Animals and Archaeology: 2. Shell Middens, Fishes and Birds 9780860542346, 9781407333397

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface
A MATTER OF CHOICE? SOME THOUGHTS ON SHELL GATHERING STRATEGIES IN NORTHERN AUSTRALIA
PREHISTORIC FISHING IN THE LOWER DARLING, WESTERN NEW SOUTH WALES
THE PREHISTORIC HUNTING OF MOA (AVES: DINORNITHIDAE) IN THE HIGH COUNTRY OF SOUTHERN NEW ZEALAND
THE STUDY OF CLAMS AND SNAILS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
SEASONALITY OF SHELL COLLECTING, DETERMINED BY OXYGEN ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF MARINE SHELLS FROM ASTURIAN SITES IN CANTABRIA
AN APPROACH TO DETERMINING PREHISTORIC SHELLFISH COLLECTING PATTERNS
SOME ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL REMARKS ON FISHES IN ANCIENT EGYPT
LES OISEAUX DANS LES HABITATS PALEOLITHIQUES: GIBIER DES HOMMES OU PROIES DES RAPACES?
THE IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC RESOURCES TO MESOLITHIC MAN AT INLAND SITES IN DENMARK
WATER AND MARSH BIRDS FROM POLISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES - THEIR STATUS AND INTERPRETATION
TEMPORAL CHANGES IN FISHERY AND FISH CONSUMPTION BETWEEN EARLY MEDIEVAL HAITHABU AND ITS SUCCESSOR, SCHLESWIG
INTERPRETING PREHISTORIC FISHING STRATEGIES: AN ORKNEY CASE STUDY
MORPHOLOGY OF MUTE SWANS CYGNUS OLOR IN RELATION TO DOMESTICATION
BIRDS AS FOOD IN PREHISTORIC AND HISTORIC WESSEX
ANIMAL EXPLOITATION BY PREHISTORIC PEOPLE LIVING ON A TROPICAL MARINE EDGE
PREHISTORIC SHELLFISHING PATTERNS IN NORTH CAROLINA
ARCHAEOZOOLOGY IN THE GULF OF MAINE, NORTH AMERICA
USE OF ALLOMETRY IN ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
LINGUISTIC DATA AND THE ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD: AN EXAMINATION OF PART OF THE EIGHTEENTH- AND EARLY NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHEROKEE ANIMAL WORLD

Citation preview

Animals and Archaeology: 2. Shell Middens, Fishes and Birds

edited by Caroline Grigson and Juliet Clutton-Brock

BAR International Series 183 1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D .R • Walker. M.A.

□.A.R.-S18J,198J : Birds'. ©

'Animals and Archaeology : 2.Shell Middens,Fishes and

The Individual Authors, 1983

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542346 paperback ISBN 9781407333397 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542346 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P REFACE

1

B ETTY M EEHAN :

A m atter o f

c hoice?

S ome

t houghts

o n s hell-

g athering s trategies i n N orthern A ustralia . J ANE B ALME:

P rehistoric

f ishing

3

i n t he

l ower D arling,

w estern N ew S outh W ales.

1 9

A THOLL A NDERSON: T he p rehistoric h unting o f m oa ( Ayes: D inornithidae) i n t he h igh c ountry o f s outhern N ew Z ealand.

3 3

P RISCILLA T URNBULL:

T he

s tudy

o f

c lams

a nd

s nails

f rom

a rchaeological s ites. M ARGARET R . D EITH :

5 3

S easonality o f s hell c ollecting, d etermined

b y o xygen i sotope a nalysis o f m arine s hells f rom A sturian s ites i n C antabria. J UDITH C .

S HACKLETON :

A n a pproach t o d etermining p rehistoric

s hellfish c ollecting p atterns. A NGELA V ON D EN D RIESCH :

7 7

S ome a rchaeological r emarks o n f ishes

i n A ncient E gypt. C ECILE

8 7

M OURER-CHAUVIRE:

p ar golithiques:

L es

o iseaux

d ans

l es

h abitats

g ibier d es h ommes o u p roies d es r apaces?

N ANNA N OE-NYGAARD :

11

T he i mportance o f a quatic r esources t o

M esolithic m an a t i nland s ites i n D enmark. Z YGMUNT

B OCHENSKI :

W ater

a nd

m arsh

1 25 b irds

f rom

P olish

a rchaeological s ites - t heir s tatus a nd i nterpretation. D IRK

H EINRICH :

T emporal

c hanges

i n f ishery

c onsumption b etween e arly M edieval H aithabu a nd

a nd

1 43 f ish

i ts s uccessor

S chleswig.

1 51

S ARAE C OLLEY :

I nterpreting p rehistoric f ishing s trategies:

a n

O rkney c ase s tudy. E .

6 7

1 57

M ARJORIE N ORTHCOTE:

M orphology o f m ute s wans

i n r elation

t o d omestication .

1 73

J ENNIE C OY :

1 81

B irds a s f ood i n p rehistoric a nd h istoric W essex.

E LIZABETH S . W ING & S YLVIA J . S CUDDER :

A nimal e xploitation b y

p rehistoric p eople l iving o n a t ropical m arine e dge. C HERYL P .

C LAASSEN :

1 97

P rehistoric s hellfishing p atterns i n N orth 2 11

D AVID S ANGER :

A rchaeozoology i n t he G ulf o f M aine , N . A merica.

E LIZABETH

R EITZ

J .

& D AN

C ORDIER:

U se

o f

a llometry

i n

z ooarchaeological a nalysis. A RLENE F RADKIN :

L inguistic data a nd

2 25

2 37 t he

z ooarchaeological

r ecord: a n e xamination o f p art o f t he e ighteenth- a nd e arly n ineteenth-century C herokee a nimal w orld.

2 53

P REFACE o f

t he f ourth m ajor

c onference o f t he I nternational C ouncil f or A rchaeozoology,

T his

w hich w as h eld i n

A pril

i s

t he

s econd

v olume

o f

t he

p roceedings

1 982 a t t he U niversity o f L ondon u nder t he a uspices o f t he I nstitute o f

A rchaeology. T he A nalysis

g eneral

t heme

o f

t he

t o t he S tudy o f M an",

c onference w as,

" The

C ontribution

o f

F aunal

w ith a n e mphasis o n t he r elationships b etween

p eople a nd a nimals, a nd t he d etailed a spects o f h uman s trategies f or o btaining f ood

d uring t he

p rehistoric a nd h istoric

n eed f or t he c ollection

p eriods.

S tress w as

l aid

o n t he

a nd i nterpretation o f s cientifically v alid d ata ,

a nd

p apers o n m ethodology w ere i ncluded i n t he p rogramme. A s w ell a s t he o rganization o f c onferences t he I nternational C ouncil f or A rchaeozoology ( ICAZ) e xists t o d evelop a nd s timulate r esearch , t o s tandardize m ethods,

t o s trengthen c ooperation a mongst

a rchaeozoologists,

a nd

t o

f oster

c ollaboration w ith a rchaeologists a nd o ther s cientists w orking i n t he f ield o f a rchaeology. A fter t he C onference i n L ondon w e f elt t hat a g ood w ay t o f urther t hese a ims w ould b e t o p ublish i n f ull t he m ajority o f t he p apers t hat w ere p resented t o t he m eeting, a nd B AR f or m aking t his p ossible. T he

f irst v olume,

w e s hould l ike t o e xpress o ur g ratitude t o

" Animals a nd A rchaeology :

( BAR I nternational S eries 1 63),

1 .

H unters a nd t heir P rey"

w as p ublished e arly i n 1 983 ,

a nd t he p resent

v olume w ill b e f ollowed b y t wo m ore. T his w as t he f irst I CAZ c onference t o i nclude a s ession o n s hell-middens; i t w as a rranged b ecause w e c onsider t he s tudy o f m olluscs

( and o f o ther

i nvertebrates)

a nd a n atural

t o b e a n i ntegral p art o f a rchaeozoology,

c ompanion t o s tudies o f b irds a nd f ish, p reserved

i n m iddens.

t he r emains o f w hich a re

A lmost a ll t he p apers

o ften

i n t his v olume d eal w ith

r elatively r ecent ( Holocene) m aterial a nd s ome u seful e thnographic p arallels, a nd p ictorial a nd l inguistic s ources, a re i nvoked. T he p apers h ave b een a rranged i n as equence t hat i s b roadly g eographical. T hose

d ealing

w ith

a quatic

r esources

f ocus

m ainly

o n

p atterns

o f

f ish

a nd

s hell-fish p rocurement i n a reas v arying f rom i nland A ustralia t o c oastal A ustralia , P akistan , t he N ile, t he M editerranean , D enmark a nd t he A tlantic s hores

o f

S pain ,

B ritain a nd n orth A merica.

T he

p apers

d iverse, a nd r ange f rom h unting o f t he m oa i n N ew Z ealand,

o n b irds

a re m ore

t o t he e xploitation

o f w ild a nd d omestic b irds i n n orthern E urope, w ith a p aper o n t aphonomy w hich c haracterizes s ome o f t he m any,

v aried w ays b y w hich b ird r emains b ecome

i ncorporated i nto a rchaeological d eposits.

1

F inancial s upport f or t he c onference w as p rovided b y a l oan f rom t he R oyal S ociety

a nd

g rants

S cience F oundation ,

t o

p articipants

t he L .S.B.

f or A nthropological R esearch ,

f rom

t he

B ritish

L eakey F oundation,

C ouncil,

t he

N ational

t he W enner-Gren F oundation

t he T hreshold F oundation ,

a nd t he M editerranean

A rchaeological T rust. T he I nternational C ouncil f or A rchaeozoology w ould l ike t o r eiterate i ts g ratitude t o t hese i nstitutions f or t heir m unificent a ssistance w hich e nabled t he c onference t o b e s uch a s uccess. I n a ddition w e s hould l ike t o t hank t he s taff

o f t he

I nstitute o f

A rchaeology a nd a ll t hose f riends a nd c olleagues w ho h elped u s w ith t he r unning o f t he c onference,

t he r eceptions, a nd t he e xcursions.

C aroline G rigson O dontological M useum R oyal C ollege o f S urgeons o f E ngland

J uliet C lutton-Brock D epartment o f Z oology B ritish M useum ( Natural H istory)

3 5-43 L incoln's I nn F ields

C romwell R oad L ondon S W7 5 BD

L ondon W C2A 3 PN

2

A MATTER O F C HOICE?

S OME

T HOUGHTS O N S HELL G ATHERING S TRATEGIES

I N N ORTHERN A USTRALIA

B etty M eehan D epartment o f P rehistory R esearch S chool o f P acific S tudies A ustralian N ational U niversity C anberra A CT 2 600 A ustralia

I n s ome p arts o f A ustralia i t i s p ossible s till t o c arry o ut r esearch i n a reas w here A borigines s atsify t he b ulk o f t heir s ubsistence r equirements b y h unting, g athering a nd f ishing, a nd w here a rchaeological s ites e xist w hich r ange f rom m odern t o a t l east s everal t housand y ears o ld. I t i s t hus p ossible t o s et u p e thnographic m odels t hat c an b e t ested b y e xcavation. T he e thnographic a nd a rchaeological d ata u sed h ere h ave b een c ollected o ver

t he

p ast

t wenty y ears

i n A rnhem L and

i nitially b y m e a nd i n t he l ast

d ecade i n c ollaboration w ith D r. R hys J ones. T he r esearch h as b een f ocused o nto s ubsistence a ctivities a nd s ettlement p atterns b ecause i t w as f elt t hat t hese p henomena o ffered t he b est

l inkage w ith

t he a rchaeology

i n t he a rea.

A s m ost a rchaeological f inds i n t he a rea c onsist o f m iddens o f s hellfish ,

i t

w as a lso f elt t hat t his c ontemporary a ctivity w arranted p articular a ttention.

T HE E THNOGRAPHIC M ODEL O ur r esearch i s b eing c arried o ut w ith t he A nbarra , a c ommunity o f a bout 1 00 G idjingali-speaking A borigines w ho o wn 5 0 k m' o f r esource-rich l and a t t he m outh o f t he B lyth R iver i n A rnehm L and , n orthern A ustralia ( Figure 1 ). T hey h ave s easonal a ccess t o af urther 1 80 k m' o f l and w hich b elongs t o t heir n eighbours w ho a lso s peak G idjingali a nd w ith w hom t hey h ave c lose s ocial a nd c ultural

t ies.

T he

A nbarra

p eople

e njoy

a n

a mple

a nd

v aried

d iet

w hich

i ncorporates e lements f rom b oth c oast a nd h interland a nd n owadays a lso i ncludes v arious E uropean f oods s uch a s f lour , s ugar a nd t ea ( Meehan , 1 977, 1 982a;

J ones,

O n

1 980).

1 94 d ays

A nbarra

b and

o f

d uring a t welve m onth p eriod a bout

3 4

p eople

c ollected

( July

a ltogether

1 972

-J uly

a bout

1 973)

7 000 k g

a n

g ross

w eight o f s hellfish w hich w as m ade u p o f 3 0 g astropod a nd b ivalve s pecies. T hese w ere p rocured f rom b oth s andy a nd r ocky i ntertidal z ones a s w ell a s f rom m angrove f orests w hich a re c ommon f eatures o n A nbarra l and. T he n umber o f m olluscan s pecies g athered o n a ny o ne d ay r anged f rom o ne t o a s m any a s 1 3 s ingle

s pecies

i nvolved

t he

( Figure 2 ).

o nly w as

O n 4 7% o f a ll s hell g athering d ays h owever , a

c ollected.

c ollection o f

a bout

( A

t ypical

1 200 i ndividual

3

g athering

d ay w ould

s hellfish .)

h ave

T his A nbarra

,

,

H

4

E t h n o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n s (

r e i

A 11 1 ,1 ,1 . 1 11 ,

4' 1

HIL

11 ,1

. 111

HI ) a n d p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e s ( e l )

M EEHAN : S HELL G ATHERING S TRATEGIES I N N ORTHERN A USTRALIA s trategy ,

t heir t argeting o nto a s ingle s pecies,

i s

s een t o

b e

e ven m ore

p ervasive i f t he d aily g ross w eights a re e xamined i n d etail. F or e xample , o n 7 0% o f a ll s hell g athering d ays ( N = 1 94) a s ingle s pecies p rovided b etween 9 0% a nd 1 00% o f t he t otal g ross w eight ( Figure 3 ). A nd o n 4 5% o f t he d ays o n w hich m ore t han o ne s pecies w as c ollected ( N = 1 03), a s ingle s pecies c ontributed b etween 9 0% a nd 9 9 .9% o f t he d aily g ross w eight ( Figure 4 ). T he i dentity o f t he t argeted s pecies v aried.

A bout o ne t hird o f t he 3 0

s pecies e aten d uring t he y ear h ad t he s tatus o f t arget s pecies o n a t l east o ne d ay;

t hese i ncluded t he m angrove b ivalve B atissa v iolacea a nd t he o pen

s ea b ivalve T apes h iantina. D uring t he l ate d ry s eason , b etween A ugust a nd O ctober, t he i nland s hell b eds l ying w ithin t he m angrove f orests w ere u tilized ( Figure 1 ). T hese a reas w ere e asier t o e xploit t hen b ecasue m osquitoes w ere l ess c ommon a nd t he m ud i n w hich t he s hells w ere e mbedded l ess d eep. l arge

G athering e xpeditions i nto t he m angrove f orests u sually p roduced

q uantities o f t he c hunky B . v iolacea ;

o ften i t w as t he o nly s pecies

c ollected d espite t he f act t hat s everal o thers w ere a vailable t here i n c onsiderable n umbers. B y c ontrast, w hen t he A nbarra w ere c amped a t L alarrgadjirripa d uring t he h eight o f t he w et s eason ( January t o A pril), T . h iantina b ecame t he t argeted s pecies. A gain , a s w ith t he m angrove f orest a reas, o ther s pecies w ere a vailable i n t he s ame b eds. D espite t his v ariation i n t he i dentity o f t he t argeted s pecies o n ad ay b y d ay b asis,

t he a nnual g athering p attern i ndicated t hat o verall,

o ne

p articular s pecies w as c oncentrated u pon m ore t han a ny o ther. T his w as T . h iantina k nown i n O ceania a s t he t apestry s hell. I t w as g athered o n 6 4% o f a ll s hell g athering d ays

( Figure 5 ) a nd p rovided 6 1% o f t he t otal g ross

w eight o f s hellfish c ollected d uring t he y ear

( Figure

6 ).

T his

s ituation

h as e xisted a t t he B lyth R iver a t l east s ince 1 958. E vidence f or i ts p ersistence h as b een o bserved d uring v isits t o t hat a rea i n 1 970 , 1 972-3 , 1 978 , 1 979 , 1 980 , 1 981 a nd 1 982. H owever , d uring t he l ate d ry s eason i n 1 974 , 1 5 m onths a fter t he c ompletion o f a y ear o f q uantitative r ecording o f A nbarra d iet i n w hich T . h iantina h ad f igured p rominently, n one o f t his p articular s pecies w as b eing c ollected. T he 1 973-4 m onsoon , t he b iggest o n r ecord, h ad r esulted i n t he f looding o f t he B lyth R iver e stuary a nd i ts a ssociated i ntertidal z one w ith f resh w ater. T his d eluge h ad d estroyed t he c oastal s hell b eds i ncluding t hose c ontaining w hile m issing t heir s upply o f t his s hellfish , p erturbed.

" They w ill c ome b ack s oon",

T . h iantina. A t t hat t ime , t he A nbarra w ere n ot o verly

t hey s aid.

" This h as h appened

b efore". I n r esponse t o t his d epletion o f t heir m ajor t argeted s pecies, t he A nbarra h ad t urned t o o ther s hellfish s ources i n t he t idal c reeks, B . v iolacea a nd t he o yster C rassostrea a masa , w hich h ad n ot b een s o a ffected b y t he e xcess o f

f resh w ater i n t he r iver s ystem .

N owadays a nd a t l east s ince 1 978 ,

t he

T . h iantina b eds h ave r e-established t hemselves a nd t his s pecies i s o nce m ore t he f ocus o f A nbarra s hell g athering a ctivities.

W HAT D OES T HIS T ARGETING M EAN? T he q uantitative e thnographic d ata c ollected d uring 1 972-3 c onfirmed t he s trong i mpression t hat I h ad g ained d uring m y f ieldwork: t hat A nbarra f oragers t argeted o nto a s ingle s pecies o f s hellfish d uring e ach e xpedition a nd t hat t his b ehaviour w as t he m anifestation o f a c arefully p lanned s trategy, a c onscious p art o f t heir b ehaviour. T hey w ere n ot m aking a r andom

5

5 0

4 0 —

•Z

3 0—

•••• • •

U ,

1 7

2 0 —

; 32

1 0-

% d a y s ( N = 1 0 3 ) 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 3

N umbe r o f s pec ie s

F IGURE 2 :

N umber o f s he llfish s pec ies c o llected d aily .

7 0 —

6 0 —

5 0 —

4 0

U , 7 3 c a

3 0--

2 0 —

1 0 —

1 00

9 0

8 0

7 0

6 0

— 5 0

t -4 0 3 0 C o n t r F i I b G u U t R i E o n 3 : t o t o t a l d a i l y s h e l f i s h h a u l s m a d e b y a s i n g l e

%g ros s d a i ly w e ight

5 0—

4 0—

3 0 —

2 0—

1 0—

9 9 .9

9 0

8 0

7 0

a

6 0

5 0

4 0

3 0

%g ros s d a i ly w e ight F IGURE 4 :

C ontr ibution m ade b y a s ingle s he llfish s pecies t o t otal

o n t hose d ays o n w hich m ore t han o ne s pec ies w as c o llected.

w eight

7 0 6 0 -

3 02 01 0-

0 • • ( N 2 ' (e \ c ' k o

e c , 9

‘ > "

. 0 Y

o s \-

e

e g s '

e

v 'a

e

F IGURE 5 : P ercentage o f d ays o n w hich t he s ix w ere c o llected .

i mportant s he llfish s pec ies

7 0 6 0.J 5 0-

1 0

7 -1

0

1 \ ` ' 0 9 e• e s P ( 0 • 0 \ .

9

e 9

F IGURE 6 :

o r

I

• e . ` \

.

K e y e C P '

R e lative g ross w eights o f s ix i mportant s he llfish s pec ies.

.

5 0.

f

4

z

3 02 0-

E ? , e

-

0

9 0 $

. 9 * • e ' 2 '

\ ` '

a .4 ?

7 0 t r . 6 0 E

5 0

E 4 0 E 3 0

E 20

a c z

1 0 0

0 \• — o v

I

c , ej oe c e

F IGURE 8 :

x ‘\ -\ , c




. . . . .

% : ', •

5 • • • .••

•

d r•

•

•

••

% S

. •

•

L eng th

F I GURE 5 : R eyno lds ,

G enera lised s e lectivity c urves o f 1 976a) a nd a g ill

n et ( after H am ley ,

2 9

a d rum n et t rap 1 975).

( adapted f rom

B ALME: S mall t he b ottom n ets w ere n umbers o f

P REHISTORIC F ISHING I N T HE L OWER D ARLING ,

N EW S OUTH W ALES

b ow n ets a nd h oop n ets w ere p laced o ver i ndividual f ish l ying o n o r i n s hallow w ater. W hen t he r ivers w ere f ull , s eine o r g ill e mployed. B ecause t hese n ets w ere c apable o f c atching l arge f ish , t hey w ere u sually a ssociated w ith l arge n umbers o f p eople.

S eine n ets w ere u sed i n m oving r ivers a nd g ill n ets i n f ull s wamps a nd l agoons. A s t he r ivers b egan t o s ubside, f ish w eirs a nd t raps a cross o utlet c hannels w ere b uilt t o t rap f ish r eturning f rom t he s wamp t o t he m ain s tream. G rass f ences w ere c onstructed a cross s hallow p ools a s t raps. T here a re f ew d irect r eferences t o t he f ishing m ethods u sed o n l akes. H owever a s i n s wamps a nd l agoons t he w ater c onditions a re s till, a nd f ishing m ethods s uitable f or t hem a re a lso s uitable f or l akes. W eirs a nd t raps w hich d epend o n w ater f low i n a r estricted c hannel a re o bviously i neffective i n l akes. S eine n ets c an b e u sed i n s till w ater , b ut a re e ssentially t raps a nd a re t herefore m ore e fficient i n f lowing w ater. O ne r eference t o al ake f ishing m ethod i s g iven b y E yre

( 1845) f or L ake

V ictoria , t o t he w est o f t he j unction o f t he D arling a nd M urray R ivers. " Six h undred n atives

e ncamped

t ogether ,

a ll o f w hom w ere

l iving a t t he

t ime u pon f ish p rocured f rom t he l ake, w ith t he a ddition p erhaps o f t he l eaves o f t he M esembryanthemum". v ol 2 : 2 52 W hile t he f igure 6 00 i s s uspiciously r ound,

t he r eport n evertheless

i mplies e fficient f ishing b y m any p eople. E yre s ays t hat n ets w ere u sed t o o btain f ish b ut d oes n ot g ive d etails o f t he t ype o f n et.

C ONCLUSIONS T he r esults o f t hese a nalyses s uggest t hat s ophisticated f ishing m ethods w ere u sed i n t he l ower D arling R iver f rom t he e arliest r ecorded s ites w hich a re 2 5000 y ears o ld. T he s uggested u se o f a t rap o n t he r iver s ite a nd a g ill n et o n t wo o f t he l ake s ites a re a ppropriate t o t he s ite l ocations a nd i ndicate t hat t he p eople t hen w ere a ware o f t he d ifferent f ishing t echniques u esd i n d ifferent w ater c onditions.

e ffectiveness

o f

T he u se o f n ets i mplies t hat t he p oeple w ho m ade t hem , 1 )

w ere f amiliar w ith t he p lants u sed f or m aking s tring,

2 ) 3 ) 4 )

h ad s tring a nd n et m aking m ethods, h ad t he t ime t o m ake a nd m aintain t he n ets, p ossessed t he k nowledge o f w ater c onditions a nd f ish b ehaviour.

T he u se o f t raps i mplies, 1 ) 2 ) 3 )

t he k nowledge o f e ffective t rap d esign , t he t ime t o m ake a nd m aintain t he t raps, at horough k nowledge o f w ater c onditions a nd f ish b ehaviour i n t he a rea.

S ince n ets a nd t raps c onstruction a nd m aintenance,

r equire c onsiderable t ime a nd e nergy f or t heir p robable u se s uggests t hat f ish w ere a n

3 0

B ALME:

P REHISTORIC F ISHING I N T HE L OWER D ARLING ,

N EW S OUTH W ALES

i mportant p art o f t he e conomy. A lthough o ne p erson c an m ake a t rap o r n et, a nd a g ill n et c an b e s et b y o nly o ne p erson , t he p resence o f s ites c ontaining o nly s mall n umbers o f f ish o f t he s ame a ge a s t hose i n t he p ostulated n et a nd t rap s ites s uggest t hat t he D arling R iver p eople h ad a lternative t echniques f or c atching o nly a f ew f ish. I t s eems u nnecessary t o t ake t he t ime a nd t rouble t o m ake t raps a nd n ets u nless l arge q uantities o f f ish a re r equired. I f l arge q uantities o f f ood w ere n eeded t o f eed b ig c ongregations o f p eople i t i mplies t hat t he D arling R iver p eople e ither l ived r egularly i n b ig b ands o r t hat t hey o ccasionally g athered i n l arge n umbers. H owever , t here i s n o a rchaeological e vidence f or ' home b ases', w here m any h earths a nd b ig q uantities o f m any s pecies m ight b e e xpected , a nd o ver 8 5% o f t he D arling r egion s ites c ontain l ess t han a d ozen n on-molluscan i ndividuals o r a re s mall d iscrete s hell h eaps. T hese f acts s uggest t hat t he D arling p eople d id n ot m ove i n b ig g roups. I t m ay b e t hat t he a reas w here h ome b ases m ight h ave b een s ituated a re n ot g ood f or f aunal p reservation , b ut a t p resent t he v iew t hat t here w ere o nly o ccasionally l arge g atherings f its t he a rchaeological d ata b etter. T he r eason f or t hese g atherings m ay s imply h ave b een a l ack o f w ater o n t he s and p lain . A lternatively t hey m ay h ave h ad a m ore c omplex p urpose. M any o f t he f irst E uropeans i n t he r egion r ecord t hat w hen r esources w ere p lentiful, t here w ere g atherings o f u p t o 1 00 A boriginal p eople o n t he D arling , a nd u p t o 6 00 o n t he M urray ( Eyre, 1 845 ; M athews, T hese w ere, t o q uote E yre ( 1845 , v ol.2 , 2 18), .. f ood,

f or t he p urpose o f f estivity o r w ar ,

c lothing , w eapons,

1 903 ; S turt,

1 833).

t o b arter a nd e xchange s uch

i mplements o r o ther c ommodities a s t hey r espectively .

p ossess." D espite t he c hanges i n t he r iver a nd

l ake

l evels

d uring

t he t ime w hen

t hese a rchaeological s ites a ccumulated, t he D arling R iver a nd i ts a ssociated l akes m ust a lways h ave b een a m ajor f reshwater s upply a nd a f ocus f or r esources

i n

a n

o therwise

r elatively

u nproductive

p lain.

I n

t hese

e nvironmental c ircumstances w here m ost o f t he w ater a nd m any o f t he f ood r esources a re h ighly c oncentrated , t he e arly u se o f s ophisticated s kills i s n ot s urprising. T he a ge o f t hese s kills i n A ustralia i s d ifficult t o e stimate a nd t here i s l ittle c hance o f f inding o lder m aterial i n t he D arling r egion. T he W illandra L akes s ystem t o t he e ast h as s imilar m aterial 1 0 - 1 5 t housand y ears o lder. T here a re f ish i n t hese s ites a nd a p reliminary a nalysis o f t he o toliths b y K efous ( 1977) s hows t hat t here i s a m uch w ider r ange o f o tolith s izes f rom t hese s ites t han t he D arling s ites. H owever , i t i s d ifficult t o c ompare m aterial f rom t he t wo a reas b ecause o f t he p oorer p reservation i n t he W illandra s ites a nd t he d ifficulty i n i nterpreting t he W illandra f ish r emains a s t he r esult o f s ingle f oraging e xpeditions.

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS F or t heir h elpful c omments o n a n e arlier d raft , Iw ould l ike t o t hank D r J eannette H ope a nd D r K lim G ollan. W in M umford d rew f igures 1 , 2a nd 3 a nd h elped m e w ith f igures 4 & 5 .

3 1

B ALME:

P REHISTORIC F ISHING I N T HE L OWER D ARLING ,

N EW S OUTH W ALES

R EFERENCES

B owdler , S . ( 1977). T he c oastal c olonisation o f A ustralia. I n ( J. A llen , J . C olson & R . J ones, E ds.) S unda a nd S ahul. L ondon : A cademic P ress. B owler , J .M. & M agee , J .W . ( 1978). G eomorphology o f t he M allee R egion i n s emi-arid n orthern V ictoria a nd w estern N ew S outh W ales. P roceedings o f t he R oyal S ociety o f V ictoria 9 0 , 5 -20 . B owler , J .M ., S tockton , E . &W alker , J . ( 1978). Q uaternary s tratigraphy o f t he D arling R iver n ear T ilpa , N ew S outh W ales. P roceedings o f t he R oyal S ociety o f V ictoria 9 0 , 7 9-88 . E yre, E .J. ( 1845). J ournal o f E xpedition o f D iscovery i nto C entral A ustralia v ols. 1 & 2 . L ondon . T &W B oone. H amley, J .M . ( 1975). R eview o f g ilinet s electivity. F isheries R esearch B oard o f C anada 3 2 , 1 943-1969 .

J ournal o f t he

K efous, K .C. ( 1977). W e H ave a F ish w ith E ars, a nd W onder i f i t i s V aluable? B .A . h onours t hesis , D ept. P rehistory a nd A nthropology , A ustralian N ational U niversity. L awrence , R . ( 1969). A boriginal H abitat a nd E conomy. O ccasional P aper N o. 6 , D ept. G eography, S chool o f G eneral S tudies, A ustralian N ational U niversity , C anberra.

( R .M .

L lewellyn , M cDowall,

L .C. E d.)

( 1980). F amily A MBASSIDAE c handa p erches e tc. I n F reshwater F ishes o f S outh-Eastern A ustralia. S ydney :

A .H .& A .W . R eed P ty. L td. M athews, R .H . ( 1903). T he A boriginal f isheries i n B rewwarrina . o f t he R oyal S ociety o f N ew S outh W ales 3 7 , 1 50153 . M cDowall, A ustralia. M eehan ,

R .M.

( Ed.).

( 1980).

F reshwater

F ishes

J ournal

o f S outh-Eastern

S ydney : A .H. & A .W. R eed P ty . L td. B .

( 1982).

S hell B ed t o S hell M idden.

C anberra :

A ustralian

I nstitute o f A boriginal S tudies. R eynolds, L .F.

( 1976a).

R eynolds, L . F . S turt,

C harles

A ustralia v ols.

1& 2 .

( 1976b). ( 1833). L ondon :

C ommerical f ish m easuring.

S afic 8 ,

I nland F isheries. S afic 8 , 3 -6 ,

1 719 ,

2 5 .

1 5.

T wo E xpeditions I nto t he I nterior o f S outhern S mith , E lder & C ompany.

3 2

L td.

T HE P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA ( AVES: D INORNITHIDAE) I N T HE H IGH C OUNTRY O F S OUTHERN N EW Z EALAND

A tholl A nderson A nthropology D epartment U niversity o f O tago B ox 5 6 , D unedin N ew Z ealand

I NTRODUCTION

e mu ,

A lthough l arge f lightless r atites, p resently r epresented b y o strich , c assowary a nd r hea , h ave a w ide d istribution , t here h ave b een v ery f ew

p rehistoric e conomies f ounded u pon t heir e xploitation. I n f act w ith t he p ossible e xception o f t he e arliest s ettlers i n s outhern M adagascar w ho h unted t he A epyornithiformes, t he s o-called ' elephant b irds' ( Brown , 1 979), t his d istinction a ppears t o r eside e xclusively w ith t he e arly M aori o f s outhern N ew Z ealand. I n t he S outh I sland o f N ew Z ealand , s outh o f B anks p eninsula ( Figure 1 ), w here t raditional P olynesian h orticuture w as c limatically i mpossible a nd t he r ange o f i ndigenous f ood p lants l ess e xtensive t han e lsewhere, h unting w as t he c entral e conomic a ctivity, a nd m oa ( Dinornithidae) t he p rimary g ame, d uring t he e arly M aori p eriod , A .D . 1 000 - 1 500 . M oa h unting w as e specially p rominent a long t he e ast c oast a s f ar s outh a s O tago p eninsula a nd t hroughout t he h igh c ountry l ying t o t he w est. I n t hese d istricts a t otal o f 8 1 m oa h unting s ites h ave b een r ecorded, s everal o f t hem r eaching 3 0-60 h a i n e xtent, a nd i n n early a ll o f t hem m oa w ere e ntirely d ominant a mongst t he f aunal r emains. T he i mportance o f m oa t o t he e arly s outhern M aori l ay i n t wo b asic f acts. F irstly , t hese b irds w ere , b y a n o rder o f m agnitude, t he l argest m embers o f t he N ew Z ealand a vifauna . T hey r anged i n s ize f rom A nomalopteryx a nd M egalapteryx g enera s tanding a bout 1 .0 m t all a nd w eighing f rom 1 3 t o 3 0 k g , u p t o t he D inornis g enus o f w hich D . m aximus s tood s ome 3 .0 m t all a nd w eighed a bout 2 30 k g. B etween t hese e xtremes, a nd m ost f requently h unted, w ere t he m edium-sized ( 50105 k g) E meus, P achyornis a nd E uryapteryx g enera ( liveweight e stimates f rom S mith, n .d.). S econdly, m oa i nhabited a n e nvironment w hich w as, u ntil t he M aori i ntroduced t he d omestic d og a nd t he P acific r at ( Rattus e xulans), e ntirely d evoid o f t errestrial m ammals e xcept f or t wo s mall a nd r are s pecies o f b at. Y et d espite t he m anifest i mportance o f m oa t o t he e arly s outhern M aori v ery l ittle i s k nown a bout t he a ctivities i nvolved i n m oa h unting o r t he s ignificance o f i t t o p rehistoric e conomies. L eaving a side t he l ongstanding r eluctance

o f

a rchaeologists

t o

d eal

a dequately

3 3

w ith

f aunal

r emains,

t he

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

r easons l ie m ainly i n a t hird b asic f act; m oa b ecame e xtinct b efore t he s ettlement o f E uropeans a nd h ad a pparently b een r are f or s ufficiently l ong p rior t o t hat t o h ave b ecome a lmost f orgotten i n t he o ral t raditions o f t he M aori. I ndeed t he o nly t raditional a ccounts w ere c ollected l ate i n t he 1 9th c entury a nd t hey a ppear t o b e l ess g enuine r ecollections t han i ntelligent s peculations b ased u pon t he d ata t hen a ccumulated b y E uropean s cientists ( Duff , 1 956).

m oa

I n t he s carcity, t hus , o f f aunal a nalyses, o f r eliable i nformation a bout e cology a nd b ehaviour, a nd o f t raditional a ccounts o f h unting,

u nderstanding o f t he e xploitation o f m oa h as r emained s ubstantially e lusive. A gainst s uch a b ackground t his p aper i s, i n c onsequence , o f a n e xploratory r ather t han c onclusive n ature. I t r eports r ecent i nvestigations o f m oa h unting s ites i n t he h igh c ountry o f N ew Z ealand b y R itchie R itchie & H arrison,

1 981) a nd m yself ( Anderson,

1 979,

( Ritchie ,

1 980;

n .d.;

A nderson &

R itchie, 1 981) w hich , c oupled w ith r ecent e vidence a bout t he p rehistoric h igh c ountry e nvironment a nd m oa e cology t here ( summarized i n A nderson , 1 982a), h ave s erved t o p ull i nto f ocus s ome o f t he l ineaments o f t he m oa h unting p hase i n t his r egion .

T HE P REHISTORIC H IGH C OUNTRY E NVIRONMENT ' The h igh c ountry' i s t he m ountainous i nterior o f t he S outh I sland . A t t he w estern e dge l ie t he S outhern A lps a nd b elow t hem a b and o f 8l arge g lacial l akes w hich f eed t hree r iver s ystems: t he W aitaki, t he C lutha a nd t he W aiau . T he u pper w atersheds o f t hese l argely d efine t he t hree d istricts s hown i n F igure 1 . W hen E uropeans e xplored t his r egion i n t he m id-19th c entury t hey f ound t hat f orest, p redominantly o f b eech ( Nothofagus s pp.) , w as c onfined t o w estern S outhland a nd a reas l ying t o t he w est o f t he l akes e lsewhere. T o t he e ast, i n r ange a nd b asin c ountry, w ere e xtensive s nowgrass a nd t ussock g rasslands. S trewn t hrough t hese w ere c harred f ossil l ogs o f t otara ( Podocarpus h allii) a nd o ther p odocarp t rees w hich p rovided t he f irst c lues t o t he f ormer e xistence o f f orest i n t his h istorically b arren l andscape. R ecent r esearch o n t he f ossil l ogs a nd s oil c harcoals ( Molloy e t a l., 1 963 ; B urrell , 1 965 ; M olloy , 1 969 , 1 977 ; W ells, 1 972; M ark , 1 974), a long w ith p alynological e vidence ( Leslie & M cGlone , 1 973 ; T horburn , 1 974) , h as d emonstrated t hat a m ixed b eech-podocarp f orest e xisted a bout t he m id-slopes o f t he e astern r anges u ntil t he a rrival o f t he f irst p eople a t a pproximately A .D . 1 000 . H ow e xtensive f orest w as a t t hat t ime s till r emains a n o pen q uestion. G rowth c onditions i n t he e astern h igh c ountry a re s uch t hat a ll a reas b elow a bout 100 m a nd a bove t he 6 00 m m a nnual i sohyet w hich , a ccording t o v arious f actors, l ies b etween 3 00 a nd 8 00 m , a re c limatically s uitable f or f orest. T he d istribution o f r emains, h owever , i ndicates t hat f orest w as l argely r estricted t o az one l ying b etween 8 00 a nd 1 100 m a nd t hat s ome p arts o f i t h ad b een d eforested b y n atural f iring p rior t o t he a rrival o f p eople. A bove t he f orest w ere e xtensive a lpine g rasslands, w hile i mmediatley b elow i t a nd i n s hady g ullies e xtending d own t o t he r iver g orges, w ere m ixed s hrublands

o f L eptospermum ,

C opromosa , O learia , H ebe,

C armichaelia a nd o ther

g enera o f w oody p lants. A long t he o pen r iver t erraces a nd a cross t he b asins w ere t ussock g rasslands c arrying a s parse s catter o f t he t horny s hrub,

3 4

B ase c amp •

M 3

H un t ing c amp L akes L and o ver 1 000m 6 00mm I s ohye t

F IGURE 1 : f eatures ,

T he S outh d istr icts

S hepherds C reek F lat ,

I,

6 R ockfa ll

B r idge ,

m oa

2A hur ir i,

I,

1 G lenaray ,

I s land h igh c ountry s how ing t he r e levant e nv ironmenta l a nd

h unt ing

s ites.

3 J unct ion P o int ,

7 I talian C reek, 1 2 T akahe V a lley .

3 5

T he

n umbered

s ites

4G ooseneck B end ,

8 H awksburn,

9 O wen's

a re :

1

5W oo lshed

f erry ,

1 0 D art

N OTES:

D ata f rom A mbrose ( 1970),

3 6

nderson ( n.d.a.). R itchie ( n.d.), A

rass land , M s =m ountain s tream , S=s hrub land , G =g

1

x

1

S car iett ( 1979), R itchie & H arr ison ( 198 1),

p ond , e tc ., x

x

x

? FSG

F /G ? Ms

1 x M s

M s

x M s

x

x

F

? F

x

F

x

F

x

S /G

x

F /S

1

x

G

x

F

( Ext.)

S /G

) , E xt. = e xtinct p rehistor ically , F =F orest , x=p resent ( no M NI

C=c oasta l H e m i ( p N h . a Z g . a P n i o g v e a o n s ) e l a n d i a e

x

S t r i ( g K o a p k s a p h o a ) b r 1 o p t i l u s

x

C h l ( i B d l o a n c k s f a r l o b n t s e d r i T a e t r u n s )

1

S t ( e W r h n i a t e s t f r i o a n t e d T e r n )

x

N o ( t T o a r k n a i h s e ) m a 1 n t e l I i

x

L a r ( u B s l a d c o k m i b n a i c k a e n d u s G u l )

6 0

M s

R a l u s ( p B h a i n l d e i d p e R n a s i l s ) 1

S ites

S m a l r a i l 3

a )

G a l ( S i m r a l u W s e k m a i ) n o 3 r 1

G a ( l W e i k r a ) l 2 u s 1 a 1 u s t r a l i s

( )

A p t o r ( n G i s a n o t i R d a i f l o ) r m 2 i s

F a l ( c N o . Z n . o v F a e l s c e o n l ) a n d i a e

I t a l L a n C r e p

C ( o N t . u Z r . n i Q x u a n i o l v ) a e 1 z 0 e a 1 l a n d i a e

D u c k 1 2 5 C i r c u s a ( p N . r Z o . x i H m a r n s i e r ) 1

P . ( F l u g t a v e i r a / n h g u / t H u o t n i o n ' s S h e a r w . ) 1

A ( p L t i e r t y l x e o S w p e o n t i e d k i w i )

S pecies

A ( N y . t Z h . a S n c o a v u p e ) s e 1 l a n d i a e

H y m e n ( o B l a u i e m u D s c m k a ) l a 2 c o r h y n c h o s

A n ( a G s r e g y i b T e a r l i ) f r 1 o n s

A n ( a G s r e s y u p D e u r c k i ) l i 3 o s 1 a

T a d o r n a ( P v a r a i d e g s a e t a S h e l d u c k ) 4 1

( B l a P c h k a l S a h c r g o ) c o 2 r a 7 x c a r b o

P e t r e l 2

P ( u S f o t i y n u S s h e g a r i w s a e t u s r )

P t e r o d r o ( m M a o t i n l e x d p e P c t a r t e a l )

( M o l D b y i c u m o . l a f w . e k d r ) e i

A p t e ( r B y x o w a n u s K t i r w a ; l ) i s ( G r e A a . t a S u p s o t r a e l d i s K / i h w a i ) s t i

( 1 )

T ABLE 1 : S ma ll B irds f rom H igh C ountry M oa H unt ing S ites.

H ab itat

0 2

— . c —

C

M s M s

M s

M s

M s

M s

M s F /S

S /G

F /S/G ? SG ( Ext.)

( Ext .)

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

D iscaria t oumatou . F or

t he

a vifauna,

a nd

u ltimately

f or

p eople,

t he m ost

i mportant

m icroenvironments w ere t he m ixed s hrublands a nd p odocarp-enriched f orests o n t he l ower a nd m iddle s lopes o f t he e astern r anges. T he b asin g rasslands s upported o nly a f ew s pecies o f s mall r ails a nd q uail a nd t he a lpine g rasslands t he t akahe ( Notornis m antelli) i n s ummer. O nly t he k akapo ( Strigops h abroptilus), a nd i n t he w inter t he t akahe, w ere e conomically v aluable s pecies o f t he w estern b eech f orests. T he r emainder o f a w ide r ange o f s mall b ird s pecies w ere w holly o r l argely d ependent u pon t he e astern f orest a nd s hrublands o r t he m ountain s treams f lowing t hrough t hese. I n T able 1 a re t he M NI o f s mall b irds f rom s ix r ecently e xcavated m oa h unting s ites, p lus a nother w ithout e stimated M NI ( Shepherds C reek I I), w hich b elongs t o t his p hase. T hese d ata s how t hat 1 9 o f t he 3 9 s pecies w ere a ssociated w ith a f orest/shrubland h abitat a nd 1 1 w ith s treams, p onds a nd s wamps. T ogether w ith e arlier d iscoveries o f f orest b irds i n m oa h unting s ites ( e.g. M un son , 1 871) t hey i ndicate t he w idespread s urvival o f t his v egetation i nto t he M aori e ra. T he f ull s uite o f m oa a vailable t o t he e arly M aori o ccurred i n t he h igh c ountry a s w ell ( Table 2 ). H ere , a s e lsewhere , E urapteryx g ravis w as t he m ost

c ommonly f ound a nd ,

w here i t i s p ossible t o t ell ,

t he m ost a bundantly

r epresented i n t he s ites. T he o nly n oticeable d ifference b etween h igh c ountry a nd c oastal r epresentation o f t he s pecies i s t hat M egalapteryx s pp. s eem t o h ave b een m ore c ommon i n t he f ormer r egion a nd E meus c rassus i n t he l atter .

H ABITATS A ND B EHAVIOUR O F H IGH C OUNTRY M OA E lucidation o f t he m echanics a nd i mpact o f M oa h unting d epends c onsiderably u pon w hat m ay b e i nferred o f t he e cology a nd b ehaviour o f m oa , b ut t hese a re m atters s o l ittle i nvestigated t hat s carcely a ny s ecure e vidence h as b een a vailable a bout q uestions o f p opulation d ensity, t erritoriality , f locking , b reeding s easonality , c lutch s izes o r m obility , a lthough F alla ( 1962), S carlett ( 1974) a nd H amel ( 1979) h ave e ssayed v arious s uggestions. P erhaps t he g reatest o bstacle h as b een t he l ack o f d ata a bout m oa h abitat p references, a nd i t i s i n t his a rea t hat r ecent p rogress h as o ccurred. F or m ore t han a c entury i t w as a ssumed t hat m oa, w ith t he p ossible e xception o f t he s mallest s pecies, i nhabited o pen g rasslands, a v iew b ased o n t he b road c orrelation o f n atural b one d eposits a nd h unting s ites w ith t ussock l ands o f t he e astern S outh I sland. H owever , a s e vidence o f e xtensive f orest f ormerly e xisting i n t his r egion h as m ounted ( Molloy e t a l., 1 963 ; M olloy, 1 969; M ark, 1 974), a nd a s n ew l ines o f e vidence h ave b een o pened, t his p roposition h as f allen i nto d isfavour. A rchaeological r esearch h as s hown t hat s ome i mportant m oa h unting s ites w ere t o b e f ound i n d istricts w hich w ere f orested t hroughout t he p rehistoric e ra ( Lockerbie, 1 959), i nvestigation o f t he d ivaricating h abit o f n umerous i ndigenous s hrubs h as l inked i t t o m oa b rowsing ( Greenwood & A tkinson , 1 977) a lthough t here a re a lternative e xplanations p reserved m oa c rop c ontents

( McGlone & W ebb, 1 981), a nd t he a nalysis o f ( Burrows, 1 980a , 1 980b ; B urrows e t a l., 1 981),

h as i ndicated t hat t he m oa d iet l argely c omprised t wigs, w oody

p lants

l iving

i n

s hrubland

3 7

a nd

f ruits a nd s eeds o f

p odocarp

f orest-fringe

T ABLE 2 :

M oe r epresented

i n H igh C ountry s ites

M o a u n i d e n t i f i e d

D i n o r n i s m a x i m u s

D i n o r n i s r o b u s t u s

D i n o r n i s t o r o s u s

E m e u s h u t o n i

E m e u s c r a s u s

E u r a p t e r y x g r a v i s

P a c h y o r n i s

M e g a l a p t e r y x s p .

A n o m a l o p t e r y x s p .

e l e p h a n t u s

S ITES

M ackenzie C ountry A hur ir i

1 X

B o lton's G ully G ooseneck B end

1 X

J unction P o int S hepherd 's C reek W oo lshed F lat

X

X

X

C entra l O tago

1

D art B r idge

1 X

E arnsc leugh C ave H awksburn

1

3

1

5

1

1

3

1 X

I ta lian C reek L uggate O wen's F erry P uketo i

X

X

X

X

R ockfall

X

1

I& I

W estern S outhland

1

T akahe V alley N OTE:

X = p resent ( no M NT) D ata f rom A mbrose ( 1970), T rotter ( 1970), H amel S car lett ( 1979), A nderson

( n.d.a.).

3 8

( 1977),

X

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

m icroenvironments. M oa S easonality a nd M obility T he s eason a t w hich m oa b red i s u nknown a nd e vidence b earing o n t he m atter i s v ery s carce. H utton ( 1891) o bserved t hat t he d eposition o f c arcasses i n n atural h igh c ountry s ites ( swamps) p robably o ccurred i n a utumn o r w inter a nd t hat s ince m oa e ggshell w as e ntirely a bsent b reeding m ust h ave o ccurred i n s pring o r s ummer. T he b ehaviour o f r atites i n g eneral s uggests t hat t his i s v ery l ikely. R atite d iets, i ncluding t hose r ecently i nferred f or m oa , a re r ich i n h ighly n utritious s hoots, f ruits a nd s eeds w hich , s ince r atite y oung h ave e xtraordinarily r apid g rowth r ates, m ust b e t aken a dvantage o f b y b reeding i mmediately p rior t o t he m ain g rowth f lush ; i n t emperate r egions t his i s u sually e arly s pring ( Davies, 1 976). I n t he h igh c ountry t he g rowth f lush o f w oody p lants g enerally b egins i n O ctober a t l ow a ltitudes a nd u p t o t wo m onths l ater a t h igher l evels ( Wardle , 1 963 ; W ells, 1 972). S ince m oa , l ike o ther r atites, c an b e a ssumed t o h ave h ad a l ong i ncubation p eriod ( 5-8 w eeks f or m ost r atites b ut 1 2 w eeks f or t he k iwis), e gg l aying w ould p robably h ave b egun b y S eptember , i f n ot s omewhat e arlier. A f urther c onsequence o f t he r atite d iet i s, a s D avies ( 1976) p oints o ut, t hat t he b irds n eed t o b e v ery m obile i n o rder t o m aintain c ontact w ith t he t emporarily a vailable f lushes o f h igh q uality f oods o n w hich t hey d epend. A lthough c onsiderable m obility o ccurs a mongst t he e mu a nd c assowary t he f act t hat m oa c rop s tones, o n t he f ew o ccasions t hey h ave b een a nalysed , h ave p roven t o b e d erived f rom l ocally o ccurring r ocks, t ogether w ith t he a rgument t hat m arked d ifferences b etween s uites o f m oa s pecies f ound a t s ites c lose t o o ne a nother i ndicates l ittle m ixing o f p opulations ( Ambrose, 1 968; S carlett, 1 974), h as b een t aken t o d emonstrate t hat m oa w ere m ore o r l ess s edentary. B ut w hile t his m ay h ave b een t rue o f p opulations i n u nusually r ich o r u niform e nvironments s uch a s t he c oastal p lains, s ome d egree o f ' transhumance' i s t hought l ikely i n t he h igh c ountry ( Atkinson , p ers. c omm .), p articularly s ince i t o ccurs a mongst t he p resent l arge h erbivores s uch a s t he t akahe a nd t he i ntroduced r ed d eer. M oa r emains a re n ot u ncommon a bove 1 000 m b ut i t i s u nlikely t hat t he b irds c ould h ave s urvived t he w inter a t t hese a ltitudes. M oreover , m oa e ggshell h as n ot b een r eported f rom a ny o f t he h igh a ltitude s ites a nd i t i s r are i n s ites l ocated, a s m any a re, b etween 6 00 a nd 8 00 m . C onversely, m oa e ggshell i s c ommon i n s ites l ocated b elow 5 00 m a nd i n s ome o ccurs i n c onsiderable a bundance ( Mun son , 1 871; R itchie , n .d.). S ince i t i s f ound i n n early a ll o f 4 0 r ockshelters, m ost o f w hich a re n atural s ites, i n t he C lutha g orge ( Ritchie , n .d.), a nd i s s imilarly c ommon i n t he s helters o f t he W aitaki g orge ( Ambrose , 1 970), i t i s r easonable t o s uggest t hat m oa h abitually b red a t l ow l evels b ut t hat, a s t he w armer s eason a dvanced , s ome o f t he p opulation d ispersed u pslope f ollowing t he g rowth a nd f ruiting f lushes o f t he s hrubs a nd g rasslands, a nd o ccasionally b eyond.

t rees

t o

t he

e dge

o f

t he

a lpine

I n s ummary, h igh c ountry m oa m ay b e r egarded a s h aving b een p articularly a bundant a round t he l ower f orest f ringes a nd t he s hrublands b elow t hem , a s b reeding a t l ow l evels, e specially i n t he g orges, d uring t he s pring a nd a s b eing m obile u p a nd d own s lope d uring t he e nsuing s easons.

