each other. source draws on the explanation of things.

The second

Hen make this kind of verse

either simple or ornate and adorned by song. the very method of explaining.

Thsrs are

The third source resides in

As for this kind you can recall that many

aatters were disputed both visibly and openly.

(We said that we aay

narrate either siaply or by imitation, first in this way, then in that.) Thus all poetry is auanarily divided into three parts, as was said in the beginning.

% i e poets claim one of these three.

That category

705 contains all tha poems which require neither song nor danca. part is ataga poatry.

A aaoond

In it we include comedy, tragedy, and satyr-drama,

as wall as all tha others of that kind which are presented for viewing in tha theater.

Tha malic poets claim tha third part.

exist without tha harmony of voices and sounds.

This poatry cannot

W* may not consider that

any more olasses of poets exist than the ones we have shown.

For it has

been abundantly and extensively shown who are said to be the writers of epic, tragedy, comedy, satyr-drama, malic poems, iambics, epigraas, and elegies.

Furthermore I think enough has been seen Of these which have

been explained in the three days of discussion.

Thus we know in what

verse, in what narration, and in what mode a poet handles his subject matter. There are those who divide and clasify things so finely that if anyone is concerned with that which pertains to another, they contend that he does so improperly. is the oldest.

I certainly do not doubt that epic poetry

I maintain that in the beginning not only was nothing

else usually commended to verse, but that there were not even remnants of letters which ware not written in that kind of poetry. believe this. are

I firmly

Since then nany other kinds of poets have arisen and

full grown, each properly persuaded that the material he works

with is the best suited to himself.

He aay seise and appropriate

it as his own, and be so involved that he thinks it belongs to no one else. field.

For another to use it would be like invading a strange

The man who is not afraid to enter a strange field as if it

were his own does not wander in it as if he were the owner. ent

Although differ­

kinds of men nay claim the same possession, still they do not apparently

act to cultivate the possession in the sane way.

First the epic clothes

and adorns the same natter with one language, the lyric poet with another.

706 Then they nay present it to view. Therefore, Cossus, thoaa variad poems you hava raoallad could all ba claaaifiad aa poatry. all malic.

I avan think, aa you also do, that thay vara

Thay were aung, and written aa wall, in tha nalic noda.

In-

daad by varaaa and aong thay would thank tha gods, recount honora, and pray with a solemn invocation.

Tha epjthalaniun may ba written in epic

aong if wa expraaa aoma action in tha wadding celebration.

Catullus

uaae tha heroic manner: Pine-trees of old, b o m on tha top of Pelion, are aaid to hava swum through the clear waters of Neptune to tha wavaa of Riasia and tha realms of Aeetes. (ICL. 6 : Car. 6k. 1-3.) Aa happens on atage, he introduced first a chorus of boya, than one of girls. ^Youths;] Tha evening ia oome, rise up, ya youths. Vesper from Olympus.... (IC L, 6: Car. 62.1.) If wa attempt no more than to celebrate tha nuptuale, the poem ia arranged in malic versa: Colia 0 Helicanii Cultor. Uraniae genus. 0 haunter of tha Heliconian mount, Urania's sons.... (ICL. 6 : Car. 61.1-2.) What of tha poets called monodlats? personae aa tragic and comic poets do? way that they nay assume soma other?

Don't they discard thair own

Or do thay keep them in such a

But in soma ways.thay ara distinct:

Coadc and tragic poets introduce many charactersj monodista present only one.

Tha former use a variad pattern of songsi tha latter use a simple

pattern.

Nor are these poets conoeraed with tha same kind of poetry.

expect tha poatry of monodista to ba properly doleful.

Man

For instanoa,

while portraying himself, Theocritus wrote tha epitaph of Blon and Adonis,

707 whoa* deaths ha lamented. speaking.

Many poena fall into thia aane method of

lycophron1a Alexandra ia placed in thia kind.

If the category

ia aa nan define it, I do not know why it does not include many elegies-Virgil'a "Gallus," "Alexia,"

"Follio," and "SHanua," many of Theocritus'

Idylls, the Riarmaoeutria. "Cyclops," and "Amaryllis." Thus since the srme poem oannot be called by one name alone, the monody should not be considered a proper category.

Those men who write about diverse subjects

vary their treatment and technique. wrote in hexameters.

Aa we have said, Virgil and Theooritua

Iycophron revealed Cassandra's prophecy in iambics.

Or do you think that only lycophron's poem and those like it should be designated monody and the rest should be put in whatever categories their matter, or verse, or both demand?

The names of poetry derived partly from

verse, like iambics, partly from song, like melic, partly from character, like heroic, and mostly from the material, like comic.

However the high­

est kind in which we include monody we determine to be epic.

Wherefore

the poem in which Theocritus commemorated the deaths of either Bion or Adonis is called an epitaph.

The poem in which he sings the praises of

King Ptolemy is called an encomium. of epic.

Both of these come under the category

But merely because a single character is portrayed in both, it

is not fitting that both be called by a single word, or by other reasoning, called only by a universal and common word. Thetus.

Therefore if what you have established about the category

of epic poets is approved, is the silva an epic, except in that it is not contained in any specific poetry?

It is of no specific kind, nor is it

written according to aiyone poetic definition. Syncerus.

Why not?

freely where it wishes.

To it belongs the privilege of wandering

The limits bounding any field of materials are

708 not prescribed.

In th* absence of any spool fio rational* of writing beyond

the liberty to describe anything at all, the writer immediately claimed the power of freely versifying because he was driven by the poetic fir* of inspiration. poetry.

We call the product silva. as if it were a new kind of

It had its origin from the misguided exercise of youths, as is

seen in Quintilian.

Because young men in schools of rhetoric were ex­

ercised to adopt this mode of speaking, they fell into this vice.

As

Quintilian said, "cThey3 insist on first making a rapid draft of their subject with the utmost speed of which their pen is capable, and write in the heat and impulse of the moment.

They call this their rough copy

Csilva3. Then they revise what they have written and arrange their hasty outpourings.

But while the words and the rhythm may be corrected, the

matter ia still marked by the superficiality resulting from the speed with which it was thrown together."

(ICL. 127*

Inst. 10.3.17.)

Learners writing poetry followed this method, as if they had meant to imitate the ancients.

These gentlemen thought that the ancients practiced

beforehand in their great works by using a more careless styl^.

When th*

ancient writers wrote Culex and Batrachomiomachia. they wrote in nearly all this material as if these were first drafts. flourished in this kind of poetry.

Our own Papinius especially

He flourished in such a way that if

ha had been truly accomplished only in heroic poetry, he might certainly be reputed to be among th* greatest poets.

But some men choose to excel

far nor* in the easier verse which requires less tine than that which demands many days of hard work.

They extemporaneously pour out the

energy of their talent as if, by daily study, their heat would cool and all their creativity dry up and fad* away. But let me return to the point where the discussion digressed.

A

poet is oallsd a nonodist when he has followed the rule we have written

709 downi also ha will miss what is mora clearly and proparly designated by that naina, like, for instance, Iycophron in his Alaxandra and tha dirges ha sang for tha daad.

One reads that a tragedy's monody is partial and

personal, and tdiat constitutes a separata and specific poem has bean derived from it.

Man define tha song to be a lamentation which is

poured out by tha sound of a single parson weeping and not by a choric ensemble. Next, there is parody. into comedy.

In it a speech from tragedy was transformed

Because the tragic and sad gravity of speaking had been dis­

carded, the speech inclined more to comic wit and gaiety. derives from the fact that the song is changed. delightful.

This genre is wholly

Hegemon of Thasos imitated this way; he was the first to

call his poems parodies. persons.

Its name

In them he describes humorous matters and

Baeotua and Ihboeus, who followed him, deserved first prise

in that poem.

Also there was Hermogenes, Matron, and the rest whom

Athenaeus quoted.

According to Athenaeus, HLpponax, who wrote iambics,

was the discoverer of parody. we classify by its matter.

Parody falls within the comic genre, if

Aristoxenus tells us that it was written in

hexameters, and quotations from Athenaeus serve as evidence.

Ifeioharnus

of Syracuse, Cratinus, and Hermippua used parody in comedy, although only in a few instances. What about the writers of shorter works? poets?

Should they be counted as

Surely they attmspted no more than to please the people by ex­

citing laughter beyond poetic decorum.

Consider the phallophori. who

are also called dioelistae, sophists, and triflers. mamoedi. and hilaroedi. poetry.

Or the ithrahalli.

We may suppose that all these belong to stage

The phallophori were wound with wild thyme and smeared with

ointment, and had a chaplet entwined with violets and ivy.

When entering

710 the theater they saluted Bacchus. whoaever they met.

In their running around they mocked

The ithynhalli portrayed the oharaeter of a drunkard.

They were crowned and had garlands of flowers to cover their hands, and they wore somewhat white tunics. covering down to their heels.

They were girded with a Tarantine

They entered the middle of the orohestra

in silence, turned to the spectators, and questioned them.

They withdrew

from the area and left a wide distance for the god who was about to enter. They threw soot on those they encountered. cymbals and womanish clothing. indecorous,unbecoming.

The majtoedus used tympani,

Everything he did was immodest and

He portrayed women, adulterers, and masturbators.

Sometimes he depicted a drunk man acting wantonly with his mistress. They say that Chrysogonua Magus was the first such poet, and he made the poetry lascivious and obscene.

The name derives either from him or

preferably, from the practice of this class of poets of presenting cer­ tain magical tricks and demonstrating the power of potions. hand, the hilaroedus joined the serious with the amusing. in white, manly fashion.

On the other He was dressed

He was adorned with a golden chaplet; in the

beginning he usually wore shoes, then sandals. aooompanied this man with harps.

Both a man and a woman

He was given the crown, not the

harpist— just as the one who sings to the flute receives the crown, not the flautist.

Just as the hilaroedia comes olosest to tragedy, so the

maaoedia comes olosest to eomedy.

The maaoedus took up many comic

arguments, all relevant to his own character and behavior. What about ionic poems, the genre in which Sotades Maronea was most effective? Aren't they subtle, embarrasing, and insulting?

What

about amatory verse call locrica? Archilochus imitated the ionic in his verse; Anacreon, the locrlc.

(biesippus invented poems which he called

711 nyotsrina.

Don't they introduce women who have musical instruments—

iambuoa and triangle?

Don’t they concern night matters-adulteries,

fornications, and the equabblinga of adulterers? But why do 1 mention so many lesser forms? individually.

The day would fail me before I examined them all

As for the genres that are the greatest in all of poetry,

we have shown them all separately and lucidly.

Surely no manner of poetry

is so unique and so distinct from all the rest that it cannot be classified in some one of those genres. Scortianus.

Syncerus, doesn't it disgust you to prod into the light

from out of their hiding places so many vulgar poets or rather families of actors who have been oast aside? Mot only have they bema buried in oblivion of time, but they have been suppressed by obscurity and their own basenessI

And if it please the godsf could you neglect to refer to

the aristocracy of lesser families, like writers of satire, so that you do not say one word about thma? Nevertheless they were worthy to have some discussion about them because their poetry is altogether charming. Having been founded to reform behavior pretty sharply, it has merit. Its writers deserve mention beoause the poetry was entirely Iatin, a discovery of the Iatins, and we surely have a duty toward them. Synceras.

That is true, and your reproach was so pleasant, so

clever, so appropriate. Scortianus. to interrupt you.

I was disturbed for some time, now, but I mas afraid Now seeing that the discussion is hastening toward

the peroration, I have said what 1 felt. frank with you, I ask your indulgence.

Because I have been a bit You are a grave elder, easily

the leader in every distinction of learning.

Be favorable to the youths

who have boldly asked you to explain your thinking. so generouiiy.

You have acquiesced

712 Synoerua.

You ara quit* right in what you confidently do with na.

I thought you had enough of these matters which Gaurlcua and Vopiacus so extensively taught about satyr-draaa. ancient genre.

Our own form derived from that

Whan the latina changed the poems, they retained the

harshness of style in the mocking.

I do not think any of you are

ignorant of Horace's lines! Zfcipolis and Cratinus and Aristophanes, true poets, and the other good men to idiom Old Comedy belongs, If there was anyone deserving to be drawn as a rogue and thief, as a rake or cut-throat, or as scandalous in any other way, set their mark upon him with great freedom. It is on these that luoillus wholly hangs; these he has followed, changing only metre and rhythm. Witty he was.... (1CL. 194: Sat. 1.4.1-7.) Poaponius Gauricus clearly and extensively taught what deserves notice about Old Comedy. assignment.

The rules for satire seem to be a job beyond his

We have undertaken to treat that which pertains to making

the satiric poet.

But Horace does not think satirists should be included

in the roster of poets.

He speaks of himself:

First I will take my own name from the list of such as I would allow to be poets. For you would not call it enough to round off a verse, nor would you count anyone poet who writes, as I do, lines more akin to prose. (XCL, 194: Hat. 1.4.39-42.) He defines the poet in this way: If one has gifts inborn, if one has a soul divine and tongue of noble utterance, to such give the honour of that name. (ICL. 194: Bat. 1.4.43-44.) flcertianus.

If this were Horaoe's considered opinion, then by

that logio oomio poets are less appropriately called poets because, as Horaoe says: ...for neither in diotion nor in matter has it the fire and force of inspiration, and, save that it differs from prosetalk in its regular beat, it is mere prose.

713 And b o 'tis not enough to writ* out a line of simple words such that, should you break it up, any father whatever would rage in the same fashion as the father in the play. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.4.46-48j 54-56.) Synoerue. And indeed: Hence sane have questioned whether Coaedy is or is not poetry. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.4. 45-46.) But I do not at all agree that neither coeiedy nor satire is poetry, because as Horace says: ...for neither in diction nor in matter has it the fore and force of inspiration, and, save that it differs from prosetalk in its regular beat, it is mere prose. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.4. 46-48.) And if you take away: ...their regular beat and rhythm— change the order of the words, transposing the first and the last— and it would not be like breaking up: When foul DiscordPa din War's posts and gates of bronze had broken in, where even when he is dismembered, you would find the limbs of a poet. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.4.56-62.) You may not recognize the language of poetic speech, as if the poet's faculty rests in the arrangement of words and not in the invention of things. another.

Nor may anyone be a poet for having selected one language over For if a man deserves to be called poet who creates a story

rather than a song, who tells of an event as it should be believed to have happened rather than as it would have happened, who deals with the universal rather than particular (as we have determined on Aristotle's authority), wouldn't it be necessary that comedy be more truly called a poem?

Those who write satires should not be reckoned in this number

because they do not pursue the purity of language and the simple method of speaking.

Yet when satire is properly done, no less honor is paid to

71^ it.

But satirists show nothing of what has bean fashionsd, only what

has in fact, bsan dons.

Juvenal corrsctly says:

This is no asrs fable, but a true tale that is being told. (ICL. 91: flat. 4.3^35.) And in Horace: Of this enough. Bone other tine we'll see whether this kind of writing is true poetry or not. (ICL. 19^: flat. lA.63-6k.) To comply with Scortianus* wish, let us talk about satire and what it obviously is. as the author, stage.

No one doubts that it was discovered at Home with Iucilius for it had been forbidden by law to censure any one on

A few men remained in the city against whoa the comic poets had

drawn the battle line of their pens, because their victims had not been ashamed to be malicious.

These men made Iucilius intensely angry.

Be­

cause he could not bear the vices and evil manners of his own day, he devised a new kind of writing to deal with them.

This he called satire

because it resembled that ancient satyr-drama mockery which Oauricus and Vopiscus discussed.

He took on the order of epic poets by his cue

from the epic poets by handling stage plots and characters and by changing senarii into hexameters.

He so preserved the ancient force of

bitter invective that he crltieized citizens by name.

Perhaps he thought

this was licit far him because he did not introduce them in the theater to be aooked as comic poets had done.

Nor did the leading citizens

become indignant that evil behavior was being noted.

Those who followed,

however, complained that the freedom to reproaoh had been taken from them.

Persius is indignant: And yet Iucilius flayed our city: he flayed you, lupus, and yon, Kudus, and broke his jaw over you. (ICL. 91* Sat. l.UA-115.)

715 And Horaoet What I when Iucilius first darad to oompoae posas aftar this kind, and to strip off ths A i n with which eaofc strnttsd all bsdsoksd hsfors ths sjss of nan, though fool within, was laalius offsadad at his wit, or ha who took his wall-aarnad naas froa oonquarsd Carthago? Or wars they hurt baoauso Mstsllus was aaittan, and lupus burisd undar a ahowar of lsapooaing verses? Tat ha laid hold upon tha loaders of tha psopla, and upon tha paopla in thair tribaa, kindly in faet only to Virtue and her friends* (ICL. l$kt Sat. 1.62-70.) Both wars warned not to write satire.

But Horace aaaaad to aoom that

law and to ridicule: cTrej If a nan write ill ▼arses against another, there is a right of action and redress by law. tBor.] To be sura, in ease of ill verses. But what if a nan compose good verses, and Caesar's judgement approve? If he has barked at seasons who deserves abuse, hisaelf all blameless? cTre.j The ease will be dismissed with a laugh. You will get off soot-free. (LCL. 19*ti Sat. 2.1.82-86.) Nevertheless he did not use the ease method in his criticising. disarming manner and his art in rebuking were wonderful. sensed to joke end to write fictions. of reproach.

His

At first he

Then he gradually hurled the barbs

The throwing was not notioed at all before the barbs were

received and felt within the entrails of the soul. imitated Iucilius.

Peraiusand Juvenal

They mentioned by name living men who hadpower.

They poured out the full force of their stinging wit in wounding people. Of the two Juvenal is more inclined to this style. gives a looser rein to indignation. details of vices more explicit.

When he rebukes, he

He makes the most insignificant

Therefore just as you speak of the

body's illnesses and wounds as the matter of medicine, so we may call the sicknesses of the soul the matter of the faculty to which satirio

7*6 poetry belongs.

Both propose health as their goal— the one of the body,

the other of the soul.

Aleo they oure in different ways—

medicine uses

things, satire words| aedioine with a bitter potion, satire with harsh reproach.

The philosophy of passions which sicken the soul is a medicine,

and the philosopher reproaches to oure vices.

The writer of satires

understands that the function of his faculty is not the same as philosophy, i.e., to consider virtues and their opposites.

Instead, the satirists

function is to reproach in verses, with wit, humor, and even distaste in order to reform behavior.

Although he sometimes advises and teaohes men

to follow what is reputable and flee what is shameful, still you see by the way he presents himself that he is a satirist, not a philosopher. The satirist oovers positive preoepts in few words. he is quite careful "or you will think I have rifled eyed Crispinus."

(ICL. 19*frt Hat. 1.1.120-121.)

And as Horaee says, the soils of blear-

Crispinus was poorly

spoken of because he included Stoic teachings in more of his poems than was fitting, and was by nature too talkative. Therefore with these things in mind satire can be defined as an imitation of some evil and corrupt notion.

It is written in unadorned

verses, with pure but stinging speech, in order to reform a person's life.

It is written with universal rather than particular application.

In this it is distinct from iambic poetry which sharply chastises the faults of individuals.

In ay judgment the satirist does not burst into

reproach before he has prepared his listener's mind to receive the rebuke in wit so that the reoipient does not feel the sting before he has received the entire barb in his mind without taking offense. this the satirists imitate dootcrs.

In

They deceive the patient's taste by

tempering their prescription with a sweet spice. not taste the bitterness in the drink.

Thus the patient does

To illustrate the proper way of

doing this, I call an Borneo, no I have often done: Furthermore, not to akin over the subject with n laugh like n writer of witticisms— and yet what is to prevent one from telling truth as he laughs, even as teachers sometimes give cookies to children to coax then into learning their A B C ? (ICL. 19^: Sat. 1.1.23-27.) Before treating serious natters he mollifies the nan he is reproaching by using jokes.

He also does that whioh is present in old and new satire,

i.e., by pouring out huaor he oritieizes vices} when he laughs he touches on serious natters.

By this laughter he cleverly masks his indignation

and works his way into the reproof.

Persius does this up properly t

Horace, sly dog, worming his way playfully into the vitals of his laughing friend, touches up his every fault} a rare hand he at flinging out his nose and hanging the people on it I (ICL. 911 sat. 1.116-118.) Nor does it escape me that other satirists burst in more violently and openly to vomit the poison of offense.

I have given evidence of this.

I think Scortianus asks that I bring to light what is hidden, not what is evident.

So I have decided that the art which satirists use in re­

proaching should be made clear, not the indignation whioh by nature bursts openly from the mind's hidden recesses.

I approve more of that

method of reproving whioh is more effective in reforming behavior. I have said, satirists have proposed this end for themselves. anyone can bear the bluntness of reproach with equanimity.

As

Hardly

Under direct

oritieism the faults with whioh the reformer struggles become more serious.

Doesn't the wild beast become fiercer and more stubborn with

the trainer's harshness?

1 think it would be worth our while, therefore, to examine how the satirist would boot handle his genre.

Horace decided he himself would

be crafty in rebuking what deserved reproach, even to seem to function as

718 a friend.

He appeared to have excelled in tvo ways.

refora what he thought needed s (formation. dlaouesion with those he la addressing*

First he tried to

He opens by entering a

He nay try covertly to convey

his censure to his listener* whether what deserves reproach pertains to hin or to sonebody else*

Or he nay caution, or edify.

He is said to

have written in proper dialogue, and he cleverly confesses he does not "chat" by preference* And for nyself, I should not prefer ny "chats" that crawl along the ground* •••if only I had power equal to ny longing. (ICL. 19k: lfe. 2.1.250-251; 257.) Sometimes he oalls what he writes seraones* Judging from what he said about conedy, there is no doubt he would say the sane about satire.

The

speech would be pure and conversational unless meter makes it unusual. Hew beautifully he explains a father's rules1 He does this while educating his son to virtuous living. first in this, then in that.

He notes what should be fled,

I am silent about how much that he notes

by nane, hardly ever in the seme fashion (as if slipping through a snare). He nay join the amplification with a certain hyperbole* The other instances of this kind— so many are they— could tire out the chatterbox Fabiua. (ICL. 19*ft Sat. 1.1.13-10 And* To be caught is an unhappy fate* this I could prove, t r n with Fabius as umpire. (ICL. HMn Sat. 1.2.130 The first Fabius is very talkative} the second is derogated as the worst adulterer.

He may use comparison t So do not survey bodily perfections with the eyes of a lynoeua and be blinder than Hypaaea, when you gase upon deformities. (ICL. 19^1 Sat. 1.2.90-92.)

719 And* ...sane men would call him nor* insane than Iabeo. (ICL. 194* Sat. 1.3.82.) Andt ...bold and blustaring and so bitter of speech as to outstrip a Sisenna or a Barrua with the speed of white couraets. (ICL. 194* fiat. 1.7.7-8.) In declaring that Persius was acre mailclous in his Insults than fiissnna and Barrua, he flays both Sisenna and Barrus, though ostensibly aiming at only Persius.

Or he uses example*

...lest you fare like a certain Uaaidius— 'tis a short story— so rich.... (ICL. 194* Sat. 1.1.94-95.) By this he shows that nothing was aore aiserly and aore greedy.

And*

"What, then, would you have ae do? live as a Naevius or a Nomentanus?" Tou go on to set opposites in head to head conflict with each other. Whan I call on you not to be a aiser, I aa not bidding you beeoae a worthless prodigal. (ICL. 194* fiat. 1.1.101-104.) In both cases there is a digression, as often occurs elsewhere. cases he irritates slightly,

In many

for instance*

In a matron one can see only her face, for unless she be a Cat!a, her long robe conceals all else. (ICL. 194* fiat. 1.2.9 M 5 . ) And* Hufillus smells like a scent-box, Q&rgonius like a goat. (ICL. 194* fiat. 1.2.27.) And* ...with freedwoaen, I mean} after whoa Sallustius runs just as wild as an adulterer. (ICL. 194* Sat. 1.2.48-49.) ficaetiaes he suppressed the naae of the aan he intended to irritate*

720 I was strolling by chance along ■using aftar ay fashion on sons and wholly intant thereon, whan ■an I knew only by nane. (LCL.

tha Sacred Way, trifla or othar, up thara runs a 19*tt Sat. 1.9.1-3.)

Hara Horaoa portrays an inapt, inpudent, and uncivil nan. find axaaplas of thasa kinds in othar paats.

You will also

Wall than, how wittily and

cleverly ha works his way to raproach many nan.

Ha seens to claanaa

and cleansing ha is, and biting, if you like baoausa ha writes satires: To-day tha only question I'll ask is this, whether you are right in viewing it with distrust. Keenscented Suloius and Caprius stalk about, horribly hoarse and anted with writs. (ICL. 19*m Sat. l.it.6lf-66.) What follows is just as witty when he portrays Trebatius, who advised hia not to write satiric poetry.

How cunningly ha shows othar nan's

insults toward hia baoausa ha was born of a freednan father. rebuke their judgeent of preferring a noble birth to virtues. anuaingly and cleverly ha nooks huaan folly. hiaaelf.

Ha would How

Hara ha does not even spare

To inveigh against othar nan without offense ha introduces

Deaasippua who shows his own folly while oritioiaing stupid nan. about whan ha is about to nook tha sect of %iourus?

What

Doesn't ha portray

Catius, a nonbar of that saot, who tells tha Epicurean rules for appoint­ ing a table?

Doesn't Horaoa vary wittily disparge nan who have dedicated

theaselves to tha stOMoh? Nasidienua1 banquet? Haaidianus?

What about when ha has Fundaniua tall of

Doesn't Horaoa acorn tha vulgar and inept haste in

Doesn't ha reproach tha iapure greedy gluttons in Rufus,

Noaontanus, and Balatro?

Isn't tha wit clever when Horaoa presents tha

fashion, then current in Hone, of logaoy-hunting? Ha presents Ttresias speaking with Ulysses about how to seek wealth.

Undeniably his oraft is

skilled and witty whan ha projects othar people's faults on hinself so that ha nay cleverly criticise othar nan in his own paasona, as whan ha

has himself reproached by * servant.

What a clever prateaoa it ia whan

ha writaa to Celaus and depreciates himself for that should hava ba«n reproached in Calaua. avoidad.

Thus ha olaarly warns Calaua what should ba

In an epistle ha would warn those man who are becoming parasites

and buffoons baoausa they have entered on their inheritance with tha immense greed of gluttony.

They so flock to othar man's tables that they

praise ravelling whan there are things for then to greedily devour} whan these are lacking, they praise frugality. to himself so as to offend no one?

Doesn't Horace attribute this

With what marvelous pretence does he

chide Julius Tlorus for being too angry and disagreeing with his friend who had brought this poet's and other man's works into favor. advises that he accept the man into his friendship again.

Horace

How skillful

is the pretence he uses to accomplish the task of advising Quintius not to join faith with the flatterers who were praising him as a just and wise man I Horace's art is also marvelous when he chides Albius for being rich and weakened by daily anguish. of anxieties.

He advises him to lead a life free

Before criticising, Horace praises him.

He generously

presents himself to Albius as a man deserving reproach so that Albius, may take the reproach more equitably.

He persuades Torqustus

aore splendidly and joyfully and to enjoy wealth.

to live

Horace does so not

by praising sensuality and drunkenness, but because he thinks he may withdraw Torquatus from excessive frugality.

Because he understood that

these vices are the opposite of that condition, he considered the grasping

individual and the fact that a frugal man is like the

grasping if he embraoes a hedonistic style of living.

Because of a

natural reluotanoe he would not reach that point, and would at last, be able to exist in some moderation.

With no less skill Hornes would

722 persuade us that a life ia happy whioh is free from violent passions. Horaoa uaea a panorama of life styles. effective for a happy life.

Of these he shows whioh is least

He concludes that there is no life of another

kind except as he defines it.

You will discover six hundred examples of

this kind which Horace handled cleverly* precisely, wittily, and Musingly. Trajanus.

By heaven, everyone grants that Horace is most distinguished

in this genre.

Yet certainly other poets also maintained enough skill

in criticising.

How skillfully does Persius introduce Socrates, who

chastises Alcibiadesl of Aloibiades?

Doesn't he covertly reprsaoh Nero in the charaoter

Or he introduces the philosopher Comutus, who speaks

about the bondage into whioh our vices lead us.

Juvenal often lampoons

himself in order to satirise other poets without offending. however, rebuke the Homans.

He would,

Among them corrupt men and strangers,

tainted with the worst characters, pursued wealth, honors, and power.

He

shows Umbricus leaving for Cumae because he could not bear the indignity of what was being done.

When Juvenal explains the reasons for Umbricus*

going, he notes very many vices.

Certainly he would rebuke the wealthy

who regarded the poor with scorn, even though the poor courteously honored them.

He rebuked the poor for allowing themselves to be treated

so disgracefully hy men who should treat them well. Tribius from placing his faith in wealth and clients. Juvenal chastises women?

Juvenal dissuades What about when

Doesn't he use Ureddius* impending marriage as

an occasion for reproaching them?

He shows that a modest woman can

hardly be found, if at allI Sync arum.

I would not say that the reason these poets burst so

bitterly into open oontempt is that they are entirely devoid of skill.

723 Tim* and again they reproach both keenly and cleverly. prefer Horace in this genre.

Still Z would

I would consider hia a far better example.

Thus we may work in the satire which he and others have written, and I think all of you agree with me in this.

Trajanus, you have done well

to show that those poets did not lack skill. have been omitted.

Z don't think this should

And so, let us consider the rest.

