Animal Production Systems in Neolithic Central Europe 9780860547228, 9781407348711

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright
List of Tables
List of Figures
Acknowledgments
Introduction
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON NEOLITHIC ECONOMY
RECONSTRUCTIONS OF NEOLITHIC FARMING SYSTEMS
PARAMETERS OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION IN NEOLITHIC EUROPE
NEOLITHIC FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES
TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN NEOLITHIC FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES
TAXONOMIC ABUNDANCE IN NEOLITHIC FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES
CATTLE EXPLOITATION IN THE LATE NEOLITHIC
ANIMAL USE AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN THE NEOLITHIC
References Cited

Citation preview

Animal Production Systems in Neolithic Central Europe

Margaret Glass

BAR Internatio nal Series 572 1991

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 572 Animal Production Systems in Neolithic Central Europe © Margaret Glass and the Publisher 1991 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547228 paperback ISBN 9781407348711 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547228 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1991. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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C on ten t s L is to fT ab le s L is to fF igu re s

v i i

A cknow ledgmen t s

i x

I NTRODUCT ION

1

H ISTOR ICAL P ERSPECT IVES ON NEOL ITH IC ECONOMY I n te rp re t ive F ramewo rk s i nE u ropean P reh is to ry S yn the se so f Neo l i th ic S ub s i s tence T he I mpac to fR ad ioca rbon D a t ing AC u r ren tV iew o ft h eN eo l i th ic

3 3 5 6 6

RECONSTRUCT IONS OF NEOL ITH IC FARM ING SYSTE MS T he E a r ly Neo l i th ic E xpan s ion T he N a tu re o ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic T ran s i t ion C u l tu ra l C las s if ica t ion i nt h eF ou r th a nd T h ird M i l lenn ia BC E nv ironmen ta l C hange i nt h eF our th a nd T h i rd M i l lenn ia BC E conom ic E v idence i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic E a r ly F ou r th M i l lenn ium G roup s L a te F ou r th /Ea r ly T h ird M i l lenn ium G roup s T he E nd o ft h eN eo l i th ic i nC en tra lE u rope R e con s truc t ing D ie ta tN eo l i th ic S i te s E va lua t ing E v idence f o r An ima l Managemen ti nt h eN eo l i th ic PARAMETERS OF AN I MAL PRODUCT ION I N NEOL ITH IC EUROPE S ys tems o f An ima lP roduc t ion L and U se L abo r T he An ima ls I nc rea s ing An ima l P roduc t ion E ne rgy H e rd S ecu r i ty S chedu l ing o fL abo r S pec ia l iza t ion D ive r s if ica t ion

9 1 0 1 4 1 4 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 9 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 8 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 3 2

NEOL ITH IC FAUNAL ASSE MBLAGES I n te rp re t ing E conom ic S t ra teg ie sF rom F auna l R ema in s

3 5 3 6

TAXONOM IC D IVERS ITY I N NEOL ITH IC FAUNAL A SSEMBLAGES Mea su r ing D ive r s i ty R ichne s s E venne s s He te rogene i ty A na lys is o f Neo l i th ic F auna lD ive r s i ty T he P rob lem o fS amp le S i ze S imu la t ion so fN eo l i th ic F auna l R ichne s sa nd H e te rogene i ty

3 9 3 9 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 1 4 1

T he Me an ing o fT axonom ic D ive r s i ty S amp le S iz eD if f e rence s S ou rce s o fV a r iab i l i ty i nD ive r s i ty

4 5 4 6 4 6

S umma ry

4 7

1 1

TAXONOM IC ABUNDANCE I N NEOL ITH IC FAUNAL A SSEMBLAGES Un i t sO fA na ly s i s N ISP MN I B one We igh t Dom inance o fT axa /Evenne s s S pec ie sA bundance V a r ian ce a nd C ova r ianc e Among T axa E a r ly N eo l i th ic L a te N eo l i th ic V a r ian ce a nd C ova r ian ce o fA s semb lage s E a r ly N eo l i th ic L a te N eo l i th ic S umma ry

4 9 4 9 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 2 5 3 5 5 5 6 5 8 6 0 6 2 6 3

CATTLE EXPLO ITAT ION I N THE LATE NEOL ITH IC C a t t le D ome s t ica t ion i nN eo l i th ic E u rope C o -occu r r ence o fA u roch sa nd C a t t le R a t io so fS ex a nd A ge o fA u ro ch s P re senc eo fT r an s i t iona lF o rm s C a t t le a nd A u ro ch si nN eo l i th ic S i te s E conom ic F unc t ion so fC a t t le i nt h eN eo l i th ic A ge D a ta S ex D a ta A s sump t ion sA bou tR ep re sen ta t ion o fA ge a nd S ex C la s se s C a t t le a nd A s semb lage D ive r s i ty C ompa r ison w i th E a r ly N eo l i th ic D a ta C a t t le Managemen ti nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE u rope

6 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 6 9 6 9 6 9 7 0 7 2 7 3 7 4

AN IMAL U SE AND ECONOM IC CHANGE I N THE NEOL ITH IC P rob lem si nF auna lI n te rp re ta t ion E a r ly N eo l i th ic A n ima lP roduc t ion L a te N eo l i th ic A n ima lP roduc t ion A s semb lage D ive r s i ty a nd T axonom ic Dom inance i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic C a t t le Managem en ti nt h eL a t eN eo l i th ic C ompa r ison o fE a r ly a nd L a te N eo l i th ic P rodu c t ion S t ra teg ie s A n im a l sa nd E conom ic I n ten s if i ca t ion

7 5 7 5 7 5 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 7

R e f e r ence sC i ted

7 9

A ppend ix 1

9 3

i v

L is to fT ab le s T ab le 1 . Ma jo rd om e s t ic a n ima ls i nd esc end ing r ank o rde ra cco rd ing t od i f f e ren t t ype s o fe ne rgy y i e ld s

3 2

T ab le 2 .L i s to fa s semb lage su sed i na na lyse sw i th c u l tu ra l a ff i l ia t ion a nd m a jo rb ib l iog raph ic r e f e rence s

3 6

T ab le 3 .S amp le s i ze , r i chne s sa nd h e te rogene i ty v a lue s f o rN eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s

4 2

T ab le 4 .N ISP f o rn ine t a xa i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

5 0

T ab le 5 .L oad ing so fm a jo rt a xa o n f i r s tt h ree c omponen t s f o re a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 3

T ab le 6 .L oad ing so fm a jo rt a xa o n f i r s t t h ree c omponen t s f o rl a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

5 4

T ab le 7 .T h ree -c lus te rs o lu t ion f o re a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

5 9

T ab le 8 .F ou r -c lu s te rs o lu t ion f o rl a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

6 1

T ab le 9 .D is t r ibu t ion o fc l u s te ra s s ignmen t sa mong l a te N eo l i th ic a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re s

6 3

T ab le 1 0 . Numbe r so fa ge d e te rm ina t ion s m ade o nm and ib le s f r om l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

7 0

T ab le 1 . Numbe r so fb one s i d en t if ied t os ex i nl a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

7 1

T ab le 1 2 . A ve rage v a lue s o fc a t t le a ge a nd s ex c ha rac te r is t ic s i nl a te N eo l i th ic c l u s te r s

7 3

T ab le 1 3 . C a t t le a bundance , a ge a nd s ex d a ta f o re a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

7 4

L i s to fF igure s F igure 1 . Map s how ing modern p o l i t ica l b order s a nd g enera l r eg ion o fc en tra l E u rope

9

F igu re 2 . C h rono log ica l c har to f ma jo rN eo l i th ic c u l tu res i nw e s te rn c en t ra l E urope

1 0

F igu re 3 . E s t ima te s o fs e asona l l abo ra nd f ood r equ iremen t s a s soc ia ted w i th d ome s t ic a n ima l p roduc t ion

3 3

F igure 4 . Map o f we s t -cen t ra l E urope s how ing d i s tr ibu t ion o fN eo l i th ic s i te s

3 5

F igu re 5 . R e su l t s o fr i chnes s s imu la t ion .

4 3

F igu re 6 . H is togram o fd ev ia t ions o fr i chne s s s core s f o re a r ly N eo l i th ic f auna l a ssemb lage s

4 4

F igu re 7 . H is togram o fd ev ia t ions o fr i chne ss s core s f o rl a te N eo l i th ic f auna l a s semb lage s

4 4

F igu re 8 .R e su l t s o fh e te rogene i ty s imu la t ion .

4 4

F igu re 9 . H is togram o fh e te rogene i ty v a lue s f o re a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s

4 5

F igu re 1 0 . H is togram o ft a xonom ic e venne s s

5 2

F igu re 1 . H is togram o fc a t t le f r equenc ie s i n Neo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 2

F igure 1 2 . H is togram o fo v icapr ine f r equenc ie s i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 2

F igu re 1 3 . H is togram o fp ig f r equenc ies i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 3

F igure 1 4 . H is togram o fr ed d ee r f r equenc ie s i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

5 3

F igure 1 5 . P lo to fp e rcen tc a t t le a nd p e rcen t o v icapr ine s f o re a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

5 4

F igure 1 6 . P lo to fp ercen t c a t t le a nd h e te rogene i ty f o re a r ly N eo l i th ic .

5 5

F igu re 1 7 . R ep resen ta t ion o f ma jo r t a xa a ts i te s 3 , 1 9 , 2 0 a nd 5 .

5 5

F igu re 1 8 . P lo to fp e rcen t c a t t le a nd p e rcen t o v icapr ine s i nl a te Neo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 6

F igure 1 9 . P lo t o fp ercen t c a t t le a nd h e te rogene i ty f o r 2 1 l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 6

F igure 2 0 . P lo t o fp ercen t r ed d ee ra nd h e te rogene i ty f o r 1 4 l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 7

F igure 2 1 . R ep resen ta t ion o f ma jo rt a xa i na ssemb lage s 2 9 , 3 8 , 4 0 , a nd 4 4

5 7

F igure 2 2 . R ep resen ta t ion o f ma jo rt a xa i na s semb lage s 2 6 , 3 3 , a nd 3 5

5 7

F igure 2 3 . T r iang le g raph o fp e rcen t c a t t le , p e rcen t r ed d ee ra nd p e rcen tp ig f o r l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

5 8

F igure 2 4 . P lo t o fS SE a td i f f e ren tc l u s te r s o lu t ions f o r e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 9

F igure 2 5 . G eograph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa s semb lage s i ne ach c l u s te r f o r t h ee a r ly Neo l i th ic

6 0

F igure 2 6 . G eograph ica l d i s tr ibu t ion o fa s semb lages i ne ach c l u s te r f o r t h e l a te N eo l i th ic .

6 2

F igure 2 7 . H is togram o fp e rcen t a u ro chs i ne a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

6 6

F igure 2 8 . C ompar ison o fw i ther s h e igh t s o fN eo l i th ic f ema le c a t t le a nd a u rochs .

6 7

F igure 2 9 . C ompar ison o fw i ther s h e igh t s f o r f ema le c a t t le f r om n ine l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

6 8

F igure 3 0 . T r iang le g raph o fc a t t le a ge c a tegor ie s

7 2

F igure 3 1 . T r iang le g raph o fc a t t le s e x c a tegor ie s f o rl a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

7 2

F igure 3 2 . P lo t o fp ercen tj uven i le c a t t le a nd h e te rogene i ty f o r l a te Neo l i th ic a s semb lage s

7 2

F igure 3 3 . P lo t o fp e rcen tj uven i le s a nd p e rcen t f ema le s f o rc a t t le i nc l u s te r 1s i te s

7 3

v i i

A cknow ledgmen t s V a le r iu s G e is t . I nG e rmany , my t h ank s g o t oH . Mü l le rT h i s i s a r e v ised v e r s ion o f a d oc tor a l d i s se r ta t ion s ubm i t ted t ot h e D epa r tmen t o fA r cha eo logy , Un ive r s i ty B eck , S usanne Münz e ! a nd H an s -Pe te r U e rpmann a tt h e o f C a lga ry , C a lga ry , A lbe r ta , C anada . F und ing f o r t h e I n s t i tu t M r U rge sch ich te , T üb ingen . P e te r McCa r tney o r ig ina l r e sea rch c ame f r om I z aak Wa l ton K i l lam d ona ted b o th h i s t ime a nd c on s ide rab le e xpe r t ise t owa rd Memo r ia l s c ho la r sh ip s , a Un ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry T he s is t h e f i na l p roduc t ion o f t h is v o lume . A ny e r ro r s o r R e sea r ch G r an t , a nd a F u lb r igh t d o c to ra l f e l low sh ip . I i n con s is ten c ie s , h oweve r , a r e s o le ly my r e spon s ib i l i ty . w ou ld l i ke t o t h ank a n umbe r o f p eop le a t C a lga ry f o r R ev is ion s o f t h e o r ig ina l wo rk w e re c a r r ied o u t i n c on t r ibu t ion st ot h i s wo rk a td if e ren ts t age s , e sp ec ia l ly J . T üb ingen w i th t h e s uppo r t o f ap o s tdoc to ra l F u lb r igh t r e sea r ch g ran t . S co t t R aymond , J ane K e l ley , V lad im i r Ma rko t ic a nd

i x

C hap t er 1

I NTRODUCT ION Mode ls o f s o c ia l c hange i n N eo l i th ic E u rope h ave f r e q uen t ly b e en r e la ted t o c hange s i n t h e s ub s is tence e con omy i n f er red f o r t h is p e r iod . I n p a r t icu la r , ad ram a t ic c hange i n t h e r o le o f a n ima ls h a s t r ad i t iona l ly b e en a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l a te r p ha se s o f t h e N eo l i th ic , r e la ted e i the r t o c hang ing e co log ica l c ond i t ion s o r t h e d eve lop m en t o f n ew e conom ic s t ra teg ie s . I n e i the r c a se , t h is h ypo the s ized c hange i nt h e s ub s is tence e conomy h a s b een u l t ima te ly l i nked t oe vo lv ing s ys tem s o fs oc ia l d i f f e ren t i a t ion i n t h e N eo l i th ic a nd l a te r p e r iod s o f p reh is to ry . H oweve r , t h e re a r e s t i l l p rob lem s w i th u nde r s tand ing t h e k i nd s o fv a r iab i l i ty i n f a una l a s semb lage s f r om N eo l i th ic c on tex t s a nd c ompar ing t h e se t ype s o f d a ta o ve r l a rge a r ea s . T h i s i sn e ce ssa ry b efo re c hange s i n s ub s is tence e conomy c an b e s ucce s sf u l ly i n teg ra ted i n to mode ls o f p r eh is tor ic s oc ia l s ys tem s .

a nd e conom ic c omp lex i ty t r ad i t iona l ly b a sed o n o the r t ype s o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T h is b ook i ss t ruc tu red i nt wo m a in p a r t s . T he f o l low ing t h ree c hap te r s a dd re s s t h e b a s ic p rob lem s i nvo lved i n u nde r s tand ing a nd i n te rp re t ing v ar iab i l i ty i n N eo l i th ic e conomy . I n C hap te r 2 , a n i n i t ia l d i scu s s ion s ur round s t h e r e la t ive i mpor tance a t t r ibu ted t o e conom ic f a c to r s u nde r t h e v a r iou s i n te rp re t ive f r amewo rk s a dop ted i n E u ropean a r chaeo logy i nr e cen t d e cade s . T h is i sf o l lowed

b y ad i scu s s ion o fm a jo r s yn the se s o fN eo l i th ic e conomy . C hap te r 3p rov ide s a mo re d e ta i led r e v iew o f t h e e v i d ence w h ich h a s c on t r ibu ted t oo u r p re sen t k now ledge o f s ub s is tence e conomy i n t h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic . C hap te r 4p re sen t s as e r ie s o f g ene ra l iza t ion s d e r ived f r om e conom ic t h eo ry wh ich a r eu sefu l i ni n te rp re t ing t h e r o le o f a n ima ls i n s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu ra l e conom ie s . Am a jo r g oa l o f t h is b ook i st o i n ve s t iga te t h e k ind s o f P a rame te r s w h ich m ay h ave b een mo s t i mpor tan t i nm a in v a r iab i l i ty i n N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s f r om a l a rge t a in ing o r i n c rea s ing p roduc t ion l e ve ls i n t h e N eo l i th ic r e g ion w i th in c en t ra l E u rope . T he s p read o f f a rm ing a r e i d en t if ied . e conom ie s w i th in c en t ra l E u rope h a s l o ng b e en r e cog T he s e cond s e t o f c hap te r s p re sen t s a na lyse s o f f a una l n i zed a s h av ing t wo m a jo r s t age s . I n i t ia l c o lon iza t ion o f a s semb lage s f r om e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic s i te s t h rough t h e l o e s s c ove red z one s b y B andke ram ik g roup s i n t h e o u t w e s tern c en t ra l E u rope . T he i n d iv idua l a s semb lage s s i x th m i l lenn ium BC w a s f o l lowed b y ar e la t ive ly s t ab le a r e i n t roduced i n C hap te r 5 . C hap te r 6a dd re s se s t h e p e r iod o fl o ca l ized s e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t l a s t ing a m i l d i f f e rence s i n s t ruc tu re b e tween a s semb lage s f r om t h e se l e nn ium o r m o re . T h is w a s f o l lowed b y a n e xpan s ion o f t wo t ime p e r iod s t h rough a n a na lys is o f t a xonom ic d i f a rm ing s e t t lemen t s i n to n ew e nv ironmen ta l z one s w i th v e r s i ty . P a t te rn s o f s pe c ie s d om inance a nd c ovar iance d i f f e ren t e co log ica l c ha rac te r is t ic s b eg inn ing i nt h e f our th a mong p a r t icu la r t a xa a r e i n ve s t iga ted i n C hap te r 7 . m i l lenn ium B C . A ssemb lage s a s soc ia ted w i th b o th o f S pec if ic h ypo the s is r e la ted t od ome s t ic a n ima l p roduc t ion t h e se s t age s o fN eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion a r e a na lyzed i no rde r i nt h e l a te N eo l i th ic a r e a pp roached i nC hap te r 8t h rough t o i d en t if y p o in t s o f s im i la r i ty a nd d i f f e rence b e tween t h e a na lys is o fs e le c ted o s teome tr ic a nd d emog raph ic o b p a t te rn s o f a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion . A l though t h is d oe s n o t s e r va t ion s m ade o n c a t t le r ema in s . F ina l ly , C hap te r 9r e p rov ide a t r ue d i ach ron ic p e r spe c t ive , i td oe s a l low t h e v i ew s t h e r e su l t s o f t h e i n d iv idua l a na lyse s , p re sen t s d i scr im ina t ion o f m a jo r p a t ter n s i n f a una l u se f o r b o th c ha ra c te r iza t ion s o f a n ima l p roduc t ion i n t h e e a r ly a nd p er iod s , w h ich m ay t h en b e r e la ted t o mode ls o f s oc ia l l a te N eo l i th ic , a nd r e la te s t h e se t o s ome g ene ra l mode ls o fe conom ic c hange f o r t h is p e r iod .

1

C hap t er 2

H ISTOR ICAL PERSPECT IVES ON NEOL ITH IC ECONO MY C hang ing p e r cep t ion s o f N eo l i th ic e conomy mu s t b e u nde r s tood w i th in t h e c on tex t o f g ene ra l t h eo re t ica l t r end s i nE u ropean p reh is to ry . W i th in t h e p a s t f ew g en e r a t ion s , t h e re h ave b e en m a jo r s h if t s i n t h e i mpo r tance w h ich h a s b een a cco rded e conom ic f a c tor s b o th a s as ub j e c t f o r s t udy a nd a s ac au sa l f o r ce i np reh is tor ic c hange . S ome o f t h e se c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o s h if t ing i n te rp re t ive f r amework s , w h i le o the r s r e la te t o m o re s ub s tan t ive m e thodo log ica l a dvance s , f o r i n s tance , t h e d eve lopmen t o f r ad iome t r ic d a t ing . G ene ra l s yn the se s o f N eo l i th ic s ub s is tence e conomy a nd c u r ren t m ode ls r e la t ing i n c r ea se s i n s oc ia l c omp lex i ty t o e conom ic c hange h ave b een b a sed w i th in t h is c hang ing t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk .

I n terpre t ive F ramework s i nE uropean P reh i s tory C e r ta in t h eme s a nd i n d iv idua ls i n E u ropean a r chaeo logy h ave c on t r ibu ted s i gn if ican t ly t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f c ur ren t i d ea s a bou t e conom ic c hange i n t h e N eo l i th ic . T he d om inan t i n terp re t ive p a rad igm s o f t h e l a s t c en tury , o n t h e o ne h and , ac once rn w i th i d en t ify ing t h e r e la t ive r o le s o fd i f fu s ion v e r su s m igra t ion , o n t h e o t he r h and , a n a t temp t t oi n corpo ra te e vo lu t iona ry p roce sse s i n to c u l tu re h i s to ry , w e re b o th r ef le c ted i n t h e s yn the s i s o fE u ropean p reh is to ry f o rmu la ted b y C h i 1de . T he p a s t f ew d e cade s h ave b e en d om ina ted b y ac oncer nw i th u nde r s tand ing t h e r e la t ionsh ips b e twe en e nv ironmen ta l a nd c u l tu ra l p ro c e s se s , a nd , i n r e cen t y ea r s , b y a n a t temp t t o r e cogn ize s oc ia l h i e ra r ch ie s a nd i d eo log ica l s y s tem s u s ing a r chaeo l o g ica l d a ta . E ach o ft h e se s t age s o fr e sea rch r ef lec t s as e t o f d i s t inc t t h eo re t ica l o r ien ta t ion s t h a t h ave a f f e c ted s pe c if ic q ue s t ion s a nd i n terp re ta t ion s p er ta in ing t o t h e s t udy o fN eo l i th ic e conomy . T he m ovemen t o f p eop le a nd t h e t r an sm is s ion o f i d ea s w e re c on s ide red t h e d om inan t f o rce s b eh ind c u l tu ra l d e v e lopmen t i n E urope t h roughou t t h e e a r ly n i ne teen th c en tu ry . E ven u n t i l t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h is c en tu ry , mo s t r e sea r che r s a t temp ted t o d er ive v i r tua l ly a l l m a jo r c u l t u r a l i n nova t ion s , l i ke f a rm ing a nd m e ta l lu rgy , f r om t h e a r ea s o fa nc ien t c i v i l iza t ion i nt h e N ea r E a s t o r Med i te r r a nean . I n i t ia l ly , e mpha s is w a s p u t o n s ucce s s ive p opu la -

t r ibu ted t og eograph ic d i f f e rence s a ugmen ted b y d i f f e ren t i a l d i f fu s ion o fo the r t r a i t s a mong a d jacen t c u l tu re s . T he g radua l i nf i l l ing o f s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l g ap s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd d ur ing t h e l a te n ine teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tur ie s h a s c onf irmed o ccupa t iona l ( t hough n o t n e ce s sa r i ly c u l tu ra l ) c on t inu i ty f o r mo s t a rea s o fc on t i nen ta l E u rope , e l im ina t ing t h e n e ed t oe xp la in d i scon t i n u i t ie s b y l a rge sca le m igra t ion s o r i n va s ion s . I n a dd i t i on , t h e d eve lopmen t o f r a d ioca rbon d a t ing u nde rm ined t h e c h rono log ica l p r ior i ty o f t h e N ea r E a s t a nd e a s te rn Med i te r ranean , d e s t roy ing t h e e v iden t ia l b a s is o f t h e d i f fu s ion is t a rgumen t ( Renf rew 1 979b :105 ) . I n r e cen t y ea r s , c au se s o f s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange h ave b een s ough t w i th in c on t inen ta l , i f n o t l o ca l , c on tex t s . H oweve r , t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f p opu la t ion m ove m en t v e r su s t h e t r an sm is s ion o f i d ea s r ema ins a t o p ic o f d eba te f o r t wo m a jo r e p isode s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e N eo l i th ic : t h e i n i t ia l s p read o f f a rm ing e conom ie s , a nd t h e a ppea rance o f w ide sp read c u l tu ra l n e two rk s i n t h e t h ird m i l lenn ium BC . L ong b ef ore t h e e l abo ra t ion o f t h e t h eo ry o f b i o log ica l e vo lu t ion , t h e re w a s ag row ing a wa rene s s a mong E u ro p ean s cho la r s t h a t e conom ic c ond i t ion s h ad p a s sed t h rough a d eve lopmen ta l p roce s s . T he t e chno log ica l m ode l o f t h e T h ree -Age S y s tem i st h e b e s t k nown r e su l t o f t h is a wa rene s s : mu seum c o l lec t ion s w e re a r ranged i n o rde r o f s t one , b ronze a nd i r on b y T hom sen s ome t ime b efo re 1 820 ; h i s s equence w ou ld b e v a l ida ted b y t h e s t ra t ig raph ic o b serva t ion s o f Wo r saae af ew d e cade s l a te r ( Sk lena r 1 983 :88 -89 ) . A p a ra l le l t r end i n vo lved t h e a b s t rac t ion a nd o rder ing o f mo re g ene ra l s t age s o fs ub s is t e nce . B y 1 817 , Z ieg le r h ad p ropo sed t h e s equence : f o od g a ther ing , h un t ing a nd f i sh ing ; n omad ic p a s to ra l l i f e ; s e t t led f a rm ing ( Sk lena r 1 983 :97 ) . O r ig ina l ly b a sed p r ima r i ly o n e t hnog raph ic c ompa r ison s , t h is mode l h ad s l ow ly d eve loped s i nce t h e e nd o ft h e e i gh te en th c en tu ry , a nd w a s f i na l ly i n tegra ted i n to p reh is tory i n t h e 1 830 s . T he S wed ish z oo log is t N i ls son h a s b e en c r ed i ted a s t h e f i r s t t o a s soc ia te s pe c if ic a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w i th t h is s cheme , l e ad ing t o a p rog re s s ive s ub s is tence f i rm ly r oo ted i nt h ep a s t ( Dan ie l 1 971 :142 ) .

m ode l

p r ior i ty o n t r ade , o r n ebu lou s p roce s se s o fc u l tu ra l i nf lu -

T he l a t te r h a lf o f t h e n ine te en th c en tu ry w i tne s sed a f l our ish o f e vo lu t iona ry s yn the se s a c ro s s E u rope , a s

e nce ( Renf rew 1 979a :6 ; S k lena r 1 983 :128 ) . T owa rd t h e l a te 1 800 s , d i f f us ion ism w a s d eve loped t o a n e x t reme

e t hnograph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w e re a s s im i la ted i n to u n ive r sa l s cheme s . T r ipa r t i te s equence s o fe conom ic

t i on m ovemen t s t o e xp la in c hange ; l a te r v e r s ion s p u t

f o rm i nb o th E ng land a nd A u s tr ia , a nd b e came a n o b je c t

d eve lopmen t ( hun t ing t o p a s to ra l l i f e t o s e t t led f a rm ing )

o f s t udy i n i t s own r i gh t ( Dan ie l 1 971 :147 ) . U nde r t h e K u l tu rk r e is leh re t r ad i t ion , v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e s ub s is tence

w e re u b iqu i tous ( Ba rke r 1 985 ; S k lena r 1 983 ) . Mo rgan 's e l abo ra t ion o f s even " e thn ica l p e r iods " t ook N i ls son 's

p r ac t ice s o f p reh is tor ic c u l tu re s w a s r e cogn ized , a nd a t -

s ub s is tence m ode l o ne s t ep f u r the r b y a pp ly ing e t hno -

3

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope g raph ic p a ra l le ls l i t e ra l ly t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( Dan ie l 1 971 :147 ) . Mo rgan 's s t age s , c omb ined w i th D a r w in 's t h eo ry o f n a tu ra l s e le c t ion , w e re i n corpo ra ted i n to

d uc t ion i ng ene ra t ing i n f e rence s c an n ow b e s e en t oh ave a r isen l a rge ly f r om a m isunde r s tand ing o f p h i lo soph ica l c oncep t s a mong s ome Amer ican a r chaeo log i s t s i n t h e Ma rx 's a nd E nge ls 's m a ter ia l is t c oncep t ion o fh i s to ry , i n e a r ly 1 970 s . T he re i sn o r e a son n o t t o a ccep t i n duc t ive wh ich c onf l ic t a r is ing f r om e conom ic c ond i t ion s a s sumed g ene ra l iza t ion s a sv a l id i n f e rence s a nd , i na c tua l p rac t ice , ap r ima ry r o le i n t h e s oc ia l e vo lu t ion o f m ank ind . T he a t temp t s a t e xp lana t ion b y Ame r ican a nd E u ropean a r s ub s is tence e conomy i np ar t icu la rp l ayed ac en t ra l p a r t i n c haeo log is t s o f ten d o n o t d i f f e r t h a t much . Wha t d oe s t h e t r ad i t iona l Ma rx is t s cheme ; a s p ar t o f t h e i n f ra s truc - d i f f e r s i gn if ican t ly b e tween t h e t wo t r ad i t ion s i s t h e t u ra l r e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion , i ti st h e u l t ima te s our ce o f d eg ree o f g ene ra l i ty c on s ide red n e ce s sa ry o r a pp ropr ia te t h e s u rp luse s wh ich l e ad t o t h e d i f f e ren t ia l a c cumu la t ion f o re xp lana t ion s ( i e . h ow f a ra n i n f e rence c an b e r emoved o fw ea l th a tt h eh ea r to ft h e d i a le c t ic p roce s s . C h i lde h a s b een s e en a s mo s t r e spon s ib le f o r i n tegra t ing t h e se t wo a pp roache s c ha rac ter is t ic o ft h e e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry . T h roughou t h i s c a ree r , ab e l ief i n t h e c omp le te d e r iva t ion o f E u ropean c u l tu re f r om t h e e a s t g radua l ly

f r om t h e e mp ir ica l d a ta u pon w h ich i ti sb a sed ) a nd a n o verwhe lm ing c oncer n o n t h e p ar t o f Amer ican a r chaeo l o g is ts f o r b u i ld ing ab ody o fg ene ra l t h eory w h ich c an b e u sed t ou nde r s tand h uman b ehav ior i n av ar ie ty o fs pa t io t empo ra l c on tex t s .

g ave w ay t o a" mod if ied d i ff i i s ion ism " ( Dan ie l 1 971 :148 ; R enf rew 1 979a :8 ) i n w h ich a c e r ta in d eg ree o f c u l tu ra l a u tonomy w a s g ran ted c en t ra l E u rope f r om a t l e a s t t h e

R e cen t a pp roache s t o t h e s t udy o f p reh is to ry a mong

B ronze A ge . C h i lde t u rned t o Ma rx ism b e cau se i ta l l owed t h e d eve lopmen t o f p reh is to r ic c u l tu re s t o b e e x p l a ined w i thou t r e ly ing o n u n seen e x te rna l f a c to r s ( Ch i lde 1 958 :72 ) . H e a dop ted t h e i d ea o fe conomy a s t h e i n teg ra t ing f o rce i n s oc ie ty , a nd c o r re la ted p o in t s o f m a jo re conom ic d i v is ion s w i th c hange s i nt h e a r chaeo log i c a l r e co rd . C h i lde w a s t h e f i r s t t o a dop t a n e conom ic c omp lex r a the r t h an at y po log ica l t r a i t a s t h e d i s t ingu ish i n g c ha ra c te ro ft h e N eo l i th ic ( Ch i lde 1 958 ) : t h e t r ipar t i te s ub s is tence s cheme w a s s imp l if ied i n to f ood -ga ther ing v e r su s f ood -p roduc t ion , a nd t h e l a t te r i d en t if ied w i th t h e N eo l i th ic ( Ch i lde 1 942 ) . W i th in t h e e r a o f f ood -pro d uc t ion , C h i lde f u r the r d i s t ingu ished as e r ie s o fa r chaeo l o g ica l c u l tu re s w i th d i f f e r ing e conom ic s t ra teg ie s . T h is a pproach p re sen ted a s t a rk c on t ra s t t o t h e mono l i th ic r e con s truc t ion o ft h is p e r iod b y m any o the r p reh is to r ian s ( P iggo t t 1 958 :76 ) .

c r ea sed a t ten t ion t o g ene ra l t h eo ry b u i ld ing ( Shennan 1 987 ) . T h is i sn o t t o s a y t h a t t h eo re t ica l c oncer n s a r e t o ta l ly a b sen t f r om t h e r e s t o f t h e c on t inen t , b u t i ti sd i f -

I ti sd i ff icu l t t o g ene ra l ize a bou t c u r ren t t h eo re t ica l a p p roache s t o t h e s t udy o f p reh is to ry o ve r s o w ide a g eo g raph ica l a nd c u l tu ra l a r ea a s E u rope . A t f i r s t g l ance , t h e re s e em t ob e n o g ene ra l t e ndenc ie s t o f o l low a nd n o u n if ied c on sen su s a mong p rac t i t ione r s o f E u ropean a r c haeo logy a bou t h ow s pe c if ic p rob lem s i np reh is to ry c an o r s hou ld b e i n ve s t iga ted . O n ac onc re te l e ve l , t h is r e s u l ts f r om t h e p rac t ica l n eed o fa r chaeo log is t s t od eve lop r e g iona l i n te re s t s , w h ich , u n t i l t h e l a s t g ene ra t ion , w e re c l o se ly t i ed t o q ue s t ion s o f n a t iona l a nd e t hn ic i d en t i ty . T h is h a s l e d t o as t rong t r ad i t ion e mpha s iz ing f i ne sca led , c u l tu re -h is tor ica l s t ud ie s . O n am o re a b s t ra c t l e ve l , t h eo r e t ica l d eve lopmen t s i nE u ropean a r chaeo logy a r e h a rde r

B r i t ish a nd S cand inav ian a r chaeo log is t s c l ose ly p a ra l le l t h e t r end o b served f o r Ame r ican a r chaeo logy o f a n i n -

f i cu l t t oi d en t if y a ny o t he r u n if ied t r ea tmen t o f E u ropean a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w h ich g oe s b eyond a s pec if ic t empo r a l o rg eog raph ica l f o cu s . T he d eve lopmen t o f a n e conom ic a pp roa ch t o p reh is to ry a si n i t ia ted b y C h i lde w a s f u r the r s t imu la ted b y t h e w r i t i n g s o fJ .G .D . C la rk b eg inn ing i nt h e 1 940 s a nd 1 950 s . C la rk 's p r ima ry i n te re s t i n t e chno logy a nd s ub s is tence p ra c t ice s w a s c omb ined w i th d e ta i led i n ve s t iga t ion o fp a l e oenv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions t o e xp la in m a jo r e conom ic c hange s i n p reh is to ry t h roughou t E u rope . T h is d e ta i led a t ten t ion t ol o ca l e co log ica l r e la t ionsh ip s b ecame t h e h a l l m a rk o f t h e B r i t ish A cademy Ma jo r R e sea rch P ro je c t i n E a r ly A g r icu l tu re , d i rec ted b y H igg s , a nd l a te r J a rman , i nt h e 1 970 s a nd e a r ly 1 980 s . I n i t s l a te r s t age s , t h e s i te c a t chmen t p rog ram d eve loped b y H igg s a nd h i s s t uden t s w a s c ha ra c ter ized b y t h e r e cons truc t ion o fm ic ro reg iona l , o f ten s i te spe c if ic , s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s b y a s t anda rd i z ed m e thodo logy ( e g . J a rman , B a i ley a nd J arman 1 982 ) . T h is p ro je c t m ade t h e i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion o fd i re c t ing a t ten t ion t ot h e a na lys is o f e co log ica l s y s tem s f o r u nde r s t and ing t h e d eve lopmen t o f a gr icu l tu re i n E u rope ( Shennan 1 987 ) . T he B r i t ish A cademy E a r ly A gr icu l ture P ro jec t r e p re sen t s o n ly o ne e xamp le o f aw ide sp read t r end o f i n teg ra t ion o f p a leoenv ironmen ta l o r g eog raph ica l o bserva t ion s w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta c ha rac te r is t ic o fm any c oun tr ie s . T h is

i se v iden t f r om an umbe r o f r e g iona l p ro je c t s c a r r ied o u t t ot r ace , e spe c ia l ly f r om a n Ame r ican is t p e r spe c t ive , b e i nt h e 1 970 s i nc en t ra l E u rope w h ich i n ve s t iga ted c hange s c au se t h e w ay i nw h ich t h is b ranch o fs c ience p roceeds i s i n s i te l o ca t ion t h roughou t t h e N eo l i th ic , a nd a s soc ia ted s o d i f f e ren t f r om t h e p rog ramma t ic s t a temen t s o f t h e t h e se c hange s w i th p ar t icu la r e conom ic s t ra teg ie s . S ome Ame r ican N ew A rchaeo logy a bou t h ow a r chaeo logy a s a o f t h e mo re i mpo r tan t o f t h e se i n c lude G a l lay 's ( Ga l lay s c ience s hou ld p roceed . Mo s t E u ropean a r chaeo log is t s 1 970 ) a nd S i e lmann 's ( S ie lmann 1 971a ) w o rk i n t h e t e nd t oa r gue r a the r d i re c t ly f r om ap a r t icu la r s e t o f e m R h ine V a l ley , L inke 's s t udy i n We s tpha l ia a nd n or th p i r ica l d a ta , a nd e xp lana t ion s o f ten c on s is t o f i n duc t ive H e s sen ( L inke 1 976 ) , a nd K ruk 's i n ve s t iga t ion o f s ou th g ene ra l iza t ion s t h a t b e s t f i t t h a t d a ta s e t ( Boguck i 1 985 ) . e r n P o land ( Kruk 1 980 ) . T h is c once rn w i th d e ta i led s e tT he d eba te s u r round ing t h e u se o f i n duc t ion v e r su s d e -

4

H i s tor ica lP er spec t iv e s o n N eo l i th ic E conomy t l emen t p a t tern a na lys is a s at oo l f o r i n ve s t iga t ing p reh is t or ic e conomy h a s c on t inued i n an umbe r o f l o ng term s t ud ie s ,

i n c lud ing

( Sher ra t t

1 982 ,

t h e j o in t B r i t ish -Hungar ian p ro jec t

1 983a ) ,

i nve s t iga t ions o n t h e A lden -

h ovene r P la t te w e s t o f K ö ln ( e g . B oe l icke e t a l . 1 977 ; B oe l icke e t a l .

1 980 ;

K upe r e t a l .

1 974 ) ,

a nd

t h e

B odensee P ro jec t ( Landesdenkma lam t B aden - Wür t tem b e rg 1 984 , 1 985 , 1 990 ) .

i c a l i n ve s t iga t ions i n E u rope b e s t c ha rac ter ized a s an ew o p t im ism a bou t t h e a b i l i ty t o a ddre s s q ue s t ions o f s oc ia l a nd

I n te rpre ta t ions o f N eo l i th ic s ubs is tence h ave u nde rgone d rama t ic r e v is ion i n t h e p a s t c en tury o f r e sea rch . Ma jor p o in t s o f c hange i n c lude p e rcep t ions a bou t t h e i mpo r t a nce o fp ar t icu la r r e source s a nd n ew i d ea s o ft he p ace o f c u l tura l d eve lopmen t n ece s s i ta ted b y c hrono log ica l r ev i s i ons . As hor t r ev iew o fm a jor mode ls o f Neo l i th ic d eve l o pmen t h e lps p rov ide a b ackground f o r u nde r s tand ing

I n t h e 1 980s , t h e re w a s as h if t i nt h e g oa ls o fa r chaeo log -

o rgan iz a t ion

S yn the se s o fN eo l i th ic S ub s i s tence

r e la t ion s

( Boguck i

1 985 :785 ) .

T he

p rogram o fs oc ia l a r chaeo logy mo s t o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th R enf rew c an b e s e en a s t h e s ource o ft h is n ew o p t im ism . A t ten t ion t u rned t o more s oc ia l a n thropo log ica l c oncerns , s uch a s t h e a na lys is o f e xchange a nd b u r ia l s y s tem s t o i n f e r a spec ts o f s oc ia l s t ruc ture ( e g . K r is t iansen 1 982 ; R enf rew a nd S hennan 1 982 ) . T he se s t ud ie s s how l e s s o f a n e mpha s is o n t h e s ubs is tence e conomy , a nd more o n o the ra spec t s o ft h e g ene ra l e conomy , i np a r t icu la r , t r ade .

c u r ren t i d ea s a bou t s ub s is tence e conomy i nt h is p er iod . F o l low ing t h e p rogre s s ive s ubs is tence s chemes d e scr ibe d a bove , e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tury r e con s truc t ions o f t h e d e v e lopmen t o f a gr icu l tu ra l s ys tem s i n E urope p u t i n i t ia l p r ior i ty o n t h e a n ima l c omponen t o f t h e e conomy ( e g . Mengh in 1 931) . N eo l i th ic e conomy w a s t hough t t o h ave b e en b a sed a t f i r s t u pon t h e u se o f f o re s t -adap ted s t ock w i th s ome l im i ted g ra in c u l t iva t ion i n s ma l l a d jacen t c l ear ings , p e rhaps a ccomp l ished t h rough s imp le h oe c u l t iva t ion . R e la t ive ly o pen a r ea s i nt h e d ense , t empe ra te f o re s ts w e re s upposed ly c hosen f o r s e t t lemen t i no rde r t o m in im ize p rob lem s o f l a nd c l ea rance . T h rough t ime ,

T h is t r end t owa rd i n terpre ta t ions o fs oc ia l o rgan iz a t ion i s c on t inued f o re s t g raz ing e ven tua l ly o pened u p more a r ea s a ccen tua ted e ven mo re i n t h e c ur ren t p os t -proce s sua l is t s . f o r c u l t iva t ion . T he G erman ic f o rm o f a gr icu lture a s o b T h is t e rm l umps t oge the r av ar ie ty o f v e ry d i ve r se a p -

s e rved b y R omans w a s s ugge s ted a s a n a na logy : h eavy

p roache s -s t ruc tura l ism , n eo -Ma rx ism , a nd wor ld s y s -

r e l iance u pon d ome s t ic a n ima ls a nd t h e ir p roduc t s , c om -

t em s t h eory -wh ich a r e a l l n ow b e ing a pp l ied t oa na lyse s

b ined w i th a n e x tens ive f o rm o f a gr icu l ture c ha rac te r ized o fl a te r E u ropean p reh is tory . A ga in , e mpha s is i sa imed a t b y s ho r t p er iod s o f c rop c u l t iva t ion a nd l ong f a l low i n t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s w i th , f o r i n s tance , t e rva ls ( e g . F i rba s 1 952 :354 -355 ) . i d en t if ica t ion o f i d eo log ica l s y s tem s af o ca l t h eme ( e g . Hodde r 1 982 , 1 984 ; S hanks a nd T i l ley 1 982 ) .