3 9

h i li w

B as in g rass land

Q9Q c

9

S hrub /and

F ores t

A lp ine g rass land

Mackenz ie c oun t ry

n

C en t ra l O tago W es tern S ou th land

8-

3 00 4 00 5 00 mm a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion

F IGURE

2 :

6 00

7 00

8 00

9 00

1 000

C orre lat ion o f m oa h unting s ites w ith

p rehistor ic v egetation p attern.

4 0

1 00

a nnua l

1 200

1 3 00

100

p rec ipitat ion a nd

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

M OA H UNTING I N T HE H IGH C OUNTRY A mongst t he s ites s hown i n F igure 1 , t hree t ypes c an b e r ecognised: r ockshelters

( 11),

s mall

o pen s ites

( 33)

a nd

l arge

o pen

s ites

( 8).

T he

s helters a re s mall ( 20-80m 2 f loor a rea), s hallow a nd w ithout s tone-lined h earths. A rtefacts a re l argely c onfined t o a f ew f lake a nd b lade i mplements i n e ach c ase a nd e vidence o f i mplement f abrication i s g enerally a bsent. M oa b one

i s

s carce a nd i s u sually r epresented

b y

t ibiotarsal

f ragments

f rom a

s ingle b ird, b ut m oa e ggshell i s c ommon a nd o ccasionally a bundant, a s I talian C reek ( Ritchie , n .d.). S mall b irds ( table 1 ), s ome r emains f reshwater m ussel ( Hydridella m enziesii) a nd, c omplete t he f aunal a rray.

r arely,

a t o f

o f f ish a nd r at

M ost o f t he s mall o pen s ites a re 1 00-500 m2 i n a rea , b ut s everal r each 1 ,000 m2 ( Anderson , 1 980). T he r emains a re m ore s parsely s cattered o n t hese s ites t han i n t he s helters a nd r ange f rom a p atch o f m oa c rop s tones a nd a f lake k nife ( George, 1 937) u p t o s mall m oa b one m iddens w ith a ssociated o vens a nd s tone w orking a reas , a s a t O wen's F erry ( Ritchie & H arrison, 1 981). F ew o f t hese s ites h ave b een e xamined b ut t he b rief r eports a vailable ( George, 1 937 ; T rotter , 1 969 , 1 970 ; A nderson , 1 980 ; R itchie & H arrison , 1 981; A nderson & R itchie, 1 981 a nd S ite R ecord F orms), i ndicate t hat t he f aunal r emains c omprised l ittle b eyond m oa a nd a n o ccasional f reshwater m ussel o r s mall b ird. T he l arge o pen s ites a re a c lass a part.

T hey r ange i n a rea f rom 5 ,000-

4 0 ,000 m2 a nd c ontain e vidence o f a r ange o f f unctions. A ll h ad e xtensive m oa b one m idden , n umerous o vens, a nd a bundant r emains o f f lake a nd b lade i mplement m anufacture. S tone-lined h earths, t he r emains o f s helters, a nd p olished s tone a dzes, g round s late k nives ( 'ulu'), a nd v arious s mall t ools a nd o rnaments h ave a lso b een r eported ( Mun son, 1 871; G eorge, 1 937; L ockerbie,

1 979 ,

1 959 ;

T rotter ,

1 970).

O nly o ne o f t hese s ites h as b een f ully e xamined, H awksburn ( Anderson , 1 981a, n .d.a. a nd C arty , 1 981), b ut i ts o rganisation s eems t o h ave b een

t ypical o f t he o thers.

S ix f unctionally d istinct a reas w ere r ecognised:

am idden o f d ensely p acked, f ragmented a nd m ostly b urnt m oa b one, I I

a n a rea o f o ven r ake-out m aterial,

I II

ab and o f c ooking o vens ( umu),

r y

a n a rea o f s cattered m oa b one a mongst w hich w ere f lake a nd b lade i mplements w hich h ad b een u sed i n b oth h eavy a nd l ight ( skinning, m eat c utting) b utchery.

V

a d omestic a rea c omprising a r ow o f

( sawing ,

s tone h earths

c leaving)

a round w hich

w ere i mplements f or c utting a nd s craping w ood o r b one , a dzes, g ouges, d rill p oints, o bsidian g ravers, s tone g rinders a nd p olishers a nd s ome s eal-ivory n ecklace u nits, V I

a f lake a nd b lade

i mplement m anufacturing a rea

c omprising c ores

o f s ilcrete a nd p orcellanite ( two f ine-grained b ut b rittle s iliceous r ocks w hich w ere q uarried i n t he h igh c ountry) a nd l arge q uantities o f d ebitage a rising f rom t he d irect p ercussion

4 1

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

f laking o f t hem . F or t he p urposes o f o utlining t he h unting , p rocessing a nd s ettlement p atterns w hich c an b e i nferred f rom t hese s ites t he t hree c ategories c an b e c ombined i nto t wo g roups: h unting c amps ( rockshelters a nd s mall o pen s ites) a nd b ase c amps ( large o pen s ites). M oa H unting N o b etter m easure o f h ow l ittle i s u nderstood o f t he m oa h unting p hase c an b e f ound t han t he f act t hat p ractically n othing i s k nown o f t he m eans b y w hich m oa w ere h unted a nd k illed. T here a re n o c lues i n t he r ock s helter p aintings a ttributed t o m oa h unters a long t he e astern f ringes o f t he h igh c ountry ( Trotter & M cCulloch, 1 981), n o s ites a re i n o bvious ' jump' o r ' corral' l ocations, a nd o nly o ne p ossible t rapping p it h as b een r ecorded ( Skinner , 1 934) i n a c entral O tago p eat s wamp. C ertain l arge t anged b lades w ere o nce t hought t o b e s pear p oints, b ut w ere m ore p robably h afted k nives ( Skinner & T eviotdale , 1 927) a nd a re , i n a ny c ase , m issing f rom h igh c ountry s ites. I n f act, t he o nly s pecific a daptation t o m oa s eems t o h ave b een i n t he b reeding o f h unting d ogs. T he m orphology o f d og c rania f rom e astern S outh I sland m oa h unting s ites s hows t hat a d istinctive s trong-jawed , h eavyn ecked b reed w as d eveloped f or h olding l arge a nimals, w hich c an o nly h ave m eant m oa ( Anderson, 1 981b). I n t he 1 9th c entury t hese d ogs, a s f eral a nimals,

w ere a c onstant m enace t o t he i ntroduced s heep f locks o f

c ountry a nd t hey w ere d escribed d ingo.

t hen a s

c losely

r esembling

t he

t he h igh

A ustralian

O n p resent e vidence i t s eems m ost l ikely t hat m oa w ere s ought o ut a nd h eld b y d ogs u ntil t he h unters c ould r each t hem w ith w ooden s pears a nd c lubs. P atterns o f R eturn a nd P rocessing I n m ost o f t he r ock s helters o nly t he u pper p ortions o f o ne o r t wo m oa l egs a re r epresented i ndicating t hat t hese w ere l ess m oa h unting s tations p er s e t han c onvenient c amping p laces f or p eople m oving a round t he h unting g rounds. A dditionally, a s R itchie ( pers. c omm.) s uggests, t hey w ere p robably t he m ain e gg c ollecting s ites. O f 1 937),

t he s mall o pen s ites ,

s ome w ere s imply m oa g utting p laces

a nd t he c omparatively l arge s ite o f G lenaray ( c.

( George,

1 000 m2 ) may b e

r egarded a s b elonging e ssentially t o t his c ategory. I t i s l ocated a t 100 m o n ah igh a nd v ery e xposed p lateau . I t c ontains n o o vens a nd v irtually n o m oa b one b ut a round t he r emains o f s everal s helters w ere 3 4 p atches o f m oa c rop s tones a nd f lake k nives. E xcept f or a f ew j oints w hich h ad e vidently b een r oasted u pon o pen f ires t he c arcasses h ad a pparently b een o nly g utted, a nd p erhaps j ointed , b efore b eing r emoved e lsewhere f or f urther p rocessing a nd c onsumption ( Anderson , 1 980). A s ite a t w hich t he l atter p rocesses o ccurred i s O wen's F erry w here a t l east s ome o f t he m oa c arcasses a rrived i ntact ( i.e. i ncluding h eads, n ecks a nd f eet; w ere f ully b utchered a nd c ooked.

R itchie & H arrison ,

1 981) a nd

E lucidating t he p atterns o f r eturn a nd p rocessing a t H awksburn i s am ore c omplex p roblem . V ery l ittle o f t he b one , w hich w as h eavily f ragmented, c ould b e i dentified

t o t he s pecies l evel ,

M NI e stimate o f o nly 1 6

( Table 2 ).

a nd t hat w hich c ould p rovided a n

H owever t he a nalysis o f

4 2

t otal s amples

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

s howed t hat t here w ere 2 027 k g o f d ry m oa b one i n t he s ite. m any m oa t his

E stimating

r epresents w as u ndertaken i n t he f ollowing w ay.

h ow

D ry b ones

f rom f ive m edium-sized m oa r ecovered f rom n atural s ites i n c entral O tago w ere w eighed, b one b y b one , t o e stablish t he a pproximate d ry b one w eight a nd i ts d istribution a mongst t he s keletal c omponents o f a ' standard m oa' ( the t otal m ean w eight w as 1 0 .100 k g). I f t he H awksburn b one c ame e ntirely f rom i ntact b irds t hen a n e stimated 2 01 i ndividuals a re r epresented ( this i s a n u ndere stimate t o t he e xtent t hat b urnt b one w eighs l ess t han u nburnt d ry b one). H owever i t i s a pparent t hat t he d istribution o f b one w eight a mongst t he b ody c omponents i n t he s ite s ample ( the s ample o f b one i dentified t o a natomy) i s q uite d ifferent f rom t hat i n t he s tandard m oa ( Figure 3 ). I n t he s ite , h ead , n eck a nd b reast e lements a re g reatly u nder-represented a nd l egs o verr epresented. I f i t i s a ssumed t hat t he a natomical d istribution o f b one i n t he s ite s ample r eflects t he d ifferential r eturn o f c arcass c omponents t o t he s ite , r ather t han t he s ubsequent p artial r emoval o f s ome e lements, o r d ifferential b one s urvival, b oth f actors w hich I t hink a re u nlikely t o b e s ignificant ( Anderson , n .d.a.), a nd i f t he s ite s ample f airly r eflects t he t otal b one d eposit i n t he s ite , t hen t he n umber o f m oa c an b e e stimated b y d ividing t he w eight o f b one c alculated f or e ach b ody c omponent i n t he s tandard m oa i nto t he w eight e stimated f or t he s ame c omponents i n t he t otal b one d eposit o f t he s ite. T his p rocedure i ndicates t hat 4 30 i ndividuals a re r epresented b y l eg b one ( femora, t ibiotarsii, f ibulae, t arsometatarsii), 2 55 b y f eet ( phalanges), 1 43 b y b odies ( ribs, p elves), a nd 1 7 b y h eads, n ecks a nd b reasts ( crania , c ervical a nd t horacic v ertebrae , s terna). ( Since c ervical a nd t horacic v ertebrae c ould n ot b e d ifferentiated i n t he s ite s ample i dentifications, t hey a re c ombined a s ' neck' i n b oth t he s ite a nd s tandard m oa w eight e stimates). T aking t he l eg b one e stimate a s r epresenting t he m ax i mum M NI t hen 6 7% o f s ome 4 30 m oa r eached t he s ite o nly a s l egs, a nd m ostly w ithout f eet a ttached, w hile 3 3% a rrived a s l egs a nd b odies b ut m ostly w ithout h eads, n ecks a nd b reasts. B ecause

o f

v arious

s ources

o f

O nly 4 % o f t he m oa w ere i ntact. p otential

e rror

i n

s ampling

a nd

i dentification t hese f igures s hould b e r egarded a s o nly a pproximate b ut t hey d o s uggest t hat a l arge n umber o f m oa w ere t aken t o H awksburn a nd t hat a ' Schlepp E ffect' ( White, 1 955) w as o perating. A f ew m oa w ere r eturned i ntact a nd s ome m oa k illed, i t i s a ssumed, f urther a way h ad t he h ead, n eck a nd b reast r emoved ( detaching t he s ternum , w hich i n t he w ingless m oa w as v irtually m eatless , w ould h ave f acilitated r emoval o f t he v iscera). F rom m oa k illed f urther a way a gain o nly t he l egs w ere r eturned ; t hese p rovide t wo-thirds o f t he e dible m eat w eight ( Smith , n .d.). M ost o f t he l egs a re r epresented o nly b y t ibiotarsal b one. S ince t he t op o f t he e xternal l eg i n m oa w as a t t he p roximal e nd o f t he t ibiotarsus t his m ight s uggest t hat i t w as d etached a t t hat p oint, b ut s ince m uch o f t he l eg m eat l ies a long t he f emur i t i s m ore l ikely t hat t he w hole l eg w as b utchered o ut b ut t hat o nly t he l ong t ibiotarsus w as l eft i nside t he j oint t o m ake i t m ore m anageable f or c arrying ( or b ecause i t w as a v aluable f at-bone , b elow). A t t he s ite t he l east v aluable c omponents,

i n t erms o f m eat,

w ere

c onsigned t o t he m idden , p robably d irectly i n m ost c ases ( 90% o f c ranial b one , 7 3% o f v ertebrae a nd 6 0% o f p halanges), w hereas b ody a nd l eg b ones w ere m ainly s trewn a bout t he b utchery a nd o ven a reas ( 83% o f r ibs, 6 1% o f p elvic b ones,

7 3% o f f emora a nd t ibiotarsii).

4 3

° A

S tandard Moa

7 0-

6 0-

50-

4 0-

3 0-

20-

1 0-

H ead N eck B reast

F IGURE 3 :

Body

B ody-part d istr ibution o f

H awksburn s ite s amp le.

4 4

L egs

F eet

d ry b one w eight

i n s tandard m oa a nd

i n

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

N early a ll o f t he b one h ad b een f inely s mashed a nd b urnt, p articularly i n t he c ase o f t ibiotarsii , t he l argest l ong b one. W hy t his o ccurred i s n ot k nown b ut i t i s a c haracteristic f eature o f l arge , s pecialised m oa b utchery s ites b oth i n t he h igh c ountry a nd o n t he c oast a s d escribed b y, f or e xample , T eviotdale, 1 939), a nd i t c ontrasts w ith t he s ituation i n o ther s ites w here m oa w ere p rominent , b ut w ere n ot t he p rimary r esource a nd w here t he m oa b one i s u nburnt a nd e ither i ntact o r i n l arge f ragments. T he l ack o f b urnt b one i nside t he o vens o r h earths a t H awksburn s uggests t hat i t w as n ot u sed a s f iring m aterial, a s i t w as b y e arly E uropean s ettlers i n a reas w ith n atural b one d eposits,

a nd t he f act t hat b oth b urnt a nd u nburnt b one w ere m ixed

t ogether i n t he m idden i ndicates t hat i t w as n ot a c ase o f b urning t he r efuse d ump b ecause o f s mell o r f lies. T he b one w as e vidently b urnt a fter i t c ame o ut o f t he o vens a nd b efore i t r eached t he m idden, b ut w hy? T he o nly e xplanation I c an t hink o f i s t hat a long t he c entral e ast c oast a nd i n t he h igh c ountry t he s upply o f s ources, e specially s eals,

f ats a nd w as h ere

o ils w hich e lsewhere c ame f rom o ther a ugmented b y e xtraction f rom t he m oa

b ones. S ince t he M aori c ustomarily p reserved m eat i n f at, e specially b ird m eat , t his r aises t he q uestion o f w hether a n i mportant f unction o f t hese m oa b utchery s ites m ay h ave b een t he a ccumulation o f q uantitites o f p reserved f lesh f or s ubsequent c onsumption e lsewhere. S easonality a nd S ettlement P atterns

o f

E xcept f or m oa e ggshell a t an umber o f s ites a nd a v ery s mall q uantity c hick b one a t H awksburn , b oth o f w hich i ndiciate o ccupation d uring t he

s pring ( if I h ave r ightly c onstrued t he m oa e cology), e vidence o f s easonality i s v irtually a bsent. I n f act i t m ay n ot h ave b een a s ignificant f actor a t a ll. I t i s f requently a ssumed t hat t he e astern h igh c ountry w as a bandoned i n w inter d uring t he m oa h unting p hase b ecause o f u nfavourable w eather c onditions. H owever , w hile t he h igh c ountry i s c ertainly c older i n w inter , a nd s now f alls m ore f requently a t l ow a ltitudes t han a long t he e ast c oast, t he g reater i ncidence o f c alm w eather i nland a t t his s eason m ay h ave r endered t hese d ifferences i nsignificant i n t erms o f h uman c omfort a s T uller ( 1977) h as s hown.

C ertainly t he e thnographic e vidence d escribes w inter h unting i n

t he h igh c ountry a nd, o n s ome o ccasions, g roups o f 2 0-30 p eople o verw intering n ear t he l akes ( Anderson , n .d.b.). T hus, w hile t he g athering o f e ggs a nd h unting a t t he h igher a ltitudes w ere n o d oubt s easonally r estricted a ctivities,

t here i s n o a pparent

r eason w hy m oa h unting m ay n ot h ave b een

c arried o ut i n m ost h igh c ountry a reas t houghout t he y ear . T he p attern o f s ettlement w hich i ntegrated m oa h unting a ctivities c learly r evolved s ubstantially a round t he b ase c amps. J ust h ow i mportant t hese w ere o ther s ites a s election e ssentially

i n t erms o f t he h unting e ffort t hey r epresent c ompared t o t he m ay b e g auged b y c onsidering t he o ccupation s pans r epresented a t o f s ites f or w hich a dequate d ata a re a vailable. A t H awksburn , as ingle o ccupation s ite , t he o ccupation l ength c an b e e stimated

a s f ollows. T he e dible m eat w eight o f m y s tandard m oa i s c alculated a t 4 0 k g , b eing t he m eans o f w eights e stimated b y S mith ( n.d.) f or M egalapteryx d idinus, E uryapteryx g ravis a nd D inornis t orosus i n t he p roportions 1 :3 :1 ( as

i ndicated

b y

t he m inimum n umbers

o f

i dentified

s pecies

a nd

S carlett's

( pers. c omm .) o pinion t hat E . g ravis w as t he m ost c ommon s pecies r epresented i n t he b one h e c ould n ot c onfidently i dentify). T he l egs t hus p rovided 2 6.6 k g.

T he 2 87 m oa r epresented b y l egs ( above) t herefore f urnished 7 ,634 k g o f

m eat a nd t he 1 43 m oa r epresented a s b odies p lus l egs, 5 ,720 k g. S mall b irds a nd d ogs a dd 8 0 k g ( Anderson , n .d.a.). T aking t he e nergy r eturn o f t his

4 5

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

1 3 ,434 k g o f m eat a t 1 ,100 k J p er 1 00 g m ( c.f. r aw t urkey) a nd t he m ean d aily e nergy r equirement p er p erson f or a ctive p eople i n a t emperate e nvironment a t 1 3 ,000 k J ( Thomas & C orden , 1 977), t here a re 1,368 m an-days r epresented. T he s ame m eans o f e stimation p rovides t he f ollowing r esults f or h unting c amps: A huriri, 1 m an-days; G ooseneck B end , 8 6 m an-days ( from d ata i n A mbrose , 1 970) a nd R ockfall I I , 3 1 m an-days ( data f rom R itchie & H arrison , 1 981). T hese r esults a re u nder-estimates t o t he e xtent t hat s mall q uantities o f o ther f oods w ere a lso c onsumed ( fish , s hellfish , m oa e ggs), a nd t o t he e xtent t hat v egetable f oods s uch a s t i ( Cordyline a ustralis) a nd b racken f ern ( Pteridium e sculentum) r oots m ay h ave c ontributed t o t he d iet. T he l atter a re n ot r epresented b y t he c haracteristic t i c ooking p its a t a ny s ite e xcept D art B ridge ( Anderson & R itchie, 1 981), n or a re s tone r oot b eaters f ound , b ut i t i s n evertheless l ikely t hat t he o therwise p rotein-rich d iet w as l eavened b y r esorting t o c arbohydrate-rich f oods t o s ome d egree. T he m ain p oint i s,

h owever ,

t hat t he c entralisation o f e ffort u pon t he

b ase c amps w as s uch t hat e ven t he s maller o f t hem , l ike H awksburn ( 6000 m2) , c ontain m ore r emains o f m oa a nd e vidence o f a g reater r ange o f s ubsistence a ctivites, o f i mplement m anufacture a nd t ypes, a nd o f d omestic a ctivities t han in m ost o f t he h unting c amps p ut t ogether. I t m ay b e t aken f rom t his t hat t he h unting c amps i n g eneral w ere s atellite s ettlements o f t he m ain b ases r ather t han s ites o f u nconnected h unting e xpeditions. T he f ew r adiocarbon d ates l end s ome s upport t o t his v iew. T he m ean o f t he H awksburn d ates i s 6 67+ 19 B .P. ( Anderson , 1 981a). T he p referred d ates f or t he R ockfall s helters c omm .),

( I a nd I I) a re 6 32+46 a nd 6 74+60 B .P.

a nd f or t he f irst o ccupation o f I talian C reek ,

( Ritchie ,

5 82+96 B .P.

p ers.

( Ritchie ,

n .d.), w hile t he d istant D art B ridge s ite w as f irst o ccupied b etween 5 87+57 a nd 7 23+57 B .P. A ll o f t hem , b ut e specially t he f irst t wo w hich l ie a bout 8 h ours w alk a way f rom H awksburn , c ould h ave b een o ccupied d uring t he s ame s ettlement p hase. A s imilar p attern m ay b e o bserved i n t he W aitaki g orge w here G ooseneck B end ( 850+ 150 B .P.) a nd J unction P oint ( 695+135 B .P.) a re a pproximately c ontemporaneous w ith t he l arge b ase c amp a t W oolshed F lat ( 810+ 5 0 ,

8 60+32 B .P.). I t m ay b e e nvisaged,

t hen ,

t hat t he n ormal s ettlement p attern i nvolved

t he m ovement o f a g roup o f c oastal p eople - t here i s c ommonly e vidence o f c oastal m aterials i n t he s ites ( e.g. T able 1 ) -t o ah igh c ountry l ocation a t w hich a b ase c amp c onveniently s ituated f or t he h unting o f m oa d ispersed b etween r iver v alleys a nd a lpine g rasslands c ould b e e stablished. F rom i t h unting p arties p roceeded u pon f orays l asting a w eek o r t wo u ntil t he d ecreasing m oa r eserves, a s r eflected i n t he n ecessity t o t ake t hem a t i ncreasing d istances f rom t he b ase, r esulted i n a r eturn t o t he c oast c arrying q uantities o f p reserved f lesh. I f, u pon e thonographic d ata , a g roup o f 2 5 p eople i s a ssumed a t H awksburn , a nd p resuming t hat t he p reserved f lesh r emoved f rom t he s ite w as m ore o r l ess b alanced b y t he f lesh c onsumed a t t he h unting c amps, t hen a s ojourn o f 1 5 m onths i s s uggested. I f, a s L ockerbie ( 1959), b elieved, H awksturn w as n ot o ccupied d uring t he w inter , t hen a g roup s ize o f a bout 4 5 h as t o b e a ssumed f or o ccupation b etween S eptember a nd A pril,

a nd t his i s p lausible g iven t he g reater a vailability o f

f ood i n t he h igh c ountry d uring t he e arly M aori p eriod.

4 6

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

T HE C OURSE A ND C ONSEQUENCES O F M OA H UNTING M oa h unting p ersisted l onger i n t he h igh c ountry t han e lsewhere i n N ew Z ealand.

C ontrary t o e arlier v iews t hat i t b egan i n t he 1 5th c entury w hen

c oastal m oa p opulations h ad b ecome d epleted ( Lockerbie, 1 959; S immons, 1 969), t he r ecent r adiocarbon d ates ( above) s how t hat h unting w as u nderway i n t he M acKenzie c ountry b y 8 50 B .P. a nd i n c entral O tago b y 1 00-150 y ears l ater. I n t he f ormer d istrict m oa w ere h unted u ntil a t l east 5 00 B .P. ( Trotter , 1 969 ; M cCulloch & T rotter , 1 975), a nd i n t he l atter u ntil a bout 3 50-400 B .P. ( Simmons, 1 969 ; R itchie, n .d.). I n w estern S outhland t he o nly d ates a re f rom t he T akahe v alley s helter w here i t i s a rgued t hat t he m oa r emains r epresent a k ill i n t he 1 8th c entury ( Duff, 1 956). H owever , w ithin t his l ong p eriod ( almost t he t otal p rehistoric e ra) t he m ain p hase o f m oa h unting s eems t o h ave b een c omparatively b rief. I n t he M acKenzie c ountry i t m ay h ave l asted n o m ore t han 1 50 y ears ( Ambrose , 1 968 , 1 970), f rom a bout 8 50 B .P. t o a bout 7 00 B .P., a nd s imilarly i n c entral O tago , b ut f rom a bout 7 00 B .P. t o a bout 5 50 B .P. T he f ew l ater s ites i n e ach d istrict c ontain o nly v ery s mall q uantities o f m oa b one o r e ggshell f ragments. S ince t he h igh c ountry c arried f ew a lternative g ame r esources, a nd n one c omparable w ith m oa, t he b revity o f t he i ntensive h unting p hase c an b e p lausibly a ttributed t o a r apid d epletion o f t he m oa p opulation . A s t his o ccurred s everal c enturies b efore m inor c limatic f luctuations ( Burrows & G reenland , 1 979), c an h ave h ad a ny s ignificant e ffect u pon m oa h abitats, a nd s ince i t i s u nlikely t hat a ny d eclining e volutionary f itness o f m oa ( McDowall , 1 969), c ould h ave m anifested i tself s o r apidly a cross t he f ull r ange o f g enera , t he c auses o f d epletion m ust l ie i n t he a rrival o f p eople. P redation b y i ntroduced r ats ( Fleming, 1 969), a nd d ogs ( Anderson, 1 981b), m ay h ave b een c ontributing f actors, a nd i ntroduced f owl p est i s a nother p ossibility ( Williams, 1 973), a lthough t here i s n o e vidence o f e ither. D irect o ver-exploitation o f m oa i s v ery l ikely, g iven t heir n aivety t o p redation , t heir p rominence i n t he e arly M aori r esource e nvironment a nd t he i nexperience o f p eople f rom a P olynesian b ackground i n t he s ustainedy ield c ulling o f l arge a nimals. I ndeed i t c an b e a rgued ( Anderson , 1 982b) t hat o ver-exploitation w as, i n s outhern N ew Z ealand a s a w hole , t he m ost d evastating f actor i n t he d epletion o f t he l arge g ame; m oa a nd s eals. B ut i n t he h igh c ountry, e specially i n t he e astern a reas w here m oa h unting w as c oncentrated , a d ifferent a gent o f f aunal d epletion s eems t o h ave b een o f g reater s ignificance. T his w as t he t ransformation o f a f orest-shrublandg rassland m osaic

i nto

a n a lmost

u niform

g rassland

e nvironment

b y

r epeated

f iring. T he h igher v egetation i n t he e astern h igh c ountry w as u nusually v ulnerable t o f ire a nd , b ecause o f i ts s low r egeneration r ates ( 100 y ears f or m ost w oody p lants a nd 2 00 y ears o r m ore t o m aturity f or s ome f orest s pecies), p articularly t o f requently r epeated b urning. T he c limate i s d ry a nd , i n s ummer , h ot a nd w indy ; l itter a ccumulation i s m ore r apid t han i n t he h umid w est o r a long t he c oast, a nd v ery f ew o f t he w oody p lants a re p yrophytic , a s t hey a re i n c omparable r egions o f A ustralia ( Ambrose , 1 968). C onceivably , a s A mbrose ( 1970) h as a rgued f or t he W aitaki g orge a nd M olloy ( 1977) f or t he C ass B asin , t he d estruction o ccurred v ery r apidly , b ut w hether b y e xtensive

4 7

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

c onflagrations o r n umerous e pisodes o f l ocal b urning , t he h igher v egetation s eems t o h ave b een e xtensively d estroyed d uring t he p eriod 7 00-330 B .P. i n e astern c entral O tago ( Anderson, 1 982a) a nd p erhaps e ven e arlier i n t he e astern M acKenzie c ountry ( Ambrose , 1 970). T he l oss o f m oa r esulted i n a m arked c hange i n t he o ccupation a nd s usistence p atterns o f t he h igh c ountry. T he l argest f lightless b irds w ere n ow t he w eka ( Gallirallus a ustralis) o n t he e astern p lains a nd t he t akahe a nd k akapo i n t he w estern b eech f orests. M uch s maller t han m oa a nd m ore w idely d istributed , t he e xploitation o f t hem r equired e ither g reater m obility o r a b roadening o f t he r esource b ase. e vidence a nd h istorical o bservation ,

I n t he e vent, j udging b y t raditional b oth c ourses w ere a dopted. W eka w ere

h unted o n b rief , h ighly m obile , f orays f rom c oastal s ettlements i nto t he e astern h igh c ountry ( no p rehistoric s ites o f w hich h ave y et b een r ecognised), a nd a ll t hree s pecies f rom s mall s easonal s ettlements l ocated b eside t he w estern l akes w here e eling a nd t he g athering o f r oots s upplemented t he f ood s upply ( Anderson , n .d.b.).

C ONCLUSIONS T he h unting o f l arge f lightless b irds t o t he e xtent t hat t hese p rovided t he p rincipal m eans o f s ubsistence i s a n u ncommon p rehistoric a daptation , b ut i t w as d eveloped t o ap eculiarly s pecialised l evel i n t he c ase o f m oa h unting i n s outhern N ew Z ealand , e specially i n t he h igh c ountry. I n t his r egion , w here b irds c omprised t he m ain c omponent o f t he f ood r esource s pectrum f or t he e arly M aori, m oa w ere b y f ar t he m ost i mportant e lement, p roviding m ore t han 9 0% o f t he f lesh r epresented b y t he f aunal r emains i n t he s ites. C ontrary t o e arlier v iews t hat m oa w ere g rassland b irds, i t n ow s eems t hat t hey p referred p odocarp f orest-fringe a nd m ixed s hrubland h abitats. P alaeobotanical a nd o ther e vidence i ndicates t hat t hese o nce e xisted a long t he l ower a nd m iddle s lopes o f t he r anges i n t he e astern h igh c ountry, a nd i t i s i n t hese a reas t hat m oa h unting s ites a re c oncentrated. T he s ites i nclude 4 4 s mall h unting c amps l ocated i n t he o pen a nd u nder r ockshelters,

af ew o f w hich a re f ound a s h igh a s t he e dge o f t he a lpine

g rasslands, a nd 8 l arge o pen s ites i n t he l ower h ill c ountry. A t t he l atter m ost o f t he m oa b utchery a nd p rocessing t ook p lace. T he s ize o f t hese s ites , t he n umber o f m oa b rought t o t hem a nd t he v ariety o f a rtefacts a nd s tructures e vident i n t hem s uggests t hat t hey w ere t he m ain b ases f rom w hich t he h unting c amps w ere t emporarily o ccupied. T here i s l ittle e vidence o f s ettlement s easonality a nd i t m ay n ot h ave b een a s ignificant f actor i n t he o ccupation p eriod o f s ites, e xcept f or h igh a ltitude c amps a nd s ites i n t he g orges w here m oa e ggs w ere g athered. T he e ventual a bandonment o f t he b ase c amps m ay h ave b een c aused l ess b y s easonal f actors t han b y t he l ocal d epletion o f m oa p opulations, a s a ppears t o b e t he c ase i n t he p atterns o f r eturn a t H awksburn. A nother p otentially i mportant f actor i n d etermining t he l ength o f o ccupation a t

t he m ain b ases m ay h ave

b een t he c ondition , a nd f easibility o f t ransporting , p reserved m oa f lesh . M oo h unting b egan m uch e arlier i n t he h igh c ountry t han w as p reviously t hought b ut , t hough i t p ersisted o n a s mall s cale i n t he w est a lmost u ntil t he a rrival o f E uropeans, i t w as c oncentrated i nto t he p eriod 8 50-550 B .P. i n

4 8

A NDERSON :

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

t he e astern h igh c ountry a s aw hole , a nd r an i ts i ntensive p hase m ore b riefly t han t hat i n e ach d istrict. T his s hort, s pecialised, h unting p hase r esulted i n t he v irtual d isappearance o f m oa. D irect o ver-exploitation m ay w ell h ave o ccurred b ut, a t t he s ame t ime, t here w as a w holesale d estruction o f t he p referred m oa h abitats b y r epeated b urning. A fter a bout 4 00-300 B .P. f owling i n t he h igh c ountry w as r educed t o b rief s easonal f orays a fter t hree c omparatively s mall f lightless b irds; t he w eka o n t he e astern p lains a nd t he w eka, t akahe a nd k akapo n ear t he l akes i n t he w est. H igh c ountry m oa h unting w as t hus a n i ntense a nd d estructive e conomic a daptation . I t i s u nlikely t hat i t w as d estructive b y i ntention , i f f or n o o ther r eason t han t hat t he M aori m ust h ave a ppreciated t he d ramatic d epauperation o f r esources w hich w ould e nsue f rom t he e xtinction o f m oa ,

b ut

b oth t he n aive , f lightless m oa a nd t he v egetation u pon w hich i t d epended w ere u ncommonly v ulnerable t o t he s udden i mpact o f e fficient b ut i nexperienced h unters.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS Iw ish t o t hank I an A tkinson, N eville R itchie, R on S carlett a nd I an S mith f or t heir v aluable i nformation a nd a ssistance, i llustrations a nd A nn T rappitt f or t he t yping.

M artin F isher f or t he

R EFERENCES A mbrose W . ( 1968). T he u nimportance o f I sland p rehistory. M ankind 6 , 5 85-593 . A mbrose ,

W .

( 1970)

A rchaeology

g orge, c entral S outh I sland. A nderson , A .J . a n i nterim r eport. 2 2,

a nd

r ock

t he i nland p lains

d rawings

f rom

i n S outh

t he W aitaki

R ecords o f t he C anterbury M useum 8 , 3 83-437.

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4 8-59 . A nderson ,

A .J .

O ld M an R ange.

( 1980).

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N ewsletter o f t he N ew Z ealand A rchaeological A ssociation 2 3 ,

1 69-172. A nderson , A .J. ( 1981a). P urakanui a nd H awksburn , O tago. A ssociation 2 4 ,

6 3-64 .

A nderson , A .J . N ew Z ealand.

A .D .

R adiocarbon d ates f or a rchaic s ites a t N ewsletter o f t he N ew Z ealand A rchaeological

( 1981b).

P re-European h unting d ogs i n t he S outh I sland ,

N ew Z ealand J ournal o f A rchaeology 3 , 1 5-20 .

A nderson , A .J. ( 1982a). 1 000J500 , a ccording t o

H abitat p references o f m oa i n c entral O tago , p alaeobotanical a nd a rchaeological e vidence.

J ournal o f t he R oyal S ociety o f N ew Z ealand , i n p ress. A nderson , A .J . ( 1982b). F aunal d epletion a nd s ubsistence c hange i n t he e arly p rehistory o f s outhern N ew Z ealand. P aper p resented a t t he 5 2nd A NZAAS C ongress, M acQuarie U niversity, A ustralia , M ay 1 982.

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A nderson , A .J. ( n.d.a.). F aunal r emains f rom t he H awksburn m oa-hunting s ite. U npublished m anuscript , A nthropology D epartment, U niversity o f O tago , D unedin. A nderson , A .J.

( n.d.b.).

M aori s ettlement i n t he i nterior o f s outhern

N ew Z ealand f rom t he e arly 1 8th c entury t o t he l ate 1 9th c enturies A .D. U npublished m anuscript, D unedin.

s ite,

A nthropology D epartemnt,

A nderson , A .J. & R itchie , N .A . ( 1981). u pper W akatipu r egion : a p reliminary

U niversity o f O tago,

E xcavations a t t he D art B ridge r eport. N ewsletter o f t he N ew

Z ealand A rchaeological A ssociation 2 4 , 6 -9 . B rown , M . ( 1979). M adagascar r ediscovered :- ah istory f rom e arly t ime t o i ndependence. H amden , C onnecticut: A rchon B ooks. B urrell, J .P. ( 1965). J ournal o f B otany 3 , 3 -16 .

E cology o f L eptospermum i n O tago.

B urrows, C .J. ( 1980a). N aturwissenschaften 6 7 , 1 51153.

D iet

o f

N ew

Z ealand

N ew Z ealand

D inornithiformes.

B urrows, C .J . ( 1980b). S ome e mpirical i nformation c oncerning t he d iet o f m oas. N ew Z ealand J ournal o f E colo u 3 , 1 25-130 . B urrows, C .J . & G reenland , D .E. ( 1979). A n a nalysis o f t he e vidence f or c limatic c hange i n N ew Z ealand i n t he l ast t housand y ears: e vidence f rom d iverse n atural p henomena a nd f rom i nstrumental r ecords.

J ournal o f t he

R oyal S ociety o f N ew Z ealand 9 , 3 21-372. B urrows, C .J., M cCulloch , B ., & T rotter , M .M . ( 1981). T he d iet o f m oas b ased o n g izzard c ontents s amples f rom P yramid V alley , N orth C anterbury , a nd S caifes L agoon , L ake W änaka, O tago. 3 36. C arty, V .L . f rom H awksburn. D unedin.

w ith

R ecords o f t he C anterbury M useum 9 , 3 09-

( 1981). L ithic a nalysis a nd a ctivity a reas: ac ase s tudy U npublished B .A . H ons d issertation , U niversitry o f O tago ,

D avies, S .J.J .F. ( 1976). T he n atural h istory o f t he e mu i n c omparison t hat o f o ther r arities. I n ( H.J. F rith & J .H. C alaby, E ds.)

P roceedings o f t he 1 6th I nternational O rnithological C onference. A ustralian A cademy o f S cience, p p. 1 09120 . D uff, W ellington : F alla,

R .S.

( 1956).

C anberra:

T he Moa-hunter P eriod o f M aori C ulture.

T he G overnment P rinter. R .A.

( 1962).

T he

m oa,

z oological

a nd

a rchaeological.

N ewsletter o f t he N ew Z ealand A rchaeological A ssociation 5 , 1 89191. F leming, C .A . G eorge,

P .

( 1969). ( 1937).

t he P olynesian S ociety 4 6 ,

R ats a nd m oa e xtinction. N otornis 1 6, 2 10-211. A M aori

S tone D agger f rom t he

1 23-129 .

5 0

N evis.

J ournal o f

A NDERSON : G reenwood,

R .M .

P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND &A tkinson ,

I .A .E.

( 1977).

E volution o f d ivaricating

p lants i n N ew Z ealand i n r elation t o m oa b rowsing. Z ealand E cological S ociety 2 4 , 2 1-33 .

P roceedings o f t he N ew

H amel, G .E. ( 1977). P rehistoric M an a nd h is E nvironment i n t he C atlins, N ew Z ealand. U npublished P hD t hesis, U niversity o f O tago. H amel, G .E. ( 1979). E d.) B irds o f aF eather. S eries 6 2, 6 1-66 .

T he b reeding e cology o f m oas. I n A .J . A nderson , B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational

H utton , F .W . ( 1891). T he M aas o f N ew Z ealand. Z ealand I nstitute 2 4 , 9 3172.

T ransactions o f t he N ew

L eslie , D .M . &M cGlone , M .S. ( 1973). R elict p eriglacial l andforms a t C lark's j unction , O tago. N ew Z ealand J ournal o f S cience 1 4 , 1 057-1081. L ockerbie , L . Z ealand. I n ( J .D. S eas.

N ew P lymouth :

M ark. 5 24-531.

A .F.

( 1959). F rom M oa-hunter t o C lassic M aori i n s outhern N ew F reeman & W .R . G eddes, E ds.) A nthropology i n t he S outh A very a nd S on , p p. 7 5110 .

( 1974).

O ld M an R ange.

N ew Z ealand's N ature H eritage 2 ,

M cCulloch, B . & T rotter, M .M. ( 1975). T he r adiocarbon d ates f or S outh I sland m oa-hunter s ites. Z ealand A rchaeological A ssociation 1 8 , 2 -17. M cDowall, R .M. ( 1969). b irds. T uatara 1 7, 1 -12.

f irst t wenty y ears: N ewsletter o f t he N ew

E xtinction a nd e ndemism i n N ew Z ealand l and

M cGlone , M .S. & W ebb , C .J . e volution o f d ivaricating p lants.

( 1981). S elective f orces i nfluencing t he N ew Z ealand J ournal o f E cology 4 , 2 0-28.

M olloy, B .P.J . ( 1969). R ecent h istory o f t he v egetation I n ( G .A . K nox , E d.) T he N atural H istory o f C anterbury. W ellington ; A .H . &A .W. R eed , p p. 3 40-360 . M olloy, B .P.J. 8 1977). T he f ire h istory. I n ( C.J. B urrows, E d.) C ass: H istory a nd S cience i n t he C ass D istrict, C anterbury , N ew Z ealand. N ew Z ealand : D epartment o f B otany, U niversity o f C anterbury, p p. 1 57170 . M olloy,

B .P.J .,

B urrows ,

C .J .,

C ox ,

J .E .,

J ohnston ,

( 1963). D istribution o f s ubfossil f orest r emains , Z ealand. N ew Z ealand J ournal o f B otany 1 , 6 8-77. M un son ,

W .D .

( 1871).

N otes o n m oa r emains.

J .A .

& W ardle ,

P .

e astern S outh I sland , N ew

T ransactions o f t he N ew

Z ealand I nstitute 4 , 1 20124 . R itchie , N .A . ( n .d.). T he e xcavation o f a M aori c amp s ite , I talian C reek, C entral O tago. U npublished m anuscript, N ew Z ealand H istoric P laces T rust.

5 1

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P REHISTORIC H UNTING O F M OA I N N EW Z EALAND

R itchie , N .A . &H arrison , A .P. ( 1981). C lutha V alley A rchaeology 1 9801 981: a n i nterim r eport. N ewsletter o f t he N ew Z ealand A rchaeological A ssociation 2 4 , 9 7105. S carlett , R .J. B irds o f a F eather. 6 2,

( 1979). A vifauna a nd m an . I n ( A .J . A nderson , E d.) B ritish A rchaeological R eports, I nternational S eries

7 5-90 .

S immons, D .R. ( 1969). E conomic c hange i n N ew Z ealand p rehistory. J ournal o f t he P olynesian S ociety 4 3 , 2 93 . S kinner , J .D . &T eviotdale , D . o f q uartzite a nd s imilar m aterials m outh .

( 1927).

A c lassification o f i mplements

f rom t he m oa-hunter c amp

J ournal o f t he P olynesian S ociety 3 6 ,

a t

S hag r iver

1 80193.

S mith , I .W .G . ( n.d.). E stimated m eat m anuscript, U niversity o f O tago.

w eights

o f

m oa.

U npublished

T eviotdale , D . ( 1939). E xcavation o f am oa-hunter c amp n ear t he m outh o f t he W aitaki r iiver. J ournal o f t he P olynesian S ociety 4 8 , 1 67185. T homas, S . &C orden , M . ( 1977). M etric t ables o f c omposition o f A ustralian f oods. C anberra : A ustralian G overnment P ublishing S ervice. T horburn , D .F. ( 1974). T he p alynology o f L ake H ayes, C entral O tago , N ew Z ealand. U npublished M .Sc. t hesis, U niversity o f C anterbury. T rotter , M .M . ( 1969). L ake P ukaki S urvey. D epartment p ublication , C anterbury M useum . T rotter ,

M .M .

( 1970).

a rea, S outh I sland. T rotter , Z ealand.

M .M .

A uckland :

T uller ,

S .E.

N ew Z ealand. W ardle , t rees.

A rchaeological

i nvestigations

A rchaeology

i n t he A viemore

R ecords o f t he C anterbury M useum 8 , 4 39-453 . & M cCulloch ,

B .

( 1981).

P rehistoric r ock a rt i n N ew

L ongman P aul. ( 1977).

S ummer a nd w inter p atterns o f h uman c limate i n

N ew Z ealand G eographer 3 3 , P .

N ew Z ealand:

( 1963).

4 14 .

G rowth h abits o f N ew Z ealand s ubalpine s hrubs a nd

N ew Z ealand J ournal o f B otany 1 , 1 8-47.

W ells, J .A. ( 1972). E cology o f P odocarpus h allii i n C entral O tago , N ew Z ealand. N ew Z ealand J ournal O f B otany 1 0 , 3 99-426. W hite , a boriginal

T .E.

( 1955).

p eoples, N os.

W illiams,

G .R .

O bservations o n t he b utchering t echniques o f s ome 7 ,8 ,9.

( 1973).

H istory o f N ew Z ealand.

A m erican A ntiquity 2 1,

B irds.

I n

( G.R .

1 70178 .

W illiams,

E d.)

T he N atural

W ellington : A .H. & A .W . R eed, p p. 3 04-333.

5 2

T HE S TUDY O F C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S IIES

P riscilla F . T urnbull F ield M useum o f N atural H istory C hicago , I llinois , U .S .A .

T his p aper d escribes a c ollection o f s hells f rom t he B ronze-age s ite o f A llandino i n P akistan . K arachi.

T he s ite l ies a pproximately 2 5 m iles n ortheast

o f

A llandino w as e xcavated d uring t he s ummer o f 1 974, u nder t he

d irection o f D r. W alter A . F airservis, Am erican M useum o f N atural H istory a nd V assar C ollege, w ith t he a ctive c ooperation o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology , M inistry o f E ducation , G overn m ent o f P akistan . A s t he p aleozoologist, I w as r esponsible f or e xcavating , p reserving , i dentifying a nd s tudying t he f aunal r emains. A llandino i s a n H arappan s ite , d ated b etween 3 980 a nd 3 690 y ears b efore p resent. I t i s a s mall v illage s ite t hat w as p erhaps o ccupied b y n o m ore t han a s ingle e xtended f amily ( Fairservis, 1 976); t he e xcavation w as l imited t o o ne m eter i n d epth o ver t he e ntire a rea, w ith a d eep s ounding i n t he n ortheast c orner. T he s hells a re n ot f rom l arge m idden a ccumulations , s uch a s

t hose

d escribed

t hroughout t he s ite.

b y M eighan

( 1969),

b ut

w ere

r andomly

d istributed

T hey o ccurred f rom 2 0 t o 1 20 c m i n d epth,

i n t he

f illing b etween w alls, i n r ooms , i n d rains a nd u nder l iving f loors. S ome h ad b een g athered a s l ive a nimals, o thers h ad b een p icked u p a s d ead s hells a nd b rought t o t he s ite f or a rtifactual u se. T he e nvironments o f t he l iving m olluscs i ncluded t errestrial, m arsh a nd m angrove, f resh w ater , t ide l ine a nd t he s ea. T able I i s as ystematic l isting o f t he s pecies f ound, a nd T able I I s ummarizes t heir b iotopes. D r.

A lan

S olem ,

C urator

o f

I nvertebrates

a t

F ield M useum ,

a nd C arol

J ones, t hen A ssistant C urator o f I nvertebrates, i dentified t he g astropods a nd p elecypods. W ith s ome s urprise, i t w as d iscovered t hat 3 0 s pecies, 2 6 g enera a nd 2 0 f aniles w ere r epresented. A mong ( 1931),

t he c lassic w orks

o n t he

w ho d escribed t he f aunal

I ndus V alley

r emains

i s

t hat

b y S ewell & G uha

f rom M ohenjo-daro.

T hey

l isted

t hree s pecies o f p elecypods a nd n ine s pecies o f g astropods, s ome q uite a bundant i n t his v ery l arge e xcavation . T he a uthors n oted u ses t o w hich t he s hells w er e p ut i n m aking j ewelry, i nlay, t oys a nd u tensils ( Sewell & G uha , 1 931, p l. C LVI). T he s pecimens o f m arine s hells w ould h ave h ad t o b e i mported f rom t he c oast a t K arachi o r e ven f urther s outheast o r s outhwest. F rom t he o ther m ajor H arappan c ity, H arappa i tself , P rashad ( 1936) i dentified f our s pecies. M eadow ( 1979) g ave p reliminary i dentification o f s even s pecies f rom B alakot, a s ite i n . , a . • s B ela d istrict, c a. 4 5 m iles n orth-northw est o f

K arächiand h e

i ndica Led t hat o ther g enera w ere a lso p resent.

5 3

I n

T URNBULL :

C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES

1 977 , D ales & K enoyer d escribed t he s hell b angle i ndustry o f t he s ame s ite , B alakot, w hich c entered o n t he p elecypod C allista ( = M eretrix) c asti, a l ocal f orm , a nd t o a l esser e xtent o n t he g astropod T urbinella s pp ., w hich h ad t o b e i mported. N o e vidence f or a b angle i ndustry w as f ound a t A llandino,

a t l east o f a ny l arge s cale,

t hough n o d oubt s ome w ere m ade

l ocally. I n 1 979 D urante s tudied a nd c ompared t he m alacofaunas o f B alakot, S hahr-i S okhta a nd T epe Y ahya.. C urrently , M ark K enoyer i s s tudying s hell c ollections , m odern a nd a ncient , f rom t he e ntire a rea o f n orthwest I ndia , P akistan a nd t he a djacent c oastal r egions. M ost o f t he g roups h e h as l isted f rom M ohenjo-daro a nd t he c oast a t K arachi ( Kenoyer, p ers.comm .) a re r epresented a t A llandino.

T ABLE 1 :

F amilies, g enera a nd s pecies o f m olluscs f rom A llandino

P hylum M ollusca C lass G astropoda S ubclass P rosobranchia F am ily T urbinidae :

T urbo c oronatus ( Gmelin), t urban s hells , F igure 1 , A ,B

N eritidae :

N erita a lbicilla L .; N . ? undata

T hiaridae:

( L.), n erites , F igure 1 , G , H M elanoides t uberculata ( Muller), t hiara

s nails, F igure 3 , E , F P otamididae : T erebralia p alustris ( L.), r iver h orn s hells, F igure 1 , E ,F S trombidae :

S trombus t ricornis H umphrey, c onchs, F igure 1 , C .D

N aticidae:

P olinices m ammilla ( L.), m oon s hells,

C ypraeidae :

F igure 1 , I ,J M äuritia g rayana S childer ;

F icidae : M uricidae :

E rosaria o cellata

( L.), c owries, F igure 1 , K -P F icus v ariegatus R öding, f ig s hells, F igure 2 , A ,B. T hais c arinifera L amarck, r ock s hells, F igure 2 , E ,F.

B uccinidae : O lividae : V asidae :

C hicoreus r amosus ( L.), c onch , F igure 3 , A ,B. B abylonia s pirata ( L.) , w helks, F igure 2 , C ,D O liva v idua R öding ; 0 . a nnulata G melin , o live s hells , F igure 2 , I -L T urbinella p yrum o btusa L amarck, v ase s hells, F igure 3 , C ,D

M arginellidae : i ndet. g en . e t s p., m argin s hells, F igure 3 , G ,H S ubclass P ulmonata F amily E llobiidae :

E llobium a urisjudae ( L .), e ar s hells, F igure 2 , G ,H

5 4

T URNBULL :

T ABLE 1 :

C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES

( continued) F amily P lanorbidae:

I ndoplanorbis e xustus ( Deshayes), r am 's h orn s hells, F igure 3 , I , J

F amily S ubulinidae :

Z ootecus i nsularis c hion ( Pfeiffer), F igure 2 , M , N ; L amellaxis g racilis ( Hutton), l and s nails, F igure 2 , 0 , P

C lass P elecyoda F amily A rcidae :

A rca g ranosa L . a rk s hells, F igure 4 , A , B S capharca i naequivalvis ( Bruguiere), F igure 4 , C , D

O streidae :

O strea c renulif e ra S owerby, o ysters , F igure 4 , E , F

V eneridae :

M arcia r ecens ( Chemnitz), D osina c eylonica D unker ; C allista c f. e urycina ( Linnaeus) , V enus c lams, F igure 5 , C -H

U nionidae:

P arreysia s p.; L amellidens t estudinarius ( Spengler), f resh w ater m ussels, F igure 5 , A ,B ,I ,J

T ABLE 2 :

S ummary o f e nvironmental d ata

T errestrial f orms F amily S ubulinidae:

Z ootecus i nsularis c hion L amellaxis g racilis

F resh w ater T hiaridae:

Melanoldes t uberculata

P lanorbidae: U nionidae :

I ndoplanorbis e xustus P arreysia s p. L amellidens t estudinarius

S wamp , m ud, m angrove, s alt m arsh E llobiidae: P lanorbidae: T hiaridae : P otamiidae :

E llobium a urisjudae I ndoplanorbis e xustus M elanoides t uberculata T erebralia p alustris

5 5

T URNBULL :

C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES

T ABLE 2 c ontd. M arine n ear-shore , s and f lats, m ud N aticidae :

P olinices p yriformis, P . m anilla

O liv idae :

O liva s p .