Those poets were

very careful not to insult any living person from among the wealthy and powerful men.

Beal names were suppressed.

The poets referred to

such men with fabricated names, or apparently fictions names even if they were real. poem's theme.

In Juvenal Damasippus is a name fashioned from the

By it Juvenal designates those distinguished citizens who

were eager for horses as if they were charioteers.

Other fictitious

names were Taurea, Psecas, Hispulla, Urbicus, Chrysogonus, and Qlaphyrus. Nothing prevented these names from being real, but Z should assert that they signified other men of that type.

Sometimes if a person is famous

in some matter, the poet reproaches those who are noteworthy in the same area through that person.

For example in Clodius Juvenal attacks

adulterers; in Petosiris and Thrasyllus he satirizes astrologers.

But

when the satirist does not spare even the dead, then he1more freely uses real names so that he also reproaches any man like those dead. Thus it seems to me as if the oomie poet deals with the universal. He is not moved by hatred of anyone; he is moved by the baseness of vices to inveigh against evil men so that they may reform their lives.

Zf it

is a satirist's function to mock, it is surely to be expected that certain satires will be mocking Juvenal charmingly derides a superstitious opinion i

72k •••their neater is already sitting, a new arrival, upon the bank, and shuddering at the grin ferryman > he hoe no copper in hie mouth to tender for hia fare, and no hope of a passage over the murky flood* (ICL. 911 Sot. 3.265-267.) He very beautifully mocks Oomitian'a gluttony and luxury: But no platter could be found big enough for the fish; so a council of magnates is summoned: men hated by the Ifaperor.... (ICL. 91: Sat. 4. 72-73.) These lines mock jesting: Another holds in his hand a mirror like that carried by the effeminate Otho: a trophy of the Auruean Actor.... (ICL. 91: Sat. 2. 99-100.) Verses are also so mocked that their authors are unaware.

For example:

"0 happy Fate for the Homan State Was the date of my great ConsulateI" (ICL. 91: Sat. 10.122.) And in Horace: Furies, stuffed with rich tripe, "With hoary snow bespew the wintry Alps." (ICL. 194: Sat. 2.5.4li) A satirist makes an invocation humorously, as Horace does to recall a funny argument: Now, 0 Muse, recount in brief the contest of Samentus the jester and Messius Cioirrus, and the lineage of the two who engaged in the fray. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.5-51-53.) Juvenal makes an invocation to note Oomitian'a belly: Begin, Calliopel let us take our seat. This is no mere fable, buta true tale that is being toldt tell it forth, ye maidens of Heria, and let it profit me that I have called you maidsI (ICL. 91* Hfit. 4.34-36.) He further soaks the poets who invoke the maiden Muses so as to flatter

725 You will also perceive a distribution within this genre which is based on poen's form

and the poem as a poem.

specific action.

who reproach seem in some way to be concernedwith

Those

Certainly theplotisa

action, especially when they introduce anyone who is indulging his vices. Or they portray a matter realistically when they show some affair, as we have plainly shown by examples.

And all of the poetry is "mannered."

The work is created to correct behavior.

Sometimes it is also expressed

so that the person who does the attacking is affected and educated. Horace an avaricious man speaks thus: "The people hiss me, but at home I clap my hands for myself, once I gase on the moneys in my chest." (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.1.66-6?.) A client of whores says: "Never nay I have dealings with other men's wives)" But you have with actresses and with courtesans.... (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.2.57-58.) A foolish nan speaks: "You must know me; I'm a scholar." (ICL. 194:

Sat. 1.9.7.)

And: ...for who can write more verses or wrote more quickly than I? Who can dance more daintily? Area Hermongenes might envy ny singing. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.9.23-25.) A profligate saya: "Ah, Fortune, what god is more cruel toward us than thou) How thou dost ever delight to make sport of the life of man)" (ICL. 194: Sat. 2.8.61-62.) The banquet was spoiled when the tapestries were ruined.

Horace has

buffoons speak appropriately when he portrays them arguing with each other.

It suited then.

He conveys character by alluding to the dis­

position of those whom he derides:

In

726 A rough man he vu « the sort that In offensiveness ooold outdo Bex, bold and blustering and eo bitter of opeeoh as to outstrip a Sisenna or a Barrus with the speed of a white coursers. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.7.6.) He also shows character by showing some action that reveals the person before us: Rufus drooped his head and wept as if his son had fallen by an untimely fate. (ICL. 194: Sat. 2.8.58-59.) How could the grief of a glutton over missed banquets be expressed aore clearly than by that comparison? Markings that men call character!anous also reveal character: ...so reverse the rich speeches, and picks up that you would think a his lessens to a stem acting a second part.

man's nod, so echoes his his words as they fall, schoolboy was repeating master or a aime-player (ICL. 194:

Jfc. 1.18.11-14.)

How he describes a flatterer1 These are imitations from life: "To think, forsooth, that I should not find credence first, or that I should not blurt out strongly what i really think1 A second life were poor at such a price." (ICL. 194: Zfe. 1.18.16-18.) My wealth— don(t try to rival me— allows of folly: your means are but trifling. (ICL. 194: Jfe. 1.18.28-29-) In the previous quotation Horace depicts the disposition of a quarrelsome harsh asn| in the latter he fashions the pride of a wealthy man. How certainly satirists love elegance and purity in their language, subtlety and insight in their sententiae.

The other matters which per­

tain to speaking should be treated in their own place.

Satirists do

digress from the argument, (either with a story, fable, or seme other narrative.)

When Juvenal disparages the vain ambitions of men who do not

cease praying to the gods for what would finally do harm, nor spare any labors in pursuing such things, he digresses to explain.

He tells us

727 that Hercules deservedly wept, that Denooritus laughed at human oaraa, and that it was superfluous to ridicule tha arrogance and aanaalaaa aplendor of tha Boman magiatrata.

Juvenal plainly atataa that ha had

digreaeed from what ha had proposed by repeating: Thus it ia that tha thinga for which we pray, and for which it ia right and proper to load tha knaea of tha Qoda with wax, are either profitless or pernicious1 (ICL, 91* Sat. 10.5^55.) Horaoa digraaaaa fron tha description of tha journey ha had began to relating the struggle of Sarmentus with Meaaius.

Ha would defend

himself against tha insult of thoae who reproached him for being born of a freedman father.

So ha turns to discussing those man who are

raised to honors or are despised by the people.

The following are

digressions in Horace* Opimiue, a poor man for all his gold and silver hoarded up within, would on holidays, from ladle of Campanian ware, drink wine of Veii, and working days soured wine. Now once he fell into a lethargy so deep.... (ICL. 19*t: Sat. 2.3.1^2*145.) And* There's a story that Servius Oppidiua, a rich man, as incomes once were, divided his two farms at Canusium between his two sons, and on his deathbed called them to him and said.... (ICL. 19*f* Sat. 2.3.168-170.) These inolude realistic narrations.

However here is a fable*

Once on a time— such is the tale— a country mouse welcomed a oity mouse in his poor hole, host and guest old friends both. (ICL. 19*t> Sat. 2.6.80-81.) Come now.

Lot us show the other method of division, that by which the

substance of the pome is made, as the method sometimes used in satire. Hbraoe makes a proem when he begins*

728 What and how great, ay friends, is ths virtue of frugal living— now this is no talk of ains, but is ths teaching of Ofellus. (ICL, 19^1 Sat. 2.2.1-2.) By it he proposes what he is about to handle.

He begins to explain the

proposed natter when he soon says: After hunting the hare or wearily dismounting from an unbroken horse.... (ICL, 19**: Sat. 2.2.9-10.) This is also a proem: While you, Iollius Maxiaus, declaim at Haas, I have been reading afresh at Araeneste the writer of the Trojan War; who tells us what is fair, what ia foul, what is helpful, what not, aore plainly and better than Chrysippus or Grantor. Why 1 have coae to think so, let as tell you, unless there is some­ thing else to take your attention. (ICL. 19*m Be- 1.2.1-5.) What immediately follows is the narratio: The story in which.it is told how, because of Paris's love Greece clashed in tedious war with a foreign land, embraces the passions of foolish kings and peoples. ( ICL. 191** Jfc. 1 . 2 . 6 0 8 . ) Although the satirist frequently retains his own persona, sometimes he also lays it aside.

When Horace introduces Ulysses conversing with

Tiresias or Priapua insulting the magical Canidla, he utterly abandons his own persona.

Occasionally he introduces someone with whom he speaks.

[Horace] Whence and whither, Catius? [Catius] 1 have no tiae to stop, so keen am I to make a record of seme new rules, such as will surpass lythagoras, and the sage whom Anytus accused, and the learned Plato. (ICL. 19kt Bat. 2.4.1-3.) Further, when he speaks and is interrupted: I was strolling by ohanee along the Sacred Why, musing after ay fashion on some trifle or other, and wholly intent thereon, when up there runs a

72? own I knew only by name and seizes ny hand! "How d'ye do, my daaraat fallow?" "Pretty well, ae tinea are now," I answer, "I hope you get all you want." (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.9.1-5.) Sonatinas he fashions an advisor, as you see done in Persius' first satire. The satirist nay use his own persona, put on someone else's or join both methods of writing.

Barely does it happen that he omits what has the

semblance of a proem. Scortianus. all to a

I was thinking that this division does not apply at

satiric poem.

Indeed, its beginning is so abrupt.

How comes it, Maecenas.... (ICL. 19if:

Sat. 1.1.1.)

And in Juvenal: What?

Am I to be a listener only all my days? (ICL. 91* Sat. 1.1.)

And in Persius: CP. j "0 the vanity of mankind] in human affairs!"

How vast the void

cF.j "Who will read stuff like that?" (ICL. 91: Sat. 1.1-2.) This genre doesn't seem to be the sort which requires a proem.

Satirists,

having been excited with bubbling anger and vexation burst forth to assail immediately. Syncerus. Although satirists begin abruptly and take up insulting as soon as possible, they still use a proem. rules of art.

This is according to the

Thus even with a prelude they are criticising:

How comes it, Maecenas, that no nan living is content with the lot which either his choice has given him, or chance has thrown in his way, but each has praise for those who follow other paths? (ICL. 19^: Sat. 1.1.1-3.) Because the satirist has proposed in this proem what that satire will deal with by examples, and has placed before us the subject matter by

730 this introduction* the poet is disparaging oartain kinds of nan.

Though

tha subject mattar is man's inability to live content with his own lot, still tha poat shows that thera is no one who is envied for wanting to hazard an unknown way of life.

So then tha poat takas up tha othar part:

...yon faraer, who with tough plough turns up tha heavy soil, our rascally host hara, the soldier, tha sailors who boldly scour every sea, all say that they bear toil with this in view, that when old they may retire into secure ease, once they have piled up their provisions. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.1.28-32.) After tha exposition has bean completed, Horaoa concludes: Thus it comes that seldom can we find one who says ha has had a happy life, and who, when his time is sped, will quit life in contentment, like a guest who has had his fill. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.1.117-119.) That same poet was about to criticise those who see their own vices with bleary eyes, but observe their friends' vices sharply and critically.

In

the proem he inveighs against Tigellus and against all men who do not practice moderation.

So he begins:

All singers have this fault: if asked to sing among their friends they are never so inclined! if unasked, they never leave off. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.3.1-3.) As for the abrupt beginning, I have noticed that it rarely is seen in any other place except in the introduction of an entire poem.

If the

first of the satires is compared with the rest, it inoludes the proem of the entire work, as is evidenced in Juvenal and Persius.

Indeed

they especially try to clearly tell why they are writing the satires. But because satiric poets are oonoemed with that genre whioh touches on disgraceful material, they use insinuation.

By it they prepare their

listener's mind in a veiled manner to receive the harsh barbs of re­ proach.

This is how it happens that they seme to omit the proem.

And

731 bo

I think I have said enough about the milking of a satiric poet.

I

would warn you not to think you have acquired the highest honor in this matter. And yet on the self-same page the self-same poet is praised because he rubbed the city down with much salt. ...for on those terms I should also have to admire the mimes of laberius as pretty poems. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.10.3-4; 6.) As Hbraoe says about Iucilius* "his stream runs muddy, and often carries more that you would rather rmnove than leave behind." 30-31.)

(ICL. 194:

Sat. 1.10.

Horace also says that Iucilius' verses "run on with halting foot."

So he questions: ...what forbids us, too, to raise the question whether it was his own genius, or whether it was the harsh nature of his themes that denied hia verses more finished and easier in their flow.... (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.10 57-39.) Nor is it enough to be witty end sharp in reproaohing.

It is proper

that elegance and purity be used in language; sharpness and brevity in sententiae: appropriate arrangement in verses; a joke with the sting in insults.

To have poured out the entire force of anger in noting vices is

a major hindrance.

Horace ruled in this fashion:

Hence it is not enough to make your hearer grin with laughter— though even in that there is some merit. You need terseness, that the thought may run on, and not become entangled in verbiage that weighs upon wearied ears. You also need a style now grave, often gay, in keeping with the role, now of orator, or poet, at times of the wit, who holds his strength in check and husbands it with wisdom. Jesting oft cuts hard knots more forcefully and effectively than gravity. Often must you turn your pencil to erase, if you hope to write something worth a second reading, and you must not strive to catoh the wonder of the orowd, but be content with the few as your readers. (ICL. 194: Sat. 1.10.7-15* 72-7*0

752 Surely in this no writer thinks the rule does not apply to hia. more Juvenal's ruling

should be kept.

Further­

He said that satiric poets should

abide by the practice (as if it were law) of narrating what has been done, not what has been devised, as tragic and comic poets usually do.

He

seems to have taught that with some irony: Now think you that all this is a fancy tale, and that our Satire is taking to herself the high heels of tragedy? Think you that I have out-stepped the Units and the laws of those before ae..«. (ICL. 91: Sat. 6.63*t-635.) Scortianus, here you have what seen to me appropriate to note about Iatin satire. not affiml

Whether you have what you were asking for, by God I dare Z am certain that I have omitted nothing of those natters

which should especially be held about satire.

As for Menippean satire,

I do not think you expect me to discuss it here, even though Marcus Varro is its most learned author of the Homans.

Indeed, except for what seems

more pertinent to philosophy than to poetry, nothing of his is extant which we can use as evidence for someone versed in this genre.

Menippus

the Cynic is said to have written witty books filled with humor and barbed insulting criticism.

Varri imitated these.

He is reported to have

written an elegant poem varied with nearly every rhythm.

He is said to

have called these Menippean satires, from the name of the man he had imitated. Scortianus. cellent matters. required here.

I certainly could not choose many more or more ex­ Nor do I think anything about Menippean satire need be

But see here.

I am very grateful.

part has been added to the rules for all poetry. was incomplete.

For my sake this Without it the teaching

It has been handled so exoSllently and so extensively

that it rightfully deserves our regarding it among beautiful poms.

733 Suamontius. Do you want to say any aore about satira?

But

certainly you will have taken the precaution that no one sharpen the abusive tooth of satirists on you I You order then to be counted among poets.

Horace had removed satirists from their number.

But let us rise now. finished.

The greatest part of today's speech has been

I think it is time for a rest.

us relax mind and spirit by resting.

If it seems so to you* let

What remains to be discussed may

be completed after noon. [The older men in the company heartily approved of this.

Although

the young men preferred to hear aore right then, they feared to disobey what pleased the elders.j

73fr BOOK BIX

Heator, best of princes, in this book I hnvo decided to relate what that assembly of aoat learned men discussed an the afternoon of the third day in Hergillina. wound in my heart.

Its memory tore open again a aoat grievous

Within two years after the conversation contained in

these books (it was almost Sync s t u b ' last with those men then speaking with him), death's random blows extinguished those geniuses worthy of immortality, those ornaments of virtue, those brilliant lights of learning, from so many only one survives! he is engaged in the pursuits

we have Vopisous.

Up to the present time

of letters with the highest honor, andIdo

ask the immortal gods that he nay long prosper.

As for Suamanti us, any

educated nan revered him for his astute judgment and superior erudition, accounting hin the finest credit of current literature. months from that day on whioh fron fluid under the akin.

these natters were

Within six discussed, he died

When the plague tineof year had invaded

Maples, Ctravina followed King ifclenius in search of a healthful cliaate. King Palenius was very generous to learned nan and supported Oravina at his hone.

Qravina turned to the nountains of Canpania where fUlonius

held certain pleasant towns.

But reality has taught us that the inevit­

ability of fate is not changed by place, nor is the course of fortune hindered.

Instead whenever it pleases, it follows the nan who flees.

The pleasantness of that region was of no benefit to Qravina; nothing was a healthful lodging, nothing a very delightful delay to forestall his yielding to that fatal power. vigorous old nan.

Qravlna was an amiable, cheerful, and

Ho was not gloomy, harsh, or senile.

He was so

beautifully disposed in Bind and body that he had nothing for which he night blue old age. days.

But he u s

about to fill up all the nunber of his

Be had survived a span of seventy years and sewed to have reaohed

whatever is the point to whioh a human life can be extended.

Now while

the pestilwoe was raging, there began that terrible war in whioh we witnessed destruction, burning, ruin, plundering, and devastation of nearly all the towns and fields of this kingdcn.

We viewed the hordes

of Frenoh laying siege to Naples and violently attaeking it.

We

witnessed so aany princes outlawed, so many punished by exile, so aany condensed to death. Carbo died.

When this war was nearly over and the siege lifted,

A little later Syncerus died also.

In the beginning of

this war Gauricus had b e w captured by the French.

But he was accused

of having renounced his alligianoe to Spain and the empire and having gone over to the enemy.

Bxlled, he was heartbroken to be thrown out of country

and home| he is said to have died from excess of grief. himself here from exclaiming with Cicero? hopes, how insecure their fortunes!

Who may restrain

"Ah, how treacherous are men's

How hollow are our wdeavors, which

often break down and c u e to grief in the middle of the race, or are shipwrecked in full sail before they have bean able to sight the harbour.n (LCL. 3^9 : De Or. 3.2.7*)

Gauricus might have displayed, in writing,

that fertile learning which he had acquired by long study and wide reading in two languages.

He might have shown marvelous power of gemiua

that gave him so much ability. his writings and helped others.

Thus he might have won himself fane by When he was about to recover the fruits

of his long, laborious scrutiny of the anoints, fate and death out him off from every expectation and all reflection.

This turn of events was

truly calamitous for the country, Immutable for the state of letters, and ruinous to the younger gueration.

They would not aspire to the

736 glory of their talent without thoso Isadora• So war# loot aany starling propriotioa of aannars and aany brilliant oonatollatinna of studios, along with so aany utterly splendid am. Their deaths will always be bitter to mo| the aoaory will always ronew ay soul's anoiont grief and pain.

After their deaths that ex-

eellent oustoa of educated a m conversing and discussing with each other was destroyed by a barbarous depravity.

It had been rmewed at Naples

under the iapetus of Antanius Fanhormita and Jovianus Fantanus, and continued to flourish with new vigor by the oenstant meeting of the man who followed.

Then disgraceful, brutish belief

invaded the Neapolitan

princes, one which had arisen in the uncivilised hinterlands of the West i that it is unseemly for well-born men who consider themselves brave and serious, and for princes who desire military glery, te be adorned in literature.

They even believed that to have learned how to write is

unbeeoaing.

They hardly approved of someone writing his own naae unless

he misspells it. Who can bear this barbarity?

Who does not exclaim,

'*0 mores, 0 temporal" 0 gods, grant a better fatel

0 gods, turn aside

such a plague lest it crawl through Italy and be spread further! that it had never risen. it rose.

Would

Or would that it had never reached us whence

Would that good literature had not bean lulled to sleep, the

splendor of the best arts had not dimmed* and aany excellent minds born to every learning might not become dulled to languish in idleness. age has its savage dispositions.

Every

By manners alone it happens that sons

seem more distinguished than others.

By all that is holy, what will it

take, without letters, to polish what is rough? dark? To restore what is worn out?

To illumine what is

Bow oan aen's works. Institutions,

actions, and aocoeqpiishacnts come to light and be ooaaended to memory?

737 Sine# genius la the glory of non, eloquence ia the light of geniua, and learning ia the aoul of eloquence, how may thia soul, thia light, thia glory chine?

Ia there any other aeana by which men far outatrip the

larger animal e and outatrip their fellows? What we have reoaired by the gods' largeaae ia ohiefly remarkable in that we thereby differ from other living thlnga and aurpaaa other men. excel by wiadorn and eloquence?

Does anyone doubt that we

Theae two virtuea are inculcated by

the first precepta of learning.

Consider the profession of war in which

the revilera of literary men take such inordinate delight. Since they would have it be a eoienoe, doesn't it necessarily depend upon art and education?

Yet the documents of art are not handed down by any other

method at all than by the appropriate means of literature pleasantly written.

Of all the famous men who have found great military honor,

which would have done so had he not first studied books dealing with arms?

Didn't he learn at home the art of war from writers before he

used it in the field?

You will surely not object, not to me, for my

not recognising that Idcinius Caesar called literature the plague of mankind.

Of the lowest birth, of disposition worse than barbarous,

and barbarously educated in destruction and Inhuman savagery, why shouldn't he be like some huge, unfeeling beast?

1 an not at all sure

that he has not merited less of even military glory. the best at military scimce.

Marius was evidently

Because he was bora and reared among

rough folk and desired the country life as a boy, is there any wonder that he, too, had less taste for literature?

Nevertheless, although he

was devoid of letters, he honored literary men.

Be quite gladly watched

and listened, eager to learn the accomplishments of others and glad to have, written down, what he himself had done.

Obviously he decided that

738 nothing « u so useful for treating natters at hone and abroad than to have absorbed what the ancients had done*

Nothing nattered more than to

cherish writing, whereby great aan*s works win inmortality.

In this

way he made it clear that what he lacked in education happened by fault •f fortune.

By holding learned nen in honor he showed that he had a

mind thirsty for learning.

Ee could hardly bear the fact that he was

not well educated* And now, let us cranino the natter a little nore deeply. oraated all nen eager to learn.

Nature

Nature leads men captive by a desire

of knowing in order to understand things.

Nature provided the senses as

the interpreters and nessangers of things*

Through the senses we grasp

things*

These are rendered accessible to the mind*8 seat in the head as if

wonderfully situated in a fortress. •specially lead one to understand.

Aaong these, the ears and eyes Souls may nove into the body while

blank and clothed with no form of things but suited and born to know everything*

Or, as Plato says, they nay have the ideas of all things.

These ideas have been so forgotten because of contact with the body that they understand nothing without being stimulated from without to recall their forner knowledge.

Begardless of the explanation, there is no doubt

that refined by knowledge they pass through the senses whioh have been given to nan as servants and ministers.

Since those first anoients main­

tained that the soul has been excited to understand things through these sessengers, those nen nade and gathered many observations.

Out of these

discoveries gathered in learning they fashioned the arts and conveniently inparted then to a posterity that had long lacked then. letters were finally discovered. excellent?

By divine aid,

What is nore desirable?

What nore

What nore suited to guard the nenory of nen and things and to

739 preserve what we end other nen have plainly understood?

What nore

appropriate to peroelve what has been discovered and settled upon? nore suited to teaching?

What

What oould be devised nore suitable to learning?

What we enbrace with the nlnd we signify by the signs of words. press words by the marks of letters.

We ex­

Those sane thoughts, plans, sentences,

all those resources included in speech will gain price if shown in writing. Grant that frequent contact with things, by neans of high talent, by un­ usual judgment, and especially long experience, will have taught a nan. Whoever has seen the customs and cities of nen, whoever will have heard ouch will have tested much.

Though he would indeed know a great deal,

he would still be ignorant of far nore.

But through literature it will

certainly follow that one nan may receive what six hundred like hinself have held.

What he hinself has learned, he may have nore fully confirmed.

No nan is so wise and so educated that he nay not become wiser and nore learned, through knowing the things which other men have understood and done.

Whoever understands the most will be the most learned and wisest.

Do we have later generations skilled in any art if they have not received what the ancients devised and wrote at one tine? As they say, Tinotheus would not have been unless Ihrynis had existed.

Wherefore Just as learn­

ing is entirely necessary to acquire wisdon, so there is no kind of virtue for which learning is not an ally,

(is there any part of respect­

ability for whioh rules have not been written?) learned unless he listens and reads widely.

No one nay beeone

That belief which abolishes

learning, the parent of all good things, is worse than absurd and barbarous} it .is calsnitous, dangerous, and detestable! those very wise ancients whose nenory we honor?

What about

Would they have founded

sa many fanous cities? Would they have governed with the most blameless

7**0 laws? Would they have administered the republic so prudently and so well? Would they have extended their empires so far?

Would they have cultivated,

increased) and perfected so many of the best arts? so much and discovered so much? great and excellent benefits?

Would they have known

Would they have left us so many and such

finally would they have obtained for them­

selves so much honor and fame if, like those illustrious and elegant princes, they were strangers to letters? But if they grasp nothing else by reading, they at least pursue what Demetrius of Rialerum once said to King Ptolemy— handled in books is the advise friends dare not give. Reproaches that men are annoyed to hear, they are not at all annoyed to read.

Let us grant that those proud soldiers are of the kind who do not

miss the riches of letters.

Do they envy their posterity that the

knowledge of what they wisely and famously did is carried to them, seeing that it cannot be carried without writing?

Who will work at studies that

he sees leading men ignoring? As Demetrius says, honor nourishes the arts.

No one spedds much time and effort where he despairs of realising

any fruit. But why do I say more about this to you, most illustrious prince? No vulgar learning adorns you, who are distinguished in every virtue! Learning cannot be adequately praised, any more than uncouth or rather brutish mentality can be adequately blamed according to desert.

Bven

if I had the powers of speech to execrate thisutterly hideous plague of our own day, it would take me days and days toquench my anger by writing, so plentiful is my store of indignation.

And it has all come about be­

cause an abominable barbarity has been imported into Naples from outside and has seised upon the minds of princes.

Theresult is that not only do

the greatest men in that city despise letters, but even nen skilled in

7*H good arts and raflnad with alagant language mask thair learning.

They

are afraid to profess openly and publicly what is elegant and learned. They lire so as to hide their dearest delight and their richest treasure, tasting it alone in secret.

They scorn the naae usually given to then and

the Muses, a naae everyone has found desirable and glorious.

To be re­

garded as a man of literature, which had always been praiseworthy, is regarded as a fault!

Therefore it is to be externally, if not vehemently,

deplored that we have lacked men preeminent in every dignity and learning. While their authority counted, the practice of debating never praised it enough, and the studies of good learning flourished in almost daily conversation.

Men who learnedly and tastefully considered anything were

at a premium.

Certainly if they were destined to accomplish nothing by

that authority, they guided the life of the s.ge.

Yet even while letters

were still not flourishing, there crept out of I know not what hidden recess of barbarity a false conception of literature whioh, spreading, stole into minds.

We should think that it happened for the best when

death claimed those learned men from such a lamentable state of affairs. They were spared the sight of their country sunken into such great shamefulAess of manners. For those cultured men death can be seen as a gift greater than life snatched from the immortal gods.

They did not see

this whole part of Italy burning with war and worse devastated by the hostility of Italians than of the French. more cruelly than the attacking enemy.

The defenders tore it apart

Those learned men were spared

a sight of the fortunes of loyalists destroyed, not the fortunes of those who had deserted to the Trench.

They did not see churches despoiled of

their riches and ornaments and men's homes t o m down. the princes of the state accused of impious crime.

They did not see

They did not see their

7^2 flight, their exile, their pitable carnage.

In short, they did not see

Naples deformed in every way, utterly transformed from the state in which they were famous, their genius flourishing amid high honor. But because the more I hark back to memories like these, bitter to be sure, the more surely I know that in this I help neither myself nor others; 1 have curbed my sorrow.

My message turns back to that comfort

whioh can both lighten grief and bring help to learning.

Let us publish

from memory Aecius Syncerua1 conversation with those men we have intro­ duced speaking here.

And if any reader remarks that we have not expressed

their conversation as befitted the gifts and powers of these speakers,

we

ask him to bear in mind that we assuredly do not consider ourselves competent to do them justice.

For it will be sufficient, if we are

visibly not their equal in learning and genius, that at least by our own effort and within the limits of our powers we can be found to have toiled hard enough and to earn thanks. [The young men had retired a little way from where the older men were resting and had used the afternoon hours by reexamining among them­ selves what had been discussed about poetry.

Soortianus is said to have

noticed that Synceras had devoted hardly half an hour to rest. spent all the remaining time in very attentive thought. had rested enough, all the other men came to him.

He had

Then, when they

They perceived that

he had been fixed in thought up to this time.3 Summontiua. let us exhaust it.

Syncerus, the day has passed into afternoon.

Therefore

I was expecting to carry out the duty X felt owed

to you as soon as it seemed you were all refreshed by sleep-

So here we

are right back where we started discussing the poet, all seated and ready to listen. Syncerus.

Today's and the previous days' discussions have shown

7^3 us how many kinds of poems may ba found and what, in the way of parts, comprises the form of individual kinds and what comprises the body. recall it has bean left for ae to teach how any genre is adorned.

I I am

aware that I am about to undertake a difficult and laborious charge, if I were to attempt it individually and by divisions.

For every individual

kind, according to the particular materials and method associated with it, requires its own kind of order and ornament.

Comic poetry does not please

by the same means as do tragic, epic, and lyric poetry. of

And within each

the more esteemed genres indisputably appears a wide dissimilarity.

Still each poet is praised in his own genre.