T he mo s t e x ten s ive a nd i nf luen t ia l s yn the s is o f E uropean e conom ic p reh is tory i st h a t o f C h i lde , f i r s t p ub l ished i n

T he re s e em s t o h ave b een a d ef in i te s h if t a way f r om

t h e 1 920s , a nd r epea ted w i th m inor mod if ica t ions i n to t h e

d i rec t i n ve s t iga t ion o f s ubs is tence e conomy a s soc ia ted w i th m any o f t h e se c on tempora ry i n terpre t ive f r ame -

l a te 1 950 s . A s m en t ioned a bove , C h i lde w a s t h e f i r s t t o b reak d own t h e Neo l i th ic i n to a s e r ie s o f e conom ic

wo rk s . T o b e s u re , r e cons truc t ion o f l o ca l o r r e g iona l

s t age s , a nd a s soc ia te s pe c if ic c u l ture s , o r m a ter ia l c u l ture

s e t t lemen t a nd s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s i s s t i l l ac ommon

c omp lexe s , w i th t h e se s t age s . T hree o fC h i lde 's e conom ic

g oa l o f m any ( pe rhaps mos t ) f i e ld p ro jec t s , b u t a t f i r s t

p er iods w e re o r ig ina l ly d evo ted t o t h e N eo l i th ic , a nd

g l ance i t wou ld a ppear t h a t s uch s t ud ie s h ave l i t t le t o

e ach w a s c harac ter ized b y mu l t ip le c u l tura l c omp lexe s

c on tr ibu te

t o g ene ra l

t h eore t ica l

c oncerns .

H oweve r ,

w i th d i f f eren t e conom ic e mpha se s . A l though t h e p er iod c ha rac te r is t ics o ft h e s ubs is tence b a se f o rm a n i n tegra l , i f c ons truc t w a s l a te r a bandoned , t h e s equence o f c hange s i mp l ic i t , p a r t o f t h ese f r ameworks j us t m en t ioned . F o r e mbedded i nt h is s cheme r ema ined t h ed om inan t mode l o f i n s tance , n eo - Marx ism , w i th i t s e mpha s is o n s oc ia l p ro -

N eo l i th ic d eve lopmen t f o r an umbe r o f g enera t ion s . F o r

d uc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion ( Shennan 1 987 ) , wou ld s e em t o

t h is r e a son , i ti s wor th s u mmar iz ing t h e m a jo r t r a i t s o f

d epend r a ther f undamen ta l ly o n a s sump t ions a bou t t h e

t h e se p e r iods a so r ig ina l ly d e scr ibed b y C h i lde .

n a ture o ft h e s ubs is tence e conomy a nd m anagemen t o ft h e r e sou rce b ase . A l though r e la t ive ly r a re , t h e re a r e s ome e xamp le s s how ing h ow e l emen t s o f t h e s ub s is tence e con omy c an b e e xam ined i nt h e c on tex t o ft h e s oc ia l r e la t ions s u r round ing t h e ir e xp lo i ta t ion ( I ngo ld 1 980 i sp robab ly t h e c l ea re s t e xamp le ) . T he i mpor tance o ft h e t r ans i t ion t o f ood p roduc t ion i n t e rm s o f as urp lu s e conomy a nd c on s equen t s oc ia l d i f f eren t ia t ion h a s b een a cknow ledged s i nce t h e t ime o fC h i lde . Y e t m any a s sump t ions a bou t t h e s ub s is tence b ase i n t h e N eo l i th ic , a nd c hange s f r om e a r ly t ol a te N eo l i th ic , r ema in l a rge ly u n te s ted . I ti st h e g oa l o f t h is b ook t o c on tr ibu te t o ab e t te r u nder s tand ing o f e co n om ic a nd s oc ia l c hange i n t h e N eo l i th ic b y a ddre s s ing s ome o ft h ese a s sump t ions a bou t s ubs is tence p rac t ices .

P er iod

I

b egan

w i th

t h e

r e la t ive ly

u n iform

L inea rbandkeram ik ( LBK ) c u l ture , wh ich a ppea red o n t h e l o e ss l a nds f r om S lovak ia i n t h e e a s t t o Ho l land a nd B e lg ium i n t h e n or thwe s t . T he t ype o f a gr icu l tu re p rac t i ced b y t h is c u l ture w a s p re sumed t o b e af o rm o f Hackbau , o r g arden c u l t iva t ion w i thou t c rop r o ta t ion o r s y s tema t ic m anur ing . T he p auc i ty o f a n ima l b one s f r om s uch s i te s s ugge s ted t h a t a gr icu l tura l c rops f o rmed t h e b as is o ft h e d i e t , a nd t h a t s t ock k eep ing a nd h un t ing w e re o fl i t t le o rn o i mpor tance . R e l iance o n t h is p r im i t ive f o rm o fa gr icu l ture a nd t h e l a ck o fa ny t e l l l ike a ccumu la t ion s o f s e t t lemen t d ebr is i mp l ied a s hor t term o ccupa t ion o f s i te s , w i th f r equen t move s t o n ew a r ea s f o r c u l t iva t ion . L a ter c u l tu ra l v ar ian ts i n P er iod I s howed s l igh t e co -

5

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope 1 932 ) . M i lo jc ic ( 1949 ) h ad s uppor ted a s l igh t ly e a r l ie r b eg inn ing d a te o f 3 400 o r 3 300 BC f o r t h e e a r l ie s t N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s b o th i n s ou thea s t a nd c en t ra l E u rope . T he e nd o ft h e N eo l i th ic w a s p u t s ome t ime b e twe en 2 100 a nd 1 600 BC , w i th t h e B ronz e A ge a r is ing o u t o f t r ade

n om ic d i f f e rence s , s uch a s ag rea te r e mpha s is o n h un t ing a nd n ew e l emen t s i n t h e t e chno log ica l i n ven to ry , w h ich w e re a t t r ibu ted t o t h e a s s im i la t ion o f Me so l i th ic e t hn ic e l emen t s ( Ch i lde 1 929 :45 -51 ) . P er iod I w a s o r ig ina l ly d e sc r ibed r a the r s imp ly a s a n o u tg row th f r om a D anub ian 1 s ub s t ra tum , p e rhap s s omewha t mo re e nr iched b y c u l tu ra l b or row ing s f r om a d ja cen t , n on -agr icu l tu ra l g roup s ( Ch i lde 1 929 :95 -96 ) . O ve r t h e y ea r s , h oweve r , C h i lde 's d e scr ip t ion o f t h is

r e la t ion s b e twe en t h e M inoans a nd Mycenaean s a nd t h e i r n o r the rn n e ighbo r s ( Ch i lde 1 957 :163 ; R enf rew 1 979b :99 ) . F o r

mo s t

r e g ion s ,

e a r ly

r ad ioca rbon

d a te s

f o r

t h e

N eo l i th ic w e re am i l lenn ium o r mo re e a r l ie r t h an t h o se o f t h e c onven t iona l c h rono logy ( C la rk 1 965 ) , i mp ly ing a d ra s t ica l ly d i f f e ren t p a ce o f c u l tura l d eve lopmen t t h an

s e cond p e r iod c hanged s i gn if ican t ly . B y 1 946 , t h e e nd o f P er iod Iw a s i d en t if ied a s at ime o fi n c rea sed p re s su re o n t h e l a nd d ue t o p opu la t ion g row th a nd t h e e a s twa rd s p read o f w e s tern N eo l i th ic t r ibe s p rac t ic ing a p a s to ra l e conomy . I n P e r iod I i t se lf , ar u ra l e conomy w i th mo re

p rev iou s ly a c cep ted . A d e ta i led c ompar ison o f t h e n ew a b so lu te c h rono logy a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l o ne b a sed o n h i s o r ica l r e la t ion sh ip s ( Neu s tupny 1 968 ) s howed t h a t t h e p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s e me rged i nw h ich c rop c u l t iva t ion t e la t ive c h rono log ie s f o r mo s t r eg ion s r ema ined u n w a s b e t te r b a lanced b y c a t t le -b reed ing , h un t ing a nd r hanged , b u t h ave b e en p u shed e n b loc f u r the r b ack i n f i sh ing . C a t t le r e p re sen ted a n e a s i ly p or tab le f o rm o f c ime . W i th t h e m o s t r e cen t c a l ib ra t ions o ft h e r ad ioca rbon w ea l th , a nd s upp l ied a m o t ive f o r c onf l ic t ( Ch i lde t u rve ( S tu ive r a nd K ra 1 986 ) , s uppor ted b y al o nge r 1 950 :96 -98 ) . I n h i s f i na l e d i t ion o f T he Dawn o f c u ropean t r e e r ing c h rono logy , t h e t o ta l a moun t o f t ime E uropean C iv i l i sa t ion , C h i lde e mpha s ized e ven mo re t h e E l lo t ted t ot h e N eo l i th ic h a s d oub led a nd e ven t r ip led i n d i ve rgence o fc u l tu re s i nP e r iod I . T he u n if orm i ty o ft h e a ome r e g ion s . I n c en t ra l E u rope , d a te s f r om t h e e a r l ie s t F i r s t D anub ian p ea san t ry d i s so lved i n to a mu l t ip l ic i ty o f s inea rbandke ra rn ik s i te s e x tend b ack t o t h e m id s ix th d i s t inc t r e g iona l c u l tu re s , a nd c ompe t i t ion a mong t h e L i l lenn ium BC . L a te s t d a te s f o r t h e e nd o ft h e N eo l i th ic d e scendan t s o f t h e e a r ly f a rme r s , Me so l i th ic s u rv ivo r s , m n s ou the rn G e rmany a nd S w i tze r land c l u s te r a round a nd n ew g roup s f r om t h e s ou thea s t a nd w e s t w a s s e en a s i am a jo r t h eme ( Ch i lde 1 957 :161) . I n te rp re ta t ion s o f P er iod I I a l so s h if ted s omewha t t h roughou t t h e t ime o f C h i lde 's w r i t ing . O r ig ina l ly , i t w a s d ep ic ted s imp ly a s ad epa r tu re f r om t h e D anub ian c on t inuum , w i th c oun te r -cu r ren t s s e t u p b y c omp lex i n t e rac t ion s a mong Me so l i th ic , a nd s ou thern , e a s ter n a nd w e s ter nN eo l i th ic g roup s . P a s to ra l ism a nd t r ade i n c rea sed i n e conom ic i mpor tance , w i th i n du s t r ia l s pe c ia l iz a t ion e me rg ing i na s soc ia t ion w i th e a r ly m e ta l lu rgy . A m a r t ia l

AC ur ren t V iew o ft h e N eo l i th ic T he m os t r e cen t s yn the s is o f N eo l i th ic e conomy h a s e me rged f r om a t temp t s t o i n corpo ra te n ew o b se rva t ion s o n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i n to a mod if ied e vo lu t iona ry f r amework o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty i n p reh is tor ic E u rope ( e g . S hennan 1 986 ) . T he i n i t ia l s p read o f a gr icu l tu ra l s y s tem s a c ro s s E u rope c on t inue s t o b e a

c ha rac te r w a s i n f e r red f o r m uch o f t h e i n te rac t ion d ur ing t h is p e r iod , e spec ia l ly t owa rd t h e e nd ( Ch i lde 1 929 :112 , 1 29 ) . I n l a te r v e r s ion s , t h is b a s ic d e scr ip t ion w a s e l abo -

m a jo r r e sea r ch f o cu s . T he re i s g ene ra l a g re emen t r e -

r a ted i n to t h e l a te N eo l i th ic c r is is , p rec ip i ta ted b y a d e te r io ra t ion o ft h e l a nd scape f r om c omb ined c u l tu ra l a nd c l ima t ic f a c to r s ( Ch i lde 1 950 :106 ) . H un t ing a nd p a s to ra l i sm , e spec ia l ly s heep h e rd ing , t o ok p redom inance o ve r a g r icu l tu re . N a tu ra l p opu la t ion g row th c on t inued , w i th t h e s u rp lu s p opu la t ion b e com ing i n vo lved i n t r ade . T he b ew i lde r ing v a r ie ty o fs ma l l c onf l ic t ing g roup s i d en t if ied f o r e a r ly P e r iod I I w e re o ve r run i n t h e e nd b y s eve ra l w a r l ike a nd p a s to ra l g roup s ( Ch i lde 1 957 :162 ) .

T he I mpac t o fR ad ioca rbon D a t ing T he i n t roduc t ion o f r a d ioca rbon d a t ing h a s b een t h e

2 550 t o2 450 BC , w i th t h e e a r l ie s t B ronze A ge f o l low ing s ho r t ly a f te r , b y a bou t 2 300 BC ( Be cke r , K rau se a nd K rome r 1 989 ) .

g a rd ing t h e o r ig in o f t h e L inea rbandke ra tn ik o n o r a r ound t h e G rea t H unga r ian p l a in i nt h e s i x th m i l lenn ium B C , b u t t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f m igra t ion a nd d i f f u s i on i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic e xpan s ion i ss t i l l u nde r d eba te ( e g . R enf rew 1 987 , 1 988 ) . T he r o le o f a s s im i la t ion o f i n d igenou s Me so l i th ic g roup s i n to a f ood -p roduc ing e conomy h a s b een i n c rea s ing ly r e cogn ized a round t h e m a rg in s o f c en t ra l E u rope - t h e b e s t e xamp le s a r e t o n o r th ( Row ley -Conwy 1 984 ) a nd e a s t ( Do lukhanov 1 979 ; T r ingham 1 971 ) . A l though s ome p er iod o fc oex is tence o f h un te r -ga the re r s w i th e a r ly f ood p roduce r s i sg ene ra l ly a s sumed f o r c en t ra l E u rope , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence

o f t h is c o -occupa t ion i s v i r tua l ly n onex is ten t . s i ng le m o s t i mpo r tan t f o rce b eh ind r e -eva lua t ion s o f C on sequen t ly , t h e n a tu re o f i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e se c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic c hange i n N eo l i th ic E u rope . g roup s o r m e chan ism s f o r t h e a dop t ion o f f ood p roduc T rad i t iona l c h rono log ica l s cheme s h ad a l lowed o n ly a t i on h ave r a re ly b e en e l abo ra ted ( bu t s e e B oguck i 1 987 ; l i t t le o ve r am i l lenn ium f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f N eo l i th ic G regg 1 988 ) . c u l tu re s t h roughou t E u rope . C h i lde h ad s ugge s ted ad a te u r ren t i d ea s o f e a r ly N eo l i th ic f a rm ing s y s tem s s how o f a pp rox ima te ly 2 700 B C f o r t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e C s o m e c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y C h i l d e , w h ich B a lkan N eo l i th ic , w i th f a rm ing r e a ch ing B r i ta in a nd h a d s e r v e d a s a s t a n d a r d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r s o m e t i m e . I n S cand inav ia b y a bou t 2 400 BC ( Bu rk i t t a nd C h i lde

6

H i s tor ica lP er spec t iv e s o n N eo l i th ic E conomy p a r t icu la r , L BK a gr icu l ture i s n o l o nge r p i c tu red a s a t h e e xpan s ion o r i n ten s if ica t ion o f f a rm ing s ys tem s p reda tory , e xpan s ive s ys tem . R a the r , t h e p redom inan t t h roughou t E u rope ( She r ra t t 1 981 ) . m ode l i so ne o f i n tens ive l a nd u se w i th a v e ry m a rked S he r ra t t h im se lf h a s s t a ted t h a t t h e se w ide sca le c hange s p r e f e rence f o r s pec if ic e nv ironmen ta l z one s b e s t s u i ted i n f er red f o r d ome s t ic a n ima l u se h ave n o t y e t b e en f u l ly f o r ak ind o f t empe ra te g a rden h o r t icu l tu re f o r wh ich t e s ted ( 1981 :285 ) . T he p rob lem i n t h is r ega rd i sn o t s o t h e re i sn o m ode rn a na log . B a sed o n t h e l im i ted f a una l much a l a ck o f f a una l d a ta a s i ti s ap auc i ty o f a na ly se s d a ta a va i lab le , t h e a n ima l c omponen t i ss t i l l h ypo the s ized wh ich a t temp t t o a dd re s s t h e se t ype s o f c hange s . T he re t o h ave p l ayed a r e s tr ic ted r o le . S he r ra t t h a s s ugge s ted a r e an umbe r o fr e sea rche r s who h ave i nve s t iga ted s h if t s t h a t h un t ing w a s o f l i t t le i mpor tance , a nd t h a t p robab ly i n d ome s t ic a n ima l f unc t ion i n N eo l i th ic E u rope o n ly s ma l l n umbe r s o f d ome s t ic s t ock , p r ima r i ly c a t t le , ( Bököny i 1 974 ; G reenf ie ld 1 988 ; H igham 1 966 ; w e re k ep t ( She r ra t t 1 981) . S ome e nv ironmen ta l r e con S ake l la r id is 1 979 , t on ame o n ly a f ew ) . Howeve r , m any s t ruc t ion s m ay i n d ica te i n c ip ien t t r an shumance t o e a se w o rk s d ea l e i the r w i th v e ry l o ca l iz ed g eog raph ica l a r ea s p rob lem s o fs t ock f e ed ing ( Bake Is 1 982 ) . o r w i th r e la t ive ly l a te t empora l p e r iod s , l e av ing t h e T he l a te r N eo l i th ic r ema in s ar e la t ive ly p oo r ly u nde r - q ue s t ion o f g ene ra l c hange f r om t h e e a r ly t o t h e l a te s t ood p e r iod f o r mos t o f c en t ra l E u rope , w i th t h e e x - N eo l i th ic l a rge ly u n touched . T h is s t udy r ep re sen t s a n e f c ep t ion o ft h e l a ke r eg ion s o fs ou thwe s te rn G e rmany a nd f o r t t ob r idge t h is a na ly t ica l g ap t h rough t h e i nve s t iga t ion S w i tze r land . As e r ie s o fw ide sp read c hange s i ns e t t lemen t p a t ter n i nt h e f o u r th m i l lenn ium BC h a s l ong b een n o ted f o r a lmos t a l l o fE u rope . I n crea sed s e t t lemen t n uc lea t ion a nd t h e mo re f r equen t e s tab l ishmen t o fs i te s i nd ef en s ib le p o s i t ions h ave b een r e la ted t o i n cre a sed c onf l ic t o ve r a c ce s s t or e sou r ce s , e spe c ia l ly l a nd . T he e n t ire p er iod h a s b een c ha rac te r ized a s o ne o f e ndem ic c onf l ic t a nd l o ca l i z ed w a rf a re ( e g . S he rman 1 986 :131) , i n am anne r r em i n i scen t o fC h i lde 's P e r iod I d e scr ibed a bove . B a sed o n an umbe r o f l i ne s o f e v idence , S he r ra t t h a s i n f er red am a jo r t r ansf orma t ion i nt h en a tu re o fE uropean a gr icu l tu re c o inc iden t w i th t h e s e t t lemen t s h if t s n o ted f o r t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic . H is s e conda ry p roduc t s r e vo lu t ion p r e sen t s t h eh ypo the s is t h a t t h e re w a s as h if t t h rough t ime

o f al a rge s amp le o f N eo l i th ic f a una l r ema in s f o r e v i d ence w h ich m ay b e d i re c t ly r e la ted t o s ome o f t h e c hange s i n f er red a bove f o r t h e a n ima l e conomy i n t h is p e r iod . I n c onc lu s ion , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange s i n f er red f o r t h e N eo l i th ic h ave t r ad i t iona l ly b e en r e la ted r a the r d i re c t ly t oc hange s i nt h e s ub s is tence b a se . C h i 1de a nd h i s c on tempo ra r ie s t r aced a t r ans i t ion f r om s h if t ing p l an t c u l t iva t ion t o am ixed f a rm ing v i l lage e con omy , f o l lowed b y m ob i le p a s to ra l ism . T he c ur ren t s c e n a r io r e p lace s a n i n i t ia l l a nd in ten s ive h o r t icu l tu ra l s y s tem w i th a n e x ten s ive a gr icu l tu ra l s t ra tegy i n corpo ra t i ng n ew t e chno logy w i th d i f f e ren t u se s o f t h e a n ima l s egmen t o ft h ee conomy .

i nt h e u se o fd ome s t ic a n ima ls f r om ap r ima ry i mpor tance T he p a s t f ew d e cade s h ave s hown ag row ing r e cogn i t ion f o r m e a t t ot h e i r u se f o r p urpo se s s u ch a s t r ac t ion , t r an s t h a t t h e c ond i t ion s wh ich h ave c on tr ibu ted t ot h e u n ique p or t , m i lk , a nd woo l p roduc t ion ( Sh er ra t t 1 981) . H e a t n e s s o f t h e E u ropean c u l tu ra l s i tua t ion p robab ly a ro se i n t r ibu te s t h e se s h if ts i n a n ima l u se t o t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t h e m i l lenn ia p r eced ing t h e B ronze A ge ( Champ ion , p l ow a gr icu l tu re , t h e s p read o fh o r se a nd w oo l s heep a nd G amb le , S hennan a nd Wh i t t le 1 985 :154 ; C un l if f e 1 973 as e le c t ive p re s sure f a vor ing m i lk -dr ink ing a mong a gr i i n i n t roduc t ion t o r epr in ted e d i t ion o f C h i 1de 1 957 ) . c u l tura l p opu la t ion s e xpand ing n o r thwa rd s i n to t empe ra te R e cen t a t temp t s t oe xp la in t h e e me rg ing s oc ia l d i f f e ren t i E u rope . T he e a r l ie s t e v idence f o r t h e s c ra tch p low n o r th a t ion i nt h e B ronze A ge r e ly r a the r s t rong ly o n i n f e rence s o f t h e A lp s d a te s t o t h e m id -f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC , a bou t e conom ic c hange s i n t h e l a te N eo l i th ic ( e g . w h ich c an b e c ons ide red a n a pp rox ima te s t a r t ing p o in t S hennan 1 986 ) . T he f ou r th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia BC h ave f o r t h is s e r ie s o f i nnova t ion s ( She r ra t t 1 9836 :92 ) . T he se e me rged a s ac ruc ia l p e r iod i n t h e e vo lu t ion o f s oc ia l c hange s i nd ome s t ic a n ima l u se a r e t h ough t t oh ave c on c omp lex i ty i n t h e g ene ra l s equence o f E u ropean p reh is t r ibu ted t o t h e f o rma t ion o f ar a d ica l ly n ew a gr icu l tu ra l t o ry . S pe c if ica l ly , c hange s i n t h e a n ima l e conomy i nt h e s t ra tegy , c ha ra c ter ized b y t h e a b i l i ty t oe xp lo i t ag rea te r l a te N eo l i th ic h ave b een i mp l ica ted a s a n i mpor tan t v ar ie ty o f s o i l t ype s a nd e co log ica l z one s a nd a l low ing f ounda t ion f o r s ubsequen t i n c rea se s i n s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t i on ( She r ra t t 1 981 , 1 983b ) .

7

C hap t er 3

RECONSTRUCT IONS OF NEOL ITH IC FAR M ING SYSTE MS T h is c hap te r p rov ide s ar e v iew o f c u l tu ra l g roup s f r om w e s te rn c en t r a l E urope w h ich y i e ld d a ta t h a t m ay b e u sed t ot e s t i d ea s a bou t c hange s i n t h e a n ima l s egmen t o f t h e s ubs is tence e conomy w i th in t h e N eo l i th ic . F igu re 1p ro v i de s am ap o f modern p o l i t ica l b o rde r s a nd o u t l ine s t h e g ene ra l a r ea o f c en t ra l E u rope . W i th in c en t ra l E u rope , t h e r eg ion i n c luded i n t h is s t udy i sb o rde red o n t h e w e s t b y t h e R h ine , e x tends t om id -Au s t r ia a nd C ze cho s lovak ia i nt h e e a s t , a nd r uns f r om t h e A lp s n o r thwa rd t ot h e m a r g i n s o f t h e n or thern E u ropean l ow land p l a in ( c en t ra l P o land a nd c en t ra l G e rmany ) . T he i n ve s t iga t ion o fs uch a b road g eog raph ica l a r ea w a s d i c ta ted b y t h e r e sea rch q ue s t ion Iw ished t oa dd re s s . A n i mpo r tan t c on s is tency t o b e n o ted i nt h e s yn the se s o fN eo l i th ic e conomy p re sen ted i n C hap te r 2i st h e r epea ted d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween t h e i n i t ia l e xpan s ion o f f a rm ing g roup s a c ro s s t h e l o e s s b e l t

o f c en t ra l E u rope a nd t h e s ub sequen t s p re ad i n to n ew e nv i ronmen ta l z one s am i l lenn ium o r s o l a te r . T he c u r r en t v i ew o f t h e N eo l i th ic a dvoca ted b y S her ra t t e xp l ic i t l y a s soc ia te s t h is s e conda ry e xpan s ion w i th a s e r ie s o f a gr icu l tu ra l i nnova t ion s , i n c lud ing s h if t s i nt h e u se o fd o m e s t ic a n im a ls . T he g eog raph ica l s cope o ft h is s t udy w a s s pe c if ica l ly c ho sen t o i n c lude a l a rge r eg ion o f i n i t ia l N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion a nd al a rge r eg ion f i r s t i n hab i ted b y f a rme r s b eg inn ing i n a bou t 4 000 BC ( t he A lp ine f o re l a nd ) . I n ac or re spond ing f a sh ion , t h e c h rono log ica l s c a le o f t h is s t udy h a s b e en o rgan ized t oa l low t h e c ompa r ison o f t h e se t wo s t age s o f N eo l i th ic e xpan s ion . Two p er iod s o f r ough ly e qua l d u ra t ion a r e c on s ide red . T he e a r ly N eo l i th ic i nc en t ra l E u rope i sr e p re sen ted b y s i te s o f t h e

F igure 1 . Map s how ing m ode rn p o l i t ica l b o rde r s a nd g ene ra l r e g ion o fc en t ra l E u rope .

9

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope

B C

Sw i t ze r land

SW G e rmany

B ava r ia

A us t r ia

C en t ra l G e rmany

B ohem ia

B e l lB eake r

2 500 -

C o rded Wa re C hem

Go ldbe rg I l

3 000-

C o rded Wa re

C o rded We re

C o rded We re

R ivnac B aden

H o rgen

B e rnbu r

G lobu la r Ampho ra

S a lzmünde

TAB

F unne l B eake r

3 500 -

( TAB )

P fyn

4 000 -

A t the im

H oms taad

J o rdansmOh l L engye l

MOnchehö fen

L engye l

Ga te rs leben

A lchbüh l R össen

5 000 -

B aa lbe rg

P o l l ing

E go lzw I l 4 500

P o land

R össen

Obe r lau te rbach

H In I ce l - Gmass t e in g art a ch l

S t ichbandke ram ik U nea rbandke ram ik

5 500-

F igure 2 .C h rono log ica l c ha r t o fm a jo r N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s i nw e s te rn c en t ra l E u rope . L inea rbandke ram ik c u l tu re , a nd s ome l o ca l ized g roups d e r ived f r om t h e g ene ra l B andke ram ik t r ad i t ion ( t h roughou t t h is d i scu s s ion , " L inea rbandke ram ik " r e f e r s s pe c if ica l ly t o t h e e a r l ie s t m an if e s ta t ion o f f a rm ing c u l t u re s , " Bandke ram ik" i su sed mo re g ener ica l ly t oi n c lude b o th L BK a nd s omewha t l a te r r e g iona l m a ter ia l c u l tu re

o f d i f f e r en t c a l ib ra t ion c urve s . D e sp i te t h e se i n con s is tenc ie s , i ti s s t i l l i mpor tan t t o a t temp t t o w o rk

t h e se

w i th in a c a l ib ra ted t ime f r ame i n o rde r t o a l low m o re r e a l is t ic a s se s smen t o f t h e t empo ra l r e la t ions , a nd t h e re f o re p o ten t ia l i n te rac t ion , a mong t h e r e g iona l ly d ef ined g roup s o fN eo l i th ic c u l tu re s . T he t empo ra l b ounda r ie s o f " e a r ly" a nd " l a te " N eo l i th ic u sed t h roughou t t h i s a nd

s i te s r a nge f r om a bou t t h e m id s ix th t ot h e m id -f if th m i l -

o the r c hap te r s i si n d ica ted i n t h e r i gh t -hand m a rg in o f

l e nn ium BC . A s e cond g roup o f s i te s d er ive s f r om t h e v ar iou s r e g iona l c u l tu re s w h ich h ave b een i d en t if ied f o r

F igu re 2 .

c omp lexe s l i ke S t ichbandke ram ik ) .

T empo ra l ly ,

t h e p e r iod f r om t h e f ou r th t o t h e e a r ly t h ird m i l lenn ium BC . W i th in t h e i r s pe c if ic r e g ion s , t h e se c u l tu re s m ay b e l a be l led a s m idd le , l a te , y oung o r e nd N eo l i th ic , a cco rd i n g t ot h e l o ca l o ccupa t iona l s equence a nd t e rm ino log ica l c onven t ion s . T hey a r e h e re l umped t o ge the r u nde r t h e t e rm " l a te " b ecau se o f t h e ir g ene ra l a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e w ave o fN eo l i th ic e xpan s ion b eg inn ing i nt h e f ou r th m i l l e nn ium BC . F igu re 2p re sen t s as imp l if ied c h rono log ica l c ha r t o f t h e c u l tu ra l g roup s d i scu s sed i n t h is c hap te r . D a te s a r e i nc a l ib ra ted c a lenda r y ea r s BC a nd h ave b een

I n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e n a tu re o f e a r ly N eo l i th ic f a rm ing h ave c hanged d rama t ica l ly i n t h e p a s t d e cade s . N eve r the le s s , au n iform a dap ta t ion i ss t i l l p os i ted f o r t h is p er iod o ve r m uch o f c en t ra l E urope . I n c on tra s t , au n i f i ed p e r spe c t ive o n a gr icu l tu ra l s t r a teg ie s f o r t h e l a te N eo l i th ic i ss t i l l l a ck ing , l a rge ly b e cau se o f t h e v a r iab le n a tu re o f t h e e v idence u pon wh ich r e cons truc t ion s h ave b een b a sed . S pe c if ic c ha rac ter iza t ion s o f t h e a n ima l c omponen t o f t h e s ub s is tence e conomy v a ry a cco rd ing ly f o r e a ch p e r iod .

b a sed o n an umbe r o f s ou r ce s i n c lud ing B reun ig ( 1987 ) ,

T he E ar ly N eo l i th ic E xpan s ion

R ae tze l -Fab ian ( 1986 ) a nd Wh i t t le ( 1985 ) . A l l d a te s i n t h is b ook a r e c i ted i nc a l ib ra ted y ea r s BC . S ome d i screp a nc ie s m ay e x is t b e twe en t h e d a te s u sed h e re a nd t ho se

Much a t ten t ion h a s b een d evo ted t o t r y ing t o u nde r s tand t h e n a tu re o f t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic a dap ta t ion i n E u rope ,

p re sen ted i no the rs ou rce s , d ue t ot h e a ccep tance o r r e jec t i on o fs pe c if ic r a d ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion s a nd t ot h e u se

p ar t icu la r ly t h e m e chan ism s b y wh ich f ood p roduc t ion s p read t h roughou t t h e c on t inen t . T he d i s t inc t ive d i s t r ibu t i on o f L inea rbandke ram ik s i te s i sw e l l k nown : t h rough -

1 0

R econ s truc t ion s o fN eo l i th ic F arm ing S y s t em s o u t m o s t o f c en t ra l a nd w e s te rn E u rope , g roup s o f s e t t l emen t s a r e s i tua ted o n l o e s s o r s im i la r ly f i ne -g ra ined s o i ls i nc l o se p rox im i ty t ow a te rcou r se s . T he s e t t lemen t s

f a rm ing w a s l a rge ly as l a sh -and -burn s y s tem .

T he b road s im i la r i t ie s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re w i th in t h e B andke ram ik h ave o f ten b e en t a ken t o i n d ica te h omogene i ty i n s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s a c ro s s

P o s t Wo r ld Wa r Ie xcava t ion s a tB y lany a nd n ea rby s i te s i n B ohem ia p roduced mu l t ip le l i ne s o f e v idence i n te r p re ted a s s uppo r t ing r e gu la r c yc l ica l s h if t s a mong s e r ie s

E u rope i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . T h is c an b e s e en i n t h e

o f s i te s i n o ne l o ca l a r ea . I nc remen ta l p i t l i n ing s , t h e

T he c l a s s if ica t ion o f e a r ly N eo l i th ic f a rme r s a s h igh ly m ob i le g roup s p rac t ic ing s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion s e em s t o t h em se lve s a r e e i the r v i l lage s o r h ome s tead s , w i th t h e h ave b een b a sed u pon t h ree m a jo r l i ne s o fe v idence . I na t o u t l ine s o f mu l t ip le r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re s , o f ten o r ien ted l e a s t t h e e a r ly y ea r s , t h e a b sence o ft e l ls i nt h e t empe ra te n o r thwe s t sou thea s t , i n te r spe r sed w i th t h e r ema in s o f z one w a s e nough t oi mp ly av e ry t empo ra ry f o rm o fs e t n ume rou s p i t s . T he s u rf ace s o f t h e se s i te s a r e u sua l ly t l emen t i n c ompa r ison w i th t h a t i d en t if ied f o r t h e N ea r h eav i ly e roded , l e av ing n o i n tac t f l oo r a s semb lage s . T he E a s t ( e g . C h i lde 1 929 ) . S e cond , t h e u n if orm i ty i n m a te c ha rac ter is t ic s p i ra l -meande r d eco ra ted c e ram ic s a nd p o l r i a l c u l tu re a nd t h e b road g eog raph ic d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e i s hed s t one t o o ls a re r e cove red f r om r e fu se p i t s a tt h e se L inea rbandke ram ik s ugge s ted a r a p id ly d i spe r s ing p opu s i te s o r a s soc ia ted w i th b ur ia ls f r om t h e g raveya rd s o cca l a t ion . F ina l ly , i d ea s a bou t t h e n a tu re o fe a r ly a g r icu l tu re s i ona l ly l o ca ted n ea rby . O rgan ic r ema in s w h ich c ou ld w e re r e la ted t o p a leoe co log ica l r e con s truc t ion s o f p o s t y i e ld t h e m o s t d i re c t e v idence o f s ub s is tence p rac t ice s g l ac ia l E u rope . w e re u neven ly r e cove red u n t i l s y s tema t ic s amp l ing b egan he o r ig ina l m is iden t if ica t ion o f p i t s a s h ab i ta t ion f e a i nr e cen t d ecade s . E v idence f o r g ra in c u l t iva t ion c on s is t s T u re s a tt h e e a r l ie s t e xcava ted L BK s i te , K ö ln -L inden tha l o f c a rbon ized s e ed s a nd i mp re s s ion s o r i n c lu s ion s i n t Bu t t le r 1 936 ) , f i t t h e p i c ture o f s ho r t term s e t t lemen t s c e ram ic s , i n a dd i t ion t o t oo ls f o r t h e h arve s t ing a nd ( h ich w ou ld b e e xpec ted w i th s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion . p repa ra t ion o f p l an t f ood s . Whe re a va i lab le , p o l len s e - w or robo ra t ive e v idence s e emed t oc ome f r om a na lys is o f q uence s h ave b e en u sed t oi n f e r mo re d e ta i led p a t te rn s o f C h e c e ram ic d e s ign s f r om t h is s i te , w h ich y i e lded as e r ie s l a nd c l ea rance a nd u se . B one p re se rva t ion a tt h e se s i te s i s t f d i sc re te g roup s a s sumed t o r e p re sen t c h rono log ica l o f ten p oo r , l a rge ly b ecau se o f t h e d e ca lc if ica t ion t h a t o ha se s s epa ra ted b y g ap s . T he e ven tua l r e cogn i t ion o f l o e s s ic s o i ls h ave u nde rgone f o r t h e l a s t f ew m i l lenn ia . p imbe r l o nghou se s f r om p o s tho le p a t te rns w a s t a ken t o N o t s u rpr is ing ly , i n terp re ta t ion s o ft h e n a tu re o ft h e e a r ly t n d ica te s ome d eg re e o f r e s iden t ia l s t ab i l i ty , b u t s t i l l n o t f a rm ing a dap ta t ion h ave t r ad i t iona l ly r e l ied m ore h eav i ly i n t h e s ame s c a le a s t h e h ou s ing c ompound s a nd t e l ls u pon t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd s e t t lemen t e v idence t h an t h e o k nown f r om s ou thea s t E u rope a nd t h eN ea rE a s t . p l an t a nd a n ima l r ema in s .

h ickne s se s o fp o s tho le s f r om h ou se o u t l ine s a nd d i scon r e con s truc t ion so f Neo l i th ic e conomy r e v iewed i nt h e l a s t t i nu i t ie s i n l o ca l c e ram ic d e s ign s equence s w e re u sed t o c hap te r : t h e i d ea o f a n e x ten s ive , s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion t ons truc t amode l o f r e pea ted o ccupa t ion s o f e ach s i te i n s y s tem f o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic h a s b een r e p laced b y t h e c h e m ic roa rea f o r 1 0 t o 1 4 y ea r s , s epa ra ted b y p e r iods o f i d ea o f al a nd in ten s ive h o r t icu l tu ra l s y s tem f o cu s ing o n t bandonmen t o f 3 0 t o5 0 y ea r s . D e c rea s ing s o i l f e r t i l i ty c e rea l c u l t iva t ion . B o th r e cons t ruc t ions d e scr ibe as i ng le , a a l though d i f f e ren t , s ub s is tence s t ra tegy f o r t h e e a r ly a f te r a bou t 1 0 y ea r s o f c u l t iva t ion w a s c on s ide red t h e a jo r f a c to r l im i t ing o ccupa t ion ( Soud sky 1 973 ; S oud sky N eo l i th ic r a the r t han a t temp t ing t o i d en t if y t h e r a nge o f m nd P av lu 1 972 ) . v a r iab i l i ty i n p l an t a nd a n ima l m anagemen t w h ich m ay a h ave c ha rac te r iz ed d i f f e ren tp e r iod s o rr eg ion s .

P a leoenv ironmen ta l d a ta w e re e ven mo re i mpo r tan t i n

As y s tem o fs h if t ing c u l t iva t ion , i n co rpo ra t ing l a nd c l ea r a nce b y b u rn ing a nd al o ng -f a l low r e g ime , h a s b een v ar i -

i n i t ia l a t temp t s t or e con s truc t e a r ly N eo l i th ic a gr icu l tu ra l s y s tem s . A n a s soc ia t ion b e tween m oder n a r ea s o f r e la -

o u s ly c on s ide red au n ive r sa l s t age o fp r im i t ive a gr icu l tu re

t i ve ly o pen v ege ta t ion a nd p reh is to r ic f a rm ing s e t t lemen t s

( e g . B o se rup 1 965 ) , o r as pe c ia l ized a dap ta t ion t o a r ea s w i th l ow s o i l f e r t i l i ty , p a r t icu la r ly u nde r c ond i t ion s o f

w a s n o ted e a r ly ( e g . G radmann 1 900 ) . T h is g ave r i se t o t h e t h eo ry t h a t t h e se r e g ion s w e re n o t f o re s ted i nt h ep a s t , a nd t h u s p re sen ted e a s i ly o ccup ied a nd c u l t ivab le a r ea s . D e ta i led p o l len s t ud ie s i n t h e e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry

a bundan t a va i lab le l a nd a nd r e la t ive ly l ow p opu la t ion l e ve ls ( Gr igg 1 974 :72 ) . I f t h e f o rme r i s t r ue , t h en t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fs uch as h if t ing c u l t iva t ion s y s tem i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e cord i sm o s t p e r t inen t t ot h e q ue s t ion o f s ub s is tence e conomy i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic ; t h e l a t te r s i tua t ion m ay s ugge s t t h e p re sence o f as y s tem o fs h if t ing c u l t iva t ion i nt h e l a te N eo l i th ic , f o r i n s tance , i na s soc ia t i on w i th t h e e xpans ion o ff a rm ing t ot h e h eav ie r s o i ls o f t h e A lp ine f o re land a nd n o r thern E u ropean p l a in . G iven i t s p o ten t ia l s i gn if icance t o m u l t ip le p e r iod s i n t h e N eo l i th ic , i ti s wo r th t r ac ing t h e l i ne s o f i n ve s t iga t ion w h ich l e d t ot h e l ong -he ld a s sump t ion t h a t B andke ram ik

f o rced mod if ica t ion o f t h is v i ew s omewha t : r e f o re s ta t ion a f te r t h e l a s t g l ac ia l w a s s e en t o b e r e la t ive ly c omp le te , w i th n o e v idence o f o pen s t eppe a r ea s a s r e l ic t h ab i ta t s ( F irba s 1 949 , 1 952 ) . T he r e cogn i t ion t h a t t h e p r ima ry N eo l i th ic e xpan s ion c o inc ided w i th t h e d en se , c l imax f o re s t s o f t h e w arm a nd mo is t A t lan t ic p er iod r e qu ired s ome e xp lana t ion c l ea rance .

o f

p reh is to r ic

m e thod s

o f

l a nd

E v idence f o r p reh is to r ic l a nd c l ea rance w a s i d en t if ied i n p o l len c o re s f r om s ou thern S cand inav ia i n t h e 1 940 s .