R ocky s urfaces b etween t ide m arks N eritidae :

N erita a lbicilla, N . u ndata

M uricidae:

T hais c arinif e ra C hicoreus r amosus

M arginellidae S hallow , l ow t ide l ine S trombidae :

S trombus t ricornis

V asidae :

T urbinella p yrum o btusa

A rcidae : O streidae :

A rca g ranosa , S capharca i naequivalvis O strea c renulifera

B elow l ow t ide m ark T urbinidae :

T urbo c oronatus

C ypraeidae : F icidae: B uccinidae :

M auritia g rayana ; E rosaria o cellata F icus v ariegatus B abylonia s pirata

V eneridae:

M arcia r ecens;

D osinia c eylonica ;

C allista

e urycina

1 935 ;

A dditional d etails o n m orphology o f t he s hells m ay b e f ound i n W enz, 1 944 ; a nd Z ilch , 1 960 . T he

l and

s nails,

L amellaxis

a nd

Z ootecus,

l ived

a mong

t he

T hiele ,

r oots

a nd

b asal g rowth o f v egetation i n a nd a round t he v illage a nd f ields. T oo s mall t o b e a f ood s ource , t hey s imply c o-existed w ith m an'. T he f resh-water s pecies, M elanoides t uberculata i s p erhaps a n e dible s nail, c arries t he p arasitic r iver f luke.

b ut i t a lso

E dible m olluscs m ust h ave b een a mong t he m ost i mportant i n t he e conomy o f t he I ndus V alley o r o ther B ronze A ge s ites ( i.e., G autier, 1 978). L amillidens a nd P arreysia , b oth e dible f resh-water m ussels, a lso p ossess a b rilliant i nternal n acre , u seful a s i nlay a nd i n o rnaments. P rashad ( 1936) n oted t he u se o f L amellidans f or p eeling g reen m angoes. T erebralia, r iver h orn s hells, o ccur i n e stuarine m ud f lats , s alt m arshes a nd b rackish w ater g enerally a nd w ould h ave b een f ound i n t he l ower r eaches o f t he M alir R iver a djacent t o A llandino b ut n ow d ry e xcept d uring f loodtime.

1

U nlike t he s pecimens o f H elix s alamonica s o u seful t o t he i nhabitants

t hat P ersian h illside ( Reed ,

1 962).

5 6

o f

T URNBULL :

C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES

M arine b ivalves s uch a s t he e dible o ysters a nd c lams w ould h ave b een e aten a long t he c oast w here f ound a nd t he s hells r eturned t o t he v illage f or f urther u se. C onch s hells w ere a nd a re t oday u seful f or m aking b angles a s s everal c an b e m anufactured f rom e ach s hell ( e.g., C allista). N o a ccumulation o f b angles w as d iscovered a t a ny f ind-spot, t hough m any b roken a nd f ragmentary b angles w ere p resent. T he c owries m ake p retty b eads a nd t oggles. T he m urex T hais c arinifera c ontains a p urple d ye, p rized b y m any a ncient p eople. H owever, a s R eese ( 1982) p oints o ut, " vast n umbers w ere n eeded f or d yeing : o ne s hell p roduces o nly 0 .1 m g o f d ye a nd 1 2,000 s hells p roduce o nly 1 .5g , e nough f or t he t rim o f as ingle g arment".

3 , A ,

S till o ther s hells w ere u seful a s u tensils - s coops a nd l adles ( Figure B ). N ote t he c ut a nd s moothed e dges o n t he s pecimen o f C hicoreus h ere

q uite l ike t he e xample f igured b y S ewell & G uha ( 1931,

p l. C LVI).

S ome

s hells w ere k ept a s t hey a re t oday f or t heir i ntrinsic b eauty. R aikes

( 1964 ,

1 965) h as s uggested c onvincingly t hat t he f lood-plain o f

t he I ndus i n t he v icinity j ust s outh o f A nri w as u plifted d ue t o s trike-slip f aulting a nd l inear a nd v olcanic m ud e xtrusion ( Snead, 1 964). T herefore , t he m outh o f t he I ndus w ould h ave b een c loser t o A llandino ; e stuarine w ater m ay w ell h ave b een l ocal. A ll o f t he s pecimens o f m olluscs w ould h ave b een o btainable i n t he a rea; n one w as m ore t han a f ew h ours j ourney f rom t he s ite. R ainfall a nd c limate w ere e ssentially t he s ame a s t hose p revailing t oday . A s t o t he n umbers o f s hells p resent, i t i s n ot p ossible t o b e e xact , o r t o a pproach t he e stimates i n w orks s uch a s V oight, 1 975. O nly a s mall p roportion o f t he f auna w as p ermitted t o b e b rought o ut o f t he c ountry f or s tudy. A n a ttempt w as m ade t o b ring a ll i dentifiable s hell a nd e very t axon r epresented. T he l and s nail Z ootecus i s r epresented b y d ozens o f s pecimens. T hese a re s mall , l ight g astropods b ut w ere c oncentrated i n l arge n umbers b y r ivulets o f w ater r unning d own t he d rains w hich w ere c logged w ith c attle b ones t hat a cted a s s tops f or t he s hells. A ll t he o ther s hells a re r epresented b y o ne t o f ourteen s pecimens. b roken ,

M any t imes t hese n umbers o f

f ragmentary s hells a re s tored i n t he D epartment

o f

A rchaeology

i n

K arachi.

C ONCLUSIONS F rom c onsideration o f t his c ollection o f s hells, i t i s a pparent t hat t hese B ronze A ge p eople h ad a f ar m ore v aried d iet a vailable t han n eat f rom d omestic a nd w ild m ammals a nd c rop f oods;

t hey v alued s ea f ood i n s everal

f orms, p articularly m olluscs. E ustatic c onditions w ere s uch t hat t he c oast l ine w as c loser t o t he v illage t han i t i s t oday. T he l ower r eaches o f t he M alir R iver w ere b rackish , s uitable f or s alt m arsh a nd m angrove. E ven t he p resent d ay d istance t o t he s ea f rom A llandino i s n ot t oo f ar f or f ishermen t o v enture a nd t heir e fforts w ere w ell r ewarded.

K nowledge a bout t he s hells

g ives a nother i nsight i nto t he a ctivities o f a p eople , e ven t hough , a s i n t he c ase p resented h ere , n o d irect e vidence o f b angle-making w as f ound. T he B ronze-age H arrapans m ade u se , i n a n i mpressive w ay, o f a ll t he r aw m aterials a t h and i n t heir e nvironment - w ood, s tone, c lay , s hell, b one, a nd m etal.

5 7

T URNBULL :

F IGURE

1 :

A ,B

C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES

T urbo c oronatus

H umphrey;

E ,F

( Gmelin);

C ,D S trombus

T erebralia p alustris

c f.

( L.);

t ricornis

G ,H

N erita

a lbicilla; I ,J. P olinices m ämilla; K ,N E rosaria o cellata ( L.); 0 ,P M auritia g rayana S childer. N ote: S cales i n a ll F igures = o ne c m .

F IGURE 2 :

A ,B

F icus v ariegatus

E ,F

T hais

( Cymia)

a urisjudiae;

I ,J

a nnulata G melin ; 0 ,P

F IGURE 3 :

F IGURE 4 :

C ,D

O liva v idua

M ,N

C ,D

I ,J

I ndoplanorbis e xustus ( Deshayes).

A ,B

E ,F

E ,F

c eylonica D unker ;

c f.

( Pfeiffer);

( Müller);

C ,D

G ,H

i ndet.

S capharca

m ärginellid ;

i naequivalvis

O strea cn enulifena S owerby.

L amellidens

e rycina ( L.);

L .;

E llobium O lvia

T urbinella p yrum o btusa L amarck ;

M elanoides t uberculata

g ranosa

K ,L

( Hutton).

E ,F

A rca

G ,H

Röding;

Z ootecus i nsularis c hion

A ,B C hicoreus r amosus L .;

A ,B

B abylonia s pirata ( L.);

L amarck;

L amellaxis ( Allopeas) g racilis

( Bnaguiere)

F IGURE 5 :

R öding;

c arinifera

t estudinarius M arcia c f. I ,J

( Spengler);

r ecens

P arreysia s p.

5 8

C ,D

( Chemnitz);

C allista c f. G ,H

D osinia

4

1 1 1 1 1. 1 . 1.

1 1.•

F or d eta ils s ee p age

5 9

5 8

S

mo m mor m omm e

I

F IGURE 2 :

F or d etails s ee p age

6 0

5 8

I

G

H 6 1

F or d eta ils s ee p age58

F IGURE 4 :

6 2

F or d etails s ee p age 5 8

F IGURE 5 :

63

F or d eta ils s ee p age 58

T URNBULL :

C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I n a ddition t o D r.

S olem a nd C .

J ones,

w ho i dentified t he m olluscs,

I

t hank R on T esta , p hotographer a t F ield M useum , f or p roducing a ll p hotographs; J . M . K enoyer ( Berkeley) f or c ritical c omments o n t he f auna; C larita N unez o f F ield M useum f or t yping t he m anuscript, Z bigniew J astrebski, s enior s cientific i llustrator , a nd m y h usband, W illiam D . T urnbull f or h elp a nd a dvice w ith t he f igures.

R EFERENCES D ales, G .F. & K enoyer, J .M. P akistan. E xpedition 1 9 , 1 318 .

( 1977).

S hell w orking a t

B alakot,

D urante , S . ( 1979). M arine s hells f rom B alakot, S hahr-i S okhta a nd T epe Y ayha : t heir s ignificance f or t rade a nd t echnology i n a ncient I ndoI ran. S outh A sian A rchaeology, 1 . N aples: I nstituto O rientale S eminario d e S tudi A siatici, p p. 3 17-342.

U niversitario

F airbridge , R .W . ( 1976). E ffects o f H olocene c limatic c hange o n s ome t ropical g eomorphic p rocesses. Q uaternary R esearch 6 , 5 29-556 . F airservis,

W .A.

i nscribed m aterial.

( 1976).

E xcavations a t A llandino,

P apers o f t he A llandine e xpedition ,

1 ,

S eals a nd

A merican M useum o f

N atural H istory. G autier ,

A .

( 1978).

F ouilles d e T ell e d-Der. M eadow ,

R .H.

N otes s ur q uelques M ollusques e n P rovenance d es P rogress R eport ( 1),

( 1979).

P rehistoric

c onsideration o f t he f aunal r emains.

1 91-194 , L euven .

s ubsistence

a t

B alakot:

i nitial

S outh A sian A rcheaology 1 , 2 75-315 .

M eighan , C . ( 1969). M olluscs a s f ood r emains i n a rchaeological s ites. I n ( D.R . B rothwell & E .s. H iggs, E ds.) S cience i n A rchaeology, L ondon : T hames &H udson , p p . 4 15-422. P rashad,

B .

( 1936).

A rchaeological S urvey R aikes,

R .L.

Animal

I ndia , 5 1,

( 1964).

r emains

f rom

H arappa.

M emoirs

1 -62, P ls. I -VII .

T he e nd o f t he a ncient c ities o f t he I ndus.

A merican A nthropologist, 6 6 , 2 84-299 . R aikes, R .L . R eed ,

C .A .

( 1965). ( 1962).

P eabody M useum) 6 6, R eese ,

D .

T he M ohenjo-Daro f loods. A ntiquity 3 9 , S nails

o n

a P ersian

h illside.

1 96-302.

P ostilla

( Yale

1 -23 .

( 1982).

T he e ast M editerranean s hell p urple-dye i ndustry.

A bstract o f p aper p resented a t a nnual m eeting o f A SOR . S ewell, M arshall, P robsthain

R .B.S.

E d.)

&G uha,

B .S.

( 1931).

•Z oological r emains.

M ohenjo-daro a nd t he I ndus c ivilization.

p p. 6 49-673 .

6 4

L ondon:

I n ( J. A rthur

T UR IeULL :

C LAMS A ND S NAILS F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES

S nead , R . ( 1964). A ctive m ud v olcanoes o f B aluchistan. G eographical R eview 5 4 , 5 46-560 . T hiele , J ena :

J .

( 1935).

H andbuch d er s ystematischen W eichtierkunde 1 & 2 .

K ampfe. V oight,

E .A .

( 1975).

s ites: d ietary p references, p arallels. I n ( A. C lason, E lsevier , p p. 8 7-98 . W enz, W . Z ilch , A . 1,

W est P akistan

( 1944). ( 1960).

S tudies o f m arine m olluscs f rom a rchaeological e nvironmental r econstructions a nd e thnological E d.) A rchaeozoological S tudies. A msterdam :

G astropoda.

H andbuch d er P aläozoologie 6 ,

G astropoda :

E uthynerua.

1 435-2111.

6 5

1 -6.

H andbuch d er P aläozoologie

S EASONALITY O F S HELL C OLLECTING ,

D ETERMINED B Y O XYGEN I SOTOPE A NALYSIS

O F M ARINE S HELLS F ROM A STURIAN S ITES I N C ANTABRIA .

M argaret R . D eith T he G odwin L aboratory , F ree S chool L ane , C ambridge.

T he t raditional s ettlement m odel f or h unter-gatherer s ocieties, o f c omplementary, b ased

o n

t he

s easonally o ccupied s ites w ithin a n a nnual t erritory , am odel s ettlement

p atterns

o f

m odern h unter-gatherers

i n

r elatively

m arginal a reas, i s b eginning t o b e f ound i nadequate f or s ome o f t he r esourcer ich z ones o f t he W estern E uropean M esolithic. R ow ley-Conwy ( 1981), f or e xample , a rgues f or y ear-round o ccupation o f t he D anish E rtebSlle s ites , d oes C lark ( 1983) f or t he A sturian s ites o f C antabria. I f s ites w ere b eing u sed t hroughout t he y ear , o f r esources s uch a s m arine m olluscs,

a s

t he s easonal e xploitation

w hich a re a vailable a t a ll t imes,

c an

t ell m uch a bout t he a nnual e conomy a nd i ts s easonally f luctuating p eriods o f p lenty a nd o f h ardship . T his p aper e xamines t he e vidence o f s easonality f ound i n t he m arine m olluscs f rom A sturian s ites i n C antabria a nd s uggests p ossible r elationships b etween t he s easons o f s hellfish c ollection a nd o f s ite o ccupation . B y t he t ime o f t he A sturian o ccupation

( 8650 t o 6 800 B .P.),

t he n orth

S panish p lain h ad c ontracted t o a pproximately i ts p resent w idth . T he a rea i s r iddled w ith l imestone c aves w hich h ad p rovided s helter f rom t he M ousterian o nwards a nd w hich w ere s till f ocal p oints f or s ettlement i n t he A sturian , a lthough t he m ain o ccupation i s t hought t o h ave b een o utside t he c aves b y t his t ime ( Clark , 1 983). As teady i ncrease i n t he n umber o f s ites t hrough t ime c ulminated i n c lusters o f A sturian s ites s haring t he s ame t erritories ( as d efined b y t heir t wo-hour l imits) ( Vita-Finzi & H iggs,

1 970).

C lark ( 1983) h as p ut f orward c onvincing a rguments f or y ear-round s ettlement i n t his a rea, w ith s mall s pecialized h unting s ites i n t he f oothills f or i bex , p robably u sed i n w inter w hen t hese a nimals a re a t l ower a ltitudes. T he m odel i s b ased o n t he r ichness o f r esource z ones w ithin e ach s ite t erritory a nd t he u niformity b etween t erritories. E ach c ontained a v ariety o f e cological z ones: w oodland, e stuary, s eashore a nd m ountain. T here i s n o s ignificant v ariation b etween s ite t erritories t o s uggest a ny k ind o f b inary s ystem . T he h omogeneous r emains f rom t he s ites s upport t he h ypothesis t hat t hey w ere a ll u sed i n e ssentially t he s ame w ay. A nalyses h ave b een m ade o f s hells f rom t hree s ites: a nd M äzaculos, w hich i s a lso k now a s L a F ranca ( Figure 1 ).

6 7

P enicial,

L a R iera

0

km

1 0

L and a bove 2 00 m

F IGURE

1 :

M ap o f A stur ian

s ites

•

i n C antabr ia ,

t hree s ites a nd t he t opography o f t he a rea .

6 8

S he l l m idden

s how ing t he p osition

o f t he

D EITH :

S EASONALITY O F S HELL C OLLECTING D ETERMINED B Y O XYGEN I SOTOPE A NALYSIS

M ARINE E VIDENCE . T he m arine m olluscs a re a n i mportant c lass o f d ata a t e ach s ite a nd a re d ominated

b y

t hree

s pecies,

t wo s pecies

o f

l impet,

P atella v ulgata L .

a nd

P atella i ntermedia J effreys, a nd t he t opshell, M onodonta l ineata ( da C osta). T he s hells o f m arine m olluscs a re a ffected b y c hanges i n t he e nvironment i n a n umber o f w ays: i n t heir c hemical c omposition, m icrostructure ( including c rystal s ize a nd i ncremental g rowth) a nd o xygen i sotope r atios. E ach o f t hese a ttributes c an b e s tudied b y a n a ppropriate t echnique w hich p ermits t he r econstruction o f t he t ype o f e nvironment d uring t he t ime w hen t he s hell m aterial w as d eposited. N o s ingle t echnique c an , h owever , b e u sed e ffectively o n a ll s pecies i ndiscriminately. T he d evelopment o f a v ariety o f a pproaches i s e ssential i f t he m aximum a mount o f s easonal a nd o ther e nvironmental i nformation i s t o b e o btained. T he

t wo s pecies o f l impet

u nsuitable p rone

t o

f or

i n t hese d eposits h ave,

i sotope a nalysis.

r ecrystallization

b ut

N ot t he

o nly

m odern

a re

t he

c ontrols

i n f act,

b een f ound

a rchaeological p roduce

s hells

a mbiguous

a nd

o ften m isleading r esults, f or a v ariety o f r easons. T he t hird s pecies, t he t opshell, M onodonta l ineata , h as t herefore b een s elected a s t he s ubject o f t his e xamination . I t g rows a ll t he y ear r ound o n t his c oast, a t ar ate w hich i s f ast e nough f or s amples t o b e t aken a t r oughly 2 mm i ntervals f rom t he g rowing e dge t o g ive a d etailed , t emperature—determined c urve o f i sotopic r atios.

T HE T EMPERATURE F ACTOR . T wo f actors d etermine t he r atio o f

1 6

ot o

1 8

0i n c alcium c arbonate , t he

i sotopic r atio o f t he w ater i n w hich i t w as d eposited a nd t he t emperature o f t he w ater. I f t he d elta v alue i .e. t he d eviation o f t he r atio i n t he s ample f rom t hat i n a n a ccepted s tandard , P DB , e xpressed i n p arts p er t housand , i s t o b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f t emperature , t he f irst v ariable m ust c onstant; t his t echnique i s t herefore r estricted t o m arine s hells a nd u nsuitable f or e stuarine f orms.

% o b e i s

C omparison o f t he t wo g raphs i n F igure 2 , o ne o f m odern s ea t emperatures a nd t he o ther a n i sotopic p rofile o f a m odern s hell, s hows t he c lose r elationship b etween t he t wo. T he d otted l ine i s o f m ean m onthly s ea t emperatures i n i nshore w aters o ff n orthern S pain . V alues f or F ebruary a nd O ctober h ave b een e stimated b ecause n o d ata a re a vailable f or t hese m onths. T he m ean v alues m ask r anges o f a round 4°C i n t he s ummer m onths a nd 2°C i n t he w inter . T hese f luctuations , e specially i n t he h eight o f s ummer , a ccount f or s ome o f t he i ntraseasonal v ariations i n t he i sotopic p rofile o f t he s hell ( which i s s hown b y a c ontinuous l ine).

V ariations o f 0 .2%o i n d elta v alue

a re e quivalent t o c hanges o f 1°C , t he l ighter v alues b eing p roduced b y h igher t emperatures. T he d ifference i n g rowth r ate b etween s ummer a nd w inter e merges c learly, t he c rowding t ogether o f t he s ummer s amples i llustrating h ow r apidly t he s hell w as g rowing. T he f ull r ange o f d elta v alues c overs e quivalent t o as easonal t emperature r ange o f 1 2 °.

6 9

L L

( N C N

C N

C N

—

T-

C O

1 —

C N

70

1 . ` `

0

M o n d o n t a s h e l .

F I G U R E 2 :

i s o t o p i c v a l u e s t h r o u g h a




C . )

a l C I S A G . )

t o. o

„ h a c e 0 0 0 , z

A l m

c n A c d

E l 1 0 s h a l o w

1 : 3

S HACKLETON :

A N A PPROACH T O D ETERMINING P REHISTORIC S HELLFISH C OLLECTING P ATTERNS

s hown o ccupation f rom ( approximately) 2 2,000 t o 5 ,000 B P.

T his l engthy

s equence s pans a w ide r ange o f s ea-level s tands , f rom t he l ow a t t he t ime o f t he l ast g lacial t o a l evel n ot m uch l ower t han t oday a t t he e nd o f t he N eolithic. T he n aps o f r econstructed s horelines a nd b each t ypes p resented h ere ( Figures 2 -4) w ere d rafted b y P rofessor T . v an A ndel u sing d ata f rom s ea-level r ise c urves a nd c orrections f or i sostatic a nd t ectonic m ovements a s p resented b y v an A ndel & S hackleton ( 1982), a s w ell a s d ata r egarding t he n ature o f t he s ea b ed , a nd i nferences c oncerning t he m ost p lausible c oastal d evelopment. A f uller d iscussion o f t he m ethods u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t hese m aps a nd a m ore d etailed d iscussion o f t he a rchaeological i mplications a re b eing p repared. W hat I w ish p rimarily t o d raw a ttention t o h ere a re s ome o f t he s alient f eatures s hown i n t he m aps i n F igures 2 -4 a nd t heir r elation t o t he s hellfish r emains f ound d uring e xcavations. F igure 5 s hows t he a ssemblage o f m arine m olluscan r emains f or p art o f o ne o f t he m ain t renches i nside t he c ave ( trench F /A S ). A lthough t he e arliest e vidence o f m an 's u se o f t he s ite d ates t o b efore 2 2 ,000 B P , t he f irst m arine s hells f ound i n t he c ave d eposits d o n ot a ppear u ntil a bout 1,000 B P. A r easonable e xplanation f or t heir a bsence u ntil t hen i s t hat t hey w ould h ave h ad t o h ave b een t ransported b ack t o t he c ave a cross d istances o f u p t o 6 km . F igure 2 s hows t hat a t 1 2,000 B P t he m ain t ype o f b each i n t he a rea o f F ranchthi C ave w as a s andy o ne , w ith a s mall a rea t o t he n orth o f s hallow ,

m uddy w ater.

T he r ocky n orth a nd s outh s hores o f t he b ay

a re q uite f ar f rom t he c ave , a nd, a s F igure 5 s hows, t he f irst m arine m olluscs f ound i n t he c ave w ere d ominantly r ock-dwelling g astropods a nd m ust t herefore h ave b een c ollected a t c onsiderable d istances

f rom t he s ite ,

a s

t he n earest

s hore , a bout 3 .5km a way, w ould h ave p rovided o nly s and-dwelling b ivalves w hich d o n ot f igure i n t he m olluscan r emains a t t his p eriod . T he n ext m ap ( Figure 3 ) i s ar econstruction o f t he s horeline a t 9 ,000 B P. T he s ea-level r ise h as n ot o nly m ade t he s hore m ore a ccessible t o t he c ave , b ut h as a lso p rovided a n i nteresting c hange i n t he t ype o f c oastal s urrounding ; t here i s n ow a l arge a rea o f s hallow , m uddy s ea w ith p ossibly f airly l ow s alinity , a t l east s easonally. ( There a re v arious i ndications o f a n i ncrease i n p recipitation d uring t his t ime, c f. K utzbach ( 1981) a nd v an A ndel e t a l ( 1980).) T he s hell a ssemblage i n t he c ave f or t his p hase o f o ccupation i s c learly d ominated b y t he s mall g astropod C yclope n eritea w hich f lourishes i n j ust s uch s hallow , b rackish c onditions ( Figure 5 ).

( L),

T he l ast r econstruction , F igure 4 , s hows t he p osition a t 8 ,000 B P. H ere t he s hallow , m uddy a rea h as b een c onsiderably r educed i n e xtent s ince t he p eriod r ecorded b y F igure 3 , a nd t here i s a g enerally m ore b roken a nd v aried c oastline o f s andy a nd r ocky b eaches. T he l ast p hase o f t he m arine m olluscs f rom F ranchthi C ave d iscussed h ere, a nd s een i n F igure 5 , i s d ominated b y t he g astropod C erithium v ulgatum B rugui re. T his s pecies h as a w ide h abitat r ange ;

" on s tones ,

s and a nd m ud d own t o a bout 1 0m ."

( Campbell ,

1 976) ,

a nd

w ould o bviously h ave b een w ell s uited t o c olonise m uch o f t he b roken s horeline t hen p resent.

t he

F rom t his b rief e xamination o f r econstructed s horelines i n r elation t o m arine m olluscan r emains a ctually f o l ind i n t he c ave d eposits, i t

i mmediately b ecomes c lear t hat , a t c ertain t imes a t l east , t he p eople w ho u sed t he c ave d id n ot n ecessarily g ather s hellfish f rom t he m ost c onvenient a nd

8 0

8 1

ex, N

FI Gl.RE 4: 8,000 B.P.

Mud

Map of reconstruction of coastal Legend on Figure 2.

Rocky

environs of Franchthi Cave at

,.ul!U� -c:z.} 1, ,iai,l. � )

0

(_ ...........___.... ._t':,..., _·•-•·�

km

»�•--:v· --:,·T�-;.. > Francht h,·

8,000 B.P.

D IL 11 11 03N I

D 1 1 1 . 1 . 11 03V1 Vd

D 11 1111 0S3 W

O

0

o

0 0 •

1 . •

+

4 . 1 41

+1 4 1

0

w e

0

0

P w

1 . •

a o a

0

0 . •4

0 . .

0

0

N O ▪ 0 N N O * 0

C E R I T H I U M

e l O

0 .

m o l u s c a n r e m a i n s f r o m T r e n c h

—

•

• •

•

•:

•

.•

•

83

F / A S , F r a n c h t i

•

d a t e s a r e B P .

•

•

0M o n o d n t o + G i b u l a s p .

•

• P a t e l a s p .

II

S HACKLETON :

A N A PPROACH T O D ETERMINING P REHISTORIC S HELLFISH C OLLECTING P ATTERNS

a ccessible b eaches.

I n t he e arliest p hase s pecies p reference w as a s trong

e nough s pur f or c ollectors t o t ravel c onsiderable d istances i n o rder t o g ather t he p referred t ypes. I t i s a lso c lear f rom F igure 5 t hat f or c ertain p eriods a s ingle s pecies o f m arine m ollusc w as p redominantly c ollected b y t he i nhabitants o f t he c ave. T he p reference f or C yclope n eritea d uring t he s econd p hase s hows a c oncentrated e xploitation o f as pecific , a djcacent m arine e nvironment , w hile t he t hird p hase , a lso o ne d ominated b y a s ingle s pecies, s hows t hat c ollecting C erithium v ulgatum a llowed f or m ost o f t he n earby s hore t o b e u sed. ( Interestingly d uring t he l atest p hases o f o ccupation o f t he s ite, n ot d iscussed h ere, t he a ssemblage o f m arine m olluscs s hows n o s uch b ias t owards a s ingle s pecies; r ather a n umber o f b ivalve s pecies g ain i mportance.) F rom e thnographic s tudies , s uch a s B etty M eehan 's e xciting w ork w ith t he A nbara ( Meehan, 1 982), o ne c an d iscern s ome o f t he p ressures a ffecting p resent-day s hellfish c ollectors. M eehan 's w ork c learly s hows t hat m any f actors i nfluence t he A nbara's c hoice o f w hich s hellfish a re t o b e s ought a nd w hich b eaches a re t o b e e xploited. W e c annot w atch t his s ame p rocess u nfold f or t he p rehistoric p ast ,

y et w e a re

i nterested

i n t he

e xercise

o f

c hoice

a mong t he a vailable o ptions u sed i n f ood-gathering s trategies. Iw ould s uggest t hat o ne p rofitable a pproach t o d isentangling t he v aried a nd i ntricately i nterwoven f actors a ffecting s uch p ast d ecision-making i s t hat b riefly d escribed h ere. I t i s o nly t hrough s uch r econstructions o f p alaeom arine e nvironments t hat o ne c an d istinguish t he n on-environmentally d etermined a spects o f s hellfish c ollecting.

H ence o ne m ay b e a ble t o m ove

t owards d istinguishing f orces a ffecting s elective a s o pposed t o n on-selective m ollusc g athering . I n f uture w e s hould b e b etter a ble t o e valuate t he i mportance o f v arious f actors i nvolved i n g athering s hellfish s uch a s: t he d istance l ikely t o h ave b een i nvolved i n c ollecting a p articular s pecies; t he e ase o f a ccess t o s pecific b eaches w ith h abitats f avourable t o a g iven s pecies; t he t echnology o r l ack o f, i nvolved i n c ollecting a p articular m ollusc; s easonal v ariation i n a vailability a nd e dibility o f d ifferent m olluscs; a nd o ther c hanges i nduced b y l ess t angible f eatures. T he m ore p recise o ur u nderstanding o f t hese a spects o f s hellfish c ollecting b ecomes ,

t he m ore a ccurate w ill b e o ur

a ssessment o f t he n ature o f t he i mportance o f m arine m olluscs i n t he d iet o f a ny p articular p rehistoric g roup .

R EFERENCES A ndel , T .H . v an , J acobsen , T .W ., J olly, J .B. & L ianos, N . Q uaternary h istory o f t he c oastal z one n ear F ranchthi C ave , G reece. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 7 , 3 89-402. A ndel, M esolithic A rchaeology,

T .H. v an & S hackleton, J .C. ( 1982). c oastlines o f G reece a nd t he A egean.

( 1980).

L ate

S outhern A rgolid,

L ate P aleolithic a nd J ournal o f F ield

1 9 , 4 45-454 .

B ailey, G .N . ( 1975). r esults o f m idden-analysis

T he r ole o f m olluscs i n c oastal e conomies: t he i n A ustralia. J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience ,

2 , 4 5-62.

8 4

S HACKLETON:

A N A PPROACH T O D ETERMINING P REHISTORIC S HELLFISH C OLLECTING P ATTERNS

C ampbell, A .C. ( 1976). T he H amlyn G uide t o t he S eashore a nd S hallow S eas o f B ritain a nd E urope. L ondon : H amlyn , 3 20 p p . D eith , M .R . ( 1983). S easonality o f s hell c ollecting , d etermined b y o xygen i sotope a nalysis o f m arine s hells f rom A sturian s ites i n C alabria ( this v olume). J acobsen, T .W. ( 1969). E xcavations a t P orto C heli a nd v icinity, P reliminary R eport 1 1: t he F ranchthi C ave. H esperia 3 8 , 3 43-381. J acobsen , P art I a nd I I.

T .W . ( 1973). E xcavations i n t he F ranchthi C ave, H esperia 4 2 , 4 5-88 , 2 53-283 .

J acobsen , T .W . D eltion 2 9 , 2 68-292. K utzbach , J .E.

( 1979).

( 1981).

e xperiment w ith t he S cience 2 14 , 5 9-61. M eehan ,

B .

E xcavations a t

M onsoon C limate o f t he E arly H olocene :

E arth's

( 1982).

t he F ranchthi C ave,

o rbital

p arameters

S hell B ed t o S hell M idden.

I nstitute o f A boriginal S tudies.

8 5

f or

9 000

C anberra :

1 969-71,

1 973-74 .

c limate

y ears

a go.

A ustralian

S01E ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL REMARKS ON FISHES IN ANCIENT EGYP'I' Angela von den Driesch Institut fiir Palaoanatomie, D011Estikationsforschung und Geschichte der Tiermedizin der Universitat Munchen Schellingstrasse 10/II 8000 Munich 40 B.R.D. There is nothing more fascinating for the archaeozoologist than to study the farma from Ancient Egypt. There are many facets to the remains of the Ancient Eg yptian civilisation that complement one another and provide a richly interwoven tapestry made up of texts, pictorial records, mtmm1y finds and food gifts in tombs, which range from sacrifices down to ordinary kitchen debris. Wallpictures constitute the most important sources for the investigation of the Ancient Egyptian farma. In spite of stylisation and idealisation the representations on the tomb-walls have since their discovery challenged Egyptologists and other specialists to learn to understand them in their purpose, their style and every detail (Boessneck 1981, p. 4). There are innt.1m2rable scientific and popular scientific papers on this subject. Most of us have at some time or o ther seen representations of the fishing-scenes on the tomb-walls at Saqqara (Old Kingdom), such as the one in the tomb of Mereruka (Figure 1). Many people have already worked on the identification of the fish-species represented in these paintings. The most famous researcher was Claude Gaillard (1923), the zoologist, and, in the German-speaking cormtries, the Egyptologist Inngard Gamer-Wallert (1970). In the tomb of Ti alone we can recognize 17 species or genera, some of 'Which are represented many ti11Es, as shown in Figure 2. The systematic investigation of faunal remains found in the tombs, temples and settlements show the extent to which the scenes represented on the walls relate to reali ty. As an illu stration of this the list of species of fish from Saqqara should be compared with the results of determination of fish remains from Elephantine near Asswan. This work was recently undertaken by J. Boessneck and myself (Boessneck & von den Driesch, 1982). The faunal material came on the one hand from the Necropolis of the Late and Early Middle Kingdom and on the other from the area of the Temple of Satet belonging to the 4th - 11th dynasty. It is almost impossible to separate food offerings from gifts in tanbs or ordinary kitchen debris, because there were frequent changes and extensions to the ancient settlement of Elephantine over this period of time. This caused shi�ts in activity, areas which involved both the Necropolis and the Temple, a pattern which is repeated in many places in Egypt. These shifts do not however play too important a role in the following interpretations of the findings concerning the fish bones. There are al100st 900 specimens from the Necropolis and more than 200 from the 87

FIGURE 1: Hauling In a large seine. After Darby et al, Figure 7,4.

Tanb of Mereruka/Saq qara

88

(6th dyn.)

•

e i g eg f irr i fig t en e k% r l e M e g g e e ee i g e { { { { 0 3' ‘ , 7, 2 : 3 7L eeää 9ge r—m e

7 :3e eag 4p e ryw e r 3

; e -

r e ›. 4

r S Z M' s •

m e w»

w e ee " > 4 hc e i t e 3 3 3 emnte , -. " Aseele f t 33

_

1 7

2 0

4 /

: • -

2 1 8 r

cet

e,

2 . 0 : 4 4 7

2 1

: 1 7 ::

> 5 -

p

w

e

e* e

F IGURE 2 :

F ish c atching

G amer-Wa lle t-I - 1 970 , s chall. 9

2

I .

S ynodontis C larias

1 3

M ugil.

A nguilla

2 7

G nathonemus

1 0

T etrodon

b atensoda.

l azera.

2 3

v ulgar is.

2 1

T omb o f T i/Saqqara a s

A

8

1 4

T ilapia .

n iloticus

2 8 C lar las

8 9

( 7).

2 5 M ugil. l azera .

3 1 S ynodont is s chall.

M ugil.

5 U nident ifiable . n il oticus.

1 C lar ias a nguillar is.

1 8 S ynodontis s cha ll. L abeo

A fter

1 S ynodontis

L abeo

A nguilla v ulgar 's. f ahaqa.

( 5th d yn.).

f o llows:

4 M ormyrus c aschive. f ahaqa.

2 4 P etrocepha lus.

c ypr ino ides.

3 0 M alopterus e lectr icus.

z

I dent ifications

T etrodon

P etrocephalus b ove i. C ithar inus.

—e hg

i n t he n et .

3 7

1 7

3 3

A ; ; ;g4 e , e e e eei i i

P egg P So ;" A f i tee e '

,

a4

P late

M ugil.

a .

1 2 2 0

.4

_ d o • 7 , 7 7. ;5:e e em e z i a v ro e f i x i s s

:jr , :i7

2 4 eigeri g tAme la liM

6 T i Ia p

leY

f l

J I M

•

ee r ' A eg eee .

1 5 S chilbe .

1 6 M ugil.

1 9 M ormyrus c aschive . 2 2

C itharinus.

2 6 L abeo

n iloticus.

2 9 M ormyrus n ilot icus.

3 2 G nathonemus c ypr ino ides.

•

D RIESCH :

S OME A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL R EMARKS O N F ISHES I N A NCIENT E GYPT

T emple o f S atet. B oth s amplesresu lt i n v ery s imilar s pecies-lists ( Table 1 ).

T ABLE 1 : o f S atet.

a )

E lephantine : l ist o f i dentified f ishes; a ) N ecropolis b ) T emple A fter B oessneck & v on d en T ) riesch , 1 982 , T ables 1 6 a nd 3 4 .

N ECROPOLIS

N umber o f

M NI

s pecimens M ormyridae : M ormyrus k annume o r M . c aschive H ydrocinidae :

3

H ydrocyon ( forskalii?) C itharinidae : C itharius s p.

2 5

C yprinidae : L abeo h on e o r L . c oubie B arbus b ynni B arbus s p. C lariidea : C larias l azera C larias o r H eterobranchus s p . B agridae : B agrus d ocmac a nd B . b ayad

2 6

3

2

1 2 1 9 1

6 7 1

2

2

9

1 45

M ochocidae : S ynodontis s chall S ynodontis ( frontosus?)

2 9

2 0 1

7 1

S ynodontis ( serratus?) S ynodontis m embranaceus S ynodontis s p. C entropomidae: L ates n iloticus

1 4 4 2 56

1 1 2 2 3

1 96

4 1

U nidentified f ish b ones

14

T otal

8 44

1 40

N umber o f

M NI

b )

T EM PLE O F S ATET

s pecimens M ormyridae : M ormyrus k annume o r M . c aschive C yprinidae : L abeo h on e o r L . c oubie

3 1 2

B arbus b ynni

1 7

B arbus s p. U ndet. m innow C lariidea : C larias o r H eterobranchus s p .

9 0

3 9 1 0

1

1

. 2

1

1 0

5

D RIESCH :

S OME A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RE MARKS O N F ISHES I N A NCIENT E GYPT

T ABLE 1 c ont :

n umber o f

M NI

s pecimens B agridae : B agrus d ocmac a nd B . b ayad A uchenoglanis o ccidentalis M ochocidea : S ynodontis s chall S ynodontis s erratus S ynodontis m embranaceus S ynodontis ( sorex?) S ynodontis S p. C entropomidae : L ates n iloticus U nidentified f ish b ones

140 3

1 30 1

4 8 2 1 4 1 1 55

2 6 1 1 1 3 7

3 65

8 6

2 83

T OTAL

2 056

W hen t his l ist i s

c ompared w ith t hat

o f

3 21

t he s pecies

s hown i n t he

f ishing-scenes o ne f act b ecomes v ery c lear : t hree r epresented s pecies o r f amilies a re m issing f rom t he b one f inds, a lthough w e c ould e xpect t hem t o b e p resent a t E lephantine. T he t hree m issing g roups a re F ahaka o r P uffer ( Genus T etr(a)don , F igure 3 ); t he G rey M ullet ( Family M ugilidae , F igure 4 ) a nd t he T ilapia s pp . ( Family C ichlidae , F igure 5 ). T he a bsence o f t hese s pecies o r f amilies c annot b e e xplained i n t erms o f t he d estruction o f b ones i n t he s ample , s ince i t i s w ell k nown , t hat a lthough t his i s e xtremely c ommon w ith f ish , t he q uantity o f b one i s l arge e nough t o b e r epresentative. T he s ize o f f ishes t hemselves c annot b e r esponsible f or t he a bsence, s ince T ilapia n ilotica t he l argest i n t he T ilapia f amily, a ttains a l ength u p t o 6 0 c m. A lthough t he s keleton o f t hese f ishes, p articularly t he s keleton o f t he h ead, i s m ore d elicate t han i n B agrus, S ynodontis o r e ven L ates, t he c haracteristic v ertebrae ( and t hey a re e asy t o i dentify) o r t he s trong f in s pines a nd t heir b ases s hould h ave b een p reserved i f T ilapia h ad b een b rought i nto t he N ecropolis E lephantine.

o r t he T emple

o f

S atet

o n

T his r esult i s e ven m ore c urious, i n v iew o f t he f act t hat 9 0-95% o f t he f ishes d elivered t oday t o t he f ish-market o f A sswan a re T ilapias. T he p ictorial r epresentations i n t he t ombs o f S aqqara p rove t hat T ilapias a lready b elonged t o t he n atural f ish f auna o f t he N ile-River d uring t he O ld K ingdom . T ilapia i s t he m ost f requently m entioned f ish i n t he O ld E gyptian t exts a nd w as o f g reat i mportance i n c ults ( Gamer-Wallert, 1 970 , p . 2 4 , 1 09ff.). S hifts

i n

t he

b iological

b alance

i n

t he

N ile

c ould

p rovide

a n

e xplanation o f t his c ontradiction i n t he c ase o f T ilapia. O n t he b asis o f a rchaeological f inds t he N ile P erch , L ates n iloticus, w as a pparently m uch m ore f requent n ear E lephantine i n t he t imes o f t he P haraohs, t han i t i s t oday. O nly t he l argest p redators c ould b e e ffective e nemies o f t he T ilapia. T he l ive s tock o f C ichlids w ould p erhaps h ave b een p articularly s mall i n t his s ection o f t he r iver. T oday, a fter t he N ile P erch i s a lmost

9 1

F IGURE 3 :

T etrodon f ahaka.

A fter B oulenger 1 907 , P late X CV I I.

*

/

F IGURE 4 :

M ug I c epha lus.

*

406 4 % 44 a .4 44/ ,41 * * 44 e at e a 2 . • • • • % a

A fter B ou lenger 1 907 , P late L XXX.

9 2

F IGURE 5 :

F IGURE 6 :

T ilapla n llotica.

A fter B oulanger 1 907 , P late X C III.

B agrus b ayad ( above) a nd B agrus d ocmac ( be low).

1 907 , P lates L V II,

L V III.

9 3

A fter B ou lenger

F IGURE 7 : ( be low).

A uchenog lanls b iscutatus ( above) a nd A uchenog lanis o cc identa l I s A fter B oulenger 1 907 , P lates L X II, L X III.

9 4

D RIESCH : f ished a way,

S OME A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL R EMARKS O N F ISHES I N A NCIENT E GYPT t he T ilapias m ultiply i n v ast n umbers.

A part f rom t his f actor

m ost o f t he T ilapias c urrently b rought t o t he f ish-market i n A sswan c ome f rom t he N asser L ake. T his l ake w hich , w ith i ts s andy a nd s hallow s hores, o ffers t he b est s pawning a nd l iving c onditions f or T ilapia d id n ot e xist i n a ncient t imes. T his e xplanation a lone c annot s atisfactorily e xplain t he r esults.

T he

f act m ust a lso b e t aken i nto c onsideration t hat o nly p articular s pecies w ere c hosen o n E lepantine f or t he k itchen a nd p robably a lso f or t he d eath-cult. B agrus w as t he m ost i mportant s ource o f f ood f ish o n E lephantine ( Figure 6 ). W hile T ilapia a nd o ther s pecies, s uch a s G rey M ullet a nd F ahaka, w ere v irtually n ot u sed. T he

a bsence

o f

P uffer

f rom

t he

a ttributable t o t he f act t hat p arts o f h ave t o b e r emoved i mnediately a fter f lesh o f W hich i s s aid t o b e t asty, i s a ppear o n t he m arkets i n E gypt f or t his G rey M ullets ,

f inds

f rom E lephantine,

m ay

b e

t he i ntestines a re p oisonous. T hey b eing c aught, s o t hat t he f ish , t he e dible. T oday, t he P uffer d oes n ot v ery r eason.

w hich a re a lso e xcellent e ating ,

m oved u p t he N ile y early

f rom t he M editerranean S ea t o U pper E gypt. T he M ullet c ould i n f act b e f ound n ear E lephantine a nd w e f ind c lear r epresentations o f t he M ullet o n t he R elief o f t he S easons o f t he " Worldchamber" i n t he s un-sancturary o f N iuserre ( Edel, 1 961; 1 964). E del

( 1976 ,

1 978) b elieves t hat h e c an p rove t hat b oth t he F ahaka a nd

t he G rey M ullet , w ere w orshipped i n E lephantine. W e s hould t herefore n ot b e s urprised, w hen t heir r emains d o n ot o ccur a mong t he b one f inds o f t he t emple-sacrifices a nd f ood-offerings. T his c an h owever o nly e xplain t he a bsence o f P uffers a nd M ullets a nd n ot t hat o f t he T ilapias. T he E gyptian l iterature p rovides n o e vidence f or a ny c onnection b etween T ilapia a nd r eligious p ractices a t E lephantine ( Gamer-Wallert , 1 970 , p . 1 09 f f.), b ut t his m ay b e d ue t o ad eficiency i n o ur k nowledge o f E gyptology. S ince t here i s a lso n o n atural e xplanation f or t he a bsence o f T ilapia a mong t he r emains f rom E lephantine w e c an o nly s tate t hat t his f ish, w hich i s t he m ost i mportant f ood-fish o f b oth t oday a nd o f t he p ast, i s m issing i n t he f inds. A s p reviously m entioned B agrus i s t he m ost c ommon f ish f am ily i dentified f rom r emains i n t he E lephantine T emple o f S atet ( Figure 6 ). B agrus w hich I s at ype o f c atfish , i s n ot r epresented i n t he w all-painting ( Gamer-Wallert 1 970 , p . 1 1). S everal i ndividuals o f B agrus d ocmac w ere f ound i n t he a nimal-graveyard o f G urob , d ating t o t he 1 9th d ynasty ( Loat, 1 905 , p . 5 , P late X , X II). T he t wo s pecies , B . d ocmac a nd B . b ayad , o ften o ccur i n t he l ower E gyptian p art o f t he N ile, a f act w hich w e a re a ble t o p rove o urselves. I t i s t herefore a stonishing t hat t his q uite r emarkable f ish-family w as n ot r epresented i n t he p ictures. I t

i s

o f

p articular i nterest

g enus o f c atfish, S atet ( Figure 7 ).

t o r ecord t hat

t hree b ones

f rom a nother

A uchenoglanis, w ere a mong t he f inds f rom t he T emple o f W hile t his s pecies d oes n ot a ppear o n t he w allpictures i n

S aqqara t his m ight b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat i t w as o nly r arely f ound a s f ar d own a s L ower E gypt a nd t herefore n ot k nown t o t he a rtists o f t he O ld K ingdom M ästabas. T he u nusually l arge s ize o f m any o f t he i dentified f ishes a mong t he

9 5

48

46.

44

with

certainity

Bagrus

42

docmac

40

with

c ertainity

Bagrus

38.

bayad

36

34-

32

,

30

,

28-

26-

24.

22

20-

1 8-

1 6-

1 4.

1 2

1 0-

6

1 .. 1•••••• 1

1 .-

2

40 - 5 0

- 60

- 7 0

- 80 - 90 - 1 00 - 10 - 1 20 -130 e

t otal

F IGURE

8 :

T emp le o f

S atet .

S ize

B oessneck 8 v on d en D r iesch 1 982 ,

l ength

v ar iation o f t he B agr id

F igure 2 2.

9 6

in

cm

f ishes .

A fter

t o t a l l e n g t h 0 9 9 . -

0

1 0 C »

0 C O

0

0

F I G L R E 9 :

0

9 7

D RIESCH :

S CME A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL R EMARKS O N F ISHES I N A NCIENT E GYPT

f inds f rom E lephantine i s s urprising. T he l argest N ile P erch e xceeded 1 .80 m i n l ength w hile t he B agrid f ishes a ttained s izes o f m ore t han 1 .20 m . T he r econstructed b ody l ength o f t he f amily B agrus c orresponds w ell t o t he " normal d istribution" ( Figure 8 ) b ut a ll s izes u p t o t he t op s ize a re e qually r epresented a mong L ates ( Figure 9 ). T he v ertebra f rom l arge N ile P erch m ay r each t he s ame s ize a s c attle v ertebrae ; a n e xample i s s hown i n F igure 1 0 w hich i s a n a rticulated p ortion o f t he s pinal c olumn f rom a N ile P erch f rom t he 2 nd I ntermediate P eriod a t K arnak-North . T he a nimal f rom w hich t he s pine c ame w as c ertainly l arger t han t he o ne s hown i n F igure 1 1. T his r epresentation s hows a N ile P erch c arried b y t wo m en a nd c omes f rom t he t omb o f R ahotep/Medem ( 4th d ynasty). I n a ddition t o t he f ish r emains f rom E lephantine w e w orked o n f ish b ones f ound a t K arnak-North , w hich i s am onumental t emple o f t he N ew K ingdom n ear L uxor. T his s ample o f 5 50 p ieces i s v ery s mall c ompared t o t he f ishbone m aterial f rom E lephantine ( Table 2 ). H owever , i t c ontains e vidence f or t he u tilisation o f M illets a nd T ilapias. I n c ontrast t o E lephantine t here a re o nly r elatively f ew L ates b ones. T he p redominating f ish i s S ynodontis, a nother w ell-known g enus o f c atfish . T he s pines o f t he b ack a nd p ectoral f in a nd t he c leithra w ere c ommon i n t he c ollections a nd h ad b een d eliberately b roken o ff ( Figure 1 2). T he f in s pines o f S ynodontis a re s trongly t oothed a nd a re t herefore d isliked b y t he f ishermen , b ecause t hey b adly i njure t heir s kin a nd t hey t ear t he n ets. S cenes o n w allpictures , s howing f ishermen b reaking a way t he d angerous

s pines

a fter c atching t he f ish c learly r eflect

t his s ituation ( Figure 1 3).

T ABLE 2 :

K arnak-North:

L ist o f i dentified f ishes ( von d en D riesch a nd

B oessneck , i n p ress, T able 1 ).

P olypteridae : P olypterus b ichir C itharinidae : ? Citharinus s p. C itharinidae: D istichodus n iloticus C yprinidae : B arbus s p . C lariidae : C larias a nd H eterobranchus s pp . M ochocidea : S ynodontis s p. M ugilidae:

M ugil s p.

1 1 1 3 1 82 3 09 4

C entropomidae : L ates n iloticus C ichlidae: T ilapia s p . U nident. f ish b ones

9 3 0 1 0

5 50

G aillard ( 1923) b elieved t hat h e c ould i dentify o nly t wo s pecies i n t he r epresentations o f S ynodontis i n t he w allpictures o f t he O ld K ingdom . T hese a re S ynodontis s chall, w hich h as a c haracteristic o utline o f t he s kull f ormed b y t he o cciput a nd t he c leithrum ( = b one o f t he s houlder g irdle ;) ( Figure 1 4), a nd S ynodontis b atensoda, w hich i s s hown a s ab ackstroke s wimmer ( Figure

9 8

D RIESCH : 1 5).

S OME A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL R EMARKS O N F ISHES I N A NCIENT E GYPT

T he r epresentations o f S ynodontis d iffer o nly i n t heir s wimming s tyle. O ne c an i magine t hat t he o steological i dentification o f S ynodontis

s pecies

c ould b e v ery d ifficult,

s ince t here a re a lmost n o e asily v isible

d ifferences b etween s pecies i n t he b ones o f t he h ead a nd t runk.