Certainly one can perceive

that in comedy Terence and Plautus are different from eaoh other but equally praiseworthy. style.

In Terence we approve the pure and pleasant

In Plautus we approve the witty and humorous.

It is also obvious

that Sophocles, Ebripides, and Aeschylus are different from each other. Men attribute power and gravity to Sophocles, pleasantness and sharpness to fiiripidee, harmony and simplicity to Aeschylus.

But who of these is

not exceptional? Each is distinguished in his own kind.

Thus, since

the same honor accrues to all in different styles of writing, you surely want no man to be false to his own style.

To use examples of some present,

in this age has any sang been heard which is sweeter and more melodious than Carbo's?

It is so pleasing that nothing more tasteful may be found;

its rhythms are such that singular sweetness is joined with a kind of wondrous majesty.

Indeed I think if we were to cultivate the Muses,

as once we were accustomed to do, they would sing, even now, no other kind of song.

Would any poem come to our ears more pleasant and charming

than what our Oravina writes with a freshness* of wit? that he doesn't make it soft and amusing?

What is so harsh

What so rough that he doesn't

make smooth and refined?

What so unruly that ha doaan't aaka alagant?

What so sad that he doesn't aaka gay by his magical appropriate charm? It neither threatens the force of his aententiae nor is overwhelmed by their weight,

look at Oaurious and Vopisous.

These two are almost equal

and alike in their pursuits of learning and in the reputation of their writing.

But no two could be more different, nothing more excellent in

its own kind.

No writer is more elegant, more distinct in language, more

productive than Gauricus.

Vopiecus refines his abundant sententiae in

just the right words, seeking always the mastery in brevity and subtlety. fiui— ftntiim.

Syncerus, why are you silent about yourself and Petrus

Bembus, who alone is especially admired in Borne? Both of your geniuses have been seen throughout all Italy, as if in the greatest theatarw-or rather in the entire world.

The fine splendor of your learning shines

forth to everyone's admiration.

On men's tongues he alone is called

into comparison with you, as if into competition. as you and he in writing. in high esteem.

What is so different

First in latin, then in the vernacular you are held

Bcmbo's diligence is especially approved, as is his

accurate choice of words.

Because he had been scorned for not being

Tuscan, Beabo seemed to submerge himself totally in the Tuscan speech. All praise your agreeable nature, power, and insight joined with singular dignity. latin.

Bembo pursued the cultivated, controlled, and amended kind of You followed what was splendid, magnificent, charming, and fertile,

what fills the ears and does not separate loftiness from pleasantness, ease from gravity. Syncerus.

As for Bembo, nothing is so superlative that it cannot

be attributed to him.

As for myself, it is not for me to say, first of

all because talking about myself pains me, and also because no one knows

7*3 me and therefor* cannot properly Judge.

But seeing that I am Joined by

comparison with that moat excellent man, I will mention a fault charged to ua both.

Juat like me, Bembo ia tormented by too much anxiety leat

anything questionable be found in his speech. exclude everything impure

or redundant.

He ia more watchful to

Z am more ambitious to observe

rhythms and the arrangement of sounds and words.

From the way a few of

us differ among ourselves with significant dissimilarity, you may see how it may be proper and particular for any with some praise to do so. Hence, it is obvious that if we gather together all the men who are poets and who have been poets, it would happen that Just as many poetic temper­ aments appear as there are kinds of writing in poetry. It is no wonder that historians do as much, for they are closely ■kin to poets.

Among the Greeks, who are more different than Herodotus

and Thucydides? Among our own, Sallust and Idvy?

Still in their

different ways they have acquired almost equal fame.

What about orators?

That method of speaking is also close to the subject of our discussion. Don't they represent a wide variety? selves admirable.

Yet all of them have proven them­

Now in the plastic arts— especially those where imi­

tation is essential— you will find great differences and will easily see that all are equally praiseworthy.

For in painting and in sculpture

dissimilarity is regarded with equal praise— it is partly concerned with depicting the heroic and most excellent kind of men, partly with the lowest and worst kind, and partly with a middle kind of man. Bausias, and Dionysius have become famous in these arts.

Polygnotus,

But even within

the same category many artists have brilliantly employed different methods, such as Barrhasius, Protogenes, and Apelles, who are highly esteemed.

This same thing that is remarkable in the arts seems also to

hold true for the nature of things.

Certainly nothing in nature does not

5*6 have Individual diffaranoas. alona.

A foroa is one and tha same in itself

Tha same trunk produces so many dissimilarities that the individual

fruits have what they need to captivate tha eyes and tha taste.

A

bread and form of horses is invariably one, but some are prised in ona excellence, some in another, according to training.

There is one human

nature, but, good heavens, how many varied human dispositions? Bow aany different temperaments? Indeed these individual characters acquired fame by their own discoveries and purposes.

Wherefore do not think that

we are on the point of noting how individuals may differ from one another in writing extremely well.

And do not think that merely because there

are almost countless varieties of poetic imitation it is quite impossible to include what is different in a group and deal with it as a universal. I think that what is innate and inborn in individual geniuses should be left to those who are observing the particular talent of anyone's nature. What belongs to their observations, that is to say, to art, we should fashion by a universal method.

To explain this whole method, which en­

tails language and sententiae. we should above all abide by what the rhetoricians have taught*

Thus we may write a Intin style £lain or

ornate, that is aptly accommotated to the topic.

Because whatever we

frame in speech is first felt in the soul, and matters to be expounded are first conceived before they are eaqtlained, it may be worthwile to discuss sententiae before language.

The sententiae demonstrates, or

rather concludes, what you propose.

It raises objections to some

proposition; it confirms or refutes what has been objected to.

It

excites fear, pity, anger, envy, and the other passions in the soul. It enlarges what does not seen noteworthy in itself. what is considerable.

It diminishes

They say the glory of a poet resides in the way

7^7 he handles vhat is— by its own nature— pitiable, enviable, or important, so that he enhances its effect.

Sententiae have been accounted as those

that distinguish the poet's functions to teach properly, to please, and to move.

As Cicero says, the sententiae should be pointed for teaching: Obsequium amicos, veritas odium parlt.

For entertainment they should be witty: Vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat inchoare Iongam. For rousing the emotions they should be weighty: Stat sua ouique dies, breve et irreparabile tempus Omnibus est vitae. Lest you think that whatever mental pare options you express by speaking are included in this category, let me explain Aristotle's injunctions. No tme has taught better than he what a sententia is about, where it should be used, and who should use it.

Aristotle oonsiders it to be

nore excellent if it contains not what is pleasing but what ought to be followed and vhat, worse, should be avoided. express these as particulars, but as universals.

The poet does not It is appropriate

for a serious man who knows the things he is declaiming to do this. Thus the beginnings of enthymemes are contained in this kind of sententia. For example: Faoilis iaotura sepulohri, And: Heu nihil invitis fas quenquam fidere Divis. Virgil says that "the loss of burial is easy" so that we are not anxious about dying.

When he says, "AlasV

against their will!"

(LCL. 63*

in naught may one trust the gods

Am . 2. 402.) he is saying that the

hope of defending the fatherland was vain from the first.

With such

7W beginnings as these, the natural consequence is left unstated.

The same

is true of conclusions for enthymernes: Puehrumque mori suocurrit in armis. To this conclusion nay be added the reason why the statement is so, i.e., because one should live freely or die bravely on behalf of freedon. it will be an enthyneme.

Then

There are also found sententiae whioh clearly

resemble an enthyneme even though they do not have its parts.

Those

which contain a reason besides are certainly of this kind and are especially approved. Aequam mementos rebus in arduis Servers mentem, non secus in bonis Ab insolenti temperatam Imetitia, moriture Oelli. The reason why Dellius should maintain an even temper in both difficult natters and happy ones is that he will die.

And:

Quid aeternis minorem Coneiliis aninum fatigas? Thus Horace advises the person he is writing to not to work so hard. The reason is that even though his weary soul is concerned with future plans, it has been decreed that nothing on earth will be inmortal.

Thus

in these sententiae the reason is said to be contained in a supporting argument.

In the following it is not necessary that the reason be given,

or it is given in the fact that the sententiae are generally accepted. Omnis enim res. Virtue, fans, deeus, divina, bunanaque pulchris Pivitus parent, quas qui construserit, ills Clarius erit, fortis, iustus, sapiens, etian ot rex. Or beoause they are regarded as self-evident, ast Hetiri se quenque suo modulo, so pede, verum est. Andi

7**9 Pallida, mora aequo pulaat pede pauperam tabernas, Regumque turrea. These offer the most pleasure because they are simple; they need no reason; they contain nothing to wander at.

From these it can be evident

that sententiae are suitably spoken about doubtful matters and about those matters which are unexpected.

Two directions are possible--either

with the proposed reason or contrary to it.

The following examples first

have a reason, then a sentential Cresoenten aequitur cure peouniam Marjorumque fames iure perhorrui late conspicuum tollers vertices, Maecenas, equitum decus. And: Dasmosa quid non imminuit dies? Aetas parenturn, peior avis, tulit Nos nequiores, mox daturos progeniem vitioaioren. The following are reversed! Mixta aenum, ac iuvenum densantur funera, nullum Saeva caput Proserpina fugit. Andt ...patio brevi Spem longam reseces, duo loquimur, fugerit invida Aetas. The same is true in ambigious things even if the sententiae are familiar or unexpected.

Those whiah are spoken briefly and wisely, like many

Spartan sayings and obscure sayings are often suited to sententiae. This is the case if the reason why they are being said is given t qui eapit aut metuit, iuvat ilium sic dona.1* et res, Ut lippum piotae tabulae, formenta, podagram, Auriculas oitharae eolleota sorde dolentis. Sincerum eat nisi vas, quod cumque infundia acescit. But it may be appropriate that the men who speak these be older.

Then

750 they do not lack authority. are discussing.

They are skilled In the matters which they

Farmers and country folk appropriately utter some pithy

sayings about the things they deal with. vanced aged are Introduced on stage.

Similarly* characters of ad­

As the theme demands* they approve*

reproach, warn* and exhort with most reasonable sententiae.

Whoever

speaks should doubtless treat Individual matters in a universal way. A person will perceive that he certainly does so either to conclude or to propose something for a conclusion.

They satisfy when the universal prop­

osition is readily acceptable* as if all men or most grant it.

And so

poets correctly have used the well-known sententiae as if they were commonplace, thinking something which everyone seemed to readily agree with was fine.

For example, that Homeric advice to dangerous strife with

unfavorable omens: Ulcisci patriam certando* avis optima sola est. And this line from Virgil: Una salus victis, nullam sperare salutem. Some proverbs are also this type, as: Aurua per aedios ire satellitis Bt perruapere amat aaxa, potentius Iotu fulmineo. These lines have the force of an enigma: Quo samel est iabuta reoans aervabit odorern Testa diu. Certainly when a man, who would be prepared for something else or perhaps would be moved by emotion, is about to speak against what is commonplace* he betrays the real purpose and disposition of his mind. For instsnce: Vilius argentum est suro, virtutibus aurum, That very familiar sententia says that nothing is nore precious than

751 virtue.

In the following Horace Intends to reproach:

0 elves,elves, quaerenda peounia primum, Vlrtus post nummos, haeo Janus summus ab imo Perdocet, haee reclnunt iuvenes dlctata senesque. These senteatiae are all true and almost unambiguous. should the law be violated.

In no matters

But HUripides* Eteocles says the opposite,

as Cicero translates: Si violandum ius est, regnandi gratia Violandua aliis in rebus pietatan colas. Xteocles was about to refute his brother's sententia which the chorus had approved: Si pariter canes ducerent honestum idem Nusquaa esset anceps gentium discordia. Nil simile nunc, aequale nil mortalibus, Nisi nomen, haec res utique non est id genus. This pithy refutation has the power of a dialectician's argument. There are also sententiae which are produced in two ways.

Without

a reason, as here: Aspectua huius lucis est mortalibus Dulcisaimus, verum profounds manium Baud ullus est qui concupiscat cemere Neque mente sanus, qui mori exoptaverit, Male vivere autem melius est, quam bene mori. With a reason, as here: At generis ipsa oboouritas, ut quiddam habet fit coomodum profecto et exoptabile, Nam liberum illis lachrymas profundere Querique misera, stirpe at illustri satis Sunt haec nagata. Bed arbitrum vitae levem Populua obtinemua, atque multitudini Servians, etenim vetat quidem pudor Genas rigare lachrymas. Now by an accepted division of sententiae. some are referred to a thing. For example: Irm brevis furor est. And:

752 Nocet empta dolore voluptas. And: Invidia Siculi non invanare tyranni Maius toraentum. Others are referred to as a person thus: Prodigus et stultus donat quae sperait et odit. Oderunt peocare boni virtutis amore. And some kinds are direct statements, as: Cresoit amor nummi, quantum ipsa pecunia oresoit. Sententiae receive greater force from changing the figure of speech. This line from Virgil is sharper: Usque adeone nori miserum est? What if it were said: Namqua mori baud miserum est? And if the sententiae are transferred from the general to the particular as in Ovid's Medea: Servare potui, perdere an possim rogas. This is more forceful than if she said Nocare facile est, prodesse difficile because what is correct and ordinary is attributed to the character in accordance with the theme. approbation.

Sententiae are also produced in a cry of

The Greeks call this eniphonema.

firm what has been said.

Its function is to con­

For instance:

Tantae molis arat Romanam condere gentem. Sententiae which are produced from opposition are also noted: Mors misers non est, aditus ad mortem miser. And from contraries: Video meliora proboque, Deteriora sequor.

753 Furthermore there are sententiae drawn from a comparison, fron surprise, from allusion, and from being transferred from one omit ext into another* Some sententiae consist of doubling a phrase; some are quoted from other sources.

But since there is no lack of writers who have extensively

discussed these, surely it will be sufficient to have advised about where they can be sought. Sententiae lend power and brilliance to a speech if they are interspersed rarely and where the material demands*

The silent listener

fully agrees because he understands a specific subject taken from life and behavior.

He knows that what is pronounced is a universal is suited to

his own opinion.

And it will be suited if what our listeners approve

we pursue by implications, as comic and tragic poets do.

These produce

a "mannered" poem because the speaker's frame of mind, purpose, and mental disposition are dearly revealed, and the listener is impressed and affeoted accordingly.

The expression of rectitude implies the speaker's

probity, impropriety— his perversity.

And so I think I have shown what

by consent, a sententia is, and how it may be more clearly composed.

I

have shown what things it speaks about, whom it especially befits, and where it may be interposed so that no one speaks to whom its force is inappropriate.

If a youth speaks it, his authority will not support the

weight of the matter.

Nor will it otherwise have any force unless it

fits the experience of the person it concerns.

It goes without saying

that a writer should not only take care that his sententiae are not, to begin with, false and unsuitable, but should also take care that they be not obscure, pussling, or densely packed.

For who can approve what

he does not understand? What light has the writer brought to what is still hidden? It is certainly not true that a poem will shine by orowding

7& together sententiae.

It vdll shin* less.

Neither is thsrs the saos

beauty and the same splendor in the heavens* nor the sane brilliance and magnitude in constellations whan they appear crowded together as when they are more sparse.

Nor does gold bound with purple show itself

appropriate unless there are spaces.

Even the fruits in an orchard

mature into a larger and more beautiful appearance if they are fewer. For the same reason a poem has concise language.

A sententia must come

to a full stop before the next begins* else the structure consists of fragments rather than clauses.

Such a structure lacks the completeness

which brings dignity and propriety.

Nor can the fact be escaped that we

seem cold* trifling* and tasteless when too sententious.

When we abound

in number* selection is lacking. When you would interject sententiae. remember that you are not the teacher of living, the man the Greeks call gnondkon.

But you are the

one who either tells about some thing or introduces someone aoting.

The

tragedians are those who (of all the poets) may appropriately use sententiae most frequently.

They deal with the material into which the

sententia especially falls.

They introduce men whom it is most appropriate

to approve, disapprove* and warn in sententiae. poets, especially those of Old Comedy.

Next come the comic

They introduced a chorus to

speak the things which were of use to the citizens. to be devised for reforming one's life.

They expect comedy

Next to the comic poets come the

satirists, the chastisers of shameful objects and vices. iambic poets, who pursue nearly the same method.

Then come

Besides these are the

lyric poets* who touch on much that pertains to manners— whether they disparage or praise,

lastly* although the heroio poets exoel the rest

in the seriousness and fruitfulness of their sententiae. whioh they write with pith* they rarely scatter then in a poem.

Heroio poets do not

755 write to rebuke or disparge, they do not present aotors looked in verbal battles*

Instead they choose a famous theme, one worthy of memory*

They develop it with simple narration joined with imitation.

In some

special places they interpose sayings of this kind to serve as lights, i.e., when something unexpected or new is to happen which it befits heroio poets to elucidate.

As in Homer:

Nan praestat multos dominarier. Unus sit prinoeps.

Unus enim rex

And this line in Virgil: Nullum cum victis certamen et aethers cassia. Thus I think I have said enought about this kind of writing. Certainly it will be superfluous to tell you how to write faultless latin, because the man who profess the subject have taught it extensively. In speaking one should carefully watch consonants, initial letters, and those which constitute various syllables. -One should be attentive to vowels, then to words— both those whioh have a timeless meaning, like virtue, and those which also add meaning to a fact, like amo.

Furthermore

one should be careful with the cases of these, the tenses, genders, and numbers suited to the speech itself.

I am aware of what more pretentious

philosophers have added superfluously.

But I think I should disregard

it as trivial and as irrelevant here.

At the same time, it hardly seems

absurd to direct our attention to the rudiments of language— the particular force they have, the sound. arise, just like a building.

From the union of those rhythms and meters Quintilian says:

"For as those syllables

are the most pleasing to the ear which are composed of the more euphonious letters, thus words, composed of such syllables will sound better than others, and the more vowel will be to hear.

sounds they contain the more attractive they

The same principle governs the linking of word with

756 wordi

sod*

arrangements will sound better than others."

(LCL. 1261 Inst.

8.3.16.) First of all* one should know how letters sound by themselves, which letters are resonant only with other letters, whioh have no sound by themselves, and whioh have little sound with others.

Then one should

know which letters have full sound, whioh a soft, a harsh, or a gentle sound.

One should know which produce a bass tone, a treble tone, a

varied one, and which are pronounoed with a husky voice, a clear one, one that ia soft or hard, rapid or slow.

"A" is a resonant full ioundj

"o" sounds more serious, sharper, and more lowly; "i" is a thinner sound; "u" is weaker.

Sometimes the sound of "e" is interposed in these,

kith

those vowels the "r" sounds rougher "1" and "n" sound lighter; "m" is more resonant when it precedes than when it follows.

On the other hand,

the "a" is more vigorous.

It was usually out off at the end of the words

so the words do not hiss.

The sounds which are doubled are stronger.

As

for the rest of the consonants, when they are doubled, or when different consonants combine, or when some terminate a preceding syllable, they have greater force.

The ear may perceive a combination of these even if

their sound is slight.

Some sounds have a roughness, others a lightness,

and still others a middle quality. As for words, one should know which words are simple, whioh are compounds, whioh are factual— whether words be trite, arohaie, or some­ thing of both.

One should know whioh words are foreign, whioh are

metaphorical, whioh are neologisms, which have been changed and trans­ lated, which are lengthened, and which shortened.

In order that we may

know whioh of these should be used to speak clearly and decorously, we should be aware that it is the virtue of speaking to be olear, not low and moan.

Clarity of speaking should be employed in proper words above

757 all.

By factual words we naan the designations of things which are bora

at almost the same time as the things thmiselves.

As Ciedro says, "In

the case of proper [factual] words therefore it is the distinction of an orator to avoid what is commonplace and hackneyed and to employ select and distinguished terms that seem to have some fullness and sonority in them."

(LCL. 31*91 De. Or. 3.37.150.)

this distinction for himself.

The poet will rightfully claim

In order to effect a tighter more dignified

language, the poet does not spurn occasional antique and archaic words. Olli. actutum. and mi are this sort; you will find them in Virgil.

Virgil

above all especially approved good usage in speaking, and he was observant of those words which were still in use. words of this kind.

But he used care in selecting

He did not want to use anything beneath the dignity

of his theme; nor did he want anything that he might not weigh critical faculty of the ear.

In this he was most effective.

by the

Thus one

will choose from common words Vhat is not trite and from rare words what is not at all pretentious. One should also know how many ways a proper word may be spoken in an oration.

Since this has been abundantly explained to you in the

rules of oratory, it need not be repeated to you like cabbage.

Any

glaring impropriety is ordinarily considered a fault, but sometimes one is intentional.

For example 1

Huno ego si potui tantum sperare dolorem. In addition to propriety of diction Quintilian taught clarity. that the order of words must be straight forward,

He said

"The conclusion of

the period must not be long postponed, there must be nothing lacking and nothing superfluous."

(LCL. 126;

Inst. 8.2.22.) Ambiguity sins against

this virtue and should be avoided at all costs.

Next to be avoided are

poor arrangement of words, a circular extension of language in useless

758 loquacity, and words which ara obscure and difficult.

Certainly satyr-

drama and especially comedy, which strove for common, pure language, claimed for themselves praise for clarity, seeing that their speech is apparently learned and yet clear to the ignorant.

And so any low kind

of speaking is especially made from factual words} words which make a magnificient, exalted, and ornamented song are either rare, foreign, newly coined or metaphoric.

The license of poets is freer than orators'.

Indeed, as we have shown, poets must have freedom to gain our admiration with heightened diction.

Orators may use these same kinds of words

when they find that display affords pleasure.

Poets who only seek praise

and fame for themselves seek out the more becomingly ornate, a more admirable and venerable speech. As Cicero says:

"Bare words are usually archaisms whioh because of

their antiquity have long passed out of use in everyday speech."

3^9 i De. Or. 3.38.133.)

(LCL.

Now because for a long time all of Latin speech

has been old to our ears and everything is removed from the common use of speaking, whatever words were rare to the best authors and to Virgil will also be rare to us. also love.

The words those ancient authors loved, we should

For example1 Vel cum se pavidum contra mea iurgia fingit.

And: Progeniem sed enim Troiano a sanguine duci Audierat. And: Mediis effusus in undie. And: Tam magis ilia freuena et tristibus effera flaamia. Quam magis effUso crudesount sanguine pugnae.

759 And this line from Catullus: Sic vlrgo duo innupta manat, dum oara suls eat. In this line the first dum means quad (up to the time that); the seoond dum means usque eo (continuously). Ve oall words foreign which are taken from a foreign language, e.g., ftesa. uetoritum. heda, Oallica. carchesia. crateres. lychni. popium. chelis. aether. Qraeoa. and very many others. from Qreek.

Some are the names of things.

Many are taken

Others are personal names

like Srigone, Cyllenlus, Atlantis, the names of nymphs, and nearly all the names of the gods. Juno.

A few of these we name in Latin— Jove, Saturn, and

Some we even decline in Greek—

P&llada. aera, and aethera. rather

than Balladem. aarem. and aetheran. as the grammar of our own language demands.

What about the names Virgil gave his characters? Aren't they

foreign for the moat part? Principio Fhalarim et sucoiso poplite Gygen Hxcepit. And: llle talon Tanaimque neoi fortemque Cethegum, Tree uno congressu et maestum mittit Qnyten Nomen Echionium matrisque genus Feridiae. Virgil always calls foreigners by foreign names. Italians with names flowing from the Latin fount. this kind.

Sometimes he calls Bpulo and Bapo are of

You will find certain words taken from imitation of Greek

speeoh: Dideratque comas diffundere ventis Cernere erat. Attollens humero famamque et fata nepotum. Facem Troiano ab Bege petendum. Multaque se inousat. New words are invented which the poet himself begets. either by derivation:

This may be done

Belli ferratoe rupit Saturnla postes. And: Aeratasque aolea in praella coglt. Or by the addition of a letter or syllable! Gnatis paree tuia. Bettulit in melius. Alituum peoudumque genus. Si reditum tetulisset is. Mavortis ad urban. Summa dominarier aroe. Aut magis indupedita. Quod tamen expleri nulla rations potestur. These in place of natis. retailt. allturn, tulisset. Martia. dominari. impedlta. and potest.

Virgil did not seem to approve of potestur.

indupedita. or tetulisset. like ceoinisset.

But one might argue that tetulisset was made

New words may be made by omitting a letter or syllable!

Mortalia temnitis anna. Inarmime Iovis imperils imposts Typhoeo. Bxtinxti te meque soror. Aspice num mage nostrum sit penetrabile telum Vide in ut gemlnae stant vertice oristae. Pyrrhi *n connubiae serves? These instead of contemnitis. imposita. extiiudsti. magis. videsne. and Pyrrhine.

New words occur through changing a letter.

Instead of impetui

Comburens impete magno. For illiat Aurea Caesaries ollis. By inverting letters! Nam tibl Timbre caput Zhrandrius abstalit ensis. And! At non Dvandre pudendis. Instead of Timber and Bvander. occur by lengthening words!

Both were spoken thus in Greek.

New words

761 Relliquias Troiae. Belligione patrum. In decimum vestigia rettulit annum. Italian Italian primus oonolamat Aohates. New words oocur by contractioni Steterunt que comae et vox faucibus haesit. Fervere Leuoaten. Ore reiectanten. Tytire pascantes a flumine relice capellas. Elsewhere the sane poet had said2 Bis relecta amis respectant terga tegentes. And: Atque oculos Rutulorum relicit arvis. New words stem from the combination of letters when one syllable is made from twoi Cannubio iungam stabili. Iaquearlbus aureis. Fereique Hunendium thalami. Dehinc talia fatur. Tu deinde sequere Maenalca. Quod v o d deerat plangore repleban. New words may be formed by the joining of sounds. Auricomos quan quis decerpserit arbore foetus. And t Almaque curru Noctivago Phoebe. And i Pedibusque eviscerat unois. And! Alte spunis exuberat amnis We have these lines fron Virgil alsoi Imnugiit Aetna cavernis. Inperdita corpora Teucri. Inaccessos luoos. Inamabilis unda. Incanaque nenta Inarine.

762 Illaudati busiridia araa. Asripedem cervam. Iaculie increvit acutes* And so there are many words which coalesce as if from two bodies.

You

will rarely— if at all— find words which combine from three words, unless two prepositions are joined in one word*

For instance:

Ineluctabile tempus. Inexaturabile pectus. Inexcita Ausonia. You will not find capsis combined anywhere except in comedy, as is seen in Cicero (from cape and suia).

Nor do you find the following except in

tragedy: Nerei repandirostrum incurvic ervicum pecus. And: Habeo istam ego perterricrepam. However these consist of exactly two words. thing except in the arrangement. the words.

Be does not signify any­

In and per are prepositions to intensify

Neither do the Creeks— except rarely — make a new word from

three significant words.

Just as they Join words more freely, so also

they join them more successfully.

For instance:

hermokaikoxanthos and dyodekadromos.

Batrachomyomachia.

For embasichytros. chrysampykes.

empedomochthos. monampykea and many more of that kind have a preposition. Words like akaiuantopodes and what is called sterktikon lack force entirely, except for being compounds. made from two words.

Many new words are frequently and very finely

For example:

Anaxjphonnimres hymnol And: tyndandaiat e philoxenoie adein kalliplokamo th*holsna And:

763 argyrotoxoe Apollon And: ELthon d laxaiphnea notakaones. ankulochelai loxobatai. atrebloi. paalidoatomol. oatrakodermoi. Ostopfayejs. platunotoi. apostilbontes on onola Blaiaol. oheilotanontes. apo* aternon esorontea. Oktapodea. dlkaranoi. acheireea. hoi da kaleuntai Karkinoi. Vorda may ba coined from imitating certain sounds.

For inatancei

Inaequitur clamorque virum stridorque rudantum. Andt Diacaaau mugire bovaa. Andt Quinque gragas ill! balantum. Hare you aaa words made from the sound itself t rudantum* mugire* balantum* New words are also fashioned if the gander is changedt Oculis capti talpae. Timidi damaa* Imo da stirpe raciaum. Aeriae quo congeesere palumbea. Silica in nuda. Mueco circundat amaraa Corticls. Usage demands that one say oculis captae talpae. Timidae damaa. Ima da stirpe. Aerii palumbes. actliea in nudo. Atari corticis (just as the same author said medio cortioa).

But Virgil seams to have bean lad by

the modulation of his rhythms to prefer those endings and not by the necessity of meter, as in thist Stabat acuta silex. The poet may change casest Urban, quas atatuo veatra eat. Expectate vanis. Ills visa celerans per milie color!bus aroum. The readings should bet is true of this linet

urba, expeotatus. and milie oolorum.

The same

7& Nec dum illls labra admovi. The correct reading let

Wee dum labria ilia admovi.

Verbs became new if

their tenses are changed: (frtae manus intarea Thuscis camitetur ab oris. Aeneam armetque rates pelagoque vehatur. The poet used those verbs in place of oomitata. vecta ait, and arnaverit. The verb's mode may be changed: At Butulo Begi duoibusque es mira videri. The more usual verb use was videbantur.

Tense and mode may be changed:

Nec vend, nisi fata locum sedemque dedissent. Customary usage was veniasem.

The poet may change endings to make

qualitative distinctions: Hoc pinquem et placitam paoi nutritor olivam. Although everyday speech teaches that nutrio be said* nutrlto was accep­ table in this context.