1

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t ems i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope D an ish c o re s s howed p ha se s o f o pen v ege ta t ion c on ta in i ng c e rea l p o l len a nd c ha r coa l , i n te rp re ted a s i n ten t iona l c l ear ing o f f o re s t p a tche s b y b urn ing ( I ve r sen 1 941) .

b u rn ing i d en t if ied i nI v e r sen 's o r ig ina l s equence h a s b een r a d ioca rbon d a ted t o3 800 -3400 BC , w i th c ompa rab le s e q uence s i n c en t ra l E u rope a nd S w i tze r land d a t ing t o

A l though I ve r sen o r ig ina l ly e mpha s ized t h a t t h e se c l ea r a nce s w e re a imed p r imar i ly a tc r ea t ing g raz ing a r ea s a nd w e re n o t t ob e c ompa red w i th t h e s w idden c u l t iva t ion o f h i s to r ic F in land ( T roe ls -Sm i th 1 984 :14 ) , h i s o b serva t ion s w e re s oon e l abo ra ted i n to a n e xpan s ive s y s tem o f s l a sh a nd b urn a g r icu l tu re t oe xp la in t h e s p read o f e a r ly f a rm i n g a c ros s E u rope ( e g . C la rk 1 945 , 1 952 ) . T he m ode l w a s f u r the r s uppor ted b y b o th e t hnog raph ic a na logy w i th

a bou t 2 500 BC , a s soc ia ted w i th t h e C o rded Wa re c u l tu re ( T roe ls -Sm i th 1 984 :18 ) . F or t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic , p o l len c o re s f r om t h e N e the r land s , R h ine land a nd P o land i n d ica te t h a t L BK s e t t lemen ts i nt h e se a rea s w e re n o t a c c ompan ied b y w ide sca le d ef o re s ta t ion , a s w ou ld b e e xpe c ted a tl e a s t p er iod ica l ly f r om a s l a sh -and -burn s y s -

t r op ica l s y s tem s ( Sangme is te r 1 951 ) a nd e vo lu t iona ry mode ls o fa gr icu l tu ra l d eve lopmen t ( Bo se rup 1 965 ) . T he o b se rva t ion t h a t f ew o f t h e s h if t ing c u l t iva tor s s t ud ied

t em ( Bake ls 1 982 ; B oguck i 1 982 ) . I n a dd i t ion , i ti sn o t c omp le te ly c l ea r t o wha t e x ten t c e r ta in p o l len d i ag ram s p rov ide u namb iguou s e v idence o f a gr icu l tu ra l p rac t ice s r a the r t h an m e re ly a r ef lec t ion o f l o ca l e nv i ronmen ta l c hange . T aube r 's a na ly s is o f p o l len d i agram s f r om

e t hnograph ica l ly k eep l i ve s tock ( Gr igg 1 974 :58 ) S w i tze r land , f o r e xamp le , s ugge s ted t h a t t h e r e gene ra t ion s ugge s ted t h a t p reh is tor ic s y s tem s w e re s im i la r ly f o cu sed s equence t h e re m ay i n d ica te t h e l owe r ing o f l a ke l e ve ls o n c rop c u l t iva t ion . T h is g ene ra l iza t ion s e emed t ob e r e - r a the r t h an d i re c t h uman a c t iv i ty ( Taube r 1 965 ) . e nf o r ced b y t h e r e la t ive ly s ma l l a moun t s o fa n ima l b one s F ina l ly , o t he r s e t t lemen t e v idence h a s b een u sed t oa rgue r e cove red f r om L BK s i te s , e spec ia l ly i n c ompa r ison t o a ga in s t t h e i d ea t h a t s w idden c u l t iva t ion w a s p robab ly t h e a s semb lage s f r om l a te rp e r iod s o fp reh is to ry . d om inan t a g r icu l tu ra l s y s tem i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . Am ode l o fs h if t ing a gr icu l tu re i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic w a s Many o ft h e i n te rp re ta t ion s m ade o ft h e B y lany d a ta h ave o r ig ina l ly a t t rac t ive b ecau se i tc omb ined a n e xp lana t ion b e en q ue s t ioned : t h e i n c remen ta l l a ye r s i n p i t s a r e n o t o fs e t t lemen t p a t te rn f e a tu re s w i th ap l au s ib le m e chan ism n e ce s sa r i ly f r om a nnua l r e l in ing s ( T r ingham 1 971 :118 ) , f o r t h e r a p id d i spe r sa l o f a gr icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s a nd d i scon t inu i t ie s i nt h e c e ram ic s e quence d o n o t n e ce s t h roughou t E u rope . D is sa t isf ac t ion w i th t h e mode l b egan s a r i ly i nd ica te s e t t lemen t g aps ( Boguck i 1 982 :35 ) . T he t o a r ise i n t h e 1 960 s , a f te r i n ve s t iga t ion s a t t h e D u tch A ldenhovene r P la t te p ro jec t h a s p rov ided e v idence o f L BK s i te s o fS i t ta rd , G e le en a nd E ls loo . E ls loo i np a r t ic - l o ng term d eve lopmen t o f m ic ro reg iona l s e t t lemen t s y s u l a r a ppea red t oh ave b een o ccup ied f o r al o ng t ime -a t em s . C oncen t ra t ions o f f a rm s tead s o r h am le t s h ave b e en p e r iod o f a bou t 5 00 y ea r s ( Modde rman 1 975 :264 ) . T he i d en t if ied w h ich a ppea r t oh ave b e en m a in ta ined a nd r e c l o se p rox im i ty o f t h e D u tch s e t t lemen t s t o e ach o t he r s e emed t o c on t rad ic t t h e i d ea o f a n e x ten s ive , s h if t ing a gr icu l tu ra l s y s tem (Wa te rbo lk 1 962 :235 ) . T he e t hnog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l a na log ie s w h ich w e re u sed t o s uppo r t t h e i d ea o f a n i n i t ia l p ha se o f s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion a c ro s s E u rope i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic w e re a l so

b u i l t o ve r p e r iod s a s l o ng a s 5 00 y ea r s ( Kupe r e t a l . 1 974 ) . I n g ene ra l , p roce s se s o f d r if t o r l o ca l p opu la t ion e xpan s ion a nd c on t rac t ion h ave b een c i ted a sm o re a pp ro p r ia te t h an c yc l ica l movemen t t o e xp la in v ar iab i l i ty i n h ou s ing p a t te rn s a nd m a ter ia l i t em s o f L BK s i te s ( Hamond 1 981 ; S t eh l i 1 989 ) .

r e -eva lua ted . S l a sh -and -burn r e g ime s i n h i s to r ic t ime s w e re r e s t r ic ted t o l im i ted a r ea s o f E u rope -a r ea s w h ich

T he m ode l o f a n i n he ren t ly e xpan s ive s l a sh -and -bur n a gr icu l tu ra l s y s tem f o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic h a s b e en g en -

a r e e ven t o day c on s ide red m a rg ina l f o r a g r icu l tu re . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t al o ng -f a l low s y s tem i n co rpo ra t ing p e r iod ic c l ea rance b y f i re i s mo re a n a dap ta t ion t o r e g ions w i th l ow s o i l f e r t i l i ty t h an t h e r emnan t o f a n e a r l ie r u n ive r sa l

e r a l ly r e je c ted , a nd a c on sensu s i ss l ow ly e me rg ing r e g a rd ing a l ter na t ive s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s w h ich m ay h ave c ha rac ter ized t h is p e r iod . R eg iona l s e t t lemen t p a t te rn

s t age o f a g r icu l tu re ( Row ley -Conwy 1 981) . R ega rd ing s o i l f e r t i l i ty i n g ene ra l , t h e t h ick , r i ch s o i ls a s soc ia ted w i th mo s t L inea rbandke ram ik s i te s a r e h a rd ly c ompa rab le

s t ud ie s h ave p robab ly c on t r ibu ted t h e mo s t t o t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f an ew mode l . K ruk ( 1980 ) a nd S i e lmann

( 1971a ) h ave p rov ided p e rhap s t h e b e s t d ocumen ta t ion o f t h e c l o se a s soc ia t ion o fB andke ram ik s i te s w i th p a r t icu la r t o t h e t h in , e a s i ly d ep le ted s o i ls o f t h e t r op ica l a r ea s t o e co log ica l z one s . T he ir w o rk , a nd t h a t o f s ome o f t h e ir w h ich s w idden c u l t iva t ion i sb e s t a dap ted . I th a s b e en c on tempo rar ie s , d i f f e r s f r om p rev iou s r e sea r ch i n t h e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e s o i ls a va i lab le t o e a r ly N eo l i th ic i n tegr a t ion o f mu l t ip le e nv ironmen ta l v a r iab le s , f o r i n f a rme r s w e re p robab ly r i che r t h an s o i ls i n t ho se s ame s t ance , p re c ip i ta t ion a nd t empe r a tu re , r a the r t h an a a r ea s t oday ( Modde rman 1 971 ) . L ong term c on t inuou s s imp le a s soc ia t ion o f s i te s w i th s o i l t y pe s . K ruk i n p a r c ropp ing e xper imen t s o n u nf e r t i l ized f i e lds w i th m ode rn t i cu la r e mpha s iz ed t h e l o ca t ion o f B andke ram ik s i te s i n s t ra in s o f w hea t a nd b a r ley h ave n o t s hown t h e d ra s t ic l ow ly ing z one s a d jacen t t o w a te r cou r se s . H e s ugge s ted d e c l ine s i n y i e ld wh ich w ou ld r e qu ire a l o ng -f a l low t h a t t h e se z one s w e re t h e p r ima ry l o c i o fb o th o ccupa t ion r e g ime ( Lün ing a nd Meu re r s -Ba lke 1 980 : 3 07 -309 ) . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing o f p a lyno log ica l s equence s h a s s ugge s ted t h a t w ide sca le l a nd c l ea rance d id n o t o ccu r u n t i l t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic . T he p e r iod o f c l ea rance b y

a nd c rop c u l t iva t ion , w h ich w a s c a r r ied o u t i n s ma l l , r e la t ive ly p e rmanen t f i e ld s . N ea rby v a l ley b o t tom s a nd m o re d i s tan t u p land s w e re p re sumed t ob e i mpo r tan t f o r d ome s t ic s t ock k eep ing ( Kruk 1 980 ) .

1 2

R econs truc t ion s o fN eo l i th ic F arm ing S y s t em s P a leobo tan ica l a nd e xpe r imen ta l d a ta b o th s uppo r t t h e i d ea t h a t B andke ram ik c u l t iva t ion w a s c ar r ied o u t i n s ma l l f o re s t c l ea rance s , a nd t h a t u se o f t h e se f i e ld s w a s r e la t ive ly l o ng t e rm ( e g . B ake ls 1 982 ; K nö rz e r 1 972 ; L ün ing a nd Meu re r s -Ba lke 1 980 ) . Mo re d e ta i led p ro c e s se s o f c r op r o ta t ion o r s e a sona l c yc le s o f p lan t a nd a n ima l u se a r e d i ff icu l t t o i d en t if y . I ti su nc lea r whe the r L BK c e rea l c u l t iva t ion f o l lowed a s pr ing o r w in te r

t h e n o r the rn E u ropean p l a in , t h e h ypo the s is o f at r an s human t s t ra tegy h a s b een p re sen ted , w i th s e a sona l o r e ven s hor te r term o ccupa t ions o fs i te s ( Boguck i 1 982 ) . I n o the r a r ea s , a rgumen t s h ave b e en m ade f o r l ong te rm o c c upa t ion o f i nd iv idua l s e t t lemen t s . T h is i sb a sed o n t h e a moun t o f e f fo r t i n ve s ted i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s i te f e a t u re s a tE i ls ieben i n c en t ra l G ermany a nd K ö lnL inden t h a i ( Kaufmann 1 982 ) . I n t h e Du tch L i mbu rg a nd A ldenhovene r P la t te s i te s , l o ng term o ccupa t ion o fs e t t le m en t z one s w i th o n ly m ino r s pa t ia l s h if t s t h rough t ime i n h ou seho ld l o ca t ion h a s b e en i n f e r red ( Boe l icke e t a l .

g row th c yc le ( W i l le rd ing 1 986 ) . E a r ly mode ls a s sumed t h e p redom inance o f w in te r sown c r ops ( e g . J ankuhn 1 969 ) , p re sum ab ly o n a na logy w i th m oder n c e rea l s t ra in s 988 ; F a r rug ia e ta l . 1 973 ; K upe r e ta l . 1 977 ) . g rown i n n o r the rn l a t i tude s . Now , h oweve r , ac yc le o f 1 s p r ing p l an t ing a nd l a te s umme r h arve s t ing o f c e rea ls i s F ina l ly , an ew v i ew o fr e sou r ce u se i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic g ene ra l ly a c cep ted , w i th t h e s ugge s t ion f r om s ome w eed h a s e me rged f r om e va lua t ion o f r e cen t d a ta f r om c en t ra l a s semb lage s t h a t b o th s pr ing s own a nd w in te r s own v a r i E u rope a s aw ho le . T he n eed t o r e cogn iz e r e g iona l a nd e t ie s o f c e rea ls w e re c u l t iva ted ( Groenman -van t empo ra l v a r iab i l i ty i n e a r ly N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a nd Waa ter inge 1 971) . I mp l ic i t i n t h is i n f e rence i s t h e a s s ub s is tence p a t tern s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e n on loe s s a r ea s , s ump t ion t h a t e a r ly c e rea ls h ad a l ready u nde rgone as h if t h a s b e en s t re s sed b y B oguck i ( 1982 :41) . I n a l l l i ke l i i nt h e ir g row th c yc le f r om al o ng ( w in te r ) g row th p er iod h ood , am ixed f a rm ing e conomy d epend ing u pon b o th c ha rac ter i s t ic o f t h e ir n a tu ra l s t a te i n ad ry e nv ironmen t d ome s t ica ted p l an t s a nd a n ima ls w a s p re sen t f r om t h e t o a n a c ce le ra ted ( s pr ing ) g row th c yc le v i ab le i n t h e s t a r t . B u t t h e c omb ina t ion o f p l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou rce s a l luv ia l z one s o f at empe ra te e nv ironmen t . Whe the r t h is i n t empe ra te E u rope r e p re sen ted a v e ry d i f f e ren t s y s tem s h if t o ccu r red b efore f a rm ing e xpanded b eyond t h e c ompa red t ot h e N ea r E a s tern p a t ter n f r om w h ich i tw a s e a s tern Med i te r ranean ( She r ra t t 1 980 :317 ) , o r r e p re u l t ima te ly d e r ived . C a t t le a nd p ig s s upp lemen ted s heep s en ted t h e m a in c hange i n L BK f a rm ing n o r th o f t h e a nd g oa t i n i mpo r tance f r om t h e v e ry e a r l ie s t s t age , C a rpa th ian s ( Bu tze r 1 971 :580 ) i ss t i l l ap o in t f o r d eba te . t h ough t h e re w a s u ndoub ted ly a c er ta in d egree o f v a r i N eve r the le s s , t h e a dap t ive a dvan tage o fs uch s p r ing s own a b i l i ty d ue t o l o ca l c ond i t ions . T h is v a r iab i l i ty c ou ld v a r ie t ie s o f c e rea ls i n at empe ra te c l im a te a r e c l ea r : h ave r e su l ted i n e conom ic s pe c ia l iza t ion w i th in c e r ta in d i ff icu l t ie s o f w in te r c o ld a r e a vo ided , a nd t h e s pr ing r e g ions , e ven d ur ing t h e B andke ram ik o ccupa t ion . p rec ip i ta t ion c an b e e ff ic ien t ly u sed , e spe c ia l ly o n s o i ls S i e bmann h a s i d en t if ied t wo e conom ic f a c ie s , o ne p o s s i w h ich a l lowed t h e d ra inage o f e xce s s w a te r . I n a dd i t ion , b ly o r ien ted m o re t owa rd s t ock k eep ing , f o r t h e l a te r i ti se a s ie rt oe nv is ion t h e i n teg ra t ion o fd ome s t ic a n ima ls B andke ram ik s equence i n t h e u ppe r R h ine b a sed o n i n to a s umme r c rop r e g ime . A f te r h a rve s t ing , f i e ld s b e e nv ironmen ta l p a rame te r s o f s i te l o ca t ions ( S ie lmann c ome a va i lab le f o r l im i ted s t ubb le g raz ing , p rov id ing 1 971a ) . K aufmann h a s p o s tu la ted t h a t t h e p re sence o f n ea rby f o rage f o r p a r t o f t h e w in te r , a nd a l low ing t h e e nc lo sed d i tch s i te s i nt h ew e s tern a nd n o r thwe s tern r a nge l a nd t o b e a t l e a s t m in ima l ly w eeded , b roken u p , a nd o f t h e L BK d i s tr ibu t ion i sr e la ted t o ag rea te r e mpha s is f e r t i l ized b e twe en p l an t ing s ( Ba rke r 1 985 :146 -147 ) . o n c a t t le -keep ing i n t h e se a r ea s ( Kaufmann 1 982 ) . T he S he r ra t t h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h is e a r ly s y s tem o f i n ten s ive p o s s ib i l i ty o f at r an shuman t c omponen t b a sed o n c a t t le c u l t iva t ion c ou ld h ave s uppo r ted r e la t ive ly h igh l o ca l f o r t h e B andke ram ik o f c en t ra l P o land h a s a l ready b een p opu la t ion l e ve ls , b u t w a s e co log ica l ly r e s t r ic ted b y i t s m en t ioned . s imp le t e chn ique s o fh oe c u l t iva t ion . I t s e xpan s ion a c ro s s T he se i n te rp re ta t ion s m od ify t h e v i ew d e r ived f r om t h e c on t inen t w ou ld h ave i n vo lved a c ons tan t f i s s ion o f C h i lde 's s yn the s is t h a t c rop c u l t iva t ion w a s d om inan t i n s ma l l s egmen t s o f l o ca l p opu la t ion s , a nd t h e ir r e loca t ion t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic , a nd t h a t a n ima ls h ad o n ly a l im i ted i n n ea rby p a tche s o f a pp ropr ia te h ab i ta t ( Sher ra t t r o le a sm ea t s ou rce s . T he p o ten t ia l s i gn if icance o fd ome s 1 980 :318 ) . T he i mpe tu s f o re xpan s ion i nt h is n ew v i ew i s t i c a n ima ls i nt h e m anagemen t o f f i e ld s h a s b een p o in ted n o t t h e p reda to ry n a tu re o f s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion , b u t s t i l l o u t b y s eve ra l a u tho r s ( e g . B a rke r 1 985 ; R ow ley -Conwy i n vo lve s t h e a cqu is i t ion o f n ew a gr icu l tu ra l l a nd u nde r 1 981 ) . Z ooa r chaeo log ica l a na lyse s f r om L BK s i te s h ave c ond i t ion so fp opu la t ion g row th . l o ng p rov ided a dd i t iona l e v idence o f ah ighe r l e ve l o f A l though t h is g ene ra l p i c tu re o f B andke ram ik f a rm ing a n ima l m anagemen t t h an p rev iou s ly t h ough t . T he c en t ra l h a s g a ined b road a ccep tance , t h e r e la ted i s sue s o fp e rma - r o le o f c a t t le i n e a r ly N eo l i th ic e conomy h a s b een r e n ence o f s e t t lemen t a nd i n teg ra t ion o f p l an t a nd a n ima l p ea ted ly n o ted . O ve r lap i n s i ze b e twe en d ome s t ic a nd r e sou rce s i n to t h e e conomy r ema in p rob lema t ic . I n a r ea s w i ld t a xa h a s b een i n te rp re ted a s l o ca l d ome s t ica t ion o f s u ch a sB ohem ia , ac yc l ica l p a t tern o fr e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty i n d igenou s f a una , f o r e xamp le i n c en tra l G e rmany i ss t i l l p o s i ted . T h is m ob i l i ty , h oweve r , i sn o t b a sed u pon ( Mü l le r 1 964 ) a nd a t Müdde r she im ( S tamp f l i 1 965 ) . a s t ra ted c a t t le h ave b een i d en t if ied i n c en t ra l G ermany t h e a s sump t ion o fs h if t ing p lo t a g r icu l tu re , b u t r e la te s t o C o t he r ( a s y e t u nnamed ) s oc ia l o r e conom ic f a c to r s ( Pav lu 1 982 ) . R ega rd ing t h e i n i t ia l e xpan s ion o f f a rm ing o n to

( Mü l le r 1 964 ) , i n d ica t ing t h e ir u se f o r d raf t p u rpo se s o r f a t ten ing t o e nhance m ea t y i e ld . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f a

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A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope d a iry ing e conomy h a s b een s ugge s ted f o r L BK s i te s i n d rama t ic c hange s i n t h e c ha rac te r o f c u l tu ra l g roup ing s . P o land b a sed o n b o th c a t t le r ema in s a nd t h e p re sence o f W i th t h e C o rded Wa re c u l tu re s o f c en t ra l a nd n or ther n c e ram ic s i eve f r agmen t s ( Boguck i 1 984 ) . E u rope , a nd t h e B e l l B eake r g roup s i n c en t ra l a nd w e s t e rn E u rope , t h e re i st h er e appea rance o fb road , g eog raph F ewe rd e ta i led i n te rp re ta t ion sh ave b een m ade c oncern ing i c a l s im i la r i t ie s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e t h e r o le s o f p ig s a nd o v icapr ine s i n B andke ram ik s i te s . B andke r am ik s i tua t ion , h oweve r , i tb ecome s mo re d i ff i T he re d oe s s e em t o b e s ome p a t te rn ing i n t h e r e la t ive c u l t t o t r ace g ene ra l s t ra teg ie s o f s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is a bundance o f t h e se t a xa t h rough t ime . I th a s b e en s ug t e nce i nt h e l a te s t N eo l i th ic . F o rl a rge p a r t s o fc en t ra l a nd g e s ted t h a t o v icapr ine s s h if t f r om s e cond t ot h ird p l ace i n w e s ter n E u rope , c u l tu ra l r ema in s a r e r e s tr ic ted t o b u r ia l o rde r o f i mpo r tance f r om t h e e a r ly t o t h e l a te r c on tex t s , w i th l i t t le e v idence o fs e t t lemen ts p e r s e . B andke ram ik ( LBK t o S BK ) ( Nob is 1 984 :76 ) . No e v i d ence f o r t h e u se o f e i the r s he ep o r g oa t m i lk o r woo l C u l tu ra l C la s s if ica t ion i nt h eF our th a nd T h i rd

p roduc t s i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic h a s b een d e sc r ibed . S ome l o ca l d ome s t ica t ion o fp ig s s e em s l i ke ly , a ga in mo s t ly f o r t h e c en t ra l G erman a r ea , b a sed o n m e tr ic o b serva t ion s ( Mü l le r 1 964 ) . Mo s t o f t h e se a n im a ls w e re s l augh te red y oung ( Nob is 1 984 :76 ) . T he a bove d i scu s s ion i lu s t ra te s t h e c ons ide rab le c hange s w h ich h ave t a ken p l ace i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e e conom ic i mpo r tance o f a n ima ls , p a r t icu la r ly d ome s t i c a te s , i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . H oweve r , w i th s ome e xcep t i on s ( e g . P o l ish l ow land s , P a r is b a s in ) , i ti ss t i l l c om m on p rac t ice t o a s sume t h a t m o s t L inea rbandke ram ik s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence s y s tem s r ef le c t as im i la r s t ra t e gy o fl a nd s e lec t ion a nd u se . A cco rd ing t oc u r ren t i d ea s , t h is s t ra tegy w a s r e la ted t o as t ab le , l o ng te rm a gr icu l t u ra l s y s tem i n af o re s ted e nv ironmen t , i n co rpo ra t ing b o th d ome s t ic p l an ts a nd a n ima ls a nd , t o s ome d eg ree , t h e ir w i ld r e la t ive s . T he re a r e i n d ica t ion s t h a t t h is s t ab le

p a t te rn m ay h ave b een p receded i n s ome a r ea s , s uch a s t h e P o l ish p l a in a nd B ohem ia , b y ap e r iod o fe xp lo ra t ion c ha ra c te r ized b y s ho r t te rm o ccupa t ion s o f L BK f a rme r s i n av ar ie ty o fh ab i ta t s ( Boguck i 1 979 ; R u lf 1 986 ) . I nt h e l a te B andke ram ik , t h e re i sa ga in i n c rea sed v ar iab i l i ty i n l o ca t ion o fs i te s . H oweve r , t h e re s e em s t oh ave b e en t h e a t temp t t or ema in i na r ea s w i th e nv i ronmen ta l p a rame te r s mo s t c l o se ly r e semb l ing t h e p r ima ry s e t t lemen t z one s ( S ie lmann 1 971a ) .

T he N a ture o ft he L a te N eo l i th ic T ran s i t ion C h i lde 's P e r iod I I r e p re sen ted a m a jo r b reak i n t h e N eo l i th ic c on t inuum o fc en t ra l E u rope . W i th t h e a pp l ica t i on o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s , t h e t im ing o f t h is " b reak " h a s b ecome a t tenua ted , a nd i sn ow s e en t o e x tend f r om t h e e a r ly f ou r th m i l lenn ium t ot h e m idd le o ft h e t h ird m i l len n ium BC . B eg inn ing a ta bou t 4 000 BC , s i gn if ican t d i f f e r e nce s c an b e o b se rved i n t h e p a t te rn ing o f s e t t lemen t s a c ro s s c en t ra l E u rope . T he se d i f f e rence s a r e o f t wo k i nd s : 1 )t h e f i r s t m a jo r o ccupa t ion o f l a rge r e g ion s n o t f o rme r ly u sed b y f a rme r s , f o r i n s tance t h e A lp ine f o re l a nd a nd t h e n or the rn E u ropean p l a in ; 2 ) e co log ica l i n f i l l ing , o re xp lo i ta t ion o fl o ca l e nv ironmen ta l z one s n o t p rev iou s ly u sed . T h is i n c luded , f o r e xamp le , s e t t lemen t e xpan s ion t od i f f e ren t s o i l t y pe s a nd d i f f e ren t e l eva t ion s . T he se c hange s w e re c o inc iden t w i th t h e f o rma t ion o fn ew r e g iona l a s soc ia t ion s a f te r t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f t h e r e la t i ve u n iform i ty o f t h e B andke ram ik t r ad i t ion . S omewha t l a te r , t h e t h ird m i l lenn ium BC w i tne s sed e ven m o re

M i l lenn ia BC Av ar ie ty o f t a xonom ic s cheme s h ave b een u sed t o c l a s s i f y t h e a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e g eo g raph ica l e xpan s ion o f f a rm ing e conom ie s i n t h e f our th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia BC . C on sequen t ly , t h e re i s ac on s id e r ab le a moun t o fc onfu s ion when t e rm s l i ke " m idd le N e o l i th ic " o r " l a te N eo l i th ic " a r e u sed t o c ompa re i n te r re g iona l c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen ts . S ome c u l tu ra l c l a s s if ica t i on s a t temp t t o i n tegra te a p a r t icu la r r e g ion i n to t h e N eo l i th ic s equence o f t h e c on t inen t a s aw ho le , w h i le o the r s w e re d eve loped o n ly f o r v e ry l o ca l u se . F o r i n s t ance , t h e c on tempo rane i ty o f B aa lbe rg i n c en t ra l G ermany a nd w e s te rn C ze cho s lovak ia , w i th A l the im i n s ou ther n G e rmany , P fyn i n s ou thwe s tern G ermany a nd C or ta i l lod i n n or thea s ter n Sw i tze r land i s g ene ra l ly a c k now ledged ( e g . B reun ig 1 987 ; D r iehaus 1 960 ; O t taway 1 986 ; S u te r 1 985 ) . H oweve r , c u l tu ra l t a xonom ie s p l ace B aa lbe rg o f c en t ra l G e rmany i n t h e m idd le N eo l i th ic ( Beh ren s 1 973 ) ; B aa lbe rg i n B ohem ia b e longs i n t h e o l de r A eneo l i th ic ( Neu s tupny 1 981) . A l the im a nd P f yn a r e c l a s s if ied a s b e long ing t o t h e " J ungneo l i th ikum " o r y ounge r N eo l i th ic ( e g . D r iehau s 1 960 ; S t rahm 1 987 ) . C or ta i l lod , r e p re sen t ing t h e e a r l ie s t f a rm ing c u l tu re i n much o f n or thea s te rn S w i tze r land w a s r e f e r red t o a s " Neo l i th ique a nc ien " ( Vouga 1 929 ) , o re a r ly N eo l i th ic . T h is t e rm ino log ica l c onfu s ion h a s r e su l ted l a rge ly f r om t h e n on synch ronou s n a tu re o f N eo l i th ic d eve lopmen t . A dd i t iona l c onfu s ion s u r round s t h e i n i t ia l i n t roduc t ion o f c oppe r m e ta l lu rgy a nd i t s s i gn if icance . T he r e cogn i t ion o f aq ua l i ta t ive ly d i f f e ren t p er iod o fc oppe r u se i ns ou th e a s ter nE u rope , e spe c ia l ly Hunga ry , s e emed t oj u s t if y t h e c r ea t ion o f aC oppe r A ge -t h e A eneo l i th ic -a s at r an s i t i on b e tween t h eN eo l i th ic a nd B ronze a ge s . T he d i s t r ibu t i on o f c oppe r -u s ing g roups f u r the r w e s t i s s omewha t mo re c omp lex . T he re i se v idence f o r t h e c oex i s tence o f c oppe r -u s ing a nd n on -coppe r -u s ing g roups , e spe c ia l ly i n A lp ine f o re land . I n a dd i t ion , s ome c oppe r -u s ing g roup s w e re f o l lowed b y g roup s o n ly r a re ly p o s se s s ing m e ta l a r t if ac t s ( e g . A l the im i ss ucceeded b y C ham i nB ava r ia ) . T he a dd i t ion o f c oppe r m e ta l lu rgy w a s n o t au n if orm d eve lopmen t t h roughou t c en t ra l E u rope , a nd t h e c on s t ruc t o f t h e A eneo l i th ic i sa t p re sen t n o t o rd ina r i ly a p p l ied f u r the rw e s t t h an B ohem ia . I na ny e ven t , t h e u se o f c oppe r d oe s n o t s e em t oh ave h ad as ub s tan t ia l e f f e c t o n t h e t e chno log ica l s y s tem a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ub s is tence

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R econs t ruc t ion s o fN eo l i th ic F arm ing S y s tem s e conomy ( Neu s tupny 1 981 ) .

s i te d en s i ty , s ugge s t ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a n e co log ica l c r is is d u r ing t h e l a te P fyn o ccupa t ion o ft h is a r ea ( Rö sch 1 990 ) . C o r re spond ing c hange s i n o the r r eg iona l s e t t le m en t s y s tem s h ave n o t y e t b een d e sc r ibed , b u t i ts e em s

T he t empora l f r amewo rk f o r t h e r e sea r ch p re sen ted h e re i n c lude s an umbe r o f c u l tu ra l g roup s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s e t t lemen t c hange s o ft he f ou r th a nd e a r ly t h i rd m i l lenn ia BC . C o l lec t ive ly , t h e se c u l tu ra l g roup sw i l lb e r e f e r red t o a s " l a te N eo l i th ic " i n o ppo s i t ion t o t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic , l a rge ly B andke ram ik t r ad i t ion d e scr ibed a bove ( s ee F igu re 2 f o r i d en t if ica t ion o f e a r ly a nd l a te g roup s o f c u l tu re s ) . T he v e ry l a te s t Neo l i th ic h or izon , d om ina ted b y t h e C o rded Wa re a nd B e l l B eake rg roup s , i sn o t d ea l t

t h a t t h e r e la t ive e f f e c t s o f c l ima te v e r su s h uman a c t iv i ty a t t h e o ld A t lan t ic /Subbor ea l t r an s i t ion mu s t a ga in b e r e eva lua ted .

E conom ic E v idence i nt he L a te N eo l i th ic Un l ike t h e e a r l ie r B andke ram ik p er iod , t h e re i s n o u n iform i ty i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion s o f s ub s is tence e conomy m ade f o r t h e f our th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia BC . T he p i c tu re f o r w e s t c en t ra l E u rope i sp a r t icu la r ly c onfu sed . F o r t h is a r ea , ap a t te rn mu s t b e b u i l t u p b y ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e d a ta a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s f o r e ach c u l tu re i nt u rn . T he re i s t r emendou sv a r iab i l i ty i nt e rm s o ft h ea moun t o fe v idence a va i lab le f o r a na lys is : t h e r i ch o rgan ic s a t m any w a te r l o gged s i te s i n t h e A lp ine f o re land a r e d i ff icu l t t o c om p a re w i th t h e p oo re r r ema in s f u r the r t o t h e n o r th a nd e a s t . I ti su nc lea r h ow much t h e b road s pec trum o f r e s ou r ce s r e cove red f r om t h e se c on tex t s i sa t tr ibu tab le t o

w i th d i rec t ly i n t h is wo rk . T he l a ck o f s e t t lemen t e v i d ence a nd l im i ted o rgan ic r ema in s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se g roup s i s am a jo r m e thodo log ica l h ind rance t o t h e c o rn p a r ison o ff a una l d a ta . T he a im h e re i st od e ta i l c hange s h ypo the s ized f o r t h e p e r iod i mmed ia te ly p re ced ing t h e l a te s t N eo l i th ic , wh ich i s i t se lf i d en t if ied b y d rama t ic c hange s i n s e t t lemen t , a nd p re sumab ly i ns oc ia l a nd e co n om ic r e la t ion s .

E nv i ronmen ta l C hange i nt h eF our th a nd T h i rd M i l lenn ia BC

b e t te r p re se rva t ion c ond i t ion s v e r su s d i f f e ren t s ub s is tence p rac t ice s . T he re i se v idence o f b road s e t t lemen t c hange s h e re a si nt h e r e s t o fE u rope , b u t n o r e a l i d ea a s t ow ha t t h e se i mp ly i n t e rm s o f c hange s i n t h e s ub s is tence s y s -

T he o r ig ina l d ef in i t ion o f al a te N eo l i th ic c r is is w a s p red ica ted o n t h e i d ea t h a t t h e A t lan t ic /Subbo rea l t r an s i t i on i d en t if ied i np o l len s equence s w a s a ccompan ied b y a s i gn if ican t d eg ree o f c l ima t ic c hange i n c en t ra l E u rope . S pe c if ica l ly , t h is t r an s i t ion i ss upposed t oh ave h e ra lded t h e b eg inn ing o f aw arme r , d r ie r p er iod w i th i n c rea sed c on t inen ta l i ty , l a s t ing f r om a bou t 3 800 BC u n t i l t h e b e g inn ing o f t h e S uba t lan t ic p hase a round 8 00 BC . T he c oncep t o f ad ry S ubbo rea l f o r mo s t o f E u rope n ow a p p ea r s t o b e u nfounded , r a the r , c l ima t ic c hange i n t h e f ou r th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia BC w a sq u i te v ar iab le i nn a tu re

t em s . Ag ene ra l t r end o fe co log ica l i nf i l l ing o fs e t t lemen t z one s h a s b een r epea ted ly d ocumen ted f o r t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic i n w e s te rn c en t ra l E u rope , a s e l s ewhe re ( e g . R u lf 1 979 ; S ch ie r 1 985 ; S i e lmann 1 971a ; S t a r l ing 1 983 ) . A n i n c rea se i n t h e n umbe r o f s i te s l o ca ted i n d ef en s ib le p o s i t ion s , o f ten s ur rounded b y ma s s ive d i tch s y s tem s , h a s c on t r ibu ted t o t h e i mp re s s ion o f s oc ia l u n re s t i n t h is p e r i od .

a c co rd ing t o g eograph ica l r e g ion ( Frenz e l 1 976 ) . T he re d oe s s e em t o h ave b een a d ecrea se i n m ean s umme r t empe ra tu re s f o r much o f c en t ra l E u rope f o l low ing t h e

E a r ly F our th M i l lenn ium G roup s I n t h e a b sence o f au n if ied i n te rp re ta t ion f o r t h e l a te N eo l i th ic , t h e d a ta u sed t o r e cons truc t s ub s is tence e con omy , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se p e r ta in ing t oa n ima l m anagemen t ,

t h e rm ic m ax imum o f t h e l a te A t lan t ic . T h is d e c rea se s e em s t o h ave b e en r e la t ive ly m ino r a nd , b a sed o n t h e c on t inued p re sence o f p ond t u r t le s i n N eo l i th ic s i te s , s umme r t empe ra tu re s w e re p robab ly i nt h e r a nge o f 1 8 t o 2 0 d eg ree s C . , s l igh t ly w a rme r t h an t oday ( Ba r the l a nd C o t t 1 977 ) . I n t h e p a s t d e cade , i th a s b een a s sumed t h a t e nv ironmen ta l c hange i n t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC w a s mo re l i ke ly ar e su l t o fh uman s e t t lemen t a nd a gr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty t h an d rama t ic s h if t s i n c l ima te ( F renze l 1 977 ; P a tze l t 1 977 ; R ö sch 1 987 ) . A s ar e su l t , e a r ly t h eor ie s w h ich h ypo the s ized a b reakdown o f a g r icu l tu ra l s y s tem s i nt h e l a te r N eo l i th ic b e cau se o fs eve re a l te ra t ion s i nc l i m a te h ave g ene ra l ly b e en d i s rega rded .

a r e r e v iewed f o r ar ange o f a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re s i n w e s t c en t ra l E u rope . T h is r ev iew i sl im i ted t o t ho se c u l t u ra l g roup s wh ich f a l l w i th in t h e l a te N eo l i th ic a si d en t i f i ed i n F igu re 2 , a nd f o r wh ich f a una l d a ta h ave b een a na lyz ed ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) . G roup s o f t h e e a r ly f our th m i l lenn ium BC i n c lude C or ta i l lod , P f yn , A l the im , Mond se e , B aa lbe rg , M iche lsbe rg , S chu s senr ied , a nd P o l l ing . F o r t h e l a te f ou r th t oe a r ly t h ird m i l lenn ium BC , H o rgen , A uve rn ie r , L ü sche rz , C ham , R ivnac , a nd B e rn b u rg a r e a dd re s sed . G ene ra l s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l p l ace m en t o fe ach o ft h e se c u l tu re s i ss hown i nF igu re 2 .

R ecen t i n ten s ive p a leoe co log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s o f t h e A lp ine f o re land h ave r eopened t h e q ue s t ion o f c l ima t ic c hange i n t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC . Nume rou s p a lyno -

T he C or ta i l lod a nd P fyn c u l tu re s o f S w i tze r land a nd

l o g ica l c o re s f r om Sw i tze r land , A u s t r ia a nd s ou the rn G e rmany s how s h if t s i nt h e r e la t ive a bundance s o fe i the r

s ou thwe s ter nG ermany a r e c on s ide red f i r s t b ecaus e o ft h e q ua l i ta t ive ly d i f f e ren t e v idence t h ey c on ta in , a nd t h e ir

b eech o r f i rp o l len a ta bou t 3 600 BC , s ugge s t ing r e g iona l

p o ten t ia l f o r mo re d e ta i led i n te rp re ta t ion s o f s ub s is tence e conom ie s . S ince t h e ir d i scove ry i n t h e m id -1800 s , e v i -

e xpan s ion o f t h e se s pec ie s p o s s ib ly r e la ted t o ag ene ra l s h if t i nc l ima te . O n t h e B odensee , e v idence o fe conom ic c hange a round 3 700 BC i sf o l lowed b y ad e c rea se i nl o ca l

C or ta i l lod

d ence f r om t h e se s i te s h a s c on t r ibu ted mo re t owa rd a k now ledge o f g ene ra l N eo l i th ic l i f eways t h an a ny o the r

1 5

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s tems i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope g roup o f s i te s t h roughou t t h e c on t inen t . A l though t h ey

s heep b ecause o f t h e ir

r e pre sen t s ome o f t h e e a r l ie s t e xamp le s o f i n te rd isc i -

a dap ta t ion . O v icapr ine a ge c urve s s ugge s ted p r imary u se

p l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion ,

1 866 ) a r e c onfus ing b ecause o f t h e i d en t if ica t ion s o f

o f t h e se a n ima ls f o r mea t , p e rhap s s ome u se o f m i lk p roduc t s o fa du l t f ema le s . No e v idence o f woo l i ndu s t ry

mu l t ip le f o rm s o fd ome s t ica te s a nd t h e m ix ing o f t empo -

w a s i n d ica ted . P igs w ere a ppa ren t ly k i l led a to ne o f t wo

r a l a nd c u l tura l s t ra ta . Under s tand ing o f t h e se s i te s w a s

a ge s , e i the r a to ne y ea r o fa ge o r b e tween 1 8 -30 mon th s .

t h e o r ig ina l r epor ts ( eg .

K e l le r

more a dvan tageou s b row s ing

c l a r if ied c ons ide rab ly a f te r t h e c en tenn ia l s ympos ium o f

Hun t ing o f w i ld a n ima ls h e lped m in im ize c ompe t i t ion

t h e m id -1950s ( Guyan

w i th d ome s t ica te s f o r f a vorab le p a s ture , a nd w a s n ece s -

1 955 ) a nd w i th t h e n ume rou s

e xcava t ions o ft h e 1 970s a nd 1 980 s . C or ta i l lod

i s t h e

Sw is s

s a ry i no rde r t o c on t ro l c rop robb ing r ed d ee r . A h igh ly

e xpre s s ion

o f t h e

C ha ssey -

L agozz a c u l tura l h or izon w i th in t h e g rea te rW indm i l l H i l l c u l tura l s phe re (W in ige r 1 981 :99 ) , a nd s hows a c l o se r

mob i le s e t t lemen t s ys tem w as a s sumed , a nd c ons ide red v i ab le o n ly a s l o ng a s l a nd w a s p len t ifu l a nd l o ca l p opu la t ion l e ve ls l ow ( H igham 1 966 , 1 969 ) .

a ff i l ia t ion t o w es tern r a the r t h an e a s tern m a te r ia l c u l tu re

More r e cen t a na lyse s o f s i te d ura t ion a nd e conomy h ave

c omp lexe s . C or ta i l lod s i tes a r e f ound t h roughou t c en t ra l

a l so s ugges ted t h e k ind o f f r equen t s e t t lemen t s h if t s

a nd w e s tern Sw i tze r land , l o ca ted a lmo s t u n iform ly o n

wh ich m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th t r ue s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion .

l a ke shore s . T hey a ppea r e a r l ie s t i n t h e w e s t , p e rhap s b y

E go lzw i l 5i se s t ima ted t o h ave h ad a n o ccupa t ion p e r iod

4 200 BC , b u t c l a s s ic C or ta i l lod a s i d en t if ied a t Twann o n

o f o n ly 1 5 y ea r s ( S tamp f l i 1 976a :133 ) , a nd mu l t ip le s e -

t h e B ie le r see i s d a ted f r om 3 838 t o 3 768 BC ( Su te r

q uen t ia l o ccupa t ions h ave b een d i f f e ren t ia ted t h roughou t

1 985 ) .

t h e c our se o f t h e C or ta i l lod s e t t lemen t a t Twann ( Becke r

T he e a r ly

mode l

o f C or ta i l lod

a nd J ohansson 1 981 :103 ) . T he l o ca l a rea a round t h is

s ubs is tence e conomy

l a t te r s i te o f f e r s o n ly l im i ted p o ss ib i l i t ies f o r f a rm ing ,

p roposed b y We l ten (We l ten 1 955 ) w a s o ne o f s h if t ing

l e ad ing t oa tl e a s t o ne s ugge s t ion t h a t a n ima l k e ep ing w a s p redom inan t ( eg . S ake l lar id is 1 981) . T he v ar iab i l i ty i n

c u l t iva t ion i n corpora t ing s ome d egree o fd ome s t ic a n ima l k eep ing . T h is c u l t iva t ion s ys tem w a s v e ry s im i la r t o t h e

a n ima l u se i n t h e d i f f e ren t s e t t lemen t p ha se s o f Twann

t r ad i t iona l L BK mode l d e scr ibed a bove w i th t wo mod if i c a t ions .