H owever ,

t he t oothing o f t he b ack a nd p ectoral f in s pines a nd t he f orm o f t he c audal p late o f t he c leithrum a re c haracteristic o f t he s pecies. A ccording t o t hese c riteria a t l east t hree m ore s pecies o ccur a t E lephantine a nd K arnak b eside t he n umerous a nd c ommon S ynodontis s chall : S ynodontis m embranaceus ( Figure 1 6), S ynodontis s erratus ( Figure 1 7), a nd S ynodontis s orex ( Figure 1 7). S imilar d ifficulties o ccur i n t he i dentification o f t he b ones f rom t he e el-shaped c atfish , C lariidae , w hich c onstitute t he s econd m ost f requent f ish g roup i n K arnak-North . T wo f amilies o f t hese p redatory f ishes w ith t heir l ong h eads a nd s nake-like b odies l ive i n t he N ile : C larias, w hich i s t oday s till r epresented b y s everal s pecies, a nd H eterobranchus, t oday r epresented b y t wo s pecies i n t he L ower N ile. T hese s pecies a re v ery s imilar b ut c an b e d istinguished e xternally b y t heir d orsal f ins ( Figure 1 8). T he f ins a re n ot p arted a s w ith o ther r epresentations o f t he f amily C larias, w hereas i n t he f amily H eterobranchus t hey a re d ivided i nto t wo p arts ( Boulenger , 1 907 , p . 2 77 a nd P lates L II a nd L IV). T he s keletons o f t hese t wo f amilies d iffer i n o nly a f ew m inute d etails, w hich , h owever , m ake i t p ossible t o i dentify b oth f amilies i n t he f inds f rom K arnak-North ( Figure 1 9 a and b ). H eterobranchus s p. d oes , h owever , s eem t o b e l ess c ommon t han C larias s p. I n t he O ld E gyptian p ictorial r epresentations o nly C larias i s s hown .

H owever

i t i s t hought t hat t he h ieroglyphs o f t he n ame o f K ing N armer , i ncludes a r epresentation o f a n i ndividual b elonging t o H eterobranchus l ongifilis ( Gamer-Wallert ,

1 970 , p .

1 0).

T hese e xamples s hould b e s ufficient t o d emonstrate t he p roblems o f t his k ind o f

i dentification .

W e c an s ee h ow ,

i n t he

e xamples w ith t he f ishes,

t exts a nd r epresentations o n t he o ne h and a nd r esults f rom f aunal a nalysis o n t he o ther h and d o t o s ome e xtent c omplement e ach o ther. O n t he o ther h and , t here a re a lso s triking d iscrepancies b etween t he p ictorial a nd w ritten r ecord a nd t he f inds i n t he g round .

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he a uthor w ishes t o t hank D r. U . S teger f or t he t ranslation o f t he G erman o riginal i nto E nglish a nd M rs. E .A . V Oigt f rom t he T ransvaal M useum f or h er a ssistance w ith t he f inal v ersion o f t he p aper.

R EFERENCES B oessneck , J .

( 1981).

G emeinsame A nliegen v on A gyptologie u nd Z oologie

a us d er S icht d es Z ooarchäologen.

B ayerische A kademie d er

W issenschaften ,

P hilosophisch H istorische K lasse S itzungsberichte 5 , M ünchen. B oessneck ,

J .

& D riesch ,

T ierknochen a us A gypten.

A .

v on d en.

( 1982).

S tudien a n s ubfossilen

M ünchner hyptologische S tudien 4 0 ,

9 9

1 -172.

D RIESCH :

E d.)

S OME A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL R EMARKS O N F ISHES I N A NCIENT E GYPT

B oulenger , G .A .V. ( 1907). T he F ishes o f t he N ile. I n ( J. A nderson , Z oology o f E gypt V ol. 1 & 2 . L ondon : E gyptian G overnment ( Hugh R ees).

D arby, W .J ., G halioungui, P . &G rivetti, L . O siris. V ol. 1 a nd 2 , L ondon : A cadem ic P ress. D aumas,

F .V.

( 1964).

Q uelques

r emarques

p gche ä l a l igne s ous l 'ancien E mpire. d 'Archgologie O rientale 6 2 , 6 7-85 , K airo. D riesch, K arnakNord. E del ,

E .

( 1977).

s ur

l es

F ood.

r epresentations

A . v on d en & B oessneck , J . ( in p ress). T ierknochenfunde a us B ulletin d e l 'Institut F ran ais d 'Archaeologie O rientale. ( 1961).

Z u d en I nschriften a uf d em J ahreszeitenrelief d er

A kadamie d er W issenschaften i n G öttingen 1 961, 8 , 2 09-254 . G öttingen . E .

( 1964).

Z u

d en

( 1976).

d er

I nschriften a uf d em J ahreszeitenrelief d er

A kademie d er W issenschaften i n G öttingen 1 963 , 4 5 , 8 9-217. G öttingen . E .

N achrichten

P hilologisch-Historische K lasse ,

" Weltkammer" a us d em S onnenheiligtum d es N iuserre I I .

E del,

d e

B ulletin d e l 'Institut F ra f l is

" Weltkammer" a us d em S onnenheiligtum d es N uiserra I .

E del,

T he g ift o f

T eil.

N achrichten d er

P hilologisch-Historische K lasse ,

D er T etrodon F ahaka a ls B ringer d er U berschwemnung

u nd s ein K ult i m E lefantengau. M itteilungen d es D eutschen A rchäologischen I nstituts A bteilung K airo , 3 2, 3 5-42 . M ainz. E del,

E .

( 1978).

d er U berschwemmung G öttingen G aillard ,

C .

i m

N och e inmal z um K ult d es T etrodon F ahaka a ls B ringer E lefantengau.

( 1923).

R echerches

G öttinger M iszellen 3 0,

s ur

l es

q uelques t ombeaux E gyptiens d e l 'Ancien E mpire. F ran ais d 'Archgologie O rientale 5 1, G amer-Wallert,

hyptologische L oat, L ondon :

L .

I .

( 1970).

A bhandlungen 2 1, ( 1905).

G urob.

1 -136. F ische

p oissons

( 1892).

r eprgsentgs

d ans

M gmoires d e l 'Institut

K airo. u nd

F ischkulte

i m A lten

Ä gypten .

1 141, W iesbaden. E gyptian R esearch A ccount 1 0 ,

B ernard Q uaritch.

P etrie , W .M .F.

3 5-37.

M edüm . L ondon :

1 00

D avid N utt.

1 904 ,

1 -8 ,

I 5cm F IGURE

1 0 :

P art ia l

s pina l

A fter D r iesch & B oessneck,

F IGURE

1:

( 4th d yn.).

c o lumn

f rom

a N ile

P erch

f rom K arnak-North.

i n p ress , F igure 2 .

T wo m en c arry ing a l arge N ile P erch. A fter P etr ie 1 892 , P late 1 2.

1 01

T omb o f R ahotep/Me em

F IGURE 1 2 :

K arnak-North.

A fter D r Iesch & B oessneck,

C leithra a nd p ectora l

f inspines f rom S ynodont is.

I n p ress , F igures 3 , 6 -8 .

1 02

F I GURE

1 3:

A bove:

S ynodontis. S ynodont is 1,

T omb

a f isherman b reaks a way t he p ectoral o f

c autious ly o f

A khouthotep; t he n et .

b elow:

T omb o f T i.

1 2.

1 03

a f isherman A fter D aumas

s pine f rom a t akes 1 964,

o ut

a

F igures

F IGURE 1 4 :

S ynodontis s chall.

D arby e t a l.,

1 977 , F igures 7 ,

T omb o f 1 0 .

1 04

I dut/Sac ic iara

( 5th d ynasty ).

A fter

F I GURE

1 5:

S ynodontls

b atensoda.

( above) a nd G aillard 1 923 , F igure 4 3

A fter Boulenger 1 907, P late L XX IV

( be low). T omb o f T i.

1 05

F IGURE 1 6 :

S ynodontls s chalt

( above)

A fter B oulenger 1 907 , P lates L X 1V, L XXV.

1 06

a nd S ynodontis m embranaceus

( be low).

F IGURE

1 7:

S ynodontis

s erratus

( above)

A fter B ou lenger 1 907 , P lates L XX, L XX II.

1 07

a nd S ynodontls s orex

( be low).

F IGURE

1 8 :

C lar las

l azera

( above)

a nd H eterobranchus b idorsalis

A fter B ou lenger 1 907 , P lates L II, L 1V.

1 08

( be low).

S upraorb ita le ( Basalansicht ) m ehr r und

m ehr s p itz

g erade

e ingebuchtet

O perculare ( Medialansicht)

r undlich o va l

s chmal o va l

p enta le

s ch lank 1 0 '

b reit

F IGURE 1 9a

F IGURE 1 9 a&b : ( A) a nd C lar ias

O steo log ica l l azera

( B).

d ifferences b etween H eterobranchus b idorsalis A fter D r iesch & B oessneck,

1 -8.

1 09

i n p ress ,

F igures

C le ithrum

a bgerundet u .u .s chmaler

L atera lansicht

M ed ia lansicht

k urz

n icht e ing ebuchtet

e ingebuchtet

B rustf lossenstache l ( Media lans icht )

u nger ippt o der s chwach g er ippt , k le iner u nd s charfkantiger

s tark g er ippt , g rößer u nd w u lst iger

A.H eterobranchus b idorsalis B=C larias l azera

F IGURE 1 9b

1 10

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES: G IBJER D ES H OMMES O U P ROIES D ES R APACES?

C gcile

M ourer-Chauvirg

C entre d e P algontologie s tratigraphique e t P algogcologie d e l ' U niversitg C laude B ernard a ssocig a u C NRS ( LA 1) 2 7-43 b d d u 1 N ovembre , 6 9222 F rance

O n t rouve p arfois ,

V illeurbanne C edex

d ans c ertains h abitats p algolithiques e n g rotte ,

d e

t res i mportantes q uantitgs d e r estes d 'oiseaux e t, c haque f ois, o n p eut s e d emander s i c es o iseaux o nt g tg c hassgs p ar l 'homme o u a pportgs d ans l a g rotte p ar d es r apaces. C ette q uestion e st t res i mportante s i l 'on v eut e ssayer d e r econstiuer l e m ode d e v ie d es c hasseurs p algolithiques e t d e v oir c omment us o nt t ire p arti d es r essources d e l eur e nvironment. L 'gtude d 'oiseaux p rovenant d 'un g rand n ombre d e g isements p lgistocenes, d e F rance p rincipalement, p ermet d 'apporter u n c ertain n ombres d iglgments p our r gpondre äc ette q uestion .

I .

R EPARTITION D ES R ESTES D ANS D ES R EMPLISSAGES N ATURELS D ans

C orreze,

l e r emplissage n aturel d 'aven d es A bimes

d e

l a

F age ä N oailles,

j 'ai P u m ontrer q ue l es o iseaux q ui n e v ivent p as ä l 'intgrieur d e

l a g rotte o u d ans l es r ochers a voisinants, e t q ui d onc g tg i ntroduits d ans l e g isement p ar d es r apaces , p rgsentent u ne r gpartition p articuliere d es r estes o sseux ( Mourer-Chauvirg , 1 975 a , b ). D ans l e c as d e l a F age l es o iseaux o nt g tg t rouvgs d ans d es c ouches ä r ongeurs, t res r iches , r enfermant d es m illions d es r estes d e m icromammiferes e t d e b araciens e t i l e st c ertain q ue c es c ouches p roviennent d e l 'accumulation d e p elotes d e r ejection d e r apaces. L a

r epartition p articuliere

d es

o s

d 'oiseaux

c onsiste

e n

u ne

t res

g rande

p redominance d es r estes d es s egments d istaux d es a lles e t d es p attes , c 'est ä d ire d es m gtacarpiens e t d es t arsamgtatarsiens. E lle s 'observe u niquement c hez l es p roies d e t aille m oyenne e t e n p articulier d ans l 'espece P erdix p alaeoperdix , f orme p rimitive d e p erdrix g rise , q ui e st e xtrgmement a bondante d ans c e g isement. P our c ette e spece l e d gcompte d es h uit p rincipaux o s l ongs ( Coracoides, H umerus, R adius, C ubitus, M gtacarpiens, F emurs, T ibiotarses , T arsamgtatarsiens) e st i ndiqug d ans l e t ableau 1 . O n v olt q ue l es m gtacarpiens r eprgsentent 2 6% e t l es t arsomgtatarsiens 3 9% d u n ombre m inimal d 'os. C ette r gpartition n e p eut p as s 'expliquer p ar u ne d ifference d e r obustesse, c ar l e c oracorde p ar e xemple, o s r elativement c ourt e t r obuste , e st p roportionnellement t res m al r eprgsentg ( 3%). O n o bserve l a m gme r gpartition p our l es f ormes d e t aille m oyenne e t q ui v ivent e n d ehors d es c avernes o u d es p arois r ocheuses t elles q ue l es l agopedes

( Lagopus l agopus

e t

L . m utus),

1 11

l e

f aucon

c rgcerelle

( Falco

T ABLEAU

1 :

l agopedes,

D gcomptes

e t

p ourcentages

d es

r estes

d 'oiseaux

t etras) c hasses p ar l 'homme o u p ar d es r apaces.

c orrespond a u N ombre m inima l

( perdrix,

L e n ombre N

d 'os.

C or . H um . R ad .

C ub .

M et .

F em . T ib. T ars . T ota l

8 15

1 953

2 78

1

2 6

O ISEAUX C HASSES P AR D ES R APACES A . P ro les d e t all l e m oyenne 1 . P erd ix p alaeoperdix

R emp lissages n ature ls N

A btmes d e l a F age

2 21 3

2 .

4 3 1 6

3 46 5

4 13

4

6

2 884

7 34 1

3 9

H abitats p rehistor iques

P erdix p erdix

N

S a lpetre d e P ompignan

%

0

P erdix p erdix

N

1

G rand A br i d e l a

%

2

3

1

2

1 9

7

1 0

4

1 2

5

1 9

8

2

5

4 5

7

0

1 2

1 0

2 1

3

1 0

1 7

1 5

3 0

4

4 8

2 9

1 5

4 2

6 9

2 2

F erassie L agopedes

N

S aint-Thibaud-de-Couz

%

L agopedes

N

L a C o lombiere

%

L agopedes

N

G igny-sur-Suran

9 3 1 5 1 4 4

L agopedes

N

A br i F r itsch

%

L agopedes

N

T rou d u S ureau

%

B .

3 5

1 8 9 2 1 1

6 0

7 3

1 2

8

1 6

1 9

4 3

7

2 4

1 58

7

1

4

2 4

9

6

7

5 1

2 ,5

1 ,5

2

1 4

9

7

5

2 4

5

4

2

1 2

2 5 1

7 9 3

1 8 1

9 10 3 8

2 6 7 1 9 3 1 3 4 1 3 7 4 3 2

4 2

6 8

1

1 8

4 9

3 09

8 1 5 4

6 40

4 8 2 50

3 65

6 8

2 3

9 4

1 2

4 9

6 2

150

7

3 8 1

1 93

2 408

4 8

P ro les d e T aille p lus f orte 1 .

. Lyrurus t etr ix

R emp lissages n aturels N

8

A btmes d e l a F age

%

1 2

L yrurus t etr ix

N

1 2

E speche - B oyau 7

%

3 7

2

0

3 3 1 0

1 3

1 12

1

3

3

1 0

4 3

2

4

4

1 4

6 1

3 1 0

1 3

4 1 2

2 6

6 1 9

7 0

3 2

T ABLEAU 1 c ont inue

C or . H um . R ad. C ub. M et .

2 .

F em .

T ib. T ars . T ota l

H abitats p rehistor iques

L agopedes

N

9 7

8 3

6 7

6 6

G rotte d u C o leoptere

%

2 2

1 9

7

1 5

1 5

L yrurus t etr ix

N

2 4

2 0

9

1 8

2 0

2 0

3 2

4 0

S aint-Thibaud-de-Couz

%

1 3

1

5

1 0

1

1

1 7

2 2

L yrurus t etr ix

N

G igny-sur-Suran

%

T etrao u roga llus

N

8 3 5 8

3 3

1 5 3

3 1 7

1

1

1

1

1

1

4

4

4

4

4

4

0

0

0

0

1

1

5 5

4 47

1 2

9

1 83

2 3

3 9 0

1 0

1

3

3 3

3

9

G igny-sur-Suran

O ISEAUX C HASSES P AR L 'HOMME G a l IIf ormes

N

1 0

A r idos - 1

%

3 1

1 5

L agopedes

N

6 2

1 26

A br i F onta les

%

1 3

2 7

L agopedes

N

2

1 4

3

E bbou

%

5

2 6

5

L agopedes

N

5

1

4

L e C o lombier

%

1 7

5

3 7

1

2

2

3

6

6

3 3 7

1 3

1 13

3 5 8 7 1 3

9 2 7

4 7

19

1 0

2 6

1 8 4

2 3

4

2 0

3

1

7

3 7

5

2

0

0

1

2

3

7

7 2 3

4 63

5 5 4

3 0

M OURER-CHAUVIRE: t innunculus),

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES

l a b artavelle

( Otis t etrax),

( Alectoris g raeca),

l es p luviers d ore e t

a rgentg

l 'outarde c anepgtiare

( Pluvialis a pricaria e t

s quatarola), l a b gcasse d es b ois ( Scolopax r usticola) e t l a p ie ( Pica p ica) ( Mourer-Chauvirg , 1 975 b ). O n n e l 'observe p as p our l es e spaces q ui v ivent surtout d ans l es p arois r ocheuses t elles que l e c hocard ( Pyrrhocorax g raculus) o u l e p igeon b iset ( Columba l ivia), n i p our l es f ormes d e p etite t aille t elles q ue l a c aille ( Coturnix c oturnix) o u l es p etits p asseriformes. L a m gme r gpartition a vait d éjà g te o bservge , d as 1 872 , p ar E . D upont p our l es r estes d e l agopades d u g isement m agdalgnien d u T rou d u S ureau , e n B elgique, e t p ar a illeurs i i a vait c onclu , p our d 'autres r aisons, q ue c es l agopades n 'avaient p as g tg c hassgs p ar l 'homme ( Tableau 1 ). C ette r gpartition p eut s 'expliquer p ar l e f ait q ue l e g rand-duc , p ar e xemple , p lume l es o iseaux a vant d e l es a valer e t a rraehe l es e xtremitgs d es al les e t d es p attes.

L es o s d es e xtremitgs o nt a insi p lus d e c hances d 'etre

c onserves d ans l es s ediments q ue l es a utres o s q ui s ont b roygs p ar l e g rand d uc l orsqu 'il a vale s a p roie. U ne c ertaine p roportion d es o s i nggres s e r etrouve

d ans

l es

p elotes

d e

r ejection

s ous

f orme

d 'esquilles

i ndgterminables. G groudet ( 1965) s ignale q ue l e g rand-due b rise l es o s e ntre s es m andibules a vec u ne f orce g tonnante. M alheureusement n ous m anquons d e d onnges s ur l e d gcompte p récis d es o ssements d 'oiseaux t rouvgs a utour d es r eposoirs o u p ostes d e d gp «age d e g rands r apaces n octurnes a ctuels.

I I . R EPARTITION D ANS C HASSES P AR L ES R APACES A .

L ES H ABITATS P REHISTORIQUES O U L ES O ISEAUX O NT E TE

P roies d e t aille m oyenne L orsqu ' on

o bserve

l a

m ime

p redominance

d es

m etacarpiens

e t

d es

t arsomgtatarsiens p our l es o iseaux p rovenant d 'habitats p rghistoriques , o n p eut s upposer q ue c es o iseaux n 'ont p as g te c hassgs p ar l 'homme m ais a pportes p as

d es

r apaces.

C 'est l e c as,

p ar e xemple ,

d es

p erdrix g rises

( Perdix

p erdix) d u S alpgtre d e P ompignan ( Hgrault) e t d es l agopades ( Lagopus l agopus e t L . m utus) d e l a C olombiare ä N euville-sur-Ain ( Ain) , d e G igny-sur-Suran ( Jura), d e l 'Abri F ritsch d es R oches ä P ouligny-Saint-Pierre ( Indre) e t d e J ean P ierre 1 ä S aint-Thibaud-de-Couz ( Savoie) ( Tableau 1 ). O n r emarque q u'on o bserve u niquement c ette r gpartition p our l es e spaces d e t aille m oyenne, d ont l a t aille e st r elativement f aible p ar r apport ä c elles d u p rgdateur, q ui d evait g tre s of t l e g rand-due ( Bubo b ubo), s oit l e h arfang ( Nyctea s candiaca). B .

P roles d e t aille p lus f orte

L orsque l a t aille d e l a p roie a ugmente p ar r apport ä c elle d u p redateur, p ar e xemple p our l es t etras-lyre ( Lyrurus t etrix), o n o bserve u ne r gpartition u n p eu d iffgrente d es o s.

L es

o s

l es

p lus a bondants

s ont a lors

l es

t arsomgtatarsiens, g engralement c omplets, l es p arties d istales d e t ibiotarses e t l es e xtrgmites s uperieures d e c oracoides. O n r emarque c eci p our l es t etras-lyre p rovenant d e r emplissages n aturels, c omme c eux d e l a F age ä N oailles

( Corraze)

o u

d u

b oyau

7 d e

l a g rotte d 'Espache

( Hautes-Pyrenges)

( Tableau 1 ). O n r etrouve p rghistoriques

d e

c ette m gme

r gpartition p our

S aint Thibaud de Couz

o u

1 14

d e

l es

t etras-lyre

G igny-sur-Suran

d es

g isements

( Tableau

1 ).

M OURER-CHAUVIRE:

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES

D ans l e c as d e l a g rotte d u C olgoptare ä B omal ,

B elgique ,

r gpartition a nalogue n on p lus c hez l es t gtras-lyres,

o n r etrouve u ne

m ais c hez l es l agopades

( Lagopus l agopus e t L . m utus) c ar l e p rgdateur n 'est p lus i di l e g rand-duc o u l e h arfang m ais p robablement l a c houette g perviare , S urnia u lula , q ui e st d e t aille p lus f aible ( Tableau 1 ). U ne r gpartition u n p eu c omparable s e r emarque g galement c hez l es g rands t etras ( Tetrao u rogallus) d e G igny-sur-Suran o ü , s ur u n t otal d e 1 0 r estes o n t rouve 8 c oracoides ( 1 c omplet e t 7 p arties s upgrieures) ( Tableau 1 ). C es r estes c orrespondent u niquement ä d es i ndividus d e t aille f emelle. I i y a , e n e ffet , u n f ort d imorphisme s exuel d ans c ette e space; l es m ales s ont d e t aille n ettement s upgrieure e t d evaient g tre t rop f orts p our g tre c aptures p ar l e p rgdateur,

o u t rop l ourds p our p ouvoir g tre t ransportgs j usqu'au

r eposoir. D ans

l 'articulation d e

l a c einture s capulaire

l a p artie s upgrieure d u

c oracoide e t d u s capulum , a insi q ue l a p artie p roximale d e l 'humgrus , s ont r gunies p ar d es l igaments t ras p uissants q ui p euvent r esister p endant q uelque t emps d ans l es s ediments. D ans l es a ires d e g rands-ducs a ctuels, o n t rouve a ssez s ouvent u n e nsemble c onstitug d e l a p artie s upgrieure d u c oracoide e t d u s capulum , a vec p arfois l a p artie p roximale d e l 'humgrus, r gunies p ar d es l igaments e ncore c onserves e t a ppartenant ä d es e spaces d e t aille r elativement f orte, c omme p ar e xemple l e f aisan ( Phasianus c olchicus). D ans l e c as o i l l a p artie s upgrieure d u c oracoIde e st p ratiquement s eule c onservge ( Tetrao u rogallus p hgnomanes

d e

d e G igny-sur-Suran),

1 1 p eut

c onservation d iffgrentelle

c ar

y a voir

l a

g galement

d es

p artie s upgrieure d u

c oracoide d es G alliformes e st u n g lgment n ettement p lus r obuste q ue l es a utres p arties d u s quelette.

I II .

R EPARTITION D ANS

L ES

G ISEMENTS

O U L ES

O ISEAUX O NT E TE C HASSES P AR

L 'HOMME A . G alliformes D ans c ertains h abitats p rghistoriques o n t rouve, a u c ontraire, u ne r gpartition t ras d iffgrente , a vec u ne p rgdominance d es o s d u s egment p roximal d e l 'aile o u d e l a p atte , c 'est-ä-dire d es h umerus e t d es f gmurs, e t u n t ras p etit n ombre d e m gtacarpiens o u d e t arsomgtatarsiens. D e p lus d ans c es g isements, c ertains o s p ortent d es t races d e d gcarnisation o u d e b rülure e t o n p eut d one e n d gduire q u'ils o rt g tg, a u m om s, d gpecgs e t, p eut-gre, c onsommés p ar l 'homme. C 'est l e c as, p ar e xemple p our l es l agopades d u g isement m agdalgnien d e l 'Abri F ontalas, ä S aint-Antonin ( Tarn-et-Garonne) ( Bouchud & B ouchud, 1 957) ( Tableau 1 ). D ans c e g isement, s ur 4 63 r estes d e l agopades o n t rouve 2 7% ' d 'humgrus, 2 6% d e f emurs, c ontre 1 0% d e m etacarpiens e t 5 % d e t arsomgtatarsiens. O n r etrouve u ne r gpartition a nalogue p our d es l agopades p rovenant d 'autres g isements m agdalgniens c omme c eux d 'Ebbou e t d e l 'Abri s upgrieur d u C olombier , t ous d eux s itugs ä V allon-Pont-d'Arc ( Ardache) ( Tableau 1 ).

l es

D ans l e c as d u g isement m agdalgnien d e l a g rotte d e l a V ache ( Ariage) l agopades g taient t rès a bondants e t , s elon K oby ( 1957), Us o nt t ras

1 15

M OURER-CHAUVIRE :

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES

c ertainement f te c hasses p ar l 'homme.

C et a uteur i ndique q uill n 'y a vait

p as d e t races d e n ids d e r apaces, p as d e p etits r ongeurs, e t q ue l es r estes d e l agopades e taient s urtout n ombreux a utour d es f oyers. B eaucoup d 'ossements p ortaient d e f ines i ncisions. I i n e m 'a p as e te p ossible d e c onnaitre l e n ombre e xact d es d ifferents o s d e l agopades d e l a g rotte d e l a V ache m ais K oby ( 1957) i ndique q ue l es o s l es p lus a bondants s ont l es c oracordes ( 474). L es h umerus ( 411) e t l es f emurs ( 302) s ont e galement a bondants t andis q ue l es t arsometatarsiens s ont n ettement p lus r ares ( un p eu p lus d 'une c entaine). C eci s uggare u ne r epartition c omparable ä c elle d e l 'Abri F ontalas. L es g isements a cheuleens d 'Aridos e n E spagne ,

c amportent t rois s tations

d e p lein-air , s ituees d ans l a p laine d 'inondation d u J arama. us o nt e te Merits c omme d eux a ires d e d ep «age d 'elephants e t u ne h alte d e c hasse ( AR - 1 , s ol s uperieur) ( Santonja & Q uerol , 1 980 ; L opez-Martinez, 1 980). L a h alte d e c hasse d 'Aridos

1a l ivre u ne t ras r iche f aune d e v ertebres

c omportant d es r estes d e m acromammifares, o iseaux , r eptiles , a mphibiens e t p oissons.

m ais a ussi d e m icromammifares, L a r epartition d es r estes o sseux

d ans l e s ol d 'occupation e t l 'etude t aphonomique m ontrent q ue c ette a ssociation d e f aune n 'est p as d ue ä u n a pport p ar l 'eau a u m oment d es c rues d u f leuve, n i äu n a pport p ar d es p elotes d e r ejection d e r apaces, m ais q u 'elle r esulte d 'une a ctivite d e c hasse p ar l 'homme. D ans c e g isement , l es r estes d e G alliformes ( Perdix p alaeoperdix e t A lectoris d u g roupe g raecar ufa) p resentent u ne p lus f orte p roportion d e c oracoides, h umerus e t f emurs q ui r apelle e galement c c q ue l 'on o bserve p our l es l agopades d e l 'Abri F ontalas ( Tableau 1 ) ( Mourer-Chauvire , 1 980). O n p eut s e d emander s i l es

d ifferences

o bservees

d ans

l es

p roportions

d es o s p euvent e tre d ues a u h asard d e l 'echantillonnage, o u s i c u es t raäuisent u ne a ction s pecifique. O n p eut s upposer q ue s i l es o iseaux e n q uestion

( Perdrix ,

l agopades ,

t etras)

e taient m orts

g isements, s ans i ntervention a nimale o u h umaine , s eraient c onserves d ans l es m e i nes p roportions.

s ur

p lace ,

d ans

l es

l es p rincipaux o s l ongs s e C 'est c c q ue l 'on o bserve

p ar e xemple, d ans l e c as d e r emplissages n aturels, p our l es o iseaux q ui v ivent s ur p lace , d ans l a g rotte o u d ans l es p arois r ocheuses p roches d e c elle-ci ( Chocards, p igeons b isets). L e t est d u X ' p ermet d e c amparer l a d istribution q ue l 'on o bserve a vec u ne d istribution t heorique. P our l es d onnees d u t ableau 1 , d ans d eux c as ( Galliformes d 'Aridos, t etras-lyres d 'Espache), l a v aleur d u X ' e st s uperieure a u s euil c orrespondant p our u ne p robabilite P = 0 ,01 e t, d ans t ous l es a utres c as , s uperieure a u s euil c orrespondant p our u ne p robabilite P = 0 ,001. O n p eut d onc e n c onclure q ue l es r epartitions o bservees d ifferent s ignificativement d e r epartitions d ues a u h asard d e l 'echantillonnage. C es d ifferences d e p roportion t raduisent d onc r eellement d es a ctions p articuliares. D 'autre p art o n p eut s e d emander ,

d ans l e c as o ü l es l agopades o nt e te

c hasses p ar l 'homne, p our q uelle r aison l es h umerus e t l es f emurs, a insi q ue l es c oracoides , s ont-ils p lus n ombreux q ue l es a utres o s? O n p eut s uggerer q ue, s i l e l agopades s ont r otis, l es o s r ecouverts d e c hair c omme l es c oracoides , l es h umerus e t l es f emurs, s e c onservent m ieux q ue l es o s d es s egments d istaux , q ui s ont e ux p lus d irecte r ient s oumis ä l 'action d u f eu. M ais d ans c c c as o n d evrait t rouver d es t races d e b rülures d istales , p ar e xemple s ur l es

c ubitus e t l es t ibiotarses,

116

a nalogues ä c elles q ui o nt e te

o c o

G i g n y s u r S u r a n

L e C o l o m b i e r

G i g n y s u r S u r a n

L a g o p u s m u t u s

T e t r a s u r o g a l u s

_0

T r o u d u S u r e a u

L a g o p u s l a g o p u s

L a g o p u s m u t u s

o

G i g n y s u r S u r a n

H a b i t a s p r ö h i s t o r i q u e s

L a F a g e

L a F a g e

A b r i F o n t a l ö s

S t . T h i b a u d

L a C o l m b i ö r e

e .

P ro le s d e t a i l le moyenne

1:

R epresentation

• =

•

_ d

=

e

g c T )

P ro ie s d e g rande t a i l le O iseaux c ha ssö s p a r l ' homme

O iseaux c ha ssö s p a r l e s R apace s F IGURE

E

G a l i f o r m e s

R .

R e m p l i s a g e s n a t u r e l s

e

L y r u s t e t r i x —

-

P . p a l e o p e r d i x —

H a b i t a s p r ö h i s t o r i q u e s

L a g o p u s l a g o p u s

L y r u s t e r i x

0 . C . 2

d es

p ourcentages

d es

d i f ferents

s quelette p our d es o iseaux c hasses s oit p ar d es r apaces ,

e lements

d u

s oit p ar 1 ' h omme

p reh ! star 'q ue . P ercentage r epresentation o f

d ifferent s keletal e lements o f b irds h unted b y

b irds o f p rey a nd o f b irds h unted b y p rehistor ic m an.

1 17

0

0

M OURER-CHAUVIRE :

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES

s ignalges p ar V igne e t a l. d 'Araguina-Sennola,

( 1981) c hez l es P rolagus d u g isement n golithique

e n C orse.

O r, p our c es o iseaux l es o s b r ings s ont

r elativement r ares e t l es b rAlures n e s emblent p as l ocalisges e n d es e ndroits p récis. P our l es l agop des d e l a c ouche I V d e l a B rillenhöhle ( voir p aragraphe I V), s elon B oessneck & v on d en D riesch ( 1973), l es h o mes s emblent a voir m ange p rs d es f oyers s eulement l es p arties p ortant d e l a v iande, e t a voir d gjä e nlevg a uparavant l es p arties d istales. M ais o n p eut s e d emander p our q uelle r aison? Q ue s ont d evenues l es e nlevges a vant l 'arrivge d ans l a g rotte?

p arties d istales? O nt-elles g tg O nt-elles g tg b alayges e t r ejetges

ä l 'extgrieur? P our l e m oment o n n e p eut f aire q ue d es c onstatations , a voir v raiment d 'explication .

s ans

B . H arfangs D ans

c ertains

g isements

d u S ud-Ouest

d e

l a F rance ,

e t

e n p articulier

d ans c elui d u M orin ä P essac-sur-Dordogne ( Gironde), o n t rouve u ne r gpartition e xtrgmement g tonnante d es r estes d e h arfang ( Nyctea s candiaca) ( Mourer-Chauvirg , 1 975 a , 1 979). D ans c e s ite l e h arfang e st t res a bondant e t r eprgsentg p ar 1 129 r estes c orrespondant a u m om s ä 8 4 i ndividus.

P armi

c es r estes p lus d e l a m oitig s ont d es p halanges p ostgrieures e t p armi c es p halanges o n t rouve p resque e xclusivement l es g riffes e t l es p halanges q ui l es p rge dent i mmgdiatement. C ela n e p eut p as s 'expliquer p ar u ne d ifference d e r obustesse c ar , p ar e xemple p our l e d oigt I II , l es p halanges 1 e t 2s ont a u m oins a ussi c ompactes e t r gsistantes q ue l es p halanges 3 e t 4 ( griffe e t p gnultieme). L e d gcompte d es r estes e st i ndiqug d ans l e t ableau 2 . D e p lus, p armi l es t arsomgtatarsiens, b eaucoup p rgsentent d es t races d e s ciage t ransversal; p armi l es t ibiotarses g galement c ertains o nt e u l eur e xtrgmitg d istale s cige. C eci s emble a voir g tg f ait d ans l e b ut d e d gtacher l 'extremitg d e l a p atte a vec s es d oigts e ncore e n c onnexion. B eaucoup d e r estes , y c ompris l es p halanges, p rgsentent d es s tries d e d gcarnisation. D es

t races

d e b rClures

s ont v isibles,

s urtout

s ur

l es o s

l ongs,

m ais

p ratiquement p as s ur l es p halanges. I i y a e u d ans c e g isement u ne e vidente s election d es g riffes e t d es a vant-derni res p halanges d e h arfang, p eut-gtre u tilisges c omme o bjet d e p arure o u d ans u n b ut p rophylactique. C ependant i i n 'y a p as d e t races d 'amenagement ( stries c irculaires o n p erforations) q ui a uraient p ermis d 'en f aire d es p endeloques. O n r etrouve p roportionnellement l a m e i ne a bondance d e p halanges d e h arfang d ans l es g isements d e l a G are d e C ouze ä L alinde ( Dordogne), d e G abillou ä S oursac ( Dordogne) e t d e J aurias ä S aint-Quentin-de-Baron ( Gironde) ( Mourer-Chauvirg , 1 975 a ). D 'apras c e q ue v ient d e v oir , p rincipalement p our l es l agopedes, o n d ispose d one d 'un m oyen p ermettant d e s avoir s i l es o iseaux o nt g tg c hassgs p ar l 'homme o n p ar d es r apaces. r eprgsentges

P our c ela i l f aut q ue l es e spAces s oient

p ar u n n ombre a ssez g levg d e t estes,

p ermettant d e v oir q uels

s ont l es g lgments p r6dominants p armi l es d iffgrents o s. S i l es e sp ces s ont r eprgsentges p ar t res p eu d e r estes, c e q ui e st f requent, o n n e p eut r ien d ire. 1 .

L es d iffgrents t ypes d e r gpartition s ont r eprgsentgs d ans l a f igure

118

T ABLEAU 2 :

N yctea s candiaca

( Har fang)

d u g isement d u M or in,

d ecompte d es

r estes o sseux .

E nsemble d es o s

N ombre

N ombre

m inimal

m inimal

d 'os

d 'o s

%

C oracoTdes

8 7

7 ,7

S acrum

1

0 ,1

S capulumus

8 3

7 ,4

V ertebres

2

0 ,2 0 ,2

H umerus

8 1

7 ,2

CAtes

2

R adius

2 7

2 ,4

M and ibules

2

0 ,2

C ubltus

3 0

2 ,7

M etatarsiens

1

0 ,1

M etacarpiens

2 7

2 ,4

P erones

1 4

1 ,2

F emurs

2 5

2 ,2

O s c arpiens

3

0 ,3

T ibIotarses

5 1

4 ,5

P halanges a nter ieures

1

0 ,1

T arsometatarsiens

6 4

5 ,7

P ha langes p oster ieures

6 28

T otal

129

D etail

P h

d es p halanges p oster ieures

1D 1 ( penult.)

P h 2 D 1 ( gr iffe) P h

5 5,6

1D 1

6 0

9 ,6

1D I V

0

9 1

1 4,5

P h 2D I V

0

3

P h 2 D I

( penult.)

P h 3D 1

( griffe)

P h

0 ,5

P h 3D I V

7 4

1,8

P h 4D I V

( penult.)

1 28

2 0 ,4

P h 5D I V

( griffe)

0 3 0

4 ,8

14

1 8 ,1

6 28

P h 1 D II

2

0 ,3

T otal

P h 2D I ll

4

0 ,6

T ota l

d es g r iffes

3 96

6 3 ,1

T otal

d es p enultiemes

2 23

3 5,5

P h 3D I ll

( penult.)

5 9

9 ,4

P h 4 D I ll

( gr iffe)

6 3

1 0 ,0

A utres p halanges

1 19

9

1 ,4

M OURER-CHAUVIRE:

I V .

p ar

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES

G ISEMENTS O U L 'ON T ROUVE A L A F OIS L ES D EUX O RIGINES D ans c ertains g isements o n p eut t rouver ä l a f ois d es o iseaux c hassgs l 'homme e t p ar d es r apaces , c houettes o u h iboux . C 'est l e c as , p ar

e xemple , d u G rand A bri d e l a F errassie , ä S avignac-de-Miremont ( Dordogne). D ans c e g isement o n t rouve e n p articulier d e n ombreux r estes d e p erdrix g rise ( Perdix p erdix) q ui p rgsentent l a r epartition c aractgristique d es o iseaux c hassgs p ar d es r apaces ( Tableau 1 ). C es r estes p rovienent t res v raisemblablement d e p elotes d e r ejection e t l eur p osition d ans l es c ouches s uit l e r ecul p rogressif d u s urplomb d e l 'abri a u c ours d e t emps. D 'autre p art

o n

t rouve

q uelques

o ssements

d e

g rands

r apaces

d iurnes

( Aegypius m onachus, G ypagtus b arbatus, A quila c hrysagtos) q ui p ortent d es i ncisions o u d es t races d e b ralures e t q ui p roviennent p lut8t d u f ond d e l 'abri. C es g rands r apaces u tilises, p ar l 'homme.

s emblent

d onc

a voir g te c hassgs,

o u d u m oins

L e g isement d e B rillenhöhle, d ans l 'Alb s ouabe , e n A llemagne , r enferme d e t res n ombreux r estes d e l agopedes ( Lagopus l agopus e t L . m utus). B oessneCk & v on d en D riesch ( 1973) o nt r emarqug q ue d ans l a c ouche T V l es r estes d e l agopedes g taient r assemblgs p res d 'un g rand f oyer e t c omprenaient s urtout d es c oracoides, d es h umerus e t d es f emurs. C es o ssements r eprgsentent d es r estes d e n ourriture d es h o mes.

e t

A u c ontraire d ans l e c ouches i nfgrieures, s urtout d ans l es c ouches V , V I V II , l es p lus r iches, l es o ssements d e l agopedes c omportent u ne g rande

p roportion d e t arsomgtatarsiens e t d e m gtacarpiens. S elon l es a uteurs c ette r gpartition c orrespond ä l 'action d 'animaux p rgdateurs ( mammiferes o u o iseaux). L e d ecompte d es r estes e st i ndiqug d ans l e t ableau 3 . D ans l e t ableau 1 , l es n ombres i ndiqugs c orrespondent a u n ombre m inimal d 'os p our c haque e lement d u s quelette , t andis q ue d ans l e t ableau 3 us c orrespondent a u n ombre d e r estes. O r l es c oracoides, h umerus e t f emurs t rouvgs a utour d u f oyer d e l a c ouche I V g taient t res s ouvent c omplets, t andis q ue l es c ubitus g taient t ous c asses ( Boessneck & v on d en D riesch , 1 973 , p . 3 7). S i l 'on c ompte l e n ombre d e r estes l es c ubitus s ont d onc s urgvalugs p ar r apport a ux c oracoides, h umerus e t f emurs. N ganmoins l es p ourcentages s ont t res v ois i ns d e c eux q ue l 'on o bserve d ans l es a utres g isements, p our d es l agopedes c hassgs s oit p ar 1' ho t l i ne s oit p ar d es r apaces.

V . U TILISATION P AR L 'HOM IE L a p resence d e s tries d e d gcarnisation s ur l es o ssements d 'oiseaux e st u n d es a rguments u tilise p our a ffirmer q ue c es o iseaux o nt

g te c hassgs

p ar

l 'homme. O n e n t rouve p ar e xemple s ur l es o s d e l agopedes d e l 'Abri F ontales o u d e l a g rotte d e l a V ache. M ais o n p eut s e d emander ä q uoi c orrespondent c es

s tries

d e d gcarnisation?

S i l es h ommes

d u P algolithique

o nt m ange d es

l agopedes, r otis o u n on , o nt-ils r gellement g prouve l e b esoin d e l es d gcouper s oigneusement a vec d es l ames o u d es l amelles? P eut-etre l a p resence d e s tries d e d gcarnisation c orrespond-elle ä u ne u tilisation a utre q u 'alimentaire

? D ans

l e g isement m agdalgnien d e P ierre C hätel ä V irignin

( Am ) o n t rouve d es s tries d e d gcarnisation s ur d es o s d e l agopedes, d e t etras-lyres , d e g rue c endrge ( Grus g rus), d e c anard c hipeau ( A r ias s trepera), d e p ie

( Pica p ica),

( Corvus c orax).

d e

c hocard

( Pyrrhocorax g raculus)

e t

d e

g rand c orbeau

I l e st p ossible q ue t ous c es o iseaux a ient g te c onsommés,

1 20

T ABLEAU

3 :

L agopedes

( Lagopus

d 'apres B oessneck & v on d en D r iesch

l agopus ( 1973).

e t L . m utus)

d e

l a B r illenhöhle ,

L e n ombre N c orrespond a u n ombre

d e r estes.

O iseaux c hasses p ar C ouche

O iseaux c hasses p ar d es a nimaux p redateurs

l 'homme

C ouches V ,

I V

C orarcoides

3 09

2 2

2 7

H umerus

4 85

3 5

4 7

R adius C ubitus M etarcarpiens F emurs

6 1

2 5

2

3 1

7

14

8

3 8

8 ,5

2

7 4

2 8 3 79

2 7

4 2

T ibiotarses

3 3

2

3 8

T arsometatarsiens

2 8

2

1 44

T otal

V I,

1 401

4 41

1 21

1 7 9 8 ,5 3 3

V II

M OURER-CHAUVIRE:

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES

m ais i l e st p ossible g galement q ue l es s tries c orrespondent ä u ne a ction d e d gpev .age, p lunes. D ans

d e l 'aile p ar e xemple,

l a

p lupart

d es

g isements

p our l 'utiliser e ncore p ourvue d e s es

o n

t rouve q uelques

r estes

d 'oiseaux d e

g rande t aille c omme d es c ygnes o u d e g rands r apaces d iurnes, a igle , v autours, g ypaate, p ygargue e tc... C es f ormes n e s ont s ouvent r eprgsentges q ue p ar d e p etits f ragments q ui m ontrent s ouvent d es s tries d e d gcarnisation . O n p eut p eut-gtre s upposer u ne u tilisation d es g randes p lumes o u d es o s l ongs d e c es o iseaux ? D ans l e g isement d u M orin u ne g rande p artie d es h umerus d e h arfang p rgsentent g galement d es s tries d e d gcarnisation ( Chauvirg ,

1 965).

E n d ehors d e c es s imples s tries o n t rouve d es r estes d 'oiseaux q ui p ortent d e v gritables t races d e f abrication d 'outils. C ertains o ssements d e g rands o iseaux o nt s ystgmatiquement g tg u tilisgs p our l a f abrication d 'aiguilles e n o s. C 'est l e c as, p ar e xemple, d es o ssements d e g rande o utarde ( Otis t arda) d ans l e P algolithique s upgrieur d e M oravie ( Absolon , 1 937) o u d es o ssements d e g rue d es c avernes ( Grus p rimieenia) d es g isements d e l a M adeleine e t d es E yzies ( Mourer-Chauvirg , 1 979). L es o s d e g rands o iseaux o nt g galement g tg u tilisgs p our l a f abrication d e t ubes.

D ans c ertains c as o n n e r etrouve p as l e t ube l ui-mgme m ais

s eulement l es e xtremitgs d es o s l ongs s oigneusement s ciges. C 'est l e c as p ar e xample p our u n c ubitus d e v autour f auve ( Gyps f ulvus) e t u n c ubitus d e c ygne s auvage ( Cygnus c ygnus) p rovenant d 'Arcy-sur-Cure ( Mourer-Chauvirg , 1 979 , f ig. 3 AL , B ). D ans d 'autres c as l es t ubes e ux-mgmes s ont r etrouvgs e t l 'on p eut v oir q u 'ils o nt g tg u tilises c omae f lacons ä o cre , g tuis ä a iguilles e tc... C ertains t ubes e n o s d 'oiseau o nt g tg t ransformgs e n s ifflets, e n a ppeaux o u m gme e n v gritables f lütes ( Fages & M ourer-Chauvirg , s ous p resse). L es t ubes f abriqugs ä p artir d 'os d e p etite t aille o nt s ouvent g tg u tilisgs c omme e lements d 'enfilage p our c olliers o u o nt P u g tre c ousus s ur d es v gtements. E nfin d e n ombreuses o euvres d 'art p algolithiques o nt g tg g ravges s ur o s d 'oiseau ( Mourer-Chauvirg , 1 979).

V I . C ONCLUSION L es r estes d 'oiseaux p euvent a pporter d es i nformations q ui n e c onsistent p as s implement e n u ne l iste d 'espaces e t d es i ndications c oncernant l e b iotope e nvironnant e t l e c limat , m ais g galement l e m ode d e v ie d es h omnes p rghistoriques. P our c ela i l e st c apital q ue l eurs r estes s oient r epgrgs ä l a f ouille d e l a f .non l a p lus p recise p ossible , e t q u'ils s oient r ecueillis e n t otalitb. D ans l es a nnges ä v enir i l e st ä s ouhaiter q ue d es e tudes t aphonomiques s oient e ntreprises p our p rgciser c es r gsultats s ur l es p roportions d es o s c onserves, l 'emplacement d es b rülures e t d es i ncisions s ur l es o s b r i ngs o u i ncises e tc... O n s 'apercevra a lors q ue l es o iseaux n 'gtaient p as s eulement u n g ibier d 'appoint r ecueilli s ur l es g raves p ar q uelque c ollecteur d e m ollusques , m ais q u'ils g taient a ussi i ntimenment l ies ä l a v ie q uotidienne e t a u p sychisme d es

h omnes

d e l a p rghistoire q ue l es

r ennes, l es b isons o u l es m ammouths.

S UMMARY W hen r emains

o f

b irds

a re p lentiful,

1 22

c omparison o f

t he p roportions o f

M OURER-CHAUVIRE:

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES

t he d ifferent s keletal e lements c oming f rom n atural d eposits o n t he o ne h and , a nd p alaeolithic d wellings o n t he o ther h and , m akes i t p ossible t o s how t hat, w hen t he b irds h ave b een h unted b y r aptorial b irds, a s tronger p roportion o f m etacarpi a nd t arsometatarsi i s t o b e f ound f or m edium-sized p rey a nd o f c oracoids, t ibiotarsi a nd t arsometatarsi f or l arger-sized p rey. W hen t he b irds h ave b een h unted b y m en , o n t he c ontrary, a s tronger p roportion o f h umeri a nd f emora i s t o b e f ound.

B irds h ave b een h unted b y m an f or f ood b ut a lso f or t he u tilization o f t heir b ones a s r aw m aterial a nd m aybe f or t heir f eathers, a nd f urther t aphonamic s tudies w ill p rovide u s m ore i nformation.

B IBLIOGRAPHIE A bsolon ,

C .

( 1937).

M agdalenien d e M öravie

L es f lütes p aleolithiques d e l 'Aurignacien e t d u

( analyse m usicale e t

e thnologique c omparative ,

d emonstrations). C ongras p rehistorique d e F rance , F oix , 1 936 , 7 70-784 . B oessneck,

J .

&D riesch,

X II ° s ession ,

a vec

T oulouse-

A . v on d en ( 1973). D ie j ungpleistozänen I n ( G . R ick , E d.) D as P aläolithikum I I . F orschungen u nd B erichte z ur v or

T ierknochenfunde a us d er B rillenhöhle. d er B rillenhöhle b ei B laubeuren , T eil u nd F rügeschichte i n B aden-Württemberg , B ouchud, P . &B ouchud, J . ( 1957).

S tuttgart, 4 , I I ,

1 05 p p.

L a m icrofaune d e l 'abri s ous r oche d e'

F ontalas, p ras S aint-Antonin ( Tarn-et-Garonne). B ulletin d e l a S ociete d 'Etudes e t d e R echerches p rehistoriques, L es E yzies 7 , 1 -3. C hauvire, C . ( 1965). L es o iseaux d u g isement m agdalenien d u M orin ( Gironde). 8 9° C ongras d es S ocietes s avantes, L yon 1 964 , 2 55-266. D upont , M .E. ( 1872). Lth omme p endant l es a ges d e l a p ierre d ans e nvirons d e D inant-sur-Meuse. B ruxelles: M uquardt.

d e

l es

F ages, G . &M ourer-Chauvire , C . ( sous p resse). L a f lüte e n o s d 'oiseau l a g rotte s epulcrale d e V eyreau ( Aveyron) e t i nventaire d es f lutes

p rehistoriques d 'Europe. G eroudet, P . e dition . N euchatel :

M emoires d e l a S ociete p rehistorique f ran aise.

( 1965). L es R apaces d iurnes e t n octurnes d 'Europe, D elachaux e t N iestle .

3°

K oby, F . E . ( 1957). L es l agopades d e l a s tation m agdalenienne d e L a V ache d ans l es P yrenees. E cologae g eologicae H elvetiae. L ausanne , B asel, 5 0 ( 2), 5 64-568 . L opez-Martinez, N .

( 1980).

A nalisis t afonamico y p aleoecologico d e l os

v ertebrados d e A ridos-1 ( Pleistoceno m edio, A rganda , M adrid). a chelenses e n e l V alle d el J arama.

I n O cupaciones

D iputacion p rovincial d e M adrid , A rquelogia

yP aleoecologia 1 , 3 07-320 . M ourer-Chauvire, C . ( 1975a). L es o iseaux d e P leistocane m oyen e t s uperieur d e F rance. D ocuments d es L aboratoires d e G eologie d e l a F aculte d es S ciences d e L yon

6 4 , p ts. I & I I, 6 24 p p .

1 23

M OURER-CHAUVIRE: M ourer-Chauvirg , C . m oyen d es A bimes d e

L ES O ISEAUX D ANS L ES H ABITATS P ALEOLITHIQUES ( 1975b). L es o iseaux ( Ayes) d u g isement p lgistocene l a F age a N oailles ( Correze). N ouvelles

A rchives d u M üsgum d 'Histoire n aturelle d e L yon M ourer-Chauvirg, P rghistoire.

R echerche,

M ourer-Chauvirg ,

C .

C .

( 1979).