There are many words spoken in both modes:

Aut haec in nostros fabricate est machine muros. And: Miserat hunc illi Therses fabrics verat Alcon. In Cicero we find Qui fabricatus gladium eat. And: Vooiferatur et eluoet nature profundi. And Varro would have said: Qui elati sunt et vooiferant saepe. New words occur vdien number is changed: Pars agmina cogunt. Elsewhere the same author says: Quaerit pars semina flammae. There is even a change of persons:

765 Quid plus Aeneas tanta dabit Indole dignum? Here Aeneas speaks about himself as if he were speaking about someone else.

This ancient line has too much license: Danai qui parent Atridis quamprlmum arma sumite.

The following are also of this type: Neve tibi solan vergant vineta dadentem. Nec mihi turn molleis sub divo carpers somnos, Neu dorso nemdris libeat iacuisse per herbas. In these lines it appears at first that the person being taught is unknown, then that the poet is teaching himself, although he gives his instructions to everyone.

Also one may be summoned in some way.

For instance:

Coniunx quondam tua dicta relinquor. And: Troes te miaeri ventis maria omnia vecti oramus. What about when parts of speech are exchanged among each other? Isn't this a certain elegant newness?

Not only is a noun set in place of noun,

as: Sic fatus senior. And: Tristior et laehrymis oculoa suffusa nitentes. And: Haurlat hunc oculis ignem crudelis ab alto Dardanus. A noun is substituted for an adverb: Ardentem et torva tuentm. And: Torvumque repente Clamat. An infinitive is substituted for a noun: Nostrum istud vivere triste. Scire tuum nihil eat.

766 As Quintilian teaches, an infinitive can be UBed in place of a participle I Magnum dat ferre talentum. This is the Greek method of speaking.

Again we use one term in place of

another: Namque sub ingenti lustrat dum singula templo. Instead of in templo.

And:

Sub nocte silenti. This is in place of per nootam.

Furthermore the construction of the

parts themselves is changed by the oases. Rapuitque in fooite flammam. The more correct form was in formitem.

The correct method of speaking

is changed: Nec longae invidit avenae. The better way of speaking— even if it is less Iatinate--is: Nec longam invidit avenam. As in: Actius Floram quisnam liberum invidit meum? But we are restrained by usage.

What about this?

Tyrrhenum navigat aequor. Isn't that less proper than: Tyrrheno navigat aequore. We find a similar usage in Cicero's letter to Atticua: Infero marl nobis incerto cursu, hyeme maxima navigandum est. An expression also seems to be new when unnecessary words are added— but not inelegantly: Nam neque Famassi vobis iuga, nam neque Plni.

767 One of the nam's was not necessary.

The same is true when words are

omittedt Accede ad ignem hunc, lam calesus plus satis. The expression should have been plusquam satis. is more notable than has been shown by examples.

The omission of a term Finally, words are new

whenever they are changed or are devised and as soon as they have begun to be changed or devised. Metaphors are words transferred from their own proper place into a place which does not belong to them.

This may be done because of need:

Quid faciat laetas segetes. Aspera Juno. Durl miles Ulyssi. Or a word may be transferred to better signify the subject matter: Talia flammato secum Dea corde volutans Nyaborum in patriam loca foeta furentibus austris. Aeoliam venit hlo vastorex Aeolus antro luctantes ventos tempestatesque sonoras Imperio premit ac vinclis et carcere frenat. Or a word may be transferred to express the meaning more handsomely and ornately: Horrificis iuxta tonat Aetna ruinis, Interdumque atram prorumpit ad aethera nubem Turbine fumantem piceo et candante favilla. Attolitque globos flam— rum et sidera Iambit. Interdum scopulos avulsaque viscera montis. Srlgit eructans liquefactaque saxa sub auras Cum gamitu glomerat fundoque ex aestaut imo. Mow that which might be spoken less respectably in proper words is ex­ plained more plausibly in this way: Ornne adeo genus in tarris hominumque ferarumque Et genus aequoreum pecudes pictaeque voluores In furias ignemque ruunt amor omnibus idem. Andt At Regina gravi iamdudum saucia cura Vulnua alit venis et caeoo carpitur igni.

768 Thus metaphor began from the poverty of language, provided made it more common.

later the pleasure it

Metaphor is a certain brief simile in

which a word has been placed in another context as if it were its own. If the metaphor is recognized, it affords pleasure. similarity, it is no metaphor.

If there is no

It is different from a simile in that

the simile is composed of single words, the metaphor from many more words.

The metaphor transfers the word from genus to species: Stant littore puppes.

The poet could have said:

Portum aui tenet stare.

Or from species to

genus: Mills trahit varios adverso sole colores, for there are many thousands.

Or from one species to another:

Armati veteres iusserunt legibus urbem. And: Dardaniis ornat tells. Here armari is taken for ornari, ornat for armat. Both are instructive. A metaphor may result from a method called proportio; we may name a thing analogically: Volat ille per aera magnum Bemigio alarum. And: Velorum pandlmus alas. Just as wings pertain to flying, so rowing pertains to ships. metaphor combines wings and rowing, flying and ships.

Thus the

And:

Olli dura quies oculos et ferreus urget Seamus in aetemum clauduntur lumina noctam. Here we understand ouietam. somrnua. and noctam in place of death.

Death

is compared with life, rest with work, sleep with wakefulness, and night with day.

There may be analogy where what we name is absent.

For instance:

769 Humoresque serit varios. Tor to saw ia to pour out tha aaada of althar produoa or traas. "to scatter remorse" is not tha proper sense of tha tarn. is compared with rumors as serare ia with seed.

Howavar

Spargers

A vary ancient poet

used the same method in the expression serare flammsn: Virgil did so in semina flammae. As will be more clearly explained, metaphors may be made in four ways.

Since all things are either living or not living, sometimes a

representative of one kind is substituted for an example of the same kind.

For instance, one inanimate thing for another: Horrescit strictis seges ensibus.

And: Telorum seges (a harvest of spears) The proper expression would be frugum seges— a harvest of crops.

Or one

living thing for another: It nigrum campis agmen. As if the poet were speaking about ants.

Sometimes the living is used

for the non-living: Leni fluit agmine Thybria. The lydian Tiber flows with gentle sweep. (LCL. 63: Aon. 2.782.} Here the language is in place of a certain order of waters being lead out and, so to speak, flowing.

The non-living may substitute for the

living: Urgeri volucrum raucarum ad littora nubecu ...a cloud of hoarse-voiced birds was pressing shoreward from the deep gulf. (LCL. 6**: Aec. 7.705.) This reading replaces a thick flock of birds whose flight seams to shade the air.

This is done so that we may more boldly give some emotion to

770 those things devoid of sensation.

For example!

llli indignantes magno cum murmure montis Circum olaustra fremunt. They, to the mountain's mighty moans, chafe blustering around the barriers. (LCL. 63: Aen- 1.55-56.) We also find where this effect ia doubled! Ferrumque armare vaneno. ...arm the steel with venom. (LCL. 64:

Km.

9.773.)

This line is the same kind! Calamos armare veneno. ...arming shafts with venom. (LCL. 64!

Am , 10.140.)

We do not literally speak of arming steel and shafts. with poison.

Nor of arming

There are many kinds of metaphors besides these.

You can

remember learning them from grammar teachers when you were children. Metaphors are directed to all the senses, but especially to the sense of sight.

This kind is very keen.

For instance:

Others, I doubt not, shall beat out the breathing bronae with softer lines; (LCL. 93: Aen. 6.848.) ...alone thou knowest the hour for easy access to him— (LCL. 93: Aen. 4.423.) Suffer me to utter this hard saying...# (LCL. 64: Aen. 12.23.) ...noble his ancestral house, glorious the renown of his father's worth.... (LCL. 64! Aen. 12.223-226.) 0 relics once dear.... (LCL. 63: Aen. 4.631.) Metaphors are also derived from the other senses.

The nostrils perceive

breath; touch perceives softness; the ears perceive a murmur and a name; taste perceives sweetness.

Those which take their origin from the eyes

771 are greater In number and more intense because they bring to mind what cannot be seen.

In this kind of metaphor one muBt be careful not to use

something dissimilar, like* Coeli ingentes fornices. The immense vaults of the heavens. Nor should we use anything too harsh and far-fetched* with hoary snow bespew the wintry Alps (LCL. 19kt Sat. 2.5.Jfl.) ...because...wrinkles and snowy locks disfigure thee. (LCL. 33* C. 13.11^12.) Nor anything deformed in a metaphor* Scipiadae inter!tu castratam vidimus urbem. Qlaucia foetata est quo stercore curia quondam. The metaphor should not entail anything more than is fitting, like tearoestas eouli. or less, like tempestatum epulae.

The metaphor should

not be narrower than suits the word* Improbe quid plaoida abnutas me pace potixi. The line would be more fitting as follows* Improbe quid placida prohibes me pace potiri. The poets, using metaphor freely but professing to hold it within rules, make pleasure its only test.

Their intent in changing words and creating

new ones is to raise admiration. Still no Iatin poets should think themselves as free as the Greeks.

Their

language allowed Homer to call a king soimena laon-shepherd of the people. Virgil never dreamed of calling a king pastorem populi.

Virgil had

freely said* ...may he-goat, the lord of the flocks himself. (LCL. 63* Eel. 7.7.) — The oarage of his wings.... (LCL. 63*

Am.

6.19.)

772 Metaphors flow from being connected to many words. thing is said,

In these words, one

but something else is to be understood.

But in our course we have traversed a mighty plain, and now it is time to unyo'ce the necks of our smoking steeds. (LCL. 63* Qaor. 2.541-542.) These exemplify allegory.

The following is a mixed type:

But a common night awaiteth every man, and Death's path must be trodden once for all. (LCL. 33: C. 1.28.15-16.) The whole effect rests in a single mode except the last line: Calcanda setsel via leti. This line is a metaphor.

But ornamented as it is by metaphorical

language, the literal sense is easy to understand.

Even more ornamental

is the type which adds simile to allegory. Helpless in mind she rages, and all aflame raves through the city, like some Thyiad startled by the shaken emblems, what time, hearing the Bacchic cry, the biennial revels fire her and at night Cithaeron summons her with its din. (LCL. 63: Aen. 4.300-303.) To me it seems a proper rule that in allegory whatever follows agrees with what has preceded.

When you begin with a disaster or with a burning, you

may not stop in a storm; that is to say, do not mix metaphors.

Proverbs

also flow from the save fount: It is not every man's lot to get to Corinth. (LCL. 19**: Ife. 1.17.36.) This passes for a proverb; More chance brought them the glory craved. (ICL. 63: Aen. 5.201.) The more obscure expressions are called enigmas. [Damoetas^ Tell me in what land— and you shall be my great Apollo— Heaven 'a space is but three ells broad. (LCL. 63: Eel. 3.104-105.)

773 There are other changes of words.

A word is changed in order to adorn

(metonymy) when a possession is substituted for the possessor! All ablaae is Ausonia, erstwhile sluggish and unmoved. (LCL. 64i Aen. 7.623.) The inventor is substituted for the thing invented! ...to turn their teeth upon the slender cakes.... (LCL. 6k i Aen. 7.112-113.) And! They...take their fill of old wine.... (LCL. 63! Aen. 1.215.) Andt With free rein Vulcan riots amid thwarts.... (LCL. 63! Aw. 5.662.) The deity of a place is substituted for the place itselft Oreat as Orion, when cleaving a path he stalks on foot through the vast pools of mid-ocean.... (LCL. 6ki Aen. 10.765-765.) The container is substituted for what is contained! ...nor shall Ausonia repent of having welcomed Troy to her breast. (LCL. 6^! Aen. 7.233.) He briskly drained the foaming cup and drank deep in the brimming gold. (LCL. 63! Aen. 1.736-739.) Metonymy also substitutes the matter from which the goblet is made for the goblet itself, the maker for what has been made: ...fear Jove's rains for your now ripened grapes. (LCL. 63! Qeor. Z.kl9.) And! ...not unversed in prophecy.... (ICL.

Aen. 8.627.)

This refers to oracles which the prophets issued. substituted for the possession.

An owner may be

77* ...oven now his neighbor Ucalegon blazes. (LCL. 631 A n . 2.311-312.) The other way round, things endured replace those who endure than! ...from all sides [they] muster forces.... (LCL. 6*: A m . 8.7-8.) Socia arma rogamus. We ask for allied arms. (LCL. 6*t

Aen. 8.120.)

The thing itself is signified from the instrumnt mentioned! ...the Rutuli vie in exhorting one another to arms. (LCL. 6*i Aen. 7**72.) ...let me dismiss Ascanius from arms unscathed. (LCL. 6*i A n , 10.*6-*7.) We show the power for an agent from what is donet ...loathly want. (LCL. 63: An. 6.276.) ...savage strife. (LCL. 63: An. 6.280.) ...grim war. (LCL. 63!

Eel. 6.7.)

(LCL. 6*!

An. 10.396.)

...brave deeds. The deeds are replaced by those who bravely accomplished them. Mantua, alasl

And!

too near ill-fated Cremona. (LCL. 63! &1. 9.28.)

Here the city stands for the unhappiness of thecitizans.

The following

pertains to this method! ...and sent many thousands to death.... (LCL. 631 Aen. 5.806.) ...after slaying his Volscian thousands.••• (LCL. 6*! An. II.I67.) Virtues are named for the a n in whom they reside! Alas for goodnessI alas for old-world honour, and the hand invincible in warI (LCL, 63! A n . 6.878-879.)

•••if thy loving-kindneas of old hath any regard for human sorrows.... (LCL. 63: Aen. 5.688-689J Or vices: Loathly envy shall oower before the Furies and the stem stream of Cocytus, Ixion's twisted snakes.... (LCL. 63* Qeor. 3.37-38.) In metonymy also what is singular is rendered with the plural number: [They] mawed at lulus, at the god's glowing looks.... (LCL. 63: Aen. 1.709-710.) Batrioe foedasti vulnere vultus. [ye] — defiled with death a father's facet (LCL. 63: Aen. 2.539.) Virgil could have said vultum.

In order that one will not be understood

to be substituted for many, the word is changed. plausible and has greater force.

Thus the line is more

What more can I say about metonymy?

It contains everything which is enunciated more ornately by changing a word. Closely related to metonymy is synecdoche.

Our purpose here is to

show the whole from a part: submeraasque obrue puppis. (LCL. 63: Aen. 1.69.) Puppea stands for naves (ships).

A part may be signified by the whole:

Viridemque ab humo convellere silvam Conatus. ...and essaying to tear up the green growth from the soil. (LCL. 63: A m u 3.2^25.) Here the context is about myrtle.

A species may signify genus.

Saucius et quadrupes nota intra tecta refugit But the wounded creature fled under the familiar roof....

776 Virgil wanted us to understand horse in this context*

Genus nay stand

for species: looa feta furentibus Austriat ..•tracts teeming with furious blasts. (LCL. 63: Aen. 1.51.) Here the south winds are taken for winds.

Many may be signified from

one: late loca ndlite eomplent. ...fill the wide space with soldiery. (JSIs 63: A« . 2.495.) One may be signified by a plural: Nos aliquid Rutulos contra iuvisse nefandum eat? But that we in turn have given some aid to the Butuli, is that monstrous? (LCL, 64: Aen. 10.84.) Here Juno is only speaking about herself.

Ve may use plurals when we

call one thing by its proper name: Vosf 0 Calliope, precor, adspirate canenti. Do thou, 0 Calliope, thou and thy sisters, I pray, inspire me while I sing.... (LCL. 64: Aen. 9.525.) Synecdoche also has a common thing signified from a proper name: Centauro invehitur magna. ...[Sergestus] rides in the great Centaur. (LCL. 63: Ajm. 3.122.) Sergestus is riding in a great ship which bears the name Centaur. Granaarians call this synthesis.

They would take the following to be an

example of this kind: Et iam summa procul villarua culndna fumant. Even now the house-tops yonder are cooking.... (LCL. 63: Jtol. 1.82.) This sign shows that night is approaching.

And finally in any example

777 we infer the meaning as it has been expreseed in words but not from the words themselves* We also use epithetb to adorn our speech.

For instance we say

"white privets," "dark hyacinths," "omnipotent Jove," and "Satumian Juno,"

This kind is approved when something has a point.

Now it will

only have a point when it adds something to the meaning as: ...the likeness of two-face Janus. (LCL. 6ki

Aen. 7.l80.)

...double-tongued Tyrians. (LCL. 63* Aen. 1.661.) ...nymphs...of wondrous beauty. (LCL. 631

Aen. 1.71.)

0 accursed hunger for goldI (LCL. 63: Aen. 3-57.) ...almighty Fortune and inevitable Fate. (LCL. 6**: Aen. 8.33^.) ...Achilles, destroyer of Priam *s realms. (LCL. 6k 1 Aen. 12.5^5.) Poets use the epithet so freely that it is very often redundant: ...swimming through the wet main. (LCL. 63: Aen. 5-59^.) ...[the lord of Fire} came down from high Heaven. (LCL. 6kt Aen. 8.lt23.) ...twice as far as in yon sky's upward view to heavenly Olympus. (LCL. 63* Aen. 6.579.) ...sends me down to thee from bright Olympus. (LCL. 63: A m . *+.268.) Occasionally when more words have been added to one, they have force, even without a conjunction.

They make the verse more ornate.

Stately and vast...his house.... (LCL. & f: Aen. 7.170.) ...a monster awful, shapeless, huge.... Atm. 2.704.) If wa aoftan: Tat ahall not thina ayaa, Brandar, look on ana routad with abaaaful wounda.... (ICL. 64: Aan. 11.53-56.) If wa ahow what ia pioua, huaana, aaaantially apiritual of kindly diapoaitlon in idiatavar aituation, of gantla taapar, wa plaaaa. piaty doaa tha following praaanti

Ccaa than, daar father,

aount upon ay nack,... (ICL. 63: Aan. 2.707.)

Bow aueh

869 What about those prayers poured out with tears: But wo were dissolved in tears— ay wife Creusa, Asoanius, and all our household— pleaded that our father bring not all to ruin along with hia, nor add weight to our crushing dooa. (ICL. 63* Aen* 2.651-653*) Those which follow seas to grip the soul aore veheaently: Again Z rush to aras, and in utter Misery long for death,*.* ...when lot ay wife clung upon the threshold, clasping ay feet and holding up little Zulus to his father. (ICL. 63* Ajm. 2.6551 673-67*0 And in another placet Besolved aa 1 to aeet Aeneas, resolved to bear in death all its bitterness,... (ICL. 6kt Aen. 12.678-679.) To ask a favor pertains to this lighter nature of eaotions* ...let hia spare aen once called hosts, and fathers of their brides! (ICL. 6kx A m , 11. 105.) Also to pray, especially when we ash for snail natters* ...and now crave a scant hone for our country's gods, a haraless leanding-place, and air and water free to all. (ICL. 6kt Aen. 7*229-230.) And* ...let ay grandson still live! (ICL. 6*ft Aen. 10*Jt6Jt7E) This saae belittling aay stir hatred in our eneay.

Zt aay stir ansi to

defend the Mistakes of youth, as Terence's Mitio does.

Zt aayturn

to

gaiety and laughter, with whioh nearly all of coaedy is concerned* Also in that category are the banquets of both Virgil and Boner— especially when Boner introduces Vulcan who tends the gods' cups. There are other figures of speech or stylistic virtues which handle gaiety and laughter.

For we illustrate, bring to light, and plainly

8?o represent the images of things when wo erooto tho things thenselves, sounds, aotions, disposition of tho soul, and figures of speech.

Properly

spooking, this is called the shaping of a sententia. which ia renoved froa the simple and open Method of speaking.

For what is so siaple and

so ordinary as to ask or to inquire? For instanoe? ...what seek ye? What cause, or what need, hath borne you to the Ausonian shore o'er so many dark-blue waters? (ICL. 64: Am . 7.197-198.) Bat it ia designed to hare greater force whsn the figure ia not intended to investigate, but either to enphasiBe our point: Wilt thou never suffer the leaguer to be raised? (ICL. 6kt Aen. 10.2$.) Andt Why fling thy hapless fellow-citiaena so oft into gaping perils..•• (ICL. 64: A m . 11.360.) Or to enbarrass our opponent and to deprive hia of the power to pretend ignorance: Why lingercat? Will thy prowess lodge for ever in that windy tongue, and in those flying feet? (ICL. 64: Aen. 11.389-391.) Or to express wonder:

0 tryant Love, to what dost thoe not drive the hearts of aen! (ICL. 63: Aen. 4.412.) Or to reproach: Hath pride in your birth such sway over you? (ICL. 63: Aw. 1.132.) And: Are ye not ashaaed, Butulians, for all a host like ours to set at hasard one single life? (ICL. 84: Aen. 12.229-230.)

871 Or to loudly coeplain* Thou also cruel: Why aoekest thou thy son so often with wain phantoas? (ICL. 63* Aon. l.lf07-*»08.) What about tho following?

Doesn't it suggest indignations

Could I not haws seisedhint torn hia liab froa liab and seattorod hia on tho waves? (ICL. 63* Aon. 600-601.) And this pity* Ah aol What is this groat sorrow that shakos tho walls? (LCL. Aeji. 12.620.) This kind

eabraoos a wide variety, for instance, wo oven question

ouraelvea, as in tho exaaple I quoted earlier: lo, what aa I to do? (ICL. 63:

Aon. ^.53^.)

Often wo ask what is obvious: Thou that wort tho late solace of ay ago, eouldat thou leave no alone, cruel one? (ICL. 6ht Aen. 9.^81^83.) Frequently tho expression is pitiable, as in tho last exaaple, or aay convey indignation, aa in tho exaaple of aaplification quoted a little above. Had Fellas power to burn up tho Argivo fleet and sink tho sailors in tho deep.... (ICL. 631 Aen. 1.39-*»0.) And auoh adairationi What fate pursues thee, goddess-born, aaidst such perils? (ICL. 63t Aen. 1.6l5-6l6.) Quintilian toaohos that a figure is also invlovod in a reply when we reply to the question by evading it: [Menaloaa] Sid I not see you, raaoal, snaring Deaon'a mat? (ICL. 63* &1. 3.17-18.)

872 And the reply ia* cSuaoetasj Did I not boat hia in singing? (ICL. 63* Igl. 3.21.) Vo may dofond on aetian boforo wo confess; or wo nay reply by suggesting a reproach: [Monaloas] Tho day* of oourso, whan they saw no hacking Mieon's plantation and his young vinos with malicious knifo. (ICL. 63* &1. 3.10-11.) Qravina said suoh about this whon ho discussod humor.

Nor is it un­

pleasant for anyone to answer his own questiont ...shall I humbly sue for aarriago with Numidians, whoa I have scorned so often as husbands? Shall I then follow tho Ilian ships and tho Troian's utter­ most coMands? Is it because they are grateful for aid once given* and thankfulness for past kindness stands firm in mindful hearts? (ICL. 63* Aen. 535-539.) Or he refutes what he would object tot But who— suppose that I do wish it— will suffer ae, or take one so hateful on those haughty ships? (ICL. 63* Aen. *f.51»0-5lU.) Andt But the issue of battle had been doubtfult Be it sot doomed to death, whom had I to fear? (ICL. 63* Aan. *f.603-60*f.) Sometimes we ourselves raise the same objection which the person we are conversing with could raise.

Then we immediately propose the answer in

logical fashion, like Ovid's old woman: If it be madness, I know one who has healing-oharas and herbs| of if someone has worked an evil spell on you, you shall be purified with magic ritest or if the gods are wroth with yon, wrath may be appeased by saorifioe. (ICL. if3* Met. 10.397-399*) Mow before we forestall what can be objected to, we may reinforce what we are entering:

873 let I would not blue you, ye Trojans, nor our convenant, nor tha hands wa olasped in friendship. (ICL. 6kt Am. 11.1&V-165.) And: ...nor lat this our offar ba judged by our yaars. (ICL. 6kt A m . 9.235.) Again this is dona by paranthatieal oosaent: ...scorn us not, that of oursalvae wa proffar garlands with our hands and addrass to you words of supplianos.•.• (ICL. 6ki Aen. 7.236-237.) Or wa aay oonfass: 'Surely, 0 king, * ha aaya, 'whatever bafalls, I will tall thaa all truly, nor will I dany that I aa of Argive birth. (ICL. 63* A m . 2.77-78.) Andx I snatehad aysalf, I oonfass, froa death; I burst ay bonds.••• (ICL. 63: Aen. 2.13^.) Or wa aay prepare our listener by explaining why wa acted as wa did: ...I feared not because thou wart a Danaan chief, an Arcadian and linked by blood with tha twin sens of Atreusj but ay own worth and Heaven's holy oraolea, our ancestral kindhip, and thy faae spread through tha world, have bound aa to thaa, and brought aa fata'a willing follower. (ICL. 6kt Aan. 8.129-133.) frediotion too, ia allied to this kind: ...for, since this care gnaws at thy heart, I will speak and, further unrolling tha scroll of fata, will disclose its secrets*.•• (ICL. 63: A m . 1.261-262.) And: ...thia ana thing, 0 Ooddass-born, this one in lieu of all I will foretell, and again and again repeat tha warning. (ICL. 63: Ajgu l.lf35-436.) Whan wa correct what is said: ...if tha tala can win belief.... (ICL. 631

Aj&. 1.173.)

874 And: 4.,.if report be true.... (ICL. 63* Qeor. 4.42.) And: ...rrn bo, if wa aay coupare — all things with great.... (ICL. 63* Qaor. 4.176.) Or by tha oorraotion of a oartain word wa softan tha situation, Aa in Ovid1 ...keep this ain froa aa and fight off ay criaa, if indaad it ia a oriaa. (ICL. 43* Mat. 10.322-323.) Or wa hesitate* ...ahould I speak or ba silent? (ICL. 63*

Atm. 3.39.)

And: Why tall how ha aang of Soylla.... (ICL. 63* & 1. 6.7*0 And: Or what ohanoa can now aaaura aa aafaty? (ICL. 64* Aan. 12.637.) Coammioatio ia naarly tha aaaa way, aa if wa ara consulting with acaaona: What could I do? I had no Alcippa or Phyllis to pan ay naw-waanad laaba at hoaat and tha aateh— Corydon against Thyrais— waa a nighty ana. (ICL. 63* Jtol. 7.14-16.) And* What can ha do? With what forea, what araa dara ha raacua tha youth? Or ahall ha east hiasalf on hia doon aaid tha foa, and win add wounds a awift and glorious doath? (ICL, 64* Aan. 9.3l#-401.)

And* Ah, what to do? With what spasch now dara ha approach tha franaiad queen? What opening words chooaa first? (ICL. 63* Atm. 4.283-280

875 Paraiaaio is & figure telling what you allow or uss whan you wish to reproach sosething: Qo now, confront thanklsss perils, thou soomsd oast go, lay low tha Tuscan ranks; shield the latins with pesos. (ICL. 64: A n . 7.425-426.) Or when you insult by socking: "Go, sook valour with haughty words I This answer tha twioe oaptured Arygiana send back to the Kululiana." (ICL. 6kx Aen. 9.634-635.) Or when you soon presmt the neans to refute objections: 'He sought Italy at the call of Fate.' So be it— driven on by Cassandra *s raving 1 (ICL. 64: Aen. 10.67-69.) And: Grant that heretofore no wooers soved thy sorrow, not in Iibya, not ere then in Tyre; that Iarbaa was alighted, and other lords, whon the African land, rich in triusphs, rears; wilt thou wrestle also with a love that pleases? (ICL. 63: Aen. 4.35-38.) And when you yield with great distress (oonoessio): Victor thou art; and as vanquished, have the Aueonians seen ne stretch forth ay hands: Iavinia is thine for wife; (ICL. 64: Aen. 12.936-937.) And: What thou didst seek with all thy heart thou has; Dido is on fire with love and has drawn the sadness through her veins. (ICL. 631 Ass. 4.100-101.) Veil now.

How frequently poets ascribe eloquence to things that are by

nature silent.

Hoser introduces Achilles' horse; Virgil introduces

Polydorus' ashes. forss.

Both poets have personified streoss and shapeless

Virgil created Fane.

Jhnius created Death and life.

Ovid

created Fane and Sivy; Aristophanes portrayed Wealth and Poverty.

1

8?6 ahall not dvall on tha fact that poata express thaaa antltlaa in tha words, oharaoters, Motions, and appaaranoas of aan, for with thaaa all poetry is ooncarnad, and in thaaa disputations wa have already triad-to taaoh how they ara writtan about.

Dialogue (aernooinatio) belongs aaong poatio

rasourcaai* Tha ahaphard oaaa, too; slowly tha swinahards oaaa; Hanaloaa oaaa dripping, froa tha winter's aast. All ask i "Whanoa this lava of thine? Apollo oaaa. "Oallus," ha said, "What aadnass thia? Thy svaathaart Iycorla hath followed anothar aaid anows and aaid rugged oaape." (ICL. 631 fcl. 10.19-23.) And so an.

And aiaila (imago)i ...0 thou sola surviving iaaga of ay AstyanaxI Such was ha in ayas, in hands and faea. (ICL. 63* Am. 3.^89-490.}

And portrayal (affictio)i AMaas stood forth, glaaaing in tha claar light.... (ICL. 63* Am. 1.588.) And* At last Sidonian aha ooaas forth, attMdad by a nighty throng,and clad in a Sidonian roba with Mbroidarad bordar. Har quivsr is of gold, har trassas ara knottad into gold, golden is tha buckle to clasp har purple cloak. (ICL. 63* Am. J*.136-139.) Besides those which ara belong to tha plot, tha poat asigns fictive appaaranoas and speeches to oharaoters, as in tha conversations and assMblias of tha gods.