T he w ea l th o f s t ruc tura l

a nd t h e s t r ik ing d i f f e rence s i nt a xonom ic c ompos i t ion b e -

e v idence a t m any

t ween B u rgä sch isee -Süd a nd S üdwe s t ( c lose ly r e la ted i n

C or ta i l lod s i te s w a s i n te rpre ted a s i n d ica t ing r e la t ive ly l e ng thy

o ccupa t ion

p e r iods

( e g .

1 00 -120

y ear s

a t

B urgäsch isee -Süd ) , a nd l e af f odde r ing a nd s t a l l ing w e re s ugge s ted a s t e chn ique s o f d ome s t ic s t ock k eep ing . S t i l l , t h e c on tr ibu t ion o f a n ima ls t o t h e d i e t w a s c ons ide red m in ima l a nd o cca s iona l h igh p e rcen tage s o fw i ld a n ima ls w ere a t tr ibu ted mo re t o t h e e l im ina t ion o f c rop r obbe r s

b o th t ime a nd s pace ) ( S tampf l i 1 964 ) c on tr ibu te t o t h e i mpre s s ion t h a t C or ta i l lod f a una l a s semb lage s r ef le c t r e la t i ve ly s hor t term , l o ca l s ubs is tence d e c is ions . A g ene ra l p a t tern h a s b een a b s t rac ted f r om t h e se d a ta , i n wh ich c a t t le a r e t h e mo s t i mpor tan t d ome s t ic t a xon , y i e ld ing m ea t , m i lk , m anure a nd s k ins . S i te s w i th h igh p ercen t a ge s o fw i ld f a una m ay r ef lec t p er iod ic s ubs is tence s t re s s ,

t h an t oa n e mpha s is o n h un t ing ( Boe ssneck 1 963 :202 ) .

a nd t h e re i s ap oss ib le i n crease i nt h e r e la t ive i mpor tance

H igham p re sen ted a n i n terpre ta t ion o f C or ta i l lod s ubs is -

o f o v icapr ine s

t e nce e conomy b a sed o n s i te l o ca t iona l i n fo rma t ion a nd

1 981 :103 105 ) .

t h rough

t ime

( Becker

a nd

J ohansson

a na lyse s o f f a una l a s semb lage s f r om s even s i te s ( H igham 1 969 ) . H e n o ted ah igh d egree o f v ar iab i l i ty i np redom i n an t s pe c ie s a mong s i te s , a nd p o in ted o u t t h a t C or ta i l lod

T he P f yn c u l ture i st h e e ar l ie s t f a rm ing g roup i n n or th -

s i tes c on ta in s ome o f t h e h ighe s t p e rcen tage s o f w i ld

e a s te rn

a n ima l b one s r e covered f r om N eo l i th ic s i te s i n g ene ra l .

B odensee . O r ig ina l ly s ubsumed u nde r t h e M iche lsbe rg

T he l o ca t ion o fs e t t lemen ts w a s r e la ted t os pec if ic c ha rac t e r is t ics o ft h e l a ke shore e nv ironmen t : s l igh t ly l owe r a nd

c u l tu re , t h e d i s t ingu ish ing f e a ture s o fP fyn w e re n o ted b y

w a rme r , more o pen l a nd , a nd a n a bundance o f f odde r p l an t s .

as i gn if ican t i n crea se i nk now ledge a bou t P f yn s e t t lemen t

Sw i tze r land ,

c en te red

o n

t h e

Z ü r ichsee

a nd

b o th S co l la r ( 1959 ) a nd D r iehau s ( 1960 ) . T he re h a s b een d i s tr ibu t ion a nd d ens i ty i n r e cen t y ea r s a s ar e su l t o f t h e B odensee

H igham a t tr ibu ted b road ly s im i lar s t ra teg ie s o f d ome s t ic

Wür t tembe rg

a n ima l m anagemen t t o a l l o f t h e C or ta i l lod s i te s h e a na -

P ro jec t 1 984 ,

( Lande sdenkma lam t 1 985 ,

1 990 ) .

A l though

B aden a t l e a s t

p a r t ia l ly c on tempo raneous w i th C or ta i l lod , t h e o r ig ins o f

l y zed . C a t t le mor ta l i ty d a ta i nd ica ted s e lec t ive s l augh te r i n g w a s p rac t iced t o o b ta in m ea t f r om y oung m a le s ,

P fyn h ave l ong b een a s soc ia ted w i th F unne l B eake r ( TRB ) r e la ted c u l tura l g roups , f o r i n s tance A l the im a nd

w h i le a l low ing more f ema les t om a ture f o r b reed ing s t ock

B aa lbe rg ( Dr iehaus a nd B ehrens 1 961) . R ecen t e xcava t i ons o n t h e B odensee h ave l e d t ot h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e

a nd p os s ib le u se o f m i lk . Y oung s t ee r s w e re o f ten k i l led i n l a te f a l l t o e l im ina te t h e n eed t o o verw in te r l a rge

H orn s taad g roup . B eg inn ing a bou t 4 000 BC , H orns taad

n umbe r o f s t ock . O ve rw in ter ing p rac t ices , s uch a s t h e

p re cede s P fyn i n t h is a r ea a nd s how s d ef in i te m a te r ia l

c o l lec t ion o fa dequa te f odde r a nd i n door s t a l l ing o fs t ock , w e re u ndoub ted ly k nown b u t p robab ly u nde s irab le b e -

c u l ture t i es t o t h e s ou th a nd e a s t ( D ie ckmann 1 987 ) . T he

c ause o f t h e ir l a bor in tens ive n a ture . Sma l l n umbe r s o f o v icapr ine s w e re k ep t , w i th ah igh p ropo r t ion o f g oa t t o

f a una l i n ven tory o f Horns taad -Hörn le s how s t h e h igh u se o f w i ld t a xa o f ten h ypo thes ized f o r t h e i n i t ia l s e t t lemen t

1 6

R econs t ruc t ions o fN eo l i th ic F arm ing S y s t em s o f an ew a r ea ( Kokab i 1 985 , 1 987 ) .

n o t f o rme r ly c o lon ized b y f a rme r s : o n av ar ie ty o f s ub s t ra te t ype s a nd e l eva t ions ( Dr iehaus 1 960 :92 ; S ch ie r

T he P fyn c u l ture i t se lf h a s b een d a ted f r om a bou t 3 850 t o 3 500

BC

( Rösch

1 987 ;

S u te r

1 985 ) .

S im i lar

1 985 ) . A l the im s i te s h ave a l so b een f ound o n l ow ly ing

t o

l a ke o r m a r sh e dge s , s im i la r t oP fyn s i te s i ns ou thwe s tern

C or ta i l lod , t h e b e s t k nown s e t t lemen t s a r e o n t h e s hore s

G e rmany ( e g . O t taway 1 983 ) . C ompared t o C or ta i l lod

o f l a rge l a ke s o r s wamps , w i th mu l t ip le h ouse s o r ien ted

a nd P fyn , l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t h e d e ta i ls o f A l the im

t owa rd t h ew a te r a nd f r equen t ly af e nce o r p a l isade t ot h e

s e t t lemen t o rgan iza t ion . T he re a re n o k nown a na logs f o r

l a ndwa rd s i de (Wyss 1 970 ) . P fyn s i te s e xh ib i t ac er ta in

t h e c omp lex d i tch s y s tem i d en t if ied a t t h e t ype s i te a nd

amoun t o f v a r iab i l i ty r ega rd ing t h e d egree o f s e t t lemen t

o n ly a f ew i s o la ted h ouse o u t l ine s a r e k nown f r om

p ermanence a nd t ype s o f a gr icu l tura l s t ra teg ie s ( L ie se -

A l the im , Go ldbe rg , a nd t h e F ische rga sse s i te ( A i tch ison

K le ibe r 1 987 ) . T he weed s pe c trum a nd r um inan t manure

1 989 ) .

l a ye r s d i scove red a t T hayngen - We ie r h ave b e en i n te r p re ted a s i n d ica t ing c u l t iva t ion o f p ermanen t f i e ld s

I ti su nc lea rh ow much e conom ic v ar iab i l i ty i st ob e a s so -

c l ose ly i n tegra ted w i th d ome s t ic s t ock k eep ing . An ima ls

c i a ted w i th t h is v a r iab i l i ty i n c ho ice o f s e t t lemen t l o ca t i on . T he re a r e n o c l ea r i d ea s o ft h e l e ng th o fs i te o ccupa -

w e re k ep t i nt h e s e t t lemen ts f o r a tl e a s t p a r t o f t h e y ea r , f e d w i th c o l le c ted l e af -fodde r , a nd t h e ir m anure p re sum a b ly

u sed

f o r

f i e ld

f e r t i l iza t ion

( T roe ls -Sm i th

t i on o r t h e n a ture o fA l the im f a rm ing s y s tem s . D r iehaus 's

1 984 ;

a s sump t ion o f a n e qua l i mpo r tance f o r p l an t a nd a n ima l r e source s w a s b a sed mo s t ly o n C h i lde 's g ene ra l iza t ion

W in ige r 1 971) . On t h e o ther h and , an umber o f s i te s s how c l ea r e v idence o f p er iod ic a bandonmen t a nd r eoc -

a bou t t h e i n crea sed u se o f a n ima l r e sou rce s i n t h e l a te r

c upa t ion a l though i ti s u nc lea r w he the r t h is i s d ue t o s ome i n term i t ten t p henomenon l i ke p e r iod ic f l ood ing (Wys s 1 970 ) , o r ap a t tern a s soc ia ted w i th a gr icu l tura l c y -

N eo l i th ic r a ther t h an o n c ompa ra t ive b o tan ica l a nd f a una l a na lyse s ( Dr iehau s 1 960 ) . A l though s ome m acrofoss i ls a nd c e ram ic i mpres s ions i nd ica te t h e c u l t iva t ion o fc rops ,

c l e s . P e r iods b e tween o ccupa t ion s s e em t o b e o n t h e

t h e re i s ag ene ra l p auc i ty o f p l an t r ema ins f r om A l the im s i te s . R ecen t ly a na lyzed p a leobo tan ica l s amp les f r om t h e

o rde r o f3 0 t o4 0 y ea r s ( Sake l lar id is 1 979 :127 ) . T he t y pe o f a gr icu l ture h ypo the s ized f o r t h e B odensee s i te s i sa n

F i sche rga sse s i te i n c luded b o th e r nmer a nd e i nkorn , a s

e x tens ive o ne b ased o n p er iod ic s h if t ing o f f i e lds , p os s i -

w e l l a s s ome r ema ins o f c e rea ls l e s s c ommon ly f ound i n

b ly e ve ry 2 0 y ear s , w i th u se o f f a l low l a nds f o r w i ld

t h is t ime p e r iod , s uch a s m i l le t , s pe l t a nd b ar ley . W i ld

p l an t p rocu remen t o r d omes t ic s t ock k eep ing ( Rösch 1 987 ) . A n ima l k eep ing s e em s t o h ave b een f o cused o n

f r u i ts a nd n u ts r ounded o u t t h e s pe c trum o fp l an ts u sed a t t h is s i te ( Kü s te r 1 989 ) . T he a n ima l e conomy w a s o r ig i -

c a t t le , w i th s ma l l d ome s t ic p igs s e cond i n i mpor tance

n a l ly s ummar ized b y B oe s sneck : c a t t le w e re t h e mos t

( Sake l la r id is 1 981 :157 ) . Age d i s tr ibu t ions o f t h e se t wo

i mpor tan t t a xon , f o l lowed b y p igs a nd o v icapr ine s . A ge p rof i le s s ugge s ted t h e p r imary y i e ld o f t h e d ome s t ica tes

t a xa f r om a s i te n ea r Z ür ich ( U toqua i -Seehof s tra s se ) c onf irm y ea r -round o ccupa t ion , w i th r egu la r a nnua l

w a s m ea t , b u t t h e u se o f c a t t le f o r m i lk p roduc t ion o r

k i l lof fo fp i g s , a nd t h e s ugges t ion o f am i lk e conomy o f c a t t le ( J acome t a nd S ch ib le r 1 985 ) . T he l o ca t ion o f s i te s

t r ac t ion w a s n o t r u led o u t ( Boe ssne ck 1 956 ) . S ubsequen t a na lyse s h ave n o t s ubs tan t ia l ly a l te red t h is p i c ture .

i n a r ea s n o t i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o p r ime a gr icu l tura l l a nd h a s b een c i ted a s e v idence o fp r ima ry d ependence o n

Mond see

s t ock

a n

T he Mondsee c u l ture w a s f i r s t i d en t if ied o ver 1 00 y ear s

a t temp t a t ad i e tary r e cons truc t ion f o r o ne P fyn s i te s ug -

a go i nt h e g rea t r u sh t of i nd l a ke s ide dwe l l ings s im i lar t o

k eep ing

( Sake l la r id is

1 979 :127 ) .

H owever ,

g e s ts a mo re e qua l c on tr ibu t ion o f p l an t a nd a n ima l r e -

t ho se d i scove red i n Sw i tze r land . I ti sn ow k nown f r om

s ource s ( J acome t a nd S ch ib le r 1 985 ) . T he p re sence o f

a pprox ima te ly 2 0 l a ke s ide s i te s a nd h i l l top s i te s , c en -

s i te s w i thou t i mmed ia te f i e ld a r ea s i s more l i ke ly a n i n -

t e red o n t h e Mondsee , A t ter see a nd T raunsee i n u ppe r

d i ca t ion o fa n i n crea se i np opu la t ion i nt h e c our se o f t h e P fyn s e quence ( Sch l ich te r le 1 987 :40 -41) .

u nde r t h e s ame g ene ra l F unne l

B eake r i nf luence s a s

A l the im a nd B aa lbe rg . R e cen t i nve s t iga t ions h ave d iv ided

A l the im C e ram ic

A u s tr ia . C u l tura l ly , Mondsee a ppea r s t o h ave d eve loped

Mondsee i n to t wo c hrono log ica l p ha se s w i th a t o ta l o f t y po log ica l

t h a t

f i ve t ypo log ica l s t age s : t h e Mondsee g roup o f t h e l a te

A l the im a nd P fyn , a l ong w i th B aa lberg , b e long t o t h e

N eo l i th ic /Copper A ge i s f o l lowed b y a5 00 -yea r g ap ,

s ame b road

c u l tura l

t r a i ts

h ave

h or izon

l o ng

( Dr iehaus

s ugge s ted a nd

B ehrens

1 961 :245 ) . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f A l the im s i te s i sc en te red

t h en t h e B ronze A ge A t te r see g roup ( Ru t tkay

1 981) .

A l though t h e re w a s o r ig ina l ly s t rong d i sag reemen t w i th

o n s ou ther n B avar ia , w i th t h e s ou thea s tern b order a t t h e

r a d iocarbon d a te s i nt h e r a nge o f3 800 t o3 600 BC f o r t h e

S a lzbu rg b a s in , t h e n or thwe s tern o ne a t t h e N örd l ingen

e a r l ie s t Mondsee g roup s i te s ( P i t t ion i

R ie s ( Dr iehaus

t i ona l d e term ina t ions h ave s t reng thened t h is c hrono l o g ica l p l acemen t ( Of f enbe rger 1 981 ; O t taway 1 986 ) .

1 960 ) a nd s ome m ixed P fyn /A l the im

a s semb lage s f r om t h e F ede r see ( Kön inge r

1 986 ) .

N o

u n iform c ho ice o fs i te l o ca t ions i sr e cogn izab le . I n l owe r B avar ia , s i te l o ca t ion s ome t ime s f o l low s t h a t o fp rev ious N eo l i th ic g roups : o n t h e e dge o f l o e s s p a tches a bove s t ream c hanne ls . A l the im s i te s a r e a l so l o ca ted i n a r ea s

G ene ra l iza t ion s

a bou t

Mond see

1 980 :67 ) , a dd i-

a gr icu l tura l

p rac t ice s

h ave s o f a r b een b a sed o n ly o n t h e l a ke -s ide v i l lage s . A p o l len c ore n ea r S ee h a s i n d ica ted l a nd c l ea rance a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h is s i te , a l though t h ere i s

1 7

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope r e la t ive ly l i t t le s u i tab le a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd i nt h e i mmed ia te ( Temp i ' . 1 985 ) . C onc lu s ions a bou t B aa lbe rg f a una l e con v i c in i ty . A v a r ie ty o f c l ea rance t e chn ique s h ave b een omy a r e s omewha t c on t rad ic tory . I ng ene ra l , t h e c ompo h ypo the s ized , i n c lud ing b urn ing a nd f i e ld r o ta t ion p o s s i - s i t ion o f f a una l a s semb lage s s e em s t o d i f f e r f r om t h e b ly a ccompan ied b y f r equen t s e t t lemen t s h if t s . C u l t iva ted e a r l ie r B andke ram ik t r ad i t ion i n t h e a r ea . T he re i s a c rops i n c luded c e rea ls ( emme r , b a r ley a nd m i l le t ) , o i l s t ronge r p redom inance o f c a t t le ( 80% o f t h e d ome s t i p l an t s ( f lax a nd p oppy ) a nd v ege tab le s ; a n a s so r tmen t o f c a te s ) , f o l lowed b y o v icapr ine s a nd d og ( a t 1 0% e a ch ) w i ld f r u i t s , n u t s , a nd h e rb s w e re c o l lec ted ( Of f enbe rge r ( P reu s s 1 966 ) . Mako t ra sy a l so s how s t h e p redom inance 1 981) . o f d ome s t ic s t ock , e spe c ia l ly c a t t le . H oweve r , C la son s t a te s t h a t t h is a s semb lage s how s l i t t le d i f f e rence i n t h e T he a n ima l c omponen t o f t h e e conomy i s b e s t k nown o ve ra l l p a t te rn ing o f a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion when c ompa red f r om S ee , t h e n ea rby s i te o f S cha r f l ing h av ing p os s ib le t o e i the r e a r l ie r o r l a te r c u l ture s i n t h i s r eg ion ( C la son s amp l ing p rob lem s . S ee c on ta ined a r e la t ive ly h i gh p e r 1 985 :150 ) . c en tage o f w i ld a n ima ls , p o s s ib ly h un ted t o m in im ize c ompe t i t ion w i th d ome s t ica te s . Among t h e d ome s t ica te s , M iche l sberg c a t t le w e re m os t i mpo r tan t , p r ima r i ly a s am ea t s ou r ce . T he M iche lsbe rg c u l tu re h a s l o ng b een p l agued b y d i ff i S ome a du l t f ema le s w e re k ep t , a s w e l l a s m a le c a s t ra te s . c u l t ie s i n u nde r s tand ing b o th r e g iona l a nd t empo ra l S tock c ou ld h ave b een s t a l led i nw in te r , a nd a l lowed t o v a r iab i l i ty . T he o r ig in s o f t h e g roup r ema in u nc lea r : t h e g raze i n u np lan ted f i e ld s i n s umme r . O v icap r ine s w e re m a jo r d i spu te h a s r evo lved a round t h e r e la t ive i mpo r n ex t i n i mpo r tance , a nd t h e p re sence o f c a s t ra ted s heep t a nce o f w e s ter n E u ropean i nf luence v e r su s t h e c on tac t s ugge s t s a du l t m a le s w e re k ep t f o r w oo l . T he r e la t ive w i th e me rg ing F unne l B eake r g roup s , e spec ia l ly i n t h e u n impo r tance o fp igs h a s b een r e la ted t ot h e c ompo s i t ion n o r th ( Dr iehau s a nd B eh rens 1 961 :237 ) . L ün ing c r ea ted o f t h e f o re s t s i nt h is a r ea : t h e l owe r p e r cen tage o f b ee ch a d eve lopmen ta l s equence f o r M iche lsbe rg ( Lün ing a sn o ted i nt h e p o l len s pe c trum i n d ica te s al e s s f a vo rab le 1 967 ) , b u t h i s c h rono log ica l p ha se s h ave b een c r i t ic ized e nv ironmen t f o r t h is t a xon . Mo s t p i g s w e re k i l led v e ry f o r a t l e a s t p a r t ia l ly c onfound ing c on tempo raneou s r e y oung , i nt h e ir f i r s t f a l l o rw in te r ( Wo lf f 1 977 ) . g i ona l g roup s ( Pape 1 978 :33 ) . M iche lsbe rg s i te s a r e d i s -

B aa lberg B aa lbe rg r e p re sen t s a n e a r ly c u l tu re w i th in t h e m a in F unne l B eake r t r ad i t ion o fn o r th a nd e a s t c en t ra l E u rope , n ow t hough t t o h ave d eve loped f r om t h e c u l tu ra l f u s ion o f h un te r -ga the re r s a nd a gr icu l tu ra l is t s i n ab road b and a l ong t h e n o r the rn a nd e a s ter n m a rg in s o f t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic g roup s . B aa lbe rg i t se lf w a s p robab ly d e r ived f r om s ou thea s te rn i nf luence s ( Beh ren s 1 973 ; P reu s s 1 966 ) , a nd i sr e s t r ic ted t o c en t ra l G e rmany , B ohem ia , a nd s ou thern P o land . B aa lbe rg s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s how s s ome c on t inu i ty o f e a r l ie r N eo l i th ic s i te l o ca t ion s o n t h e t e r race sa bove w a te r c ou r se s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e re i st h e f i r s t a ppea rance o f h i l l t o p e nc lo su re s i te s , w h ich m ay h ave s e rved r i tua l a sw e l l a s d ef en s ive f unc t ion s ( P le s lova -S t ikova 1 985 ) . I n t h e w e s ter n h a lf o f t h e B aa lbe rg a r ea , s e t t lemen t s a nd h ou se r ema ins a r e r a re . Mo s t f i nd s c on s is t o f p l a in e a r then o r w ood l ined g rave s . T he se s t ruc tu re s l i nk t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h is a r ea w i th t h e m onumen ta l m o r tua ry t r ad i t ion o f n or ther n a nd w e s te rn E u rope . S ome a r ea s o f l ow s i te d en s i ty i nc en t ra l G e rmany m ay b e r e la ted t ol o ca l p opu l a t ion d ec l ine r e su l t ing f r om t h e i n i t ia l c o lon iz a t ion o ft h e n or thern p l a in ( S ta r l ing 1 983 ) . F a r the r e a s t , f o r e xamp le i nP o land , t h e re i st h e i n ve r se p a t ter n o fm o re s e t t lemen t s a nd f ewe rg rave s ( P reu s s 1 966 ) .

t r ibu ted t h roughou t a n a r ea f r om t h e N e the r land s a nd R h ine land i n t h e w e s t , t oe a s te rn e x tens ion s i n s ou the rn B ava r ia , B ohem ia a nd c en t ra l G ermany . T he d ef in i t ion o f A l the im a nd P f yn i nt h e 1 960 s h a s r e su l ted i nt h e a b sence o ft r ue M iche lsbe rg i nS w i tze r land a nd t h e B oden se ea r ea (W in ige r 1 981 :124 ) . T he e a r l ie s t r a d ioca rbon d a te s a r e f o r t h e l a te f i f th m i l lenn ium BC i n R h ine land , a nd M iche lsbe rg i n g ene ra l l a s t s u n t i l t h e l a te s t N eo l i th ic . Munz ingen h a s b een r e cogn ized a s a r eg iona l , l a te N eo l i th ic M iche lsbe rg g roup w i th c onne c t ion s t o P f yn a nd C o r ta i l lod , a nd s im i la r i t ie s t o t h e D an ish e a r ly N eo l i th ic ( Rae tze l -Fab ian 1 986 :62 ) . T he p reoccupa t ion w i th t ime a nd s pa ce p a rame te r s h a s r e su l ted i n c ompa ra t ive ly l i t t le d i scu s s ion o f e conom ic c ha rac te r is t ic s o f M iche lsbe rg s i te s . F o r s ou thwe s ter n G e rmany , S i e lmann ( S ienna = 1 971a , 1 971b ) h a s d ocu m en ted a s e t t lemen t s h if t f r om t h e B andke r am ik o ccupa t ion o f d ry l o e s s z one s ( w i th o p t ima l c ond i t ion s f o r c e rea l c u l t iva t ion ) t oM iche lsbe rg o ccupa t ion o fl o e s s z one s w i th h i ghe r p rec ip i ta t ion , o r n on loe s s z one s w i th m o is te r s o i l s . T he n umbe r o f s e t t lemen t s i n t h e se z one s d oub led , s ome t ime s t r ip led b y t h e t ime o f t h e M iche lsbe rg o ccupa t ion o f t h e c en t r a l a nd s ou the rn R h ine . T he se z one s , w h i le c on s ide red u nf avo rab le f o r c rop c u l t iva t ion , c ou ld h ave o f f e red e xce l len t c ond i t ion s

f o r s t ock k e ep ing , e spe c ia l ly a f o re s t -f odde r s y s tem o f P l an t r ema in s f r om Mako t ra sy i nB ohem ia i nt h e f o rm o f c a t t le a nd p i g m anagemen t . H e f u r the r a s soc ia te s t h i s b o th i mp re s s ion s a nd c a rbon ized f r agmen t s i n d ica te t r end w i th a n i n c rea se i nt h e n umbe r o fp i t s i ne xcava ted c u l t iva t ion o f t h e s u i te o f N eo l i th ic c r op s u sua l f o r t h is s e t t lemen t s w h ich c on ta in a n ima l b one s t oi n f e r i n ten s if i a r ea : emme r , e i nko rn , b a r ley a nd m i l le t . I na dd i t ion , t h e c a t ion o f t h e e conomy t h rough a g rea te r e mpha s is o n v a r ie t ie s o f w eed r ema in s r e cove red s how t h a t p robab ly b o th s umme r a nd w in te r v a r ie t ie s o f c e rea ls w e re g rown

a n ima ls ( S ie lmann 1 97 l b :67 ) . I n t h e D anube v a l ley n e a r R egensbu rg , as im i la r s t udy s how s t h e f i r s t s e t t lemen t o f

1 8

R econ s t ruc t ion so fN eo l i th ic F ann ing S y s t em s i n te rf luv ia l z one s i n M iche lsbe rg t ime s , a l so i mp ly ing a n i n c rea se i n t h e r e la t ive i mpor tance o f a n ima ls ( Sch ie r 1 985 ) . H i l l top e n c lo su re s i te s a r e c ha rac te r is t ic o f M iche lsbe rg , a nd h ave l o ng f ue led a n a rgumen t r e ga rd ing w he the r t h e se a r e d ef en s ive o r r e la ted t os t o ck k eep ing . Two s i te s i n p a r t icu la r h ave y i e lded l a rge f a una l a s semb lage s . Munz ingen w a s o r ig ina l ly t hough t t ob e v e ry l a te , l a s t ing u n t i l t h e e a r ly B ronz e A ge . T he a lmo s t c omp le te ly d o m e s t ic f a una r e cove red f r om t h is s i te w a s u sed t os uppor t ay oung a ge , b a sed o n t h e e vo lu t iona ry a s sump t ion t h a t a g ene ra l t r end i n p reh is tor ic e conomy i n vo lved a s h if t f r om h un t ing t o t h e e xc lu s ive u se o f d ome s t ica te s ( S chm id 1 958 ) . T he o the r s i te , H e tz enbe rg , a l so s howed av e ry h igh p ropor t ion o fd ome s t ic t a xa ( Beye r 1 970 ) .

S chu s senr ied O r ig ina l ly r e s tr ic ted t o t h e F ede r se e b a s in ( Dr iehau s a nd B eh rens 1 961 ) S chu ssen r ied s i te s a r e n ow k nown f r om t h e m idd le N e cka r d ra inage s ou thwa rd t o t h e Z ür ich see . T empor a l ly , S chus senr ied o ve r lap s c l a s s ic P f yn a nd P f yn -A l the im ( Keef e r 1 983 ) , a nd i s c on tempo raneou s w i th l a te M iche lsbe rg i nt h e R h ine v a l ley ( Lün ing 1 976 ) . I ti sp rob ab ly b e s t u nde r s tood a s al o ca l g roup h eav i ly i nf luenced b y t h e a dvanced s t age s o f t h e a d jacen t M iche lsbe rg a nd C or ta i l lod c u l ture s ( Pape 1 978 ; W in ige r 1 971) . F ew , i fa ny , r e cen t g ene ra l iza t ion s h ave b een m ade a bou t S chu ssenr ied s e t t lemen t a nd e conomy . T he l a ke s ide v i l lage o fE h r en s te in i st h e b e s t k nown s i te . I t s m u l t ip le o ccupa t ion s s e em t o h ave b een s e pa ra ted b y b urn ing e p isode s , o b s cur ing t h eq ue s t ion o fp e r iod ic i ty o fo ccupa t i on . L e s s t h an 5 0% o f t h e b one f r agmen t s r e cove red w e re f r om d ome s t ic a n ima ls , a nd ag r ea t v a r ie ty o f w i ld t a xa w a s a l so f ound ( Sche ck 1 977 ) . O the r S chu s senr ied a s semb lage s h ave s hown t h e o ppo s i te e x t reme , w i th f ew t a xa o ve r a l l , a nd o ve r 9 0% d ome s t ica te s ( e g . H ar tmann F r ick 1 960 ; N ob is 1 977 ) .

P o l l ing P o l l ing w a s f i r s t i d en t if ied a s as i ng le c e ram ic a s semb lage a t o ne s i te i n t h e u ppe r D anube d r a inage . I tw a s l a te r e l abora ted b y L ün ing i n to a " g roup " w i th a n umbe r o f f i nd spo t s s how ing c ompa rab le c e r am ic a s semb lage s ( Lün ing 1 971 :87 ) . I t s t empo ra l p o s i t ion h a s a l te red s omewha t , f r om i n i t ia l p l acemen t a t t h e e nd o f t h e N eo l i th ic ( Dr iehau s 1 960 ) t o as l igh t ly e a r l ie r p o s i t ion i n t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic , c on tempo raneou s w i th M iche lsbe rg I a nd e a r ly S chussenr ied , p re ced ing A l the im ( Lün ing 1 976 ) . T he l a ke s ide e ponymou s P o l l ing s i te e xh ib i ted n ume rou s a noma l ie s i ng ene ra l m a te r ia l c u l tu re , e spe c ia l ly t h e s t one t o o l i n ven to ry . A gr icu l tu re w a s i n f e r red f r om t h e p re s e nce o fg r ind ing s t one s , b u t t h e t y po logy o f t h e se p ie ce s i s p rob lem a t ic , a nd q uan t i t ie s u nu sua l . T he s t ruc tu ra l e v idence a tt h es i te w a sa l so c onfu s ing i ni t s l a ck o fd aub ,

ac ommon c on s truc t ion m a ter ia l a t mo s t N eo l i th ic s i te s ( Mü l le r -Ka rpe 1 961) . T he h igh p ropor t ion o fw i ld a n ima l b one i s a l so u nu sua l , a nd w a s o r ig ina l ly a t t r ibu ted b y B oe s sne ck t ot h e u nexp lo i te c l n a tu re o ft h e l o ca l e nv i ron m en t ( Boe s sneck 1 956 ) . T he p os s ib i l i ty h a s a l so b een r a ised t h a t P o l l ing w a s as e a sona l s t a t ion . I nt h is c ase , t h e f ew d ome s t ica te s p re sen t wou ld h ave b een k ep t f o r c on s ump t ion d u r ing t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te , o r c ap tu red f r om t h e l o ca l f o re s t s ( B iome 1 968 :53 -56 ) .

L a te F our th /Ea r ly T h i rd M i l lenn ium G roup s A r chaeo log ica l g roup s o f t h e l a te f ou r th a nd e a r ly t h i rd m i l lenn ia BC c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo b road c u l tu ra l h or izon s . T he w e s ter n o ne , i n Sw i tz e r land , i n c lude s Ho rgen , A uver n ie r a nd L üs che rz , mo s t c l ose ly r e la ted t o t h e t r ad i t ion s o fe a s ter nF rance (W in ige r 1 981) . S ou ther n a nd c en t ra l G e rmany , C ze cho s lovak ia a nd A u s t r ia c on ta in as e r ie s o f c u l tu ra l g roup s -i n c lud ing C ham , B e rnbu rg , a nd R ivnac -w i th m a ter ia l c u l tu re h eav i ly i nf luenced b y B aden g roup s o f s ou thea s te rn c en tra l E urope , a nd w i th h i l l top s e t t lemen t s a t yp ica l f e a tu re ( Zapo tocka a nd Z apo tocky 1 986 :57 ) .

H orgen , A uv ern ier , L ü scher z H o rgen s pan s ap er iod f r om a bou t 3 400 t o 2 900 BC . ( Su te r 1 985 ) , a nd i sk nown f r om 8 0 -100 s e t t lemen t s i n n or thern a nd e a s te rn S w i tz e r land , a nd s ou thwe s te rn G ermany ( Sa l ce l lar id is 1 979 ) . I ti sc l ose ly r e la ted t o t h e c on temporaneou s c u l tu re s o f e a s te rn F rance (W in ige r 1 981 :154 ) . P o l len s pe c t ra s how g eog raph ica l v a r ia t ion i n t h e p l an t e conom ie s o f Ho rgen s i te s , a nd g ene ra l ly i n d i c a te g rea te r l a nd c l ea rance t h an i n p rev iou s p e r iod s ( L ie se -K le ibe r 1 987 :59 ) . W i th in Ho rgen f a una l r ema in s , d ome s t ic t a xa d om ina te , t h ough t h e re a r e a l so f r equen t ly h i gh p e rcen tage s o fw i ld t a xa . T he i mpor tance o fp ig s i s i n f e r red f r om b o th t h en umbe r o fb one f r agmen t s a nd t h e l a rge b ody s i ze o fi n d iv idua ls ( Sa l ce l la r id is 1 981 ; W in ige r 1 981) . T he se o b serva t ion s h ave l e d t o amode l o fs pe c ia l i z ed p ig k eep ing f o r H o rgen ( S tamp f l i 1 980 ) . L ü sche rz a nd A uver n ie r a r e b o th c l a s s if ied a s w e s te rn S w is s v ar ian t s w i th in t h e l a rge r c u l tu ra l r eg ion o f t h e S aone -Rhone c u l tu re (W in ige r 1 981 :166 ) . L ü sche rz , r ough ly c on tempo raneou s t oH orgen ( Pape 1 978 :48 ) , h a s y i e lded t wo f a una l a s semb lage s f o r c ompar ison . T he n umbe ro fw i ld a n ima l r ema in s a pp roache s t h a to fd ome s t i ca te s , w i th in w h ich c a t t le , t h en p igs a r e mos t i mpor tan t ( W in ige r 1 981 ) . T he p e rcen tage s o f w i ld g ra s se s i n p o l len s amp le s i n d ica te a n i n c rea se i ns e t t lemen t a c t iv i ty , p o s s ib ly t h e f o rma t ion o f p a s tu re s ( L ie se -K le ibe r 1 987 :59 ) . A uver n ie r m ay o r m ay n o t b e p ar t ia l ly c on tempo raneou s w i th Horgen , a nd d oe s s e em t o a t l e a s t p a r t ly o ve r lap w i th C o rded Wa re ( Pape 1 978 :50 ) . O ft h e 3 0 o r s o s i te s s c a t te red t h roughou t t h e Sw is s J ura l a ke s , ( Sa l ce l la r id is 1 979 ) , t h e l o ca t ion a tA uver n ie r l aS aune r ie h a s t h e b e s t r e por ted f a una l e v idence . D ome s t ic a n ima ls a ccoun t f o r a bou t t wo th ird s o ft h e a s semb lage , w i th p ig s f o l lowed i n

1 9

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope a bundance b y c a t t le a nd o v icapr ine s . E lemen t s o f t h e w i ld f a una , a s w e l l a s t h e s pe c trum o f w eedy p l an t r e m a in s , s ugge s t t h e s ur round ing r e g ion w a s u nde rgo ing r a the r e x ten s ive l a nd c l ea rance ( S tamp f l i 1 976 1 ) ; W in ige r 1 981) .

C ham T he C ham g roup o f B ava r ia , B ohem ia a nd A u s t r ia d a te s t ot h el a te f ou r th a nd e a r ly t h ird m i l lenn ium BC ( O t taway 1 986 ; R u t tkay 1 987 ) . S t imu lu s f o r i t s o r ig in h a s b e en t r aced t o s ou thea s te rn E u rope , f r om w i th in t h e g rea te r c u l tu ra l r e a lm o f B aden . A t a mo re s pe c if ic r e g iona l l e ve l , C ham c an b e d er ived f r om w e s tern Mo rav ia a nd

H oweve r , o t he r f a una l a na lyse s s how a b roade r r a nge o f d ome s t ic a n ima ls mo re t yp ica l f o r t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic . C a t t le a nd p i g s e em mo s t i mpor tan t a mong d ome s t ica te s , t h ough t h ey a r e a ccompan ied b y ar e la t ive ly h igh p ropo r t i on o fw i ld t a xa ( Bu sch 1 985 ) . T he G a lgenbe rg s i te h a s y i e lded a s omewha t s u rpr is ing a bundance o f h o r se r e m a in s . P r e l im ina ry a na lyse s s uppo r t t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e se a n ima ls a s d ome s t ica te s , a nd t h e ir e xp lo i ta t ion s e em s t oh ave r e su l ted i n r e la t ive d e crea se s i n a l l o the r d ome s t ic t a xa : c a t t le , o v icapr ine s , a nd p ig ( G la s s 1 988 ) . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d i f f e rence s i n C ham s ub s i s tence p u r su i t s , a s s ugge s ted b y B u rge r ( 1988 ) , r ema in s t ob ea dequa te ly t e s ted .

p robab ly f o l lowed a d i spe r sa l r ou te u p t h e D anube i n to l owe r B ava r ia ( Bu rge r 1 988 ) . I n B avar ia , C ham s i te s

R ivnac

a ppea r t h roughou t t h e r e g ion f o rme r ly i nhab i ted b y t h e A l the im g roup , a ppa ren t ly a f te r a n o ccupa t iona l h i a tu s ( Ma tu sch ik 1 985 ) . A r a the r c omp l ica ted p a t tern o f c u l -

R ivnac a r ose i nt h e n o r thwe s ter n p a r t o fc en t ra l B ohem ia u nde r t h e s t rong i nf luence o f B aden c u l tu re s f r om e a s t . T empo r a l ly , i tb e long s i n t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e t h ird m i l -

t u ra l d i f f u s ion h a s b e en p re sen ted t o a ccoun t f o r t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f C ham s i te s a nd t h e ir s im i la r i t ie s w i th a d jacen t g roup s . F rom a c o re a r ea i n e a s tern B avar ia , C ham a ppea r s t o h ave s p read i n to w e s tern B ohem ia ,

l e nn ium B C , c h rono log ica l ly o ve r lapp ing b o th C o rded Wa re a nd e a r ly B e l l B eake r g roup s i n t h e s ame r e g ion . T opograph ica l ly , s i te s h ave b een r e co rded f r om h i l l top s , g en t le s l ope s , f l a t g round , a nd c ave s . I ti sp re sumed t h a t t h e f o r t if i ca t ion s o fm any h i l l top s i te s w e re m a in ta ined a s p ro tec t ion a ga in s t t h e c u l tu ra l ly d i f f e r en t a d jacen t g roup s ( P le s lova -S t ikova 1 968 , 1 969 ) .

w he re i ti sp ar t ia l ly c on tempo raneou s w i th b o th R ivnac a nd G lobu la r Ampho rae c e ram ic g roups . A l a te r , r e n ewed p er iod o f movemen t i n t h e o ppo s i te d i re c t ion h a s b e en p o s tu la ted t o a c coun t f o r c e ram ic t r a i t s i n t h e F rancon ian u p land s w h ich s e em t ob e d er ived f r om C ham i n B ohem ia ( P le s lova -S t ikova 1 969 ) . I n p ar t icu la r , t h e

H omo lka i s t h e b e s t r e por ted R ivna c s i te ( Eh r ich a nd P le s lova -S t ikova 1 968 ) . Dome s t ic a n ima ls d om ina te t h e f a una l r em a in s : c a t t le a nd p ig s e em t o b e f i r s t a nd s e c -

G o ldbe rg I I g roup o f a d jacen t p or t ion s o f B aden o nd , r e spe c t ive ly , i n i mpor tance . S ome i n te rb reed ing o f Wü r t tembe rg a nd H e s sen s e em s t o b e ac l o se ly r e la ted b o th t h e se t a xa w i th w i ld r e la t ive s h a s b een s ugge s ted p henomenon ( Spenneman 1 984 ) . Al a te r C ham e xpan s ion b a sed o n o s teome tr ic o b serva t ion s . I n d iv idua ls o f b o th a l so s e em s t ob er e spon s ib le f o r am o re s ou thern g roup o f t a xa w e re s l augh te red b y a bou t t wo y e a r s o f a ge . T he s i te s i nt h e A lp ine f o re land , e x tend ing a tl e a s t a s f a r i n to p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t c a t t le w e re k ep t f o r m i lk , a nd s he ep f o r A u s tr ia a st h e S a lzbu rg b a s in . L a te C ham p robab ly o ve r w oo l h a s b e en m en t ioned ( Ambro s 1 968 ) . l a p s p a r t ia l ly w i th e a r ly C o rded Wa re , a t l e a s t w i th in B ava r ia ( Bu rge r 1 988 ) . B ernburg T he l o ca t ion s o fm any C ham s i te s d o n o t a ppea r t oh ave

B e rnbu rg i s al a te r c u l tu re i n t h e TRB t r ad i t ion i nc en t ra l

b een c ho sen f o r p rox im i ty t ot h o se s o i l t ype s b e s t s u i ted f o r c e rea l c rop c u l t iva t ion : mo s t a r e h i l l top s i te s s u r r ounded b y d i tche s , o f ten l o ca ted o n p oo r s o i ls ( Ru lf

G ermany , d a ted t o a bou t 3 200 -2700 BC ( g iven a s 2 550 b c t o 2 200 b c i n B reun ig 1 987 ) . I ti sc l ose ly r e la ted t o

1 986 ; S ch ie r 1 985 ) . T he t o pog raph ic s i tua t ion o f as e t t l emen t , o n a n e l eva ted p o in t , w i th s ome n a tu ra l p ro te c t i on a nd o f ten b e tween t wo c onve rg ing s t ream s , s e em s t o h ave b e en mo re c r i t ica l t h an t h e a c tua l q ua l i ty o f s o i l i n t h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty ( Bu rge r 1 988 ) . F ew a t temp t s h ave

c e ram ic s t y le s , w h ich m ay o ccu r s e pa r a te ly o r t o ge the r . S e t t lemen t e v idence i n c lude s f o r t if ied s i te s w i th p o s t a nd s em i sub te r ranean s t ruc tu re s , a nd t h e p re sence o f s ome c o l le c t ive g r ave s s how s ac onne c t ion w i th m ega l i th ic c u l -

Wa l tern iembe rg -t h e t wo a re n ow c on s ide red a s soc ia ted

t u re s ( Beh ren s 1 973 :100 -110 ) . B e rnburg i s a t l e a s t a ar t ia l d eve lopmen t f r om a B aa lbe rg f o unda t ion ( P reu s s b een m ade a t p o s s ib le r e con s t ruc t ion s o f C ham s ub s is - p t e nce p rac t ice s . P lan t r em a in s a r e r a re , a nd e v idence o f 1 966 ) , c omb ined w i th i n f luence f r om R ivnac . I ti sa l so a r t ly c on tempo raneou s w i th t h e G lobu la r Ampho ra c u l a gr icu l tu re i sm a in ly d er ived f r om g ra in i mp re s s ions i n p u re , b e t te rk nown f r om f u r the rn or th a nd e a s t . c e ram ic a nd d aub , a nd t h e p re sence o f g r ind ing s t one s . t T he l im i ted d a ta a va i lab le s ugge s t ag rea te r r e l iance o n b a r ley t h an i nt h e p rev iou s A l the im c u l tu re . Ar e la t ive ly mob i le , p a s to ra l e conomy f o cu sed o n s heep o r g oa t k eep i n g h a s b een s ugge s ted f o r l a te C ham i n u ppe r B ava r ia , b a sed o n t h e l im i ted f a una l r ema in s a va i lab le a to ne s i te ( Dob l [ Ue rpmann 1 988 ] ) a nd o n t h e r epea ted a ppea rance i nn ume rou s C ham s i te s o fl a rge s p ind le who r ls a nd l o om w e igh t s , s ugge s t ing a w eav ing i n du s try ( Bu rge r 1 988 ) .