L a

P aris 1 0 ( 106), ( 1980).

1 3 , 8 9112.

c hasse

a ux

o iseaux

p endant

l a

1 2021210 .

L as A yes d el s itio d e o ccupacion a chelense

d e A ridos 1 ( Arganda , M adrid). I n O ccupaciones a chelenses e n e l V alle d el J arama. D iputacion p rovincial d e M adrid , A rquelogia y P aleoecologia 1 , 1 451 60 . S antonja , M . & Q uerol , A . ( 1980). C arateristicas d e l a o ccupacion h umana e n l os s uelos a chelenses d e l a T erraza d e A ridos ( Arganda , M adrid). I n O ccupazione a chelenses e n e l V alle d el J arama . M adrid , A rquelogia y P aleoecologia 1 , 3 21-336 .

D iputacion p rovincial

d e

V igne, J .D., M arinval-Vigne, M .C., L anfranchi, F . d e &W eiss, M .C. ( 1981). C onsommation d u " Lapin-rat" ( Prolagus s ardus, WAGNER) a u N golithique a ncien m gditerrangan. A bri d 'Araguina-Sennola ( Bonifacio , C orse).

B ulletin d e l a S ocigtg p rghistorique f ran aise, 7 8 ( 7), 2 22-224 .

1 24

T HE I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN A T I NLAND S ITES I N D ENMARK

N anna N oe-Nygaard I nstitute o f H istorical G eology a nd P alaeontology O ster V oldgade 1 0 D K1350 C openhagen K D enmark

I NTRODUCTION T he i mportance o f d ifferent t ypes o f f ood i n t he e conomy o f M esolithic m an i n t he c ontext o f h abitation p atterns a nd m igration s ystems i s a s ubject w hich s hould r eceive m ore a ttention. U nderstanding t he e xploitation p otential o f m ammals, f ish, b irds, a nd m ussels m ay t hrow l ight o n t he n ecessity f or y early m igration o f M esolithic m an i n c ontrast t o t he p ossibility o f s taying e ssentially s tationary w ithin a c ertain t erritory. B one a ssemblages o f m ammals,

f ish,

a nd b irds a t c oastal M esolithic

h abitations a re w ell k nown . E rteb ( 611e k itchen m iddens w hich c ontain o yster , m ussel a nd c ockle s hells a re e xcellent e vidence o f a s upplementary d iet d uring t he m idsummer s eason ( Noe-Nygaard , 1 967 ; P oulsen , 1 980). O nly r ecently h ave h ighly i mproved e xcavating t echniques a nd s ieving m ethods e stablished h ow i mportant f ish w ere i n t he d aily d iet a t c oastal s ites ( Aaris Urensen , 1 980). T he m ajor r ole o f t he a quatic r esources i s c learly s upported b y i sotopic i nvestigations ( Tauber , 1 979 , 1 981a , 1 981b). T his

a rticle a ttempts

t o a nalyse t he f eeding h abits o f M esolithic m an

l iving a t i nland s ites w ith s pecial r eference t o t he a quatic r esources. T he i nland p eople a ppear t o h ave e xploited a ll f ood r esources a vailable a round t he l ake, b ogs a nd r ivers, b y h unting a nd c ollecting b irds, f ish a nd m ussels. T his i s t he s ame t ype o f f ood e xploitation a s o ccurred a long c oasts. T here m ust h ave b een i ntercommunication b etween i nland a nd c oastal p eople a s t he r emains o f m arine a nimals s uch a s s purdog s pine i mplements a nd s eal b ones a re f ound a t t he i nland s ites ( Noe-Nygaard, 1 971). N evertheless, t he t wo g roups a dapted t o d ifferent h abitats a nd w ere p robably r ather s tationary w ithin t heir p referred a reas.

T he i nvestigation a nalyses s tatistically

t he

f ish b one a ccumulations o f p ossibly m ixed o rigin a round t he l ake m argin t ogether w ith t he f reshwater m ussel h eaps. T he M esolithic i nland s ite o f P raestelyngen s erves a s ac ase s tudy

( Figure 1 ).

T HE E XPLOITATION O F F ISH A pproximately 1 00 e arly a nd l ate M esolithic s ettlements h ave b een r ecorded f rom t he l arge A amose b og a rea i n t he m iddle o f S jaelland ( Andersen , p ers.

c omm .)

( Figure

1 ).

L ess

t han t wenty o f

1 25

t hese h ave b een e xcavated.

( = Z e a l a n d ) .

I n t h e t e x t .

41 : , )•

1 26

N 0E-NYGAARD : T he

m ajority

o f

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN t hese

s ettlements

s how

u nequivocal

s igns

o f

s easonal

a nd

s hort h abitation p eriods. 5 000

f ish

b ones

w ere

r etrieved

f rom

t he

s ite o f P raestelyngen

( 3280 + 100bc , K 2049). A round 4 000 w ere d eterminable a nd 7 8% o f t hese b elong t o E sox l ucius, t he p ike. T he r est a re d istributed b etween t he f ollowing s pecies: t ench T inca t inca, p erch P erca f luviatilis, c rusian c arp C arassius c arassius, b ream A bramis b rama, r oach R utilus r utilus, r udd S cardinius e rythropthalmus, s purdog S qualus a canthias, a nd c atfish S ilurus g lanis. A t t he s ame s ite t here w ere 7 66 f ragments o f r ed d eer , b elonging t o a n e stimated m inimum n umber o f n ine i ndividuals. A ll m ammal b ones r epresent t he r emains o f h uman m eals w hich w ere l ater t hrown i nto t he l ake. M ost o f t he w ell p reserved f ish b one m aterial s tems f rom r efuse t hat w as d eposited i n t he l ake s ediments a djacent

t o t he s ite.

C onsequently,

c arcasses f rom t he n atural p opulation o f l ake f ish m ay b e m ixed w ith r efuse f rom t he s ite. O n t he b asis o f t he m aterial f rom P raestelyngen t wo q uestions a re i nvestigated : 1 ) a re t he e xcavated f ish r emains l eft-overs f rom m eals?, a nd 2 ) i f n ot, h ow i s i t p ossible t o d istinguish b etween d ischarge f rom t he s ite a nd r emains o f f ish w hich h ave d ied n aturally? T he f ish b ones

f ound o n d ry l and a round t he s ite

p robably d erive o nly

f rom m eals p repared b y M esolithic m an , w hilst t he i n-shore l ake d eposits m ay v ery w ell b e c omposed o f b oth r efuse f rom t he s ite a nd a ccumulations o f f ish w hich d ied n aturally i n t he l ake. A t t he p resent d ay a r im u p t o 5 m w ide o f d ead f loating f ish w ith u p-turned, a ir-filled b ellies c an b e c ommonly o bserved. S uch m ass m ortalities m ay h ave s everal r easons i ncluding l ack o f f ood, o r m ore c ommonly s uffocation b eneath a t hick l ate w inter i ce c over. A ccumulations o f f ish b ones a re o ften a utomatically i nterpreted a s i ndicating t hat c ertain c ultures w ere f ishing c ultures. S imilarly , l ack o f f ish b ones a t a s ite i s t aken t o i ndicate t hat t he i nhabitants i gnored f ish a s af ood s ource A t

( Brq 3ndsted ,

P raestelyngen i t

1 957).

i s c lear ,

b oth f rom t he l arge n umber o f f ragments

a nd f rom t he e stimated m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals ( 250) t hat p ike w as t he d ominant f ish . P ike i s a p redator a t t he a pex o f t he f ood p yramid w hilst p erch a nd t he o ther f ish s pecies w hich o ccur, a re i ts p otential p rey. C onsequently , t he r atio o f t he t wo g roups d oes n ot r eflect t he c omposition o f t he n atural f auna o f f ish i n t he l ake. S everal a ttempts h ave b een m ade b y p oisoning a l ake t o r etrieve t he t otal p opulation. O n t he w hole t he r esults a re c omparable w ith o ne a nother L arsen , p oisoned

1 961).

F or c omparative

b y r otenone

i s

p ertinent

( Malin & E nros, r easons t o

t he

1 956;

t he f ish f auna p roblem

B erzins,

1 958 ;

o f a m odern l ake

p resented h ere

( Larsen ,

1 961). T he m odern l ake i s c omparable t o t he A amose l ake w ith r egard t o s ize, d epth , p H a nd s urroundings. L arsen c ounted 1 6 ,693 f ishes f rom t he l ake , d istributed a s f ollows: r oach , 1 3 ,731, p erch 1 ,522 , r udd 1 ,263 , p ike 11, t ench 6 9 , c rucian c arp 1 , e el 5 . T he a bundance o f t he v arious s pecies i s i n a ccordance w ith a n ormal d istribution o f p rey a nimals a nd p redators.

L arsen

p ointed o ut t hat p robably n ot a ll f ish w ere c aught a nd c ounted, b ut t he n umber o f m issing w ould o nly c hange t he r atio b etween t he t wo g roups m inimally. I t t hus s eems c lear t hat t he d ominance o f p ike i n t he A amose d eposits d oes n ot r eflect t he c omposition o f t he n atural f auna. T he o bvious e xplanation o f t he p ike d ominance i s t hat i t w as t he p referred f ish f or

1 27

I ND IV IDUALS %

% OF NUMBER OF F RAGMENTS P R iES I L LYNGEN n. 4 890

VO IGTSTEDT

MODERN PO ISON E C

n.5 50

L AKE n, .1 6693

7 8 ,7

5 2 ,6

0 , 7

P ike T ench

8 , 9

2 9 , 1

0 , 4

P e rch

8 , 7

6 , 4

9 , 1

C rus ion Ca rp

1 , 2

3 . 8

0 , 1

B ream

0 , 7

0 , 4

R oach

1 , 0

0 , 8

8 2 ,2

R udd

0 , 2

6 , 2

7 , 6

S pur d og

0 , 2

S p ine lach

3 , 0

E e l F IGURE

0 , 1

2 :

C romer ian

T he % d istr ibut ion o f i nterg lacial

l ake

n ear

f ish f ragments o f t he v ar ious s pec ies a t a V oigtstedt

a nd

a t

t he

M eso lithic

P raeste lyngen c ompared t o t he r e lative f requenc ies o f f ish s pec ies p o isoned

s ite

o f

i n am odern

l ake .

9 0 8 0

y=2 62 .48+ 5 9 .76x r=0 .9000 . / .K • • 7 . , „ l e•, • 1 r . . . . . . -. • I. , . • i p •r . .y=10r9=.30+ 5 . 9 1x , - . 0 .8902

7 0 E

: E a . )

6 0 5 0

a ) 7 3 4 0 I —

3 0 2 0 1 0

l b

2 0

30

' 4 0

5

6 00

7 ; 3

8 0 '

' 9 0 ' 1 Ö0 10 m m 7 •D en ta l l e ng th mm o Den ta l w id th mm

F IGURE

3 :

T he

t ine

h eight o f t he d ental M ora les

& R osenlund ,

l ength o f t he d enta l

( a)

s hows

t he

b one w ith t ota l 1 979);

T he

b one a nd t ota l

c orre lation l ength o f

l ine

( b)

b etween

s hows

t he

l ength o f t he p ike .

t aken o n m odern p ike m ater ial.

1 28

t he

t he a nima l

m aximum

c orrelat ion A ll

d ista l

( measurement a fter o f

t ota l

m easurements w ere

N OE-NYGAARD :

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN

c onsumption b y m an ,

p ossibly b ecause

o f a c ombination o f

f lavour ,

e ase

o f

c atching a nd t ype o f f ishing e quipment. P ike i s r elatively e asy t o c atch d uring s pring a nd e arly s ummer w hen i t i nhabits t he s hallow , w arm w ater z one n ear t he l ake s hore, w here t he m ating d ance t akes p lace. T here a re, h owever , o ther p ossible e xplanations f or t he l arge n umbers o f p ike. P ike b ones h ave a c onspicuous s hiny b lack s urface w hich m ay l ead t o a c ollecting b ias i n b lack b og d eposits. B ut t he v ery c areful e xcavation t echnique a pplied a t P raestelyngen d iminish c ollecting b ias t o a m inimum. F ew f ragments w ill e scape t he e xcavator w ho i s h elped b y t he d ifference i n c olour b etween s ediment a nd a ll p reserved b one m aterial. F urthermore , p ike b ones m ay b e m ore r esistant t o s cavengers, w eathering , a nd d iagenesis t han b ones o f o ther f ish. F inally, t he d ominance o f p ike m ay r eflect a n u nstable m onos pecific f auna d eveloped u nder a bnormal c onditions s uch a s i n t he p resent d ay e nclosed m arl p its. P ike m ay o verwhelmingly d ominate i n i solated w aterf illed m arl p its w ith n o i nlet o r o utlet. I ndividuals l iving u nder s uch c onditions a re c ommonly " Kummer F ormen", t hat i s t hey h ave l arge h eads a nd r elatively s mall b odies a nd t ails. U nder c ertain c ircumstances t hese p ikes m ay b e c annibalistic. I n t he c ase o f t he A amose B asin s uch c onditions d id n ot p revail. T he f aunal r emains a nd t he p ollen s pectrum f rom t his p eriod i ndicate a n o pen l ake w ith v egetation a long t he s hore. A lso t he p resent d ay r iver H alleby A a r an t hrough t he a rea , a s i t d oes t oday. T hus t he l ake h ad af resh w ater i nlet a nd o utlet p ermitting i mmigration o f f ish . I n o rder t o e valuate t he i nfluence o f m an o n t he d eposition o f f ish i n t he P raestelyngen s ite i n t he A amosen, i t w as c ompared t o a C romeri nterglacial a ge l ake d eposit, s ituated n ear V oigtstedt i n t he G erman D emocratic R epublic w hich w as d escribed b y D eckert ( in K ahlke, 1 965). T he p ossibility o f h uman i nterference a t V oigtstedt i s n egligible. T housands o f b ones f rom v arious s pecies o f v ertebrates w ere r etrieved f rom t he s ite. A pparently t he s hallow-water l ake h ad a f ew d eeper p ools a nd h ad a s amll s tream r unning t hrough i t. A mong t he b one r emains t here w ere a bout 5 50 i dentified f ish b ones d istributed a mongst e ight s pecies ( Figure 2 ). M ore t han h alf o f t he f ragments w ere o f p ike. I n c omparing V oigtstedt w ith P raestelyngen i t i s s triking t hat p ike i s t he d ominant f ish i n b oth d eposits. F urthermore, t he d istribution o f t he f ragments o f t he v arious s keletal e lements i s v ery s imilar , a t l east f or t he f ive m ost c ommon e lements. T he d ifference b etween t he t wo d eposits i s t hat a t V oigtstedt v ery f ew b ody s keletal r em ains w ere r etrieved. T his l ack o f t he s maller a nd l ighter p art o f t he s keleton m ay b e d ue t o s ample b ias o r t hey m ay h ave b een r emoved b y c urrent a ction . D eckert i nterpreted t he d istribution o f b one f ragrents f or t he v arious s pecies o f f ish a s a r esponse t o d iffering r esistance t o m echanical w ear. T he f ollowing c onclusion(s) m ay b e d rawn f rom t he f ish r emains o f t hese t hree l ake t ypes. T he q uantitative c omposition o f t he v arious s pecies o f t he s ubfossil f aunas i n t he C romer l ake a nd t he M esolithic l ake a re c losely s imilar , w hereas t hey d iffer m arkedly f rom t he q uantitative c omposition o f t he s pecies i n t he m odern l ake d escribed b y L arsen ( 1961). T his s uggests t hat t he d istribution o f t he v arious s pecies c annot s imply b e a scribed t o a h uman f actor , b ut m ay j ust a s w ell b e t he r esult o f m echanical a nd c hemical b iasing f actors T hus,

( cf. D eckert, i n K ahlke ,

1 965).

i t i s n ecessary t o i nvestigate o ther l ines o f e vidence i n o rder t o

d irectly a ssociate f ish b ones a t P raestelyngen w ith h uman a ctivities a t t he s ite.

T his w as a ttempted i n t wo w ays:

1 29

1 )

t he p opulation s tructure o f t he

N OE-NYGAARD :

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN

P raestelyngen p ike w as r econstructed.

2 ) T he y early s eason a t w hich t hey h ad

d ied w as a nalysed b y y ear-ring a nalysis. T he r elation b etween d istal h eight o f t he d ental b one a nd t he t otal l ength o f 1 4 a nimals h as b een a nalysed i n a m aterial o f 1 00 m odern p ikes. T he r egression ( Figure 3 ) s hows a h ighly s ignificant r elationship w ith a c orrelation c oefficient, r = 0 .900 . F rom t he e quation o f t his l ine a nd t he m easurements o f t he d istal h eight o f t he P raestelyngen d ental b one t he s ize d istribution , e xpressed r econstructed ( Figure 4 ).

b y

t otal

l ength

o f

t he

p ike

p opulation,

w as

T he s ize s tructure o f t he P raestelyngen p opulation c learly d iffers f rom t hat o f t he m odern p oisoned l ake ( Figure 4 ). T he d ominance o f av ery l imited s ize r ange b etween 3 0 a nd 7 0 c m s uggests s elective k illing o f f ish a nd s trongly i mplies t hat t he f ish b ones a ccummualtion w as d ue t o h uman a ctivity.

T he n arrow s ize r ange o f t he s elected f ish m ay b e ar esult o f t he

m ethod o f k illing. O n s everal o ccasions E rteb ( 611e f ish s pears, h ooks a nd t raps h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he l ake a rea ( Troels-Smith , 1 953). T he u se o f f ish s pear s trongly b iases t he c atch i n f avour o f t he l arger f ishes, a s t hey a re e asier t o h it. P ike a re a pproximately 2 y ears o ld b efore t hey m ature, a t w hich t ime t hey h ave r eached a l ength o f a bout 2 7 - 4 8 c m f or m ales a nd 3 1 - 4 9 c m f or f emales ( Frost & K ipling , 1 967). T he v ery l arge p ike m ay h ave b een t oo c unning t o c atch, o r t hey m ay h ave i nhabited l ess e asily a ccessible p arts o f t he l ake. T he p ike c aught a t P raestelyngen m ost l ikely r epresent m ature i ndividuals w hich c ould e asily b e o btained a t t heir s pawning g rounds a t l ow w ater n ear t he r im o f t he l ake. T he s ize c omposition o f t he p ike a t P raestelyngen m ight, h owever , b e a r esult o f a c atastrophic m ass m ortality o f s pecific a ge g roups. T his m ay h ave b een b rought a bout b y a noxic c onditions b elow w inter i ce o r b y b iogenic o ver-production i n t he l ake d uring w arm s table s ummer c onditions w hich w ould c ause l ack o f o xygen o r b iogenic t oxification . I n o rder t o e liminate s ome o f t hese n atural f actors, t he s eason o f d eath o f t he f ossil p ike w as e stimated b y y ear-ring a nalysis o f 7 9 w ell p reserved v ertebrae , f ollowing C asteel ( 1976) a nd V oorhies ( 1969). I t i s n oteworthy t hat f rom a bout 3 ,000 p ike b one f ragments o nly s ome 1 20 v ertebrae a nd v ery f ew o ther b ody s keletal e lements w ere p reserved. T his m ay b e d ue t o t he f act t hat m ore t han a bout 9 0% o f t he b one m aterial f rom t he s ite w as r ecovered f rom a h uman d ump f rom t he n ear s hore l ake d eposits a nd t hus m ay c ontain o nly t he u nwanted p arts o f t he p rey. A p ike h ead i s u nattractive, h as v ery l ittle m eat o n i t a nd h as s harp t eeth . T he m any b ones f rom t he p ike h ead m ay t hus r epresent t he r emains o f t he f illeted f ish . T his i nterpretation o f i mmediate d ecapitation o f t he p ike a t t he l ake m argin i s s uppported b y t wo p oints.

T he n umber o f p aired c ranial b ones i s a lmost

t he s ame f or t he v arious s keletal e lements i ndicating t hat t he w hole h ead w as d umped a t o ne t ime. F urther , a t ac oastal s ite , O lbylyng , o f a pproximately t he s ame a ge a s P raestelyngen ( Figure 1 ), t he c ranial b ones o nly r epresent 1 2 % o f t he f ish b one d istribution ( M$ 1 11, 1 970). T he c oastal p eople p robably n ever b rought t he f ish h eads t o t he s ite i tself,

a s t hey w ere d umped a t t he

p lace w here t he f ish w ere l anded. I n o rder t o e stimate t he s eason o f d eath o f t he p ike f r om P raestelyngen a s ample o f 1 00 m odern p ike w as c ollected t hroughout o ne y ear. T he

1 30

C ompa r ison o fp opu la t ions t ruc tu re i nP La nd an a tu ra lp opu la t ion

1 05 0

.a111111111 1 114.11.1.

2 0

2 5

3 0

.I

▪ 3% ▪4 b

45

I Il

5 0

5 5

▪

6 0

1.

6 5

.

f

.

7 0

8 b

8 5

.a c m

Mode rn P o isoned c a tch T o ta l l e ng th n=1 1 1

1 0-

0

1 05 0 1 0

cm

1 5 A )

2 5

3 5

I

Mode rn P o isoned c a tch i n 5 cm c lasses

51 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

cm

P L-P ike T o ta l l eng th Ca lcu la ted n =144

F IGURE

4 :

T he p opu lat ion

s tructure o f

a m odern

f ish p opulat ion c aught b y

p o isoning c ompared w ith t he p opu lat ion s tructure o f p ike f rom P raeste lyngen , e xpressed a s t he t ota l

l ength o f t he a nima l c alculated f rom m easurement o f t he

d istal p art o f t he d ental b one ( see a lso F igure 3 ). ba nd c :

I n 5c m c lasses .

1 31

a :

a ctual

m easurements ,

b

F IGURE 5 :

S hows t he d eve lopment o f

l ong p ike c aught v ertebra .

c :

i n O ctober :

E pihyale .

N o .

t he o utermost g ro wth

1 910-8010 .

a :

l ayer

P roat las.

b :

o f a 7 6 c m A p recauda l

N ote t hat t he o utermost l ayers a re a lmost c ompleted .

1 32

DEC .

F IGURE

6 :

T he

d emonstrated

b y

s eason

p ercentage o f t he t otal i llustrates

w hen

o f

y ear r ing t he

p rocurement a nalyses o f

n umber o f a nalysed

f ish

d ied

Praestel yngen,

a s

v ertebrae.

o f

f ish

T he s cal e s hows

t he

v ertebrae .

T he

d uring t he p er iod

f rom M arch

e stimate i s b ased o n c ompar ison w ith m odern m ater ial o f p rocurement

i s k nown.

1 33

a t

i nset p ie d iagram t o J une .

T his

i n w hich t he p recise d ate

S eason o f o ccupa t ion a t P r e es te lyngen RED D EER

ROE D EER

W ILD BOAR

B LACK S TORK

( 3200 b . c . )

1 CRANE

TEAL

J AN .

F EB .

MAR .

A PR .

MAJ .

J UN .

J UL .

AUG .

a .

D —

D U J • ••

2 c o. w 1 > 0

E P I P H Y S E A L F U S I

h 0 0

D • )

W Z

: . .

S EP .

OCT .

NOV .

D EC

F IGURE

7 :

T he

s eason

f rom v ar ious s easonal

o f

o ccupation

o f

i nd icators.

13 4

t he

P raestelyngen

s ite ,

d eterm ined

N OE-NYGAARD :

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN

d evelopment o f t he o utermost a nnual i ncrement o n t he a tlas,

o n a p rae-caudal

v ertebrae a nd t he t enth c audal v ertebra f rom b ehind w as e valuated a nd c ompared w ith t he p receding f ully d eveloped a nnual l ayer o f t he s ame t ype. T he w hite " summer" g rowth l ayer w as d ivided i nto t hree s egments. T he a nnual i ncrement o f c leitrum a nd b asihyale w as t ested a s w ell f or c omparable r easons ( Figure 5 ). T he d ata o n t he f ossil p ike i ndicate t hat t he m ajor p art o f t he f ish w ere k illed w ell w ithin t heir s eason o f g rowth . B y d irect c omparison b etween f ossil a nd m odern p ike i t i s a pparent t hat t he m ajority o f t he f ossil v ertebrae w as d erived f rom f ish k illed i n t he s ummer s eason , p redominantly M ay, J une, J uly, a nd A ugust ( Figure 6 ). F rom W illiams ( 1955), F rost & K ipling ( 1967) a nd C asteel ( 1976) i t i s c lear t hat t he t ime o f g rowth o f p ike d epends l argely o n o ntogenetic a ge, o n t he g eneral c ondition o f t he i ndividual a nd o n t he a bundance o f f ood a vailable. C onsidering t he p ossibility o f f alse a nnuli , a nd a v ariation i n t he t ime o f d evelopment o f s ummer l ayers t he o nly t hing w hich i s c lear i s t hat t he f ish w ere k illed a t a t ime w ithin t heir m ain g rowth s eason .

T his s eason i s i n a greement w ith t he

s eason f or h abitation o f t he P raestelyngen s ite , I ndicators ( Figure 7 ).

d educed f rom o ther s easonal

T he l imited s ize r ange o f t he p ike a nd t heir s eason o f d eath m ight t ogether

i ndicate t hat h uman b eings

w ere r esponsible

f or

a lso p ossibly f or t he d eath o f t he o ther s pecies o f f ish . c onstituted a m ajor p art o f t he f ood e conomy a t t he s ite.

t heir

d eath ,

a nd

C onsequently, f ish

T HE E XPLOITATION O F B IVALVES A nother t ype o f a quatic r esources w as a vailable

t o t he i nland p eople ,

n amely t he l ake m ussels, A nodonta a nd U nio. T he m arine s hell h eaps f rom t he M esolithic E rteb ele p eriod a nd t he e arly N eolithic a re w ell k nown u nder t he n ame " kitchen m iddens" . M üller e t a l. ( 1900),

A n umber o f t hese s hell h eaps w ere a nd T roels-Smith ( 1960) a ttempted t o

d escribed b y e valuate t he

a ccumulation r ate a nd n utritive v alue o f t he l arge M ejlgaard k itchen m idden . T he M ejlgaard m idden a ccumulation h as a v olume o f 2 000 m ' a nd c ontains m ore t han 2 0 m illion o ysters ( Ostrea e dulis) t ogether w ith m ussels ( Mytilus e dulis) a nd c ockles ( Cerastoderma e dulis). I ts e stimated t ime o f a ccumulation i s at housand y ears. I n a ddition t o s hells t he m idden c ontained an umber o f f ish , b ird , a nd m ammal b ones. S hell a ccumulations a re a lso k nown f rom t he A amose a rea. T roels-Smith ( pers. c omm.) r elayed t he f ollowing i nformation c oncerning t he m iddens. A t l east f our s uch a ccumulations a re s ituated a long t he b anks o r v ery c lose t o t he b anks o f t he r iver H alleby A n w hich r uns t hrough t he A amose b og a rea ( Figure 1 ). T he f our s ites a re P raestelyngen I ( late M esolithic); H usede I ( early o r e arly m iddle N eolithic); M uld I I ( poorly d ated , b ut e arly N eolithic), a nd S t. L yng V I ( dated b y 1 4 C t o 2 610 + 65bc , K 3677 , t he m iddle N eolithic - T roels-Smith , p ers. c omm .). T hese

i nland s ites c onsist o f t he f resh w ater m ussel s hells,

U nio a nd

A nodonta. D ue t o d issolution o f a ragonitic s hells b y a cid b og w aters t he s tate o f s hell p reservation i s p oor. I n t he c ase o f P raestelyngen I o nly t he o rganic o uter l ayer p eriostracum i s p reserved. T he s ize o f t he i nland s hell m iddens i s s maller t han t hat o f t he m arine shell m iddens, e .g. H usede I ( Figure 8 ) i s a bout 3 .25 m l ong a nd a bout 3 -4 m w ide. T he p resent m idden t hickness o f 0 .5 m i s ar esult o f c ompaction a nd d issolution ; t here i s l ittle d oubt i t w as m uch h igher w hen a ccumulating . A ll f our s hell m iddens c ontain

1 35

1 36 n g t r a c e s o f

N OE-NYGAARD :

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN

n umerous f ish a nd b ird b ones, b ut n o m ammal b ones. A t

t hree s ites ,

b ut n ot P raestelyngen ,

t he s hells o ccur i n c onnection

w ith d efinite t races o f f ire. T hese i nclude s tone a rrangements ( Figure 8 ) w ith t races o f b urning i n H usede I , a nd/or w ith c harcoal l ayers o n t op a nd i ntermingled w ith t he s hells.

T here a re a lso a n umber o f b urnt f ish b ones.

A t runk b oat w as f ound c lose t o

t he s hell a ccumulation a t H usede.

T hese

t hree N eolithic s ite s ettings h ave b een i nterpreted b y T roels-Smith ( pers. c omm .) a s s acrificial. H owever , t he s etting o f t he s hell m iddens c lose t o t he r iver , n ot f ar f rom w here a n umber o f l iving s ites o ccurred, m ay h ave a f ar m ore f unctional b ut p erhaps l ess e xciting e xplanation c omparable t o o bservations m ade f rom m odern s easonal s hell c ollecting o f E geria r adiata i n G hana ( Noe-Nygaard , 1 967). I n G hana m eat f rom t he s hells i s r emoved a t t he r iver b anks, i n o rder t o a void t he t ask o f c arrying h eavy s hells b ack t o t he n earby v illage. W omen s it b y a f ireplace a t t he r iver b ank a nd f reshly p icked m ussels f rom t he r iver a re c ooked i n ah uge c laypot o ver a f ire. T he r emains o f s uch a p rocedure a re s mall s hell h eaps s urrounding a f ireplace. A mong t he s hells t here w ere a lso b urnt f ish b ones, d erived f rom f ish c aught i n t he r iver , a nd a c ouple o f c hicken b ones c onstituting " lunch p ackages" b rought f rom t he v illage. T hese t wo d iffering i nterpretations o f t he i nland s hell a ccumulations a t A amosen n eed n ot b e m utually e xclusive. T he m iddens m ay r eflect b oth s easonal c ollecting o f s hells a nd a r itual p erformance w ith g oat s laughter c arried o ut i n c onnection w ith m ussel c ollecting. T his l atter a ctivity h as b een i nterpreted b y T roels-Smith ( pers. c omm .) f rom S t. L yng V I. T hus i t c an b e c oncluded t hat s hell c ollecting a nd e ating w ere a lso p art o f t he f eeding p attern o f i nland p eople. F urther i nvestigation o n t he t ime o f a ccumulation o f t he v arious i nland s hell h eaps i s n ecessary b efore a c onclusion c an b e m ade r egarding t he c ontext t hey w ere c ollected i n .

M ARINE A ND T ERRESTRIAL C ONTRIBUTIONS T O T HE D IET F rom t he f aunal a nalysis

o f

t he s easonal o ccupation o f

t he M esolithic

i nland s ites i n t he A amose a rea i t h as b een d emonstrated t hat d uring t he t ime o f o ccupation a ll t he a vailable r esources w ere e xploited. B ut w hich r esources t he i nland p eople u tilized t hroughout t he y ear i s s till u nanswered. O n o ne h and i t h as l ong b een a rgued t hat t he i nland s ettlements w ere t he s ummer h unting s tations o f m igratory c oastal p eople,

a nd o n t he o ther t hat

t he i nland p eople w ere a n a utonomous m igratory g roup w ho d id n ot p ermanently i nhabit a ny o ne s ite ( Mathiassen , 1 943 ; N oe-Nygaard , 1 971; A ndersen , 1 981). I n

o rder

t o

e valuate

t he

f ood

i ntake

i ndependent o f t he b one a ssemblage l eft b y t hem ,

o f 1 3

t he

M esolithic

p eople,

Ca nalyses w ere u ndertaken

o n a n umber o f b oth M esolithic a nd N eolithic h uman s keletons ( Tauber , 1 98 1 a nd p ers. c omm.). F urthermore t wo M esolithic d ogs w ere a nalysed f or t heir 1 3 C c ontent, o ne f rom t he P raestelyngen i nland s ite a nd t he o ther f rom t he c oastal s ite a t M aglemosegaards V aenge. B oth s ites a re i n S jaelland ( Figure 1 ). B one-collagen

1 3

Cr eflects t he t otal f ood-spectrum o f t he a nimal a t t he

PC ,

t ime w hen t he b one t issue w as f ormed. T he i sotopes 1 2 C , "C w hich o ccur i n t he a tmosphere a re n ot e qually a ssimilated b y p lants a nd a nimals. T he l ighter 1 2 C d ominates i n c hlorophyl g rains a nd a r elative d eficiency o f 1 3 C a nd

1 4

Ci n p lants i s t he r esult.

1 37

T ERR AN I MALS

MAR INE AN IMALS

C \ 1

` c ?

M E S O L I T H I C

V EDBFEK

0 P R F E S T E L Y N G E N D O G

ME L BY V EDBFEK DRAGS HOLM DRAGSHOLM L OHALS K LOKKEHOJ K LOKKEHOJ RUDE

N E O L I T H I C

c Y )

BORREMOSE E LL I NGEMOSE TOLLUND GRAU B ALLE F AR E \ /E JL EGÄRD

AGGERSBORG K AL MERGARDEN W GREENLAND E GREENLAND

F IGURE

9 :

1 3C

c ompared w ith t he

v alues 1 3

o f

t he

2 8

C c ontent o f

o ne f rom M ag I e mosegaards V aenge

h uman

s ke letons

m easured

t wo M eso Ii th c d ogs,

( Vedbaek ) .

1 38

b y

T auber

( 198 1)

o ne f rom Praeste Iy ngen,

N OE-NYGAARD :

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN

1 2c I n t he m arine r ealm i sotopic c omposition d iffers. T he l ighter e asily e scapes b y d iffusion i nto t he a tmosphere a nd m arine w aters a re 1 3 r elatively r ich i n C a nd 1 4 C c ompared w ith t he a tmosphere. T hus m arine p lants w ill h ave a h igher c ontent o f 1 3 C a nd 1 4 C t han t errestrial p lants a nd t his w ill b e r eflected i n t he a nimals l iving o n t he p lants. T wenty e ight

D anish h uman s keletons

f rom t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic

p eriod w ere a nalysed f or t heir

1 3

M esolithic b ones c learly h ad a

Cc ontent e quivalent t o t hat p redictable f or

1 3

C c ontent

( Tauber ,

1 981a ,

1 981b).

T he

hm an

b eings l iving o n 8 07 o r m ore m arine f ood. T his w as i n c ontrast t o t he C c ontent o f t he N eolithic b ones w hicb c learly c orresponded t o a d iet o f t errestrial f ood. H owever , a ll t he 1 3 C m easurements f rom t he M esolithic w ere t aken f rom c oastal s ites. T hus i t i s n ecessary t o a nalyse t he 13 C c ontent o f h uman b ones f rom i sland s ites t o a scertain w hether a ll M esolithic p eople w ere h ighly d ependant o n m arine f ood. U nfortunately t he h uman s keletons f rom t he i nland s ites i s e xtremely f ew . S o f ar M aglemose h uman s keleton f rom t he H o eegaard b og, S jaelland, a nalysed , i t s howed a c lear t errestrial Cc ontent ( Tauber , p ers. O n

t he a ssumption t hat d og r emains

f ound

i n t he

n umber o f o nly o ne h as b een c omm .).

r efuse f rom a l iving

s ite have f ed o n t he s ame f ood a s h uman b eings f rom t hat s ite, 1 3c m easurements w ere c arried o ut o n t wo d og s amples. O ne d og w as a nalysed f rom t he M aglemosegaards V aenge c oastal s ite , V edbaek , f rom w here a h uman s keleton h as a lso b een a nalysed. T he d og b one c learly s howed a 13 C c ontent c orresponding t o a d ominantly m arine f ood s ource ( - 1 4 .7 o /oo) , a s d id t he h uman s keleton f rom t he s ame s ite ( Fig lye 9 ). T he s econd d og w as f rom t he P raestelyngen s ite. I t i s d ated b y C t o 3 310 ± 6 5bc, K 3773 , w hich c orresponds t o t he W itation p eriod o f s ite 3 1 - 3 300 + 8 0 b c ( Tauber , p ers. c omm .). T he IJ C c ontent w as 2 1.6 0 /00 , w hich i s c learly w ithin t he f ield o f t errestrial v alues ( Figure 9 ). T hough

f ew

i n

n umber

t hese

d ata

s uggest

t hat

t he

c oastal M esolithic

p eople w ere h ighly d ependent o n m arine f ood r esources , w hilst t he i nland M es cp5i thic p eople a ppear t o h ave e xploited t errestrial r esources. A n umber o f 3C m easurements w ere c arried o ut o n r ed d eer a nd f resh-water f ish ( e.g . p ike) i n o rder t o i nvestigate t he r elative i mportance t o t he i nland p eople o f a quatic a s o pposed t o t errestrial r esources , a ny c onclusive r esults.

b ut

t hey h ave n ot y et y ielded

C ONCLUSIONS T he p ike b one a ssemblage c onsists a lmost e ntirely o f s kull b ones. A nnual r ing a nalyses o f v ertebrae i ndicate p ike m ortality f rom M ay t o A ugust. T his i s i n a greement w ith o ther s easonal e vidence i ndicating t he s eason w hen t he P raestelyngen s ite w as i nhabited. T he v ery n arrow s ize d istribution o f t he p ike a ssemblage s uggests t hat t hey w ere s ubject t o a s elective k ill , p robably b y h uman b eings. T hese t hree l ines o f e vidence i ndicate t hat t he m ajority o f p ike b ones a nd o ther f ish d umped i n t he l ake c lose t o t he P raestelyngen s ite r epresent t he r emains o f c atches m ade b y p eople o n t he s ite. p rey I mmediately , a t t he e dge o f t he l ake.

1 39

T hey d ecapitated t he

N OE-NYGAARD :

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN

I n a ddition t o t he i mportant e xploitation o f f ish a t P raestelyngen t he i nland p eople a lso c ollected a g reat n umber o f f resh-water m ussels. D og s keletons W hich a re c learly

a ssociated w ith

e ating h abits a nd t hus m ay b e u sed a s a s ource f or

1 3

a s ite

r eflect h uman

Ci sotopic m easurements

w hen t hese a re u sed t o a ssess t he r elative i mportance o f m arine a nd t errestrial s ources. A nalysis o f t he P raestelyngen d og s uggests t hat t he f ood e conomy w as b ased o n t errestrial r esources. T he i nference f rom t he m ajor r ole o f f resh-water f ish a nd m ussels i n t he d iet o f i nland M esolithic p eople a s p art o f t he o verall n on-marine f ood i ntake i s t hat t wo g roups o f M esolithic p eople w ere i n e xistence i n S jaelland a t t he s ame t ime. O ne g roup e xploited t he w hole r ange o f p rey s pecies a vailable a long t he c oast , i ncluding m arine f ish , b irds, m ammals a nd m ussels. T his w as s upplenented w ith w hatever n on-marine b irds a nd t errestrial m ammals t hey c ould o btain. T he i nland p eople e xploited t he w hole h abitat a round t he l arger l ake a reas w hich s upported p opulations o f m ammals, b irds, f ish a nd m ussels. A s b oth s ummer ( e.g. P raestelyngen) a nd w inter ( e.g. K ongemosen) s ites a re k nown , t he i nland p eople s eems t o h ave e xploited t he w hole h abitat a ll y ear r ound. T hese t wo g roups o f p eople p robably h ad s ome c ommunication , b ut o therwise w ere s ubsisting t otally w ithin t heir s pecific h abitat. T his m ore s tationary w ay o f l ife i n t he l ate E rteb iLle p eriod m ight h ave f acilitated t he a daptation o f t he a gricultural w ay o f N eolithic.

l iving

i n

t he e arly

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS J .M.

H urst

a nd

F .

S urlyk a re t hanked f or c ritically r eading t he

m anuscript, K . N ielsen , H . E gelund a nd E . G lendal a ssisted i n t he p reparation o f t he m anuscript.

R EFERENCES A aris- Urensen ,

K .

( 1980).

f rom t he M esolithic s ettlement M eddelser 1 42, 1 39150 . A ndersen, C openhagen :

S .H.

( 1981).

a t

A tlantic f ish ,

r eptile a nd b ird r emains

V edbaek ,

Z ealand.

N orth

V idenskabelige

D anmarkshistorien. O ldtiden . S tenalderen.

S esam , p p. 9 5119 .

B erzins,

B .

( 1958).

f iskeriforening A rsskrift, B rq Sndsted,

J .

O m f iskevaard m ed r otenon.

S ödra S verrigs

1 957 .

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S tenalderen .

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G yldendal , 4 08 p p. C asteel,

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e nvironmental S tudies.

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F rost, W .E. & K ipling , C .

F ish R emains i n A rchaeology a nd A cademic P ress , ( 1967).

P alaeo-

1 80 p p.

A s tudy o f r eproduction , e arly l ife

w eight/length r elationship a nd g rowth o f p ike E sox l ucius J ournal o f A nimal E cology 3 6, 6 51-693 .

1 40

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N OE-NYGAARD :

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN

K ahlke , H .D . ( 1965). D ie s tratisgraphische S tellung d er F aunen v on V oigtstedt. Z ur G renze d es k ontinentalen U nter/Mittel P leistozäns i m Z entraleuropäischen R aum . P aIontolosische A bhandlungen , P aläontologie I I A bt. A , ( 2/3), 6 9 1-792. L arsen , K .

( 1961).

T he f ish p opulation o f ap eat p it a s d etermined b y

r otenone p oisoning . M eddelelser o m D anmarks F iskeri o g N ew s eries 3 , 5 , 17132 . M alin , G . & E nros, B . F insk F iskeri T idsskrift 6 5 , 2 . M atthiassen , T . F ortidsminder I II , 3 ,

( 1956).

H avundersigelser.

R otenon f ors6k i S kogstjärnar.

( 1943). S tenalderbopladser i A amosen. C openhagen : N ordisk F orlag , 2 25 p p .

M orales , A . &R osenlund , K . ( 1979). t o S tandardize t he M easuring o f F ish C openhagen : Z oologisk M useum , 4 8 p p .

N ordiske

F ish B one M easurements: a n A ttempt B ones f rom A rchaeological S ites.

M üller , S ., M adsen , A .P ., N eergard , C ., P etersen , C .G .J ., R ostrup , E ., S teenstrup , K .J .V ., & W inge , H . ( 1900). A ffaldsdynger f ra S tenalderen i D anmark. C openhagen : N ationalmuseet , 1 93 p p . Ma il,

U .

( 1970) .

O versigt

o ver d yreknoglerne f ra O lbylyng.

A arbog

f or N ordisk O ldkyndighed o g H istorie 1 970 , 4 3-73 . N oe-Nygaard, N . ( 1967). P resent-day " kitchen m iddens" i n G hana. G eografisk T iddskrift 6 6 , 1 79197 . N oe-Nygaard ,

N .

h istoric D enmark . P oulsen ,

T .

k Skkenmiddingen .

( 1971).

S pur d og s pines f rom p rehistoric a nd e arly

B ulletin o f t he G eological S ociety o f D enmark 2 1, ( 1980).

1 8-33 .

P alaeoikologisk u ndersQ fgelse a f E rtebille

U npublished t hesis ,

A arhus U niversity .

T auber, H . ( 1979). 1 4 C a ctivity o f a rctic m arine m ammals. I n ( R .Berger & H .E . S uess , E ds.) R adiocarbon D ating . P roceedings o f t he N inth I nternational R adiocarbon C onference. 1 976. U niversity o f C alifornia P ress , B erkeley & L os A ngeles , p p . 4 47-452 . T auber , H . m an i n D enmark .

( 1981a). 1 3 C e vidence f or d ietary h abits o f p re-historic N ature. L ondon 2 92 , 3 32-333 .

T auber , H . ( 1981b). K ostvaner i f orhistorisk t id b elyst v ed 13 C m aalinger. I n ( R . E gevang, E d.) D et S kabende M enneske. C openhagen: N ational M useum ,

12116 .

T roels-Smith , J .

( 1953).

E rte Ullekultur - B ondekultur.

d e s idste 1 0 a ars u nders 4elser i A amosen .

R esultater a f

A rbog f or N ordisk O ldkyndighed o g

H istorie , 1 973 , 5 -63 . T roels-Smith,

( 1960).

N ationalmuseets A rbejdsmark 1 960 .

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1 41

f angstfolk

o g

b ender.

N ational M useum , 9 5119 .

N OE-NYGAARD : V oorhies,

M .R .

I MPORTANCE O F A QUATIC R ESOURCES T O M ESOLITHIC M AN ( 1969).

P liocene v ertebrate f auna , S pecial P aper n o.

1 .

W illiams, J .E. p ike ( Esox l ucius).

T aphonomy a nd p opulation d ynam ics o f a n E arly

K nox C ounty,

N ebraska.

C ontributions t o G eology.

U niversity o f W yoming, p . 6 9 . ( 1955).

D etermination o f a ge f rom t he s cales o f n orthern

P h. D . t hesis, U niversity o f M ichigan ,

1 42

1 85 p p.

W ATER A ND M ARSH B IRDS F ROM P OLISH A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES - T HEIR S TATUS A ND I NTERPRETATION

Z ygmunt B ochenski I nstitute o f S ystematic a nd E xperimental Z oology, P olish A cademy o f S ciences, K raköw , P oland

T he r emains o f b irds l inked w ith w ater a nd m arsh e nvironments h ave b een f ound i n s everal d ozen a rchaeological s ites i n P oland c overing t he p eriod f rom t he M iddle P alaeolithic t o t he M iddle A ges. T he d istribution o f t he s ites i s p lotted o n t he m ap w estern h alf b een

f ound

p ress;

o f

( Bocke r iski,

B ogucki,

N ogalski, 1 968b,

1 979 ,

1 968c,

( Figure 1 ):

t he c ountry. 1 981;

1 974 ,

1 981,

K rysiak,

i n p rep;

1 969 ,

1 973 ,

1 982 ,

1 950 ,

T omek ,

1 971,

t he m ajority a re s ituated i n t he

A ltogether

i n p ress,

1 951;

1 983 ; 1 975a ,

4 5 w ater a nd m arsh s pecies h ave B oche4ski

N iezabitowski,

W aluszewska-Bubien , 1 975b,

1 975c,

1 975d,

e t a l., 1 933 ,

i n

1 938 ;

1 967 ,

1 968a,

1 976a,

1 976b ,

1 977a , 1 977b , 1 977c , 1 979 , 1 980 , 1 981); t hey a re l isted i n T able 1 , w hich i s a rranged a ccording t o t he g eological a nd a rchaeological d ivisions o f t he L ate Q uaternary. T hree g roups o f m arsh a nd w ater b irds c an b e d istinguished d epending o n t he p eriods i n w hich t hey a re f ound. o f o nly

1 2 s pecies,

p eriods

r anging

T he l east n umerous g roup ,

f rom

t he

M iddle

P alaeolithic

t o

t he

g roup c onsists o f s uch s pecies o f d ucks a s M allard, w aders s uch a s o ther b irds. A s econd

W imbrel,

a nd

c onsisting

i s f ormed b y b irds f ound i n s ites o f s everal d ifferent

C urlew a nd W oodcock,

c onsiderably

l arger

e xclusively i n P leistocene s ediments. s maller w aders s uch a s G olden P lover ,

M iddle

S hort-eared

g roup

A ges.

W igeon a nd T eal, O wl,

c onsists

o f

T his l arger

a nd

a f ew

b irds

f ound

T hese i nclude t he m ajority o f t he R inged P lover a nd D otterel, s maller

r allids l ike W ater R ail a nd S potted C rake, a nd n orthern d ucks s uch a s S caup. T he

g roup

c ontaining

t he

l argest

f ound o nly i n H olocene d eposits: A ges.

n umber o f

s pecies c onsists o f b irds

f rom t he u pper M esolithic t o

T his g roup c onsists o f b irds

t he m ajority b elong t o l arger s pecies s uch a s g eese , i s

i nteresting t hat t he r emains o f

f inds

a s

t hey have b een

h erons a nd g ulls.

t he C rane a re o ne o f

i dentified

t he M iddle

o f v arious s ystematic p ositions,

i n

1 8

l ocalities

b ut I t

t he m ost f requent d ating

f rom

t he

N eolithic t o t he M iddle A ges. T here a re m any r easons

f or t he d ifferences m entioned.

O ne r eason i s

t hat t here h ave b een c hanges i n t he b reeding r anges o f m ost b ird s pecies i n t he l ast 5 0 ,000 y ears. T his i s p articularly t rue i n t he c ase o f s pecies w hich a re n ow c onfined t o a rctic h abitats, e .g. L esser W hite-fronted G oose, D otterel, G rey P lover a nd S potted R edshank.

1 43

I

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W ING & S CUDDER :

A NIMAL E XPLOITATION O N AT ROPICAL M ARINE E DGE

L og y = 2 .047 ( Log x ) + 1 .162 ( based o n k nown d imensions a nd w eights o f 5 0 s pecimens ; r2 = . 72) x =a nterior d iameter o f t he c entrum ( mm ) y =b ody w eight ( gms) I n t hose c ases i n W hich n o e stimate c ould b e m ade f or s pecific f ish t axon , t he a verage e stimated w eight o f f ishes f rom t he s ite w as u sed . T he m easurements t hat w ere t aken a nd t he c orresponding e stimated w eights a re r ecorded i n T able 3 . E sti m ated w eights o f l and v ertebrates a nd s ea t urtles a re b ased o n t he

T ABLE 3 :

M easurements o f v ertebral c entra a nd e stimates o f f ish w eights.

D iameter o f c entrum o f b ody v ertebrae ( mm ) N umber M ean

E stimated w eie lt o f f ish ( gms)

R ange

M ean

R ange

M C 6 A lbula P latybelone E ucinostomus G erres G erreidae A canthurus S carus S parisona S caridae E pinephelus C aranx L utjanus H aemulon S phyraena u nid. f ish

2 57 3 1 0 5 1 9 1 5 1 2 2 4 3 7 2 2 0 4 9 6 9 1 1 37

7 .5 3 .6 2 .3 4 .3 3 .5 5 .4 5 .6 6 .1 5 .9 6 .75 6 .9 6 .5 3 .9 6 .5 5 .1

4 .2 11.5 3 .1- 4 .05 1 .6 - 3 .6 3 .4 - 4 .95 1 .6 - 8 .15 3 .8 - 8 .7 4 .2 - 6 .95 3 .95- 7 .8 3 .95- 7 .8 5 .7 - 7 .8 4 .1- 1 6 .15 3 .2- 1 8 .6 1 .9- 1 0 .8 3 .2- 1 9 .4 1 .2- 1 7 .2

8 66 2 00 8 0 2 88 1 89 4 58 4 94 5 88 5 50 7 24 7 57 6 70 2 35 6 70 4 81

2 74 1 47 3 8 1 78 3 8 2 23 2 74 2 42 2 42 5 12 2 61 1 57 5 4 1 57 2 1

5

7 .25

6

4 .96 7 .18 6 .23 6 .92 1.09 6 .03 9 .4 9 .08 6 .69

-2 154 - 2 54 - 2 00 - 3 84 - 1 064 -1 217 - 7 68 - 9 73 - 9 73 - 9 73 -4 3 16 -5 764 - 1 894 -6 282 -4 9 11

-8 .75

8 37 .8

5 67 - 1 231 .1

3 .44- 6 .86 7 - 7 .5 5 .1 - 7 .35 5 .1 13 .95 6 .7516 .66 5 .95 6 .1

1 82 .1- 7 48 .1 7 97 .7- 8 97 .9 4 07.8- 8 61.6 4 07.8-3198 .5 7 23 .7-4600 .1 5 59 - 5 88 .3

5 .7512 .5 3 .9 16 .66

3 85 .2 8 12 .3 6 14 .2 7 61.6 1 999 .8 5 74 .5 1 425 .6 1 328 6 59 .4

5 21.2-2554 .9 2 35 - 4 600 .1

5 .2-14 .6 2 .914 .6

188 .3 6 91.2

4 24 .3-3511 1 28 .4-3511

M C 1 2 A lbula A canthurus S carus S parisoma S caridae S erranidae C arangidae L utjanus H aemulon u nid. f ish

3 5 3 1 7 2 6 6 2 1 6 1 60

P ine C ay A lbula u nid. f ish

4 6 5 9

8 .6 6 .6

2 04

W ING & S CUDDER : c omparison o f

A NIMAL E XPLOITATION O N A T ROPICAL M ARINE E DGE

a l inear d imension

w ith b ody w eight

s hell l ength o f t he s ea t urtle) o r ,

( such

a s

t he

c arapacial

i n t he c ase o f b irds a nd r ock i guana ,

b y

u se o f t he a verage w eight o f t he s pecies ( Iverson , 1 979). I n e ach c ase , t he e stimated i ndividual w eight w as m ultiplied b y t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals. I nvertebrates c learly w ere a n i mportant r esource.