For instance, Jove's conversations with Meroury,

Hercules, and Juno; Juno's conversations with Aeolus, Iuturns, and Vanns. Vm u s speaks with Jove, A m s s s , and Vulcan.

Tha sane thing applies w h M

Vanns herself ia s s m standing silMtt ...with a aaidm's faea and aiM, and a aaidM's ara whether one of Sparta.... (ICL. 63* Am. 1.315-316.)

Or Zriai She bacoaas Beroi, aged wife of Tssarian Doryclus.... OCL. 63* Aan. 5*620.)

877 Or Iuturaa: ...into the midaoat ranka, in feigned aaablance of Caaera*... (IC L i 6ki Aan. 12.22k.) Or tha Harpy1 ...tha Harpy propheaiea a atartling portantt horrlbla to tall of* and thraatana balaful wrath.... (ICL. 631 A n . 366.) Or whan Haotor, Anchieta, and tha houaehold goda aaaa to H a t an quiet by whila Aanaaa apaaka.

lictive apaaoh ia alao a figura, whether tha apaaoh

balonga to an undatarninad oharaotar or a naaalaaa ona.

For inatance,

in Ovidt Tha youth waa ohaarad on by ahouta of applauaa and tha worda of thoaa who oriad to hint "Now, now ia tha tiaa to band to tha work, HLppoaanaai Go onl How uaa'your utaoat atrangth! (ICL. k3i Nat. lO.636.638.) That ia notad in Virgilt Hara tha Salopian banda anoaapad, hara orual Achillaa. (ICL. 63: A n . 2.29.) It appaara aa if a apaaoh ware given without a oharaotar.

Sonatinaa

what balonga to a fictive oharaotar ia ohanged into a fora of narration which aona call indirect dialogue1 ...the bodiea that lay atrewn by tha aword o ’er tha plain they prayed hia to reatore and auffar to raat beneath an earthen sound. No war, they plead, ia waged with vanquiahed aan, bereft of air of haaveni let hia apara nan onea called hoata, and fathara of thair bridaal (ICL. 6>tt Aan. 11.102-103.) Wa change tha opeach1a direction whether wa attack an aneayi Why fling thy hapleas fallow-citiaena ao oft into ffping parila.... (ICL. 6kt Aan. II.36O-361.) Whether wa ouraat

678 ...y* gods* take suoh a past away froa aartht (ICL. 63* A n . 3.620.) Whether wa bags 0 Sun. who with thy beams surveyeet all tha works of aarth.... (ICL. 63* A n . ^.607.) And: Nay, rathar, 0 ya winds, ba pitifulI (ICL. (&: Aan. 10.676.) Thia bagging is pitiabla whan wa entreat oar anaaios: Piarea aa If ya have aught of faaling, on aa hurl all your weapons, O Butulians; destroy me first with your steal. (ICL. 6kt Aan. 9.**93-490 Va aay also use this figure by explaining: O motherland I 0 Xliua, hone of gods, and ya Cardan battlaaants, fanad in war! (ICL. 63: Aan. 2.2*f1-2^2.) And:

0 gatherland, O household gods, in vain rescued from foe, shall no town heraafter ba called Troy's? (ICL. 63: Aen. 5.632-633.) And by palling to witness before disclaiaingi 0 ashes of Xliua! 0 funeral flames of kin! I call you to, witness that in your doom I shunned not tha Danaan weapons. (ICL. 63: Aan. 2.431-^33.) When tha poat narrates using his own persona, ha sonatinas turns to an invooation: la gods, who hold tha domain of spirits! (ICL. 63* Aan. 6 . 2 6 0 And: What god oan now unfold for aa so many horrors.... (ICL. 6k 1 Aon. 12.500.) And:

879 What god, ye Muses,*.. (ICL, 63: Qeor. ^.315-> Why do we direct the listener*a thought away froa the Hatter proposed? This happens when either we show we expected something else* I never conspired with the Dunaans at Aulis to root out the Trojan race; I never sent a fleet to Pergaaus.... (ICL. 63* Aen. kA25-**26.) Or we pretend to have feared something worse; 'Alas!' he cried, 'what land now, what seas aay receive ae? or what fate at the last yet awaits ay misery?' (ICL. 631 An. 2.69-70.) Other figures for diverting a speech are also found. But certainly we bring a natter to view when we show how it was done and when we do so logically and distinctly.

Thus its fora seens to

be peroeived as having been expressed in words rather than heard: The shout runs froa tower to tower, all along the walls; they bend their eager bows and whirl their thongs. All the ground is strewn with spears; shields and hollow helas ring as they clash; the fight swells fierce, (ICL, 6k t Aen. 9.66*t-667.) And: ...he spurs his horse into the aidst, ready hiaaelf to die, and charges like whirlwind fall upon Veuulus; then tearing the foe froa his steed, grips hia with his right hand, clasps hia to his breast, and spurring with sight and aain, carries hia off. (ICL. 6kt Aen. 11. 7^1-7^.) And so on.

Also the subject natter aay be nore evident where it ia

placed before our eyes by a comparison: But Dido, trcabling and frenaied with her awful purpose, rolling her bloodshot eyes, her quivering cheeks flecked with burning spots, and pale at the coning of death, bursts into the inner courts of the hone, aounts in aadnesa the high pyre and unsheathes the Cardan sword, a gift besought for no such end! (ICL. 63: Aen. ^.6^2-6^7.)

880 And so on.

Not only do wo propose to perceive what things have boon

dono or aro being done, bat also what aro about to bo dono or will have boon dono.

Vo do not do thia hovovor, without shifting tho tonaoat Iol how Marcollua advances, glorious in his splondid spoils, and towors triumphant o t o t all! (ICL. 63* An. 6.855-856-)

Andt In tho oontro could bo aoon brason ships with Actium's battle} on* aight aoo all Louoato aglow with War's array, and tho waves ablaso with gold. (ICL. 6k t Aon. 8.675-677.) And so on.

Noarly all tho rost of tho things inscribed on this shield

aro described.

An obvious and clear description of places is oontained

by this sane devicet Stately and vast, towering with a hundred columns, his house crowned the city, once tho palace of Iaurontian Pious, awe-inspiring with its grove and tho sactity of olden days. (ICL. 6kt Aon. 7.170-172.) Aad so on.

Close to tho description of things and places lies tho

imitation of oharaotar and lifo.

As Qravina told us when speaking of

comedy, this resides in both action and language.

This quotation from

Terence will serve for evidence of the way speeches are fashionedt [Rise.3 No, I didn't know the point you were aiming ati "A little girl was stolon from this country, my mother brought her up as her own, she was styled my sister, I am eager to get the girl so as to restore her to her relations." (ICL. 22* * m . 155-157.) Aad these lines from Virgil* Now prophotio Apollo, now tho Iyoian oracles, now the messenger of tho gods, sent from Jovo himself, brings through the air this dread command. (ICL. 63* Aon. ^.376-378.) This fozm of speaking was usually reserved for mocking.

Next, it is

881 fitting and affaetiva In praising whore it seems to reveal something by apora and raatrainad apaaoh, as if wa ragrat our words: ...but why do I vainly unroll this unweldone tala? (ICL. 63* A w . 2.101.) Andt Why go I an furthar, and with qpaach dalay tha rising winds? (ICL. 63* Aw. 3.'»80fi'f8l.) What about whan sonathing is undaratood in a sansa othar than tha spokan ona?

Such languaga takas nsny forms.

Wa daoaiva by danylngt

Why apaak of tha wars rising from Tyro, and thy brothar'a throats? (ICL. 631 Aon. ^.43-H.) Audi Why hia savage daads? (ICL. 6k t Aw. 8.1*83.) And* I apaak not of tha sorrows wa suffarad in war bonaath har lofty walls, of tha haroas whom yondar Siaois o'erwhalms.... (ICL. 6k t Aon. 11.236-237.) Aad wa saan to surrandar Uparajssio) whan wa grant our adversaries what wa do not want to grant 1 Qo, follow Italy down tha winds; saak thy kingdom over tha waves. (ICL. 631 Aan. 4.3&1.) Andt do on; eaasa not to confound all with thy groat alarms.... (ICL. 6ki Aan. 111*00-1*01.) This is dona mora pointadly if wa allow oursalraa to ba aeousad of a fault which oan ba alladgad of our opponentt ...and do then, Dranoas, oharga aa with faar.... (ICL. 6kt Aan. 11.383*381*.)

882 (liepecially whan tha things that follow all acoruo to our Barit and not to hia.) •••alnoa thy hand hath roarad such alaughtar-haapa of Teuorians.... (ICL. 64* Au. 11.384-385-) And aa Quintilian says, "A lika raault ia produaad by reversing thia aathod when wa pretend to our own faults wfaieh ara not ours or which arm racoil upon hoada of our opponents, as for example." (ICL. 126: Inst. 9-2.49.) Was it 1 that lad tha Lardan adulterer to ravage Sparta? (ICL. 64* Am. 10.92.) Wa do not u k fron tha parson wa love aonathing that annoys us: Aanaaa* indeed, nay wall ba toaaad on unknown waters.... (ICL. 64* Am. 10.48.) And wa ara unwilling to have happen to our opponent what ha chooses 1 Whatl that Turnua nay ba biassed with a royal bride* ara wa* forsooth* wa worthless lives, a crowd unburied and unwept, to ba strewn upon tha plidns? (ICL. 64* Aen. 11.371-373.) Or on tha other hand, as if wa detest what wa approve* Ay, 'tis shameful that Italians should gird thy infant Trey with flanes, an that Turnua sat foot on his native soil.... (ICL. 64* Aen. 10.74-73*) This devioe of neaning tho opposite of what wa say applies not only to parsons, but also to things.

For exaaple, in order to disparage*

Truly, this is work for gods.... (ICL. 63*

A». 4.379.)

Or to deoeivet I reek naught of empire; that was ay hope, while Fortune stood; let than win whom thou wouldst have win. (ICL) 64* Aan. 10.42-43.) Wa show enotion or preference by keeping silent*

No aore do I, Mnostheua, seek tho first plaoe, no nor* strive to win; jot oh!- bat lot thoso conquer to whane thou, Neptune, hoot granted it..*. (ICL. 63i Ajm. 5.194-195.) Or wo show indignationt Whoa I— I Bat bottor is it to eala tho troublod WOTOS....

(ICL. 631

Aon. 1.135.)

Aposiopoois (praocislo) is soaewhat liko this falling into alienee, as if tho spoooh had boon out off boforo its rightful ond.

For inatanoe,

in Virgil* Why linger? They burst into ny ohaabor.... (ICL, 63* Aon. 6.328.) And in Ovid* And, last ay story bo longor than tho raoo itsolf, tho aaidon was outstripped. Novo nous sorao aursu sit tardior ipso. Praotorita ost Virgo. (ICL. 43* Mot. 10.679-680.) Now tho oaphaais (aiieaifloatio) will soaotiaos bo groator than tho speech! ...lupous hiaaelf, who devised tho fraud. (ICL. 63* Aon. 2.264.) And* rMonalcas] Bollio hiaaelf, too, ashes now songs. (ICL. 63* Ibl. 3.86.) Andt Qod!

God I That Monaleasl

Andt ...ovon in death tho pangs leave thea not. (ICL. 63* Aon. 6.444.)

And* ...nay, not ovan tho sons of heavon, aay uproot in war....

884 What about tha following?

Dotan't it show that nors la to ba understood

than la said? Ah, that I oould not spend ay lifs, apart froa wsdlook, a blaaalaaa lifa, a r m as aoaa wild crsaturs,... (ICL. 63 * Am. 4.550-531.) U d o ahowsd that aha was aoaawhat diaturbsd In that aha thought a lifa devoid of spouaa was not huaan, but aniaal.

And*

...allding down tha lowarad ropa.... (ICL. 631 A m . 2 .262.) Doesn't that iaply hsight?

Alao in this category should ba inoludad

tha lnstanea whan Ovid'a Myrrh confessed that aha burn ad with love for har fathar: 0 aothar, bloat in your husband t

(ICL. 43*

Mat. 10.442.)

Also partinant hara la our prophesying* ...taka up thy task, aost valiant lsadsr of Trojans and Italians both. (ICL. 64* A n . 8.513.)

And* look! tha aah itself, whila I dalay to carry it forth, has of ita own acoord oaught tha ahrinsa with quivering flaaaa. Ba tha oasn goodl (ICL. 63* Xol. 8.103-106.) Or if wa daaeriba an augury, portant, or sign* ...lot fron abova tha haad of I&lus a light tongua of flaaa seeaed to shad a glsaa.... (ICL. 631 A n . 2.682-683.) And* ...tdion with suddan crash it thundarad on tha laft and a star ahot froa haavaa, gliding through tha shadows, and drawing a fisry trail said a flood of light. (ICL. 631 Aan. 2.694-695.)

And* For, flying said tha airy olouda, tha raad oaught fira.... (ICL. 63* Aan. 5.525.)

885

Andt Tor, flying through tho ruddy aky, Jo t *'a golden bird « u phasing tha fowla of th* ahor*.... (ICL. 64* Aon. 12.247-248.) If wa aook anyonai Ha holda tha savage rooka, hoa* of thoa and thine, b a t wind; in that hall lat Aaolua lord it.... (ICL. 691 Aan. 1.139-140.) If wa ooontarfait something* To bin Tumna, sailing with untroubled aood.... (ICL. 64* Aan. 9*740.) Hara ha pretenda to ba sailing.

Alao pertinent to this category is our

covertly glacing at aonathing by alluaioni Before tha oity, boya and youtha in their early blocei are a-training in horaenenehip, or break in taana anid tha duat.... (ICL. 64* Aen. 7.162-163.) Tha poet aay ba alluding to an activity that any Bonan soldier knew aa an untrained recruit.

And:

Stately and vast, towering with a hundred columns.... (ICL. 64* Aen. 7.170.) Virgil saena to have depicted tha hone which Caeaar Augustus built on tha Palatine-— dignified and beautiful.

Ve aay naka an historical

allusion* ...and seek again tha haven of Valia.... (ICL. 63 * Aen. 6 .366 .) Or we nay raftate* Hot nine will it ba— I grant it— to keqp him froa tha crown of Iatiua, and by fata Iavinla abides immovably his bride; yet to put off tha hour and to bring delay to suoh great isauaa-that aay I do.... (Lfr. 64* Aan. 7.313-315-) Thera are alao thoae aen who want to see that their aeanings are em­ bellished.

They refer to contraries, such as*

886 On* pal* 1 * *v«r high above us, while th* oth*r, b«c**th our f**t, Is s**n of blsck Styx and th* shsd*s infernal. (ICL. 6j* Q*or. 1 ,2k2-2k3.) And 1 ...th*r* sr* Thasian via**, th*r* ar* th* pal* Mar*otio— th*s* suit*d for rich soils, thos* for lighter on**.... (ICL. 631 Q*or. 2.91-92.) And: •Far* y* w*ll, y* whos* own d*stiny is already achieved; w* ar* still suaaon*d freu fat* to fiat*. Tour r*st is won. No oo«an plains n**d y* plough*••• (ICL. 63 : £*n. 3.J*93-i*95.)

And: Ha ind«*d shall nount on fas* to th* gods, to whose altars h* t o w s his lif*, and shall aov* living on th* lips of s«n> w*, our country lost, shall bow perforce to haughty wasters... (ICL. 6k 1 Aon. 12.23V-237.) Th* po«n is n«atly illuainat*d by th*s* «nb*lliaha*nts of s*aning. Sn— wnt-in«-

Soa*tia* or other 1 was *xp*cting you to clearly

stat* what I perceived you hav* understood for a long tin*--that th* omaa«ata of sp**oh ar* to b* taken fron nearly th* saae places that produe* argua«nts. Bvncerus.

I hav* in aind what you ar* suggesting.

But I thought

it should not b* tr«at*d b*for* I had shown which omaa«nts of sp**oh poets ar* using. Snsaontius.

Deal with it when you wish.

Certainly 1 hav* ruined

nothing by prodding your a w o r y on this point. SynoTus.

I*t th* explanation of th*s* things continue to wh*r*

it had begun to go.

Foetie sp**eh is shaped by th* anltitud* of a*ans

that a d o m th* language itself, landing it fora* and *l*gano*.

Words art doublod to aohiere amplification: St longun foraoao vale, vale inquit, Iola. Sod fnglt intoroa, fugit lrroparabilo tcapus. Sad fugite, 0 aiaere, fugite. Or for tha sako of pity: Ah Corydon, Corydon. Or to urgently exhort: jfuno, nuno inaurgito reals. What about these: Oauaf daua ills, Naaaloa. Hie rir, hie oat. quea proaitti aaapiua audia. Don't thoao axeito tha list onar to undarstand aora so than tdiat ia said? Tharo ia such aoaning in Ovid'a repetition: Nec as laohryaaa, luotuaqua tiaorqua Tardarunt quin oorpua huao subliao raffarea Hi a huaaria, hia inquaa huaeris ago oorpua AohiIlia, It sinul axaa tuli. And thoao: Quaa ipso annua, quaova ora notavi Hio ooulis? hia inquaa ooulia quae funora vidi? Soaotiaoa a word ia ropoatod aa if wo aro oorrocting what was aaid.

Aa

to gain pity: At aator, non iaa aator. But alaost noror is thoro a repotition whioh dooa not have its forco joined with a dogroo of ohara.

The aaao word is pointedly ropoatod at

the beginning: Nua flotu ingoauit nostro? nun luaina floxit? Mua laohryaaa viotus dodit? The first word la ropoatod at the end of the Terse: Aabo florentes aotatibua, arcades aabo. Oltro aniaoa tollit diotia, atquo lnoropat ultro. Malta super Priaao rogitans, super Hootoro aulta.

888 Or it is tumsd this way* Nos as tibi fluxas Jfcryglao rss Tartars fundo Conaanr, nos? Bunt quas la idon paritsr dssiasat, Siallis si ears fuissat. Zhs sans words srs ia ths siddls sad at tha baginningi To nsaos Angitiaa ritroa ts fuoinus unda, To liquidi flerara laoua. Or ths rersrsa; In frets dus fluYii currant; dun naatibus unbrao Instraboat; oonvsxa polus dun sidora paacot. The sans word is also rspsatsd in ths niddlo of ths vorao; Hano pro Palladio aoniti, pro aunins lasso Sffigian statusrs. Things ones propossd ara rspsatsd and dividsdt Nisus at Piryalua prini, Ihryalus f o m a insignia viridiqus iuvanta, Nisus anors pio pusri. Iphytus at Pelias nsoun; quorun Iphytus asro Ian grario Pollas at vulasrs tardus Ulyosi. Naay words ars rspsatsd at ths bsgiaaing of liass when parenthetioal sxprsssiaas ooourt Huo patsr 0 Lanas (tuis hio onaia plana Muasribus, tibi panpinso grsTidns autunao) fee patsr 0 Lanas voni. Ths sans nsaaing is rspsatsd suoeassiTaly by nearly ths sans words; Daphninqus tuun toUonua ad astra Dephnin ad astra fsronus. Ofton ths word which olossd cns vsrss begins ths next; Ssquitur pulchsrrinus Aatur, Aatur oquo fidona st rsrsieoloribus amis. Dsiphobun ridit laosrun orudslitsr ora, Ora nanusqus anbas. Sonatinas ths last word of a lias is plaosd ssoond in ths nsxt linst At Maian (si quioquan orsdinus) AtAas. Idon Atlas gonsrat.

889 Sonatinas aaoh line begins identically t Atlantis duri ooslun qui vertioe fulcit, Atlantia, oinotua assidna cui noibns atria Piniferua caput at Tanto pnlaator at iabri. Also tha first and last word of a 11ns are plaoed at tha beginning of tha following lines Cantantes lieat ueque alnus via laadat, aanua Cantantaa ut aanua ago hoc ta fasee levabo. Tha aaaa prinoiplaa of repetition are always vary beautifully suited to aaeh other and are doubled s Coapulerant gragas Corydon at Thyrsis in unua, Thyrsis ores, Corydon distinotas laota capallas, Aabo florantas aatatibus, Arcades aabo. Carta hinc Boaanoa olia volventibua annls Hinc fora ductoras rerocato a sanguine Taucrl, Qui aara, qui terras oani dltione tanarant. Oeaanitidas aabaa, Aabaa auro, pictis indnctaa pallibua aabaa. Quaa saoua patrios aiunt portara panatas Quas subiissa huaaris confaotua aetata parantaa? Mon potui abraptua diveilere oorpua at ondis Spargers? non sooios? non ipsua abauaara ferro looa Cionai prooasalt Caasaris astrua, Astrua, quo aagatas gaudarant frugibus, at quo Itaoeret apriois in oollibus una ooloraa. Qrtygiua Caanaus, viotoraa Caanaa Turnus, Turans Ityn? Me patris Anohiaaa quoties huasntibus uabris Non oparit terras quotiea astra ignaa surgunt; Adaonat in soaniisi at turbida tarrat imago; Me puar Asoanius oapitlsqua iniuria oari. Unua illud tibi nate Daa praeque oanibus unua Praedloaa at rapatans itaruaqua itaruaqua aonabo, lunonis aagnaa prlaua praoa nuaan adorn, Iunoni cane vota libans. How beautifully that repetition of tha sane word is varied 1 Husilaaque vidaans Ztaliaa, Italiaa priaus oonolaaat Aohatas, Italiaa laato sooii olsaora salutant. Other figures are aired with these, suoh as distributios Huno dacus agragiua foraaa aovat atqua iuvantaa, Huno Atari rages, huno olaria dactara faotis.

390 Nano quibus Aurora* venissot filius araist Nano quales Sionodis aquif Nano qaanta* Aohill*s. Divisio: Tr*l* labris tortl radios, train nubia aquosae Addiderant, rutili tr*is ignis *t alitis austri. Coaraaratioi Tu viras sine sent* geris; odhi ours futuri, Ta pugnar* pot as; pugnandi teopora aeoun ELigit Atrides, tu tantua corpora prodas Noa aaimo. (Wa have uaad this elsewhere aa an example.) Bolatiot Qua Hac Qua Hac

aa ounquo fur ana aodio tulit again* virgo; Aruna aubit at taoitua vaatigia luatrat, victrix rodit ilia, pedeaqu* ox host* reportat { iuvonia fartin oalaraa detorquet habenas.

With than* examples you will also discover that alnoat every part of spaooh ia ropoatod.

In this repetition caaaa ar* aoaotiaos ohangad:

Ab lay* principiua generis, love Berdans puboa Qaudot avo. rax ipsa Iovis da ganta sapreaa. Ingonteaque Qiao ingonti nolo Chimeras. Huno oapo consiliia aooiun at aoniunga yolenten, Huio trade, aoissia suporant qui navibua. littora littoribus. Haorot pod* peat denaoquo yiro vir. Th* gender is ohangadi At Cytharaa novas art as, nova p actor* vorsat Conailia. Holtaqua par oaaoaa cangresai praolia n o o t m Conaeriaua, aultoa Danauua deaittiaua Oroo. Hie aaor, haoc patria oat. Nuaber is ohangadi Apparat doaas intus at atria longa patoaount, Apparent Priaoiet votoran panatralia regua. Soaotiaoa both ara changed: Hlc tibi oerta dooms oerti (no abaiato) penates. Dven the parts of opoooh are ohangad with on* anothar:

891 Quo deinde ruis? quo proripis? inquit, Quern fugis? aut quis to nootrls eoaplexibus areet? & 0 geminan nunc fleets acies, hone topic* genten. Scir* tuum nihil est, nisi to oeiro hoc sciot altor. Horo even tho nood of tha vorb io chongod. often interjected.

Aloo tho rqpootod verse io

This kind of verso io coiled intercelery, as in

IharnQC patriot Ineipe Maenalios mocum sea tibia versus. Ducite ab urbe dosun sea carmine, duoite Daphnin. The same expressions are massed together t Per connubia nostra, per ineeptos hymeneoa. Quoties huoentibus umbris Nox operit terras, quoties astra ignea surgunt. Abiit, periit, navem ascendit. Or different ones: Neo to noster amor, nee to data dmctera quondam, Nee moritura tenet crudeli funera Dido? And in Ovid: Sod grave Nereidum numen, sod corniger Ammon, Sod quae viscaribus veniebat belua ponti Xxaturanda meis. Uxor sine dote vaniet, intus paaltria est, Dooms sumptuosai edolescens luxu perditue; Senex delirens. Bren exclamations are massed together* Hencoine vitam?

hosoine mores?

hanc dementias?

Order must be used in the grouping so that the speech grows.

On the

other hand are those which Cicero calls dispersa. Quintilian dissipate: file segetes, illio veniunt felioius uvae, Arborei foetus alibi. Now many lines are spoken loosely to add force and speed, not only with individual words: Nos aera, nanus, navalia demus. Terras, mare, aidera iuro.

892 But even with sentences: Arms, vlri forte, a m t vocat lux ultima ▼lotos,

Beddite me Danais, Binite instaurata revlsam Praelia, nunquam omnes hodie moriemus inulti. On the other hand there are lines which increase their weight and slowness by conjunctions or by repeating the same conjunctions:

Drymoque Xanthoque Iigaeaque fhyllodooeque. Arms virumque oano, Troiae qui primus ab oris Italiaa fato profugus lavinaque ▼enit Iittora multum ille et terris iactatus et alto Vi superum, aaevae memorem Iunonis ob Iran* .

Multa quoque et bello passus dua oonderet urban, Inferretque Deos Imtio genus unde Iatinum, Albanique patres atque altae moenia Bomae. Also climax (aradatio) adds to the loveliness of the line: Ortygium Caeneus viotorem Caenea Turnus. Torva leaena lupum aequitur lupus ipse oapellam,

Florentem oythisum sequitur lasoiva capella. Hhetoriciana usually present this example from our own ancient tragic poet: love propagatus est, ut perhibent, Tantalus, Ex Tantalo Pelops, ex Pelope autem satus Atreus, qui nostrum porro propagat genus. The more finely wrought is the art these seem to have, the more rarely they should be used.

Words are omitted— -both for the sake of brevity

and for novelty, depending on their nature.

Still the omission is

understood from the context: fiaec secum. Quin age, si quid babes. Sometimes a word is omitted for the sake of decency, as we see in Fabius: Novimus et qui te transverse tuentibus hirquis, Et quo, sed faoiles Mympfcae risers; sacello. Some maintain that this is A kind of keeping silence.

But in one of its

forms one does not see what is unexpressed or else it certainly should be explained more extensively.

In another form, one word is left to be

893 desired, and it ia an evident on*.

In ellipse (datraotio) many things

ara referred to ona word: Cui parvus lulus, Cui pat ar at ooniuz quondaa tua diota ralinquor? Whan two different oonstruotions ara aptly oonnaotad with ana word, thay also belong to this figure: Sociis tunc araa capassant Edioo at dura ballua cun gente gerundua. Or when opposita forma ara uni tad: Dumque patit petitur; pari tar qua acoendit at ardat. And whan tha oppositas follow: Inopea aa copia feoit. Or whan tha dissiailar have tha appearance of being similar: Brevis assa laboro Obaourus fio. Oravina certainly taught by aany exaaplae that tha saaa word does not always iaply tha saaa meaning.

Words ara similar where some do not saaa

too different froat one another: Aarea cui gradibus surgebant llalna naxae Aara trabea. Oanis in Asoanio cari stat cura parentis, ipsa viro primus aanieas atque areta levari Vincula iubat Priaaus. Par looa senta situ. Iamyrumqua Xaauaque. At pacus coma aatu autua. Iybiois teris otia tarris. Digna atque indigna ralatu. Mortali urgaaur ab hosts Mortales; Mortali na aanu faetaa immortal a oarinaa Pas habaant. Certusque incarta paricula lustrat. Soae end similarly: Velua adverse ferit fluctusqua ad sidara tollit. Others have a similar cadence:

89k Sylvarum fructicumqua virat manoruaqua saororun. Dinansi Hutuliqua viri Tsucriqua parabant. Quara agite o taotis iuvansa suooadita noatrls. Ipsua intar paoudaa vasta aa aola movant am Pastoram Polyphamum at littora nota patantam* Othara oama to a oloaa at nearly oqual intervals aithar in a c w a

or

colon: Auda hospas* contaoma opss* at ta quoque dignum Finge Daot rabua vsni non aapar agania. Nuno viribue nans, Nunc aanibua rapidis, oani nuno arta magiatra. Whan thaaa aithar and similarly or hava tha aana cadanca they ara randarad even aora splendid: Haao« inquit, liaina victor Aloidaa oubiit, haae illua ragia coapit. Ipsa hoatia Teucros inaigni lauda farabat, Seque ortua antiqua Teuororua a atirpa volabat. In how aany waya ara oppoaitaa usad?

Individual

words ara tha oppoaita

of othar individual words* aa I aantionad in a pravioua example: Mortali na aanu faotaa inaortala carinaa. Solatia luctua.

Sxigua ingantis. Santanoaa nay ba oontrariast Vidao maliora proboqua, Deteriora sequor. Trieto lupus atabulis; aaturia frugibus iabraa; Arboribua vanti; nobia Aoaryllidia iraa. Dulca satis huaor, dapulsis arbutus haadis, Lanta salix foato paoori* mihi solus Amyntaa. Similarly univarsals may ba tha oppoaita of universal* particulars tha oppoaita of partioulara: Omnia nuno ridant. At si formosus Alexis Montibus his abaatf vidaas at flunrina aiooa. Arat agar} ritio morians sitit a aria harba} Idber panpinaas invidit oollibus umbras* Ehyllidis advantu nostra naans aana virabit, Iuppitar at laato daso audit plurimus imbir.