B e rnbu rg f a una s s how a p redom inance o f d ome s t ica ted a n ima ls , e s pe c ia l ly c a t t le . Many l i ved t o a n a du l t a ge , a nd s e x r a t io s s ugge s t b o th m i lk ing a nd u se f o r t r a c t ion . S heep a nd g oa t f o l low c a t t le i n i mpo r tance , a nd t h e p re s e nce o f c a s t ra te s u nde r s heep m ay i n d ica te e xp lo i ta t ion f o rw oo l ( Ba r the l 1 985 ; Mü l le r 1 978 , 1 985 ) .

2 0

R econ s truc t ion s o fN eo l i th ic F arm ing S y s t em s N eo l i th ic s ubs is tence . T he u se o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn d a ta

T he E nd o ft h e N eo l i th ic i nC en t ra l E u rope T he t r an s i t ion t o t h e l a te s t N eo l i th ic b eg in s b y a bou t 2 800 i nS w i tz e r land ( Su te r 1 985 ) , s ou the rn G ermany a nd C ze cho s lovak ia ( Rae tze l -Fab ian 1 986 ) . T he C o rded Wa re g roup s m ay h ave c oex is ted w i th s ome o ft h e g roup s l i s ted a bove , f o r e xamp le , R ivnac , C ham , a nd B e rnbu rg . S l igh t ly l a te r , t h ea ppea rance o fB e l l B eake r s i n ah o r izon b eg inn ing c a . 2 500 BC p rov ide s at r an s i t ion t o t h e e a r ly

t o a dd re s s t h e q ue s t ion o f s ub s is tence c hange s f r om t h e e a r ly t o t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic h a s b een d e s c r ibed i n t h is c hap te r . I n s umma ry , t h e re h a s b een a g ene ra l t r end n o ted f r om a c l o se a s soc ia t ion b e tween s e t t lemen t l o c a t ion a nd g ood a gr icu l tu ra l a r ea s i n t h e B andke ram ik p er iod t o ab roade r u se o f g eog raph ica l r e g ion s a nd e nv ironmen ta l z one s i n t h e f our th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia

BC . T h is h a s u sua l ly b een i n te rp re ted a si n d ica t ing as h if t i n t h e r e sou rce b a se , p o s s ib ly t owa rd a g rea te r d epen C o rded Wa re g roup s o f n o r the rn a nd c en t ra l E u rope d ence o n d ome s t ic a n ima ls . Howeve r , l o ca l ized d emo s ha re s e t t lemen t c ha rac ter is t ic s , o r r a the r , t h e l a ck o f g raph ic p roce s se s a nd t h e eme rgence o f r i tua l a nd /o r t h em -mo s t f i nd s r e la te t ob ur ia l c on tex t s . T he f ew s e t - d ef en s ive s i te s h ave a l so b een i mp l ica ted i n t h e se s e t t le t l emen t a r ea s k nown e xh ib i t ah igh ly d i spe r sed p a t te rn o f m en t p a t te rn c hange s . Wh i le t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s i te s a c ros s t h e l a nd scape . T o a r chaeo log is t s i n t h e e a r ly s ub s is tence p rac t ice s a nd s i te l o ca t ion m ay b e r e la t ive ly p a r t o f t h is c en tu ry , t h e b road d i s tr ibu t ion o f C o rded c l ea r i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic , t h e re i ss uff ic ien t e v idence t o Wa re g roup s t h roughou t t h e c on t inen t a nd t h e l a ck o f s ugge s t t h a t t h is r e la t ion sh ip i sn o t a s s t ra igh tforwa rd i n s e t t lemen t s s e emed t o s how g rea t m ob i l i ty , t h e p re sence l a te rp e r iod s . Af i na l l i ne o fr e sea r ch w h ich h a s a t temp ted o f n ume rou s g r ave s w i th " ba t t le a xe s " w a s t a ken a s e v i - t oe l uc ida te t h e r e la t ive i mpor tance o fp ar t icu la r r e sou r ce d ence o f w a r f a re , a nd t h e a ppea rance o f h o r se a nd o t he r g roup s i n vo lve s t h e r e con s truc t ion o f p a leod ie t t h rough a n ima l r ema in s i n g rave s c omp le ted t h e p i c tu re o f t h e d i rec t a na lys is o fa n ima l a nd /o r p l an t r ema ins f r om a m oun ted w a r l ike n omad ic h e rde r s . A l l t h is e v idence f i ti n s ma l l n umbe ro fs i te s . w i th t h e r e su l t s o f p h i lo log ica l s t ud ie s , w h ich h ad r e T h ree b r ief e xamp le s c an s e rve t o i lu s t ra te t h e w ay s i n c on s t ruc ted a n omad ic p a s to ra l is t e conomy f o r I ndo w h ich d i e ta ry r e con s truc t ion s h ave b e en u sed t o e s t ima te E u ropeans . C o rded Wa re s e emed t op rov ide t h e a r chaeo t h e s c a le o fa n ima l u se i nN eo l i th ic s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s . l o g ica l m an if e s ta t ion o f t h e I ndo -Eu ropean d i spe r sa l T he f i r s t e xamp le i st h e C or ta i l lod s i te o f B u rgä sch isee ( Neu s tupny 1 969 ) . S üd , w h ich w a s a lmos t c omp le te ly e xcava ted . B oe s sne ck E ach o f t h e se l i ne s o f e v idence s uppo r t ing n omad ic p a s ( Boe s sne ck 1 963 ) s aw a c on t rad ic t ion i n t h e r e su l t s o f t o ra l w a r r io r s h a s b een r e fu ted , a nd r e p laced b y t h e p o l len s t ud ie s , w h ich i nd ica ted a h eavy u se o f c e rea ls , i n terp re ta t ion t h a t C orded Wa re g roup s p ra c t iced am ixed a nd t h e i d ea t h a t a n a bundance o f w i ld t a xa i n t h e f a una a g r icu l tura l s ub s is tence s t ra tegy ( Neu s tupny 1 969 ) . T he i n d ica ted e conom ic d ependence o n h un t ing . H e c a lcu la ted r e la t ive l a ck o f s e t t lemen t s i ss t i l l p rob lema t ic , p a r t icu t h e n umbe r o f w i ld a n ima ls h un ted p e r y ea r f r om t h e l a r ly a so u r k now ledge o ft h e i mmed ia te ly p re ced ing c u l MN I f i gu re s f o r e ach t a xon a nd t h e e s t ima ted p e r iod o f t u ra l g roup s i sd er ived a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly f r om a na lyse s s i te o ccupa t ion ( 100 -120 y ea r s ) . A n a nnua l u se o f t wo o f s e t t lemen t d ebr is . T he f ew i n f e rence s t h a t h ave b een a n ima ls p e r y ea r w a s e s t ima ted f o r t h e m o s t a bundan t m ade c oncer n ing C o rded Wa re a gr icu l tu ra l s t r a teg ie s t a xa ( r ed d ee r a nd w i ld p ig ) , w i th o t he r s e xp lo i ted a ta s ugge s t ah i gh d eg ree o fc on t inu i ty w i th t h e l a te N eo l i th ic r a te o f o ne a n ima l e ve ry t h re e y ea r s ( a u rochs ) d own t o c u l tu re s . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e g rave a s semb lage s s e em o ne e ve ry 1 0 -12 y ea r s ( b ison a nd b ea r ) . S im i la r k i l lof f t o s how t h e e me rgence o f an ew c once rn f o r s ymbo l ing r a te s w e re e s t ima ted f o r t h e d ome s t ic a n ima ls a tt h e s i te . m a te r ia l w ea l th a nd s oc ia l p re s t ige ( Shennan 1 986 ) . I ti s A l l o ft h e se s ummed t oge the r s ugge s ted ay ea r ly e xp lo i ta t h e se s oc ia l c hange s w h ich a r e s uppo sed ly r oo ted i n t h e t i on o f at o ta l o fo n ly 7 .38 a n ima ls . B oe s sneck t o ok t h is c hange s i ns ub s is tence e conomy o ft h e p re ced ing m i l len a s a n i n d ica t ion t h a t t h e i mpor tance o f a n im a ls t o t h e n ium . o ve ra l l d i e t mu s t h ave b een r e la t ive ly m inor . H e d i d , h oweve r , a cknow ledge a p rob lem w i th t h e k i l lof f r a te s R econ s truc t ing D ie t a tN eo l i th ic S i te s c a lcu la ted f o r s ome o f t h e d ome s t ica te s , w h ich c on t ra Av a r ie ty o f a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s h ave b een u sed t o t r y d i c ted t h e a ge p rof i le s a s i n f er red f r om b one f u s ion . F o r t o e s t ima te t h e r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion o f a n ima l r e sou r ce s e xamp le , ak i l lof f r a te o f o ne p i g e ve ry t h ree t o f ou r t ot h e s ub s is tence e conom ie s o fp a r t icu la r N eo l i th ic s i te s . y ea r s h ad b e en e s t ima ted , y e t e p iphysea l f u s ion s t ud ie s T he se h ave b e en b a sed o n an umbe r o fd i f f e ren t k i nd s o f s howed p igs o n ly r a re ly l i ved t o a n a ge o f t wo y ea r s . e v idence , a nd y i e ld s omewha t c on t rad ic to ry r e su l t s o n t h e T h is l e d h im t oq ue s t ion t h e c on t inu i ty o fs i te o ccupa t ion , n a tu re a nd s c a le o fa n ima l u se . T he t r ad i t iona l r e l iance i n b u t d oe s n o t s e em t o h ave a l te red t h e c onc lu s ion s a bou t E u ropean a r chaeo logy o n ag ene ra l d eve lopmen ta l m ode l t h e r e la t ive u n impor tance o f a n im a ls t o t h e s ub s is tence o f p reh is to r ic s ub s is tence h a s a l ready b e en m en t ioned i n e conomy o f t h e s i te . H e c onc luded t h a t w i ld t a xa w e r e C hap te r 2 .I ti ss uff ic ien t t op o in t o u t i nt h is c on tex t t h a t p robab ly h un ted t o m in im ize c rop d am age r a the r t h an a s t h e i d ea o f au n id ire c t iona l p rog re s s ion f r om t h e u se o f p a r t o f ah eavy e conom ic e mpha s is o n a n ima l u se i n w i ld t od ome s t ic r e sou rce s , o r f r om p l an t t oa n ima l p rod g ene ra l . u c t s , h a s b e en i mp l ic i t i n m any i n ve s t iga t ion s o f

B ronze A ge .

2 1

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope ad b e en b a sed s o le ly o n s i te c a tchmen t d a ta ( J acome t I n h i s a na lys is o f f auna f r om t h e C o r ta i l lod s i te o f h nd S ch ib le r 1 985 ) . E go lzw i l 5 , S t ampf l i ( 1976a ) p o in ted o u t t h e r e la t ion sh ip a wh ich e x is t s b e tween l e ng th o f o ccupa t ion o f as i te , t h e n umbe r o fi nhab i tan t s a nd t h e i r n u t r i t iona l r equ iremen t s . I ft wo o ft h e se v a lue s a re k nown , t h e t h ird c an b e c a lcu l a ted . E go lzw i l 5w a s c omp le te ly e xcava ted a nd a 1 2 -yea r

T he se t h ree e xamp le s d emon s t ra te t h ed ra s t ica l ly d i f f e ren t i mp re s s ion s t h a t e x is t r e ga rd ing t h e s c a le a nd i n ten s i ty o f a n ima l u se , e ven w i th in o ne r a the r n ar row t empo ra l a nd

s pa t ia l c on tex t o ft h e N eo l i th ic . F auna l d a ta c an a nd h ave b een m an ipu la ted t o s uppor t t h e i d ea t h a t I ) a n ima l r e sou rce s w e re o fm ino r i mpor tance ; 2 ) a n ima l r e sou r ce s o r j uven i le s . S tampf l i s ugge s ted t h a t a n im a ls w e re t h e w e re o fm a jo r i mpor tance ; a nd 3 ) a n ima l r e sou r ce s w e re m a in s ou rce o fd i e ta ry p ro te in ( t he re i sl i t t le e v idence f o r o f e qua l i mpor tance r e la t ive t o p l an t r e sou rce s i n t h e l e gume so ro the rs i gn if ican t s ou r ce so fp l an tp ro te in ) , a nd s ub s is ten ce e conom ie s o fp a r t icu la r s i te s . O ne p o s s ib i l i ty a s sumed t h a t a n e s t ima te o f t h e p ro te in r e qu iremen t s o f i st h a t t h e se r e con s t ruc t ion s i lu s t ra te t h e r e a l r a nge o f t h e i n hab i tan t s wou ld a t t h e s ame t ime a pp rox ima te t h e v a r iab i l i ty i na n ima l u se c ha rac ter is t ic o f t h e f our th m i l d eg re e o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima l r e sou rce s . T he t o ta l l e nn ium BC i n t h e S w is s a r ea . A l te rna t ive ly , t h ey m ay a moun t o fp ro te in p e r d ay n eeded t o s u s ta in av i l lage o f m e r e ly r ef le c t s h if t ing a s sump t ion s a bou t t h e i mpor tance t h is s i z e w a s c a lcu la ted , b a sed o n t h e r equ i remen t s o f o fa n ima ls i nN eo l i th ic e conomy o ve rt h ep a s t 2 0y ea r s . i nd iv idua ls i n d i f f e ren t a ge c a tegor ie s . T he a moun t o f p ro te in d e l ive red b y o ne c a t t le ( o r r e d d ee r o f E va lua t ing E v idence f o r An ima l a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame s i ze ) w a s e s t im a ted a s t h e Managemen t i nt he N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion i nd ica ted f o r t h e s i te , w i th a t o ta l o f 3 5 i nhab i tan t s , 1 0o f wh ich w e re h ypo the s iz ed t ob ec h i ld ren

p e r cen tage o fb ody w e igh t , b a sed o n a n a ve rage i n d iv id u a l w e igh t o f 2 50 k g . T h is s ugge s ted t h a t t h e v i l lage

A n umbe r o f o bserva t ions c an b e m ade r e ga rd ing t h e e v idence f o r s ub s is tence e conom ie s o f t h e N eo l i th ic n eeded 2 6 c a t t le o r r ed d ee r p e r y ea r , o r 3 12 l a rge m am g roup s r e v iewed a bove . T he f i r s tc oncer n s t h e u neven n a m a ls f o r a1 2 -yea ro ccupa t ion b y 3 5 p eop le . C ompar ison s t u re o ft h e d a ta , e spe c ia l ly f o r t h e l a te r p er iod . B a sed o n w i th t h e f a una l d a ta y i e lded o n ly a s ma l l p ropor t ion o f t h e l i t e ra tu re u sed f o r t h e a bove r e v iew , i ti sd i ff icu l t t o t h e q uan t i ty o fb one s wh ich w ou ld b e e xpe c ted f r om t h e d e r ive ap i c tu re o f t h e c omp le te s ub s is tence e conomy f o r u se o f o ve r 3 00 a n ima ls , a nd t h is w a s i n te rp re ted a s a ny o ne t ime a nd p l ace . I ti sp ar t icu la r ly d i ff icu l t t og en r ef le c t ing b i a se s i n d i spos a l a nd r e cove ry p roce s se s . e r a l ize a bou t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p l an t a nd a n ima l P ar t icu la rc a lcu la t ion s m ade a te ve ry s t ep o ft h is a na lys is r e sou r ce s t o g a in a n o ve ra l l u nde r s tand ing o f l a nd u se . m ay b e q ue s t ioned ; h oweve r , t h e u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion T he p re serva t ion o f o rgan ic s , e spe c ia l ly p lan t r ema in s , i st h a t a n ima ls w e re t h e mo s t i mpor tan t p ro te in s ou rce , d e te r io ra te s r a p id ly w i th d i s tance f r om t h e A lp ine f o re a nd a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion , h e re p h ra sed s o le ly i n t e rm s o f l a nd , e xagge ra t ing a ny e conom ic d i f f e rence s a nd m a sk ing m e a t e xp lo i ta t ion , r ep re sen ted as ub s tan t ia l p or t ion o ft h e a ny s im i lar i t ie s wh ich m ay e x is t b e tween t h e se g roup s e conom ic p u r su i t s a t t h is s i te . T h is i sq u i te a d i f f e ren t a nd a d jacen t , c on tempo raneou s o ne s . T he re i sc on s ide r a s sump t ion f r om t h a t d e scr ibed a bove f o r B u rgä sch ise e a b ly m o re v a r iab i l i ty b o th i n t h e t y pe s o f s i te s w h ich S üd . e x is t i n t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic , a nd i n t h e ir d i s t r ibu t ion T he f i na l e xamp le c ome s f r om a n a na lys is o f t h e P f yn a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape . D e c is ion s r e ga rd ing s i te p l acemen t o ccupa t ion a t t h e U toqua i -Se ehof s t ra s se l o ca le o n l a ke c anno t b e a s sumed t o h ave b e en p r imar i ly r e la ted t o Z ür ich , a l so mo re o r l e s s c omp le te ly e xcava ted . A n e s t i - a spe c t s o f t h e s ub s is tence e conomy , a s i st h e c a se w i th m a ted l e ng th o f o ccupa t ion ( 20 y ea r s ) a nd n umbe r o f t h e B andke ram ik . F o r e xamp le , i n te rg roup c onf l ic t a nd i n hab i tan t s ( 25 -30 ) w e re d e r ived f r om t h e e xcava t ion . l o ca l p opu la t ion p re s su re s e em b e f a c to r s i mpor tan t i nt h e T he p l an t -an ima l r a t io i n t h e d i e t w a s i n ve s t iga ted s e le c t ion o f s pe c if i c s i te s d e s cr ibed f o r R ivnac o f t h rough r e con s truc t ing f i r s t , p ro te in n eed s o f t h e i n hab i - B ohem ia a nd P f yn o n t h e B oden see . G iven t h e se b i a se s t a n t s a nd a moun t s s upp l ied a s i d en t if ied t h rough p l an t w h ich e x is t i n t h e d a ta b a se , t h e c ompar ison o f f a una l a nd a n ima l r ema in s , t h en s im i la r r e con s t ruc t ion s o f m o re g ene ra l c a lor ic n eed s o ft h e s ame p opu la t ion . T he a moun t o fm ea t n eeded f o r t h e v i l lage p e r y ea r w a s c a lcu la ted o n t h e b a s is o f t h e se r equ iremen t s , t h e p opu la t ion , a nd d u ra t ion o fs i te o ccupa t ion . T he a c tua l p e rcen t c on tr ibu t i on o fe a ch t a xon w a s t a ken f r om t h e f a una l d a ta a tt h e s i te . B o th m e thod s s ugge s ted a c ompa rab le d ependence o n p l an t s a nd a n ima ls f o rn u tr i t ion , w i th p o s s ib ly as l igh t p redom inance o fp l an t s . T he a ve rage n umbe r o f a n ima ls h un ted o r b u tche red e ach y ea r w a s e s t ima ted a s 1 d o m e s t ic a n ima ls ( s ix c a t t le , t wo o v icapr ine s , f ou rp igs ) a nd t h ree l a rge w i ld m amma ls ( two r ed d ee r a nd o ne w i ld b oa r ) . T he a u tho r s p o in t o u t t h a t t h is c onc lu s ion c on t ra d i c t s p rev iou s s t a temen t s o f e conomy i n t h e a r ea , w h ich

a s semb lage s f r om l a te r N eo l i th ic c on tex t s m ay b e e x p ec ted t o o f f e r ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e a n ima l c omponen to ft h e e conomy t h an s i te l o ca t iona l s t ud ie s . As e cond o b serva t ion w h ich mu s t b e m ade a bou t t h e k ind o f d a ta a va i lab le f r om t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic c once rn s t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l r e la t ion s o ft h e g roup s i n vo lved . T he a b so lu te c h rono logy o fl a te r N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s i ss t i l l u n d e r c on s t ru c t ion - s ome o f t h e g roup s l i s ted a bove h ave o n ly b e en r a d ioca rbon d a ted i n t h e p a s t f ew y ea r s . A c omp le te o verv iew o f c h rono log ica l r e la t ion s r ema in s d i ff icu l t b ecau se o f t h e p rob lem s i n vo lved i n r e po r t ing a b so lu te d a te s : t h e re a r e i n con s is tenc ie s a mong t h e v ar iou s l a b s i n u se , a nd f ew a t temp t s a tc a l ib ra t ion o u t s i de t h e S w is s a r ea . I n a dd i t ion , m any s i te s h ave b een

2

R econ s truc t ion s o fN eo l i th ic F arm ing S y s t em s e xcava ted m o re t h an o nce , a nd t h e i r c on ten t s a na lyzed b y mu l t ip le a u tho r s . S oc ioe conom ic c onc lu s ion s a r e a lway s

R ega rd ing s pe c if ic m anagemen t t e chn ique s , t h e re i s e v idence s i nce t h e e a r l ie s t N eo l i th ic f o r t h e u se o f s e lec -

m ade i n t h e c on tex t o f t h e s pa t ia l -cu l tu ra l f r amewo rk a va i lab le t o a na lys t s a t t h e t ime . I t f o l low s t h a t a ny c hange s i n i d ea s a bou t c u l tu ra l r e la t ion s i n t h e N eo l i th ic m ay r equ ire r e -eva lua t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l c onc lu s ion s . I n te rp re ta t ion s a re s im i la r ly g u ided b y t h e t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk i n wh ich a na lyse s h ave b e en c a r r ied o u t . Many i n f e rence s a bou t a n ima l u se a ppea r b a sed o n a p r ior i n o t ion s a c tua l ly d e r ived f r om t r ad i t iona l v i ew s o f N eo l i th ic a g r icu l tura l d eve lopmen t r a the r t h an s pe c if ic a na lyse s o f d a ta . T he se i n c lude , f o r i n s tance , s imp l is t ic s t a temen t s a bou t t he r e la t ive i mpor tance o f w i ld a n ima ls

t i ve b reed ing s t ra teg ie s ( c a s t ra t ion ) , a nd t h e u se o f m i lk

i nt h ee conomy . At h ird a nd f i na l o bserva t ion a bou t e conom ic i n te rp re ta t i on s f o r t h e l a te r Neo l i th ic r e la te s t ot h e c u l tu ra l c l a s s if i c a t ion s o f g roups i n t h is p er iod . T he a bove r e v iew o f s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence e v idence w a s o rgan ized a c co rd ing t o a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re s , l a rge ly i n o rde r t o f a c i l i ta te p re sen ta t ion . T he se e n t i t ie s h ave b een d ef ined a l ong c r i te r ia t yp ica l f o r t h e c u l tu re c on s truc t w h ich h a s l o ng s e rved a st h e m a jo r o rgan iza t iona l t o o l o fE u ropean p reh is to ry . T he ma in d i scr im ina t ing c r i te r ia b e twe en a l l o f t h e se g roup s a re u sua l ly a spec t s o f c e ram ic t ypo logy . I th a s b e en p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween g roups c on s truc ted t h is w ay a nd r e a l e t hn ic o r c u l tu ra l e n t i t ie s i su nknown ( e g . D r iehau s a nd B eh ren s 1 961) . I t f o l low s t h a t t h e re i sn o r e a son t o a s sume t h a t e conom ic s y s tem s a r ec omp le te ly i s omorph ic w i th t h e se a r chaeo log i c a l e n t i t ie s . T he d if f e ren t ia l s c a le o r m agn i tude o f l a te r N eo l i th ic c u l tu ra l e n t i t ie s p rov ide s a n a dd i t iona l s ou rce o fc onfu s ion . G roup s v a ry i n s c a le f r om M iche lsbe rg , a s omewha t d i f fu se c u l tu re w h ich c ove r s ar e la t ive ly l a rge g eog raph ica l a r ea a nd al o ng t ime s pan , t oP o l l ing , w h ich i sa n e x t r eme ly l o ca l ized p henomenon i n b o th t ime a nd s pace . T h is o bserva t ion a l one s hou ld s ugge s t t h e f u t i l i ty o f s e a r ch ing f o r aM iche lsbe rg o r P o l l ing s ub s is tence e conomy . T h is i sn o t t o s ay t h a t s ub s is tence e conomy , a nd a n ima l m anagemen t , s hou ld n o t b e e xpe c ted t ov a ry i nc u l tu ra l ly m ean ingf u l a nd p a t terned w ays , o n ly t h a ta r c haeo log ica l c u l tu re s m ay n o t b e t h e b e s t i n d ica t ion o f t h e se g roup s . F ina l ly , s ome c ompa r ison s m ay b e d rawn b e twe en t h e i n te rp re ta t ion s made f o r a n ima l m anagemen t i nt h e e a r ly

f r om c a t t le . B y t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic , t h e re i se v idence f o r a dd i t iona l m e thod s o fd ome s t ic s t ock m anagemen t : s ome i n doo r s t a l l ing , a nd s ugge s t ion s f r om a ge c u rve s a nd s ex r a t io s t h a t s ma l l o v icapr ine u se i so r ien ted t owa rd s pe c if ic b ody p roduc t s . T he re i sp os s ib ly l e s s empha s is o n d ome s t ica t ion o f i n d igenou s c a t t le a nd p igs i n t h e l a te r Neo l i th ic . T h is i mp l ie s g rea te r s epa ra t ion o fw i ld a nd d o m e s t ic p opu la t ion s , e i the r b y p hy s ica l r e s t ra in t o f t h e d ome s t ica te s , o re l im ina t ion o ft h e l o ca l w i ld r e la t ive . T he p re sence o f s i te s i n t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic w i th h igh p e r cen tage s o f w i ld t a xa i ss t i l l p uzz l ing . T h is a ppa ren t i n c rea se i nt h e u se o fw i ld a n ima ls h a s b een e xp la ined i n t wo w ay s , b a sed o n s l igh t ly d i f f e r ing a s sump t ion s a bou t t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f l o ng te rm h uman s e t t lemen t f o r l o ca l a n ima l p opu la t ion s . O ne a s sump t ion i nm any o ft h e a na l y se s r e v iewed a bove i st h a t t h e p re sence o f h uman a g r i c u l tu ra l is t s l e d t o ad e c rea se i nl o ca l w i ld a n ima l d en s i ty t h rough t h e c ou r se o f t h e N eo l i th ic . B a sed o n t h is a s s ump t ion , t h e h igh p e rcen tage s o f w i ld a n ima ls a t s ome s i te s h ave b een r e la ted t ot h e l a ck o ff o rme r Neo l i th ic o c c upa t ion i n t h e a r ea - t h e f a una i s i n ad en se r , mo re " na tu ra l" s t a te . O n t h e o the r h and , c l ea red a gr icu l tu ra l p lo t s c r ea te n ew h ab i ta t s a t tr ac t ive t o av ar ie ty o f w i ld f a una , i n p a r t icu la r d ee r . O ne c on sequence o f h uman s e t t lemen t , t h en , c ou ld h ave b een a n i n c rea se i n t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o f c er ta in t a xa , p e rhaps r equ ir ing mo re i n ten s ive h un t ing a s ac rop p ro te c t ion m ea su re . F u l l a s se s smen t o f t h e se s omewha t c on t rad ic to ry a s sump t ion s d epend s u pon a m o re d e ta i led k now ledge o f l o ca l s e t t le m en t s equence s t h an i sp re sen t ly a va i lab le f o r mos t o ft h e a r ea s d i scu s sed a bove . I nc onc lu s ion , q ua l i ta t ive d i f f e rence s i ns ub s is tence e con omy b e twe en t h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a r e i nd ica ted b y b o th s e t t lemen t a nd f a una l d a ta . H oweve r , i ti sn o t c l ea r t ow ha t e x ten t amode l o fm a jo r s h if t s t h rough t ime i nt h e e conom ic e mpha se s a s soc ia ted w i th d ome s t ic a n ima l k e ep ing i ss uppo r ted b y t h e se o b serva t ion s . T h is r equ i re s t h e r e ana lys is o f p re sen t ly a va i lab le f a una l d a ta w i th s pec if ic p red ic t ion s i n m ind r e ga rd ing t h e c or re la te s a nd i mp l ica t ion s o fa gr icu l tu ra l i n ten s if ica t ion . D if f e rence s i n

t h e i n ten s i ty o fa n ima l m anagemen t c an b e s t b e e xam ined N eo l i th ic a nd o bserva t ion s m ade f o r t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic b y t h e s t udy o f f a una l d a ta f r om a w ide r ange o f l a te r g roup s . T he re a ppea r s t o b e ap rogr e s s ion t h rough t ime N eo l i th ic s i te s , a nd c ompar ison w i th t h e more p a t te rned a way f r om a n a n ima l e conomy i nw h ich c a t t le i sa lway s e a r ly N eo l i th ic r ema in s . O ne p re requ is i te f o r s uch a t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t t a xon , t o a n i n c rea sed e mpha s is o n c ompar ison i s ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f a n ima l p roduc o t he r t a xa . S ome o f t h e se e mpha se s o n p a r t icu la r t a xa t i on a sa n i n tegra l p a r t o fa n a g r icu l tura l s ys tem , a s w e l l m ay b e c u l tu ra l ly s pe c if ic a s , f o r i n s tance , i nt h e c a se o f a s ak now ledge o f t h e k ind s o f p a rame te r s wh ich a f f e c t p i g k eep ing a t Horgen s i te s . O the r e xamp le s o f t a xo - t h e m a in tenance o r i n tens if ica t ion o f s pe c if ic p roduc t ion t ra teg ie s . n om ic d om inance a re s i te s pe c if ic i nn a tu re , s uch a s t h e s a ppea rance o fh or se a tt h eG a lgenbe rg C ham s i te .

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C hap t er 4

PARA METERS OF AN I MAL PRODUCT ION I N NEOL ITH IC EUROPE T h is c hap te rw i l l c on s truc t as e t o fe xpe c ta t ion s r e ga rd ing

s e em s t o c on t rad ic t o ne o f t h e b a s ic t e ne t s o f e conom ic t h e g ene ra l p a rame te r s a nd s c a le o f a n ima l m anagemen t t h eo ry t h a t , g iven a dequa te i n fo rma t ion , h uman s w i l l i n N eo l i th ic E u rope . A n i n i t ia l d i scu s s ion c once rn s t h e s e ek t o m ax im ize t h e ir g a in s b y o b ta in ing t h e h ighe s t g ene ra l e conom ic c ha rac te r is t ic s o f s ub s is tence a gr icu l - p o s s ib le r e turn f o r a ny g i ven r e sou rce o r e l se w i l l s e ek t o t u re . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion r e la te s t h e se g ene ra l t r a i t s t o e conom ize ( m in im ize ) u s ing t h e s ma l le s t q uan t i ty o f ar e t h e mo re s pe c if ic c on tex t o fa n ima l p roduc t ion w i th p a r - s ou r ce t o o b ta in a g iven r e turn . T he p rob lem , h oweve r , t i cu la r a t ten t ion t oi d en t if y ing t ype s o fl a nd u se a nd l a bo r i so ne o f i d en t if y ing t h e k ind o f g a in s , o r l e ve ls o f r e r e qu i remen t sw h ich m ay b e e xpe c ted , a sw e l l a st h e mo s t t u rn , a ccep tab le f o r aw ho le s pe c trum o fr e sou rce s w i th in i mpo r tan t b i o log ica l a nd b ehav io ra l a tr ibu te s o f m a jo r s pe c if ic c u l tu ra l c on tex t s . Much e conom ic d ec is ion -mak a n im a l t a xa . F ina l ly , w ay s i n w h ich a n ima l p roduc t ion i n g s e em s t o b e o r ien ted t owa rd a mu l t ip l ic i ty o f g oa ls , m ay b e i n c rea sed a re c on s ide red . r a the r t h an as i ng le re turn s t ra tegy ( Ch ibn ik 1 980 ) . A g r icu l tu ra l s y s tem s c an b e c l a s s if i ed a cco rd ing t o a n umbe r o f p a rame te r s , i n c lud ing l a nd u se , r e sou r ce m a n i pu la t ion , l a bo r i npu t a nd t o ta l p roduc t iv i ty . A g ene ra l p roce s s o f i n ten s if ica t ion i so f ten s ub je c t ive ly i d en t if ied

L eve ls o fa gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion a r e t i ed t oa spe c t s o ft h e l o ca l e nv ironmen t , t e chno logy , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o f t h e

o n t h e b a s is o f r e la t ive i n c rea se s i nt h e a moun t o f e f fo r t o re ne rgy d i re c ted t owa rd a ny o r a l l o ft h e se p a rame te r s .

ac omp lex c au sa l n exu s , w i th t h e p rox ima te p o in t o fs y s -

E thnog raph ic d a ta f r om a r ound t h e w o r ld s ugge s t t h a t t h e re i s as ub s tan t ia l a moun t o f v a r iab i l i ty p o s s ib le e ven w i th in s ma l l sca le a gr icu l tu ra l s y s tem s . I ti su sef u l a tt h is p o in t t or e v iew s ome b a s ic o bse rva t ion s a bou t s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion t h a t h ave e me rged f r om e t hno g r aph ic s t ud ie s a nd r e la te s ome o ft h e t e rm s a nd c oncep t s t ot h e m o re s p ec if ic r e a lm o fa n ima l p roduc t ion .

g roup s i n vo lved , a nd d emog raph ic p roce s se s , b o th a tt h e h ou seho ld a nd r e g iona l l e ve ls . T he se f a c to r s i n ter re la te i n t em ic c hange o f ten d i ff icu l t , i fn o t i mpo s s ib le t o i s o la te . I gno r ing t h e se c au sa l l i nk s f o r t h e m omen t , s pec if ic a s p e c t s o fc hange s i np roduc t ion c an b e d i scu s sed . A gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion c an b e i n crea sed i nt wo w ays : b y i n c rea s ing t h e a moun t o f l a nd u nde r m anagemen t , o r b y i n c rea s ing t h e y i e ld p e r u n i t l a nd . B o th o p t ion s a r e a s so c i a ted w i th i n c rea s ing c o s t s . F o r i n s tance , o ne c on se q uence o f i n crea s ing t h e g eog raph ica l e x ten t o f a n a g r i -

S ub s is tence a gr icu l tu ra l is t s a r e g ene ra l ly d ependen t c u l tu ra l s y s tem w a s n o ted e a r ly b y e conom ic g eog ra a lmo s t e n t i re ly o n t h e p roduce o f t h e ir o wn f i e ld s o r p he r s : t h e e xpen se o f m anag ing a dd i t iona l l a nd i n c rea se s g a rden s . T he p r ima ry u n i t o f o rgan iz a t ion i st h e h ouse - a s af unc t ion o f t h e d i s tance o f t h a t n ew l a nd f r om t h e h o ld , w h ich e xper ience s i t s o wn d emograph ic c yc le o f c en te r o fp roduc t ion ( Ch iso lm 1 979 ; v on T hünen 1 910 ) . g row th a nd d ec l ine ( Chayanov 1 966 ) . S t ud ie s i np ea san t W i thou t s ub s tan t ia l c hange s i na tl e a s t t r an spor ta t ion e ff i e conom ic s h ave p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e i n d iv idua l h ou se - c i ency , c apab i l i ty f o r g eog raph ica l e xpan s ion o f a gr icu l h o ld , b y v i r tue o f i t s f l uc tua t ion s i n p opu la t ion a nd t u ra l s y s tem s i sv e ry l im i ted . T h is o p t ion b e come s e ven w ea l th , i so f ten b ad ly m a tched w i th t h e l a bo r d emand s o f m o re u n rea l is t ic u nde r c ond i t ion s o f e nv ironmen ta l h e t af a rm ing e conomy ( F lem ing 1 985 ) . A s ar e su l t , as e c - e r ogene i ty a nd a l im i ted l a bo r f o rce . I n c ompa r ison , o nda ry l e ve l o f o rgan iza t ion c ommon ly d eve lop s , c om - h ighe ry i e ld p e ru n i t l a nd c an b e a ch ieved e i the r b y d i re c t p r is ing a s e r ie s o f c oope ra t ive r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween i n c rea se s i n t h e a moun t o f h uman l a bo r , o r b y i mp rove s p a t ia l ly p rox ima te g roup s o f h ou seho lds . A l though t h is m en t s i no r mod if ica t ion s o ft e chno logy . Moder n p ea san t l e ad s t o s ome c o l lec t ive u se o f l a nd a nd r e sou r ce s , t h e s i tua t ion s s how t h a t r e cou r se i s mo s t o f ten t o i n c rea sed h ou seho ld u sua l ly r ema ins t h e b a s ic r e f e rence u n i t f o r l a bo r i n pu t ( Ba r le t t 1 980 ) . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t t e chno log i d i scu s s ing d e c is ion -mak ing i n a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion c a l c hange i so f ten e xpen s ive i n i t se lf , i n vo lv ing e i the r ( Ba r le t t 1 980 ) . t h e a cqu is i t ion o fc ap i ta l e qu ipmen t , o r t h e r eo rgan iza t ion o fw o rk f o r ce s . I ti sr e a sonab le t o e xpe c t t h a t s ub s is tence a g r icu l tu ra l is t s a r e c apab le o f p roduc ing a s urp lu s o f f ood i n n o rma l F ina l ly , t h e re i ss ome i n fo rma t ion t o s ugge s t t h a t , e ven y ea r s , a tl e a s t e nough t o e n su re t h e i r f ood s upp ly i n a n u nde r c ond i t ion s o f i n crea s ing p roduc t ion , t h e m in im iz a o cca s iona l s e a son o f p oo r y i e ld . H oweve r , a s h a s b een t i on o fl a bo r m ay b e a n i mpor tan t c on s ide ra t ion . Among p o in ted o u t f o r m any t r ad i t iona l A f r ican s y s tem s , s ma l l - s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu ra l is t s , t h e y i e ld p e r u n i t l a nd i s s c a le c u l t iva to r s a r e o f ten n o t i n te r e s ted i n p roduc t iv i ty o f ten l e s s i mpo r tan t t h an y i e ld p e r u n i t l a bo r ( C la rk a nd m uch a bove t h e l e ve l n eeded t o e n su re s e cur i ty a ga in s t p e r iod ic s ho r tage , o r i n p roduc ing v e ry l a rge s u rp lu se s w h ich c anno t b e s t ored ( A l lan 1 965 ) . A t f i r s t g l ance , t h is

H a swe l l 1 967 :35 -36 ) . G iven t h e a bove d i scu s s ion , w e m igh t e xpe c t t h a t i fa n i n c rea se i np roduc t ion i sr e qu ired , g eog raph ica l e xpan s ion w ou ld b e t h e o p t ima l s o lu t ion

2 5

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope u n t i l t r an spor t c o s t s o u twe igh t ho se i n vo lved i n a dd ing l a bo r t or a ise t h e y i e ld p e r u n i t l a nd . O fc ou r se a n a dd i t i ona l r equ is i te b eh ind s uch a n a s sumed o p t ion i s t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fl a nd . T he se a r e t h e b a s ic c ha ra c te r is t ic s g ene ra l ly a ccep ted f o r s ub s is tence leve l a gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion . T he re i s c on s i de rab le d i sagreemen t a mong e conom is t s a nd a n th ropo l o g i s t s a bou t h ow t o mode l t h e a c tua l d ec is ion -mak ing p roce s se s t h a t c r ea te c hange o r s t ab i l i ty w i th in ap ar t icu l a r e conom ic s ys tem . A n a s sump t ion o f c omp le te e co n om ic r a t iona l i ty , wh ich p o s i t s t h a t p r im i t ive f a rme r s wo rk t og e t t h e m ax imum r e tu rn f o r m in imum e f for t , a p p ea r s d i ff icu l t t os uppo r t . I n c on t ra s t , r i sk m in im iza t ion ,

e a r ly s y s tem s o f a n ima l m anagemen t : p ro tec t ion o f d o m e s t ic s t o ck f r om p reda tor s a nd i n c r eased a cce s s t of ood ( e i the r i n d ire c t ly , t h rough t h e c r e a t ion o f s u i tab le f o rage a rea s , o r d i rec t ly , b y s upp lemen ta ry f e ed ing o f g a the red o r c u l t iva ted f odde r ) . B o th o f t h e se t a sk s m ay b e mo re e a s i ly a ccomp l ished t h rough amo re i n ten s ive u se o fl a nd , t h a t i s , b y k eep ing l a rge r n umbe r s o fa n ima ls o n s ma l le r a r ea s o fl a nd . T h is o f ten i nvo lve s t h e u se o fs ome s o r t o f e nc lo su re s , w h ich m ay r ange i nc omp lex i ty f r om b ru sh o r d eadf a l l f e nce s t o s t ruc tu re s l i ke s t a l l s a nd b a rn s . O bv iou s ly , t h e mo re i n ten s ive u se o f l a nd f o r d ome s t ic a n ima ls m ay l im i t t h e u se o f t h is s pace f o r o t he r t a xa .