T he p redominant

i nvertebrates i n t he t wo f aunal a ssemblages w ere t wo s pecies o f l and c rabs, C ardisoma g uanhumi a nd G ecarcinus l ateralis, a nd a n umber o f m olluscs i ncluding t wo s pecies o f c onch , S trombus p ugilis a nd S trombus ß igas. T he c rabs

w ere

q uantified

i n a f ashion c omparable t o

t he m ethod u sed w ith

v ertebrates. T he r esulting d ata a re c ombined w ith t he d ata f rom t he t errestrial v ertebrates ( Tables 1 & 2 ). I t i s n ot p ossible t o q uantify t he m olluscan r emains i n e xactly t he s ame w ay a t t his t ime. A n e stimate o f t he r elative i mportance o f t he m ost i mportant m olluscan g roup, t he c onches ( Strombus s pp.) , a nd t he v ertebrate f auna ( plus c rabs) m ay b e a ssessed b y a c omparison o f c alculated m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals ( Sullivan , 1 981) a nd e xtrapolation o f t he r elative w eight o f t he e dible p ortion p otentially p rovided b y e ach. T he e dible p ortion o f v ertebrate ( and c rab) b iomass i s e stimated t o b e 8 0 p ercent o f t he m aximum b iomass e stimate. T he a verage e dible m eat w eight o f c onches i s f ound b y S ullivan ( 1981) t o b e 1 70 g ms w hich m ultiplied b y t he m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals g ives a n e stimation o f t he e dible c ontribution ( Table 4 b). T he

c omposition

I nvertebrates ,

o f

t he

a lthough n ot

f aunas

a t

c onsidered

t he i n

t wo d epth

s ites h ere ,

d iffers a re

c onsiderably.

p resent

a t

b oth

s ites a nd a re r elatively m ore a bundant a t M C 1 2 t han a t M C 6 . T he r elatively g reater a bundance o f l and c rabs a t M C 1 2 m akes t he t errestrial c omponent o f t he f auna m ore i mportant a t M C 1 2, a lthough t errestrial v ertebrates, c onstituting l ess t han 1 0 p ercent o f t he v ertebrate r emains , a re n ot a bundant a t e ither s ite. T he p redominant t errestrial s pecies a t b oth s ites i s t he r ock i guana ( Cyclura c arinata). T he r emains o f ad og a re p resent i n t he s ample f rom M C 1 2 w hich i s t he f irst d omestic d og r eported f rom t he B ahamas. I t i s s mall a nd s imilar t o m ost p rehistoric W est I ndian d ogs. A t b oth s ites a quatic v ertebrates w ere o f f ar g reater i mportance i n t erms o f n umbers o f a nimals a nd b iomass r epresented , a nd t he s pecies c omposition o f t he f aunal a ssemblages g ives c lues a bout t he h abitats w hich w ere e xploited. T he b onefish i mportant o f

( Albula v ulpes) a nd p arrotfishes ( Sparisoma s pp.) a re t he m ost t he 3 1 a quatic s pecies r epresented. B onefish f ar o utnumber

o ther f ishes a t M C 6w hile p arrotfishes p redominate a t M C 1 2 .

F urthermore ,

t he a nimals, i ncluding b onefish t hat a re m ost f requently f ound i n t he t idal f lats a nd l agoon h abitats, c onstitute t he b ulk o f t he M C 6f auna , w hile r eef o mnivores ,

s uch a s p arrotfishes a re t he m ost i mportant g roup a t M C 1 2 ( Table

4 a). T he s ize

o f

f ish a nd t heir h abits

a re c lues t o t he w ays

i n w hich t hey

m ight h ave b een m ost e ffectively c aught. F or e xample , v ery s mall f ishes a re m ost e asily c aught w ith n ets , w hile l arger c arnivorous s pecies c an b e c aught w ith h ook a nd l ine. U sing t he w idth o f t he v ertebral c entrum a s a g uide t o t he s ize o f t he f ish ( Table 3 a nd F igure 2 a &2 b) i t i s c lear t hat f ishes f rom M C 6a re s ubstantially s maller t han t hose f rom M C 1 2 a nd P ine C ay l ocated w ith d irect a ccess t o t he o pen l agoon a nd t o c oral r eef. T he p redominant f ish a t M C 6 i s b onefish w hich c ome u p i nto s hallow w ater t o f ed o n t he r ising t ide ( Böhlke & C haplin ,

1 968).

T hey s ometimes c ome i nto s uch s hallow w ater

2 05

A lbula v ulpes ( b onefish) N2 57 , T e7 .15 ( 4 .2-11.5)

. o

1

-I 1 7 1 7 7 r i l l

3

1 3

1 5

1 7

W idth o f V ertebrae i n m m G erreidae E ucinostamus + G erres ( Mojarra) N1 9 ,8 3 .5 ( 1 .6-8.15)

1

L U 1 J o3 B 1

5

9

1

9

1

A canthurus ( surgeonf ish) N1 5 ,8 5 .4

( 3 .8 - 8 .7)

3

1

. 1

[ l i l .

S caridae ( parrotf ish) N3 7 , i5 .9 ( 3 .95-7.8)

1

9

1

9

1

9

1

C aranx ( jack) N2 0: 8 6 .9 ( 4.1-16.15)

1

En 5

3

7

CC I

1 3

1 5

1 7

H aemulon ( grunt) N6 9 ,

3 .9 ( 1.9 - 1 0 .8)

m r

1

3

5

ED 0

7

l utjanus ( snapper) N4 9 ,

6 .5 ( 3 .2-18 .6)

1

3

5

E H mor F h 7

9

1

9

0 g •0 1

1 3

O

D 1 5

D

O

1 7

1 9

U nidentified f ishes N1 37 , 85 .1

( 1 .2-17.2)

U .

0 1

F IGURE 2 a:

B B B BBB BBB »

B BB B B O P BBB B BB I n • O BBB IBBBBBBB • B BBBB I BBN IBBBB B B B BBBBBBBBBOBB 1 8 1 1 1BOBBBBBBB IBBOBBB 3

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1 3

1 5

1 7

S ize p rofile o f f ishes f rom M C6 ( 1/4" r ecovery) b ased o n w idth o f v ertebrae .

2 06

A canthurus ( surgeonf ish) N3 5 ,Z 4 .96 ( 3 .44-6 .36)

_ : 1 t z 1

3

5

DE n

7

9

W idth o f V ertebrae i n m m

S car idae ( parrotf ish) N2 6 ,i 6 .92 ( 5 .1-13 .95)

1

0 1 3

1. . . . .

3

5

9

1

0 1 5

U nidentif ied f ishes a nd r eef c arnivores U N1 60 ,k 6 .69 ( 3 .9-16 .66)

1

F IGURE 2 b:

3

U

UM UM 9 1 10 I U .. BBB M IM M UM BBB « MOB M OB U MB I ON U M » I S I MUMMUM SUBM IO B 1 1 11 M O M Be r n B I C SUUM MUSUBM UMBWRI I M IN M I OBS IU MUSUUM BOUBBMBWM OBBOBOM M U IBI B MWMOO MM IBRZ

5

= 9

7

0

0

00

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S ize p rofile o f f ishes f rom M C 12 ( 1/4" r ecovery)

2 07

0 1 3

1 5

DO 1 7

W ING & S CUDDER :

T ABLE 4 :

A NIMAL E XPLOITATION O N AT ROPICAL M ARINE E DGE

S ummary o f d ata e xpressed i n p ercentage

A N umber o f s pecimens

M C6

T errestrial

M C12

3

A quatic

M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals

9 7

M C6

R ange i n E stimates o f B iomass

M C12

M C6

M C12

3 0

1 8

3 2

8 13

1 417

7 0

8 2

6 9

8 7-92

8 3-86

3 6-55

6 12

T idal f lats L agoon

3 5

1

4 1

7

R eef O mnivores

2

2 4

1 3

4 4

9 10

3 8-41

2 8

1 7

2 1-22

2 6-30

1 49

1 78

R eef C arnivores

8

T otal S ample S ize

6

7 414

1 675

M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals M C6 N umber %

106210 1075

6 708119747

E stimates o f E dible M eat W eight

M C12 N umber •%

M C6 W eight

%

M C12 W eight

%

9 8

9 5798

8 7

1 3770

1 3

V ertebrates +c rab C onch * 3

1 49 1 2

9 3 7

T otal S ample S ize 1 61 * 1

* 2

* 3

1 78

6 9

8 0860 * 1

8 1

3 1

2 020 * 2

2 59

V ertebrates a nd c rab e dible m eat m aximum e stimate o f t otal b iomass

2

8 2900 w eight

C onch e dible m eat w eight e stimate a s w eight D ata f rom S ullivan ( 198 1)

2 08

c alculated a s

1 09568 8 0 p ercent

o f

1 70 g ms a verage i ndividual m eat

W ING & S CUDDER : t hat

A NIMAL E XPLOITATION O N AT ROPICAL M ARINE E DGE

t heir b acks a re e xposed a nd t hey a re u sually c aught

i n w ater d epths

o f

l ess t han 2 f eet. O ther f ishes i n t he a ssemblage f rom M C 6a re o n t he a verage e ven s maller t hat t he b onefish . T he s mall s ea t urtles, n umerous a t M C 6 ,

a lso f eed i n t he l agoon a nd t idal c hannels

( Anne M eylan,

p ersonal

c ommunications). B y c ontrast, t he s ize o f t he b onefish f rom P ine C ay a re e stimated t o b e s ubstantially l arger t han t hose f rom M C 6 . T he r ange i n s izes o f t he r eef f ishes f rom M C 1 2 i s c loser t o t he s ize o f f ishes a t P ine C ay t han a t M C 6 . T he p redominant s pecies a t M C 1 2 a re r eef o mnivores w hich a re r eluctant t o t ake a h ook b ut a re t oday t ypically c aught i n t raps. T raps b y t heir n ature n arrow t he r ange i n t he s ize o f f ishes t hey c atch b y e xcluding t hose f ishes t oo l arge t o e nter a nd t hose s mall e nough t o l eave t hrough t he m esh. T he m ajority o f f ishes f rom M C 1 2 a re q uite u niform i n s ize w ith v ertebrae w hich r ange f rom 4 t o 8 m m . I n a ddition , t he s ample p opulation i ncludes a f ew m uch l arger i ndividuals w hich a re c arnivorous s pecies. T he e vidence f rom t he s pecies c omposition o f t he t wo s ites i ndicates t hat a nimal e xploitation w as c onfined t o t he m ajor a quatic h abitats c losest t o e ach s ite; t he p atch r eefs n ext t o M C 1 2 a nd t he l agoon a nd t idal f lats n ear M C 6 . A lthough m ost o f t he s ame s pecies m ay b e f ound i n t he w aters

a djacent t o e ach

s ite a nd m ost o f t he s ame s pecies o ccur a t b oth s ites , t he r elative a bundance o f t idal f lat s pecies a nd r eef o mnivores a re s ignificantly d ifferent a t t he t wo s ites

( Table 4 a).

T hus, s ite l ocation p layed a m ajor r ole a long w ith t he

f ishing t echnology e mployed i n d etermining t he r elative a bundance o f s pecies a t t he s ites. T he s ize a nd h abits o f t he f ish c aught b y t he i nhabitants a t M C 6 s uggest

t hat

t hey

m ainly f ished

t he

t idal

c hannels,

p erhaps

b locking

t hem w ith n ets a t t he t urn o f t he high t ide t o c atch t he f ishes t hat h ad v entured u p t he c hannels a nd w ere a ttempting t o r e-enter t he l agoon w ith t he r eceding w ater.

I f m ost

o f

t he

f ishing h ad b een d one

i n t he

l agoon ,

o ne

w ould e xpect t he s ample t o b e c omposed o f l arger f ish a pproaching t he s ize o f t hose f rom P ine C ay. A t M C 1 2 , t he f ew b onefish p resent i n t he f auna w ere p robably c aught w ith h ook a nd l ine i n t he s hallowest w ater n ear t he b each. T he b ulk o f t he f ish a re r eef o mnivores o f u niform s ize , p robably c aught i n t raps s et a mongst t he p atch r eefs. T he f ew l arge c arnivores s uch a s g rouper a nd s napper w ere p robably c aught w ith h ook a nd l ine o r s pears. T he i mplication o f t hese f inds i s t hat,

a t l east i n t he c ases c ited,

s maller t erritories w ere e xploited t han w ould b e e xpected f rom t he u sual c oncept o f t he s ize o f c atchment a reas. T he c atchment a rea a t M C 6w ould e ncompass t he t idal c reeks a nd p erhaps t he e dge o f t he l agoon . W ithin 1 k m o f

t he s ite a re

17.8 h a o f a gricultural s oils a nd 1 2.4 h a a rea o f s alt p ond

f or c ommercial s alt d ehydration w orks. B y c ontrast, t he c atchment a rea a t M C 1 2 w ould h ave f anned o ut f rom t he s ite a cross t he o ff-shore p atch r eef. C onches g athered i n t his a rea m ay h ave b een a s ubsistence a nd t ool r esource a s w ell a s a c ommercial t rade i tem

( Sullivan ,

a re 9 6.1 h a o f a gricultural s oils.

1 981).

W ithin 1 k m o f t his s ite

T he f inds f urther i mply t hat t he n earest

h abitats w ere p roductive e nough t o s upport v iable h uman p opulations w ho h ad a r ange o f t echnical s kills w hich

t hey a pplied t o d ifferent f ishing s ituations

a nd w ho p artitioned t he r esources o f t he i sland.

2 09

W ING & S CUDDER :

A NIMAL E XPLOITATION O N AT ROPICAL M ARINE E DGE

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T hanks a re d ue t o a rchaeologists S haun S ullivan , G len F reimuth,

a nd

W illiam K eegan f or t he o pportuinty t o s tudy t he f aunal r emains t hey h ave e xcavated a nd t he h elp a nd i nformation t hey h ave g iven u s i n o ur a ttempts t o u nderstand w hat w as f ound. A s ample o f t he M C 1 2 f auna w as i dentified b y E rika S imons ,

a nd t he P ine C ay f auna w as i dentified b y H elen D oney ;

w e a re

g rateful f or t he c are a nd d iligence w ith w hich t hey d id t his w ork .

R EFERENCES B öhlke,

J .E.

& C haplin,

C .C.G.

( 1968).

F ishes o f t he B ahamas a nd

a djacent t ropical w aters. W ynnewood , P .A .: L ivingston P ublishing C ompany t o t he A cademy o f N atural S ciences o f P hiladelphia . I verson , J .B. ( 1979). B ehavior a nd e cology o f t he r ock i guana C yclura c arinata. B ulletin o f t he F lorida S tate M useum 2 4(3), 1 75138 . K eegan , W .F. ( 1981). A rtifacts i n A rchaeology : aC aribbean C ase S tudy. M aster 's t hesis F lorida A tlantic U niversity , B oca R aton . R oper ,

D .C.

( 1979).

T he m ethod a nd t heory o f s ite c atchment a nalysis:

a

r eview. I n ( 4 . S chiffer , E d.) A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory , V ol. 2 , N ew Y ork : A cadem ic P ress , p p . 19140 . S ullivan,

S .

D .

( 1981).

P rehistoric P atterns o f E xploitation a nd

c olonization i n t he T urks a nd C aicos i slands.

P h .D. d issertation .

U niversity

o f I llinois, C hampaign-Urbana . W ing,

E .S.

& B rown ,

P rehistoric F oodways.

A .B .

N ew Y ork :

( 1979).

P aleonutrition :

A cademic P ress.

2 10

M ethod a nd T heory i n

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P AIIERNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

C heryl P . C laassen D epartment o f A nthropology A ppalachian S tate U niversity B oone , N .C. 2 8608 , U SA

T his p aper e xplores t he s easonal u se o f s hellfish a nd t he s election o f s hellfish s pecies d uring t he W oodland P eriod a long t he c oast o f N orth C arolina. U nlike m ost s tudies o f s hellfish u se a t as ingle s ite , t his s tudy p resents d ata f rom 1 9 s ites s ituated w ithin t wo w atersheds, m aking p ossible ad iscussion o f r esource u se a t ar egional l evel .

S EASONALITY O F S HELLFISH U SE O ne o f t he p rimary f actors l imiting p revious s tudies o f s hellfish s easonality t o ad iscussion o f s ingle s ites i s u ndoubtedly t he t ime r equired f or t he a nalysis. T he p rocedure t ypically f ollowed i s 1 ) d etecting t he g rowth i ncrements a nd l ocating t he l ast a nnual b reak , 2 ) c alculating t he g rowth a ctually a chieved a fter t he l ast a nnual b reak , 3 ) c alculating t he g rowth e xpected i n t hat i ncomplete y ear a nd 4 ) c orrelating t he g rowth p ercentage w ith t he t ime e lapsed. A v ariety o f a pproaches a nd c riticisms h ave b een a pplied t o s teps 3 a nd 4 i n p articular ( Monks , 1 981; C laassen , 1 982). O ne o f t he m ost s erious c ritiques p oints o ut t hat i ndividual v ariation i n g rowth r ate i s ab iological f act t hat s hould b e a ccommodated i n s easonality e stimates , n ot e liminated o r n ormalized a s i s t ypically t he c ase ( Claassen , 1 982). T his p aper p roposes a n ew m ethod o f s easonality d etermination t hat n ot o nly i ncorporates g rowth v ariation i n c alendrical a ssignments, b ut i s q uickly a pplied, a pproximately 1 50 i ndividuals p er h our.

a llowing f or t he

p rocessing

o f

T he A nnual G rowth P rofile S everal s tudies

( e.g .

P annella & M acClintock,

1 968) h ave e stablished

t he a nnual n ature o f t he g rowth l ines v isible m acroscopically i n t he c rosss ection o f t he s hell. Am olluscan y ear i s d ivided i nto t wo p hases o f g rowth , o ne f ast a nd o ne s low . I n

p reparation f or a s easonality s tudy o f

m aterial ,

a m odern b imonthly c ollection o f

t he

p rehistoric s hellfish

s tudy

s pecies,

M ercenaria

m ercenaria f rom O nslow B ay, N orth C arolina , w as a cquired f rom D r . G eorge C lark , g eologist a t K ansas S tate U niversity. W hile c alculating t he v alues n eeded f or S teps 2 a nd 3 l isted a bove f rom t hin s ections , i t b ecame a pparent t hat t here w as a p attern c ontained i n a s imple q uantification o f

t he

i ndividuals d ying d uring t he f ast a nd s low g rowth p hase e ach m onth . V iewed i n a c ross-section , f ast g rowth i s i dentifiable a s w hite s hell a nd s low

2 11

C LAASSEN :

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P AIT FINS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

g rowth a s g ray s hell. W hen g raphed ( Figure 1 ) , a n a nnual g rowth c ycle i s a pparent: f ast g rowth , o r r apid s hell a ccretion f rom N ovember u ntil M ay; s low g rowth o r m inimal s hell a ccretion f rom M ay t hrough O ctober . C lark M ercenaria

( 1979 :165) e xperiences

h as a rgued t hat f or N orth C arolina a nd s outhward , s low g rowth d uring t he s ummer m onths , w hen w ater

t emperatures a pproach t he u pper e nd o f t he s pecies' t olerance. B oth C lark's d etermination o f t he g rowing s eason a nd t he s hape o f F igure 1 a re c orroborated b y C ollier 's ( 1953) o bservation t hat i t i s o nly d uring t he m onths o f N ovember t hrough M arch t hat w ater t emperatures a re c onducive t o g rowth i n t he o ysters o f N orth C arolina. O ccasionally A pril a nd O ctober t emperatures w ill a lso b e s uitable. R eturning t o F igure 1 , t he m ajority o f a nimals k illed g rowth p hase.

i n t he p eriod D ecember t hrough A pril d ied d uring t he f ast A ll a nimals k illed f rom J uly t o O ctober d ied d uring t he s low

g rowth p hase. C alendrical d istinctions c an a pparently b e m ade o n t he b asis o f t he p ercentage o f a nimals f rom a s ingle d eath a ssemblage w hich d ied w hile i n t he f ast p hase o f g rowth . F actors t hat i nfluence t he g row th r ate i n b ivalves a re m any, i ncluding w ater t emperatures a nd s alinity . A nnual v ariations i n t hese t wo f actors c an c ause g rowth t o b egin a nd e nd e arlier o r l ater t han i n t he p revious y ear . F igure 1 r epresents t he g rowth p rofile o f o ne s pecific y ear a nd d oes n ot p ermit a n e stimation o f v ariability i n g rowth f or a ny o ne m onth. M onthly e stimates f or a rchaeological d ata b ased o n t his g raph w ould b e p remature a t t his t ime. C onsequently, a t p resent t hese d ata a re b est c ombined i nto f our t empora l g rowth s easons w ithin w hich m uch o f t he g rowth v ariation s hould l ie. T hese s easons h ave b een d esignated b y t he l etters A , B , C , a nd D o n F igure 1 . I f

s hells

w ere

c ollected o nce a m onth b eginning i n D ecember f or o ne

y ear a nd d iscarded a t t he s ame s ite e ach t ime , t hose f rom d ifferent s easons w ould b e d istinguishable i n s everal w ays. S eason A c an b e c haracterized b y av ery h igh p roportion o f a nimals ( 80-100%) k illed d uring f ast g rowth. G iven t he l aw o f s uperposition , t he p ercentage o f s hells d eposited e ach m onth w hich d ied d uring f ast g rowth w ould d ecrease f rom t he b ottom t oward t he t op o f t he p ile. S eason B h as s ome a nimals g rowing r apidly p roportion d iscarded w ould d ecrease m onthly.

( 10-80%) b ut a gain , t he S eason C i s a p eriod o f

v irtually n o s hell a ccretion , t he p roportions o f a nimals d ying d uring f ast g rowth s table a t 0 % . S eason D i s m arked b y a r apid i ncrease i n g rowth ( 17 9%) a nd w ould b e r ecognizable o nly w hen a l ayer f rom t his p eriod w as d eposited o n t op o f al ayer f rom S eason C . W hen t his g rowth m odel i s a pplied t o a ctual a rtificial v ertical a ccumulations o f s hell o n t he l andscape , o r t o a rchaeological s hell m iddens , t he a boriginal s hellfishing s eason c an b e i dentified. S easonality o f S hell M iddens f rom C oastal N orth C arolina I n

1 980 a nd

1 981,

1 9 c oastal W oodland p eriod s ites

c olumn-sampled f or a s easonality s tudy o f t he c lam

( Figure

2 ),

w ere

M ercenaria m ercenaria.

T he d ensity o f s hell s uggested t hat s ome o f t hese c olumns w ere f rom p rocessing s tations ( high d ensity) a nd s ome w ere f rom h abitation a reas o r m ultiple a ctivity a reas ( low d ensity). a ppear t o h ave b een c ontiguous w ith

I n s ome c ases t he p rocessing a reas

ah abitation a rea , w hile i n o thers t hey

2 12

1 00 9 0

( 9)

8 0

7 0 _ 1 9)

P E R C E N T A G E

6 0 5 0 4 0 _

A

DI

A

3 0 2 0 _ 1 0 0

D ec

1 J an

f F eb

1 2 5

M ar

'A pr fM ay 4J un

1J u l

J (11 )

A ug S ep

I O ct

N ov

D ec

M ONTH O F C OLLECTION ( 9)=Number o f I ndividuals

F IGURE

1 :

A nnual

g rowth p rofile

( 198 1)

B ay , N orth C aro lina.

2 13

f or M ercenar ia m ercenar ia

f rom O ns low

M a p o f t h e p r o j e c t a r e a .

O N S L O W B A Y

O N S L O W C O U N T Y

WHITE OAK R IVER

2 14

•z

0

0

0

C LAASSEN :

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P ATTERNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

w ere c learly s eparate.

2 0cm

T he d imensions o f t he c olumn s amples w ere d eliberately s mall , u sually a nd d ivided i nto 5 o r 1 0 c m l evels, i n an e ffort t o s ustain t he

2

n ecessary a ssumption t hat e ach p rovenience r epresented a s ingle d eath a ssemblage.

T he e xcavated m aterial f rom e ach p rovenience w as w et

s creened

t hrough s everal s izes o f m esh . C eramic f ragments, s nails, f aunal m aterial a nd b ivalves w ere c ollected a nd r ecorded. T he r atio o f c lans t o o ysters ( Crassostrea v irginica), t he o nly t wo b ivalves o f n ote i n t hese s ites , w as c alculated f or e ach p rovenience a s w ell a s t he w eight o f s hell m aterial. T able 1 c onveys m uch o f t his i nformation f or f ive o f t he s ites. S ince

t he p rocedure u sed i n

i dentification o f

t his

s tudy

o f

s easonality

r equires

o nly

d eath d uring f ast o r s low g rowth f or e ach s pecimen ,

t he

s amples w ere n otched a nd g round o n a n I ngram t hin-section g rinder ( 350 g rit) i f w hole, o r s imply g round a long a b reak p erpendicular t o t he g rowth d irection i f b roken .

B oth f ragment m atching a nd d uplicated g rowth p atterns

w ere u sed t o e liminate t he p ossibility o f m ore t han o ne s ample b eing o btained f rom a ny o ne i ndividual. V isibility a t t he m argin w as e nhanced w ith

r eflected

l ight

a nd

l ow p ower m agnification .

T he

n umber o f a nimals

w hich d ied d uring f ast o r s low g rowth w as c onverted i nto p ercentages f or e ach p rovenance. I n a ll, 7 85 s hells f rom 9 6 p roveniences y ielded i nformation o n t heir t ime o f d eath.

M any m ore s ections w ere u nuseable d ue

t o c rowding o f t he a nnuli w hich p revented d etection o f t he g rowth p hase a t d eath . G reater d etail a nd d iscussion i ncluding 1 4 m ore s ites c an b e f ound i n C laassen

( 1982).

V isual i nspection o f t he g raphs i n F igure 3 s hows l ittle c orrespondence w ith t he g rowth m odel p resented i n F igure 1 .

C hanges i n l ine d irection a re

q uite a brupt a nd t he p roportion o f a nimals k illed d uring f ast g rowth r arely f alls b elow 5 0% a nd n ever b elow 3 3% . S hell g rowth c ould i n f act b e r andom t hroughout t he y ear and t he m odern g raph c ould b e s imply a s tatistical a rtifact,

b ut t he o bservations o f n umerous m alacologists a nd t he c onsistency

o f t he m odern d ata n egate t his i nterpretation. A dmitting t hat f uture s ampling w ill i ntroduce p erturbations i nto t he m odern g raph , t he a ssumption w ill H ow

c ontinue t hen,

t o b e m ade

c an t he

t hat

r esults

t his

o f

g raph i s a t

a rchaeological

l east o f t he r ight s hape. a nd

m odern

s ampling

b e

r econciled? I f s hellfish c ollecting w as a y ear-round a ctivity i n t his a rea d uring t he W oodland p eriod,

s hells f rom a ll f our g rowth s easons s hould b e p resent

i n t he m idden r efuse o f t he a rea a lthough n ot n ecessarily a t a s ingle s ite. C onversely, i f s hell c ollecting w as a s easonal a ctivity , a t l east o ne o f t he g rowth s easons

s hould b e

c onsistently m issing

f rom t he a rchaeological

r ecord o f t he a rea. I n f act, i n 9 6 p roveniences, o nly g rowth s easons A a nd Bh ave b een i dentified i n t he a rcheological m aterial. I n a ddition t o h igh f ast

d eath p ercentages t he a rchaeological

g raphs h ave

t he

s ame

d irection o f l ine a s S easons A and B o f t he m odern g raph.

s lope a nd F or a ll t he

p rehistoric s ites i nvestigated , t he a borginal s hellfish s eason a ppears t o h ave b een f rom N ovember u ntil A pril, o ccasionally e nding e arlier i n a y ear o r b eginning l ater . T he n umber o f s hell f ishing s easons s pent a t a s ite i s s uggested b y n umber o f

t imes

S eason A a ppears i n a n a rchaeological

a ddition t o t he r epetition o f

S eason A ,

s equence.

b reaks i n o ccupation a t

2 15

t he I n

t he s ites

C LAASSEN :

T ABLE 1 :

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P AIItRNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

C olumn S ample D ata f rom F ive S ites

S hell S ite

O n 2 6

L evel

0 -5 c m 5 10cm

W hite O ak W hite O ak

1 015cm 1 5-20cm

W hite O ak

2 0-25cm 2 5-30cm 3 0-35cm 3 5-40cm 4 0-45cm O n 3 1 c ol 1

c ol 2

O n 1 36

C eramics

0 - b cm 5 10cm 1 015cm 1 5-20cm 0 - 5 cm 5 10cm 1 015cm 1 5-20tm 2 0-25cm 2 5-30cm 0 10cm 1 015cm 1 5-20cm 2 0-25cm 2 5-30cm 3 0-35cm 3 5-40cm 4 0-50cm 5 0-60cm

C arteret W hite O ak

W hite O ak W hite O ak

O nslow

C arteret N ew R iver

W eight

C lam % F ats % S eason

> 1000BP

1 026g

3 7

7 7

B

8 80g 4 74g 6 91g 1 292g 1 209g 7 50g 7 70g 5 64g

3 0 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 1 4 0 7 6 7 7

8 6 8 6 6 4 6 7 7 9 8 4 9 1 1 00

A A B B B A A

< 233 B P > 269 B P

8 57g

1 00

5 8

B

2 007g 1 908g 2 086g 2 18g 4 75g 7 05g 4 74g 3 08g 8 2g

1 00 1 00 1 00 5 3 3 9 3 8 4 0 3 9 3 8

6 7 7 3 9 1 7 5 1 00 8 7 9 1 1 00

B B A B A

2 544g 1 245g 2 065g

1 00 1 00 1 00

A

1 975g 1 809g 1 695g 2 333g 2 739g 5 250g

1 00 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 3 9 5

1 00 6 9 9 0 5 3 9 3 8 8 7 8 7 9 9 1

4 80g 1 243g 1 060g 1 627g 3 25g

2 5 2 7 4 4 5 8 5 4

1 00 8 7 1 00 1 00 1 00

A A A A A

A A

> 1000BP 1 000BP < 1000BP

2 33 B P

A A A 1 3

O n 1 91

0 10cm 1 015cm 1 5-20cm 2 025cm 2 5-30tm

C rNN

0 10cm 1 015cm

1 530g

1 00

5 0

B

1 5-20cm 2 0-25cm 2 5-30cm 3 0-35cm

1 971g 1 343g 6 31g 5 28g

1 00 1 00 8 9 1 00

7 4 7 1 1 00 7 8

B B A B

2 16

D ate

1 000BP < 1000BP I < 2330BP t > 2695BC

9

1 1 000BP

C LAASSEN :

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P A UERNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

a re s uggested b y a c hange i n t he d ominant

s hellfish s pecies

f rom o ne

p rovenience t o t he n ext. B oth t ypes o f b reaks a re i ndicated o n t he i ndividual s ite g raphs ( Figure 3 ). W hen a F ischer's E xact t est

i s a pplied t o t he d ata t o a ssess t he

s ignificance o f t he d ifferences b etween l evels ( significance l evel . 05), o nly a f ew s eparations p ersist. A t 0 n136 t he c hanges i n f ast a nd s low g rowth p ercentages a re s ignificant b etween l evels 1 a nd 2 ( P = . 048), l evels 3 a nd 4 ( P = . 046), a nd l evels 4 a nd 5 ( P = . 011). A lthough t he i nitiation o f an ew c ollecting s eason c an e xplain t his c hange i n p ercentages o f f ast d eath b etween l evels 1 , 2 , 3a nd 4 , s o c ould a c hange i n t he c ollecting l ocale f rom o ne e nvironmentally p oor f or g rowth t o o ne e xcellent f or g rowth . T he s trong b reak b etween l evels 4 a nd 5 c ould b e a t emporal b reak b etween s easons A a nd D o r r epresent d iscontinuous d iscarding i n t his a rea d uring a s ingle s eason . A t s ite C rNN s tatistical v alidation w as f ound f or o nly o ne d ivision , t hat b etween l evels 4 a nd 5 ( P = . 05). R ather t han a s easonal c hange t his b reak i s m ore l ikely i ndicative o f a b reak i n d iscard l ocus d uring o ne s eason o r a c hange i n c ollecting l ocale. N o d ivisions i n a nnual c ollecting a ctivity c an b e s tatistically s ubstantiated i n c olumns f rom 0 n26 , 0 n31, o r 0 n191. I t

a ppears

t hat

t he n ative u se o f

s hellfish w as

s easonal,

b eginning

s ometime i n t he f all o r w inter a nd c oncluding d uring l ate w inter o r s pring. T he h istorical o bservations s ummarized i n L oftfield ( 1976) h owever , s tate t hat s hellfish w ere g athered f rom A pril u ntil J uly. S uch a l ate c ollection p eriod i s c learly a t o dds w ith t he r esults o f t his p roject. S everal w riters I rom t he f irst t wo c enturies a fter c ontact e cho t his s chedule s o o bserver e rror i s a pparently n ot t he c ause f or t his d iscrepancy b etween t he a rcheological a nd h istorical r ecords. E nglish s ailors l eft E ngland i n A pril t o a rrive a t t he O uter B anks o f N or il l C arolina i n J uly o r A ugust o n a t l east

1 2 o ccasions b etween 1 584 a nd

1 602 ( Quinn , 1 955 : 1 58-253). Am an c alled M ace l eft E ngland i n M arch 1 602 t o s cour t he c oast n orth o f C ape F ear ( North C arolina) a nd s outh o f R oanoke I sland i n a n a ttempt t o l earn t he f ate o f t he c olony l eft a t R oanoke I sland. H e s tayed i n t his a rea f or o ne m onth, c ertainly c oming i n c ontact w ith I ndians i n t he O nslow a rea ( Quinn , 1 977 : 4 38). S panish v essels

c ame t his

f ar n orth

s everal

t imes

d uring

t he

s ummer

m onths l ooking f or t he E nglish b ase o n R oanoke I sland, N orth C arolina, b eginnning

i n

t he

1 580's

a nd

c ertainly

e xplored

t his

a rea

p rior

t o

t his

t ime. T hey w ere s till l ooking f or t he e lusive c olony a t t he t urn o f t he c entury ( Quinn, 1 955: 1 58-253). S herds f rom c eramic v essels h ave r eportedly b een c ollected o n t he b each e ast o f 0 n136 . T he

F rench m ay h ave

t raded

( South C arolina) a nd C ape C od

w ith

c oastal

I ndians

b etween

C ape

( Massachusetts) i n t he d ecade o f 1 590 :

R omain t hey

c ertainly d id a t C ape R omain ( Quinn , 1 977 : 4 29). Ap attern o f t rading a nd r aiding w as f irmly e stablished b y 1 605 i n t he C aribbean , w hich i ncluded a nnual v isits t o t he m ainland c oast t o g et w ater a nd f irewood a nd t o s ell t o a nd b uy f rom . t he I ndians b efore r eturning t o F rance. T he a nnual s ummer v isits o f E uropeans t o t he N orth C arolina c oast p robably c reation

a ttracted t he o f s ummertime

n ative p opulation t o t his a rea a nd s timulated t he c oastal c amps. T his c hange i n s cheduling w ould

2 17

O n26

0 191

1 00 _ 0 \ 0

1 0 0 ._

9 0 _

0 \

8 0_

9 0

-

F 8 0. .

7 0 C E ,6 0 c n 5 0

c C E . f

7 0

-

6 0_

r L 5 0_

4 0

1

1

9

9

1

7

1

4 0

1

6 5 4 L EVEL

3

2

1

1

5

1

O n31c1 1 00 _

0 \ 0 9 0

0 \ ,

8 0. .

9 0

. .

9 0_

5 ,70 c

c E 7 11 6 0 _

•

6 0_

5 0 _

5 0. . .

4 0 4

3 2 L EVEL

4 0

I f 1

6

5

O n136

4 3 2 /1 L EVEL

C rNN

1 00_ 9 0

1

O n31c2

1 00 ,

0 \ 0

1

4 3 2 1 L EVEL

1 00_

•

-

2

8 0_ 7 0

0 \

9 0

—

2

9 0_

•

7 0

2 E l 6 0_

6 0 5 0_ _

5 0_

4 0

4 0 9 '

7

6 r5 4 L EVEL

3

2 '1

6

5

4 3 L EVEL

= B reak o n t he b asis o f s pecies r atios = B reak o n t he b asis o f g rowth s egment

F IGURE 3 :

S easona lity p rofile f or f ive W ood land s ites i n N orth C aro lina .

t aken f rom T able 1 .

2 18

D ata

C LAASSEN : a ccount

f or

p opulation .

t he

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P ATTERNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA r ecorded

s ummertime

s hellfishing

a ctivity

o f

t he

I ndian

T he s urface l evels a t t hree s ites n ot d iscussed i n t his p aper

a re d istinctive f or t heir s ummer c ollections o f s hellfish a s r evealed b y t he s easonality a nalysis a nd m ay r epresent o ccupations o f t he p rotohistorich istoric p eriod.

S PECIES S ELECTION O nslow C ounty s hell m idden s ites t heir s hell c ontent. T hese a re

f all i nto

t hree c ategories b ased o n

1 )

S ites i n w hich o ysters p redominate s uch a s O n21, 0 n31c2 a nd O nNN1.

2 )

S ites w here i nitial l evels h ad a g reater p ercentage o f c lams s uch a s 0 n26 , 0 n29c1, O n191, a nd O nNN2c1.

3 )

S ites w here c lams p redominated o verwhelmingly t hroughout t he a ccumulation s uch a s 0 n29c2 , 0 n77 , 0 n136 a nd C rNN .

V ariation in t he r elative n umbers o f m olluscan s pecies i n a rchaeological s ites c an f urnish i nvaluable e nvironmental i nformation . I t w as a pparent i n a b rief r eview o f t he r are d iscussions o f t hese v ariations , p articularly w hen o yster/clam r atios a re d ebated , t hat c onfusion r ules. L arson ( 1980) a nd A utry & L oftfield ( 1976) a ssert t hat M ercenaria l ives i n a nd p refers h abitats o f l ower s alinity t han C rassostrea v irginica ( eastern o yster) w ould i nhabit, w hile T rinkley ( 1980) a nd R uppe c lams p refer h abitats o f h igher s alinity t han o ysters.

( 1980)

c laim t hat

T he s alinity t olerance r ange s uitable f or t he m aintenance o f a dult p opulations a nd t hat n ecessary f or r eproduction a nd s urvival o f l arvae d iffer.

A n u nstable

s alinity

r egime

i s

a n

i mportant

e cological

f act

i n

t idal r ivers a nd e stuaries. T he e ffect o n o ysters a nd c lams d epend o n t he r ange o f f luctuations a nd t he s uddenness o f t he c hanges. B ivalves c an i solate t hemselves f rom t heir a queous e nvironment b y c losing t heir v alves a nd t hus s urvive a dverse c hanges i n m any e nvironmental p arameters t he c onditions d o n ot l ast t oo l ong ( Galtsoff , 1 964).

p rovided

A dult o ysters c an m aintain l ife w ithin a s alinity r ange o f 5 -30 p arts p er h undred. F or a dult M ercenaria t his r ange i s s lightly s maller 1 2.5 t o 2 8. B oth s pecies p refer s alinities f rom 2 5 t o 2 8 p arts p er h undred. P opulations l iving b eyond t he r ange h ave i nhibited g rowth a nd g onad f ormation a nd a re o ften d ecimated b y f loods, i f l iving i n t he l ower e nd o f t he r ange, o r b y p redators i f l iving i n t he u pper e nd o f t he r ange. I f t he c hange i n s alinity i s g radual, t ests h ave s hown t hat t here i s n o s ignificant d ifference i n t he r espiratory r ate , s pecific g ravity o f b lood o r g aping t ime ( Galtsoff,

1 964).

H owever , i n o ysters, i f t he c hange i s 1 0 p ercent o r m ore

a nd c ontinues f or s everal h ours , b oth t he r espiratory r ate a nd g aping t ime a re s ignificantly a ltered, s howing t hat c losure f or p rotection h as c ommenced. W here t he t wo s pecies d iffer m ost s ignificantly i s i n t he a bility o f M ercenaria t o r emain c losed a nd p rotected f or l onger p eriods o f t ime t han i s p ossible f or C rassostrea ( Burrell , 1 977). C onsequently , o n o ccasions w hen h igh r un-off o f f reshwater l asts f or t wo a nd t hree w eeks, t he c lam

p opulation w ill

s urvive

w ith

l ittle m ortality w hile

p opulation w ill s uccumb i n l arge n umbers.

2 19

t he o yster

C LAASSEN :

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P ATTERNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

A s pring s eason w ith h eavy f reshwater r un-off w ould e xplain t he s hort t erm p reponderance o f c lams a t 0 n26, 0 n29c1, 0 n191, a nd O nNN2c2. A lternatively , t he f irst a nd l ast o ccupations a re d istinctive f or t heir h igh c lam c ontent w hich m ay i ndicate t wo p eriods o f p rolonged l ow o yster n umbers r ather t han a s easonal k ill o f o ysters d ue t o f reshwater r un-off . R un-off o ccurs i n l ate s pring , a fter t he c ollection t ime o f t hese a nimals. I s uggest t hat a ll c lam-dominated s ites a re t he l atest i n t he a boriginal s equence a nd a re t he r esult o f l owered s ea l evel. T he s ingle o ccupations l isted a bove c ould h ave h appened d uring o verlapping p eriods o f m arine r egression . O ther h ypotheses w hich c ould e xplain t he s pecies d ifferences w ithin a nd a mong t hese s ites ( technological c hange, h uman c hoice, o verexploitation o f o ysters) w ere c onsidered a nd e liminated ( see C laassen , 1 982). T he a ltitudinal l ocation o f s everal o f t he s ites i n t his s ample c an b e t aken a s e vidence o f p eriods o f h igher a nd l ower s ea l evel. T hese t ransgressions a nd r egressions o f s ea l evel w ould b e s imilar t o t hose n oted a long t he c oast o f S outh C arolina. B rooks e t a l. ( 1979) p resent a rchaeological a nd g eological a rguments a nd d ata t o s upport t he o ccurrence o f s ea l evel f luctuations f rom 4 200 t o 1 000BP i n t he C ooper R iver V alley n orth o f C harleston , S outh C arolina . T he a vailable a rchaeological d ata f rom t hat a rea ( not s hell m idden s ites) i ndicate h igher s ea l evels d uring f our p eriods: 4 200 - 3 700BP , 3 100 - 2 850BP , 2 250 - 1 750BP , 1 600 - 1 000BP , w hile t he g eological d ata i ndicate l ow w ater a t 3 100BP a nd b etween 2 695 2 330BP . T his s tudy c oncluded i ts i nvestigations a t 1 000BP . T hose s ites t hat a re o verwhelmingly c lam s hell m id , lens i n O nslow C ounty a re w ithout e xception l ocated a long t he p resent d ay s horeline . H igh t ide t oday i nundates O n29c1 a nd e rodes O n30 , 0 n77 , a nd 0 n 107. C olumn 1 o f 0 n31 i s j ust a bove t he h igh t ide m ark a s i s c olumn 2 o f O nNN2. T hese l o tions s uggest s ite f ormation d uring a t ime o f l ow s ea l evel. A ccumulation o n a b each i s i ndicated b y t he b leached s hells i n t he l owest l ayers o n 0 n26 . A ssuming t hat t he l ong a xis o f e ach m idden i s c lose t o a nd p arallel w ith t he s horeline o f t he t ime , s ites 0 n24 , 0 n31c2 , a nd t he m ain m idden ( column 1 ) a t O nNN2 w hich a re a ll a bove h igh t ide l evel, w ere e stablished d uring t imes o f h igh w ater . AM iddle W oodland d ate ( 1800 B P -5 00BP) o r e arlier i s s uggested b y t he c eramics ( New R iver a nd C arteret) f or t he i nitial l ayers o f c lams a t 0 n26 a nd 0 n19 1. A l ater p eriod o f c lam d ominance i s i ndicated b y 0 n31c2 a nd 0 n 136 . T he a ssertion t hat c lam d ominated s ites a re l ate i n p rehistory i s w ell i llustrated b y t he s tratigraphy a t 0 n29 w here t here i s a n e roding b ank 8 0cm h igh . T he t op 2 0cm c onsists o f s ilts c ontaining e xclusively c lam s hells, f ollowed b y a 4 0cm d eposit o f w ater-laid s and . T he n ext 1 0cm a re a m ixture o f o yster , c lam a nd o ther c ultural d ebris , w hile t he f inal 1 0cm a re f illed w ith d ensely p acked c lam s hells. P revalence o f c lam o ver o yster i s c learly r elated t o l ow w ater i n t his s ite , a nd i n t his g roup o f s ites . F or t he i ntitial c lam l ayers a t 0 n26 , 0 n29 , a nd 0 n19 1, I s uggest t hat t he l ow w ater d ate f rom S outh C arolina o f 2 695 t o 2 300BP i s t he m ost p robable . T he m ore r ecent e nd o f t his s pan m arks t he t ransition f rom E arly W oodland t o M iddle W oodland . S ites w hose u ppermost l evels i ndicate a c hange t o c lam a nd t hose s ites w ith o nly c lam p resent i n t he r efuse i ndicate a s econd p eriod o f l ow w ater . I ts l ateness i s s upported b y t he l ate W hite O ak c eram ic t ype p resent i n

2 20

C LAASSEN :

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P AiltRNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

t hese l evels. T his p eriod m ust d ate c lose t o o r a fter 1 000BP s ince t he S outh C arolina p roject d id n ot d etect i t. C onfirmation f or a s econd r egression p eriod c omes f rom t he l ocation o f a bandoned M iddle W 000dland s ites a nd n ewly f ounded l ate W oodland s ites. A bandoned s ites a re l ocated f ar u p t he W hite O ak R iver o r o n s mall t ributaries o r a t t he b ack o f a b ay , w ater s ources m ost l ikely t o d ry u p d uring p eriods o f l ow w ater i n a t idal r egime. S ites f irst f ounded a long t he c urrent s horeline.

i n t he

l ate

W oodland

p eriod a re

a ll

f ound

T hose o ccupations m arked b y am ixture o f o ysters a nd c lams w ith o ysters p redominating a pparently d ate t o t he p eriod b etween t he t wo r egressions, f rom 2 330 - 1 000BP , t he M iddle W oodland p eriod p roper. T he e stimated d ates f or e ach p rovenience i n t his s tudy a re g iven i n T able 1 . I t

i s

i mportant

t o s tress

t hat m any o f t he s ites u nder c onsideration

h ere h ave t he f ull c omplement o f p rehistoric c eramic t ypes, e vident i n s urface c ollection . T hese a re c ertainly m ulticomponent s ites, o ccupied d uring t he p eriods t hat t heir c eramics i ndicate. T hose p roveni_nces c omposed o verwhelmingly o f c lam , i t i s a rgued h ere, a ccumulated e ither b efore 2 330BP o r a fter 1 000BP . W hat i s b eing d ated i s t he b ulk o f t he s hell c ollecting a ctivity a t t hese s ites. F or m any o f t he s ites t his i s t he M iddle W oodland, f or o thers i t i s t he L ate W oodland. A t n one o f t he 1 9 s ites i nvestigated f rom O nslow C ounty, h owever, d id s ignificant s hell c ollecting o ccur b efore t hat f irst r egression p eriod , w hatever i ts d ate , a ssumed , o n t he b asis o f r esearch i n S outh C arolina , t o b e 1 695 - 2 . J OBP . T he E arly W oodland c eramic w are k nown a s T hom 's C reek i s f ound i n ( aslow C ounty i n s heilLee s ites w hose l ocations c onsistently i ndicate a p er ' , d o f h igh w ater . A s s hell-free s ites t hey s hould p re-date t he 2 695 - 2 330BP l ow w ater p eriod. T he S outh C arolina h igh w ater d ate o f 3 100 - 1 850 B P i s i n k eeping w ith t he p roposed t ransition d ate f rom S tallings f iber t empered w are t o T hom 's C reek a t 3 100BP

( Phelps ,

1 968).

C ONCLUSIONS N umerous

t ime

s aving m odifications

t o t he m ethodology f or s tudying

s hellfish s easonality, p rincipally t he u se o f t hick s ections . and f ast g rowth-slow g rowth c ounts , h ave a llowed t he p rocessing o f al arge s ample i n ar egional s tudy o f t he u se o f t his r esource. C olumn s ampled m aterial f rom 1 9 W oodland s ites i n O nslow C ounty , N orth C arolina , r evealed a n a boroginal p attern o f w inter-spring c ollecting . H istorical e vidence s hows t hat t his p attern w as s ubsequently a ltered t o o ne o f s ummer c ollecting a s c ontact w ith E uropeans w as m ade . L ong s ought i n t he a rchaeaological t reatment o f s hell m iddens h as b een am eans o f d eriving m icrostratigraphy w ithin o therwise u ndifferentiated s hell r efuse. A n a ttempt d escribed h ere t o d etect m ultiple s hell-fishing s easons h as b een l argely u nsuccessful. A c yclical g rowth p attern d etectable i n l iving s hell ( Figure 1 ) u ndoubtedly a pplies t o s ubfossil s hell a s w ell. S uch c ycles m ay b e e vident a t M O s ites, 0 n136 a nd C rNN , b ut a s y et n o m eans i s k nown f or d istinguishing s easonal c ycles f rom o ther k inds o f t emporal b reaks o r f rom c hanges i n s hellfish b eds g leaned. T he s ites f all i nto t hree c ategories , t hose d ominated b y o ysters , t hose i n w hich c lams w ere d ominant i nitially , a nd t hose i n w hich c lams p redominate

2 21

C LAASSEN :

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P ATTERNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA

o verwhelm ingly t hroughout.

T he d ifferent e nvironmental

t olerance o f c lams

a nd o ysters a llow c orrelation o f s ites, a nd l evels w ithin s ites, w ith d ifferent e nvironmental r egimes. T he b ivalve r atios i n p articular s ites, w hen c ombined w ith a ltitudinal d ata , a nd , i n s ome c ases , w ith c eramic o r s edimentary e vidence , c an b e u sed t o s uggest a pproximate d ates o f o ccupation b y c orrelation w ith k nown p hases o f m arine t ransgression a nd r egression . As parse a rtifactual i nventory i s t ypical o f m ost o f t he s hell m iddens f ound a long t he s alt m arshes o f s outhern N orth C arolina. C ollectors h ave b een a t w ork f or s everal d ecades r emoving m ost o f t he d iagnostic l ithics, p lowing h as g reatly f ragmented t he c eram ic r emains , a nd e rosion b y w ind a nd w ater g enerally e liminates t he s urface t reatment o n 4 0-60% o f t he s herds i n a c eramic c ollection. C hronological d ating b y s hell s pecies s equences p rovides a m eans o f s eparating c omponents a nd d etermining r oughly c ontemproaneous o ccupations. S hell s equences a re e asily e xposed , a nd a llow f or a n i n-the-field a ssessment o f s ite a ge. W hen s hell s pecies c an b e c ombined w ith d ata o n s easonality, m icrostratigraphic a ssessments o f t ime m ay b e p ossible i n w hat o therwise a ppears a s u ndifferentiated s hell m idden .

R EFERENCES A utry, W ., J r & L oftfield, T . ( 1976). C arolina c oastal s hell m iddens and t heir

S pecies c ontent o f N orth c ultural implications.

S outheastern A rchaeological C onference , B ulletin 1 9 , B rooks, M .J.,

C olquhoun , D .J.,

P ardi, R .,

7 6-81.

N ewman , W .

&A bbott, W .

( 1979). P reliminary a rchaeological a nd g eological e vidence f or H olocene s ea l evel f luctuations i n t he l ower C ooper R iver V alley , S outh C arolina. T he F lorida A nthropologist 3 2, 8 5103. B urrell , V . ( 1977). M ortalities o f o ysters a nd h ard c lams a ssociated w ith h eavy r unoff i n t he S antee R iver s ystem , S outh C arolina i n t he s pring o f 1 975.