And:

895 Nee si frigoribus mediis Hebrumque bibamusj Sythaniasque nives hyemis subsume aquosae, Nee si cum morions sits liber sret in ulmo, Aethlopum verseaus oves subsidere Csncri. The following are also placed in some oppositani Olli dura quies oeulos et ferreus urget Somnus. Bello armantur equi bellua haee. armenta minantur. Sed taaen iidemolim eurru sueeedere sueti Quadrupedes et frena iugo oonoordia ferre, Spes est paeis, ait* The sane meaning is expressed using many words: Superat ne et ▼esoitur aura. Faoiem mutatus et ora Cupido* Post era vlx summos spargebat lumine aorntes Orta dies* oua prinua alto se gurgite tollunt Solis equi lucmaque elatis naribus efflant. Cireualoeution is used, such as this one about sheep: Oviun tenaroa depellere foetus* And this one about the atoxic: Candida venit avis longis invisa oolubris. And we use an epithet in place of a proper name (prononinatio). as for Aseanius: Bardaniusque nepos Veneris. And for Mercury: Main genitua deaittit ab alto* And what is the common name of many things we make proper because of someone's excellence, as when Apollo is oailed: Pastor ab Amphrysio. And to prophesy well we use a good word for a bad one: Verbenaaque adole pingues. Adolaro is correct rather tha ansere*

In Aeschylus' Orestes some call

the Itarise orinnyaa. whioh are called eumenides elsewhere, because Minerva

appeased then with that*

And we aay what ia witty and gayi

Qui Baviua non odit, aaet tua carnina Maevi, Atque idea iungat vulpes et aulcaet hiroos. Ve indicate more than what ia aaid by uaing a weaker exprtaaion for a stronger one (iianinutio) t Neo tibi cura canum fuerit poatrma. Aauiificatio ia achieved in that way: Fertur in abruptua nagno aona improbua aotu. Horrenduaque intonat araia. Here aona ia uaed for saxum, intonat for inaonat.

Ve uae understateaent

(diainutio) when we aayt Saxo occultabat opaco* (for antro) Sonitua iaitatur Olyaqpi. (for tonitrula) Soaetiaea the iaainutio ia done delightfully> Non ingrata taaen fruatra aunuaoula BLvia Proaittena, taoito auapendit vota labello. Moeatia Minoia ocellia. Or even wittilyi Norboai pariter geaelli utrique, Uno lectulo erudituli aabo. Theae pertain rather to the changing of worda than to their arrangMent. Thua they seea to depart a little froa the figurea of thought. to an anticipated objection: Quid tua si fuscus Aayntaa? St nigrae violae sunt et vaccinia nigra. Ve hesitate to oall a thing by its aaae: Sive Oaae« aeu aint dirae obaoenaeque volucrea. 0 quae to aeaorea virgo? Or we correct idiat we have already aaid: Farthua quaa felle vaneni, Parthua, sive Cydon. Habeo ab quid dixi habere ae, iaao habui Chroae. Nuno habeaa neo ne incertua eat.

Ve reply

897 Or we oorraot what another saldi Inoipa Mopaa prior, si quos aut Riyllidis ignea, Aut Aloonia habaa laudea, aut iurgia Codri. Iamo haao in viridi nupar quaa oortioa fagi Carnina dasoripai. Va ohanga tha aana to portray a charaotar in aona way) Hie atian invan turn Priamo narrabia Achillea. Sexcantoa illi dadarat Fopulonia matar. Cun aanal in ay1via ino da atirpa raoiaun Matra oarat. Tha following lina naans appropriate her at Vir gragia ipaa oaper. Sonatinas a conplax reason ia annexed to what has been proposed t Saapa atian ateriles incandara profuit agroa; Atque lavan stipulan orapitantibua urara flanaia Siva inda oocultas vires at pabula tarraa Finguia oouoipiunt siva illia oana par ignan Sxcoquitur vitiun atque exudat inutilis hunor, Sau pluraa oalor ilia viaa at oaaoa ralaxat Spiraaenta; novas veniat qua auooua in herbaa, Sau durat nagia at vanas aatringit hiantaa. What about whan wa axclain for tha sake of admiration? 0 fortunati quorun ian moania surgunt.

Hau quibua ilia, Zaotatua faoia?

Quaa balla axhauata canebat?

Or for tha sake of pityt Mantua vae niaaraa niniun vieina Creuanae. On to complain: Pro aealua aooa atian Torianis natribua aotia Ibcouasit foada puppaa? Or for tha sake of indignation) Pro Iuppiter ibit Bio aut at noatria illuaarit advena regnls? Wa nay anballiah tha thought any way wa wish. wa arrange tha language?

Isn't tha aana true of how

Tha force wa pareaiva ia an exclamation would

ba elearly absent ware it not for tha help of our pronunciation.

Than

898 we refute charges falsely brought against us: Pulsus ego? Arguet?

aut quiaquam merito, foedissime, pulsus

For Drances had said: Pulsus abi. There are reasons individually brought to bear on the natters proposed. Since some have been left out, others are brought in: Non las certanine agresti, Stipitibus duris agitur, sudibus ve praeustus, Sed ferro ancdpiti decemunt atraque late Horresoit strictis seges ensibus. And there is a reason for each statement: Hessapua, Cloriumque, Iyoaaniuaque Bricateu, Ilium in frenis equi lapsu tellure iacentom Huno peditem pedes. Cydippe et flava lyoorias altera virgo, Altera turn prlmos luoinae experta labores. Penne oooupatam seditionibus, Delevit urbem Hocus et Ethiops; Hie olasse formidatus ille Missilibus melior sagittis. There is also a reason added for eaoh statement: Verum neque tu illus satis noveras; Neo te ille, hoo ubi fit, ibi non vere vivitur. Tu ilium nunquas ostendisti quanti penderes, Neo tibi ille est credere ausus Quae est aequum patri. And there is surrender (oexmissio): Ho quod vis, et me viotusque volensque remitto. Or what rather seems to fit in this category: In me quid vis harum rerun convenit, Quae sunt diota in atultua Caudex, Stipes, Asinus, Plumbeus. And an unexpected turn of expression: Neo tibi Siva parens generis neo Hardanus author. Comedy will supply you with many examples of this. tinction by headings (dinumeratio):

And there in dis­

899 Non unbrae altorua naaorua, non mollia poasunt Prata norere animus, non qui per saxa volutue Furior oloetro caapua petit aanis. U l n a non popull fasces, nan purpura regum Flexit, at infidos agitans disoordia fratraa, Ant oonlurato deseendens Laous ab Istro, Non raa Boaanae perituraque ragna usque ilia Aut doluit aiearana inopaa, aut invidit habanti. And reply to oneselfs Excluait, ravocat, radaaa?

non, ai aa obaaorat.

Abd a continuation with aona transitions

Tub canit Heeperidum airatua mala puallaa. Haotanua arvorua cuitua. Fostquaa res Asiaa. Sio Vanus. at Vanaria contra aio filiua oraua. And ona that is interrupteds Iaao ago vos, cui aola salus ganitora reducto Eecipit Ascaniua* Also concernad with tha construction of language are those where one anticipates what ia generally known (anticinatio) s Continuo ragaa, ingentiramole latinua Quadriiugo invehitur curru, bigia it Turnua in albia. And ao on*

Or when number ia included s Sunt nobia mitia poma Castaneae aollaa at praaai copia laotia.

Or ganderi Leges at plebiscite coaotaa* Est mi hi nuaquaa dead, pater, ast iniuata norerca, Bisque die nuaarant aabo paous, altar et haedos* Or persons Egregiam ver laudai at apolia aapla rafartis Tuque puerqua tuus*

Or cases Beao c u b Fratre Quirinua Iura dabunt*

900 Or both case and pesaon: Divelliaur indo Iphltus et Pellas aecua. Or the matters themselves do not cohere properly: Sacra aanu viotosque Deos parvumque nepotea Ipse trahit. Only nepotea is properly handled.

One verb unites both greater and

lesser parts of speech x Ire iterum in lachrymaa, iterum tentare preoando Cogitur, et supplex aniaos submittere amori. Or we do not inject a verb into the midst of the important meaningt instead \^

we either place it first: Ardet abire fuga dulcesque relinquere terras. Or last: Quantum vertice ad auras Aetheriaa| tantua radios ad tartars tendit. Some of the things spoken separately are governed by one verb: BLeotua littore egentea Zbcoepi et regni domens in parte locavi, Aaissaa claasam, sooiosque a morte reduxi. Or then we place it nearby: Ignavua fUcos pecus a praesepibus arcent. Finally, in a speech continued in a series of one type, the eaae case of nouns is retained even to the aid of the clause: PrincipdLo eoelua ao terras oaaposque liquontes, lucentonque globua lunae titaniaque astra Spiritus intus alit. At the presont time these are the things which have presented them­ selves to ae for embellishing a poem with figures of thought and ef speech. All these same things and aany others have been more extensively pursued. Men have treated them at length— not only ao they pertain to a section of

901 any work} these figures have been discussed aaparataly and logically in thair own right. Am —

Tea, but thosa works would produoa auoh for our

instruction from orators and vary littla from poats.

Xf you had not now

shown whara thasa particular figures ara to ba found in tha poats, wa still would not understand how those should ba treated in poetry.

But

I would have you remember to fulfill an expectation wa have of you.

You

point out that tha figures of speech derive from tha saaa places froa which arguments ara taken.

Still none of tha Greeks or Iatins whose

name has reached ay ears has fatohad them thence.

Wa would learn where

to look. Svncerua.

I will grant your wish sinoe you request it.

me draw from Cicero's Topics. subject.

He said:

First let

Cicero named tha places essential to the

"Sometimes a definition is applied to the whole

subject which is under consideration.•••Sometimes there is an enumeration of parts...then etymology may ba employed....Arguments are alao drawn from circumstances closely connected with tha subject which is under inquiry.

[But this class has many subdivisions, j

For wa call soma

arguments 'conjugate,' others wa derive from genus, species, similarity, difference, contraries, adjuncts, antecedents, consequents, contradictions, cause, effect, and comparison with events of greater, leas or equal importance."

(ICL. 386:

Top. 2.91 3*11.)

Then let me remind you to

keep in mind that all the force of eloquence— except what is placed in the subject matter and in the language resides in the oraft of speaking, which ia concerned with the other two.

Although the writer presents many

materials and derives his language from usage, still the craft proceeds from himself.

For the material available to the poet is twofold.

of these is what he proposes to write about.

One

XLther nature, art, fortune

90S has provided that. invention*

The other ia what arises completely from the writer's

In this latter category are to be found the things which ought

to be used to explain and embellish the former.

The nature of things

provided Iucretius with the material he treated. of farming provided Virgil with his material. fortune provided material.

In the Qcoraics the art

In the Aeneid events and

Ve understand that what nature itself pro­

duces and the means it uses to produce belong to nature,, as does the knowledge about those products and means.

Ve so also judge certain

things the province of art; the methods employed in it to intently watch something, to augment something, or to do something, and the product of these methods pertains to art.

Both the instruments and the material

from which a work are made pertain to the art— even if nature presents a claim.

Ve are aware of expected and fortuitous events.

event includes everything which happens violently.

An unexpeoted

Even though the

causes of these happenings are attributed to either nature or to fortune, the events are still violent. include!

The disasters that can be called violent

floods, the conflagration of crops, violent storms, an unexpeoted

abundance of wild beasts, pestilence, devastation, and sterile fields, like the natural philosopher, the poet (and whoever deals with the rules of art) takes the furniture to embellish his art from the same sources that provide the material he treats.

Nevertheless the heroic poet, the

tragic poet, and the framer of stories use

materials of one class to

deal with, and mat crisis of a different class to adorn, the proposed subject.

Though the materials are contained in one and the same genus,

they are of different species.

When lbpedooles proposed to discourse on

natural philosophy, he treated it in the maimer of a natural philosopher. Vhen Hesiod wrote about agriculture, he explained his subject by its own

903 rules.

But when Boner set out to write of the most celebrated Gtreek

heroes— what they suffered and what they did— how atny varieties of differ­ ent

and complex instruments did he provide himself to ornament his work I

Let me make these things clearer. Pollio, Caesar Augustus was ruler.

At the tine when a son was born to If any historian had described this*

perhaps he would have commended that child because to his parents, nothing could have happened more excellent or praiseworthy.

As for the

prince, no one was greater or more illustrious, none held higher.

As

for the age in which the child was born, no happier age ever existed.

He

might have commended the boy because the immortal gods willed Caesar to be blessed by his brilliance and natural ability.

So the historian

would have demonstrated the excellence of the event.

Virgil thought he

should attempt that same commendation on other grounds, where he could accomplish the task with greater dignity. both those joined and those which followed, Apollo was ruling.

He looked for similarities— first of all, he said that

He meant to signify both the sun, which we see with

our eyes, and one whose image the KLatonists aay the sun ia— iee. one still more divine but removed from the saase of sight.

With Caesar

ruling, the following was just right: ...a golden race [Shall] spring up throughout the worldI

( ICL. 63: Hoi. M . ) Whatever ia happy and blessed is promised in Sibyl's song about the last age.

Caesar would be praised in that the entrance of the sun

follows: ...thy cradle shall pour forth flowers for thy delight.

( ICL. 63:

Bel. Jf.23.)

Many more lines present fruitfulness and magnificent abundance, while

noting tho felioity of thoso times.

Thua this ontiro aplondid atoto of

things ia derived from tho treasury

of nature to asbolliah on event

that naturo also olaims.

A r m though tho aan who has now ariaon will ho

liko tho sun, ho will bo aaong non.

Elsewhere tho poot was intent on

showing how perishable and fragile hunan naturo ia and that it is so by a potentiality in itself,

With similar method ho wrote in an other vein

of that which is weak by its own naturo and quickly about to vanish, using this moans to express this latter truth.

By presenting tho

fragility of tho roso tho poot, as seams, presented to our viewing tho weakness and brevity of human life without having said a word about that. Ho accomplished this in veiled fora in.order to stir our insight of our own infirmity with tho example of another's.

In thoao final versos ho

declared this openly:

^

Collige virgo rosas, dum floa novus et nova pubes. Et memor osto aevum sic prop orare tuum. Any one of tho historians might have written tho same thing.

Although

this was accomplished with a more beautiful and fuller ornament of speak­ ing than one of the natural philosophers might have produced, still it has not departed from the force of the same nature. the same elsewhere.

The poet did muoh

Using a very beautiful comparison he plaoed the

embellished thought before our eyes: Here they lay the youth aloft on his rustic bed, like to a flower culled by maiden's finger.... (ICL. 6!t: k m . 11.67-68.) Horace showed avarice to be a disease of the soul by describing a sickness of the body like it. By indulgence the dreadful dropsy grows aapace, nor can the sufferer banish thirst, unless the cause of the malady has first departed from the veins and the watery languor from the pale body. (ICL. 3 3 : C. 2.2.13-16.)

905 Bat to dissuade Brutus from the civil war he waa preparing to wage, Horace

uses the comparison of a ship steared from a dangerous course.

Doesn't this sharp style turn away from the man to the matter existing in art?

Horace says:

0 ship, new billows threaten to bear thee out to sea again. Beware1 Haste valiantly to reach the haven! Seest thou not how thy bulwarks are bereft of oars.... (ICL. 33* C. l.lif.1-4.) Virgil says* To the deep they speed} thou wouldst deem the Cyclades, uprooted, were floating on the main, or that mountains high clashed with mountains* in such mighty ships the seamen assail the towered sterns. (ICL. 6kt Aen. 8.691-693.) By the comparison of natural things he illustrated that was made from art. And, indeed, then we coon end a man distinguished for either virtue or learning,

or any art at all, don't we embellish the subject beautifully

if we make the gods, as guardians of that same endowment, look after him? cMopsuaj Since the Fates bore thee off, even Bales has left our fields, and even Apollo. (ICL. 63* *ol. 5.3*t-35.) Here it appears that the poet is addressing Daphnis— the one skilled in agriculture and steeped in the sweetest pursuits of the Muses. antecedent to these lines.)

(This was

And*

What groves, what glades were your abode, ye virgin Naiads, when Callus was pining with a love unrequited? For no heights of Barnassus or of BLndus, no Aonian Aganippe made your tarry. (ICL. 63* Eel. 10.9-12.) From the convention of prediction one can easily understand that Callus was to be esteemed among the best poets.

What else did the gods' arrival

from heaven at Thetis' wedding mean to Catullus than that the person from idiom Beleus would spring would exoel all others in the splendor of

906 his mind and dignity of his body? Vuloan had fashioned for Aeneas? Rutulians and King Turnus?

What did Virgil intend with ths arms What else but the future deaths of the

Virgil say at

.. .admiring and turning over in his hands and anas the helmet, terrific with plumes and spouting flames* the death-dealing sword, the stiff bran an corslet, blood-red and huge.... (ICL. 6*n Aen. 8.619-622.) And so on.

The above alludes to the earlier prophecy about Aenas when

he observed that his mother had brought hia these arms. I think I have clearly shown the poet's craft and his resources of inventing (which are called tonica). and how this power resides in things. He employs it in words as well, for he Bust invent even the words whereby he expresses his device. words.

X will explain how we achieve the invention of

All words are either proper or metaphorical.

(As for the ancient,

net* common, and archaic words, these necessarily fall in one order or the other, and either order may yield to a third category.)

Sinoe there is

no Iatin word for it, perhaps it would best be called by the Greek word topi cum.

This occurs when speech is produced from certain loci of

speaking inherent in the matter itself. trite and quite ordinary.

Thus we may depart from what is

Many things that are spoken properly in Iatin

when uttered in the usual way are rendered more embellished by this poetic diction. simple speech.

Words like parti, gimnit. and procreat belong to daily But,

Unde animale genus generatim in lumina vitae Reddueit Venus. Sub luminis edidit eras. Xffert in luminis oras. Here the ornaments were produoed from [;what Cicero in Tonica calls] consequent circumstances.

butt

Oriri and naaoi are also daily sipple speech,

Aeris In tcntrai posaint profarrier auras. Superumque ad lumen ituroe. Si luaina vitae Attigarint Aniaaa, quibus altara fato Corpora debeatur. Tha poat anatohad this froa tha hidden raoeases of fythagorean philosophy, taking his language from the saae locus whence we learn the secrets of lifa in general.

Another common Homan word is oociders« butt

Spiramenta aniaaa letali vulnara rupit. ...tore with fatal wound tha breathing-ways of life. (ICL. & ft Aen. 9.580.) One might judge that spirit and life-breath ara used for oooidoro.

fat

tha schools had philosophers agree that this figure had real grounds. The following, for mori. is taken froa consequentst In aeternaa olauduntur luaina noctem. From antecedents and corollaries t Tuaque aniaaa hanc effundere dextra. Undantique animam diffundit in arms oreora. Those lines would seem to refer to anima sanguis.

Wouldn't any philosopher

gladly agree with me that this seems a very beautiful circumlocution for the act of dying?

This line is spoken from consequents:

Ad aiders rursus Aetheria et superas coeli venisse subauras. To indicate what daily speech refers to as the coming of day and of night, didn't Virgil use circumstances taken from both oonsequents and antecedents? From consequents: And now early Dawn, leaving the saffron bed of Tithanus, was sprinkling her fresh rays upon the earth.

(ICL. 63* Amu 4.58^-585.) From antecedents and consequents:

908 The morrow's dawn was lighting .tha earth with tha lamp of Phoebus, and had scattered from the sky the dewy shades*.•• (ICL* 63: Aen. *1.6-7.) And what precedes is simply from effectst The third m o m had withdrawn chill shade from heaven. (ICL* 6*ft Ara. 11.210.) From corollaries* ...the cruel Ikst has breathed on me with panting steeds. (ICL* 63* Ara. 5.739.) Usually when the sun rises, it breathes from its rising to warm the air, and we so mark the beginning of day, but the Homans took its beginning from midnight.

In place of oorollaries we have circumstances from causes*

...when Jupiter has buried the oky in shade*... (ICL* 63: Ara. 6.271-272.) What follows is from effects* ...and black Night has stolen from the world her hues. (ICL* 63* Ara. 6.272.)

From consequents as signs* ...the setting stars isfrite sleep*... (ICL* 63* Ara. *f.8l.) This means that much of the night has gone, almost half* And now dewy Night had just reached its midgoal in heaven* (ICL* 63* fra. 5.835-838.) This illustrates causes from antecedents.

Although there is no motion

without time (one is measured by the other), still motion is understood to exist before time.

To note the eternity of a thing the poet borrows

from the Stoios* teaching* ...uhile heaven feeds the stars*... (ICL* 63* Ara. I.608.) (As if a humor nourishes the stars, which is probable rather than neeersarily

909 8 0 .)

Veil, then, how variously and learnedly the poet signals what it

means to ingraft * •• .barren planes have oft borne hardy apple-boughs| the beech has grown white with the chestnut's snowy bloom, the ash with the pear'sf and swine have crunched acorns beneath the elm. (ICL. 6 3 * Qeor. 2.70-72.) At any rate, after the graft the plane tress bear hardy apple boughs, and the beech grows white with the chestnut's blossom, unless some im­ pediment interferes. the elms.

It is possible that the swine crack acorns under

The need to convince is less pressing in corollaries than in

both consequents and antecedents.

However, the effects of consequents

sometimes have greater force than those of corollaries.

For example:

fThe mariners'] shouts strike tha heavens. (ICL. 63* Ara. 4.1*10.) From these is deduced what necessarily follows.

Indeed it is necessary

for the air to be beaten by shouting: ...the din strikes the golden stars. (ICL. 6 3 : Aen. 2.*f88.) What is derived from corollaries clearly adds force to the line, although it is not necessary that the stars be struck by the shouting.

We will now

declare the various loci from which the ornaments of speaking are taken. The following have been taken from definition, which gives the passage all its power: Ira brevis furor eat. Famam extenders faotis Hoc virtutie opus. Oceultum inspires ignem. Caeco carpitur igni. Obviously love is the fire enclosed within the veins.

From enumeration of

parts: No shades of deep woods, no soft meadows can touch his heart, no stream purer than amber, rolling over

910 the rooks in its eourss towards the plain,... (ICL. 63: Ssor. 3.520-522.) From ths etymology of a word:

•••[Whence ths Greeks spoke of Avarnus, ths Birdlsss Place]. (ICL. 631 A m . 6 .232 .) And: ...Strophades ths Greek nans they hsar.... (ICL. 631 Asa. 3.210.) From "conjugate" circumstances » Brazen was its threshold uprising on steps) bronze plates were its lintel-beams.•.• (ICL. 63* Aon. 1.448-449.) And*

Nan bona bonis ferri rsor aequam maxims. And* Ergo oratorss populi summatss viri Summi accumbent, ego infiaatsr infimua. From genus* But the wounded creature fled under the familiar roof,... (ICL. 64* Aen. 7-500.)

From species* ••.tracts teeming with furious blasts. (ICL. 63* Aen. 1.31.) Fran similarity of analogy* Aeneas stood forth, gleaming in the clear light, godlike in face and shoulders*... (ICL. 6 3 * Aen. 1.388-589.) Here Aeneas is introduced as similar to Phoebus.

Elsewhere Virgil

compares him with that same god, when he says* As when Apollo quits Iycia, his winter home, and the streams of Xsnthus, to visit his mother's Delos,... (ICL. 6 3 * Aen. 4.143-144.)

911 Tram difference:

•,.yet not one was led by so foul a love for beasts*... (ICL* 631 Jfel. 6.49-50.) And: O thrloe and four times blestf whose lot It was to meet death before their fathers' eyes beneath the lofty walls of Troyi (ICL* 63« Aen. 1.94-96.) Apparently the speaker is the victim of adverse fortune.

From contraries!

Should hulls framed by mortal hand have immortal rights? (ICL, 64: Aen. 9.93-96.) And: [Damoetas] Baneful to the folds is the wolf.... Elfanaleasj Sweet to the corn is a shower*... (ICL* 631 M * 3.80| 82.) And from corollaries: She might have flown o'er the topmost blades of unmown corn, nor in her course bruised the tender ears.... (ICL. 64: Aen. 7.808-809.) This description fits Camilla who is accustomed to outstrip the winds. And: fTityrusj Even now the house-tops yonder are smoking amd longer shadows fall from the mountain-heights. (ICL. 63: gel. 1.82.) By this one understands that night is approaching.

From antecedents:

...turning his spear, smote the hollow mount on its side} when lol the winds, as if in armed array, rush forth where passage is given.... (ICL. 63: Am. 1.81-83.) Thus we may note how violent a storm threatens.

And:

...and thou shalt raise on high to the starry heaven great-souled Aeneas. (ICL. 63: Aen. 1.259-260.)

912 (Because he would bo a god.)

From aonsoquanto:

Horoupon Priam,though now in doath'a cloaoat grasp, yot hold not back nor sparod his voico and wrath.... (ICL. 63* Aon. 2.533-531*.) From this we easily perceive that Priam had a groat and fiercely royal spirit. of that.

Neither advancing old age nor iapending death could deprive hia And* ...learn even now to hearken to our prayers I (ICL. 63* Qeor. I.*t2. )

For flod is called on in prayers.

From contradictions:

False one! no goddess was thy mother, nor was Dardanus founder of thy line.... (ICL. 63* Asm, ^.365.) And: Lot this is the pledge and faith of him who, they say, carries about with him his country's home-gods I who bore on his shoulders a father outworn with age I (ICL. 63* Aon. ^.597-599.) Lido thought these acts inconsistent with what she endured from Aeneas. And from causes: Thus inwardly brooding with heart inflamed.... (ICL. 63: Aen. 1.50.) Here flammato oorde was used instead of irato corde.

Anger is defined as

a burning of the spirit and a fever of the mind— causes themselves for the emotion.

And:

.. .and brings back the sun. (ICL. 63: Aen. 1.1*0.) This is to say day or light.

Neptune scatters light after driving back

the clouds because the sun has never left the heavens.

From efficient

causes: ...there pale Diseases dwell, and sad Age, and Fear.... (ICL. 63: Aon. 6.273.)

913 As all know, ws often describe something from events* ...Rumour of all svils ths sost swift. Spssd lends her strength, and she wins vigour as she goes.... (ICL. 63* Aen. **.17**-175.> Greater, lesser, and comparable events are also reckoned in this fashion. Froa greater: Ah, fool, whoa do you flee? Sven the gods have dwelt in the woods.... (ICL. 63: Sol. 2.60.) To a lesser degree he spurns what pleased the gods.

And:

WhatI If thou wart not in quest of alien lands and hones unknown, were ancient Troy yet standing, would Troy be sought by thy ships over stormy seas? (ICL. 63* Aen. **.311-313.) If Troy were not to be sought in ships over the stormy sea, how much less Italy.

Fran lesser: What Myrmidon or Dolopian, or soldier of stern Ulysses, could in telling such a tale refrain from tears? (ICL. 63* Aen. 2.6-8.)

Thus how much more one must weep if not even an enemy could contain his tears at the memory of those things.

From an equal event.

...to learn this same art, what did not Amyntaa do? (ICL. 63: Sol. 2.36.) And* ...who have the same Dardanus for ancestor and the sane disastrous story— of these twain we shall make one Troy in spirit. (ICL. 63* Aen. 3.503-505.) And* 0 the great grief and yet great glory to thy father of that home-coming of thine I This day first gave thee to war, this also takes thee hence.... (ICL. &*t A m . 10.507-508.) Thus I wanted to run over these things, seeing that they could be ex-

91^ plained briefly.

For one nay leave a buried treasure in several places

so long as one can dig it up by certain preemptible signs.

Similarly,

the writer will surely be granted to have done enough when he has shown the characteristics of the loci.

So I thing nothing more should be asked

of me concerning the locations where the figures of speech hide.

I have

shown the signs openly enough so that the figures of speech and of thought may be found.

With this knowledge anyone can accomplish the rest

with effort and practice,

especially since I have logleally and distinctly

explained with many examples how there are many figures of poetic speech. Next I think I should come to what is a topic of corollaries familiar to the poet.

From that locus the poet produces things which

are both true and fictive.

This is an example of the fictive derived

from that locus* And lol in mid course a band of his own company meets him, for the nymphs whom gracious Cybele had bidden be deities of the sea, and turn froa ships to nymphs, came swimming abreast and cleaving the billows.... (ICL. 6kt A m . 10.219-222.) For it was likely that the poet had made the ships change into the nymphs who were coming to meet him. grave the danger was.

They addressed him and informed him how

Sometimes it happens that the same thing is

sought from more than one locust ...under whoa the iron brood shall first cease, and a golden race spring u' oughout the worldt 63t fcl. ^.8-9.) And i ...thy cradle shall pour forth flowers for thy delight. These omsments are derived from corollaries, from analogies, and froa causes.

That child is compared with the sun.

Uhat the rising sun does

915 is also attributed to ths growing child.

Events encompassed by ths many

agss of men are thought to be repeated after certain precise revolutions and returns of the sun. they began.

All the stars return to the same point whence

Just as these return after long intervals to the same

celestial configuration, so we come back to those first ages which we call golden.