E ven f o r e s t g raz ing s eve re ly i mpac ts t h e l o ca l w i ld m amma l p opu la t ion b y i n crea s ing c ompe t i t ion f o r f o rage , e n ta i l ing s t ra teg ie s w h ich e n su re s u rv iva l o f t h e p opu la u sua l ly t ot h e d i sadvan tage o ft h e w i ld s pec ie s ( Sukachev t i on a te nv ironmen ta l l ow p o in t s , m ay b e a mo re a ppro a nd D y l is 1 968 :351 ) . G raz ing o f d ome s t ica te s c an , i n p r ia te c oncep t f o r u nde r s tand ing d e c is ion -mak ing i n s hor t o rde r , l e ad t or a p id c hange s i nt h e n a tu ra l e nv iron s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu re ( Ne t t ing 1 974 :39 ) . m en t wh ich m ay b e u nde s irab le i n e conom ie s a t l e a s t p a r t ia l ly d ependen t u pon w i ld a n ima l r e sou r ce s . S y s tem s o fA n ima l P roduc t ion F o r p u rpose s o f d i scu s s ion , a n ima l p roduc t ion c an b e c on s ide red a s as ub sys tem w i th in t h e l a rge r c on tex t o f s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu re p rac t ice s . I n r e a l i ty , a n ima l m an a gemen t i n am ixed a gr icu l tu ra l e conomy c anno tb e e a s i ly s epa ra ted f r om c rop c u l t iva t ion : t h e t wo a r e mu tua l ly d e p enden t . N eve r the le s s , i ti sh eur is t ica l ly u sefu l t o c on s i de r t h em s epa ra te ly i n o rde r t o b e t te r u nde r s tand t h e o p t ion s a nd c on s t ra in t s i n he ren t i n t h e u se o f e a ch r e s ou r ce c l a s s . Mo s t o f t h e g ene ra l t e ne t s o f s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu re a l ready s t a ted a bove a l so a pp ly mo re s pe c if i c a l ly t o t h e m anagemen t o f d ome s t ic a n ima l r e sou rce s . Howeve r , i ti s n o t a lway s o bv iou s h ow c oncep t s l i ke p roduc t ion c o s t s a nd g oa ls a nd r i sk m in im iza t ion p er ta in t o a n ima l p roduc t ion w i thou t ar e v iew o f t h e b a s ic f e a t u re s i n vo lved . T he t h ree m a jo r c omponen t s o f a ny s y s t em o f a n ima l u se i n c lude : l a nd , l a bo r , a nd t h e a n ima ls

S t ra teg ie s o fe x ten s ive a nd i n ten s ive l a nd u se c an c l ea r ly b e c omb ined , a s w a s f i r s t r e co rded f o r R oman a n ima l h u sband ry ( Ba ransk i 1 971) , a nd i n t h e i nf ie ld -ou tf ie ld s y s tem c ha rac ter is t ic o f much o f l a te med ieva l E u rope . W i th d ome s t ic a n im a ls , t h is o f ten o ccu r s o n as e a sona l b a s is , e nc lo s ing a n ima ls i np er iod s o fn a tu ra l f o od s hor t a ge s o r a tt ime s w hen t h ey a r e p a r t icu la r ly v u lne rab le t o p reda t ion ( e g . b i r th s e a son ) . T he o b serva t ion t h a t l a nd u se i sc l o se ly r e la ted t o s ys tem s o f l a nd t e nu re ( Bo serup 1 965 ; N e t t ing 1 974 ) , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e l im i t s o fi n ten s if i c a t ion a r e o f ten d ef ined b y c u l tu ra l a s w e l l a s p u re ly e conom ic f a c to r s . T he s pec if ics o fl a nd u se c an a l so v a ry w ide ly a cco rd ing t ot h e c ha rac ter is t ic s o fp a r t icu la r t a xa , a spe c t s o ft h e l o ca l e nv ironmen t , a nd t h e a moun t o f t ime a nd e f fo r t i n ve s ted b y t h eh uman g roup i nvo lved .

L abo r

t h em se lve s .

L and U se

T he t ype o fl a bo r i n pu t r equ ired b y a n ima ls i sb e s t c ha r a c ter ized a s o f l ow i n tens i ty , b u t c on t inuou s . I n t h is

V ar iab i l i ty i n l a nd u se a s soc ia ted w i th a n im a l m anage -

s en se , d ome s t ic a n ima ls a r e r a the r i nf lex ib le i nt h a t t h e re

m en t i sb e s t p h ra sed i n t e rm s o f a n e x ten s ive in tens ive c on t inuum . F o l low ing modern a n ima l p roduc t ion l i t e ra t u re , " ex ten s ive " r e f e r s t o f r ee rang ing b ehav io r ,

i sa lways ac e r ta in m in imum amoun t o fe f for t w h ich m u s t b e d evo ted t ot h e ir m a in tenance a nd c a re ( Behnke 1 980 ) . Two b a s ic t y pe s o f c on t ro l m ay b e e xpe c ted i na ny s y s -

" i n ten s ive " r e f e r s t oc ond i t ions o f h ighe r a n ima l d en s i ty c r ea ted b y m a in tenance i n e nc lo su re s ( e g . A rno ld a nd D udz in sk i 1 978 ) . E x ten s ive a n ima l h u sbandry d e scr ibe s

t em o fa n ima l m anagemen t : m an ipu la t ion o f f e ed ing a nd b re ed ing . C on t ro l o ve r t h e se t wo c l a s se s o f b ehav io r c an b e d i scu s sed i n t e rm s o f m a jor p o in t s a t w h ich h uman

t h e p rac t ice o fa l low ing a n ima ls t of o rage f o r t h em se lve s o ve r a n a r ea o f l a nd . I n t h e mo s t e x t reme s en se , t h is i mp l ie s n o c on t ro l o ve r movemen t s o fs t ock , r a the r , a n i -

l a bo r i sn eeded i nt r ad i t iona l a n ima l m anagemen t t a sk s .

F eed ing

m a ls d e term ine t h e ir own r a nge a nd d en s i ty b a sed o n

Movemen t s o f s t ock s t i l l n eed t o b e c on t ro l led t o s ome

s pe c if ic p a t te rn s o f s oc ia l a nd f e ed ing b ehav io r . T h is e x t r eme s hou ld r e a l ly b e c on s ide red a h ypo the t ica l o ne e ven h un te r -ga the re r s i nf luence t h e d i s tr ibu t ion a nd d en s i ty o f t h e ir p rey s pe c ie s t h rough m an ipu la t ion o f t h e e nv ironmen t , a nd mo re c omp lex m e thod s o f a n ima l c on t r o l a r e a t t h e v e ry h ea r t o f t h e d ome s t ica t ion r e la t ion s h ip .

d eg ree e ven w hen f e ed ing t a ke s p l a ce u nde r f r e e rang ing c ond i t ion s . S pa t ia l c on s ide ra t ion s m igh t i n c lude p rox im i t y o f g raz ing a r ea s t o u l t ima te u se a r ea o f a n im a l s o r

M in im a l ly , t wo k ind s o f i n te rac t ion s m ay b e e xpec ted i n

a n im a l p roduc t s . I n t h e c a se o f l a c ta t ing f ema le s , f o r e xamp le , i ti so f ten d e s i rab le t o g raz e t h em a s c l o se a s p o s s ib le t o am i lk ing f a c i l i ty i n o rde r t o m in im ize c o s t s o ft r an spor t ing m i lk . A dd i t iona l ly , i ti sp robab ly u nde s ir a b le t o s epa r a te f ema le s f r om t h e ir y oung f o r l o ng p e n-

2 6

P arame ter so fA n ima lP roduc t ion i nN eo l i th ic E urope o d s e a r ly i nl i f e . S im i la r c on s ide ra t ion s m igh t b e i mpo r t a n t i nt h e s e a son o fb i r th , e spec ia l ly t om in im ize l o s s o f n eona te s f r om p reda t ion . C on t ro l o ve rs t ock movemen td ur ing g r az ing m ay b ev e ry l o o se , r e semb l ing h e rd f o l low ing o r o bse rva t ion r a the r t h an f o rma l c on t ro l . A ccompan imen t o f h e rd s m ay b e n e ce s sa ry o n ad a i ly , s ea sona l o r p e rmanen t b a s is , d e p end ing o n t h e s c a le o f movemen t n eeded t oe n su re a de q ua te g raz ing r e qu iremen t sa nd t h ep re sence o fc ar n ivo re s o r h uman p r eda to r s . T he se t ype s o f a n im a l m anagemen t a r e p a r t icu la r ly a menab le t o c oope r a t ive e f f or t : o ne i n d iv idua l m ay b e a b le t o d i re c t movemen t s o f al a rge n umbe r o fd ome s t ic s t ock . I na dd i t ion , i tc an o f t en b e a r r a nged t h a tt h is i n d iv idua l i si na na ge o rs e x g rade w h ich m ay h ave l i t t le o the rp roduc t ive v a lue .

s en t t h e mo s t s ubs tan t ia l f o rm o fe conom ic l a bo r , a s c u l t i va t ion r ema in s mo re o r l e s s a t as t and s t i l l . T he p rov i s i on ing o f e ven s ma l l n umbe r s o f s t ock c omb ined w i th m in ima l s t a l l m a in tenance m ay r equ ire s eve ra l h ou r s o f l a bo r ad ay ( Fe l a nd H of e r 1 969 ; N e t t ing 1 981) .

B r eed ing C on t ro l o f b reed ing o f s t ock a n ima ls i sa s soc ia ted w i th c on s ide rab ly f ewe r l a bo r in ten s ive t a sk s . T he b reed ing o f mo s t d ome s t ic a n ima ls i ss imp ly c on t ro l led b y m an ipu la t i on o ft h e s ex r a t io o ft h e h e rd : m a le s a r e u sua l ly k i l led o f f i n j uven i le o r s ubadu l t s t age s , l e av ing o n ly a f ew b reed ing i nd iv idua ls a nd t h e ir r e p lacemen t s ( Haf ez 1 968 ) . E l im ina t ion o f m a le s a l so f r equen t ly l e s sen s b o th i n t ra - a nd i n te r spe c if ic a gon is t ic b ehav io r , t h e reby e a s ing p rob lem s o fm anagemen t i ng ene ra l . I fd ome s t ic b reed ing

Movemen t s o f a n ima ls m ay a l so b e d i re c ted i n c 9ncer t w i th t e chn ique s o f f i e ld m anagemen t . T h i s m ay r e qu ire r e s tr ic t ion o fa n ima ls t o s pe c if ic a r ea s o f l a nd t oc on t ro l s h rubbe ry , l oo sen e a r th , a nd d i s tr ibu te m anu re . G rea te r s uperv is ion o f movemen t m ay b e n e ce s sa ry f o r o the r r e a son s a s w e l l , f o r i n s tance , t ok e ep a n ima ls f r om d am a g ing c rop s a nd /o r h ou se s i n i n ten s ive c u l t iva t ion o r c on t iguou sh ome s tead s i tua t ion s ( e g . F e l a nd H of e r 1 969 ; R appapor t 1 968 ) .

i sc on t ro l led a ta l l , e i the r f o r p urpo se s o f t r a i t s e le c t ion o r t im ing o f b i r th s e a son , a dd i t iona l t a sk s s u r round t h e s epa ra te h e rd ing o r h ou s ing o f m a le s a nd f ema le s f o r

1 980 ) . I n t h is c on tex t , i tb e come s o bv iou s t h a t l a nd in t e n s ive a n ima l k e ep ing t e chn ique s o f ten r equ ire a n i n -

c r i ter ia . T h is m ay i n d ica te t h a t t h e se a n ima ls w e re u nde r

mo s to ft h ey ea r .

A l though n eg l ig ib le l a bo r i s o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th t h e b reed ing o f mos t d ome s t ica te s , p a r t icu la r d i ff icu l t ie s m ay b e e ncoun te red w i th a n ima ls t h a t h ave w i ld r e la t ive s i n t h e a r ea . I n t h e c on tex t o f N eo l i th ic E u rope , t h e w i ld r e la t ive s o f b o th p ig a nd c a t t le w e re p re sen t i n t h e l o ca l O the r t y pe s o f l a bor a s soc ia ted w i th a n ima l f e ed ing e nv ironmen t s o f mo s t s i te s , a nd a r e c ommon ly i d en t if ied s u r round p e r iod s o f e nv ironmen ta l s t re s s . Movemen t o f i n f a una l a s semb lage s . I ti so f ten p o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu ish s t ock a nd t h e c o l le c t ion a nd s t o rage o f f odde r c an b e b e twe en w i ld a nd d ome s t ic i n d iv idua ls o f t h e s ame v i ewed a s a l te rna t ive s t ra teg ie s t o f ood s ho r tage ( Behnke s pe c ie s o n t h e b a s is o f s i ze a nd o the r mo rpho log ica l

t e n s if ica t ion o fl a bor . I ff odde ri sc o l lec ted , t h ec o l le c t ion a nd s t orage o f s ub s tan t ia l a moun t s o f f o r age mu s t t a ke p l ace d ur ing t h e a c t ive g row th p er iod o f p l an t s , wh i le t h ey h ave s ome n u tr i t iona l v a lue ( Pe r ry 1 984 ) . F odde r m ay a l so b e t a ken f r om c u l t iva ted p l an t s , e i the r i n t h e f o rm o f f i e ld s t ubb le f o r g raz ing o r c rop s s pe c if ica l ly g rown a s f odde r p l an t s . I n t h is c a se , t h e n umbe r o f a n i m a ls t h a t c an b e k ep t b e come s d i rec t ly d ependen t u pon t h e a moun t o fc u l t iva ted l a nd . T h is c an b e c on tra s ted t o f r e e rang ing c ond i t ions , i nw h ich h e rd s a r e l im i ted b y t h e m in imum l e ve l o fn u tr i t ion p rov ided b y w in te r p a s tu rage ( Ead ie 1 969 :17 ) . F eed ing i n s e a son s o f s t re s s i s u ndoub ted ly t h e mo s t s ub s tan t ia l c o s t a s soc ia ted w i th d ome s t ic s t ock k e ep ing . T h is i s e v iden t i n t h e c on t inu ing d eba te a bou t t h e n e c e s s i ty o f a u tumn s t ock k i l lof f , ap a t ter n b e s t k nown f r om t h e M idd le A ge sa nd o f ten a s sumed c ha rac te r is t ic o f e a r l ie r p e r iod s ( S l iche r v an B a th 1 963 :297 ) . Me thod s o f o ve rw in te r ing s t ock , i nt e rm s o f t h e s k i l l a nd t e chno logy r e qu ired , a r e r e a l ly v e ry s imp le . T he a c tua l a b i l i ty t o c o l le c t a nd s t o re f odde r m ay h ave b een m o re i nf luenced b y l a bo r r e qu iremen t s ( H igham 1 969 ) , w h ich p o s s ib ly i n te rf e red w i th c u l t iva t ion t a sk s s uch a sw eed ing a nd h a r v e s t ing ( i n t h e c a se o fs pr ing sown c r op s ) o r f i e ld p repa r a t ion a nd s ow ing ( i n t h e c a se o fa u tumn sown c rop s ) . I n w in te r , t h e f e ed ing a nd c a re o fs t a l led a n im a ls m ay r e p re -

mo re s t r ic t c on t ro l t h an o t he r t a xa , s uch a s s heep a nd g oa t , w h ich h ad n o w i ld c oun te rpar t s i nt h e s ur round ing f o re s t s . S ome g rea te r d eg ree o f a t ten t ion w a s p robab ly g i ven t op ig a nd c a t t le b reed ing i no rde r t op reven t c om p l e te f e ra l iz a t ion o fd ome s t ic s t ock . C on t ro l o ve r d ome s t ic s t ock i s o f ten i n c rea sed i n t h e s e a son o f b i r th , w hen a dded s he l te r a nd p ro tec t ion m ay s e rve t oo f f se t i n f an t mor ta l i ty . T he re i sa l so t h e s ugge s t i on t h a t s ome p hys ica l c on tac t a nd s oc ia l iza t ion b e tween h umans a nd a n ima ls i s c ruc ia l t o m a in tenance o f t h e d ome s t ic r e la t ion sh ip . T h is i s e a s i ly a ccomp l ished t h rough i n crea sed h and l ing a tb i r th ( A lbr igh t 1 969 ) . T he p o s t -b ir th s e a son i sa s soc ia ted w i th s ub s tan t ia l i n c rea sed l a bo r i n pu t i fm i lk ing i sp rac t iced : s epa ra t ion o r e a r ly w ean ing w i th s upp lemen ta l f e ed ing m ay b e r equ ired f o r i n f an t s , a nd m i lk ing i t se lf mu s t b e d one f r equen t ly f o r t h e d u ra t ion o ft h e l a c ta t ion p e r iod . F ina l ly , t h e c on t ro l o fw i ld a n ima ls m ay e n ta i l ac on s id e r ab le a moun t o f e f f or t . O bv ious c once rns i n c lude t h e p reven t ion o f s t ock l o s s d ue t o c ar n ivo re p reda t ion , a nd t h e l o s s o f c u l t iva ted c rop s b y w i ld u ngu la te f e ed ing . I n a dd i t ion , t h e h un t m ay p rov ide i mpo r tan t f ood a nd o the r a n ima l p roduc t s . No t much i sk nown a bou th un t ing i nt h e N eo l i th ic , a l though s ur round s a nd s t a lk ing h ave b o th b e en s ugge s ted ( B lome 1 968 ) . C o l le c t ive t e chn ique s a r e p ar t icu la r ly e f fe c t ive i n o rde r t o s e le c t ive ly c u l l c er ta in

2 7

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t ems i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope t a xa , f o r i n s tance d ee r . S t a lk ing o f i n d iv idua l u ngu la te s c ou ld r e p re sen t aw in te r o ccupa t ion , when i tm ay b e a d -

c ond i t ion s i n t h e t empe ra te f o re s t s o f N eo l i th ic E u rope . D isag reemen t e x is t s a bou t b a s ic s l i ke b ody s i ze :

v an tageou s t og a in m ea t i np er iod s d ur ing w h ich d ome s t i c s t ock a r e u nde r f ood s t re s s . F u r a n ima ls , i np a r t icu la r c a rn ivo re s , m ay a l so b e mo re e a s i ly h un ted i nt h e w in te r

l i vewe igh t s o f s ma l l v a r ie t ie s o f m oder n c a t t le a ve rage a bou t 7 00 k g ( C la son 1 973 ; G rz imek 1 972 ) , r e con -

o r b reed ing s e a son , w hen t h e ir l o ca t ion i sr e s t r ic ted a nd e a s ie rt op red ic t ( Ed l in 1 960 ) .

T he A n ima ls

s t ruc ted w e igh t s o f a r chaeo log ica l s pe c imen s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic g ene ra l ly a ve rage b e twe en 2 00 a nd 3 00 k g ( Ba r the l 1 985 ; J acome t a nd S ch ib le r 1 985 ; Mü l le r 1 985 ; S t amp f l i 1 976a ) . S ome d im inu t ion a nd l e s sen ing o f s ex u a l d imorph ism i s ar e cogn ized c on sequence o f d ome s t i -

F ina l ly , t h e n eed s a nd p roduc t ive c apab i l i t ie s a s soc ia ted w i th e a ch s pe c ie s o f d ome s t ic a n ima l mu s t b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t i n t h e f unc t ion ing o f a ny s ub s is tence s y s tem . C e r ta in c ha rac te r is t ic s o f d ome s t ic a n ima ls c an b e s um -

c a t ion ( He r re a nd R öh r s 1 973 ) , s t i l l , t h e se d i f f e r ence s i n e s t ima ted b odywe igh t s f o r B o sp r im igen iu s a nd N eo l i th ic B os t a uru ss e em e xce s s ive .

A uroch s /Ca t t l e

I n o ak f o re s t s o f t h e U kra ine , u ncon t ro l led g raz ing r e s u l t s i na ve rage d en s i t ie s o f . 8h a p e rh ead ( Suka chev a nd D y l is 1 968 :350 ) o r a pp rox ima te ly 1 3 a n im a ls p e r s qua re

I tm igh t b e a s sumed t h a t f ood r e qu iremen t s o f N eo l i th ic m a r ized w i th r e spec t t o f e a ture s i mpor tan t t o t h e ir e x c a t t le w e r e r ough ly s im i la r t o t h o se d e scr ibed a bove f o r p lo i ta t ion . T he se i n c lude : g ene ra l f e ed ing a nd r e p roduc a u roch s . When d i scu s s ing d ome s t ic s t ock , h oweve r , i t t i ve b ehav io r , a pp rox ima te b ody s i ze a s ac o r re la te o f m ay b e m o re m ean ingfu l t o p h ra se t h e se f ood r e qu ire m ea t y i e ld , m i lk y i e ld , r e p roduc t ive c apac i ty a s a n i n d i m en t s i nt e rm s o f e s t ima ted s t ock ing r a te s p e r u n i t a r ea , c a to r o f t h e p o ten t ia l f o r h e rd g row th , a nd t h e c on tr ibu o rq uan t i t ie s o ff odde r p e r u n i t t ime i no rde r t om o re e a s t i on o f o t he r k ind s o f e ne rgy t o t h e h uman s y s tem , f o r i l y v i sua l ize t h e m anagemen t r e qu iremen t sw i th r e spec t t o e xamp le , a dd i t iona l b ody p roduc t s o r p owe r . T he e m l a nd a nd l a bo r . D e sp i te al ong h i s tory o f f o re s t g r az ing i n p ha s is h e re i so n t h e t a xa i mpor tan t i nN eo l i th ic E u rope . E u rope , t h e re a r e r ema rkab ly f ew e s t ima te s o f t h is k ind . T he b i o log ica l

a nd

b ehav io ra l

c ha rac ter is t ic s

o f t h e

a u roch s ( Bo s p r im igen iu s B o j .) a r e p oo r ly k nown s i nce t h e l a s t i n d iv idua l w a s k i l led i n P o land i n 1 627 . S ome i n f e rence s c an b e d rawn f r om g ene ra l b ov ine t r a i t c om p l exe s a nd a f ew h i s tor ica l r e f e rence s . A u roch s p opu la t i on s u nderwen t as t rong d e c l ine w i th t h e w ide sca le d e f o re s ta t ion o f t h e e a r ly M idd le A ge s . T he re i sn o g ood e s t ima te o f p reh is to r ic p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s f o r t h is a n i -

km . B oguck i ( 1982 ) e s t ima te s l a nd r e qu i remen t s o n t h e o rde r o f 4s q . km .\50 h ead f o r a n e i gh t -mon th g raz ing p e r iod f o r B andke ram ik s i te s i n t h e P o l i sh l ow land s , b a sed o n A dam s 's ( 1975 ) s t ock ing e s t ima te s f o r f o re s t s o f 1h a \head \mon th . F ina l ly , F lem ing ( 1 972 :182 ) s ugge s t s t h a t h e rd s o f 2 0 -30 c a t t le p e r s qua re km p robab ly

r e p re sen t am ax imum c apac i ty f o r m o s t f o re s t p a s tu re s . m a l . B i son b ona su s , amo re s e lec t ive g raze r t h an B o s , i s k ep t a t s t ock ing r a te s o f t wo i nd iv idua ls p e r 1 00 h a i n T he re i se ven l e s s i n f orma t ion o n t h e q uan t i t ie s o f l e af mode rn f o re s t s , o r a pp rox ima te ly . 2 p e r s qua re km f odde r r e qu ired f o r o verw in te r ing o f c a t t le . I ti s g ene r ( Grz imek 1 972 :393 ) . T h is m ay g i ve a m in imum f i gu re a l ly a s sumed t h a t d ome s t ic s t ock w ou ld h ave n eeded f o r a u rochs . T he ir p ref e r red h ab i ta t i s t h ough t t o h ave s t ored f ood r e sou rce s f o r ap e r iod o f f ou r t o s i x m on th s b een l i gh t ly f o re s ted a r ea s , v a l leys a nd w a te r m eadow s - f o r s urv iva l d ur ing t h e w in te r , a l though , g iven t h e a ppa r b a s ica l ly a r ea s w he re o pen p a tche s w e re a d jacen t t o e n t s ucce s s o f a u roch s i n t h e s ame e nv i ronmen t , t h is a s s c a t te red t r ee s , o f f e r ing av a r ie ty o ff o rage . I ns p r ing a nd s ump t ion m ay b e u nwa r ran ted . S j öbe ck 's e s t im a te o f s umme r , a u roch s p robab ly f e d o n g ra s se s a nd t r ee f o l i age , o n a corn s i n a u tumn , a nd o n d r ied l e ave s f r om f o re s t s i nw in te r . T hey a r e t h ough t t oh ave l i ved i ns ma l l h e rds o f o ne b u l l w i th s eve ra l c ow s a nd t h e ir y oung . S ke le ta l r ema in s o f a u roch s s how g rea t s e xua l d imo r p h ism , w i th m a le s u p t o2 5% h eav ie r a nd l a rge r t h an f e m a le s . A du l tb ody w e igh t h a s b een e s t ima ted a t8 00 -1000

1 000 s heave s o f 1k g e ach f o r a1 50 k g c a t t le t os u rv ive a S wed ish w in te r i s m o s t o f ten c i ted ( e g . C la rk 1 952 ) . F lem ing g i ve s a dd i t iona l e s t ima te s : r ough ly 1s qua re km i s n eeded t o s upp ly e nough f o dde r f o r 5 0 h ead i n B e lg ium , w h i le t h e s ame l a nd m ay p rov ide f o r o n ly 2 2 h ead i n t h e c on if e rous f o re s t s o f F in land ( F lem ing 1 972 :182 ) . T oge the r w i th t h e g raz ing e s t ima te s a bove ,

k g . Ma t ing o ccur red d u r ing t h e r u t i n A ugu s t o r w e m igh t e xpec t t h a t 3 0 c a t t le c ou ld b e s uppo r ted y ea r S ep tembe r , w i th y oung b orn i n May o r J une a f te r an i ne - r ound o n a pp rox ima te ly 2 t o 4s qua re km i n am ixed m on th g e s ta t ion p e r iod . L ongev i ty o f m o s t w i ld c a t t le i s f o re s t e nv i ronmen t . T h ir ty h ead m ay a l so r e p re sen t a a pp rox ima te ly 2 0 -25 y ea r s ( Grz imek 1 972 :369 -370 ) . m in imum v i ab le s i ze f o r r eproduc t ive m a in tenance o f a h e rd c ompo sed p r imar i ly o f f ema le s a nd y oung ( Boguck i I n s ome w ay s , i ti sj u s t a s d i f f icu l t t o d e scr ibe e a r ly 1 982 :109 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o f ood , c a t t le a l so r e qu ire s ub f o rm s o fd ome s t ic c a t t le ( Bo s t auru s ) a s i ti st od e scr ibe s t an t ia l a moun t s o f w a te r . D a i ly c on sump t ion i n t em t h e e x t inc t w i ld p r im igen ius f o rm . Moder n b reed s h i gh ly p e ra te c l ima te s c an r a nge f r om am in imum o f 1 6 k g t oa s s e le c ted f o r m ea t o r m i lk p roduc t ion a r e p oo r a na logs , m uch a s 3 0 -83 k g ( Haf ez , S che in a nd Ewbank a nd e ven t o day 's " un imp roved " v a r ie t ie s h ave u nde rgone 1 969 :252 ) . m i l lenn ia o f a dap ta t ion u sua l ly t o a r id o r t r op ica l e nv i r onmen ts , w h ich b ea r l i t t le r e semb lance t oe nv ironmen ta l T he r e p rodu c t ive b ehav io r o f e a r ly d ome s t ic c a t t le m ay

2 8

P arame ter s o fA n ima l P roduc t ion i nN eo l i th ic E urope a l so h ave r e semb led t ha to fi t s w i ld r e la t ive s . I ti su nc lea r w he the r o r n o t t h e b reed ing c yc le w a s s e a sona l ly r e s t r ic ted . I fs o , t h e s chedu le p re sen ted a bove f o r a u roch s m ay b e a pp rop r ia te , w i th b i r th o ccu r r ing i n May o rJ une . E ven i fb reed ing w e re p o s s ib le a to the rt ime s o ft h ey ea r , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t ap a t tern o f a u tumn m a t ing w i th s p r ing b i r th s w a s e ncou raged , a s w a s t h e c a se i n R oman t ime s ( Ba ran sk i 1 971 ) . A dd i t iona l d a ta o n f e r t i l i ty a nd f e cund i ty h ave b e en r e po r ted f o r an umbe ro fA f r ican g roup s p rac t ic ing m ixed s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu re a nd c a t t le p a s to ra l ism . T hey m ay b ec ons ide red g ene ra l ly r e p re sen ta t ive o fo the r b ov ine s a s w e l l . F i r s t p a r tur i t ion o ccu r s a nywhe re f r om a ge t wo t o f i ve y ea r s , d epend ing o n f ood c ond i t ion s a nd t h e h ea l th o fs t ock ( Dah l a nd H jor t 1 976 :33 ) . C a lv ing r a te s , t h a t i s , t h ep e rcen tage o fc ow s g i v ing b i r th i no ne y ea r o u t o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o f c ows i n ah e rd , c an b e a s l ow a s 4 0% a mong s e den ta ry g roup s , b u t mo re o f ten r a nge f r om 5 0% t o8 0% f o r p a s to ra l is t s . S i gn if ican t c a lf l o s se s o f ten t a ke p l ace i n t h e f i r s t y ea r o f l i f e , w i th m or ta l i ty a s h i gh a s 4 0% i ns eden ta ry h e rd s . Mos t c ow s c an b ea r y oung o nce ay ea r a nd r ema in f e r t i le u n t i l 1 0 y ea r s o f a ge , y i e ld ing p o ten t ia l ly s i x t o e i gh t c a lve s i n al i f e t ime ( Dah l a nd H jo r t 1 976 :35 -38 ) .

b e r s , g rub s , i n se c t s , a nd e ven c ar r ion a nd r e fu se . W i ld p ig s r ema in i n al o ose h ome r a nge , a l though t h is r a nge v ar ie s w i th t h e s e a son . S oc ia l g roups o f ten c ons is t o f s eve ra l f ema le s w i th t h e ir mo s t r e cen t l i t te r a nd t h e y oung o f o ne p rev iou s s ea son , u sua l ly a tl e a s t s i x t o 1 0 a n ima ls . Ma le s r ema in s o l i ta ry f o r mo s t o ft h e y ea r . B o th m a le s a nd mo the r s w i th y oung c an b e e x t reme ly a gg re s s i ve i nt h ew i ld ( Grz imek 1 972 ) . T he a u tumn m a s t o f a cor n a nd b ee chnu t s i s t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t t ime i n t h e f ood c yc le o f p igs , a l low ing t h em t ob u i ld u p e ne rgy f o r r e p roduc t ion , a nd f a t f o r m a in te n ance t h rough t h e w in te r . T he r u t o ccur s b e tween N ovembe r a nd J anua ry ; i nv e ry g ood y ea r s t h e re m ay b e t wo r u t s , o ne i na u tumn ( Oc tobe r -Novembe r ) a nd a s e c o nd o ne i n Ma r ch a nd A pr i l . A f te r ag e s ta t ion p e r iod o f a bou t f ou r mon th s , s ow s d e l ive r a n a ve rage l i t te r o f f i ve t os i x p ig le t s . I n f an t mor ta l i ty i sv e ry h igh u nde r n a tu ra l c ond i t ion s d ue p r ima r i ly t oh a r sh w ea the r a nd p reda to r s . F requen t ly o n ly t wo y oung p e r f em a le s u rv ive t h e ir f i r s t y ea r . B reed ing i sp o s s ib le a ta n e a r ly a ge , o f ten w i th in t h e f i r s t y ea r . I n f a vo rab le y ea r s , u p t o 5 0% o f f ema le s y ounge r t h an o ne y ea r r e p roduce , 1 0% i n a n a ve rage y ea r . N o d a ta a r e a va i lab le o n t h e l e ng th o f t h e b reed ing l i f e o fa n i n d iv idua l , b u t t h e a ve rage l i f e span o fw i ld p ig s i s1 5 y ea r s ( Grz imek 1 972 ) .

L ac ta t ion i nA f r ican c a t t le g ene ra l ly l a s t s f r om s even t o n i ne mon th s . N o t a l l c ow s p roduce m i lk i ne xce s s o ft h e n eed s o f t h e i r o wn c a lve s . Among t h e K a r imo jong , o n ly 4 8% o f c ow s y i e lded a pp rox ima te ly 1 . 5 k g p e r d ay f o r h uman c on sump t ion ( Dyson -Hud son a nd D yson -Hud son 1 970 ) . I tm u s t b e s t re s sed t h a t i ti sv e ry t e nuou s t o e x -

T he c apac i ty f o rg row th i np ig h e rd s i sv e ry h igh . A nnua l i n c rea se s o fu p t o 1 00% h ave b een r e co rded f o r a n a ve r a ge y ea r i np o s t -wa rG e rmany , t hough t h is h igh f i gu re i s , i np a r t , d ue t oa n a b sence o fn a tu ra l p reda to r s , d e c rea sed h un t ing p re s su re a nd a s e r ie s o f g ood y ea r s ( O lof f 1 951 :60 ) . I nf orma t ion o n p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s c an b e

t r apo la te d i re c t ly f r om t h e m i lk p roduc t iv i ty o f m ode rn A f r ican b re ed s t o p reh is tor ic E u ropean d ome s t ica te s . L ac ta t ion i sd i re c t ly r e la ted t o a moun t o f w a te r i n take , w h ich i s a lmo s t a lways l im i ted u nde r c ond i t ion s o f

t a ken f r om r e co rd s o f t h e l a te s even te en th c en tu ry i n S axony , w he re f o re s t s c a rr ied . 3 s w ine p e r 1 000 h a o r

a pp rox ima te ly . 0 3 a n ima ls p e r s qua re km . I n c on t ra s t , A f r ican h u sbandry . S t i l l , t h e se f i gu re s m ay b e u sef u l i na m oder n s t ock ing r a te s o f f ou r t o 1 2 a n ima ls p e r 1 000 h a r e la t ive s e n se w hen d i scu s s ing m i lk y i e ld s o f d i f f e ren t o r . 4 t o 1 . 2 p ig s p e r s qua re km , p roved u nmanageab ly d ome s t ic t a xa . h igh i np o s t -wa rG ermany , a nd r e su l ted i nw ide sca le f i e ld d amage ( 0 1of f 1 951 :77 -79 ) . Two f i na lp o s s ib i l i t ie s s hou ld b e m en t ioned i nt h e c on tex t o f c a t t le e xp lo i ta t ion . C a t t le a r e o f ten i mpor tan t a s E a r ly d ome s t ic p ig s ( Su s s c rof a d ome s t icus ) a re d e r ived p rov ide r s o f t r ac t ion , a nd n o t n e ce s sa r i ly o n ly i n t h e f r om S u ss c rof a , p robab ly i n te rb red e a s i ly w i th l o ca l w i ld c on tex t o fp l ow a gr icu l tu re . F ina l ly , t h e ir c on t r ibu t ion i n p opu la t ion s ( Te iche r t 1 969 ) , a nd s ha red m any t r a i t s w i th t e rm s o fd ung u sefu l i nf e r t i l iza t ion i sa ny th ing b u t n eg l i - t h e ir w i ld r e la t ive s . T he b ody s i ze o f d ome s t ic p ig s i s g i b le : o ne a n ima l c an p rov ide u p t o 1 0 ,000 k g o fm anu re h i gh ly v a r iab le d epend ing m a in ly u pon t h e n u tr i t iona l i n ay ea r ( S l iche r v an B a th 1 963 :293 ) . s t a tu s o ft h e a n ima l . T he a b so lu te s i ze o fe a r ly f o rm s w a s

W i ld B oar s/P igs Moder nw i ld p ig ( Sus s c rof af eru s ) b ody s i ze s v a ry a l ong ac l ine o fi n c rea s ing s i ze f r om w e s te rn t oe a s tern E u rope . We igh t s o f u p t o 2 50 -350 k g h ave b een r e co rded f o r a du l t m a le s i nt h e P o l ish C a rpa th ian s , w i th ac or re spond i n g v a lue o f 1 00 k g i nt h e R h ine land . We igh t d i f f e rence s b e twe en m a le s a nd f ema le s m ay b e o n t h e o rde r o f 2 0% ( 0 1of f 1 951 :51) . R ea sonab le e s t ima te s f o r l i vewe igh t s o f w i ld s w ine i n t h e N eo l i th ic r a nge f r om 8 0 t o 1 00 k g ( C la son 1 973 ; J acome t a nd S ch ib le r 1 985 ) . A s omn i v o re s , s w ine c onsume av a r ie ty o fn u t s , f e rns , r oo t s , t u -

p robab ly s ma l le r t h an t h a t o f w i ld c on spe c if ics d ue t o r e s tr ic ted f e ed ing u nde r m anagemen t c ond i t ions : 5 0 k g s e em s ar e a sonab le e s t ima te ( J acome t a nd S ch ib le r 1 985 ; Mü l le r 1 985 ) . O ne p o in t w h ich s hou ld b e h igh l igh ted w i th r ega rd t ot h e m anagemen t o fp ig s i st h e r e la t ive e a se w i th wh ich t h ey c an b e f e d a nd c on t ro l led . P annage s y s tem s o f t h e l a te m ed ieva l a nd e a r ly h i s to r ic p e r iod s , i n w h ich p ig s f o r a ged f r e e ly i n t h e f o re s t s t h en w e re c o l le c ted a f te r t h e m a s t s e a son , a r e ag ood e xamp le o f t h e l oo se k ind o f m anagemen t w h ich i s p o s s ib le ( Gr igson 1 982 ) . E ven w hen l e f t t o f o rage f r ee ly , t h e p rox im i ty o f p ig s t o h u-

2 9

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope man s e t t lemen t s i sc ompa ra t ive ly e a sy t o e ncou rage a nd ma in ta in ( Rappapor t 1 968 ) . P ig s c an b e h e rded t o s ome e x ten t a nd a r e o f ten moved o n ad a i ly b a s is t o c on t ro l f e ed ing , b u t t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly n o t a menab le t ot h e s c a le o f movemen t st yp ica l o fa nd o f t en n ece s sa ry f o r r um inan t u ngu la te s .

n ew f o l iage , p reven t ing s eed g ene ra t ion . W i ld a nd f e ra l o v icap r ine s n a tu ra l ly s how s eg rega t ion o f t h e s exe s f o r mo s t o f t he y ea r . Ma le s f o rm b ache lo r f l ock s o r r ema in s o l i ta ry , j o in ing g roup s o f f ema le s a nd y oung d u r ing t h e r u t . I n e x ten s ive h e rd ing s i tua t ion s ,

m a le s a r e o f ten a l lowed t o r a nge w i th f ema le s s i nce b reed ing i sv e ry s e a sona l ly r e s t r ic ted e ven i nm ode rn d o e s t ic b r eed s ( Behnke 1 980 :29 ) . I n t h e w i ld , t h e r u t c apac i ty s im i la r t o t h e w i ld t a xon . H e rd s i ze i s l i ke ly m ccu r s i n l a te a u tumn ( Oc tobe r o r N ovembe r ) a nd b i r th e ven e a s ie r t o i n c rea se u nde r m in ima l c on t ro l . F o r i n - o a ke s p l ace i n Ma rch o r A pr i l a f t e r af i ve -mon th g e s ta t ion s t ance , much i n f an t mor ta l i ty wh ich i sd ue t o e xpo su re t a nd p reda t ion c an b e a vo ided b y t h e p rov is ion o fs he l te r . p er iod ( Grz imek 1 972 :490 ; Gwynne a nd B oyd 969 :310 ) . I ti sp o s s ib le f o r b o th s heep a nd g oa t s t ob ea r D a ta o n o p t ima l s pac ing o fd ome s t ic a n ima l s a r e r a re i n 1 oung i n t h e ir f i r s t y ea r . Mu l t ip le b i r th s a r e r a re f o r g ene ra l , b u t t h e re i ss ome e v idence t o s ugge s t t h a t p i g s y heep , wh i le g oa t s m ay t w in o re ven b ea rt r ip le t s . s uf f e r u nde r v e ry i n ten s ive c ond i t ion s ( Arno ld a nd s Dudz in sk i 1 978 :168 ) . S tock ing p ig s a tv e ry h igh d en s i S heep l a c ta te t h ree t o f ou r mon th s , a nd p roduce a n a ve r t i e s c an a l so h ave a s eve re i mpac t o n a gr icu l tu ra l f i e ld s a ge o f4 5 k g o f m i lk p e r l a c ta t ion ( e s sen t ia l ly p e r y ea r ) . a nd s e t t lemen t s . W i th a dequa te c on t ro l , h oweve r , t h e se T he p er iod o f l a c ta t ion f o r g oa t s i ss omewha t l o nge r , i t a n ima ls c an c e r ta in ly b ek ep t a th i ghe rd en s i t ie s t h an t h e i r m ay b e a s l o ng a s s even mon th s , w i th a n a ve rage y i e ld w i ld c oun te rpar t s . c l o se r t o7 7 k g . Goa t s a l so p roduce ad a i ly m i lk y i e ld u p t o. 0 5 k g m o re t h an s heep ( Redd ing 1 981 :169 ) . I ts hou ld S heep a nd G oa t s b e m en t ioned t h a t t h e se v a lue s r e p re sen t t h e t o ta l y i e ld N e i the r s heep ( Ov i s a r ie s ) n o r g oa t s ( Capra h i rcu s ) a r e f r om wh ich y oung mu s t b e n ou r ished , l e av ing a ny e xce s s r ep re sen ted b y w i ld p rogen i to r s w i th in t empe ra te E u rope . f o r h uman c on sump t ion . T he re a r e n o g ood d a ta o n t h e A s s uch , t h e se t a xa a r e t h e o n ly t r ue a n ima l i mpo r t s t o a moun t o fs u rp lu s m i lk a va i lab le f o rh um an c on sump t ion . t h e r e g ion . E a se o fa dap ta t ion o f t h e se a n ima ls t o at em O ve ra l l , g oa t s p roduce g rea te r q uan t i t ie s o f m i lk t h an p e ra te f o re s t e nv ironmen t i su nknown , a l though i ti su n s heep . S heep p roduce l ower v o lume s o f m i lk , b u t t h i s l i ke ly t oh ave b een t o o d i ff icu l t . P hy s io log ica l a d ju s tmen t m i lk h a s ah i ghe r p e r cen tage o f b u t te r f a t , wh ich m ay b e i se a s ie r w i th a move f r om w a rm t oc o lde r c l ima te s t h an m o re c ruc ia l i nt e rm s o fn u tr i t iona l v a lue . v i ce v e r sa ( Haf ez 1 968 :10 ) . I ti s , h oweve r , i mpo s s ib le t o r ep len ish s t ock f r om t h e n a tu ra l e nv ironmen t i nc a se o fa O ther T axa d i sa s te r , s ugge s t ing t h a t h e rd m a in tenance m ay h ave b een Two o the r d ome s t ic a n ima ls p re sen t i n t h e N eo l i th ic a mo re c en t ra l c once rn w i th s ma l l o v icapr ine s t h an f o r i n c lude d og a nd h o r se . B o th s how u p o f ten i ns ma l l f r e o the rd ome s t ica te s . q uenc ie s , r a re ly i n a moun t s c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e a bove D e ta i led i n f orma t ion o n b ody p roduc t y i e ld s a nd m an - t a xa . D eba te s u r round s t h e w i ld o r d ome s t ic n a tu re o ft h e a gemen t c on s ide ra t ion s i so n ly a va i lab le f o r o v icap r ine s h o r se i nt h i s p e r iod . B ecau se o ft h e ir l ow f r equenc ie s , t h e Dome s t ic p igs a r e c ha rac te r ized b y h igh r e p roduc t ive

u nde r e x ten s ive h u sband ry c ond i t ion s i nt h e M idd le E a s t a nd A f r ica . L ivewe igh t e s t ima te s f o r u n imp roved b reed s o f s he ep a ve rage 4 0 k g f o r e we s a nd 6 8 k g f o r r am s ( Redd ing 1 981 :143 ) . O v i s a mmon m u s imon , t h e mou l f on , s ma l le s t s ub spe c ie s o f mode rn u nmanaged s he ep , a ve rage s 3 5 k g f o r f ema le s , a nd 5 0 k g f o r m a le s ( Grz imek 1 972 :496 ) a nd m ay b e mo re s im i la r t op reh is t o r ic b reed s . L ivewe igh t s o f m ode rn g oa t s a r e 3 5 k g f o r f ema le s , 6 5 k g f o r m a le s ( Redd ing 1 981 :148 ) . E s t im a te s f o r t h e w i ld a nce s t ra l f o rm C apra a egagru s r a nge f r om 2 5 t o4 0 k g ( Grz imek 1 972 :486 ) . B ody w e igh t e s t ima te s r ang ing f r om 2 5 t o 4 0 k g a r e u sed f o r b o th s heep a nd g oa t i n t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s i n E u rope ( C la son 1 973 ; J acome t a nd S ch ib le r 1 985 ; Mü l le r 1 985 ) . S heep p ref e r g ra s s a nd s uccu len t h e rbage , b u t w i l l e a t l e ave s i n f o re s t s i tua t ion s . T hey a r e mo re s e lec t ive t h an g oa t s , w h ich p ref e ren t ia l ly b row se l e ave s a nd t w ig s . O v icapr ine s i n g ene ra l a r e v e ry d e s t ruc t ive i n f o re s ted e nv ironmen t s ; s heep p reven t r e gene ra t ion o f s e ed l ing s t h rough c l o se c ropp ing o fg round f o l iage , g oa t s e a t a way

r e p roduc t ive a nd m a in tenance p a rame te r s f o r m anag ing t h e se t a xa w i l l n o t b ed i scu s sed h e re . T he e nv ironmen ta l a nd b ehav iora l c ha rac ter is t ic s o fw i ld a n ima ls a r e a l so i mpor tan t f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e ir e x p lo i ta t ion . T he i n teg ra t ion o f w i ld a n ima l s i n to a n a gr i c u l tu ra l s y s tem i sc onfu s ing , l a rge ly b e cau se o f t h e i r d e s t ruc t ive i mpac t a sc ompe t i tor s f o r f o rage a nd s c avenge r s o f c u l t iva ted c e rea ls v e r su s t he ir v a lue a s a n i mpor tan t f ood r e sou r ce . I n a dd i t ion t o a uroch s a nd p igs d e scr ibed a bove , an umbe r o f w i ld a n ima ls w e re e xp lo i ted i n t h e N eo l i th ic , a s i n d ica ted i n n ume rou s f a una l s amp le s . A b r ief l i s t o ft h e mo s t i mpo r tan t t a xa m igh t i n c lude b i son , e l k , r oe d ee r , b ea r , f ox , a nd b eave r . B y f a r t h e m o s t i m p or tan t w i ld m amma l i st h e r ed d ee r .