P roceedings o f t he N ational S hellfisheries A ssociation 6 7, 3 5-43.

C laassen ,

C .

( 1982).

S hellfishing p atterns:

a n a nalytical s tudy o f

p rehistoric s hell f rom N orth C arolina c oastal m iddens. D epartment o f A nthropology , H arvard U niversity . C lark ,

G .

( 1979).

P hD t hesis,

S easonal g rowth v ariations i n t he s hells o f r ecent

a nd p rehistoric s pecimens o f M ercenaria m ercenaria f rom S t. C atherines I sland, G eorgia . A nthropological P apers o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory 5 6 ,

1 61172.

C ollier,

A .

( 1953).

A s tudy o f t he r esponse o f o ysters t o

t emperature a nd s ome l ong r ange e cological i nterpretations. P apers 1 953 , N ational S hellfisheries A ssociation , 1 3-38.

C onvention

G altsoff, P . ( 1964). T he A merican o yster, C rassostrea v irginica G melin . U nited S tates F ish a nd W ildlife S ervice , F isheries B ulletin 6 4 , 1 4 80 . L arson ,

L .H.

( 1980).

A boriginal s ubsistence t echnology o n t he

s outheastern c oastal p lain d uring t he l ate p rehistoric p eriod. T he U niversity o f F lorida P ress.

2 22

G ainesville ,

C LAASSEN : L oftfield,

P REHISTORIC S HELLFISHING P ATTERNS I N N ORTH C AROLINA T .

( 1976).

" A

b rief

a nd

t rue

r eport

..":

A n

a rchaeological i nterpretation o f t he s outheastern c oast o f N orth C arolina. P hD t hesis, D epartment o f A nthropology , U niversity o f N orth C arolina , C hapel H ill . M onks , G .G . ( 1981). S easonality s tudies. I n ( M .B. S chiffer , E d) A dvances i n A rchaeological T heory , V olume I V, N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress, 1 77-240 . P annella ,

G .

&M acClintock , C .

r hyth ms r eflected M emoir 2 , 6 4-81. P helps , D . R iver l ocality. Q uinn , D .B. Q uinn , S ettlements. R uppe ,

D .B.

i n m olluscan

s hell

g rowth .

B iological a nd e nvironmental T he P aleontological S ociety

( 1968). T hom's C reek c eramics i n t he T he F lorida A nthropologist 2 1, 1 7-30 . ( 1955).

T he R oanoke V oyages,

( 1977).

N ew Y ork : T .

( 1968).

( 1980).

L ondon :

N orth A merica f rom E arliest

H arper-Row . A nalysis

c entral

S avannah

H akluyt S ociety. D iscovery t o F irst

s

o f

t he m ollusks

f rom t he V enice S ite.

D ivision o f A rchives , H istory , a nd R ecords M anagement , D epartment o f S tate , T allahassee, F lorida, B ureau o f H istoric S ites a nd P roperties B ulletin 6 , 6 1-69 . T rinkley, M . ( 1980). I nvestigation o f t he W oodland p eriod a long t he S outh C arolina c oast. P hD t hesis, D epartment o f A nthropology , U niversity o f N orth C arolina , C hapel H ill.

2 23

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE , N ORTH A MERICA

D avid S anger D epartment o f A nthropology a nd I nstitute f or Q uaternary S tudies U niversity o f M aine O rono , M aine 0 4669 U SA

I NTRODUCTION A rchaeozoology i s a ssuming a m ajor r ole i n a rchaeological i nvestigations i n n ortheastern N orth A merica. C urrent i nterests i n i ssues o f s ubsistence a nd s ettlement a re r eflected t o a n e ver i ncreasing e xtent i n r esearch d esigns. T his p aper r eviews t he p hysical , b iological , a nd c ultural a spects o f t he c entral G ulf o f M aine c oast. I t t hen c onsiders t he r ole o f a rchaeozoology i n s everal i mportant r esearch a reas r anging f rom c ulture c hange t o b roader i ssues o f h unter-gatherer a daptations t o m arine e cosystems.

D ISCUSSION T he g eneral s tudy a rea , t he G ulf o f M aine , i s a l arge ( 90 ,700 k m 2) , s alt w ater b ody o pen t o t he N orth A tlantic O cean b y a 4 16 k m w ide p assage. T he n orthern e nd i s f ormed b y t he C anadian P rovince o f N ova S cotia , w hile t he s outhern e xtremity i s C ape C od , M assachusetts ( Figure 1 ). W ell k nown f or i ts b iological p roductivity , t he G ulf i s e qually f amous f or t he h igh t ides t hat d rive a I ncrease f rom C onsidered i n f rom B oothbay

n utrient r ecycling p rocess ( Apollonio, 1 979). T he t ides t he s outh t o t he n orth , w here r anges u p t o 1 8 i na re d ocumented. t his p aper i s t he c entral p ortion o f t he G ulf o f M aine , a n a rea H arbor , M aine , t o P assamaquoddy B ay, N ew B runswick ( Figure

2 ) . T he c entral G ulf o f M aine i s c haracterized b y a r ock c oastline s tretching 100 k m , a lthough t he a ctual l ength o f t he l ittoral, i ncluding a ll i slands a nd e mbayments o n t he s alt w ater , i s s ubstantially l onger , p erhaps e xtending 8 ,000 k m . I nterspersed b etween t he b ed r oc k o utcrops a re a reas o f u nconsolidated m aterials t hat f orm t he b asis f or f iner s ediments a nd b iologically p roductive i nter-tidal z ones. T he c ombination o f r ocky h eadlands, i slands, q uiet e mbayments, a nd e stuaries, r esults i n aw ide v ariety o f h abitats , g enerally f ound w ithin c lose p roximity . L andward o f t he l ittoral i s a m ixed s oftwood-northern h ardwood f orest , d ominated b y s pruce

2 25

2 26

F I G U R E 1 :

2 27

T h e c o a s t o f M a i n e f r o m P o r t l a n d t o P a s a m a q u o d y B a y .

S ANGER :

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

( Picea), f ir ( Abies), a nd p ine ( Pinus); b eech ( Fagus), m aple ( Acer), b irch ( Betula), a nd o ak ( Quercus) o ccur i n l esser n umbers, i ncreasing t owards t he s outh a nd o ften p resent a s c olonizing s pecies i n d isturbed o r b urned o ver a reas. S ummer p lankton b looms a ttract f ish , s ea m ammals, a nd b irds i n g reat n umbers , p lacing t hem w ithin r ange o f c anoe-borne h unters. S hellfish a re p rominent i n t he i nter-tidal z ones. R ased o n f aunal a nalysis , t he i mportant s pecies a re s oft s hell c lams ( Mya a renaria), h ard s hell c lams ( Mercenaria m ercenaria), b lue m ussel ( Mytilus e dulis), a nd l ocally , o yster ( Crassostrea v irginica). A nalyses i ndicate a p reference f or w inter f lounder ( Pseudopleuronectes americanus), l onghorn s culpin ( Myoxocephalus ' o ctodecemspinosus), a nd c od ( Gadus m orhua). S ea m ammals i nclude s eals , b oth h arbour a nd g rey ( Phoca v itulina, H alichoerus g rypus), a nd p orposie ( Delphinidae s p.). Ag reat v ariety o f d ucks, g eese , a nd s hore b irds, m any o f t hem m igratory , i s p resent i n l arge n umbers s easonally , a nd w as t aken b y t he n ative p eoples. T errestrial m ammals o f i mportance i n t he f aunal l ists i nclude: w hite t ail d eer ( Odocoileus v irginianus), m oose ( Alces), b eaver ( Castor c anadensis), s ea m ink ( Mustela m acrodon) , a nd c aribou ( Rangifer s p.), i n t he n orthern p ortion o nly . V egetable f oods a re l ess p lentiful, a nd c ultigens p robably d id n ot o ccur i n t he r egion d ue t o t he s hort g rowing s eason . Ak nowledge o f t he c ontemporary e nvironments i s c ritical f or a nalysis o f t he p rehistoric e conomy . I n t he p ast , t he G ulf o f M aine s upported a f auna t hat r equired w armer t emperatures t han t hose t hat e xist t oday ( McA lice , 1 981). M ost s pectacular a mong t hese s pecies i s t he swordfl: h ( Xithias g ladius), w hose r emains a re c ommon i n s ites d ating a round 2 000 b c a nd a re v ery s carce i n l ater t imes. E xplanations f or t he s hift i n t emperatures v ary. O ne f actor , o f f ar-reaching s ignificance , i s t he i ncrease i n t idal r ange s ince e arly H olocene t imes , w hen l owered e ustatic s ea l evels r esulted i n an ear t ide-less i nland s ea , t he D eGeer S ea , l inked t o t ne A tlantic b y t he n arrow ( 40 k m) N ortheast C hannel ( Grant, 1 970). N ot u ntil t he r ising s eas i nundated w hat a re n ow G eorges a nd B rowns b anks c ould t he G ulf o f M aine h ave p articipated i n t he A tlantic O cean t idal r egime a nd h ave d eveloped t he c onfiguration n ecessary t o p roduce t he p resent h igh t ides. T he p recise t iming o f e vents l eading u p t o t he d evelopment o f m odern c onditions i s u nknown; c learly i t c onstitutes a r esearch q uestion o f p aramount i mportance i f w e a re t o a ssess t he r elationship b etween h uman s ocieties a nd p ast e nvironments. T errestrial e nvironmental r econstructions a re q uite w ell d eveloped. F rom a n i nitial p eriod o f t undra f ollowing d eglaciation b y 1 1,000 b c , am ixed p ine-oak f orest d eveloped , f ollowed b y d ense h emlock ( Tsuga) s tands u ntil a s harp d ecline a t a round 3 000 b c , a fter w hich a m ixed h ardwood-softwood f orest e volved, e ventually c hanging t o t he s oftwood d ominated f orests o f m odern t imes ( Davis e t a l, 1 975). U nfortunately, t he g enerally a cidic s oil c onditions a llowed n o n atural p aleontological d eposits , w ith t he r esult t hat o nly i n t he s hell m iddens i s t here a g ood r ecord o f a nimal r emains, a r ecord s creened t hrough t he f ilter o f c ultural a ctivities.

2 28

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A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

N orthern N ew E ngland a nd t he M aritime P rovinces d o n ot b oast a l ong h istory o f o utstand ing a rchaeological r esearch . S hunned b y u niversities i n f avour o f m ore e xotic a reas, l ocal a rchaeology w as g enerally c onsidered u ninteresting a nd f it o nly f or s tudent t raining . C onsequently , i t w as w ell i nto t he 1 960's b efore s ustained , l ocally s ponsored , p rograms d eveloped. D uring t he s ame p eriod , t he a nthropology o f h unters a nd g atherers c ame i nto v ogue. I n m ost o f e astern N orth A merica , t he p rehistoric p eriod i s d ivided i nto s tages - P aleo I ndian , A rchaic , a nd W oodland. T he e arliest , t he P aleo I ndian , b egan a round 9 ,000 b c i n o ur a rea f ollowing t he r etreat o f t he L aurentide c ontinental g laciation . T hese h unters a nd g atherers l ived i n t undra , a p arkland a nd f orested s etting n ot u nlike t hose f ound i n p arts o f n orthern Q uebec t oday . T he b est k nown o f t hese e arly s ites i s D ebert i n N ova S cotia ( MacDonald , 1 968). Ap eriod o f r elatively s carce e vidence f or h uman o ccupation c overs t he E arly a nd M iddle A rchaic u p t o a round 3 000 b c a nd t he b eginning o f t he L ate A rchaic , b y w hich t ime t here i s ad ramatic i ncrease i n t he n umber o f s ites , a rtifacts , a nd p resumably , p eople. F or n early t wo d ecades d ebate h as c ontinued a s t o W hether t he l ong h iatus i s r eal o r i f i t i s a n a rtifact o f s ampling , r ecognition , a nd p reservation . T here i s a lso d iscussion r egarding t he i nfluence o f t he r ather s udden c hange i n f orest c omposition a t t hat t ime , f ollowing t he a brupt " crash" o f t he h emlock f orests a nd t he m ixed h ardwood s tands t hat s ucceeded. T he L ate A rchaic p eoples p ractised a r ed o chre f orm o f b urial t hat l ed t o t he n ame " Red P aint p eople" , t oday k nown m ore p rosaically a s t he M oorehead b urial t radition ( Sanger , 1 973) o r t he M oorehead p hase ( Bourque , 1 976). A c oastal m anifestation o f t he L ate A rchaic s tage i s t ermed t he M aritime A rchaic T radition ( Tuck , 1 971). A round 1 700 b c a n ew c ulture, t he S usquehanna o r B roadspear , m oved i nto t he a rea , p robably a s a r esult o f a p opulation m ovement ( Sanger , 1 975 :53). T he i ntroduction o f p ottery i nto M aine a nd t he M aritimes a t a round 5 00 b c h eralds t he W oodland s tage o r , a s i t i s c alled i n o ur a rea , t he C eramic P eriod . S ites a re p lentiful, a nd i nclude b oth i nland a nd c oastal s ettings , t he l atter b eing l argely s hell m iddens. D espite t he n umbers o f p apers w ritten o n t he l ate A rchaic , t he b ulk o f r ecent r esearch h as a ctually d ealt w ith s hell m iddens o f t he C eramic P eriod . E uropean c ontact b egan i n e arnest a t a bout A D 1 600 a fter n early a c entury o f s poradic v isits . T he n ative p eoples a t t hat t ime w ere A lgonkian s peaking h unters a nd g atherers ( Snow , 1 978). U nlike s o m any o ther a reas o f t he N ew W orld , t he e thnohistoric r ecord i s a mbiguous a nd e ven m isleading o n i ssues o f s ettlement a nd s ubsistence , b ecause s o m uch w as r econstructed f rom i nformants l iving 3 00 y ears a fter t he i nitial s hattering o f t he c ulture t hrough d epopulation a nd i nvolvement w ith t he f ur t rade ( Sanger , 1 982). A lthough t he e arly w orkers n oted t he s pecies c omposition i n s hell m iddens , i t w as n ot u ntil t he 1 960 's t hat s ystematic a rchaeozoology t ook p lace i n M aine. J . W aters g enerated f aunal l ists t hat l ed t o s tatements r egarding s easonality o f s ettlement ( Bourque , 1 971, 1 973). A t t he s ame t ime , H . S avage , F . S tewart , a nd J . B urns w ere d eveloping f aunal a nalyses f rom s ites i n P assamaquoddy B ay, N ew B runswick , t hat h ave a d irect b earing o n

2 29

S ANGER :

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

s easonality c onsiderations a s w ell a s 1 982).

s ubsistence c oncerns

( Sanger ,

1 971,

O ne o f t he m ost o bvious c hanges i n s pecies s election i nvolves t he s wordfish ( Xiphias g ladius) w hich w as p resent i n s ome n umbers i n s ites d ated t o b etween 2 200 b c a nd 1 700 b c ( Bourque , 1 976 , S anger , 1 975). A fter 1 700 b c t his m ajor m eat s ource w as n o l onger u tilized, t hough o ther f ish s pecies m ost c ertainly w ere . S wordfish i s aG ulf S tream r elated s pecies i n N orth A merica t hat e nters t he G ulf o f M aine o nly i n t he s um m er m onths , p referring w ater o f 1 6 d egrees o r w armer ( Leim & S cott , 1 966). R arely s een i nshore t oday , i ts p resence i n c oastal s ites s uggests a c hange i n r ange . R esearch b y s everal s cholars , r eviewed b y Malice ( 1981), i ndicates t he p resence o f d isjunct r elict s pecies s urviving i n f avourable w arm w ater h abitats. T aken t ogether , t he d ata s uggest a t rend t o c ooler w ater f rom m id-Holocene t imes o nwards. G rant ( 1970 :686) c oncluded t hat m ost o f t he c urrent t idal r ange i s af eature o f t he p ast 4 000 y ears. I t i s, o f c ourse, t he t ides a nd t he a ssociated e xchange w ith c old A tlantic O cean b ottom w aters t hat c reates t he c old, u nstratified, G ulf o f M aine w aters. I s i t o nly a c oincidence t l,A t he c ulture t aking s wordfish , t he M ariti m e A rchaic , d isappeared f rom M aine b y 1 700 b c , t o b e r eplaced b y o ne w ith a n i nshore a nd t errestrial f ocus? A s I h ave s uggested e lsewhere ( Sanger , 1 975 :69) , a d ecision t o e xpend t ime a nd e nergy s eeking h igh r isk s wordfish c an o nly r esult i n l ess t ime b eing a vailable f or c ropping l ow r isk s pecies , s uch a s t he m any a nadromous f ish t hat a scend t he r ivers o f t he G ulf o f M aine . O ne c an a lso s peculate o n t he p ositive s ocial a nd p sychological r einforcements f or c apturing a l arge a nd d angerous p rey s uch a s as wordfish , e specially a s t hey b ecame l ess a nd l ess c -mmon . M bnocausal e xplanations f or c ulture c hange m ay b e e conom ical b ut t hey a re r arely s atisfactory , a nd t here a re s uggestions , i n t he c emeteries , o f s tress b eing p laced o n t he c ulture ( Sanger , 1 973). A nother e xample o f a c hanging s pecies d istribution i nfluencing c ulture c an b e s een i n t he D amariscotta L iver . T he D amariscotta s hell m idd s a re m ade u p o f t he A merican o yster ( Crassotrea v irginica) t hat m anaged t o s urvive t he c ooling i n t he G ulf o f M aine b y l iving i n t he w armer e stuary . R ising s ea l evels f looded o ver a b edrock s till o n t he r iver a nd a llowed y oung o ysters t o c olonize t he w arm , b rackish , w ater. I n t he a bsence o f a ny e ffective c ompetitors o r p redators , t he o ysters f lourished. W hen d iscovered b y m an , t hey c reated a l ocalized f ood s ource t hat w as t ranslated i nto t he l argest m iddens i n M aine ; o ne , t he W haleback , m easured 8 00 m l ong , 3 0 m w ide , a nd 1 0 md eep ( Snow , 1 972). T owards t he e nd o f t he p rehistoric p eriod t he e nvironment c hanged, p erhaps a s a r esult o f i ncreasing s ea l evels, b ringing g reater s alinity a nd c ooler t emperatures. T he o ysters w ere g reatly r educed a nd t hen e liminated. T he l arge n umber o f l ate C eramic P eriod M ya m iddens d ownstream o n t he r iver m ay b e a r eflection o f t he f ailure o f t he o ysters. W hile c onditions w ere r ight , h owever , t he o yster p resence w as a m agnet , a nd u ndoubtedly s upported m any m ore p eople t han t he r iver c ould u nder p resent w ater c onditions. L ess d ramatic t han t he e xtinction o f o ysters i n t he D armariscotta R iver I s t he c hange f rom o ysters t o c lams n oted i n C asco B ay. T emperature , a s w ell a s v ariations i n s ubstrate c onditions, m ay h ave e ffected t he s pecies r eplacement. A t p resent, t his p henomenon .would n ot ' a ppear t o h ave a ny r amifications f or t he i nhabitants e xcept f or a s witch f rom e xploiting a s ub-

230

S ANGER : t idal s pecies, t idal z one.

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

t he o yster ,

T he s tudy o f d iet,

t o t he c lam t hat c an b e h arvested i n t he i nter-

a s

m ajor r esearch c oncern.

r eflected

i n t he f aunal

A s a c onsequence ,

r emains,

p erhaps,

h as n ot b een a

t here h as b een l ittle

d ebate o ver t he u tility o f m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals a s o pposed t o t otal b one

c ounts.

T he

i ssues

t hat

m ost

a rchaeologists

a re

w orking

d epend u pon q uantification o f c alories o r p rotein e stimates. t he

c urrent

t opic o f

i nterest

a re

e cosystem e xploitation ,

o n d o

n ot

F oremost a mong z onal

s ettlement

p attern, s easonal m igrations, a nd g eneral d iscussion o n t he n ature o f m aritime a dapted h unter-gatherers. A rchaeologists

w orking

i n

t he G ulf

o f M aine a rea a re

i nvolved

i n a n

a ttempt t o u nderstand t he n ature o f a daptations b y hunter-gatherers m aritime c onditions ( Perlman,

1 980;

S piess e t a l.,

1 981; S anger,

t o

1 982;

Y esner , 1 980). A t t his l evel o f a daptation , n on-perishable m aterial c ulture f unctioning i n m aritime e xploitation i s l imited t o a f ew h arpoon h eads a nd b one p oints. t hrough

P roof o f m arine e cosystem g athering i s b est d emonstrated

t he f aunal r emains

i n t he s ites,

e specially t he s hell m iddens w here

p reservation i s s o g ood.

A t i ssue i s w hether o r n ot h unter-gatherers l iving

i n t he

a ny c ultural t raits

l ittoral

d isplay

t hat c an b e a scribed t o a

p articular f orm o f a daptation t o t he m arine c onditions. t he e fficacy o f al ittoral a daptation r ange e normously.

O pinions r egarding T he N orthwest C oast

h unter-gatherers o f w estern N orth A merica a re s aid t o h ave d eveloped a h igh p opulation d ensity, a s emi-sedentary s ettlement s ystem, a nd a c omplex, s tratified, s ocial o rganization l argely a s a r esult o f h uge s urpluses g enerated b y , ,ploitation o f m arine r esources ( Drucker, 1 955; T his v iewpoint i s r egarded a s n aive b y O sborn ( 1977) a nd S chalk ( 1981) w ho a rgue t hat o nly t hose p eople e xperiencing p roblems w ith t errestrial a daptive s trategies w ould t urn t o t he s ea f or a l ivelihood. T hese a uthors e mphasize l ong f ood c hains f rom p lankton t o h umans, a nd s uggest t hat c ollecting m arine s pecies i s i nefficient. W hat t hey f ail t o c onsider a re t he e normou : , m arine b iomass l evels p roduced i n a reas o f n utrient r e-cycling a nd t he c oncentration o f c onverters o f t he p lankton ( fish , b irds, s ea m ammals) t hat p rovide a n a bundant p rotein b ase f or h umans. O ne m ight p oint o ut , i n a ddition , t hat t he f ood c hain d istance f rom p lankton t o c lam i s n o g reater t han t hat

f rom

g rass t o d eer . T he G ulf o f M aine h unter-gatherers d id n ot f ocus e xclusively o n m arine o r

o n

t errestrial

s pecies.

T hroughout

t he

p rehistoric

r ecord,

a mple e vidence f or e xploitation o f b oth m ajor e cosystems.

t here

i s

D uring t he

M oorehead p hase o f t he M aritime A rchaic T radition t he k illing o f s wordfish c aptures t he i magination, b ut a s S piess e t a l. ( 1981) p oint o ut, t hese h unters b rought b ack m any d eer a nd o ther l and s pecies t o t he s ame b ase o r r esidence s ite.

I n f act,

t he C eramic P eriod s eems t o e vince a g reater

u tilization o f m arine s pecies t han d oes t he M aritime A rchaic T radition. Available f aunal l ists f rom t he G ulf o f M aine s ites l ead t o s everal c onclusions: 1 .

M ost

s ites

s how

a d iffuse

e xploitation p attern d emonstrating

s pecies

f rom v arious t errestrial e cosystems ( forest, r dverine, l aCustrine) a nd m arine e cosystems ( inter-tidal, s ub-tidal b enthic a nd e uphotic).

2 31

S ANGER :

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

2 . N o p attern e merges w ith r espect t o r elative p ercentage o f a nimals p resent . F or e xample , s ites o f t he s ame p eriod , a nd p resumed t o b e o f t he s ame c ulture , m ay r ange i n p ercentage o f f ish f rom a t race t o o ver 8 0 p er c ent o f a ll b ones . S easonal a vailability o f s pecies i s , o f c ourse , af actor i n t he f aunal c omposition , a s i s l ocal d ensity . 3 . T he l ists s how a m ixture o f h igh r isk s pecies t aken a t c hance e ncounters ( deer a nd m oose) , t o p redictable , l ow r isk a nimals ( clams a nd b ottom f ish s uch a s f lounders a nd s culpins) ( Bonnichsen & S anger , 1 977 ; B ourque , 1 971; S anger , 1 982). C onsiderable r esearch h as b een c onducted o n t he s ettlement s ystem, e specially i n r egards t o t he c hoice o f c amp s ites. B iologically b ased m odels, s uch a s o ptimal f oraging , i ndicate t hat s ites s hould b e l ocated t o m aximize a ccess t o f ood r esources. R ecent r esearch i n t he B oothbay r egion s uggests t hat e nvironmental f eatures , s uch a s r eady a ccess t o b eaches a nd p rotection f rom p revailing w inds, w ere p aramount i n t he d ecision m aking p rocess ( Kellogg , 1 982). B oat u se a mong h unter—gatherers r esults i n am uch g reater " catchment a rea" t han c an b e r outinely e xploited b y t hose d ependent u pon f oot t ravel . B oats c ertainly s implify t he p roblem o f c arrying a b ig a nimal b ack t o c amp , a nd m ake i t f easible t o t ransport s pecies w ith a h igh w aste t o m eat w eight r atio , s uch a s s hellfish . T he B oothbay r esearch a rea , c onsisting o f 6 30 k m o f s horeline , c ontains o ver 2 00 k nown s ites, 9 0 p ercent o f w hich a re M ya s hell m iddens w ith c omponents o f t he C eramic P eriod. S ome s ites a re v ery s mall , 2 5-50 m3 a nd 1 020 a m t hick , w hile o thers c over u p t o 6 000 m3 a nd a ttain d epths o f 1m eter a nd m ore. I t i s n ot y et k nown h ow t hese s ites f unctioned w ith r espect t o e ach o ther . S piess e t a l., ( 1981) s uggested t hat t he T urner F arm s ite i n P enobscot B ay w as a " central p lace" , am ore o r l ess p ermanent r esidence s ite f rom w hich w ork p arties d ispersed a nd u tilized n earby s maller s ites f or s pecialized a ct vities. A p rogram d esigned t o a dequately e : mine t he s maller a s w ell a s t he l arge s ites i s n eeded t o t est h ypotheses o f c entral p laces a nd s edentary o ccupation . T o a ccomplish t his e nd , e xtensive e fforts a re b eing m ade t o r efine s easonality d eterminants a mong t he f aunal r emains. E arlier a ttempts s tressed p resence a nd a bsence o f s pecies. L ately , m ore e mphasis h as b een p laced o n t ooth s ectioning ( Bourque e t a l., 1 978), s hell f ish s ectioning ( Hancock , 1 982), a nd t he u nderstanding o f g rowth p atterns i n f ish o toliths a nd v ertebrae . I ntegration o f t hese t echniques r emains a p roblem s till t o b e s olved , a s d o i ssues r elated t o a nimal g rowth r ates. H ancock ( 1982), f or e xample , f ound t hat s oftshel l c lams ( Mya a renaria) d o n ot g row a t ac onstant r ate t hroughout t he g rowing s eason . E stimates o f s eason o f d eath u nder t hese c ircumstances I nvolves m ore t han a s imple r atio o f l ast g rowth a gainst p revious y ears. C onstant g rowth h as y et t o b e s atisfactorily d emonstrated f or o ther l ocal a nimals t hat w e d epend u pon f or s easonal e stimates . A f inal i nstance o f t he r ole o f a rchaeozoology i n l ocal r esearch i s t he d iscussion p ertaining t o s easonal t ranshumance . A nalysis o f f aunal l ists f rom t wo a reas , P assamaquoddy B ay a nd P enobscot B ay , l ed i nvestigators t o c onclude a p attern o f w inter r esidency o n t he c oast a nd s ummer r esidence i n t he i nterior . B ecause t he a vailable a ' rchaeozoologic e vidence c ould o nly d emonstrate w inter o ccupation , i t w as a ssumed t hat i n l ate p rehistoric t imes ,

2 32.

S ANG ER :

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

o r p erhaps e arly i n t he h istoric p eriod , a f undamental s hift o ccurred i n a boriginal s ettlement p attern . S everal p ossible e xplanations w ere o ffered, t he m ost f avoured o f w hich w as a n a ccommodation t o t he E uropean s ummer s ailing s chedule , t hat w ould r equire t he n ative p eoples t o b e o n t he c oast i n t he s ummer . T he E uropeans d esired f urs , s oon e xhausted i n t he c oastal z one , a nd t hereby e ncouraged t he m ovement o f p eople i nto t he i nterior f or t rapping i n t he w inter . T he a pparent a bsence o f s ummer c oastal s ites w as e xp lained I n t erms o f p eople m oving t o i nland l ocalities t o t ake a nadromous f ish ( Bourque , 1 971, 1 973 ; S anger , 1 971, 1 979 , 1 982). T his n eat p icture b roke d own a s m ore s ites w ere e xcavated a nd t he s uite o f s easonal i ndicators e nlarged. I t s eems t hat a n e arlier e mphasis o n t he p resence o f a bsence o f s easonally a vailable s pecies r esulted i n e rroneously s hort e stimates o f s easonality. T he p roblem w as e xacerbated b y t he a cceptance o f a t ranshuman p attern a s d escribed e thnographically. T o c ompound t he e rror ,

t he i ndependent r esults o f a rchaeozoology i n t wo a reas

t hat a rrived a t t he s ame c onclusion r einforced n ormative i deas a bout c ulture p rocess. Ar ecent r eview o f t he s ituation c oncluded t hat t he r estricted u se o f s easonal i ndicators , t he u ncritical u se o f t he e thnographic r ecord , p lus n aive a ssumptions a bout t he p atterning o f t hat a re p robably f lawed ( Sanger , 1 982).

c ulture ,

a ll

l ed

t o

c onclusions

T o r eturn t o t he i ssue o f w hether o r n ot t here i s a " marine a daptation" a mong h unter-gatherers t hat d iffers f rom a p urely t errestrial o ne , i t f ollows t hat c ertain p rocurement s trategies a re l imited t o t he l ittoral. S uch e nvironments o ffer o ptions t hat g roups o ccupying t he n earby f orests a nd d enied a ccess t o t he l ittoral c annot m atch. C oastally a dapted p eoples i n t he G ulf o f M aine m ay h ave b een s emi-sedentary f oragers w ith r egard t o t heir r esidence p attern . I t i s u nclear , h owever , i f i t i s t he m arine e cosystem p er s e t hat r esults i n t his p attern , o r i f i t i s t he l ogical o utcome o f o pportunistic h unter-gatherers e volving a d iversified e xploitation p attern i n ar egion o f a bv i rv iant r esources .

C ONCLUSIONS T he p receding d iscussion t ouches o n a f ew o f t he r elationships b etween a rchaeozoology a nd a rchaeology g enerally i n t he c entral G ulf o f M aine a rea. F rom t he d iscussion i t c an b e s een t hat a rchaeologists a re b eginning t o f ormulate r esearch d esigns t hat i ncorporate a rchaeozoology i n a f undamental w ay. T his n ecessitates a r esearch o rganization t hat i nvolves a rchaeozoology i n t he m ost b asic l evels o f p roblem f ormulation a nd r esearch d esign , i n a ddition t o e xcavation a nd o verall s ite a nalysis. T he " look a t m y b oxes o f b ones" t echnique w ill n ot s uffice t o a nswer t he c omplex q uestions b eing a sked i n m odern h unter-gatherer

s tudies.

I t

s eems

s afe t o p redict

t hat f uture

r esearch w ill w itness e ver c loser c ollaboration .

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

J o

Iw ish t o t hank S teve B icknell f or p reparing t he f igures , m y w ife M ary f or h er e ditorial a ssistance a nd e ncouragement , a nd t he m any g ranting

a gencies w hose s upport m ade t he r esearch p ossible.

2 33

S ANGER :

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

R EFERENCES A pollonio , S . B ooks .

( 1979).

T he G ulf o f M aine.

B onnichsen , R . &S anger, D . ( 1977). C anadian J ournal o f A rchaeology 1 , 1 09133 . B ourque , B . ( 1971). H arvard U niversity .

R ockland :

C ourier o f M aine

I ntegrating f aunal a nalysis.

P rehistory o f t he C entral M aine C oast ,

P hD t hesis ,

B ourque, B . ( 1973). A boriginal s ettlement a nd s ubsistence o n t he M aine c oast. M an i n t he N ortheast 6 , 3 -20 . B ourque, B . ( 1976). T he T urner F arm S ite: M an i n t he N ortheast 1 1, 2 1-30 .

ap reliminary r eport.

B ourque, B ., M orris , K . & S piess , A . ( 1978). D etermining t he s eason o f d eath o f m ammal t eeth f rom a rchaeological s ites: a n ew s ectioning t echnique. S cience 1 99 , 5 30-531. D avis, R ., B radstreet, T ., S tuckenrath , R . & B orns, H . ( 1975). V egetation a nd a ssociated env iro rments d uring t he p ast 1 4 ,000 y ears n ear M oulton P ond , M aine.

Q uaternary R esearch 5 (3), 4 35-466 .

D rucker, P . ( 1955). N atural H istory P ress. G rant , D . C anada .

( 1970).

I ndians o f t he N orthwest C oast.

N ew Y ork:

R ecent c oastal s ubmergence o f t he M aritime P rovinces ,

C anadian J ournal o f E arth S ciences 7 , 6 76-689 .

H ancock, M . ( 1982). T he d etermination o f a rchaeological s ite s easonality u sing t he r emains o f M ya a renaria ( L.). M aster's T hesis. U niversity o f M aine , O rono . K ellogg , D . ( 1982). A n a nalysis o f s ettlement p attern i n t he B ootbbay r egion , M aine. M aster's T hesis. U niversity o f M aine, O rono . L eim, A . & S cott, W . ( 1966). F ishes o f t he A tlantic C anada. O ttawa: F isheries R esearch B oard o f C anada B ulletin 1 55.

c oast

o f

M acDonald, G . ( 1968). D ebert: A P aleo I ndian s ite i n c entral N ova S cotia. A nthropological P aper 1 6. O ttawa: N ational M useums o f C anada. M cAlice , B . ( 1981). O n t he p ostglacial h istory o f A cartia t onsa i n t he G ulf o f M aine a nd G ulf o f S t. L awrence. M arine B iology 6 4 , 2 67-272.

O sborn ,

A .

( 1977).

S tandloopers ,

m ermaids,

a nd

o ther

f airy

t ales:

e cological d eterminants o f m arine r esource u tilization - t he P eruvian c ase. I n ( L . B inford , E d .) F or T heory B uilding i n A rchaeology . N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress;

1 57-205 .

S ANGER :

A RCHAEOZOOLOGY I N T HE G ULF O F M AINE

P erlman , S . ( 1980). A n o ptimum d iet m odel, c oastal v ariability , a nd h unter-gatherer b ehavior . I n ( M . S chiffer , E d.) A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory 4 : N ew Y ork : A cademic P ress , p p. 1 77-240 . S anger, D . ( 1971). P rehistory o f P assamaquoddy B ay: B ulletin o f t he M aine A rchaeological S ociety 2 (2), 1 4-19 .

a s ummary.

S anger , D . ( 1973). C ow P oint: a n A rchaic c emetery i n N ew B runswick. O ttawa: N ational M useum o f M an , M ercury S eries 1 2. S anger , D . ( 1975). C ulture c hange a s a n a daptive p rocess i n t he M aineM artimes r egion . A rctic A nthropology 1 2(2), 6 0-75. S anger , D . ( Ed.) ( 1979). D iscovering M aine's A rchaeological H eritage A ugusta : M aine H istoric P reservation C ommission . S anger, s ettlement 1 95-203 .

D .

( 1982).

i n t he

S chalk,

R .

G ulf

C hanging v iews o f a boriginal s easonality a nd o f

( 1981).

M aine,

C anadian J ournal o f A nthropology 2 ( 22),

L and u se a nd o rganizational c omplexity a mong

f oragers o f n orthwestern N orth A merica.

S enri E thnological S tudies 9 ,

5 3-

7 5 . S now ,

D .

( 1972).

n orthern N ew E ngland.

R ising s ea l evel a nd p rehistoric c ultural e cology i n A merican A ntiquity 3 7(2), 2 11-221.

S now , D . ( 1978). E astern A benaki. I n ( B. T rigger , E d.) H andbook o f N orth A merican I ndians 1 5. W ashington : S mithsonian I nstitution , p p. 5 8-69 . S piess , A . a nd B ourque, B . a nd C ox , S . h unting a nd g athering i n P enobscot B ay.

( 1981). F ive t housand y ears o f P aper r ead a t t he C anadian

A rchaeological A ssociation M eeting , E dmonton , A lberta. T uck , J . ( 1971). A n a rchaic c emetery a t P ort a u C hoix , A merican A ntiquity 3 6 ( 3), 3 43-358 . Y esner , D .

( 1980).

M aritime h unter-gatherers:

C urrent A nthropology 2 1 ( 6), 7 27-750 .

2 35

N ewfoundland.

e cology a nd p rehistory ,

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

. R eitz E lizabeth J D epartment o f A nthropology U niversity o f G eorgia A thens, G eorgia 3 0602 U. S .A . a nd D an C ordier F lorida S tate M useum U niversity o f F lorida G ainesville , F lorida 3 2611 U .S .A .

I NTRODUCTION O ne w ay f aunal a nalysts p roviding

i nformation a bout

c ontribute

t o s tudies o f h uman b ehavior i s b y

t he n utritional b enefit

o f

u tilized

v ertebrate

a nd i nvertebrate s pecies. T he d egree t o w hich e xploited s pecies c ontribute t o t he d iet o f a h uman p opulation i s o ne o f t he v ariables i nfluencing b ehaviors s uch a s s election o f a s ite a nd s cheduling o f p rocurement a ctivities. E vidence o f t he d ietary c ontribution o f a s pecies i s l eft i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a s f ragments o f b ones w hich a re i dentified, c ounted , w eighed , a nd m easured.

T o i nterpret t hese p rimary d ata i n t ül .ms o f

d iet , q uantification i s o ften n eeded. S tandard m ethods o f q uantification i nclude c alculating t otal b ody w eight, e dible m eat w eight, o r m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals (eI) f rom t he p rimary d ata b ase. T hese c ommon m ethods h ave b een u nsatisfactory w hen u sed t o e stimate n utritional s tatus f rom a rchaeological m aterials. A f ourth t echnique , u sing a llometric s caling f ormulae , p rovides a w ay t o c alculate d ietary c ontribution w hich i s b ased u pon a b iological l aw r elating g rowth b etween p arts o f a n o rganism ( Huxley , 1 932).

S TANDARD M ETHODS W hen c alculating r elative d ietary c ontribution o f i dentified t axa , t he a nalysis i s l imited t o t hree b asic c lasses o f d ata : t he n umber o f i ndividual s pecimens i dentified f or e ach t axon ( NISP o f G rayson , 1 979), b one w eight, o r m orphological a spects o f i dentified e lements. B one c ount a nd w eight h ave r arely b een u sed t o q uantify r elative d ietary i mportance. T his i s s o b ecause b oth m ay b e i nfluenced b y n umerous c ultural, n on-cultural, a nd a nalytical f actors ( Chaplin, 1 971: 6 3-69). A nalysis o f m orphological a spects

o f

t he e lements

t hemselves

a ddressing d ietary c ontribution. t wo-step o peration . ( MNI) b e c alculated

a ppeared . to h ave

g reater

p otential

f or

W hite ( 1953) p roposed a m ethod b ased o n a

H e s uggested t hat t he m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals f or a f aunal a ssemblage u sing p aired e lements. T he

2 37

R EIT Z A ND C ORDIER : t otal

n umber

o f

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

i ndividuals

c alculated

s hould

b e

m ultiplied

b y

p ounds

o f

e dible m eat p redicted f or a n i ndividual o f t hat t axon t o d etermine t he t otal a mount o f e dible m eat r epresented a rchaeologically. P redictions o f p ounds o f e dible m eat w ere o btained b y m ultiplying t he t otal b ody w eight o f a n a nimal, a s r eported i n t he l iterature , b y a f ixed p ercentage o f b one w eight. W hite's m ethod h as b een f urther m odified t o i nclude a ge, s ex, a nd s ize d ifferences i n c alculating t he n umbers o f i ndividuals ( Reed, 1 963 ; S mith , 1 975 ; Z iegler , 1 973) a nd o ther b one w eight p ercentages h ave b een o ffered ( Reed , 1 963 ; C leland , 1 966). T hese r evisions d o n ot a ddress t he m ajor p roblem o f

t his m ethod:

t he a ssumption t hat b one w eight i s a c onstant

p ercentage o f b ody m ass. T he a ctual r elationship b etween b one w eight a nd b ody m ass i s g enerally a n e xponential o ne r ather t han a l inear o ne ( McMahon , 1 973 ; C asteel , 1 978 ; A nderson e t a l., 1 979). W hile c alculations b ased u pon b one c ount, b one w eight a nd MNI h ave m any a pplications i n z ooarchaeological a nalysis, a llometry o ffers a m ore p romising w ay t o e stimate t otal b ody w eight , e dible m eat w eight , a nd d ietary c ontribution o f v ertebrate a nd i nvertebrate s pecies.

A LLOMETRIC S CALING A llometry h as b een d efined b y G ould ( 1966) a s " the s tudy o f s ize a nd i ts c onsequences". P lants a nd a nimals m ust b e s trongly e nough b uilt t o s upport t heir o wn w eight ( McMahon , 1 973). T his m eans t hat s keletal m ass a nd s keletal d imensions a re s caled t o b ody m ass a s a w ay t o c ompensate f or w eaknesses i n t he b asic s tructural m aterial ( Pedley, 1 977). A s b ody w eight i ncreases t here i s a lso a n i ncrease i n t he p roportion o f t he t otal b ody m ass c ontributed b y t he s keleton . A s P range a nd h is a ssociates h ave w ritten " animal s keletons s cale a llometrically w ith b ody w eight s o t hat s keletons o f l arge s pecies a re p roportionately m ore m assive t han t hose o f s mall a nimals" ( Prange e t a l., 1 979 : 1 03). M etabolic r ates, b lood p ressure , a nd o ther a spects o f v ertebr. , .ce a nd i nvertebrate s tructure s cale a llometricall , w ith b ody m ass i n a ccordance t o t he t axon b eing c onsidered . T he a spects o f m ost u se t o a rchaeologists a re b one w eight a nd l inear d imensions o f w eight b earing s keletal e lements. T he s caling r elationship i s d escribed b y t he f ormula Y = a Kb

( Simpson

e t a l; 1 960 : 3 97); a i s t he Y -intercept o f a l og-plot u sing t he m ethod o f l east s quares r egression a nd t he b est f it l ine ; b i s t he s lope o f t he l ine. T hese v alues a re o btained u sing c omparative s keletal c ollections w here t otal b ody w eight i s r ecorded f or e ach r eference s pecimen. Xa nd Y a re v ariables w hich m ay b e d efined i n an umber o f w ays ( Table 1 ). T he d ependent v alue, Y , w eight,

e dible m eat w eight,

t he m easurement

a vailable

i s t he a rchaeological u nknown s uch a s t otal b ody o r t otal l ength .

f rom

t he

X ,

a rchaeological

t he i ndependent v alue , s pecimen ,

s uch a s

i s

t otal

b one w eight o r t he d imension o f a n e lement s uch a s d istal h umerus w idth o r d iastemal l ength . W hile s uch m easurements a re o ccasionally u sed i n z oology, ( Huxley , 1 932 ; G ould , 1 966 ; M cMahon , 1 973 , 1 975 ; P edley , 1 977 ; R eynolds, 1 977 ; R eynolds & K arlotski , 1 977 ; A nderson e t a l., 1 979 ; P range e t a l., 1 979 ; S mith , 1 980) , t hey h ave r arely b een a pplied a rchaeologically ( Witt, 1 960 ; C asteel , 1 974 ; B reitburg , 1 976 ; W ing ‚ 1 976 ; E merson , 1 978 ; W ing & B rown ,

1 979).

2 38

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER :

T ABLE 1 :

Y

U SE O F A LLOM ETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

S ome p ossible d efinitions o f Xa nd Y

( Dependent)

X ( Independent)

T otal b ody w eight, g m

D epth o f f emur h ead,

S tandard l ength , m m E dible m eat w eight , k g

W idth o f a nterior a tlas, m m

T otal b ody w eight, g m T otal l ength , m m

L ength o f o tolith , m m W eight o f o tolith , m m

T otal b ody w eight, g m

L ateral a stragalus l ength ( GLI)* , m m

T otal b ody w eight, g m

D iastemal l ength ( # 11)*

( DC)* , m m

B one w eight, k g

*m easured f ollowing D riesch ( 1976).

A s a n e xample o f t he u sefulness

o f

a llometric

s caling

f ormulae

i n t he

a rchaeological s etting, d ata f rom a p re-Columbian s ite a nd t wo h istoric s ites f rom t he A tlantic c oastal p lain o f t he U nited S tates a nd a h istoric s ite f rom t he n orth c oast

o f H aiti w ill b e e xamined.

R elative d ietary i mportance o f

m arine a nd t errestrial r esources w ill b e c ompared f or h istoric a nd p rehistoric s amples. T he h istoric f aunal c ollections w ill a lso b e e xamined f or t he r elative u se o f d omestic a nd w ild f auna i n t he d iet,

a s w ell a s

f or

i nformation a bout t he s ize o f E uropean c attle s hortly a fter i ntroduction i nto t he c ircum-Caribbean a rea. S ize o f c attle m ay p rovide a n e xplanatio i . f or t he d ifferent d egrees o f w ild r esource u se o bserved i n t he f aunal a ssemblages o f t he h istoric s ites.

M ETHODS E quations d escribing t he a llometry o f s everal v ariables w ere c onstructed t hrough l east s quares a nalysis o f l ogarithmic d ata. T he c omparative s keletal c ollections o f t he Z ooarchaeology L aboratories o f t he U niversity o f F lorida , U niversity o f G eorgia, a nd L ouisiana S tate U niversity p rovided t he d ata b ase f rom w hich t he f ormulae w ere g enerated ( Table 2 ). B iomass w as p redicted f rom a rchaeological b one w eight. T otal b ody m ass w as e stimated f rom

f emur

h ead

d epth

( DC)

o r

l ateral

a stragalus

l ength

( GLI),

f ollowing

m easurements d efined b y D riesch ( 1976). i s f elt t o b e m ore r eliable t han t hat

T he f emur h ead d epth ( DC) f ormula f rom t he l ateral a stragalus l ength

( GLI).

f ormula

T he l ateral

a stragalus

l ength

i s

b ased u pon o bservations

f rom f our d ogs ( Canis f amiliaris), a n o pposum ( Didelphis v irginiana), a nd a s quirrel ( Sciuris s p.). S ince f unction a s w ell a s s ize e ffects l inear d imensions i t i s e ssential t o u se f ormulae g enerated f or f unctionally s imilar p hyletic u nits. T he a stragalus f ormula i s u ndoubtedly i nappropriate a nd t he f emur h ead o ne a cceptable o nly b ecause i t i ncludes m ore d iverse o bservations. A n a dequate a rtiodactyl d ata b ase c omparisons

o f h igher

r esolution

i s u rgently n eeded

r esolving

2 39

t his

i n o rder

s ituation .

t o m ake

*

E E *

0

B o n e w e i g h t ,

X

0 > > -

0

o a

— C O

N

N —

c o v 2 )

o C T

i t ' C O

a ,

r •-, O D

O D

0

O D O D

• • 0 • •

•

•

•

• • o c >

•

O N

0 1

N

u T h L c \

r 0 \

O D

t r \

C

c o

N

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

0

0

N C

V i

0

0

( 4

N

O D

O D

O D

r • ) 0 \ U T h

• o

•

O D

O D

h

I

I

u p

i n

O D

\ O D

O D

0 1

u-

\ O

0 \

N

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

h

0

0

0

0

0

0

r- V i

a \

v p

4- O D

h

C A

2 40

1 0

• c t O D h e s 1 c o o o r -• • • • • • • • o t N ( N

0

0

C A

O D t f l N C , • \ C ) • • • • • • • 0 0 N N N •- ••

I

S e r a n i d a e

0

' K Y I n -

0

. -

( N

0 1

O N

1 . 0

0

0

0

L I N

Q

o

U m

C O

I

I

• d •

0

•

0

C O

m e a s u r e d f o l o w i n g D r i e s c h

O D

S c i a e n i d a e

r- — t i p 0

S c i a e n i d a e

— C A

• • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 .- 0

P l u r o n e c t i f o r m e s

O N

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER :

U SE O F A LLOHETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

M NI w ere c alculated u sing p aired e lements a nd a ge a s c riteria . w as

b ased u pon d istinctions b y z one a nd f eature

c ontexts

A ggregation

( Grayson ,

F urther d etails a bout m ethods m ay b e f ound i n t he r espective s ite ( Reitz, 1 979 , 1 982; S mith e t a l., 1 981; R eitz & S carry, i n p rep.; H onerkamp , n .d.). T he

a rchaeological

s amples w ere e xcavated f rom f our

l ocations

1 973). r eports R eitz &

( Figure

1 ). T he K ings B ay m aterials a re f rom p re-Columbian S avannah f eatures d eposited b etween A D 1 0001540 ( Smith e t a l., 1 981: 5 23). T he d ate 1 540 m arks E uropean c ontact a nd i ts d isruptive e ffect o n a boriginal l ife . S t. A ugustine w as f ounded i n 1 564 a s p art o f t he S panish N orth A merican c olonization , a lthough t he t own w as n ot e stablished i n i ts p resent l ocation u ntil 1 572 . T he s ite S A341 1 980 , w as p robably o ccupied b etween t hat t ime a nd t he l ate s ixteenth c entury o r e arly s eventeenth c entury ( Reitz & S carry , i n p rep.). T he H ird S ite f rom F rederica T own w as o ccupied t wo c enturies l ater w hen t hat B ritish o utpost w as f ounded i n 1 736.

I t w as a bandoned

s ometime a fter T homas B ird's d eath i n 1 748 ( Honerkamp, 1 975; R eitz & H onerkamp , n .d.). B oth t he B ritish a nd S panish c olonies w ere p opulated a nd s upplied d irectly f rom E ngland a nd E urope ( Frederica) o r S panish t erritories ( St. A ugustine). T hese t hree s ites a re l ocated e ither o n a s ea i sland ( Frederica) o r o n t he i mmediately a djacent m ainland. A ll t hree s ites a re s ituated a long e stuaries o f t he A tlantic c oastal p lain . T he f ourth s ite , P uerto R eal, w as f ounded b y S paniards i n 1 503 a s p art o f t he d iscovery a nd c olonization o f t he N ew W orld. I t i s l ocated o n t he n orth c oast o f H ispaniola a nd i s c urrently s everal k ilometres f rom t he o cean . I ts l ocation m ay b e t he r esult o f r ecent s iltation o f B ord M er d e L imonade. T he t own w as e ssential ly a bandoned b y 1 555 , a lthough a f ew p eople a pparently c ontinued t o " l ive t here i nto t he l ate 1 500 's. W ork o n t his s ite i s s till i n p rogress ( Reitz, 1 982; M cEwan , p ers. c omm .). A t l east 1 /4-inch s ieves w ere u sed f or r ecovery o f a rtifacts d uring e xcavations a t a ll s ites a nd a 1 /8-inch m esh w as u sed t o o btain t he s ample f rom K ings B ay.

R ESULTS A nalysis u sing a llometric f ormulae p rovides i nteresting i nsights i nto p rehistoric a nd h istoric u se o f a vailable r esources i n t he N ew W orld . T he d ata f rom a boriginal c ontexts a t K ings B ay i ndicates h eavy u se o f m arine r esources , w hich f ormed a l arger p ortion o f t he d iet t han t errestrial a nimals ( Table 3 ). M arine f ishes a nd o ther w ild s pecies a lso w ere a n i mportant p art o f t he E uropean d iet i n s ixteenth c entury S panish S t. A ugustine. W ild s pecies u sed a t t he E uropean s ites w ere e ssentially t he s ame a s t hose u sed a t p re-Columbian K ings B ay. C alculation o f t otal b ody w eight o f c attle I ndicates

t hat t he c attle f rom P uerto R eal w ere m uch l arger t han t hose f rom

F rederica T own m easured,

( Table 4 ).

h owever ,

N one o f t he S t.

A ugustine c attle c ould b e

t he I mpression i s t hat t hey a re f rom s maller a nimals t han

t hose f rom F rederica a nd P uerto R eal.