And certainly when the sun reaches the region where we

live, it is plainly obvious that flowers spring from the earth's bosom. Equally obvious are the effects of the sun's presence and departure, of its absence and return; and so it is with the cycle that we attribute to man— even if no mention at all of the heavens is made. derived from what is proper to the phenomena.

The analogy is

These are the poet's

versesx [Corydon} Here stand junipers and shaggy chestnuts; strewn about under the trees lie their own divers fruits; now all nature smiles; but if fair Alexia should quit these hills you would see the very rivers dry. [ThyrAis] The field is parched; the grass is athirst, dying in the tainted air; Bacchus has grudged the hills the shade of his vines t but at the coming of ay Xhyllis all the woodland will be green, and Jupiter, in his fullness, shall descend in gladsome showers. (ICL. 63: fcl. 7.53-60.) If we have not made everything dear about eaah figure of speech, we havecertainly

shown the loci.

Now let us touch on what it is that semu

especially fitting in poetry, i.e., what is appropriate.

3n— nOTt-iii«. it may be that these young man expeot more.

Shouldn't

we ask? Cossus.

Let me answer for Seortianus and Thetus.

We were consider­

ing this point, i.e., what may be left which Synoerus advised us to observe for good writing.

The latter is a very difficult one.

things have been prescribed for speaking dearly and omatdy.

Many But as to

916 speaking appropriately, no one has yet been found to have taught this completely and fully.

For you have not only shown the characteristics

of loci from which the figures of speech may be dug.

You have also shown

the art of discovering them— which hardly anyone had touched on.

Thus

you have shown that language is derived from words, subject matter from things.

I hope that you yourself will plainly and lucidly explain

appropriateness. gvncerus.

Of this matter it is asyou say.

Obviously Cloero

thought that one kind of speech does not fit every cause, audience, person, or time.

Here one might recall that "at this point it does not

in faot s e m possible to lay down any rules except that we should choose a more copious or more restrained style of rhetoric, or likewise the intermediate style that has been specified to suit the business before us.

It will be open to us to use almost the same ornaments of style on

some occasions in a more energetic and on others in a more quiet manner| and in every case while the ability to do what is appropriate is a matter of trained skill and of natural talent, the knowledge of what is appropriate to a particular occasion is a matter of practical sagacity." De Or. 3.35*212.)

(ICL, 3^9*

Sagacity is either provided by the rules of learning

or aided by th«u I think it is certainly worthwhilefor me to touch on the matter, I should like to discuss,

first of all, let us properly turn to what is

appropriate for a person.

You should remember what you heard being

taught about the method of characterisation.

It is important to note a

speaker's tine, office, authority, his status, fortius, and nation, where he was born and eduoated.

Oam method of speaking— concise, moderate,

quiet, and polished— befits older men, Cicero meant to note this when

917 he said that hie own speech had begun to attain a certain ripeness.

The

method of speech befitting young a m is full* copious, ardent, correct, bold and refined.

For no two ages approve either the same fashions or

the same manners.

Who may endure the richness, ardor, pride, flowery

style, elegant language, refinement in every rhythm, and all the other ornaments of a highly polished arrangement in an old man?

And In a

youth, who endures what is dry, contracted, simple, harsh, and smelling of unripe authority proper to an old man?

X offer you the example of

Turnus, who spoke as bdfits a youth, latinus who spoke as befits an old man. Now the man who would devote himself to administering public affairs would not use a moderate kind of speech, like a philosopher far ramoved from politics.

He would not use a speech pitched in some middle style.

He would not follow common speech, like a soldier.

But he would, being

a political and shrewd man, use every power, abundance, and pleasantness of his eloquence to effect what he is undertaking. Nestor and Ulysses as such men. as befitting themselves.

Homer portrayed

That is what princes and kings claim

Just as what is abundant, pleasant, and

elaborate is least required in these men's speech,

so what is serious,

what has the weight of thought joined with the elegance of language should not be missing.

Thus these diverse principles relating to persons

are such that what is frank in some is regarded foolish in others. DLomedes made it known that what Thersites said to Agamemnon provoked laughter.

So Thersitea was thought to have acted atupidly and madly.

Beoause the speaker seemed to present a magnanimous soul, this excited admiration.

The same is true for those who are listening.

majesty, and dignity beget stylistic variance.

Age, power,

The same style of speech

does not fit Juno, who questions, and Aeolus, who answers.

If a person

918 gifted with greater power la aeked.it might be fitting to promise him a reward for any great favors even though his dignity certainly would not hold it well deserving to be seduced by gifts. is important.

Certainly what is said

A man will speak fittingly who would examine not only

what is useful, but also what is appropriate.

Since these two were

frequently connected, mjr discourse here will not decide whether they may be separated.

Where these come in conflict, it will be better for what

is fitting to win. There are three categories of subject matter. is the reputable kind.

First of all. there

Just as it is always becoming to do what is

reputable, so also it is always and everywhere appropriate to say re­ putable things. say anywhere.

The second kind is shameful, which no one should ever, Between these two is a middle kind.

It should be more or

lesa allowed or reproached, depending on what the principle of person, time, place, and cause demands.

Boasting of our own affairs is a fault.

It is often annoying to an audience.

If it has the contempt of others,

it is extrmaely distasteful, ast Are ye not shamed, twice captured Phrygians, again to be cooped within beleaguered ramparts, and with walls to ward off death? (ICL. 6kt Aen. 9.598-599.) And soon. Butt As thus he vaunts with words of ominous strain, Aseanius brooked it not, but facing him levelled his shaft from the horse-hair string, and drawing his arms wide apart paused, first invoking Jove thus with suppliant vows. (ICL. 6k t Aen. 9.621-62*+.) Jupiter listened to the youth's prayer because he was indignant at the insolence of such a haughty man.

919 With awful whirr speeds forth tha tight-drawn shaftt passas through tha head of Remulus, and laavaa with its steal tha hollow temples. (ICL. 64: A«m. 9.632-63^.) On tha other hand* what is spoken without arrogance is defensible: I am Aeneas tha good, who carry with na in ay fleet my household gods, snatched from tha foe; my fuia is know in tha heavens above. (ICL. 63* Ate. 1.378-379.) Aeneas was telling who he was to the person asking.

Nor is the following

arrogant. Begin, if thy heart has aught of courage, and dose with me: that here too an Achilles has been found shalt thou bear word to Priam. (ICL. 64: A » . 9.741-742.) This was spoken to an enemy who was insulting and insolently threatening. Just as it is unbecoming to act immoderately, riotously, or angrily, so it

isto speak this way.

It is not only unbecoming for everyone, but

especially for those who are more excellent than other men becauseof dignity, age, experience, and prudence. it suits the person.

A thing is done decorously if

Although it was unbecoming for Jove's wife, the

queen of the gods, to seethe with anger, still poets portray no one more violent and wrathful than Juno.

This is not completely repre­

hensible because she confuses everything. she involves herself in everything. poison of her anger. says:

She leaves nothing untried;

Shaking her head, she vomits the

She does not hesitate to appeal anywhere.

"If Heaven I can not bend, than Hell I will arouse!"

Aen. 7*312.)

What more?

She

(ICL. 64:

In every matter one should be careful not to

appear to have slighted his own authority.

Because of her excessive lust

for revenge she forgot her own dignity and came to Aeolus as a suppliant. We are correct in perceiving the disposition of an angry person rather than one who holds a principal place among the gods.

Indeed how necessary it is to speak fittingly!

To do so we suet

clearly understand what is appropriate for our audience in order to gain their favor, teach then, and move then.

Ve nay thus understand what is

sought in any part of a speech and in any kind of speech.

Ve nay under­

stand when individual words are to he united, and finally, how and what method of speaking is to be used.

There rnsains for us to lucidly and

briefly explain the last of these, seeing that the rest have been clearly explained in the discourses of these days.

Ve have extensively discussed

what is Invention, what natters pertain to ordering, narrating, dividing, treating what has been undertaken, proving, and concluding.

Ve have dis­

cussed what pertains to arranging, what order the parts naintain with each other, in what series they are appropriately connected.

Ve have

explained what expression is, what things agree because of individual words, and what kind of language is to be used.

For I will not allow

what is antique, metaphoric, or newly-coined in the exordium and state­ ment of facts.

I will not include in a period what should be divided

and distinctly directed into its own parts. peroration in simple vulgar speech. jokes where pity is necessary.

I will not permit a

Nor do 1 want a tear dried with

Persuasion requires one kind of speaking:

exhorting, judging, conversing, consoling, chiding, discoursing, story­ telling— each requires its own kind of speaking.

How many kinds of

speaking there may be will be treated by example.

Vhatever their

occasion especially requires, I will touch on inasmuch as the place will bear it.

To pursue it extensively and length does not belong to one

who glances over so many things about poetic expression in one speech. Of the Greeks who handed down rules about it, they said there are seven common elements of both simple and complex language, lights so to

921 speak:

It is dilicidum.

and grave.

grande, concinuua. volubile. moratum. vera,

Clear (dllucidum) language embraces what is refined and

pure; lofty (grande) includes what is magnificent andfull of dignity; what is rough

and sad; what is sharp and twisted; what is distinguished

and famous; what is violent and excited; what is full and rich.

Mannered

(moreturn) speech includes what is lowly, pleasant, sharp, modest, and meagre.

In these forms of speaking it is prescribed one should watch

what kind of thoughts, what mode of speaking, and what arrangement fits, depending on what the subject matter and -persona demand. That kind of speaking generally called clear and pure is produced by common aaatontiae. ordinary language, not precisely chosen, by words in their proper meaning, arranged either in rounded periods or in short clauses.

It moves in meters and rhythms occurring spontaneously.

Trochees and iambs are said to be of this kind.

The language presses on:

0 crudelis Alexis, nihil mea carmina curas, Nil nostri miserere, mori me denique cogls. A refined kind of speech is made from ordinary but more select words. is used in the prefatory

It

matter before your project, in the proposition,

in the division of things about which you should speak, in the distribution, in transitions, and in the repetition. same

Attributed to it are nearlythe

combination of words, the same rhythms, clauses, and forms asthe

previous kind of speaking, and nearly the same aententiae. What makes the crops joyous, beneath what star, Macanas, it is well to turn the soil, and wed vines to elms, what tending the kine need, what care the herd is breeding, what skill the thrifty bees— hence shall I begin my son. (ICL. 63* Qeor. 1.1-3.) This elegance and neatness of speech works so that you may explain the theme logically and openly, whatever the kind of writing.

Circuitous and

922 excessively long speech ia .opposed to it.

It follows that prolixity

should airways be avoided, unless the commotion and excitement is mental. This should be expressed by a mingling of words, since what we are speaking about does not allow refined expression: ...'iuvenes, fortissimo frustra pectore, si vobis audentem extrema cupido certa sequi, quae sit rebus fortune videtis. exoessere omnea adytls arisque relictis di, quibus imperium hoo steterat; succurritis urbi incansae: moriamur et in media arma ruamus. My aen, hearts vainly valiant, if your desire is fixed to follow me in my final venture, ye see what is the fate of our cause. All the gods on whoa this empire was stayed have gone forth, leaving shrine and altar; the city ye aid is in flames. Let us die, and rush into the midst of arms. (ICL. 63: Aen. 2.348-353.) But what departs from the region of clarity is made obscure either by lengthening or compressing the language, or by ambiguity, ironical use of words, or metonymy.

This should be avoided altogether, unless it

occurs in what should be spoken obscurely, such as enigmas. The lofty kind of speech, magnificent and gifted with dignity, is first of all achieved by dealing with matters of substance— whether they pertain to the gods, to men, or to the power of nature. by the gravity of its meanings.

It is achieved

Then it is lofty by a plain and simple

affirmation of those matters, or by denial, or by ellipsis, where a number of things are suggested by one word. ironical inversion, or metaphor.

Or it is lofty by allegory,

You indicate that more is to be under­

stood than is actually said by the sense and choice of words which sound fuller and loftier.

This kind of speech is achieved byanot too over­

wrought combination of words, so that we seem to have been too scrupulous. This style is not often rough or disconnected, nor are their gaps in the flow of letters.

It is aohisved by completed cola and by clauses which

923 have more stable rhythms.

Suoh kinds certainly occur whan ths fast

iasua into longar syllables: Principio csalum so tarns caaposqua liqumates lucenttmque globus lunsa Titaniaque astra apiritus intus alit, totaaqus infuaa par artus nans agitat solas at magno se corpora miscet. And so on.

A rough and melancholy style shrinks from every refinesant

and pleasantness of speech.

This will happen if by tha severity of your

santantiaa you openly reproach either tha senate, tha prince, or anyone whoa you should respect.

This will happen if you use unpleasant metaphors,

the coabination of whioh produces a harsher flow.

The same is true if

you use morose periods to threaten or censure, or if you use phrases or coaaata ending with cruder rhythms: Quid miseroa toties in aperta pericula cives Proiicis, 0 Istio caput, horum et causa malorum? The lofty style will be cutting if you accuse men equal or inferior to you in authority, or if you disparage them with santantiaa. words, figures of speech, rhythms, and almost the same clauses.

For as in the previous

style, so in this— we use words ironically, we make the language, we change it, we twist it, we forcibly carry away the listener's mind, we question for more penetrating force, and we present the matter to the listener's eyes for more acute mockery.

For example:

Are you not shamed, twice captured Phrygians, again to be cooped within beleaguered ramparts, and with walls to ward off death? Lol these are they who by the sword claim our brides for theirsI What god, what madness, has driven you to Italy? (ICL. A«n. 9.598-601.) And a little later:

0 ye Rirygian women, indeed— for Phrygian men are ye not— go ye over the heights of Lindymus, where to aooustomed ears the pipe utters music from double mouths1 The timbrels call you, and the Berecynthian

92*» boxwood of the mother of Ida: leave arms to men, and quit the sword. (ICL. 6ki Aen. 9.6l7-7»>.) And i False one! no goddess was thy mother, nor was Dardanus founder of thy line, but rugged Cauoasus on his flinty rocks begat thee, and Hyrcanian tigresses gave thee suckI (ICL. 631 Am. ^.365-367.) And: Is this all, my son, thou bringest back to me of thyself? Is it this I have followed by land and sea? PLeroe me if ye have aught of feeling, on me hurl all your weapons, 0 Hutulians; destroy me first with your steel.... (ICL. 6kt An. 9.491^9^.) And: Iol this is the pledge and faith of him who, they say, carries about with him his country's h00e-gods! who bore on his shoulders a father outworn with age! (ICL. 63: Aen. *+.597-599.) A1thought this accusation is the more penetrating the more it shrinks froa mildness, sometimes it allows mildness: "Whither ruahest thou to thy death, with daring beyond thy strength? Thy love betrays thee into rashness." (ICL. 6kt An. 10.811*812.) language is made brilliant if there are rich and splendid sententiae about famous deeds, if we use words chosen for their dignity, if we use metaphoric and hyperbolic language, if we use words adjectivally, duplicated words, synonyms with loose rhythms, if we use words which are not abhorrent to the action itself and the representation of facts. Whatever the diotion, it is so arranged as to have force and splendor. We make the language lustrous if we bring the matter to life before our audience's eyes.

When our subject is some famous matter we should keep

in mind what was said about clear style.

As Cicero says, "Brilliance is

925 worth considerably more than the clearness above mentioned.

She one

helps us to understand what is said, but the other makes us feel that we actually see it before our eyes."

(ICL. 3**f*

Bart. Or. 6.20.) In the

brilliant style, when the words are correctly pronouneed, they are drawn out, amplified, extended beyond normal duration.

For this style

is made full and magnificent by its rhythms, clauses and periods* His super advenit Volsca de gente Camilla, agmen agens equitum et florentes aere catervas.... And so on: ...non armis adhi Voloani, non mills carinis est opus in Teucros. Addant se protinus cones Utruaoi eocios. tenebras et inertia furta Palladii, caesis summae custodibus arcis, ne timeant, nee equi caeca condemur in alvo* luce palam certum est igni circumdare muros. haud aibi cum Danais rem faxo et pube Felasga esse ferant, decimum quose distulit Hector in annum. And* ...(horresco referens) immensis orbibus angues incumbunt pelago pariterque ad litora tendunt*... And so forth.

If one adds the sharp and twisted style— about which I

havespoken— to this brilliant violent and agitated style.

kind of speaking, the result will be a

By this we threaten, criticize, and censure.

Ve use a more ornate and ample style than when we speak sharply.

Ve

mass together many words} we linger on one matter; we illuminate it with brilliant but excited speech* Did I urge him to quit the camp, or entrust his life to the winds? To commit the issue of war, the charge of battlements, to child? To tamper with Tyrrhene faith or stir up peaceful folk? Vhat god, what pitiliess power of mind drove him to his harm? Where in this is Juno, or Iris sent down from the clouds? (ICL. &¥t Aen. 10.68-73.)

And*

926 I beaten? Or shall any one, foul liar, justly brand ne beaten, that shall see swollen Tiber rise high with Ilian blood, and all Evander's house and line laid prostrate, and his Arcadians stripped of anas? Not such did Bitias and gaint Fandarus prove me, nor those thousand men whoa in one day my conquering arm sent down to hell, cooped though I was within their walls and girt by foenen's ramparts* (ICL. 6k : Aen. 11.392-398.) A style is rendered rich and full if we add an abundance of words to what should be inferred or ooneluded, and if we add the weight of sententiae to the exposition of what follows.

Frequently in this style

the order which is usually maintained in argumentation is twisted. may place the assumptions (which ought to follow) and put the reasons before both Of these.

We

before the propositions,

This speech is characterized by

the rounded period; for that reason Quintilian calls it circumductsi the Greeks refer to it as peribolen.

Although metaphors and other figures

of speech do not have more words than is proper, still the style is adorned by some figures.

In this example we note divisions:

Two gates of Sleep there are,whereof the one is said to bO of horn', and thereby an easy outlet is given to true shades; the other gleaming with the sheen of polished ivory, but false are the dreams sent by the spirits to the world above. (ICL. 63: Aen. 6.893-896.) And: ...all alike shall have this same reward. The three first shall receive prizes, and have pale-green olive crown their heads. Let the first take as winner a horse gay with trappings; the second an Amazonian quiver, filled with Thracian arrows, girt about with a broad belt of gold and clasped by a buckle with polished gem; with this Argive helmet let the third depart content. (ICL. 63: Aro. 5.308-31^.) And we may choose: Do ye rather, by any death whatever, take away this life of ainel (ICL: 63: Aen. 3.65O

927

And: Nay, rather, 0 ye winds, be pitiful! On rook, on reef drive the ship— from ay heart I, Turnue, implore you— and cast it on some sandbank's ruthless shoal, Where nd-ther Rutuli, nor Rumour that knows my shame may follow! (ICL. Aen. 10.676-679.) In the following example we connect our narrative to what follows: These points observed, remember first to bake the ground well, to cut up the hug* knolls with trenches, and to expose the upturned clods to the North-wind, long ere you plant the vine's glandsome stock. (ICL. 63: Poor. 2.239-262.) And: This done, the Father revolves another purpose in his heart, and prepares to withdraw Juturna from her brother's side. (ICL. 6kt Aen. 12.8»*3-8M O Ve prolong a series b? continuing the language: If the gods will that naught remain of our great city, if this purpose is firmly sot in thy mind, if it be thy pleasure to cast thyself and thine into the wreck of Troy, after this death the gate is wide, and soon will come Pyrrhus, steeped in the blood of Priam— Pyrrhus who butchers the son before the father's eyes, the father at the altars. (ICL. 63: Ash. 2.659-663.) And: When, in thy distress, by the waters of a secluded stream, thou ehalt find a sow lying under the oaks on the shore, just delivered of a litter of thirty young, the mother reclining on the ground white— white, too, the young about her teats— there shall be the city's site, there a sure rest from thy toils. (ICL. 63: Aen. 3.389-393.) Ve use matching elements, like theae: ...how changed from that Hector who returns after donning the spoils of Achilles or hurling on Denaan ships the Phrygian firea!

(ICL. 63: Aen. 2.27^276.) And:

928 They, as they fed, advanced in flight Just so far as a pursuer's eyes could keep then within ken,... (ICL. 63: An. 6.199-200.) We also draw a comparison: Even as on Sirotas' banks or Along the heights of Cynthus Diana guides her dancing bands, in whose train a thousand Oreads troop to right and left; she bears a quiver on her shoulder, and as she treads overtops all the goddesses; joys thrill latona's silent breast— such was Dido, so moved she joyously through their midst,... (ICL. 63* Aan. 1.^98-503.) We support one thing and discard the other: Know that it is not the hated face of the Laconian woman, daughter of Tyndareus; it is not Baris that is to blame; but the gods, the relentless gods, overturn this wealth.... (ICL. 63: Aen. 2.610-603.) Ve join in such a way that we seem to be sundering: ...not merely that the view may feed an idle fancy, but because only thus will the earth give equal strength to all, and the boughs be able to reaoh forth into free air. (ICL. 63: Qeor. 2.285-28?.) With that twisting we complicate and interweave the language so that, unless the entire speech is finished, no part of it can be understood. The cola are so joined and fitted to each other that since they are contained in one period some cannot be entirely understood without the others: If haply in speech there has reached your ears some rumour of Belamedes, son of Belus, and the glory of his fame— wham under false evidence, by wicked witnessing, the Pelasgfcns sent down innocent to death, and mourn him, now that he is bereft of light— in his company, being of kindred blood, my father, poor as he was, sent me hither to aims in my earliest years. (ICL. 63: A«i. 2.81-87.) And: "If such be the prise for defeat, and thou hast pity for the fallen, what fit reward wilt thou give

929 Nisus? The first crown I had earned by merit, had not Fortune's maliee fallen on me, as on Salius." (LSI* 63: A m . 5.353-356.) We disturb the speech's order by interjecting!

0 comrades— for ere this we have not been ignorant of evils— O ye who have borne a heavier lot, to this, too, God will grant an endI As these figures of speech are joined more repeatedly with themselves and with others, so they make the style fuller. The polished style is not one in which the language and cola agree with each other so precisely that it is laid out as decorously as if it were a corpse (this we should watch in every style of speaking).

Here

we understand a polished style to be one that has a certain distinction by virtue of the elegant arrangement and language. polished, not rough;

Its language is

pleasant, not harsh; short, not protracted.

Its

words are transposed by metaphor, invocation, or by some change of that kind.

It is illumined by the light of these ornaments, as when words

are repeated, or have a similar cadence, or end similarly, or are pre­ sented in various contraries.

It is illumined by a specific word from

which we can infer or deduce a larger pottion of the meaning.

The style

is polished when we transfer language, transpose it, circumscribe it, complicate or divert it, separate by dividing what has been joined, or when the verse is elevated by degrees.

Recall that I illustrated all of

these plainly and individually with examples.

A polished style is made

from the combination of words in which those are so joined that they do not clash harshly, they are not separated by a wide gap between vowels, they do not speak out all at once by the crowded meeting of syllables and letters, and the same sounds are not repeated too often.

As for

periods and the rhythms of its meters, we have said which of those fit a fuller style.

Nothing is more beautiful than the language which has

930 variety.

The style will be polished if the genders, figures, oases,

tenses, moods, persons, numbers, and whatever else pertains to words are varied. ent,

The style will be polished if the atresses of words are differ­ the pronounoiation differs, the endings are different, if there

are unequal intervals of syllables, if longer intervals are interspersed with compressed intervals, and if the words consisting of a few syllables are interspersed with those consisting of many.

I need not tell you how

much more elegant and polished this style becomes if the clauses, numbers, forms, and methods of speaking are changed, if variety stems from the matters being treated.

For instance:

Oceanian interea surgens Aurora reliquit. it portis iubare exorto delecta iuventus; retia rara, £Lagae, lato vsnabula ferro, Massylique ruunt equites et odora canum vis. reginam thalamo cunctantem ad Hirina primi Poenorum exspectant, ostroque insignia et auro stat sonipes ae frena ferox spumantia mandit. tandem progreditur magna stipante caterva, Sidoniam picto chlamydam circumdata limbo, cui pharetra ex auro, crlnes nodantur in aurum, aurea purpuream subnectit fibula vestem. Meanwhile Dawn rose and left the ocean. When sunlight has burst forth, there issues from the gates a chosen band of youth; with meshed nets, toils, broadpointed hunting-spears, there stream forth Massylian horsemen and their strong, keen-scented hounds. As the queen lingers in her bower, the Punic princes await her at the doorway; her prancing steed stands brilliant in purple and gold, and fiercely champs the foaming bit. At last she comes forth, attended by a mighty throng, and clad in a Sidonian robe with embroidered border. Her quiver is of gold, her tresses are knotted into gold, golden is the buckle to clasp her purple cloak. (ICL. 63: Aen. *t.129-139.) And so on.

In this narration certainly no elegance which can be derived

from variety is left wanting— whether one looks to the subject matter, the language, the combining, the arrangement of language, the rhythms, or the closings of the periods.

931 A style will be excited and voluble if it is made bibrant, using punctuation to mark c"— — +* and intervals, so that it stire

and agitates.

For example: Num fletu ingemuit nostro? num lumina flexit? Num laehrymas viotus dedit? aut miseratur amentem est? Amplification is quite effective in this style, whether we combine different things or the same.

In order to accomplish this, we excite by

asking: we answer) we mass together what things are equally valid; we repeat; we dose off with comma and colon; we employ feet ending in short syllables; we make verses which either have fewer stresses or flow with a rapid rhythm.

For instance:

Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula compute. Penditur interea domus omnipotentie Olympi. Cornua velatarum obvertimus antemnarum. Tfee matter has speed for its subject; language and subject matter express the same thing. There are two kinds of mannered styles.

The one, wherein each

person's speech is suited to his own character, we explained at length in today's discourse when we spoke about saying what is fitting.

It was

also explained on the previous days when we taught what it is that the Greeks call ithlkon.

The other kind is that whereby one perceives how

the speaker is affected and disposed.

A1thought this has also been

adequately explained in the same place, it seems to me I should not overlook it here. violently.

Man's soul has usually been affected slightly or

For that reason the more vilent emotions are portrayed in

serious language; the slighter ones are portrayed in this kind, which, as we have said, is either plain, or charming, to the point, or lowly and modest.

A style is plain if it is adapted to lowly matters,

such

as those pertaining to children, women, farmers, and country people.

The

932 style ia plain if daily common thoughte ara uttered, in which what ia aiaple and of little consequence ia embraced.

Our atyle will be plain

if we apeak ao purely and simply that we aecm to have presented nothing devised, nothing labored at, nothing artfully finished; if in the same manner we employ ordinary language taken from everyday speech;

if the

language is arranged, contained in cola, gathered in rhythms, stopped with the ends of periods— aa we have taught is done in the clear and pure atyle. selves.

The comic and bucolic poeta claimed this kind M r them­

They will easily furnish proof as to how it is treated, along

with what Virgil (imitating Theocritus), Terence, and Plautus wrote. Cicero defines the charming style: As for the charming kind of style, it will be achieved first by the pleasing elegance of a sonorous and smooth vocabulary, and secondly by combinations of words that avoid both rought collisions of consonants and gaping juxtapositions of vowels, and are enclosed not in lengthy clauses but ones adapted to the breath of the voice, and that possesses uniformity and evenness of vocabulary; then the choice of words must employ contrary terms, repetition answering to repetition and like to like, and the words must be arranged to come back to the same word and in pairs and doublets or even more numerous repetitions, and the construction must be now linked together by conjunctions and now disconnected by asyndeton. It will also give the style charm to employ some unusual or original or novel expression. For anything that causes sur­ prise gives pleasure, and the most effective style is one that stirs up some emotion in the mind, and that indicates amiability of character in the speaker himself. (ICL. 3^9 : Per. Or. 6.21-22.) In this same style we Include what is spoken gaily, wittily, and pleasantly, what is effective for ornament, and what is effective in delighting. is shameful is avoided.

What

If what is obscene is less reputably and less

decorously expressed in proper words, we use metaphors to signify it, or words which are modified and taken from some place where we have shown

933 figures of speech lie hidden.

For examplei

This they do that by surfeit the usefulness of the fruitful soil be not dulled, or the sluggish furrows ologged, but that it may thirstily seise upon the aed, and store it deep within. (ICL. 63* Qeor. 3.135-138.) And: To the same cave come Dido and the Trojan chief. Primal Jhrth and nuptial Juno give the sign; Ares flashed in Heaven, the witness to their bridal, and on the mountain-top screamed the Nymphs. (ICL. 63* A«i. k. 165-168.) Now and then words are boldly transferred (this may not be done too often or too harshly).

From the inanimate to the animate*

...a cloud of hoarse-voiced birds was pressing shoreward from the deep gulf. (ICL. 6^: Aen. 7.705.) Or from the animate to the Inanimate* ...Araxes chafing at his bridge. (ICL. 6k 1 Aen. 8.728.) This is quite charming: A style will be to the point if it has the sharpness and some acute­ ness given its slight material. pointedly.

What is being said neatly is also spoken

Whatever is dull, crude, or dense, is foreign to this style.

On the other hand, what belongs to it can be compared with a sharppointed spear.

Its vehicle is by language which should be understood

in a sense beyond common usage.

For example*

Undique collect! coeunt. ...[theyj draw together from every side. (ICL. 6*f* Aen. 7.582.) The sense may be transferred* Non mihi quaerendurn, magnus num vivat Achilles, At num Derdaniae quae quondam, gloria vivat.