R ed D eer R ed d ee r ( C er vus e l aphu s ) h ave u nde rgone m a rked d im inu t ion s i nce t h e m ed ieva l p e r iod . T he p r inc ipa l f a c to r i nt h is s i ze r educ t ion s eem s t oh ave b e en t h e p oo r q ua l i ty o f f o od a va i lab le i n a rea s t o w h ich d ee r w e re g radua l ly r e s t r ic ted ( Lowe 1 960 ) . Moder n w e igh t s v a ry

3 0

P arame t er s o fA n ima lP roduc t ion i nN eo l i th ic E urope t r emendou s ly , 7 5 t o 3 40 k g ( Grz imek 1 972 :175 ) , a l - a s w e l l a s t h e b io log ica l n e ed s a nd c apab i l i t ie s o f t h e t h ough i ts hou ld b e s t re s sed t h a t t h e s e f i gu re s d o n o t m a jo r a n ima ls i mpo r tan t i n t h e c on tex t o f N eo l i th ic r e p re sen tv a r ia t ion w i th in as i ng le p opu la t ion . Af i gu re o f E u rope . I ti su sefu l a tt h is p o in t t od i scu s s h ow t h e m an 2 50 k g i so f ten u sed a s a n a ve rage b ody w e igh t e s t ima te a gemen t o fa n ima ls m ay b e i n ten s if ied i n ag ene ra l s en se , f o r r ed d ee r i n t h e N eo l i th ic ( eg . J a come t a nd S ch ib le r t h a t i s , h ow p roduc t ion m ay b e i n crea sed . 1 985 ; S t amp f l i 1 976a ) . De c is ion s o nh ow t oi n c rea se p roduc t ion w i l l b e b a sed o n R ed d ee r c omb ine b row s ing a nd g raz ing i nt h e ir f e ed ing t wo t y pe s o f i n f orma t ion . F ir s t , g iven t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s s t ra teg ie s . T he ir p ref er red n a tu ra l h ab i ta t o f o pen a r ea s o f t h e t a xa i n vo lved , w e n eed s ome i d ea o f t h e r e la t ive w i th s ca t te red t r ee s p rov ide s av ar ie ty o f b ru sh , g ra s se s a nd f o rbs ( Grz imek 1 972 :175 ) . T h e re a r e d rama t ic d i f f e rence si nt h eb ehav io ro fm a le sa nd f ema le s ( C lu t ton B rock , Gu inne s s a nd A lbon 1 982 ) . Ma le s o f ten a s soc ia te t o ge the r a nd s pend t he ir s umme r s c oncea led i nt h e f o re s t . F ema le s a nd i mma tu re m a le s b and t o ge the r i n to s ma l l h e rd s o f s i x t o 1 2 a n ima ls . R ed d e e r h ave c ha rac te r is t ic s e a sona l m ovemen ts : i nt h e s umme r , d ee r a r e d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t h i ghe r g round , i n w in te r t os p r ing t h ey c on g r ega te o n l owe r s l ope s o f h i l ls b y d ay , mov ing d own w a rd w i th n i gh tf a l l . H e rd ing i se spe c ia l ly m a rked a f te r s nowf a l l ( Lowe 1 960 ) . T he r u t t a ke sp l ace i ne a r ly a u tumn , a nd i sg ene ra l ly o ve r b y m id -Oc tobe r . Doe sg i ve b i r th i n May o rJ une , a f te r a n a ve rage g e s ta t ion p e r iod o f a bou t e i gh t mon th s . S ing le b i r ths a r e t h e n orm , w i th t w ins o ccur r ing o n ly r a re ly . Y oung n u r se f o r n ine m on th s t o ay ea r , a nd y oung m a le s m ay r ema in w i th f em a le s t h rough t h e ir s e cond y ea r ( Grz imek 1 972 :175 -180 ) .

c on tr ibu t ion o f v a r iou s b ody p roduc t s o f e ach a n ima l . S ome i d ea o ft h e r e la t ive a moun t s a nd s chedu l ing o fl a bo r i nvo lved i n e xp lo i t ing a n ima ls i n d i f f e ren t w ays i sa l so n ece s sa ry .

E ne rgy T he e ne rgy c on tr ibu t ion o f a n ima ls t o a n a gr icu l tu ra l s y s tem i s ac omp lex s ub jec t . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e b a s ic m ean ing i nt e rm s o fp ro te in c on t r ibu t ion t od i e t , a n im a l s s upp ly e ne rgy i n t h e f o rm o f t r an spor t o r d raf t a b i l i ty , f u e l a nd f e r t i l iz e r , a nd t h e p hy s ica l m an ipu la t ion o f s o i l a nd p l an t c ommun i t ie s t h rough g raz ing . A l though t h e se mu l t ip le f o rm s o f e ne rgy b enef i t s m ay b e e xp l ic i t ly r e c o gn ized b y af a rme r , t h ey c anno t a l l b e a dequa te ly q uan t i f ied . T he mo s t i mpor tan t e ne rgy c on tr ibu t ion o fd ome s t i ca te s t o s ub s is tence e conomy o f a g r icu l tu ra l is t s i sg en e r a l ly a s sumed t ob e t h e ir p rov is ion o f ar e l iab le s ou rce o f a n ima l p ro te in . F o r s ome d ome s t ica te s , t h is p ro te in c on t r ibu t ion i n c lude s ac omb ina t ion o f m ea t a nd m i lk

p roduc t s . T ab le 1p re sen t s t h e f ou r m a jo r d ome s t ic t a xa S ucce s sfu l e xp lo i ta t ion o f r ed d ee r a s as our ce o f m ea t r anked i nd e scend ing o rde r b y t h e ir r e la t ive c on tr ibu t ion s a nd o the r b ody p roduc t s i n vo lve s ab a s ic k now ledge o f o f t h e se t wo t ype s o f p ro te in . T he q uan t i ty o f m ea t p e r t h e c ha rac te r i s t ics d e sc r ibed a bove . L i t t le i sk nown a bou t a n ima l i sb a sed o n t h e b ody w e igh t s g iven i n t h e a bove t h eh un t ing m e thods u sed i np reh is to ry a l though s t a lk ing , d e sc r ip t ion s . Mea t y i e ld i sb a s ica l ly a f unc t ion o f b ody t r app ing a nd s ome c o l lec t ive h un t ing m ay b e e xpe c ted w e igh t , m inu s ac e r ta in p e rcen tage l o s t i n c a r ca s s p repa b a sed o n a na log ies w i th l a te r p er iod s . C o l le c t ive h un t ing o fs ma l l g roup s o fa n im a ls m ay h ave b e en mo s t e f f e c t ive i nt h e a u tumn o r w in te r , w hen t h e a n im a ls t e nd n a tu ra l ly t oc ongrega te . T he s e cond m a jor t ype o fl a bo r a s so c ia ted w i th t h e m an a gemen t o f r e d d ee r s u r round s t h e i r c ompe t i t ion w i th d ome s t ic f a una . R ed d e e r a r e g ene ra l ly a t ad i sadvan tage w hen i n c ompe t i t ion w i th d ome s t ic u ngu la te s , w h ich f o rage i n am o re c oncen t ra ted f a sh ion a nd l e ave l i t t le f o l i age u n touched . A s ar e sponse t o c ompe t i t ion b y d o m e s t ica te s , d ee r m ay i n c rea se b row s ing o n t r e e s a nd s hrub s ; i nt h e Ukra ine , i th a s b e en n o ted t h a t d ee r d am a ge t o f o r e s t s i n crea sed d i re c t ly w i th a n i n crea sed a bun d ance o f m eadows a nd p a s tu re s . A no the r c on sequence i s t h a t d ee r o f ten i ncrea se s c aveng ing o f c u l t iva ted c rop s u nde r c ond i t ions o f c ompe t i t ion ( S ukachev a nd D y l is 1 968 :351 ) . T he p ro te c t ion o f a gr icu l tu ra l f i e ld s f r om t h e se c r e a tu re s may r e qu ire m in ima l ly a n i n c rea sed

r a t ion . M i lk y i e ld s i nt h is t a b le f o r s heep , g oa t a nd c a t t le a r e o rde red a cco rd ing t o a b so lu te y i e ld p e r f ema le p e r l a c ta t ion . T hey a r e a l so r anked a cco rd ing t o t h e p e r cen t a ge p ro te in i nm i lk ( f rom G rz imek 1 972 :272 -273 ) , wh ich m ay b e mo re i mpor tan t t h an a b so lu te q uan t i ty , a tl e a s t i n t h e c on tex t o f s e le c t ion b e tween s ma l l o v icap r ine s . A more d e ta i led c ompar ison o f t h e a moun t s o f m ea t a nd m i lk ( e g . c a lcu la t ion i n to s t anda rd u n i t s w i th r e spe c t t o o ne a n ima l -l i ve s tock u n i t s ) i sn o t p rac t ica l b e cau se o f t h e d i sc repanc ie s i n a b so lu te b ody y i e ld w h ich u ndoub t e d ly e x is t b e twe en o r ig ina l s ource s o f i n f orma t ion , l a rge ly A f r ican a nd N ea r E a s te rn t a xa , a nd N eo l i th ic a n ima ls .

H e rd S ecu r i ty H e rd s e cur i ty i sa l so a n i mpo r tan t c oncep t i na ny d i scu s -

s i on o fm ax im iza t ion o f y i e ld s , o r o p t im iza t ion o f mu l t i p l e g oa ls i na n ima l p roduc t ion ( Redd ing 1 981 :267 ) . H e rd s e cur i ty r e f e r s t ot h e m in im iza t ion o ff l uc tua t ions i nh e rd v ig i lance b y h un te r s , m ax ima l ly , t h e c on s truc t ion o f s i ze , e spec ia l ly t h o se t h a t m ay r e su l t i n ar educ t ion o fa n f e nce s o rt r ap s . n ua l y i e ld ( Dah l a nd H jor t 1 976 ) . H e rd s e cur i ty c an b e r e l a t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y o f s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r a l I ncrea s ing An ima l P roduc t ion i s t s i d en t if ied a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h is c hap te r , i n w h ich T he a bove r e v iew h a s i n d ica ted s om eo ft h e t y pe s o fl a nd p roduc t ion l e ve ls a r e k ep t s omewha t a bove t h e l e ve l o f u se a nd l a bo r t h a t a r e a s soc ia ted w i th a n ima l p roduc t ion ,

3 1

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope T ab le 1 . Ma jo rd ome s t ic a n ima ls i nd e scend ing r ank o rde ra cco rd ing t od i f f e ren t t ype s o fe ne rgy y ie ld s .

( Ab so lu te )

M i lk Y ie ld ( %P r o t e in )

R ep roduc t ive C apac i ty

C a t t le

C a t t le

S heep

P ig

P ig

G oa t

C a t t le ,Goa t

G oa t

S he ep ,Goa t

S heep

Mea t y i e ld

M i lk Y ie ld

S heep C a t t le

i mmed ia te n eed t oe nsu re s upp l ie s i nt ime s o fs ho r tage . I t v e ry l im i ted r a nge o f t a xa . T he e conom ic f o cu s m ay b e n a n ima l s w i th g rea te r p roduc t iv i ty i n al o ca l e nv i ron m ay b e q uan t if ied a s t h e r e p roduc t ive c apac i ty o f a n o en t o r o n a n ima ls w i th s p e c if ic d e s ired y i e ld s . a n ima l c omb ined w i th t h e a b so lu te n umbe r o f i n d iv idua l m pe c ia l iza t ion i so f ten ar i sky s t r a tegy t op ur sue , s i nce a l l a n ima ls k ep t . T he re a r e n o g ood e s t ima te s o f m in imum S t ock m ay b e a f f e c ted b y l oca l ized d i sea se o r d i sa s te r . b reed ing p opu la t ion s i ze s o r h e rd s i ze s f o r t h e t a xa r e - s he r e la t ive e xpense o f m a in ta in ing e xc lus ive ly o ne k ind v i ewed a bove , w i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o f c a t t le . T f s t ock m igh t b e e xpe c ted t o d e c r ea se w i th l a rge r n um T he refo re , o n ly r e p roduc t ive c apac i ty w i l l b e c ons ide red . o b e r s o fa n ima ls p r ima r i ly b y f a c i l i ta t ing t h e o rgan iza t ion R ep roduc t ive c apac i ty i sc on s ide red h e re t o b e b a s ica l ly o f l a bo r , w h ich i s a imed a t t h e r a the r p red ic tab le r e i d en t ica l t o f e cund i ty , o r t h e p owe r o f as pe c ie s t o i n q u iremen t s o f o n ly o ne t a xon . T he re i s , h oweve r , a n c r ea se . T h is p owe r i sd ependen t o n t h e a ge o f b reed ing , u ppe r t h re sho ld o fh e rd s i ze b eyond w h ich as i gn if ican t ly f r equency o f b reed ing , l e ng th o f b reed ing l i f e a nd n um h i ghe r l a bo r i n pu t i s o f ten r equ i red ( Dah l a nd H jo r t b e r o f v i ab le o f f sp r ing p roduced e ach t ime a n a n ima l 1 976 :205 ) . T h is m ax imum h e rd s i z e v ar ie s b y a n ima l , b reed s s ucce s sf u l ly ( Mou le 1 968 :353 ) . Mo s t o ft h e se d a ta p e rhap s a l so a c co rd ing t ol o ca l e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s . h ave b een p re sen ted i n t h e t a xonom ic r e v iew a bove , a l though c ove rage o f t h e i n d iv idua l a n ima ls i s b y n o S pe c ia l iza t ion i s ac ommon r e spon se o f s ubs is tence a gr i m ean s e ven . A spe c t s o ff e cund i ty w h ich c an b e u n if o rm ly c u l tu ra l is t s t o t h e i n t roduc t ion o f am a rke t e conomy t a ken i n to a ccoun t f o r a l l t a xa i n c lude l e ng th o fg e s ta t ion ( C la rk a nd H a swe l l 1 967 ) . F or t h is r e a son , i th a s g en p e r iod , f r equency w i th w h ich y oung a r e b orne a nd t h e e r a l ly b een r e ga rded a s r e pre sen t ing al a te d eve lopmen t , n umbe r o fy oung a tb i r th . T ab le 1a l so p re sen ts t h e f ou r f a c i l i ta ted m a in ly b y t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f i n te r r eg iona l d ome s t ic t a xa r anked i n d e scend ing o rde r a cco rd ing t o e conom ic s y s tem s i n teg ra ted i n to t h e w or ld m a rke t . O n a r e produc t ive c apac i ty . T h is p rov ide s s ome i d ea o f t h e s ma l le r s c a le , s ome d eg ree o fs pec ia l iz a t ion w a s u ndoub t r e la t ive a b i l i ty o fe a ch t a xon t oi n c rea se i t s n umbe r s . e d ly p o s s ib le i n p reh is to ry a s w e l l . S t rong c onne c t ions a mong p reh is to r ic g roup s m ay h ave b een d ependen t u pon

S chedu l ing o fL abo r

n e two rk s o f s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ips t o e i the r e xchange p ro -

Much o ft h e p e r t inen t i n f o rma t ion r e ga rd ing t h e p o ten t ia l l a bo r r e qu iremen t s a s soc ia ted w i th e ach o f t h e m a jo r d ome s t ic t a xa d i scus sed a bove i ss umma r ized i nF igu re 3 . T he p o in t s a t w h ich h uman l a bo r m igh t b e e xpec ted t o h ave t h e mo s t e f f ec t o n l e ve ls o f p roduc t ion i n c lude t h e t ime o f p a r tur i t ion , a nd t h e p e r iod s o f l a c ta t ion , f odde r c o l le c t ion a nd o ve rw in te r ing . Two o b serva t ions m ay b e m ade c once rn ing t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e se p o ten t ia l t a sk s t h roughou t t h e y ea r . F i r s t , l a bo r r e qu iremen t s a r e p re sen t a l l y ea r r ound , a s sum ing s ome m in ima l a t ten t ion t o a n i m a ls i n t h e r e p roduc t ive s e a son a nd s ome s upp lemen ta l f e ed ing i n w in te r . S econd , p e r iod s o f p o ten t ia l ly h i gh l a bo r i n pu t o ve r lap f o r m any o f t h e t a xa . T h is s ugge s t s

d uce , o r s p read r i sk b y i n tergroup r e d is t r ibu t ion o f a n i m a ls .

D ive r s if ica t ion D ive r s if ica t ion r e f e r s t o as t ra tegy i n wh ich m u l t ip le k i nds o f a n ima ls a r e k ep t , a nd a r e u sua l ly m anaged f o r d i f f e ren t p roduc t s . I to f ten p rov ide s aw ay t o r e ta in a h i gh d eg re e o f f l ex ib i l i ty a s r equ ired , f o r i n s tance , b y i n s tab i l i ty i nt h e n a tu ra l e nv ironmen t . I nc on t ra s t t os pe c i a l iza t ion , r i sk i so f ten l e s sened -d i sea se o r d i sa s te r a r e l e s s l i ke ly t oa f f ec t a l l t a xa . Howeve r , d i ve r s if ica t ion i s f a ir ly e xpen s ive i nt e rm s o fl a nd a nd l a bor . Mo s t c omb i n a t ion s a r e o n ly s ucce s sf u l i fa n o wne r h a s ac omp le te

t h a t , u nde r c ond i t ion s o f l a bo r s ho r tage o r i fl a bo r i st o h e rd o fo ne a n ima l , p lu s as i zab le n umbe r o f i n d iv idua ls b e m in im ized , af a rme r m ay h ave t o c hoo se b e tween o f o ne o r m o re o t he r t a xa a s a n i n ve s tmen t ( Behnke e xp lo i t ing t h e f u l l r a nge o fb ody p roduc t s o f o ne o r t wo 1 980 :73 ) . D ive r s if ica t ion i sa l so d ependen t o n t h e a b i l i ty t a xa , o r u s ing m u l t ip le t a xa a tl owe r l e ve ls . T h is b r ing s t oc omb ine d i f f e ren t a n ima ls a nd m ay r e qu ire am o re e x u p t wo p o s s ib le s t ra teg ie s f o r i n c rea s ing a n ima l p roduc - t e n s ive u se o f l a nd i fa n ima ls a re i n compa t ib le o r h ave t i on : s pec ia l iza t ion a nd d i ve r s if ica t ion . d i f f e ren t e co log ica l r equ iremen ts . A cco rd ing t o t h e c r i te r ia p resen ted a bove , S he r ra t t 's s e conda ry p roduc t s r evo lu t ion , d i s cu s sed i n C hap te r 2 , S pe c ia l iz a t ion r e f e r s t o c oncen t ra t ion o n o ne t a xon , o r a c an b e i d en t if ied a s amode l p os i t ing ap roce s s o fd i ve r s i -

S pec ia l iza t ion

3 2

P arame ter s o fA n ima l P roduc t ion i nN eo l i th ic E urope

Mar A p r May J un J u l

S heep

B i r th

Goa t

B i r th I -

P ig

B i r th

C a t t le

F eed ing

L ac ta t ion

-

—

A ug S ep Oc t N ov D ec J an

I

L ac ta t ion

B i r th (? )

B i r th

F i rs t B rowse

F eb

L ac ta t ion

I . _ I

C o l lec t F odder

_ 1 I

Mas t

— I

— O ver W in te r -I

s soc ia ted w i th d ome s t ic a n ima l p roduc t ion . F igur e3 .E s t ima te so fs e a sona l l a bo r a nd f ood r e qu iremen t s a f i ca t ion i nt h e a n ima l e conomy d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e N eo l i th ic . A cco rd ing t ot h is mode l , d ome s t ic a n ima l e x p lo i ta t ion u p t ot h e f ou r th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia BC a c ro s s mo s t o f E u rope a nd t h e N ea r E a s t w a s m a in ly c oncerned w i th m ea t u se . B eg inn ing a round t h e m id -f ou r th m i l len n ium BC , as e r ie s o f c hange s i n vo lv ing t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o ft a xa f o rd i f f e ren tb ody p roduc t s i sh ypo the s ized . T he se i n c lude t h e d eve lopmen t o f m i lk ing , t h e u se o f d raf t a n ima l s , w oo l s he ep , e t c . . P h ra sed i nt h e c on tex t o fg en e r a l d e c is ion -mak ing i n s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu re , i tb e c ome s o bv iou s t h a t s uch a s t ra tegy o f d ive r s if ica t ion e n t a i ls ah o s to fc or re spond ing c hange s i nb o th l a nd u se a nd t h e o rgan iz a t ion o fh uman l a bo r . S pec ia l iz a t ion a nd d ive r s if ica t ion s hou ld b e v i ewed a s d i f f e ren t d eg re e s o f r e sour ce s e lec t iv i ty , r a the r t h an mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive , n on -ove r lapp ing a l terna t ive s . I n a t -

t emp t ing t o b a lance t h e c oncerns o f r i sk m in im iz a t ion , l a bo r m in im iza t ion a nd m u l t ip l ic i ty o fg oa ls i d en t if ied f o r s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu ra l is t s a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h is c hap t e r , as t ra tegy o fd ive r s if ica t ion o fa n ima ls a nd /o r a n ima l p roduc t s a ppea r s t op re sen t ab e t te r s o lu t ion t h an s pe c ia l i z a t ion i n s i tua t ions w he re i n c rea sed p roduc t ion i s r e q u ired . T h is m ay b e e spec ia l ly t r ue i n t h e a b sence o f s t rong i n te r reg iona l e xchange s y s tem s . H oweve r , amove t owa rd d ive r s if ica t ion i sn o t n e ce s sar i ly au n ive r sa l t r end , n o r a n i r reve r s ib le o ne . I td epend s , r a the r , o n t h e a va i l a b i l i ty o f l a nd , l a bo r , a nd t h e c ha rac ter is t ic s o f t h e p a r t i cu la r r e sou r ce s a th and . A s i nt h e c a se o ft h e i mp lemen t a t ion o f s pe c if ic m anagemen t t e chn ique s , o ne m u s t t e s t f o r e i the r s pe c ia l iza t ion o r d ive r s if ica t ion i n p a r t icu la r c u l tu ra l c on tex t s r a the r t h an a s sum ing a u n ive r sa l t e n d ency i ne i the rd i re c t ion .

3 3

C hap t er 5

NEOL ITH IC FAUNAL ASSE MBLAGES F auna l d a ta c o l le c ted f r om a n umbe r o f N eo l i th ic c on t e x t s c an b e c ompa red i n o rde r t o t e s t h ypo the se s c on c e rn ing c hange s i n s t ra teg ie s o f d ome s t ic a n ima l m an a gemen t d ur ing t h is p er iod . O ne p rob lem t ob e a dd re s sed i s t h e n a tu re o f t h e d i f f e rence b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s . H ow d o s amp le s f r om t h e se t ime p e r iod s d i f f e r , a nd c an t h e se d i f f e rence s b e r e la ted t o a n i n ten s if ica t ion o f a n im a l u se ? A s e cond q ue s t ion s u r round s t h e g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty w h ich h a s b een i d en t if ied f o r t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic . D oe s t h is v a r iab i l i ty r ef le c t ag ene ra l p roce s s o f d i ve r s if ica t ion i n t h e u se o f a n ima ls a nd a n ima l p roduc t s? I st h e re a ny i n d ica t ion o f s e lec t ive m an ipu la t ion o f an a r row p o r t ion o f t h e f a una l s pe c trum w h ich m igh t s ugge s t e conom ic s pe c ia l iz a t ion? T he f i r s t t wo a na ly t ica l c hap te r s f o cu s o n c ompar ison s b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . A s semb lage c ompos i t ion i sc ompa red i nt e rm s o fg ene ra l s t ruc ture , a s w e l l a s t h e r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion o f m a jo r t a xa . I n t h e f i na l a na lyse s , e mpha s is i so n t y pe s o fv ar i a b i l i ty w i th in t h e l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s w h ich r ef le c t s pe c if ic s t r a teg ie s o fd ome s t ic a n ima l m anagemen t . T he se

i n c lude a ge a nd s ex p rof i le s a nd o s teome t r ic o b serva t ion s f o r t h e m a jo r t a xon : c a t t le . At o ta l o f5 9 f a una l a s semb lage s f r om t h ew e s te rn p or t ion o fc en t ra l E u rope h ave b een c hosen f o r a na ly s is . Twen ty f ou r s amp le s a r e f r om e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s , B andke ram ik o rc l o se ly r e la ted c u l tu re s , t h e r ema in ing 3 5 a r e f r om l a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s a si d en t if ied i nF igu re 2 . T he se f a una l d a ta a r e d e r ived f r om a n umbe r o f d i f f e ren t s ou rce s . I i d en t if ied t h ree o ft h e a s semb lage s u sed i nt h e se a na ly se s : t h e F i sche rga s se a s semb lage , a nd t h e b one s f r om t h e A l the im a nd C ham c on tex t s a tt h e G a lgenbe rg s i te . T he r e s t h ave b een c o l le c ted f r om p ub l ished r epor t s g a the red d ur ing a n e x ten s ive s urvey o f l i t e ra tu re o n N eo l i th ic E u rope , a nd i n c lude a na lyse s p ub l ished u p t o 1 988 . W i th af ew e xcep t ion s ( i n c a se s w hen o r ig ina l a r t ic le s o r r e p or t s p roved i n a cce s s ib le ) , o n ly p r ima ry d a ta h ave b e en u sed . T ha t i s , o r ig ina l f a una l r epor t s w e re c onsu l ted , a nd d a ta f r om t h e se r e po r t s a b s t rac ted a nd r e o rgan ized b y m e f o r u se i n s pec if ic a na lyse s . A n o bv iou s p rob lem w i th s uch a n a pp roa ch i st h e c ompa rab i l i ty o f i d en t if ica t ion s p e rf ormed b y av a r ie ty o fa na lys t s . Mo s t a na lys t s w i th in 2 2 3

2 2 2 1

C ENTRAL E UROPE N eo l ith ic S i tes

0 r••\

F igure 4 . Map o fw e s t -cen t ra l E u rope s how ing d i s tr ibu t ion o fN eo l i th ic s i te s .

3 5

o

E ar ly

•

L ate

2 00 k m

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope T ab le 2 . L is to fa s semb lage s u sed i na na lyse s w i th c u l tura l a ff i l ia t ion a nd b ib l iograph ic r e f e rences .

CULTURE

REFERENCES

1 R osdorf

L BK

R e ichs te in 1 977

2

Müdde r she im

L BK

S t amp f l i 1 965

3

H ienhe im

L BK

C la son 1 977

4

K ra ich ta l -Gochshe im 1 2

H inke ls te in

B oe s sneck 1 982

5

K ra ich ta l -Gochshe im 3

G ros sgar tach

B oe ssneck 1 982

6

B y lany

LBK -SBK

C la son 1 970

7

T röbsdorf

L BK

Mü l le r 1 964

8

D ammendorf

L BK

Mü l le r 1 964 Mü l le r 1 964

NO .

S ITE

H a l le -T ro tha

L BK

1 0

G a te r s leben A kadem ie Ins t i tu t

L BK

Mü l le r 1 964

1 1 2

C ochs ted t B a r leben S chwe inemä s te re i

L BK

Mü l le r 1 964

L BK -SBK

Mü l le r 1 964

1 3

Magdebu rg -Pre s te r

S BK

Mü l le r 1 964

1 4

B a r leben -Hühne rf arm

L BK

Mü l le r 1 964

1 5 1 6

G ros sörne r K ö then -Geuz

L BK -SBK

Mü l le r 1 964

1 7 1 8

9

LBK -SBK

Mü l le r 1 964

H e t t s ted t Hoh ls ted t

L BK

Mü l le r 1 964

L BK

Mü l le r 1 964

1 9

R egensburg -Pürke lgu t

L BK -SBK

B oe ssneck 1 958

2 0

R egensburg -Kumpfmüh l

O be r lau te rbach

B oe s sne ck 1 958

2 1

B rze sc K u jaw sk i

L BK

B oguck i 1 982

2 2

M ie chow ice

L BK

B oguck i 1 982

2 3

L o jewo

L BK

B oguck i 1 982

2 4

S t rze lce

L BK

B oguck i 1 982

2 5

P o l l ing

P o l l ing

B lome 1 968

2 6 2 7

Auvern ie r S cha rf l ing

A uvern ie r

S t amp f l i 1 976b

Mond see

2 8

S ee

Mondsee

Wo lf f 1 977 Wo lf f 1 977

2 9

H e tzenbe rg

M iche lsbe rg

B eye r 1 970

3 0

Mako t ra sy

B aa lbe rg

C la son 1 985 ( con t inued . . .)

t h is a r ea o fc en tra l E u rope s hare ac ommon t r ad i t ion em p ha s iz ing d e ta i led o s teo log ica l o bserva t ions a nd e xh ib i t s im i la r a pproache s t o t h e i nve s t iga t ion o fp reh is tor ic f a u n a s . B e cause o f t h is , t h e re i sc ons ide rab ly more u n ifor m i ty i n d a ta c o l lec t ion a nd p resen ta t ion t h an m igh t i n tu i tve ly b e e xpe c ted . N eve r the le ss , i n te robse rve r b i a s mu s t b e a cknow ledged a s ap oss ib le s ource o fe r ror i ni n terpre t a t ions o ft h ese f a una l c o l le c t ions .

I n terpr e t ing E conom ic S tra teg ie s F rom F auna l R ema in s T he re a r e m any p rob lem s i nvo lved i n t h e a t temp t t o r e cons truc t e conomy

f r om f a una l a s semb lage s .

T he se

h ave b een p o in ted o u t b y mu l t ip le a u thor s i n an umber o f c on tr ibu t ion s t h a t n eed n o t b e r ev iewed h ere ( e g . L yman 1 982 ; Meadow 1 980 ; R ackham 1 983 ; U erpmann 1 973 ) . Howeve r , t wo o f t h e se p rob lem s p er ta in d i re c t ly t o t h e

A l l a s semb lages w e re s c reened f o r o bv ious i n con s is ten -

t y pe o fi n ve s t iga t ion a t temp ted i nt h is d i sser ta t ion a nd s o

c i e s b y t h e c ompar ison o f t a xonom ic a bundance s q uan t i -

a r e a ddre s sed b r ief ly . O ther i n terp re t ive d i ff icu l t ie s w i l l

f i ed i n d i f f e ren t m anner s . I n a dd i t ion , e l emen t f r equen -

b e m en t ioned i n c onne c t ion w i th t h e ir s pec if ic a na ly t ica l

c i e s o f t h e mos t i mpor tan t t a xa w e re c ompa red f o r a ny

c on tex ts .

p os s ib le d i screpanc ie s i n i d en t if iab i l i ty wh ich m ay h ave a f fe c ted

t h e

c a lcu la t ion

o f

t a xonom ic

a bundance s .

A ssemb lage s wh ich r ema ined a f te r t h is i n ten s ive , a l be i t s ub jec t ive , s c ru t iny h ave b een u sed i n t h is r e sea rch . F igu re

4 s hows

t h e

d i s tr ibu t ion

o f

t h e

s e le c ted

a s semb lage s t h roughou t t h e s t udy a r ea . T ab le 2 l i s ts t h e c u l tura l a ff i l ia t ions f o r e ach a s semb lage a nd t h e m a jor b ib l iograph ic r e f erence s f r om wh ich d a ta w ere d er ived .

T he i d en t if ica t ion a nd c ompar ison o f p roduc t ive s t ra te g i e s i so bv ious ly d ependen t u pon t h e a na lys is o f r ema ins f r om a na logou s c on tex t s wh ich r ef le c t e conom ic a c t iv i ty . C on tex tua l p rob lem s c an b e s omewha t c on tro l led b y t h e j ud ic ious s e lec t ion o f a ppropr ia te s amp le s . I n t h is c a se , a na lys is h a s b een r e s tr ic ted t o a s semb lages wh ich h ave b een c ha rac ter ized a s o ccupa t iona l d ebr is a t s i te s i d en t i f i ed a s s e t t lemen t s . T ha t i s , t h ere i sr e a son t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e se w e re h ab i ta t ion l o c i f o r s ome p er iod o f t ime i n p reh is tory . H oweve r , t h e re i sn o c l ea r i dea o f t h e r ange o f s e t t lemen t v ar iab i l i ty w i th in e i the r t he e a r ly o r l a te

3 6

N eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s T ab le 2( Con t inued ) .

NO .

S ITE

CULTURE

REFERENCES

3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9

F e ldme i len -Vo rde rf e ld F i sche rga s se R iekof en H omo lka F e ldme i len -Vo rde rf e ld A l the im A l tene rd ing G a lgenbe rg Munz inge r B e rg

P f yn A l the im

E ib l 1 974 ; F ör s te r 1 974 G la s s 1 987 B u sch 1 985

4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9

L udw igsbu rg B u rgä sch isee -Süd Twann U S M in tranch ing Twann E s chne rL u tz engüe t le E schne r L u tzengüe t le E schne r L u tzengüe t le H orns taad -Hörn le E h rens te in G rossobr ingen S cha lkenbu rg b e i Q uen s ted t D ö laue r H e ide B u rgä sch ise e -S W Y vonand I I L ü sche rz Twann MS1 Twann MS2 Twann O S G a lgenbe rg

C ham R ivnac H orgen A l the im A l the im A l the im M iche lsbe rg S chu s senr ied C or ta i l lod C or ta i l lod A l the im H o rgen P f yn S chu s sen r ied H o rgen H orn s taad S chu s senr ied B e rnbu rg B ernbu rg B ernbu rg C or ta i l lod C or ta i l lod L ü sche rz C or ta i l lod C o r ta i l lod C o r ta i l lod C ham

N eo l i th ic , m u ch l e ss b e twe en t h em . T h is l a ck o f k now l e dge a bou t s e t t lemen t v a r iab i l i ty r ef le c t s a n e ven g rea te r i g no rance a bou t s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i nt h e N eo l i th ic . T he m o s t c ruc ia l e f f e c t t h is h a s o n t h e i n terp re ta t ion o f e co n om ic s t ra teg ie s i si n t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e b a s ic u n i t o fp roduc t ion . A s men t ioned i n t h e l a s t c hap te r , t h e p r i m a ry p roduc t ion u n i t i nm o s t s ub s is tence a gr icu l tu ra l s y s t em s i st h e h ou seho ld , u sua l ly b ound t oa d ja cen t p r ima ry u n i t s t h rough ac omp lex w eb o fk i n sh ip a nd o the r r e c ip r o ca l s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ip s . B y a na logy , t h e b a s ic e conom ic u n i t o ft h e N eo l i th ic i sa s sumed t ob e t h e h ouseho ld . T he n eed t op oo l l a bor a nd r e sou rce s w a s p robab ly a l so c ha r a c te r is t ic o fN eo l i th ic f a rm ing s y s tem s , a l though t h e p re c i se n a tu re a nd d egree o f c omp lex i ty o f t h e se c o l le c t ive e conom ic e n t i t ie s i su nknown . T he p r e sence o f at e r t ia ry ,

Amb ro s 1 968 E ib l 1 974 ; F ö r s te r 1 974 B oe s sne ck 1 956 B oe s sneck 1 956 G la s s ( t h is s t udy ) S chm id 1 958 N ob is 1 977 B oe s sneck B ecke r 1 981 B oe s sneck a nd S chäf f e r 1 985 S t amp f l i 1 980 H a r tmann -Fr ick 1 960 H a r tmann -Fr ick 1 960 H ar tmann -Fr ick 1 960 K okab i 1 985 S check 1 977 B a r the l 1 985 Mü l le r 1 985 Mü l le r 1 978 J o s ien 1 956 ; S t amp f l i 1 964 C ha ix 1 976 J o s ien 1 956 B e cke ra nd J ohan s son 1 981 B e cke ra nd J ohans son 1 981 B e cke ra nd J ohan s son 1 981 G la s s ( t h is s t udy )

p roduc t ion . I ti su nc lea r h ow e conom ic r e cons truc t ion s a t t h e l e ve l o f t h e s i te a r e r e p re sen ta t ive o f s t ra teg ie s i n i t i a ted a tt h e h ou seho ld l e ve l . T he s e cond s e t o f p rob lem s a r e t a phono tn ic o ne s , w h ich p o se c on s ide rab le d i ff icu l t ie s f o r a l l a r chaeo log ica l i n terp re ta t ion s . P rob lem s s ur round ing t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ff a una l r ema in s r e la te t ot h e d i f f e ren t w ay s t h a t a n im a ls m ay e n te r t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r r ema in s a r e d i f f e ren t ia l ly a f f e c ted b y p o s tdepo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T aphonom ic p rob lem s l i ke d i f f e ren t ia l f r ag m en ta t ion a nd p re serva t ion o f t a xa a nd e l emen t s r ema in l a rge ly u nadd re s sed i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s , w i th af ew n o tab le e xcep t ion s ( e g . B ecke r a nd J ohans son 1 981 ; S t ampf l i 1 976a , 1 976b ) . T he e f f e c t s o f t h e se p roce s se s

a r e i mpos s ib le t o a s se s s i n t h e c ompar ison o f p ub l ished o r r e g iona l l e ve l o f p o l i t ica l c on t ro l i n t h e N eo l i th ic i s r e por t s u n le s s t h ey h ave f i r s t b een t a ck led a tt h e l e ve l o f v e ry much a m a t te r o f d eba te , a l though i th a s b een i n t h e i n d iv idua l s i te a na lys is . f e r red i ns om e i n s tance s ( F lem ing 1 985 ; M i l isau ska s a nd n a dd i t ion , t h e re a r e u n ique p rob lem s s ur round ing t h e K ruk 1 984 ; S her ra t t 1 982 ) . I ti sw o r th e mpha s iz ing i n I t h is c on tex t t h a t t he se m u l t ip le l e ve l s o fo rgan iza t ion a r e d i ff icu l t t od i s cr im ina te a r chaeo log ica l ly . N eo l i th ic s i te s , b y v i r tue o f t h e ir s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s , a r e u sua l ly t h ough t t o r e p re sen t m u l t ip le h ou seho ld s . R ema in s f r om t h e se s i te s h ave p robab ly r e su l ted f r om b o th i n d iv idua l h ouse h o ld

a nd

c o l lec t ive

d e c is ions

r e ga rd ing

a gr icu l tu ra l

i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e d ome s t ic a n ima l c on tr ibu t ion t o a p a r t icu la r s y s tem . D ome s t ica te s a r e e conom ica l ly i mpo r t a n t f o r t h e i r e n t ire l i ve s , a nd t h e e conom ic r o le s f u lf i l led b y a n ima ls o f ten c hange w i th in t h e ir l i f e t ime s . F auna l a s semb lage s c omb ine a n ima ls t h a t h ave d i ed a t d i f f e ren t p o in t s a l ong t h e ir e conom ic t r a je c tor ie s . T h is i sq u i te a

3 7

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope d i f f e ren t s i tua t ion f r om t h a t o f aw i ld a n im a l , w ho se e co n om ic c on t r ibu t ion i s m o re c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th i t s p o in t o f e n t ry i n to t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . An umbe r o f i n ve s t iga to r s h ave a t temp ted t o d ea l w i th t h is p he n om enon i nr e cen t y ea r s ( Chang a nd K o s te r 1 986 ; C r ibb 1 985 ) . T he re i s ap re s s ing n eed t od eve lop w ay s o fm od e l ing t h e p roce s se s w h ich a c company t h e t r an s i t ion o f d ome s t ic a n ima ls f r om ab ehav io ra l t oa n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t .