D ISCUSSION O F A RCHAEOLOGICAL D ATA F or m any y ears

i t h as

b een a ssumed t hat a boriginal p opulations o n t he

G eorgia c oast d epended p rimarily u pon w hite-tailed d eer ( Odocoileus v irginianus) a nd o ysters ( Crassostrea v ir Oniana) f or t he b ulk o f t heir a nimal-derived c alories. I t h as b een f urther a ssumed t hat E uropean s ettlers

2 41

o

• • •

* . : • ••

I —

X

• ••

•

0 r • -

N o r t h e a s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a .

•

V * "

2 42

T ABLE 3 :

C ompar isons o f A bor ig ina l,

K ings B ay ( 9Cam l7 1)

D omestic

%M NI

S panish a nd B r itish s ites.

1

S t A ugustine 2

F reder ica 3

( SA341,

( Hird S ite )

%B iomass

%M NI

1 980) %B iomass

%M N I

%B iomass

9 .3

4 0.9

2 0 .0

7 7 .9

W ild T errestr ia ls

1 .9

3 3 .6

1 0 .6

2 8 .5

1 7 .0

1 6.7

W ild B irds

0 .8

0 .2

4 .6

0 .8

2 0.9

0 .8

A quatic R eptiles

3 .8

8 .9

2 .1

4 .6

3 .0

0 .2

8 8 .7

5 6 .3

6 7.9

2 5.1

3 7.0

4 .7

0 .8

5 .5

0 .2

2 .1

0 .004

2 57

6 .27 k g

2 37

2 35

2 43 k g

&S carry ,

i n p rep.);

D omest ic A nima ls

M ar ine F ishes C ommensa l

S pecies

T ota ls

1 ( Sm ith e t a l.,

1 98 1);

2( Reitz

2 43

2 5.2 k g

3( Reitz

4 .3

&H onerkamp,

n .d .

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER :

U SE O F A LLCMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

u pon a rrival i n N orth A merica c ontinued t o p ractice t raditional m ethods

o f

a nimal h usbandry w ith l ittle o r n o m odification i n t heir d iet , e xcept f or t he a ddition o f m aize ( Zea m ays). T he a llometric d ata p resented h ere h elp d emonstrate t hat t his i s n ot t he c ase.

T ABLE 4 :

t o

C attle b ody w eights

S ite

E lement, m m

P uerto R eal

A stragalus, g reatest l ength ( GLI)*

Y= 0 .0033 X

A stragalus, g reatest l ength ( GLI)*

Y= 0 .0033 X 2 .78

F emur h ead w idth ( DC)*

Y =0 .0072 X

H ird l ot

H ird l ot

F ormulae

B ody w eight

=5 54 .9 k g

2' 7 8

S= 1 22.6 n=2 3 =4 77.7 k g s=3 .9 n=2 =3 52.9 k g

258

s= 1 44 .3 n =4

*f ollowing D riesch ( 1976).

T ABU . : 5 :

C attle w eights

P uerto R eal A verage , A stragalus ( GLI), n = 2 3

5 54 .9 k g

H ird S ite A verage , F emur H ead ( DC), n = 4

3 52.9 k g

1 8th C entury E ngland ( Fussel , C olonial G eorgia ( Bonner , C riollo i n F lorida ( Rouse ,

1 929)

3 62 k g

1 964)

3 17 k g E /362 k g m .

1 977)

2 04-294 k g , m .

A boriginal u se o f a vailable r esources d id i nclude d eer ( Odocoileus v irginianus)

a nd

o yster

( Crassostrea v irginiana),

w ith e xtensive u se o f m arine f ishes. s ea c atfish

( Ariidae),

d rum ( Sciaenidae),

a re c ommon a nd a bundant f ishes a nd F lorida.

b ut

o nly

i n

c onjunction

T he s pecies u sed p redominately w ere a nd m ullet

( Mügil s pp .).

T hese

o f t he c oastal e stuarine s etting o f G eorgia

2 44

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER :

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

S panish r esource u se a boriginal s trategy,

i n t he s ixteenth c entury w as

v ery

s imilar

w ith t he a ddition o f E uropean a nimals.

t o

t he

E uropean

l ivestock d id n ot, h owever , o ccupy a s olitary o r e ven a p rincipal, p osition i n t he S panish d iet. W ild r esources, t he s ame o nes u sed p rehistorically a t n earby K ings B ay,

w ere a m ajor p art o f t he d iet.

T his w as l ess t he c ase a t

F rederica w here w ild r esources w ere s upplements t o t he d omestic r esources. A lthough q uantification i s n ot y et a vailable , w ild r esources f ormed a n e ven s maller p ortion o f t he d iet a t P uerto R eal I n a nother c ontext a nd t hat

h umans

n ormally

( McEwan , p ers. c omm ., A rea 3 5).

f rom a nother

p racticing

a nimal

p roblem ,

B ökönyi

h usbandry

w ould

( 1975)

s uggested

r eluctantly

c hange

t heir h usbandry p ractices u pon m oving t o an ew e nvironmental s etting i f t heir f avored l ivestock c ould n ot a dapt t o t he n ew s ituation . D uring t he p eriod o f a djustment, w hile n ew h usbandry s trategies w ere d eveloped, p opulation m ight t urn t o w ild f oods. o bserved a t S t. A ugustine a nd F rederica . T he

I berian d omestic a nimal

o f

t he h uman

T his m ay e xplain w hat

i s b eing

c hoice i n t he s ixteenth c entury a s w ell

a s t he B ritish o ne i n t he e ighteenth c entury w as s heep ( Ovis a ries). A s a n i ndication o f t he e mphasis o n s heep , 1 00 w ere s ent i n 1 494 t o L a I sabella o n H ispaniola i n c ontrast t o 4h eifers a nd t wo b ulls i n t he s ame s hipment ( Rouse , 1 977: 2 8). A f ew y ears l ater a l ivestock s hipment t o S t. A ugustine i ncluded

4 00 s heep

b ut

o nly

2 00

c alves

( Meras

d e

S olis,

1 923 ;

2 59-270).

S heep c ould n ot a dapt t o t he t ropical a nd s ub-tropical r egions d ue t o t he s oil t ypes, p arasitic d iseases, a nd v egetation o f t he C aribbean a nd A tlantic c oastal

p lain o f

F lorida a nd G eorgia.

A pparently c attle

( Bos t aurus) a nd

h ogs ( S us s crofa) r oped b etter w ith d iseases, h umidity, a nd t emperatures o f t he a rea s ince t hese a re t he d omestic a nimals m ost a bundant a t a ll c ircumC aribbean s ites

s tudied s o f ar.

b eing m ade E uropeans a t S t. u sed w ild f oods p rior

L o

t he

W hile t he s hift f rom s heep t o c attle w as

A ugustine a nd,

t o a l esser e xtent a t F rederica ,

f ollowing a s trategy s imilar

i ntroduction o f

t o

t hat

d omestic a nimals.

o f

a boriginal

T he P uerto R eal

p eoples

r esidenL

w ent t hrough t his i ntermediate s tep t o a n e ven s maller d egree. A n e xplanation o f

t his d ifference ,

a s w ell a s e vidence f or t he s tress

e xperienced b y c attle, c an b e s een b y c omparing t he a verage s ize o f S panish c attle f rom P uerto R eal w ith t hose o f B ritish F rederica t wo c enturies l ater ( Table 5 ).

W hile t he a verage s ize o f I berian c attle i n t he • sixteenth

c entury i s n ot k nown, t he P uerto R eal c attle w ere m uch l arger t han t hose f rom F rederica T own , ( Fussel ,

H ispaniola , o f

w hich i n t urn w ere s maller t han t heir B ritish c ontemporaries

1 929).

P uerto R eal

i s

l ocated o n t he a rid s ide o f t he i sland o f

w hich h as n o n ative a rt i odactyl f auna

e ctoparasites o n

t he i slands

l ends c redence t o

( Oviedo,

1 959).

t he f act t hat

S carcity t here w ere

f ew i f a ny p arasites t hat c ould h ave c o-evolved w ith m ammalian a rtiodactyls a nd s ubstantially s uppressed g rowth o f i ntroduced c attle. c ombination w ith n utrient e quality o f t he g raze ( Rouse, 1 977: s ingle g ene c hange c ontrolling s imple h ormonal m echanisms

T his, i n 1 86), o r a

( Gould,

1 971) m ay

o ffer a n e xplanation f or t he s ize g radient o bserved a mong t he l ivestock f rom e arly N ew W orld s ites. O n t he A tlantic c oastal p lain o f F lorida a nd G eorgia t here w ere p robably e ctoparasites w hich h ad c o-evolved w ith d eer a nd h ad i nfected i ntroduced c attle.

G raze w ould h ave b een o f l ower q uality a lso

s ince c ircum-equatorial p lants t end t o h ave a h igher s ugar c ontent t han t emperate

o r

s ub-tropical

p lants.

T hus c attle c ould a lmost i mmediately

r eplace s heep i n f ulfilling p rotein r equirements i n t he S panish d iet a t P uerto R eal. A t S t. A ugustine a nd e ven F rederica, c attle p opulations

2 45

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER : i ncluded

s maller,

l ess

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS v iable

i ndividuals

t han

t hose

e stablished

o n

H ispaniola a nd c ould n ot b e r elied u pon e xclusively. I t w as n ot u ntil t he t wentieth-century t hat c attle e qual i n s ize t o t hose o f s ixteenth c entury P uerto R eal c ould b e r aised o n t he A tlantic c oastal p lain , a nd t hen o nly w ith i mproved p astures a nd p arasite c ontrol ( Rouse ,

1 977).

I n v iew o f t his d ifficulty b oth B ritish a nd S panish c olonists o n t he A tlantic c oastal p lain r elied h eavily u pon w ild r esources, w hile S panish c olonists a t P uerto R eal d id n ot. F rederica c olonists, h owever , c ould u se f ewer w ild f oods t han S panish c olonists a t S t. A ugustine , w hose c attle w ere v ery s mall a nd f ew i n n umbers.

A RCHAEOLOGICAL P OTENTIAL O F A LLOMETRY L ike o ther t echniques ,

a llometry o ffers b enefits a nd p roblems w hen u sed

i n a rchaeozoological a nalysis. B efore r eviewing t hese i t s hould b e e mphasized t hat t he r elationship d escribed b y s caling f ormulae i s a b iological l aw i n w hich s ize m ust r elate t o s hape a nd f unction .

T hus u se o f

s caling f ormulae i s b ased u pon a r eal r elationship i n c ontrast t o t he b asis o f t he s tandard m ethods w hich u se a f ixed p ercentage o f b one w eight t o b ody w eight. U se o f a llometry i s n ot o nly m ore b iologically s ound , b ut i t a lso e liminates t he p roblem o f d etermining a n " average" s ize f or e ach t axon . I t i s d ifficult t o d etermine t he a verage s ize f or a m ammal o r b ird s pecies w hose s ize m ay v ary c onsiderably o ver i ts r ange a nd r eflect e xtremes i n s exual d imorphism . F or s pecies w hich g row t hroughout t heir l ives, s uch a s f ishes, s nakes, t urtles, a nd i nvertebrates, d etermining a n a verage s ize i s i mmossible f or a rchaeological s pecimens.

F or e xample ,

a b lack d rum ( Po pnias c romis)

m ay w eigh b etween 5 00 g i ns a nd 4 5 k gs ( McLane , 1 955). T he a verage w eight o f a b lack d rum r ecovered a rchaeologically i s o bviously n ot 2 2 k gs. P roblems e ncountered w ith t he u se o f a d imension t o p redict „ i riginal b ody m ass o r e dible m eat w eight a re r elatively f ew. T he l ack o f a pplicable f ormulae f or a g iven d imension w ithin a p hyletic g roup i s s lowly b eing r esolved t hrough w ork a t t he F lorida S tate M useum . N ot a ll d imensions s cale t o b ody w eight t o t he s ame e xtent. M cMahon ( 1975) h as f ound t hat p roximal e nds c orrelate b etter w ith b ody m ass t han d istal e nds. I nterestingly d istal e nds g enerally f use e arlier t han d o p roximal o nes. W e h ave f ound t hat t he d iastema o f a rtiodactyls c orrelate b etter t han d o o ther m andibular m easurements t ested t hus f ar ( Table 2 ). A m ore c omplex p roblem i s p resented w hen t he p rediction i s f or e dible m eat w eight r ather t han b ody m ass. I n o rder t o d etermine " edible" m eat , t he w eights o f t ongue , l iver , b rains, i ntestinal c ontents, e tc. m ust b e i ncluded o r o mitted f rom t he d efinition o f t he u sable p ortion o f t he c arcass ( Y). D efinitions o f e dibility a re v ariable a mong h uman p opulations a nd d ifficult t o d etermine a rchaeologically .

T his i s t he r eason w hy n o f ormulae h ave b een g enerated f or

e dible m eat w eight a lthough t he d ata a re a vailable. D imensional

s caling

a lone

i s

n ot

c ompletely

s atisfactory

i n

t hat

i t

s uffers f rom t he s ame p roblem a s M NI ( Table 6 ). B oth m easures a ssume t hat t he e ntire a nimal w as p resent a nd c onsumed a t t he s ite . R arely w ould t he e ntire c arcass, a t l east o f a l arge m ammal o r a s ea-turtle, h ave b een c onsumed b y as ingle d omestic u nit d efined a rchaeologically . R edistributive o bligations a nd m arkets w ould p robably r esult i n h ousehold c onsumption o f p ortions o f t he c arcass r ather t han t he e ntire c arcass. T his p roblem c an b e

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER :

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

a ddressed t hrough c areful a nalysis o f i dentified e lements.

T ABLE 6 :

B ody w eights p redicted a llometrically ( Y =a Xb ) .

O docoileus v irgin i anus D eer , U F

C ynoscion r egalis

2 773 , f .

D rum , U F

2 087

1 1 /2 y rs

R eal w eight

3 9 .5 k g

1 5.9 k g

S caling u sing B one W eight a s X

2 8 .7 k g

1 5 .7 k g

2 6 .1 k g

1 7.6 k g

S caling u sing F emur H ead ( DC) o r A tlas W idth a s X

U se o f b one w eight i n t he a llometric f ormulae m akes d efining " edibility" u nnecessary. a s

t he

T he q uantity o f b ody m ass p redicted b y t he u se o f b one w eight

i ndependent

v ariable

( X)

i s

a n

a pproximate

v alue.

U se

o f

a rchaeological b one w eight a s t he i ndependent v alue m erely p redicts t he a mount

o f

b ody m ass

t hat

a mount

o f

b one

c ould

r epresented t he s keletal m ass o f a r eal a nimal.

s upport

a s

i f

t he b one

H ence s mall q uantities

o f

a rchaeological b one w eight p redict a p roportionately s maller b ody w eight t han d o l arge b one w eight v alues s ince s keletal m ass i ncreases a t ad ifferent t e c ompared t o b ody m ass. T he p redicted v alue i s r eferred t o a s " biomass" i n o rder t o d istinguish b etween i t a nd t he r esults o f d imensional a llometry. B iomass r eflects t he h ypothetical a mount o f m eat a dhering t o t he s upportive t issue r ecovered a rchaeologically. D imensional a llometry e stimates t he a ctual t otal w eight o f t he a nimal f rom w hich t he m easured b one w as d erived. T he u se o f b one w eight a llometry i nstead o f d imensional a llometry h as a n a dvantage

i n t hat

i t a voids

t he p roblem o f d efining e dible m eat i nherent i n

c alculations b ased u pon t otal b ody w eight. S ince t he f ormulae p redict o nly t hat a mount o f b ody m ass r epresented b y t he a rchaeological b one m ass, n o a ssumption i s m ade t hat t he t otal c arcass w as e ver u sed a t t he s ite. N or i s i t n ecessary t o c alculate a n " average" s ized f ish o r t urtle. P otentially i t i s aw ay t o d etermine c alorie v alue f or u nits o f m eat s uggested b y L yman ( 1979). T he m ain p roblem w ith u se o f b one w eight t o p redict b iomass i s w ith b one w eight i tself. i nfluence

t he

A ll o f t he f actors w hich b ias p redictions

p reservative t reatments,

m ade

b one w eight a rchaeologically

a llometrically.

L eaching,

m ineralization ,

a nd o ther f actors m odify b one w eight.

T he

i mpact

o f t hese f orces i s n ot f elt e qually a t a ll s ites o r e ven w ithin a s ite. o nly

d oes

t his

r aise

a rchaeologically,

q uestions

a bout

t he

v alue

o f

u sing

b one

N ot

w eight

i t m eans t hat t he d erived b iomass e stimates c annot b e

c ompared a cross s ites. T his m ay n ot b e s o g reat a p roblem a s i t f irst a ppears, h owever. A c onsistent s imilarity i s f ound a mong t he p ercentages o f

2 47

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER :

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

b one c ount, b one w eight , a nd b iomass f or t axa i dentified f rom

s ites a nalyzed

u sing a llometry ( Table 7 ).

T ABLE 7 :

R esults o f s everal m easures c ompared .

S avannah F eatures, %M NI

W ild T errestrial A nimals W ild b irds A quatic r eptiles M arine f ishes C ommensal s pecies

1 .9 0 .8 3 .8 8 8 .7 4 .7

9 Cam171,

% B iomass

3 3 .6 0 .2 8 .9 5 6 .3 0 .8

K ings B ay

% B one C ount

2 .1 0 .1 3 .4 9 1.8 2 .1

S t. A ugustine , 5 A34-1, D omestic a nimals W ild T errestrial A nimals W ild B irds A quatic R eptiles M arine F ishes C ommensal s pecies

% Bone W eight

3 2 .9 0 .2 1 3 .4 5 2.8 0 .7 1 980

9 .3 1 0 .6 4 .6 2 .1 6 7 .9

4 0 .9 2 8 .5 0 .8 4 .6 2 5 .1

5 .4 8 .1 0 .7 1 .0 8 3 .9

4 1.5 3 0 .8 0 .7 9 .9 1 7.1

5 .5

0 .2

0 .9

0 .2

F t. F rederica , H ird S ite D omestic A nimals

2 0 .0

7 7.9

4 3 .9

8 0 .9

w ild T errestrial A nimals

1 7 .0

1 6 .7

1 5 .0

1 5 .1

W ild B irds A quatic R eptiles M arine F ishes C ommensal S pecies

2 0 .9 3 .0 3 7.0 2 .1

B iomass p ercentages ,

0 .8 0 .2 4 .3 0 .004

4 .7 1 .8 3 2 .0 0 .6

0 .4 0 .2 3 .4 0 .03

w hile a pproximating t he p ercentages o f o ther d ata

c lasses, d iffer m arkedly w hen c om pared t o M NI , w hich i s t o b e e xpected . M NI o ften o ver-emphasizes t he r ole o f s mall a nimals i n ad iet: t wo r abbits b eing a s i mportant s tatistically a s t wo d eer. E stimates o f b iomass, a nd o f o riginal b ody m ass u sing d imensional a llometry , s hift t he p ercentages i nto a m orphological n utritional f ormat . T he t rue c ontribution o f a llometry t o s tudies o f h uman b ehavior l ies i n t he p otential f or c alculating n utritional c omponents f or t he I dentified t axa f rom t he d erived m eat w eight e stimates. A lthough t his h as n ot y et b een d one f or a ny a rchaeological c ollection b ecause o f t he p roblem e ncountered d efining e dibility , i t i s o bviously p ossible t o u se t ables o f n utritional v alue s uch a s t he U .S .D .A . C omposition o f F oods ( Watt & M errill , 1 963) t o c alcu late t he d ietary b ase o f ap opulation f rom t he a rchaeological b ones. I n s pite o f t he d ifficulties o utlined a bove, t he p otential t o d o t his w arrants f urther a ttention t o t he m ethod.

2 48

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER :

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

C ONCLUSION U se

o f

a llometric

f ormulae

t o

a ddress

t wo

q uestions

c ommon

i n

a rchaeological r esearch h as s hown t he u sefulness o f t he a llometric t echnique b y p roviding i nsights i nto f actors i nfluencing h uman s ubsistence b ehavior . F uture r esearch a nd c areful a ccumulation o f a dditional d ata i n t he a cquisition o f s pecimens t o b e a ccessioned i nto c omparative c ollections w ill e xpand t he a pplication o f t he m ethod t o o ther p roblems i n t he s tudy o f h uman b ehavior.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e w ould l ike

t o t hank C harles H .

F airbanks,

K athleen A .

D eagan,

N icholas H onerkamp , a nd R obin S mith f or t he o pportunity t o u se d ata f rom t he s ites o f P uerto R eal , S t. A ugustine , F rederica T own , a nd K ings B ay. W e a lso t hank B onnie M cEwan f or a ccess t o h er w ork i n p rogress. W e a ppreciate t he f inancial s upport p rovided b y t he F lorida S tate M useum a nd t he a ssistance o f E lizabeth S . W ing i n f acilitating t he r esearch . T hey a re n ot r esponsible , h owever , f or t he c ontent o r i deas e xpressed i n t his m anuscript.

R EFERENCES A nderson , t issue m ass.

J .F . R ahn ,

H .

&P range,

( 1979).

T he Q uarterly R eview o f B iology 5 4 ,

B ökönyi ,

S .

( 1975).

p rehistoric f auna a ssemblages.

J .C.

( 2) ,

S caling o f s upportive 1 39148 .

E ffects o f e nvironmental a nd c ultural c hanges o n I n ( M.C.

A nthropology o f F ood a nd F ood H abits. B onner ,

H .D .

( 1964).

A rnott,

T he H ague:

E d.) G astronomy:

T he

M outon , p p. 3 12.

A ,H istory o f G eorgia A griculture,

1 732-1860.

A thens: U niversity o f G eorgia P ress. B reitburg , E .

( 1976).

F aunal r emains f rom t he F irst H ermitage.

I n ( S.

S mith, E d.) A n A rchaeological a nd H istorical A ssessment o f t he F irst H ermitage. N ashville, D ivision o f A rchaeology, T ennessee D epartment o f C onservation , p p. 2 49-269 . C asteel , R .W . ( 1974). A m ethod f or t he e stimation o f l ive w eight o f f ish f rom t he s ize o f s keletal r emains. A merican A ntiquity 3 9 ( 10), 9 4-97. C asteel , w eight m ethod. C haplin , S ites.

R .W .

( 1978).

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J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 5 ( 1), R .E.

( 1971).

" Wiegemethode" o r

7 1-77.

T he S tudy o f A nimal B ones f rom A rchaeological

N ew Y ork : A cadem ic P ress.

C leland , C .E. ( 1966). T he p rehistoric a nimal e cology a nd e thnozoology o f t he U pper G reat L akes r egion. M useum o f A nthropology, U niversity o f M ichigan ,

A nthropological P apers 2 9.

D riesch ,

A .

v on d en .

( 1976).

B ones f rom A rchaeological S ites.

A G uide t he t he M easurements o f A nimal

P eabody M useum B ulletin n o.

2 49

1 . 1 136 .

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U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

E merson , T . ( 1978). N ew m ethod o f c alculating t he l ive w eight o f t he N orthern W hite-tailed d eer f rom o steoarchaeological m aterial. M idC ontinental J ournal o f A rchaeology 3 ( 1) , 3 5-44 . F ussel, G .E. ( 1929). T he s ize o n E nglish c attle i n t he E ighteenth C entury. A gricultural H istory 1, 1 89-214 . G ould , S .J . ( 1966). A llometry a nd s ize i n o ntogeny a nd p hylogeny. B iological R eview o f t he C ambridge P hilosophical S ociety 4 1, 5 87-640 . G ould, S .J. ( 1971). G eometric s imilarity i n a llometric g rowth: A c ontribution t o t he p roblem o f s caling i n t he e volution o f s ize. T he A merican N aturalist 1 05 , 13137 . G rayson , D .K . ( 1973). A ntiquity 3 8 ( 4) , 4 32-439 . G rayson,

D .K.

a rchaeofaunas. I n a nd T heory , V ol. 2 .

O n t he m ethodology o f f aunal a nalysis.

( 1979).

O n

t he

q uantification

o f

A merican

v ertebrate

( M .B . S chiffer , E d.) A dvances i n A rchaeological-M ethods N ew Y ork : A cademic P ress.

H onerkamp , N . ( 1975). T he M aterial C ulture o f F ort F rederica: T he T homas H ird L ot. M .A . T hesis , U niversity o f F lorida. A nn A rbor : U niversity M icrofilms . H uxley, J .S .

( 1932).

P roblems o f R elative G rowth.

L ondon :

M ethuen.

L yman , R .L. ( 1979). A vailable m eat f rom f aunal r emains: c onsideration o f t echniques. A merican A ntiquity 4 4 ( 3) , 5 36-546 .

A

M cLane , W . M cN . ( 1955) T he F ishes o f t he S t. J ohns R iver S ystem . P h.D. D issertation, U niversity o f F lorida. A nn A r i ,or: U niversity M icrofilms. M cMahon ,

T .A .

( 1973).

S ize

a nd s hape

i n b iology .

S cience 1 79 ,

1 201-

1 204 . M cMahon , T .A . ( 1975). A llometry a nd b iomechanics: L imb b ones i n a dult u ngulates. T he A merican N aturalist 1 09 ( 969) , 5 47-563 . M eras d e S olis , G . ( 1964). U niversity P resses o f F lorida .

P edro M enendez d e A viles.

O viedo, y V aldez, G .F. ( 1959). I ndias. M adrid : G raf i cas O rbe . P edley ,

T .J .,

E d.

( 1977).

G ainesville :

H istoria G eneral y N atural d e l as

S cale E ffects i n A nimal L ocation .

L ondon :

A cademic P ress. P range ,

H .D ., A nderson ,

J .F . &R ahn , H .

m ass t o b ody m ass i n b irds a nd m ammals.

E ds.)

( 1979).

S caling o f s keletal

A merican N aturalist 13 ,

1 03122 .

R eed , C .A . ( 1963). O steo-archaeology . I n ( E .S . H iggs & D . B rothwell , S cience i n A rchaeology . N ew Y ork : T hames a nd H udson , p p . 2 04-216 .

2 50

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER : R eitz, E .J. A ugustine,

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

( 1979).

F lorida,

S panish a nd B ritish S ubsistence S trategies a t S t.

G eorgia,

B etween 1 563 a nd 1 783.

P h.D .

D issertation ,

U niversity o f F lorida. A nn A rbor : U niversity M icrofilms. R eitz,

E .J .

( 1982).

F aunal a nalysis o f A rea 1 9 ,

P uerto R eal,

H aiti.

M S o n f ile , F lorida S tate M useum , U niversity o f F lorida . R eitz,

E .J .

a nd

N .

H onerkamp

( n.d.).

B ritish

s trategy o n t he s outheastern c oastal p lain. L aboratory, U niversity o f G eorgia , A thens. R eitz, v ermin. A thens.

E .J .

& S carry, M .

M s o n f ile,

R eynolds,

W .W.

W .W .

H erbs,

f ish ,

a nd o ther s cum a nd

( 1977).

S keleton w eight a llometry i n a quatic a nd

H ydrobiologica 5 6 ( 1) ,

&K arlotski,

W .J .

( 1977).

3 5-37. T he a llometric r elationship

o f s keletal w eight t o b ody w eight i n t eleost f ishes: c omparison w ith b irds a nd m ammals. C opeia 1 , 1 60164 . R ouse ,

J .E.

s ubsistence

Z ooarchaeology L aboratory, U niversity o f G eorgia,

t errestrial v ertebrates. R eynolds,

( in p rep.).

c olonial

M s o n f ile Z ooarchaeology

( 1977).

T he C riollo .

N orman :

A p reliminary

U niversity

o f

O klahoma

P ress. S impson , N ew Y ork S mith ,

G .G ., R oe , A . &L ewontin , R .C.

( 1960).

Q uantitative Z oology.

H arcourt, B race , &C o . B .D .

( 1975).

T oward a m ore a ccurate e stimation o f m eat y ield o f

a nimal s pecies a t a rchaeological s ites. I n ( A.T. A rchaeozoological S tudies. N ew Y ork : A merican E lsevier. S mith , B iology 8 7,

R .J. ( 1980). 9 7111.

R ethinking a llometry.

C lason,

E d.)

J ournal o f T heoretical

S mith , R .O., B raley, C .O., B orremans, N .T. & R eitz, E .J. ( 1981). C oastal A d aptations i n S outheast G eorgia : T en A rchaeological S ites a t K ings B ay, C amden C ounty, G eorgia. M s o n f ile, D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f F lorida , G ainesville. W att, B .K . &M errill , A .L .

1 -613 .

( 1963).

C omposition o f f oods.

U nited S tates

D epartment o f A griculture A gricultural H andbook N o. 8 . 1 -190 . W hite ,

T .A .

( 1953).

Am ethod o f c alculating t he d ietary p ercentage o f

v arious f ood a nimals u tilized b y a boriginal p eoples. ( 3), 2 66-278 . W ing ,

E .S.

P aper p resented M issouri . W ing,

E .S.

( 1976). t o

t he

& B rown ,

P rehistoric F oodways.

A merican A ntiquity 3 8

W ays o f g oing f rom a s liver o f b one t o a c alorie. S ociety

A .

N ew Y ork :

f or

( 1979).

A merican A rchaeology,

S t.

L ouis,

P alepnutrition : Sethod a nd T heory i n

A cademic P ress.

2 51

R EITZ A ND C ORDIER : W itt,

A .

( 1960).

A plodinotus g runniens, C opeia 3 ,

U SE O F A LLOMETRY I N Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL A NALYSIS L ength a nd w eight o f a ncient c alculated

f reshwater d rum,

f rom o toliths f ound i n I ndian m iddens.

1 81185.

Z iegler, A .C.

( 1973).

I nference f rom p rehistoric f aunal r emains.

A ddison W esley M odule i n A nthropology

N o. 4 3 .

2 52

1 -57.

L INGUISTIC D ATA A ND T HE Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL R ECORD : AN E XAMINATION O F P ART O F T HE E IGHTEENTH- A ND E ARLY N INETEENTH-CENTURY C HEROKEE A NIMAL W ORLD

A rlene F radkin F lorida S tate M useum G ainesville F lorida, 3 2611, U .S .A .

T he s tudy o f a l anguage a s a s ource o f i nformation a bout i ts a ssociated c ulture i s o f c onsiderable i nterest t o t hose p ursuing t he s tudy o f p ast h uman g roups.

S ince c ultural i nterests a s w ell a s a daptive n eed p lay a m ajor r ole

i n t erminology,

a s tructural a nalysis

o f a p articular l anguage's v ocabulary

m ay t herefore h elp t o d elineate t hose c ategories o f i mportance f or i ts s peakers. T his p aper d emonstrates t he m eans b y w hich a n e xamination o f l inguistic d ata m ay b e u sed t o p redict a s w ell a s t o s upplement t he a nalysis o f f aunal r emains r ecovered f rom a rchaeological e xcavations.

S uch a n a pproach i s v ery

a pplicable i n ative e astern N orth A nerican s ites o f t he p rcto-historica l t ime p eriod f or w hich t he l anguage s poken b y t he s ite i nhabitants i s w ellk nown .

T he l anguage a nd c ulture o f t he C herokee I ndians

l iving i n e astern

T ennessee , U .S.A ., d uring t he e ighteenth a nd e ar ly n ineteenth c enturies s erve a s t he s ubject f or t he p resent s tudy. C herokee a nalytical l isting

o f

t he e xtent

l anguage

t echniques

a nd

o ral

d erived

t raditions

f rom

f ormal

a re

s emantic

e xamined

t he v arious C herokee t erms f or a nimals; o f l exical d ifferentiation ,

u sing

m ethodology : s econd,

t hree

f irst,

a

a s earch i nto

o r c ross-cultural c omparison b etween

C her o kee t erms a nd t hose o f w estern z oological t erms; a nd f inally, a s tudy o f t he w ay i n w hich t he l inguistic t erms f or a nimal s pecies a re o rganized w ithin t he C herokee w orld v iew , w ithin t he c ulture. d ietary i tems,

t hat

i s

t he

r ole

t hat

p articular s pecies

p erform

E mphasis i s p laced upon n ames r elating t o c ertain

s uch a s f ish a nd t urtles,

l ocally a vailable w ithin t he

C herokee e nvironment s ubsequent t o t he i nitial E uropean c ontact p eriod. S uch l inguistic d ata a re o btained f rom v ocabulary l ists , m yths , s acred f ormulas, e thnohistorical m anuscripts,

a s w ell a s f rom l inguistic f ieldnotes,

m ost

o f

w hich w ere c ollected d uring t he e ighteenth a nd n ineteenth c enturies. T hey s erve a s a b asis f or t he f ormulation o f h ypotheses r egarding t he C herokee's u se

o f

n ative

a nimal

r esources.

S uch

p ropositions,

i n t urn ,

a re

t ested

a gainst t he z ooarchaeological r ecord. T he l atter c onsists o f t wo l arge f aunal s amples r ecovered b y t he U niversity o f T ennessee f rom C hota a nd C itico ,

t wo

O verhill

C herokee

t own

s ites

R iver i n e astern T ennessee.

2 53

l ocated

o n

t he

L ittle

T ennessee

F RADKIN :

L INGUISTIC D ATA A ND T HE Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL R ECORD O F T HE C H EROKEE

L INGUISTIC D ATA T he l inguistic d ata s et f or t his p resentation c onsists o f t he v ocabulary a nd o ral t raditions r egarding f ishes a nd t urtles t hat w ere i ndigenous t o t he a rea o ccupied b y t he C herokee I ndians i n e astern T ennessee d uring t he p rotoh istorical p eriod. S uch i nformation m ay b e a nalyzed i n t erns o f t he k inds o f a nimals t hat a re n amed, t he d egree o f l exical d ifferentiation , a nd t he r ole o f t hese a nimals w ithin t he C herokee c ulture . T he l exicon o f C herokee t erms f or f ish a re : f ish b ass

' aja'di'

' unoga'

s auger

o r

' jiliya'

h og s ucker

' daloge'

r edhorse

' oliga'

w alleye b lue c at

' julisdanali'

m ud c at

' usgwohli e gwa'

s ucker d arter

' c lugalv ena'

d rumfish

' gasadi'

w hite s ucker

' oligiyusdi'

e el

' tivdegwa'

s un p erch

' agola'

h ornyhead

' ugvsde'li'

m innow

' amakta'

p ike

' kawonu k ayvsoli'

T he t hree k inds o f t urtle a re : b ox t urtle

' daksi'

s oftshell t urtle -

' ulinawi'

w ater t urtle m ud t urtle

' saligugi'

s napping t urtle I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a fter E uropean c ontact , t urtle, ' daksi', ( 1976:60) h ave

t he t erm f or b ox

w as e xpanded i n m eaning t o r efer t o ap adlock . K ing & K ing s tated t hat t he c apability t o c lose s ecurely t hat i s

c haracteristic o f

b oth p adlocks a nd t urtles

i s a p ossible

r eason f or

t his

s emantic e xtension . T he

f oregoing n ames

m ay b e e xamined

a ccording t o

t he e xtent t o w hich

t hey c orrespond w ith t he w estern, L innaean * c lassficatory s ystem . S uch c omparisons m ay a id i n d etermining t he d egree o f l exical d ifferentiation w ithin t he C herokee a nimal s emantic d omain . O nly t hose t erms t hat r epresent t he

l owest

l evel t axa,

t hat

i s t hose t hat

2 54

i nclude n o o ther t axa ,

a re u sed

F RADKIN :

L INGUISTIC D ATA A ND T HE Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL R ECORD O F T HE C HEROKEE

( Berlin , B reedlove & R aven , 1 966). F ish a re e xcluded f rom t his p ortion o f t he analysis a s i t c annot b e d etermined w hether c ertain C herokee t erms c orrelate w ith o ne s pecies o r g enus o r e ven w ith s everal w ithin t he w estern s ystem . s pecies o f M icropterus.)

( For e xample ,

s pecies

o r g enera

b ass m ay r efer t o o ne o r s everal

T he C herokee v ocabulary f or t urtle i s d ivided i nto t wo c ategories: t hose t erms w hich c orrespond i n a o ne-to-one f ashion w ith w estern t axa; a nd t he l ess d ifferentiated, t hat i s t hose n ames w hich i nclude t wo o r m ore w estern f orms ( Berlin , B reedlove, & R aven , 1 966). T he b ox t urtle ' daksi' a nd s oftshell t urtle ' ulinawi' e xhibit a o ne-to-one c orrelation w ith w estern t erminology w hile t he w ater t urtle ' saligugi' f alls w ithin t he l ess d ifferentiated c ategory ( Table 1 ).

T ABLE 1 :

L exical D ifferentitation f or T urtles.

O ne-To-One C herokee

L innaean

' daksi'

T errapene c arolina

( box t urtle o r t errapin) ' ulinawi' ( softshell t urtle)

T rionyx s piniferus

L ess D ifferentiation C herokee

L innaean C helydra s erpentina S ternotherus s pp . K inosternon s ubrubruM G raptemys s pp . C hrysemys s pp.

' saligugi' ( water t urtles)

T he p receding t wo a pproaches d eal e xclusively w ith t he v ocabulary c omponment o f t he l inguistic d ata. T he t hird p rocedure , h owever , i nvolves a s tudy o f t he o ral t raditions ( mythology a nd s acred f ormulas), a nd o f e thnohistorical m anuscripts,

i n o rder t o g ain i nsight i nto t he r ole o f e ach

a nimal w ithin t he C herokee c ulture. F ish o ccupy a m inor p osition i n t he f olklore. D reams o f e ating r aw o r d ecaying f ish a re a scribed t o r evengeful f ish g hosts a nd t he d octor a ttempts t o e ffect a c ure b y i nvoking s ome l arge f ish o r f ish-eating b ird t o d rive o ut t he d emon ( Mooney , 1 900 :307). T he h og s ucker i s c haracterized a s a s luggish f ish a nd t herefore i ts m eat i s t aboo t o b allplayers w ho m ust n ecessarily b e s wift ( Mooney , 1 900 :308). B ecause o f i ts l ong n ose , t he d arter s erves a s

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al ance i n o ne m yth ( Mooney ,

1 900 :289).

S kins o f t he e el a re u sed b oth b y

b allplayers w ho r ub t hemselves i n o rder t o b e s lippery a nd b ard t o h old ( Mooney , 1 900 :308) a nd b y w omen w ho t ie u p t heir h air w ith d ried s kins t o m ake i t g row l ong ( Kilpatrick , 1 966 :19 1). T he b lue c atfish i s a ddressed i n a s acred f ormula t hat i s r ecited t o i nsure s uccess i n c atching l arge f ish ( Mooney, 1 891:374). O ther f ish m entioned i nclude t he h ornybead o r s toneroller ( Mooney , 1 900 :307-308) a nd t he s un p erch ( Mooney , 1 900 : 2 99). I n c ontrast t o f ish , t he t errapin o r b ox t urtle p lays a s ignificant r ole i n C herokee o ral t raditions. T his a nimal o ccurs i n an umber o f m yths W here i t h as t he r eputation o f b eing a g reat w arrior a s w ell a s p ossessing a b oastful d isposition ( Mooney , 1 900 :270 , 2 86) . I t i s a lso r egarded a s h aving a g reat i nfluence i n d isease a nd i ts s hell c onstitutes p art o f t he p araphenalia e mployed i n t he c uring o f s uch i llnesses a s r heumatism ( Mooney , 1 89 1:346). F inally , t he b ox t urtle i s a lso i mportant i n C herokee r ituals: t he s hells a re m odified i nto r attles w hich a re w orn b y w omen d uring t he p erformance o f c ertain c eremonial d ances. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he s oftshell t urtle i s n ever m entioned . i n C herokee f olklore . T he t hree t ypes o f l inguistic a nalysis p resented m ay p rovide i mportant i nformation r egarding t he C herokee's c ognitive v iew o f a nimals. F irst , t he p rocess o f n aming s erves a s a n i ndex t o t he k inds o f a nimals t hat t hese p eople r ecognized . S econd , t he e xtent o f l exical d ifferentiation i s am eans o f d iscovering t he r elative i mportance o f a ny a nimal s pecies. F inally , t he i nclusion o f c ertain a nimals w ithin t he o ral t raditions m ay u lti m ately l ead t o ak nowledge o f t he r ole p layed b y e ach w ithin t he c ulture a nd c onsequently t he p osition o f e ach s pecies w ithin t he t otal C herokee w orld v iew .

H YPOTHESES T he r esults o f t he f oregoing l inguistic a nalyses m ay s erve a s a b asis f or t he f ormulation o f s everal h ypotheses r egarding t he r ole o f p articular i ndigenous a nimals w ithin t he C herokee c ulture ; s uch h ypotheses , i n t urn , c an b e t ested a gainst a rchaeologically-recovered d ata . T he f irst h ypothesis r efers t o t he k inds o f f ish t hat m ay h ave b een i ncorporated i nto t he C herokee d ietary p attern . O bviously t he e xistence o f aw ord f or a p articular a nimal r equires a t l east f amiliarity w ith i t b y t he p eople s peaking t he l anguage ( Ehret, 1 976). I f n ames e xist w ithin a l anguage f or c ertain a nimals f ound w ithin t he e nvironment o f a p articular h uman g roup , a nd e xclusively n on-dietary u ses a nd/or t aboos p ertaining t o s uch a nimals d o n ot e xist w ithin t hat c ulture's o ral t raditions , t hen t hose a nimals m ay h ave b een i ncluded w ithin t he e ighteenth- a nd e arly n ineteenthc entury C herokee d iet. T he t est i mplications a re t wofold: f irst, t he r emains o f t hose f ish n amed s hould b e p resent i n t he a rchaeolog ical s ites ; a nd s econd , t hat a ny f ish t hat i s n ot n amed a t a ll i n t he C herokee l anguage , o r t hat i s n amed b ut f unctions e xclusively i n n on-subsistence a ctivities w ithin t he o ral t radition , s hould b e e ither m inimally r epresented , o r t otally a bsent f rom t he z ooarchaeological r ecord. T he s econd p roposition t o b e t ested i s t hat a s t he .C herökee n ames f or t he b ox t urtle a nd t he s oftshell t urtle e xhibit a o ne-to-one c orrespondence w ith t he s pecies o f w estern t erminology ( Table 1 ), t hese s pecies a re m ore i mportant t han w ater t urtle w ithin t he C herokee c ulture, a nd s hould

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c onstitute t he g reater p roportion o f t he t urtle f auna r epresented; a dditionally t here s hould b e m ore b ox t urtle t han s oftshell t urtle r emains o n a ccount o f t he f ormer's s ignificant r ole w ithin t he C herokee o ral t raditions.

Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL T he

R ECORD

C hota a nd

C itico s ites w ere b oth o ccupied t hroughout m ost o f

t he

e ighteenth c entury a nd i nto t he f irst d ecade o f t he n ineteenth c entury . T he t wo s amples a re s ubstantial: C hota h as a t otal o f 1 4 ,567 i dentifiable b one f ragments w hile C itico h as 4 ,966 . T he

f aunal

s amples

a t

C hota a nd C itico i ndicate t hat f ish a nd t urtle

r epresent m inor , t hough i mportant s upplementary , c onstituents o f t he C herokee d iet ( Table 2 ). T he f ish t axa i dentified i nclude t he f reshwater d rum , W hich i s t he m ost a bundant a t C hota , a nd t he s ucker f amily w hich p redominates a t C itico. T he l atter m ay b e r epresented b y s everal s pecies ( hog a nd w hite s ucker), i n a ddition t o t he r edhorse s ucker . T he f ragmentary n ature o f t he s keletal e lements a nd t he l ack o f ac omplete c omparative c ollection , h owever , p reclude m ore p recise i dentifications; s imilarly t he h ornyhead o r s toneroller , m ay b e p resent a mong t he m innow r emains. O ther t axa r epresented i nclude: b ass , s unfish , g ar , c atfish , a nd t he p erch f amily ; d arter r emains a re t otally a bsent f rom b oth s ites.

T ABLE 2 :

e el , p ike ,

a nd

A nimal b one r epresentation a t t he C hota S ite ( 40MR2) a nd t he C itico s ite ( 401R7)

%o f I dentifiable B one F ragments C hota C itico

F auna

%o f M NI C hota C itico

F ish A mphibian

1 2.6 0 .6

1 3.2 1 0 .6

1 3.4 4 .4

1 4.4 1 8.1

T urtle O ther R eptile B ird M ammal

3 .4 0 .4 1 .3 8 1.8

7 .1 0 .5 4 .1 6 4 .5

1.0 2 .6 8 .1 6 0 .5

1.3 2 .1 8 .0 4 6.0

I n c omparison t o f ish , f aunal r emains a t b oth s ites c ounts a nd b iomass e stimates s oftshell t urtle a nd t hen

t urtles c omprise a s maller p roportion o f t he ( Table 2 ). W ithin t his g roup , w hen f ragment a re u sed , b ox t urtle p redominates f ollowed b y w ater t urtle. H owever a t C itico t he M NI

c ontributed

b y t he w ater t urtle

i s s lightly g reater t han f or t he s oftshell

t urtle ( Table 3 ). A c omplete c arapace o f t he b ox t urtle w as . recovered a t C itico , w hich h ad h ad i ts i nterior s urface s craped .

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F RADKIN :

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L INGUISTIC D ATA A ND T HE Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL R ECORD O F T HE C HEROKEE

T urtle r epresentation a t t he C hota S ite ( 401R2) a nd t he C itico s ite ( 401R7)

T urtle

B ox S oftshell W ater

%o f I dentifiab le B one F ragments C hota C itico

4 8 .3 3 8 .4 1 3 .4

6 1.0 2 6 .2 1 2.8

%o f M NI C hota C itico

5 2.0 2 6 .7 2 1.3

5 1.7 2 0 .7 2 7 .6

% of B iomass C hota C itico

4 7 .3 3 7 .3 1 5 .4

7 6 .8 1 4 .1 9 .1

D ISCUSSION T he r esults o f t he f aunal a nalysis s eem t o s upport t he h ypotheses p resented . E vidence f or t he c onsumption o f t he v arious f ish n amed b y t he C herokee i s d emonstrated w ith t he e xception o f p ike , e el , a nd d arter . T he f ormer m ay p ossibly n ot h ave b een e xploited : t he C herokee t erm f or p ike w as o btained f rom a s ingle s ource a nd f urthermore , t his f ish i s n ever m entioned I n a ny o f t he o ral t raditions . A nother p ossibility i s t hat t he c ommon t erm ' pike' r eally r efers t o s ome o ther i dentified f ish , s uch a s g ar o r p erch . T he e el m ay h ave b een u sed e xclusively f or i ts s kin a nd c onsequent'y , t he r est o f t he c arcass m ay h ave b een d iscarded e lsewhere . A mong t he t urtle r emains t hose o f t he b ox t urtle c onstitute t he g reatest p roportion , t hough t he s oftshell a lso p rovides a c onsiderable c ontribution . T he f aunal r ecord a ppears t o i ndicate t hat a ll t he t urtle w ere e xploited p rimarily f or t heir m eat; t he l atter c onclusion i s b ased u pon t heir a ssociation i n a rchaeological d eposits w ith o ther k nown f ood r emains a s w ell a s t he l arge n umber o f t urtle f ragments t hat a re c harred o r c alcined. T he s everal m odified s hell r emains o f t he b ox t urtle m ay r epresent u ses o f a s econdary n ature , f or e xample a s b owls a nd r attles . I t s hould b e n oted t hat o ther k inds o f d ata m ust b e e xam ined i n o rder t o o btain i nformation r egard ing t he d ifferent m ethods o f e xploitation o f t hese a nimals a s s ources o f f ood. H istorical r ecords f requently m ention t he a bundance o f f ish a nd i ts r ole i n t he C herokee d iet, t hough t he a ctual s pecies c aught i s r arely d iscussed ( Williams , 1 927 :69). F urthermore , t he f ishing t echnology i s d escribed i n g reat d etail a nd i nvolved t he u se o f l ines , s pears , t raps a nd w eirs , b askets ( Williams , 1 927 :69) a s w ell a s n ets , " grabbing ," a nd p oisons ( Williams , 1 930 : 4 32-434). I nformation r egarding t he u se o f t urtles , h owever , i s m inimal . S everal s ources r eferring t o t he S outheastern I ndians i n g eneral m ention t hat t he m eat o f t he b ox t urtle w as e aten ( Harriss, 1 937:138) a s w ell a s t hat o f o ther t urtles ( Swanton , 1 946 :252)

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C ONCLUSION T he

p resent

s tudy

h as

d emonstrated

t hat

a k nowledge

o f

t he

l anguage

s poken b y t he o ccupants o f ap articular a rchaeological s ite m ay p rovide i nsight i nto t hat g roup's f ood p rocurement , a s f urther e videnced b y t he z ooa rchaeological r ecord . A lthough t he l anguage a nd c ulture o f t he e ighteentha nd e arly n ineteenth-century C herokees w ere u sed a s t he f ocus f or t his t ype o f a pproach , i t i s s uggestd t hat t he h ypotheses f ormulated m ay b e t ested w ith o ther n ative N orth A merican I ndian g roups. F urthermore , t he i ntegration o f l inguistic a nd a rchaeological d ata i s n ot l imited t o t he s tudy o f a nimal t erms a nd f aunal r emains, b ut m ay b e a pplied t o o ther k inds o f m aterial c ulture s uch a s p ottery v essel t ypes , t ools f or h unting , a nd u tilized p lant r emains , a nd t heir c orresponding s emantic d omains. T hus, t he i ncorporation o f l inguistic a nalyses w ithin t he r esearch d esign o f a rchaeolgical s tudies m ay b roaden t he r ange o f t estable h ypotheses , t hereby p roviding a m eans b y w hich a rchaeologists m ay i ncrease t heir u nderstanding o f p ast h uman l ifeways. L inguistics, t hen , c an p rovide a rchaeologists a nd a nthropologists w ith a nother t ool u seful f or s tudying p ast c ultures.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS Iw ould l ike t o t hank D rs. M artha J . H ardman a nd J erald T . M ilanich , a nd M s. B onnie M cEwan a nd S ylvia S cudder f or r eading t he o riginal m anuscript a nd f or p roviding t houghtful c omments.

R EFERENCES B erlin ,

B .,

B reedlove,

b iological c lassification .

D .E.

&R aven P .H .

( 1966).

F olk t axonomies a nd

S cience 1 54 , 2 73-275.

E hret, C . ( 1976). L inguistic e vidence a nd i ts c orrelation w ith a rchaeology. W orld A rchaeology 8 (1), 5 18 . H arriss,

F .L.

R ichmond , V irginia:

( Ed.)

( 1937).

L awson's H istory o f N orth C arolina.

G arrett a nd M assie.

K ilpatrick , J .F. ( Ed.) ( 1966). T he W ähnenauhi M anuscript: H istorical S ketches o f t he C herokees, T ogether w ith S ome o f T heir C ustoms, T raditions, a nd S uperstitions. S mithsonian I nstitution , B ureau o f A merican E thnology , B ulletin 1 96, A nthropological P apers, N o. 7 7. W ashington ,. D .C.: U .S. G overnment P rinting O ffice. K ing , D .H . &K ing , L .H . ( 1976). O ld w ords f or n ew i deas: l inguistic a cculturation i n m odern C herokee. T ennessee A nthropologist 1 (1), 5 8-62. M ooney, I nstitution , D .C.:

J . ( 189 1). T he S acred F ormulas o f t he C herokees. B ureau o f A merican E thnology , 7 th A nnual R eport.

U .S. G over n ment P rinting O ffice.

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M boney ,

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1 9th A nnual R eport.

S mithsonian W ashington ,

I nstitution , D .C.:

U .S.

M ooney, J . ( 1932). T he S wimmer M anuscript - C herokee S acred F ormulas a nd M edicinal P rescriptions. ( Frans M . O lbrechts, E d.) S mithsonian I nstitution , B ureau o f A merican E thnology , B ulletin 9 9 . W ashington , D .C .: U .S . G overnment P rinting O ffice. S wanton,

J .R.

( 1946).

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S mithsonian I nstitution, B ureau o f American E thnology, W ashington , D .C.: U .S. G overnment P rinting O ffice.

B ulletin

1 37.

W illiams, S .C. ( Ed.) ( 1927). T he M emoirs o f L ieut. H enry T imberlake. J ohnson C ity, T ennessee : T he W atauga P ress. W illiams, S .C. ( Ed.) ( 1930). N ew Y ork: P romontory P ress.

A dair's H istory o f t he A merican I ndians.

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