Vh Part of the metaphors are light, part are rougher! Heotora Dardanlae lumen flevere parentes Extincturn. And where we find metonymy! Quas prope oircumstat magnorum turba luporum, His nunc praesidio saevorum adiuncta canum vis...* This style is made of words we use for any purpose and which are inverted any way you wish.

They may be used in some figure.

A style will be

pointed if it has barbs, as when we change, subtract, or add letters:

0 verae Jhrygiae, neque enim Phrygea. The comic poet uses these methods very often, and you will also find quite a few examples of this kind in the epic.

For instance:

Turn credo cum me arbustum videre Myconia, Atque mala vites incidere faloe novellas. Alter erit turn Typhya et altera quae vehat Argo Eelectos heroas erunt etiam altera bella, Atque idem iungat vulpea et muleeat hircoa. Scilicet is superis labor eat, ea eura quietos Sollicitat. Egregiam vero laudem et spolia ampla refertie Tuque puerque tuus magnum memorabile nomen. Hie etiam inventum Friamo narrabis Achillas. Nescia mens hominum fati, fortisque futurae, Et servare modum rebus sublata secundis. Si oihi quae quondam fuerat quaaque esse decebat Vis in amore foret, non haec mihi nanque hegares. Nunci morere ast de me Divum pater atque hominum rex Viderit. Referee ergo haec et nuntius ibis Pelidae genitori illi mea tristia facta, Degeneremque Neoptolemum narrare memento nunc morere. Meque timoris Argae tu Prance quando tot stragis acervos Teucrorum tua destra deditt passimque trophaeis Insignia argos. A style is lowly, afable, and modest which signifies the amiable characteristics of the speaker.

He expresses these either by showing

that his judgment is rendered with a generous and humane spirit, or by the infleeton the language to augment someone else and diminish himself.

935 Son* of thooo things he seems to say; others he sews to think. this more by his affability than by his vanity.

He does

We use peralssio when we

show in our speaking that we yield some entire matter to another*8 will. We may anticipate the argument, be forewarned, acknowledge, prepare, change, overlook, or hesitate in the argument.

I have given examples of

how to treat each of these locli I have taught how speech is embellished by these figures.

And so the friendliness and modesty of this league is

very effective for conciliating.

It moves the gentler emotions.

you recall my clear illustration of these loci. language should be pure and simple. attain it where necessary.

1 think

No one doubts that the

But let us touch on how we may

Let us either expand what pertains to it or

add force to express what we are saying. The language will be true if it seems to possess the life by which anyone would be affeoted or disturbed. so it shows itself agitated.

As it struggles to move other men,

Therefore such language can have nothing

devised, pretended, or premeditated in it.

This will certainly appear

if you use no preparation for what you are about to say.

Instead you

begin in such a way that you seem to have burst on the subject with ardor.

For instance: He replies naught, nor heeds my idle questioning, but heavily drawing sighs from his bosom's depths, ?Ah, flee, goddess-born,' he cries, 'and snatch thyself from these flames.' (ICL. 63: k m , 2.28?-289i)

And: By the star-s I beseech you, by the gods above and this lightsome air we breathe, take me, 0 Trojans, carry me away to any lands whatever.... (LCL. 63: Aen. 3-599-601.) And:

936 "Nay," breaks in Asoanius, "I, whoa* sola safety lies in ay sire's return, I adjure you both, 0 Nisus, by the great gods of the house, by the lar of Assaraous, and by hoary Vesta's shrine— all my fortune, all my trust, I lay upon your knees; recall my father.. (ICL. 6k i Aan. 9.257-261.) A form of the truth can be manifest by what is brought forward in defense! Beyond all words, 0 queen, bidst me revive....

1b the grief thou (ICL. 631 Aro. 2.3.)

And by preparing: Moreover, if Helenus has any foresight, if the seer may claim any faith, if A ->ollo fills his soul with truth, this one thing, 0 Joddess-bom, this one in lieu of all I will foretell, and again and again repeat the warning: mighty Juno's power honour thou first with prayer; to Juno joyfully chant vows.... (ICL. 63: A m . 3-^35-^39.) And by anticipating what can be objected to: Yet I would not blame you, ye Trojans, nor our covenant, nor the hands we clasped in friendship... (ICL. 6*t: Aan. 11.16^-165.) And by repeating in derision what the opponent had opposed: Now prophetic Apollo, now the lycian oracles, now the messenger of the gods, sent from Jove himself, bring through the air this dread command. (ICL. 63* Aan. k.376-378-) What about the twisting and confusion of language?

Isn't it fitting that

those who listen are moved when they see a speaker roused before their eyes? But the words will be of such a kind as they would meet in sententiae to express emotions.

Naturally, different words befit men

who have been differently affected, so that sharper language is used to expressanger, and the gentler slight ing pity.

and pure language is used inexpress­

This should be left to the poet's judpnent.

He must hold this

principle in mind as he seeks devices for heightening a continued speech of agitation.

The speaker who is more violently upset will invite the

937 audience.

He will digress; he will hesitate; he will question to effect

indignation or to establish a fact. often repeat the sane word.

He will repeat words.

He will dispute on it.

speech short to imply no need for saying more. He will use the other apt figures.

He will

He will cut his

He will correct himself.

As a speaker will close with shorter

ends of periods for a softer effect, so he will close with harsher rhythms lest he seen to hare striven for pleasure with gentler rhythms. Here we think one should especially avoid trying to present what he says as fact.

And there is a style which contains what ie formidable and

fearsome, seeing that it consists of swearing oaths, Hermogenes' dictum.

contrary to

It seems to me this style should be inoluded in

grave, in sad, and in pointed speech.

It is used for open denunciation,

and when you recount your own achievements.

For many, many services you

have received little or no salary, but instead scorn and injury.

You

show that evil citizens receive honor, while good citizens are shamed and penalized.

Or this style is involved in indirection whenever you

demand something other than your desire.

Virgil's Dido reproaches when

she says: "False one! no goddess was thy mother, nor was Dardanus founder of thy line, but rugged Caucasus on his flinty rocks, begat thee, and Hyrcanian tigresses gave thee suck. For why hide ay feelings? or for whAt greater wrongs do I hold me back? Did he sigh while I wept? Did he turn on me a glance? Did he yield and shed tears or pity her who loved him? What shall I say first? What next? Now, now neither mighty Juno nor the Saturaian sire looks on these things with righteous eyesI Nowhere is faith secure. A castaway on the shore, a beggar, I welcomed him and madly gave him a share in my throne; his lost fleet I rescured, his crews I saved from death." (ICL. 63: Aan. *f.365-375.) This speech seams to share the style we spoke about a little earlier.

938 Venus daoeivaa whan aha aaka for something othar than aha wants: Amathus ie mine, mine high ffephua and Cythera, and Idalia's shrine: harav laying arma aside, let him live out his inglorious daysI Bid Carthage in mighty sway crush Ausonia; from her shall coma no hindrance to Tyrian towns* (ICL. 6kt Aan. IO.5I-55.) But nevertheless this style sonatinas has a rougher or sharper force. When you are pretending in a speech, the atyle resembles the moderate and lowly kind, with the combination, form, and usage of such words. And now, the grave style (especially proper to epic poets) will result from words that have force, subtlety, and weight.

The style will

have great dignity if it resides in standard diction, metaphorical, removed from common daily use, and sometimes even arohAic.

Its em­

bellished constructions strike the ears with a solemn beating of rhythms. It will be embellished by the major figures of speech so that it lacks neither splendor, fullness, nor majesty.

For example:

0 youth of matchless spirit, the more in proud valour thou dost excel, all the more heedfully is it meet that 1 ponder and with fear weigh every ohance. (ICL. 6k 1 Aan. 12.19-21.) The grandeur of this style appears in open devices.

But there is a

style which, though undoubtedly serious, by no means seems to be. art is used in this kind, the more the serious is hidden.

The more

It has nothing

of thought, expression, or ornament which is in the least overwrought and showy.

As the style is nobler, so the listener is more solemnly moved.

For instance: "That ere now, 0 latino, we had determined on our country's weal, I both could wish, and it had been better! not to convene a council at such an hour, when the foe is seated at our walls. A war unblest, 0 my countrymen, we are waging with a race divine, with men unconquered| no battles weary them and even in defeat they cannot let go the sword." (ICL. 6*n Aen. 11.302-30?.)

939 What do you find in this speech which is the least common and ordinary? Certainly you meet what ought to have especially moved the Latins.

But

you must avoid saying what is alien to solemnity when you want to say what seems more solemn.

You will err this if you use sententiae which

are more severe than the principle of place, time, and person demands, or if you begin to amplify before proving your point.

You will err if

you use, unusual, archaic, or abruptly and frequently transferred language, or if your words are more solemn than is fitting.

With these

you effect a more obscure and haughtier style, and by their combination you make the style harsher and more pompous.

When the language swells

thus, it deceives inexperienced men with the appearance of gravity. who fall into this

Hen

fault are those who want to appearVirgllian butdo

not know how to imitate the heroic

majesty of this poet.

These are the simple kinds of speech, which the Greeks call ideal and we call forms. further would find

Whether anyone who wants these tobe subdivided more styles, it is not our purpose to discuss.

this to be disputed by those versed in the inquiry.

I leave

I grant you that

other forms are also found, but they are inoluded in these categories. Nor do I want anyone to think 1 have taught these matters from my own devising, or that I think a poem should be made from only (me of these simple kinds.

(What poem do you find which is not for the most part

clear, polished, lofty, excited, true, mannered, or solemn?)

A poem

will be simple only if its style has not been mixed with any other, and such a simple form of speaking is not found anywhere.

That style is

approved in a poem as the first and perfect which is made from all those forms of speaking, or oertainly from most. Thus we have established what the poet should pursue in his writing.

Let the post hold to be aoet important what ia aolemn, magnificent, oharming, mannered, voluble, periodic, and rich; then, too, what ia harsh, pointed, and powerful; then what ia clear, brilliant, and pleasant— according aa occasion dictates what is suited to matters and persons. When he assumes a persuasive oharaoter, he will use a lofty, solemn, and dignified style.

He will avoid subtlety and what makes him seem

consciously contrived.

When he assumes the character of an accuser, I

would have him use the same style he would use in a civil matter.

Still

let him watch the force, abundance, speed, and ardor of his speech. him join solemnity with a plainness of speech where necessary.

Let

But let

him retain private references or any other which properly pertain to deliberation.

When the poet assumes the role of defender, he will use

a modest, lowly, and slight style which is conducive to pity.

When he

assumes the character of a persuader is embellishing, he will add pleasantness and splendor to what we said should be observed in the charming style.

He will add what is well-turned, full, ample, beautiful,

rich, and brilliant so as to appear more excited and solemn in persuading, more magnificent and splendid in exhorting.

In giving order to his

materials he knows he should speak moderately, humbly, pleasantly, openly, as appropriately as becomes gentler emotions.

Sometimes he must even

speak in a periodic full style and not exclude the rest of the forms entirely where the matter of what has been undertaken demands them.

In

setting his case the poet will suit his style to the subject matter. Sometimes it may be harsh, sometimes soft, sometimes fine, sometimes, serious, and sometimes magnificent.

Still he will ranamber to state his

case olearly, pleasantly, and earnestly, never baldly, but so that he moves his listener.

In unfolding his plot and pursuing his topic, he

9V1 will pour out ovary force of a language that is, ao to apeak, so breathing and alive that It impels and seizes the audience as the poet desires. it softens and yields,

Than

The contrast should be effective when the poet

speaks harshly, roughly,

ardently, sharply, magnificently, or solemnly;

or modestly, lightly, or humbly.

What about the peroration?

Naturally,

it will be sharp, ardent, direct, and serious to stir the more violent passions, and gentle and moderate to stir the quieter emotions.

The

poet will not, as we have said, neglect the full style, which Quintilian calls circumducts. Nor will he neglect what is ample, splendid, and shining. But why am 1 saying so much about a subject which rhetoricians have extensively treated?

"But in our course we have traversed a mighty

plain, and now it is time to unyoke the necks of our smoking steeds." (ICL, 63* Qeor. 2.5^1-5^2.)

Let us end our instruction about poetry.

But if we are to advise the man we have established as a poet, we urge him to learn about the divine powerof nature in which he should be strong above all else, toseek that learning which is accomplished through knowledge of all the best arts, to seek the faculty situated in things and language,

fie should read much of those who are especially

approved in every variety of literature, authority ia highest,

fie

fie should imitate those whose

should practice hiawriting zealously.

The

philosophers from whom anabundanoe of themes and languages may be sought ought to be particularly read. Plato?

What could be more like a poet than

This is so whether in the facility of speaking or in protraying

things valid for teaching— teaching the power of nature and of the gods, and the way of a good happy life.

Who doubts that history not only

nourishes but amplifies a poem? As Quintilian says, "History has a certain affinity to poetry, and may be regarded as a kind of prose

9*»2 poflo."

(ICL. 12?i

Inat. 10.1.31.)

It leads tha reader to admire with

great pleasure* and It uaea nearly the same method of exposition and illumines his style with nearly the same figures. orator very close to the poet.

There is a kind of

He would depict every force of speech,

and not express any style unfittingly.

By reading such an orator the

prospective poet gains a great deal toward eloquence. the poets (Virgil excepted)

Would any one of

supply quite as much to make a poem graver,

fuller, more resonant, and more polished in its adornment as Cicero? Although poets are bolder than orators in ironic use of language, altering it, and using figures of speech, they are not as bold as the Creeks.

Some of our own poets, especially those who flourished in the

Augustan Age, seen to have spoken in a foreign languageI

If you loose a

Virgilian speech from its meters, you will certainly find nothing which you might consider unworthy language in the best writer.

After very

few have been removed, those which are antique, newly-coined, or foreign are granted to poetic licence for dignity, as has been said elsewhere. Now it is important which men you set up to be imitated.

Imitation

is not effected by the same power that (as Cauricus taught from Plato's thought) perfectly expresses the form of the thing that you have undertaken to portray.

Imitation presents a difficulty that not even nature itself

can overcame.

The things we understand to be most alike are still disn

tinguished by same characteristics. away from this kind of imitation. praise.

Do not imitate the poors* models.

Stay

It is the worst and deserves the least

But when you meet the more excellent things in language, you

will pause on that method of writing so that you are regarded among the number of those who are most approved. this too much.

But one should not struggle at

There are many men it is fitting to imitate.

Prefer them

9*3 and Ignore the reet. Virgil.

Among our epio poets you have exactly one man,

To make yourself like him you must be distinguished with every

effort and labor.

I would not have you believe that I think there is

nothing worth imitating in the other poets.

But is difficult to see

what is worth imitating in such men, since they lack the perfection which the imitator hopes he would gain from them.

Nor should you approve

of that imitation where you carry over some passage in the same number of words, unless you are quoting from a writer of a foreign language.

It

is always accepted that those who wrote in I&tin taken from the Greeks expressed many things verbatim, as Virgil did from Homer. praiseworthy.

This is always

No one approves taking something which the latins treat

unless the writer makes it his own in such a way that its being someone else's is not recognised. less than the beest

In this the writer deserves praise for industry no

they so transform the sweetness of flowers into

the sweetness of honey that you perceive nothing of the flowers in the honey.

Therefore I think you may take speeches and words— whether they

are proper or altered--from him whom you have undertaken to portray. you may dare to change his language with an example.

And

Since that writer

took many things from other writers and changed them, why shouldn't you be allowed to do what he thought was licit for him?

In the rest of the

things that writer himself devised, I would want you to follow the same poetic method which you noticed has pleased him.

You will, of course,

retain his form, but not by taking the theme and language which the poet used for his own poem.

There are rules against slavish imitation

because you have the same power to find a subject, gather your materials, and write

your poem.

As for the looi from which the embellishments of

a speech may be sought, this subject has been covered.

You would not

9W take the changes of words and the figures of speech from any other place to express the same or similar matter.

Virgil says:

Si lumina vitae Attigerent. He uses this in place of si nascentur. since this figure is taken from consequents.

Also from consequents is the very beautiful expression:

Aetherii si figoris auram Sentire incipient. Before being produced from their mothers womb, they were simply affected by a certain continuous heat.

To signify the birth of a man that same

Virgil changed the locus of the figure; we may not doubt that we are per­ mitted the same.

This figure is from antecedents:

lam nova progenies coelo demittitur Cossus.

alto.

1 am very grateful to yout Syncerus.

You have freed me

from the scruple by which those men,who think themselves the only judges of the Iatin language, had fettered me at Rome. Syncerus.

What is this scruple?

transfer, or alter a word? words.

Aren't we allowed to invert,

The ancients inverted, transferred, and altered

Let us imitate those who were allowed to use these figures.

After the times of Caesar and Augustus followed the ages of those men who, while they spoke what was pure and refined Iatin, left us a depraved kind.

With the barbarian invasions into Italy, Xatii* lost all its

splendor.

Don't we want this same thing granted to us who have begun

to restore splindor to the language with the work of the most learned men? You rhetoricians do not think Horace's remark is valid: It has ever been, and ever will be, permitted to issue words stamped with the mint-mark of the day. (ICL. 19^: A.P. 58-59.)

9*5 Thus we should write in the language we are speaking, not what the ancients spoke.

Although we do write much in Latin, we have ceased speaking it for

a long time.

Iatin is no more ours than Greek is.

Rhetoricians do not

approve your writing! Flavicomae Amphitritae. You could plainly say the same with aurioomae.

On the other hand, they

were present when this was quoted from Horace! Why indeed shall Romans grant this license to Caecilius and Plautus, and refuse it to Virgil and Varlus? And why should I be grudged the right of adding, if I aan, my little fund, while the tongae of Cato and of Ehnius has enriched our mother-speech and brought to light new terms for things? (ICL. 19*: A.P, 53-58.) This fittingly refers to writers.

Even if it is a matter of controversy,

new words should be made (according to Horace)when everyone speaks Iatin. Although the habit of speaking it was given to the whole people in that age, knowledge of the language was reserved for the educated.

Writers

knew both, and used this knowledge effectively to form their own language. Horace says! ...if a skilful setting makes a familiar word new. (ICL. 19*i A.P. *?-*8.) And so if the ancients gave themselves the privilege of combining sounds whan they say auricomos foetus and cantimanua Briarsum to express the Greek chrysokomoue and hekatoncheira. why can't later man write flavicomus and pulchricomua for xanthokomos and kallinLokamoe and eukomos?

Words

which are said to be epithets should not be joined with those by whioh they are made epithets.

Certainly mamsnins is a Iatin word.

words so different in kind that they are not found joined.

Nor are

For instance!

clarisonas voces, rauoisonia bombia. araviaenas domos. fluentisono littore. coAiferaa cinum. nisiaanls Bjlenis. veridicum oraculum. iustlfleam

9^6 u n t M , unanlnia ooniuglbua. falsiparena Amphitrlonlados* multivola mulier. omnlvoll lovla. unlgenaa Minervan. aortlferla guccla. mortlfaram clad— , odoriferia lanclbua, odoriaequi canea, leviaomna oanum corda, diacolor Indue, veraicolorla plumae, aquaadgerum genua, laetlficoa foetus, frondlferae aylvaa, aylvifragla fabrla, fluctlfrago littore, allenlgania rebue, auaviloquenti carmine, auaviloquia uterbla, auaviloquentla, aagnlloquentia, aultigenla flgurla, omnlgenos colorea, caecigenl hominea, prlmigenum dl— , cornigeraa ovea, nrultimodla, omnlodla, omnlmode, auctifici motua, montivago generi fararum, muniflcare, terrlficare, horrlficare, terrlflcaa crlataa, terrlflco aonltu, largiflca stipe, lanigarae pecudee, omniparentee terras, frugiferantea, a— Iferas hominum epeciea, putricava corpora, pennlpotena avium g a m e , rioriferia saltibus, aenalferoa motua, faloiferos currua, praepoaterua ordo, multlmodl motua, cinefacere, horrlferoa aeetua, auavldicia veraibua, noctivago strepitu, noctivagae faces coeli, multangula quadaa, praedulce, explaudentibua alia, omnivaga Diana, vulglvaga Yarnere, vulglvago more ferarum, summopere, morlgeria modia, morlgera nature, vitlgenl liquorla, trlpectorls, tergeminique Qerionae, aeatifevas partea, luciferae, algnifera poeltura, praenuntiue V— erla eephyrue, altitonane Vulturnua, a— lmarinia oorporlbua, barbigeraa pecudea, aetigerla aulbua, apumlgeri aula, pennlgeri amorla, oaaifragao avea, sylveatre geniia terrlgenarum, velivolum mare, navlgerum, fruglferoa foetus, ignlferl fulalnla, tabiflolia radiis, ror!ferla umbria, aedltuentea, armjpotena Havora, terrlloquie dietie, flexanima oratio, flexiloqua oraoula, foedlfragi Poanl, versutiloquaa malitiaa. I am omitting variants that are combined by one and the same method, such eat allpedes, oapripedea, aerlpedee, lauricotnos nontea, angulmanoa, bucera corpora, praeproperantur, praeporro, and six hundred more of that kind.

9*7 Coaaua.

I had not yet felt free from that acruple whioh was

planted in me.

Therefore I am grateful to you, Synceraa, becauae you

have freed me by your authority. Svnoerua.

I am very glad that what ia being diaouaaed for your

aake haa been helpful to you.

But hia old disputation is filled with

argument, and the subject haa been tossed about and threshed over often in gatherings of the moat learned men.

In my opinion and in the opinion

of you men also, whose critical faculty I have long observed, your rule will be that the most eloquent men of their ages sought simple words, whose latinity and correctness was above all reproach.

If we do not find

what we seek in these men, we may look to other writers who subsequently flourished in good letters.

If even in these we do not find anything,

we may draw from the Greek fount— unless you prefer to use circumlocution for the words desired.

Where you encounter what does not have a name in

eitherGreek or Iatin, either create a word to signify the new thing, or-which is safer— use an appropriate circumlocution. I do not want you to think, however, that the principle of combining words applies so that one must simply use what the ancients have joined.

Do not think it is a

crime to make new words by joining the sounds of those in use (but do so sparingly and opportunely!). Come now. and quickly!

How excellent is practice so that you can write well

Quintilian warned us to be careful above all as to how and

what we should write. At first, our pen must be slow yet sure; we must search for what is best and refuse to give a joyful welcome to every thought the moment it presents itself; we must first criticise the fruits of our imagination, and then, once approved, arrange than with care....In order to do this with the utmost care, we must frequently revise what we have just written. For beside the fact that we secure a better connection between what follows

948 and what precedes, the warmth of thought which has oooled down while we were writing is revived anew, and gathers fresh impetus from going over the ground again.... At times, however, we may spread our sails before the favouring breeze, but we must beware that this indulgence does not lead us into error. For we love all the offspring of our thought at the moment of their birth; were that not so we should never commit them to writing. But we must give them a critical revision, and go carefully over any paeeage where we have reason to regard our fluency with suspicion....We learn from Varius that Virgil composed but a very small number of verses every day....The sum of the whole matter is this: write quickly and you will never write well, write well and you will soon write quickly. (ICL. 127* Inst. 10.3.5-10.) I surely do not approve the oarefullness of those who spend too much time planning so that they finally write nothing. There are some who are never satisfied. They wish to change everything they have written and put it in other words. Nor is it easy to say which are the most serious offenders, those who are satisfied with everything or those who are satisfied with nothing they write. (ICL. 127* Inst. 10.3.11-12.) Just as I would reproach the former group for the facility by which they indulge themselves, so I would accuse the latter group of perversity because they approve of nothing which they have not devised.

So it happens

that this group writes very little or certainly are intent on writing more distinguished things.

On the other hand, the former group charges

through material with the speediest of pens. beat and impulse of their thought.

Such writers follow the

They pour out extemporaneous poetry

which they call silva. But then they are forced to revise and arrange what they have rashly jotted down.

Still they arrange everything so

unwisely that they may scarcely revise the language. says,

As Quintilian

"The more coreot method is, therefore, to exercise care from

the very beginning, and to fora the work from the outset in such a

9*9 manner that it merely requires to be chiselled into shape, not fashioned anew.”

(ICL. 127*

Inst. 10.3-18.)

The exercise by which abundance and speed in writing is acquired will be our translating Greek, as the ancients did.

What is there of

unusual quality in Terence, Horace, or even Virgil himself which was not taken from one of the Greek poets?

There should be no dispute

about the riches evident in the Iatin history and oratory.

You will

find many things said in these with a certain poetic rhythm and spirit. As for poetry, I do not agree with those who forbid studying it, because nothing better or equal can be devised.

It would seem that poverty is

the nature of eloquence in that a given theme cannot be correctly handled more than once.

Quintilian says:

Even if it be granted that no new expression we discover can be better than or even equal to the old, it may, at any rate, be a good seoond. Do we not often speak twice, or even more frequently, on the same subject, sometimes even to the extent of a number of sentences in succession? It will scarce be asserted that we must not match ourselves against others when we are permitted to match our­ selves against ourselves...The methods of expression still left us are innumerable, and many roads lead us to the same goal. (ICL. 127: Inst. 10.5.7.) By our own effort you can turn something in many ways.

You may handle it

briefly, then fully and extensively; with proper words, then with metaphors, with a simple plain style, then organized and clothed with figures; with a straightforward style, then with an oblique style.

Re­

call that it is the mark of figurative language to expand what is compressed by nature, to increase what is small, to give variety with similes, to please with what has been shown, to say many things well from a few.

950 Thoughtful planning accompanies the practice and custom of writing. By it you understand what ought to be written.

This stirs the power of

one's genius and renders it more apt and quick for eloquence.

This

helps to fittingly devise the materials and suitably arrange them. helps to select and combine words.

This

This helps to weave together the

entire poem so that it lacks nothing.only what is sanctioned by uterary art.

Thus sometimes we meet a gap in the middle of the plot and ore

jolted, as if abruptly awakened. volved in reflection.

This disturbs the reader deeply in­

After you compose a poem by this faculty, this

abundance of language, this imitating, this exercise and habit, and finally by this thoughtful planning, you should employ correction of the finished product.

Thus not only may you change, add, and subtract what

so requires, but you may also prune what is tnrgid, raise what is lowly, repress what is exuberant, introduce rhythm where necessary, limit what is too emphatio, and correct what lacks order. should be disoarded. thought out.

What seems dubious to you

What you had not planned completely should be

1 think a good rule in correcting is to put away what has

been written for some time— on interval of years, months, or days, de­ pending on the magnitude of the work.

Thus we may examine it again as

something new, foreign, and not our own, so that we do not, as Quintilian says, flatter our writings as we would a new-born child.

Isocrates by

bits produced his Panegyric from memory during a ten-year span. Smyrna took nine years to write. ordered another ninel

Cinna's

In on allusion to that poem Horace

He correctly teachest

...condemn a poem which many a day and many a blot has not restrained and refined ten times over to the test of the close-out nail. (ICL. 19^: A.P. 292-29**.) The reason why what has been written is thrust into the formidable danger

951 of fane ia our own lovefor it and our distaste for work.

We should be

careful not to regard our own work as so dear and so delightful that we do not note its faults— -as is the case with our own children. condone what we notice because of their flatteries. from work.

Or we

Nor should we flee

When a field ia carelessly tended, the produce disappears

before it ripens.

Let us not allow the unripened fruit to be read

because of our fault innot delaying. are the faults of those not find flawed. do not revise.

who

The faults opposite to these

have never written anything which they do

Nor do they take in hand which anything written they Sometimes their writing is good work that needs no

further revision.

But the former sort see that the work truly needs

polishing by revising and holding it back for some time.

Horace finely

said: ...then put your parchment in the closet and keep it back till the ninth year. What you have not published you can destroy; the word once sent forth can never come back. (ICL. 19kt A.P. 388-390.) Now I would like you to choose a man of outstanding learning and critical judgment. 'Follow his advice in correcting your work.

Unless you use one

censor you may be more indulgent toward your own creation than you would if something had to be corrected because of a critical comment.

Thus you

will avoid what a physician sometimes falls into--when he shows himself too easy and gentle in curing a wound, he not only makes the disease worse, but renders it incurable. I have completed what I set out to tell you about treating and handling problems with which you may not be instructed. that I am engaged with them to some extent. from memory what should be noticed and noted.

Z have shown

I have been recalling If it is the least annoying

952 for you young men to observe these things in your writing, then you will know that they would be most beneficial to you in doing your best work. They were produoed for your sakes. Qravina. You say these would be beneficial?

Yes, of courseI

They will be helpful to us who are about to write much on this subject (such is my hope), and who are about to review these matters. Synccrus.

Those of us who are far advanced in age and wearied by

such a long effort of deliberating would rather choose vacation than occupation.

But now let us spare the work we have so intently given

this subject.

Let us empty ourselves of care.

Let us seek refreshment

in the sight of the sea which stretches long and wide from this place.

Vita Sheet Graduate School Southern Illinois University

Mane Janes W. Bishl______________Data of Birth Boa* Addraaa

11-30-^0

201 Worth Franklin Delaware. Ohio

43015

Universities Attended: St. Joseph's College, Rensselaer, Indiana, University of Dayton Xavier University, Cincinnati, Ohio Southern Illinois University, Carbondale

1959-61

1962-6^ B.A. Philosophy 196»t-67 M.A. ZbgUsh 1968-74 Ph.D. fitglish

Awards! Mellon Foundation —

Media Incentive Orant —

Mellon Foundation —

Faculty Fellowship

—

19' 197^

Dissertation Title! Antonio Sebastiano Minturno'a Da Foetat A Translation Advisort

Professor Howard Schults, Dapartaant of Inglish