T he se p rob lem s i nr e con s t ruc t ing p r eh is tor ic e conomy a r e o ne s w h i ch n eed t ob e r e so lved i nt h e l o ng r un , b y t h e g r adua l a c cumu la t ion o fd a ta w h ich h ave b e en s y s tema t i c a l ly c o l le c ted a nd a na lyzed . A l though t h ey m u s t b e e xp l ic i t ly r e cogn ized , t h ey d o n o tc omp le te ly p roh ib i t t h e u se o ff a una ld a ta f o r s u ch g ene r a l q ue s t ion s a sh ave b e en p o sed a bove .

3 8

C hap t er 6

TAXONO M IC D IVERSITY I N NEOL ITH IC FAUNAL ASSE MBLAGES F auna l a s semb lage s f r om e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic c on t e x t s e xh ib i t d i f f e rence s i nt h e n umbe r s o ft a xa t h ey c on t a in , a sw e l l a si nt he r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion so fm a jo rt a xa . O ne w ay o f i n ve s t iga t ing t h e se d i f f e r ence s i st h rough a n a na ly s is o fa s semb lage d ive r s i ty . D ive r s if ica t ion o f t he r e sou rce b a se i st h ough t t o h ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nb o th t h e i n i t ia l d eve lopmen t o f f ood -p roduc ing s ys tem s a nd i n t h e a b i l i ty o f t h e se s y s tem s t o s uppo r t s ub sequen t i n c re a se s i n p opu la t ion ( Ch r is tenson 1 980 ; C ohen 1 977 ; F lanne ry 1 968 ; R edd ing 1 988 ) . C hr is ten son h a s p re sen ted a g ene ra l mode l o f c hange s i nr e sou r ce s e lec t ion w h ich m igh t b e e xpe c ted i n as ub s is tence e conomy u nde r c ond i t ion s o f p opu la t ion g row th ( Ch r i s ten son 1 980 ) . I n i t ia l ly , i n c rea s ing t h e n um b e r o f e xp lo i ted f ood r e sou rce s w ou ld b e t h e m os t e ff i c i en t w ay t om e e t t h e i n c rea sed e ne rgy n eed s o f ag roup . H oweve r , t h i s p roce ss o fa dd ing r e sou rce s i so n ly p o s s i b l eu p t o ac e r ta in p o in t . E ven tua l ly , t h e l im i t o ft h e l o ca l r e sou rce b a se i sr e ached -i tb e come s e i the r t o o c o s t ly t o a dd n ew r e sou rce s o r a dd i t iona l r e sou r ce s a r e s imp ly n o t a va i lab le . A f te r t h is p o in t , c hange w i l l h ave t o p roceed b y i n tens if y ing u se o f o ne o r m o re e x is t ing r e sou r ce s . T h is i n ten s if i ca t ion p roce s s m ay , i nt u rn , l e ad t o ar e duc t i on i n t h e n umbe r o f r e sou r ce s e xp lo i ted b e cau se o f e nv i ronmen ta l c hange , o ve rexp lo i ta t ion o r r e ad ju s tmen t s i ns chedu l ing ( Chr is ten son 1 980 :36 ) . T h is h ypo the t ica l s equence h a s mo s to f ten b een a pp l ied i n a t temp t s t o e xp la in c hange s i n t h e s ub s is tence e conomy a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s h if t f r om h un t ing a nd g a the r ing t o a gr icu l ture . Emp ir ica l d a ta f r om t h e T ehua can V a l ley a nd t h e M idwe s te rn Un i ted S t a te s ( Ch r is ten son 1 980 ) , a nd

s t ra teg ie s . I n c on t ra s t , l a te N eo l i th ic s i te s a r e o f t en c ha rac te r iz ed b y l a rge r f a una l a s semb lage s o ve ra l l , w i th o cca s iona l ly v e ry h igh a bundance s o f w i ld a n ima l b one ( e g . B lome 1 968 ; B oe s sneck , J equ ie r a nd S t amp f l i 1 963 ) . T he se l a rge r a s s emb lage s h ave b een c on s ide red i nd ica t ive o f a n i n c r ea sed e mpha s is o n a n ima l u se i n t h e e conomy i n g en e r a l . More s pec if ica l ly , t h e g rea te r n umbe r o f w i ld a n i m a ls b one s r e cove red f r om l a te N eo l i th ic s i te s h a s b een u sed t o i n f e r a n i n c rea se i n h un t ing a c t iv i ty . T h is i n c r ea sed h un t ing a c t iv i ty h a s b een r e la ted t ot h e c o lon iza t i on o f n ew t e r r i to ry b o th d i rec t ly a nd i nd irec t ly . E xpan s ion o fa n a gr icu l tu ra l e conomy m ay h ave b rough t f a rme r s i n to d i rec t c on tac t w i th r i che r , l e ss e xp lo i ted a n ima l p opu la t ion s ( Boe s sne ck 1 956 ; D r iehau s 1 960 :90 ) . I n crea sed h un t ing a c t iv i ty c ou ld b e r e la ted t ot h is g rea te r a va i lab i l i ty , a s w e l l a s t h e n eed t o p ro tec t a gr icu l tu ra l f i e lds f r om c rop scaveng ing f a una . I nd ire c t ly , a n i n c r ea sed u se o fw i ld a n ima ls h a s b een p o s tu la ted a so ne o f t h e c on sequence s o f t h e s e conda ry p roduc t s r evo lu t ion ( Sher ra t t 1 981) . T he u se o f d ome s t ic a n ima ls f o r p u r p o se s l i ke d raf t , t r ac t ion , a nd d a iry ing m ade t h em mo re v a luab le a l ive t h an d ead , n ece s s i ta t ing a n i n c rea sed e x p lo i ta t ion o fw i ld f a una t oc ove rp ro te in n eed s .

Mea sur ing D iver s i ty A l l i n ve s t iga t ion s o f a s semb lage v ar iab i l i ty i n vo lve a t l e a s t i mp l ic i t c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e c oncep t o f d ive r s i ty . D ive r s i ty i nd ice s p rov ide ac onven ien t w ay t os umma r iz e t h ek ind s o fq ua l i ta t ive v a r iab i l i ty c ha rac ter is t ic o fc o l le c t i ve e n t i t ie s , i n much t h e s ame w ay t h a t s t a t is t ica l v a r i a nce p rov ide s am ea su re o f v ar iab i l i ty i n ap a rame tr ic

f r om t h e I b er ian p en insu la ( C la rk a nd Y i 1 983 ) , a ppea rt o v ar iab le ( P ie lou 1 975 :5 ) . F o l low ing g ene ra l e co log ica l f o l low t h ee xpe c ted p a t te rn o fi n c rea s ing r e sou r ce v ar ie ty u sage ( e g . O dum 1 971 ; P ie lou 1 975 ) , d ive r s i ty c an b e f o l lowed b y s e le c t ive i n ten s if ica t ion a s o u t l ined a bove . b roken d own a l ong t wo d imen s ions : r i chne s s a nd e ven T h is s equence o fg ene ra l r e sou rce c hange w i th t h e o r ig in n e s s . R ichne s s s imp ly r e f e r s t o t h e n umbe r o f d i sc re te o ff ood p roduc t ion c an a l so s e rve a s ap o in t o f d epa r tu re c l a s se s p re sen t i n a n a s semb lage , wh i le e venne s s d e f o r ad e ta i led i n ve s t iga t ion o f d i ve r s if ica t ion i n a n ima l s c r ibe s t h e r e la t ive p ropor t ion o f e ach c l a s s . T he se m ay u se t h rough t h eN eo l i th ic . b e a na lyzed s epa ra te ly o r s imu l taneou s ly t h rough t h e u se D if f e rence s b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a n ima l o f c ompo s i te m ea su re s . B ecau se a r chaeo log ica l u sage o f e conomy h ave o f ten b een i n forma l ly p h ra sed i n t e rm s o f t h e t e rm d ive r s i ty h a s b een a pp l ied i n cons is ten t ly t o d i f f e rence s i n d i ve r s i ty . L ow a moun t s o f b one a nd a a na lyse s o f e i the r r i chne s s , e venne s s o r b o th , Dunne 1 1 p redom inance o f d ome s t ic a n ima ls h ave r e pea ted ly b e en ( 1989 ) a nd B ob row sky a nd B a l l ( 1989 ) h ave r e com n o ted f o r B andke ram ik s i te s t h roughou t E u rope ( C la son m ended t h a t t h e t e rm h e terogene i ty b e u sed f o r i n d ice s 1 967 , 1 977 ; Mü l le r 1 964 ; R e ich s te in 1 977 ; S t amp f l i wh ich s pec if ica l ly c omb ine r i chne s s a nd e venne s s i n to a 1 965 ) . T h is h a s b een i n te rp re ted a s r e p re sen t ing a n e conomy i n w h ich a n ima l r e sou rce s i n g ene ra l w e re s ubo rd ina te t o p l an t r e sou r ce s , a nd i nw h ich h un t ing o f w i ld a n ima ls p l ayed o n ly an eg l ig ib le r o le i ns ub s is tence

s i ng le s t a t is t ic . D ive r s i ty i su sed h e re i ni t s mo s t g ene r a l s en se , r e f er r ing n on spe c if ica l ly t o r i chne s s , e venne s s a nd /o rh e te rogene i ty .

3 9

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope s amp le . L ow v a lue s s i gn ify a s semb lage s w i th f ewe r t a xa

R ichne s s Many i n ve s t iga t ion s o fc ommun i ty v ar iab i l i ty i ne co logy a nd a s semb lage v a r iab i l i ty i n a r chaeo logy c on s ide r o n ly t h e n umbe r o f c l a s se s o f i n forma t ion . D if f e rence s i n s amp le s i ze p o se o ne s i gn if ican t p rob lem a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m ea su remen t a nd c on sequen t a na lys is o f r i chne s s .

a nd l ow e venne s s , h igh v a lue s s i gn if y r i che r a s semb lage s mo re e ven ly d i s tr ibu ted among t h e ir membe r t a xa . I ti s i mpor tan t t o r emembe r when i n te rp re t ing d ive r s i ty ( r ichne s s , e venne s s o r h e te rogene i ty ) t h a t o n ly t h e s t ruc t u re o f a n a s semb lage ( t he n umbe r o f t a xa a nd /o r t h e p a t te rn o fa bundance ) i sc ompa red ( Bob row sky a nd B a l l 1 989 ; D unne 1 1 1 989 ) . T he re m ay s t i l l b e m a jo r d i f f e r e nce s a mong t h e s i te s r ega rd ing t h e p ar t icu la r t a xa wh ich a ppea ri nt h ev a r iou s r a nk c a tegor ie s .

T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween r i chne s s a nd s amp le s i ze h a s b een t h o rough ly d i scu s sed i n t h e c on tex t o f g ene ra l a r c haeo log ica l a na lyse s ( e g . J one s , G rayson a nd B eck 1 983 ; K in t igh 1 984 ) a nd i nt h e c on tex t o ft h e a na lys is o f su re s o fb o th r i chne ss a nd h e te rogene i ty , s pe c if ica l ly a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a leon to log ica l f a una s ( e g . G rayson Mea h e d i e t -b read th s t a t is t ic , w e re u sed b y C hr is ten son t o 1 978 , 1 981 , 1 984 ) . B a s ica l ly , t h e n umbe r o f d i sc re te t lu s t ra te t h e s equence o f c hange s i n r e sou r ce u se d e c l a s se s o f d a ta i s l o ga r i thm ica l ly r e la ted t o t h e t o ta l i c r ibed a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h is c hap ter . T he a na lys is o f n umbe r o f i t em s i n t h e s amp le u nde r i n ve s t iga t ion . T ha t s b o th r i chne s s a nd h e te rogene i ty i n f a una l a s semb lage s f r om e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s y i e ld s r e su l t s h ich c an t h en b e r e la ted t o t h is h ypo the t ica l m ode l o f c on ta in ing d ra s t ica l ly d i f f e ren t n umbe r so fi t em s a r ec om - w ene ra l r e sou rce u se . p a red , s ome c au t ion h a s t o b e u sed i fv a r ia t ion d ue t o g s amp le s i ze d i f f e rence s a l one i st ob e e xc luded . A n a na ly s is o f d ive r s i ty r equ ire s c ons ide ra t ion o f t wo b a s ic p rope r t ie s o f t h e d a ta u nde r i n ve s t iga t ion ( P ie lou E venne s s i s , t h e n umbe r o fc l a s se s i n c rea se s a t ad e c rea s ing r a te a s s amp le s i ze i n c rea se s . I n p opu la t ion s w he re s amp le s

A t f i r s t g l ance , e venne s s d e scr ibe s aq ua l i ty w h ich i s e a s i ly a nd i n tu i t ive ly r e cogn izab le a s i mpor tan t : t h e r e la t ive p ropor t ion c on tr ibu ted b y e ach c a tegory , i n t h is c a se , t a xon , t o t h e a s semb lage a s a w ho le . Me thodo log ica l ly , h oweve r , t h e re i s c on s ide rab ly mo re d i ff i cu l ty i ni s o la t ing a nd a na lyz ing e venne s s a s ad imen s i on o fv ar iab i l i ty . T h is d i f f icu l ty s ur round s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re s e em s t o b e n o s a t isf ac to ry w ay t o m ea su re e ven n e s s w h ich d oe s n o t i n co rpo ra te r i chne s s . A l l s t a t is t ic s d e s igned t om ea su re e venne s s r e ly o n s ome k now ledge o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f c l a s se s p re sen t i n t h e p opu la t ion , wh ich i sr a re ly a t ta inab le ( P ie lou 1 977 :307 -309 ) . I n t h e a bsence o ft h is k now ledge , t h e n umbe r o fc l a s se s i ne a ch s amp le i so f ten s ub s t i tu ted , wh ich i sd ependen t o n s amp le s i ze a s d i scu s sed a bove . B eyond t h is , i ti sa l so q ue s t ion a b le w he the r o r n o t a n i n dependen t m ea su re o f e venne s s i sa ta l l d e s irab le , s i nce i tp l ace s a s much w e igh t o n r a re c l a s se s a so n t h e mo re a bundan t o ne s , p o s s ib ly l e ad ing t o i n te rp re t ive d i ff icu l t ie s ( P ie lou 1 977 :309 ) . G iven t h e m e thodo log ica l a nd i n te rp re t ive d i ff icu l t ie s d e scr ibed a bove f o r t h e m ea su remen t o f e venne s s , a na lys is o f t h is c omponen t o f d i ve r s i ty w i l l b e l e f t u n t i l a mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o ft a xonom ic a bundance .

H e te rogene i ty A n umbe r o f m ea su re s o f h e te rogene i ty

h ave

1 975 :6 ) . F i r s t , t h e b oundar ie s o r p a rame te r s o f t h e c o l l e c t ion m u s t b e s pe c if ied . A r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s , l i ke e co log ica l c ommun i t ie s , c an b e d ef ined a l ong a n umbe r o fl i ne s . T h is a na lys is o fd i ve r s i ty w i l l d ea l w i th m amma l ian t a xa r e cove red f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . N on -mamma l ian t a xa h ave b een e xc luded b ecau se o ft h e ir s ma l l q uan t i t ie s , a nd t h e p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e ir r e cove ry a nd i d en t if ica t ion . S e cond , am e thod o fm ea su r i n g t h e c on t r ibu t ion o fe ach t a xon mu s t b e c ho sen . T he re a r e t h ree b a s ic w ays o fq uan t if y ing f a una l r ema in s : n um b e r o f i d en t if ied b one f r agmen t s o r s pec imen s ( N ISP ) , m in imum n umbe r o fi n d iv idua l ( MN I ) , a nd b one w e igh t . Mo s t e co log ica l s t ud ie s o fd ive r s i ty u se t h e n umbe ro fi n d i v idua ls o r s ome m ea sure o f b ioma ss , d epend ing o n c ha ra c ter is t ic s o f b ody s i ze a nd s pec ie s d i s tr ibu t ion . U nf o r tuna te ly , a l l t h re e mea sur e s o f a r chaeo log ica l r e la t ive a bundance a r e s eve re ly b i a sed b y v a r iou s t a pho n om ic o r a na ly t ica l f a c to r s , a nd c anno t b e d i re c t ly r e la ted t oi n d iv idua l c oun t s o r b ioma s s m ea su res a s u sed i ne co l o gy . A m o re d e ta i led d i scu ss ion o f t h e se r e la t ive m ea s u re s w i l l b e c a r r ied o u t i nt h e c on tex t o fe va lua t ing t a x o nom ic a bundance ; f o r p urpo se s o f t h is a na ly s is , t h e

n umbe r o fi d en t if ied s pe c imens w a s u sed b e cau se i ti st h e o n ly r e la t ive m ea su re o f a bundance p rov ided i n a l l r e p or t s .

b e en

a dap ted f r om e co logy t ot h e s t udy o f h uman s ub s is tence s y s tem s . T he o ne u sed h e re i s as t a t is t ic c a l led d i e t b read th i n t roduced t oh uman e co logy s t ud ie s b y H a rde s ty ( Ha rde s ty 1 975 ) . I tm ay b e d e scr ibed a s t h e r e c ip roca l o f t h e s um o ft h e p ropo r t iona l c on tr ibu t ion o fd i f f e ren t f ood r e sou rce s ( C la rk a nd Y i 1 983 :183 ) T he d i e t -b read th i ndex c an b e r e cogn ized a s amod if ica t ion o ft h e S imp son i n dex , o r ig ina l ly d e s igned a s am ea su re o f c oncen t ra t ion o r d om inance o f am any spe c ie s c ommun i ty . I t v ar ie s f r om 1t o am ax imum v a lue e qua l t o t h e r i chne s s o f t h e

Ana ly s i s o fN eo l i th ic F auna l D iver s i ty T he re a r es e ve ra l i n ter re la ted h ypo the se s e mbedded i nt h e g ene ra l t r end s i n N eo l i th ic f auna l a s semb lage s d e scr ibed a bove . T he se c an b e r e ph ra sed i n amo re s pec if ic m anne r t o e mpha s iz e t h e ir r e la t ion t o p a r t icu lar d imen s ion s o f d i ve r s i ty i n o rde r t o f a c i l i ta te t e s t ing . O ne q ue s t ion t o a dd re s s i st h e d i f f e rence b e twe en e a r ly a nd l a te a s sem b l age s i nt h e i mpor tance o f w i ld a n ima l s . B o th e a r ly a nd l a te a s semb lage s u sua l ly c on ta in t h e s ame b a s ic c o re o f d ome s t ic a n im a ls ( c a t t le , s he ep , g oa t s , p ig a nd d og ) , a l b e i t i n v a ry ing p e rcen tage s , a nd t h e p re sence o f w i ld

4 0

T axonom ic D iv er s i ty i nN eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s a n ima ls a lmo s t a lways r e p re sen t s a n i n c rea se i nt h e t o ta l n umbe r o ft a xa . A n a s sump t ion wh ich m ay b e m ade h e re i st h a t ag rea te re conom ic e mpha s is o n h un t ing , f o rw ha t e ve r r e a son , w i l l r e su l t i n ah ighe r n umbe r o f t a xa i na n a s semb lage , o ri no the rw o rd s , a n i n cre a se i nr i chne s s . As e cond q ue s t ion wh ich m ay b e a ddr e ssed c once rn s t h e r e la t ive d eg re e o fs pe c ia l iza t ion e v iden t i n f a una l a s sem b l age s f r om t h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic . C ur ren t r e con s t ruc t ion s c ha ra c ter ize t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s l a nd i n ten s i ve , o r ien ted p redom inan t ly t owa rd c r op p roduc t s , a nd l a te r s y s tem s a s l a nd e x ten s ive , w i th a n i n c rea se i n t h e i mpor tance o f t h e a n ima l c omponen t . W i th in t h e a n im a l c omponen t s pe c if ica l ly , e a r ly N eo l i th ic a n ima l u se i s t h ough t t oh ave e mpha s ized d ome s t ic t a xa , w i th p e rhap s t h e m o s t i mpor tance p l aced o n c a t t le . L a te r e conom ic s y s tem s h ave b een p i c tu red a s o f ten s pe c ia l iz ing o n o ne d ome s t ic t a xon , f r equen t ly b u t n o t e xc lu s ive ly c a t t le , a nd e xp lo i t ing ag rea te r v a r ie ty o fo the r s pec ie s ( bo th d ome s t i c a nd w i ld ) a s w e l l . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f s uch d i f f e r e nce s i n c omb ined r i chne s s a nd e venne s s i s b e s t a p p roached t h rough t h e u se o f ah e te rogene i ty m ea su re . I f t h e t r ends d e scr ibed a bove f o r t h e d i f f e ren t p er iod s a r e v a l id , e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s s hou ld s how c l e a r ly d i f f e ren tv a lue s . I n s umma ry , t wo s pec if ic q ue s t ion s a r e a dd re s sed h e re . F i r s t , l a te N eo l i th ic s i te s a r e e xpe c ted t o s how g rea te r t a xonom ic r i chne s s t h an e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s a s ar e f l e c t ion o fa n i n c r ea sed e xp lo i ta t ion o fw i ld a n ima ls . A nd s e cond , e a r ly a nd l a te a s semb lage s s hou ld s how s i gn if i c an t ly d i f f e ren t h e te rogene i ty v a lue s , g i ven t h e d i f f e ren t s t r a teg ie s o f d ome s t ic a nd w i ld a n ima l u se h ypo the s ized f o re a ch p e r iod .

h ypo the t ica l p a ren t p opu la t ion i st h en r a ndom ly s amp led as e t n umbe r o f t ime s a tv a r iou s s amp le s i ze s . F ina l ly , a m ean v a lue a nd c onf idence i n te rva l a r e c a lcu la ted f o r e a ch s amp le s i z e , p rov id ing ar a nge w i th in wh ich as pe c i f i ed p ropor t ion o ft h e s imu la t ion t r ia ls h ave f a l len . E ach i n d iv idua l a s semb lage c an t h en b e c ompa red t ot h is m ean a nd c onf idence i n te rva l , a nd t h e l i ke l ihood t h a t i td e r ived f r om t h eb ackg round p opu la t ion c an b ee va lua ted . I nt h is s t udy , t h e b ackg round p opu la t ion w a s c on s truc ted u s ing a v ar ia t ion o f K in t igh 's p rocedu re s d e scr ibed i n McCa r tney a nd G la s s ( 1990 ) . S pec ie s w e re s o r ted i n d e scend ing r ank o rde r b y N ISP f o r e ach a s semb lage . T o ta ls f o r e ach r ank ( i gno r ing t a xonom ic i d en t if ica t ion ) w e re d er ived a nd d iv ided b y t h e n umbe r o fa s semb lage s . R andom s amp le s w e re t h en d rawn f r om t h e se r ank s u p t o t h e d e s igna ted s amp le s i ze f o r t h e s pe c if ied n umbe r o f i t e r a t ion s . T h is m e thod w a s c ho sen o ve r as imp le r a p p roach o fs umm ing t h e f r equenc ie s o fe ach s pe c ie s t od e r i ve t h e ir p ropor t ion s . Ab ackg round d i s tr ibu t ion d e r ived f r om t h e s t ra igh t s um s o f e ach d i sc re te c a tego ry p oo ls e venne s s v a lue s a c ro s s t ho se c a tegor ie s . I ft h e re i s al o t o f v ar iab i l i ty i n t h e r ank o rde r o f c a tegor ie s a mong a s semb lage s , t h is v a r ia t ion i s s moo thed , r e su l t ing i n a b ackg round d i s tr ibu t ion w h ich h a s g rea te r e venne s s t h an a ny o f t h e i n d iv idua l a s semb lage s w h ich w en t i n to i t s c on s truc t ion . B e cause a c ompar ison o f t h e u nde r ly ing d i ve r s i ty , a nd n o t s pe c ie s c on ten t , o f f a una l a s semb lage s i nt h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic i so fp r im a ry i n te re s t h e re , t h e s or t ing p rocedu re h a s b een u sed . C ompa r ison s o f t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o f s pe c if ic t a xa w i l l b e a dd re s sed s epa ra te ly .

T he r a ndom iza t ion m e thod s ummar ized a bove p re sen t s c e r ta in a dvan tage s o ve r r e g re s s ion a na lys is f o r i n ve s t iga T he P rob lem o fS amp le S i ze t i on s o fd ive r s i ty , a nd f o r e xam in ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e V a r iab i l i ty i n s amp le s i z e s a mong s i te s p re sen t s o ne o f t we en d ive r s i ty a nd s amp le s i ze . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e m o s t o bv iou s d i ff icu l t ie s i nc ompa r ing e a r ly a nd l a te r a ndom iza t ion a l low s o ne t oc ompa re t h e a s semb lage u n N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s . T ab le 3 p re sen t s t h e n um - d e r i n ve s t iga t ion w i th ap a ren t p opu la t ion wh ich h a s b een b e r o f t a xa a nd s amp le s i ze s f o r t h e 5 9 N eo l i th ic f a una l c on s truc ted w i th a s pec if ic h ypo the s is i n m ind , r a the r a s semb lage s i n t roduced i n C hap te r 5 . T he f i r s t 2 4 s am - t h an f o rc ing c ompar ison t o al i nea r , o r t r an sf ormed l i n p l e s a r e f r om t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s , f o l lowed b y t h e e a r , mode l . S econd , r a ndom iza t ion a low s o ne t o i n ve s a s semb lage s f r om t h e 3 5 l a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s . S amp le t i ga te t h e e f f e c t o f s amp le s i z e o n d i ve r s i ty i n i s o la t ion s i z e s f o r t h e e a r ly c on tex t s r a nge f r om 8 8 t o 1 500 b one s , l a te r a s semb lage s c on ta in a nywhe re f r om 2 00 t o 1 7 ,000 f r agmen ts .

f r om o the r v a r iab le s . A nd f i na l ly , al e ve l o f c onf idence m ay b e c a lcu la ted t o e va lua te t h e s i gn if icance o f t h e d ev ia t ion o f e ach o b se rved s amp le f r om i t s e xpec ted s co re . T h is i si mpo r tan t b e cau se o f t h e o b serva t ion d e -

Two m e thod s h ave b een u sed f o r a na lyz ing a s semb lage r i ved f r om r a ndom iza t ion s t ud ie s o f r i chne s s a nd s amp le d i ve r s i ty a nd t e s t ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en i t a nd s i ze : t h e a moun t o fr andom e r ror v ar ie s w i th s amp le s i z e , s amp le s i ze i n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta : r e gre s s ion a na ly s is a nd mus t b e e va lua ted s epa ra te ly f o r e ach a s semb lage a nd s imu la t ion . G rayson ( 1984 ) p r e sen t s t h e mo s t ( K in t igh 1 984 , 1 989 ) . A s sum ing a s t anda rd r a nge o f t h o rough d i scu s s ion o f t h e u se o f r e g re s s ion a na ly s is t o e r ro r a c ros s d i f f e ren t s amp le s i z e s , a s , f o r e xamp le , i na n a dd re s s t a xonom ic r i chne s s i n a r ch aeo log ica l f a una s . a na lys is o fr e s idua ls , i sn o t a lway sv a l id . K in t igh ( 1984 ) , i nt h ec on tex t o fd ea l ing s pe c if ica l ly w i th r i chne s s , i n t roduced a s imu la t ion , o r r a ndom iz a t ion , a p S imu la t ion s o fN eo l i th ic F auna l R ichne s sa nd p roa ch w h ich h a s b een a dap ted h e re t o t h e a na ly s is o f t a xonom ic d i ve r s i ty i n f a una l a s semb lage s . T h is i n vo lve s c on s truc t ing a b ackg round d i s tr ibu t ion o f s pe c ie s f r equenc ie s f r om a g roup o f a s semb lage s . T h is

H e te rogene i ty A ppend ix 1 p re sen t s t h e r aw d a ta u sed f o r t h e r i chne s s a nd h e te rogene i ty s imu la t ion s . S ome a d ju s tmen t s h ave b e en m ade t o t h e b one c oun t s d er ived f r om t h e o r ig ina l

4 1

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope T ab le 3 .S amp le s i ze , r i chne s s a nd h e te rogene i ty v a lue s f o rN eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s .

NO . S ITE 1 2 3

R o sdo rf Müdde r she im H ienhe im

4 5

K ra ich ta l -Goch she im 1 2 K ra ich ta l -Goch she im 3

6 7 8 9 1 0

B y lany T röbsdo rf D anunendo rf H a l le -T ro tha G a te r s leben A kadem ie In s t i tu t

1 1 2 1 3

C och s ted t B a r leben S chwe inemä s te re i Magdebu rg -P re s te r

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

B a r leben Hühne r f a rm G ro s sörne r K ö then -Geuz H e t t s ted t Hoh ls ted t R egen sburg -Pü rke lgu t

2 0 2 1

R egen sbu rg -Kumpfmüh l B rze sc K u jaw sk i

2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0

M ie chow ice L o jewo S t rze lce P o l l ing A uve rn ie r S cha rf l ing S ee H e tzenbe rg Mako tra sL

N ISP 1 07 2 17 1 47 1 88 1 019 5 71 3 72 2 21 3 64 3 10 1 52 5 23 7 68 1 71 2 97 1 87 13 3 57 4 59 17 6 53 1 503 6 20 8 8 2 958 1711 5 22 1 954 3 344 2 383

R ICHNESS

HETEROGENE ITY

6 1 0 1 5 9 1 0

1 . 86 2 .78 4 .43 1 . 79 2 .94 1 . 51

1 0

2 .65

7 7 6

2 .04 1 . 38 2 .77

3 1 0 1 0 5

2 .06 2 .37 1 . 88 2 .07

8 8 3 8 1 8 9

1 . 62 2 .43 1 . 80 2 .68 5 .01 5 . 16 1 . 74

7 8 5 1 2 2 3 1

2 .05 1 . 86 1 . 51 2 .02 5 . 18 2 .41

1 9

4 .88

9 1 4

2 .28 1 . 85 ( c on t inued . . . )

r epo r t s i n o rde r t o e nhance c ompa rab i l i ty a mong s i te s . Whe re n e ce s sa ry , wo rked b one a nd s hed a n t le r f r agmen t s w e r e s ub t ra c ted f r om t h e t a xonom ic c oun t s g iven b y e ach a u tho r . I n g ene ra l , t h e c a tegor ie s u sed i n t h e f o l low ing a na lyse s c ompr ise t h e n umbe r o f b one f r agmen t s i d en t i f i ed t o t h e s pe c ie s l e ve l . Howeve r , s ome mod if i ca t ion w a s r equ ired i nt h ec a se o fb one i d en t if ied a sS u s s p . a nd B o s s p . Mo s t N eo l i th ic s i te s c on ta in r epre sen ta t ive s o f b o th w i ld a nd d ome s t ic f o rm s o f c a t t le a nd p ig i n t h e ir f a una l a s semb lage s : m any a l so c on ta in b one s w h ich , d ue t oh igh f r agmen ta t ion a nd /o r i n te rmed ia te s i ze , c an o n ly b e i d en t if ied t og enu s . Om is s ion o ft h e se b one s d oe s n o t s e em a pp ropr ia te , g iven t h e i mpor tance o f t h e se t a xa f o r t h e N eo l i th ic a s aw ho le . I n a dd i t ion , t h e i nde term ina te f r agmen t s w e re a l ready s ub sumed u nde r t h e ir d ome s t ic

i st h a t a l l a s semb lage s b e long t ot h e s ame p a ren t p opu la t i on , wh ich h a s b een e s t ima ted f r om t h e s pe c ie s f r equen c i e s o f a l l t h e s i te s i n t h e m anne r d es c r ibed a bove . I n e ach s imu la t ion , 5 00 r andom s amp le s w e re d rawn f r om t h is e s t ima ted p opu la t ion a ts i z e s c or re spond ing t o t ho se o f e ach a s semb lage . A m ean v a lue a nd 9 5% c onf idence i n terva l w e re c a lcu la ted f o r e a ch s amp le s i z e . T h is i s c on s ide red t o b e t h e r a nge w i th in w h ich a n a s semb lage s hou ld f a l l i ft h e n u l l h ypo the s is i st r ue . T he l i ne s c on n e c t ing t h e se p o in t s ( mean , z= + 1 .96 , z= 1 .96 ) c an b e t h ough t o fa s t h e v a lue s p red ic ted i ft h e s ame p opu la t i on w e re s amp led a td i f f e ren t s i ze s .

R ichne s s F igu re 5 p re sen t s t h e r e su l t s o f t h e r i chne s s a na ly s is .

c oun te rpa r t s i ns ome c a se s . I no rde r t oi n c rea se t h e c om p a rab i l i ty o fs amp le s , b one s i d en t if ied a s B o s s p . o r S us

T he se c an b e i n te rp re ted w i th r e f e rence t ot wo f e a tu re s o f t h e g raph : t h e s l ope o f t h e l i ne r e p re sen t ing t h e m ean

s p . w e re c oun ted a s B o s t auru s a nd S us d ome s t icu s , r e spe c t ive ly , f o r p u rpo se s o f t h is a na lys is . F o r t h e s ame

e xpec ted r i chne s s c a lcu la ted f r om t h e b ackground p opu la -

r e a son , b one s i d en t if ied a s O v i s a r ie s , C apra h i rcu s a nd " Ov i so r C apra " w e re l umped t oge the ra so v icap r ine s . Two s epa ra te a na lyse s w e re p e r formed : o ne o n r i chne s s , a nd o ne o n d i e t -b read th . T he n u l l h ypo the s is o fe ach t e s t

t i on a nd t h e w id th o f t h e 9 5% c onf idence i n te rva l a l ong t h is l i ne . T he s l ope o ft h is l i ne s how s t h a t ah igh a moun t o f v a r ia t ion i n r i chne s s c an b e e xpec ted t o o ccu r w i th v a r ia t ion i n s amp le s i z e . T he l i ne o f me an e xpec ted r i chne s s d oe s n o t b eg in t o l e ve l o f f u n t i l s amp le N ISP r e ache s o r e xceed s 1 0 ,000 f r agmen t s . T he w id th o f t h e

4 2

T axonom ic D iv er s i ty i nN eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s T ab le 3 ( c on t inued ) .

N ISP

NO . S ITE 3 1

F e ldme i len -Vorde rf e ld

3 2

F ischerga s se

R ICHNESS

4 303 8 51

1 6 1 4

HETEROGENE ITY 2 .91 4 .21

3 3

R iekof en

1 0423

2 0

4 .81

3 4

Homo lka

1 381

1 4

2 .93

3 5

F e ldme i len -Vorde rf e ld

3 6 3 7

A l the im A l tenerd ing

4 718 3 36

1 6 8

4 .40 2 .09

5 85

9

2 .56

3 8

G a lgenbe rg

4 00

5

3 .08

3 9

Munz inge r B e rg

5 59

8

2 .44

4 0

L udw igsbu rg

8

2 .63

4 1

B u rgäsch isee -Süd

1 7289

2 1

3 .34

4 2

Twann US

1 3979

2 1

4 .98

4 3

M in tranch ing

4 4

Twann

6 64

3 59

1 0

3 .98

1 5 1 3

2 .74 3 . 10

4 5

E schner L u tzengüe t le

2 918 1 822

4 6

E schner L u tzengüe t le

148

1 0

2 .54

4 7

E schner L u tzengüe t le

7 01

1 6

4 .29

4 8

Horns taad -Hörn le

5 21

1 0

2 .76

4 9

E h rens te in

1 0272

1 8

3 .64

5 0 5 1

G rossobr ingen S cha lkenbu rg b e i Q uens ted t

4 612

1 5

2 . 13

5 2

Dö lauer H e ide

3 075 2 17

1 8 1 0

2 .89 3 . 16

5 3

B u rgä sch isee -S W

4 708

1 6

5 .70

5 4

Y vonand I I

5 5

L üscherz

5 6

Twann MS1

2 957

1 7

3 .82

5 7

Twann MS2

1 3809

2 3

3 .43

5 8

Twann O S

3 665

2 2

5 .52

5 9

G a lgenbe rg

2 070

1 7

7 .04

2 25 1 035

7 1

3 .71 3 .22

9 5% c onf idence i n te rva l d e crea se s s l igh t ly f r om t h e l e f t

i t s l owe r e nd . T he p o in ts d o n o t a l l f a l l w i th in t h e l im i ts

t ot h e r i gh t s i de o fg raph , s how ing t h a t s omewha t h i ghe r

d ef ined b y t h e 9 5% c onf idence i n terva l f o r e ach s imu -

a moun ts o fr a ndom v ar iab i l i ty a r e t ob e e xpe c ted a tl ower

l a ted p o in t . T hu s , t h e n u l l h ypo the s is c an b e r e jec ted : t h e

s amp le s s i ze s t h an a t l a rge r o ne s . T he s c a t te r o f p o in ts

a s semb lage s a r e p robab ly n o t d e r ived f r om t h is p a ren t

s how ing a c tua l v a lues o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s

p opu la t ion . A l l b u t o ne o f t h e p o in ts r epre sen t ing e a r ly

r ough ly r ef lec t t h ese s ame c ha rac ter is t ics : t h ey f a l l i n a N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s l i e b enea th t h e 9 5% c onf idence r e la t ive ly s t eep ly s l op ing l i nea r b and , wh ich i sb roader a t b and , wh i le a lmos t o ne t h ird o f t h e l a te a s semb lage s l i e w i th in o r a bove t h e b and . T h is f u r ther s ugges t s t h a t t h ese a s semb lage s m ay b e d er ived f r om more t h an o ne p a ren t p opu la t ions . T he re m ay b e a tl e a s t t wo s epara te p a t tern s o f r e la t ive ly h i ghe r a nd l owe r r i chne ss i n t h e l a te a nd e a r ly N eo l i th ic , r e spe c t ive ly . T he g ene ra l r e su l ts o ft h e s imu la t ion s ugge s t t h a t much o f t h e v a r iab i l i ty o bserved i n t a xonom ic r i chne ss f ound i n N eo l i th ic f auna l a s semb lage s i sr e la ted t o d if f e rence s i n t h e ir s amp le s i ze s . I ta l so i nd ica te s t h a t t h e a s semb lage s ( o r a t l e a s t mos t o f t h em ) c anno t b e a s sumed t o c ome f r om as i ng le p opu la t ion , o r a tl e a s t n o t f r om o ne r e sem b l ing t h e t e s t p opu la t ion . I ti sa ppa ren t f r om F igure 5 t h a t mos t o f t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s t e nd t o b e c ha rac ter ized b y s ma l l s amp le s i z e s a nd l ow r i chne ss v a lue s , b u t t h a t

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t h e l a te r a s semb lage s a r e mo re s c a t te red a l ong b o th a xe s . I n o rde r t o mo re f u l ly i n ve s t iga te p os s ib le d i f f e rence s i n r i chne s s b e twe en e a r ly a nd l a te a s semb lages , t h e e f fe c t s

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F igure 6 .H is tog ram o fd ev ia t ion s o fr i chne s s s co re s f o re a r ly N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s .

F igure 7 .H is tog ram o fd ev ia t ion so fr i chne s s s c o re s f o r l a te N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s .

o f s amp le s i ze i n d ica ted h e re m ay b e f a c to red o u t . T h is c an b e d one b y a n a na lys is o ft h e d ev ia t ion s b e tween t h e r i chne s s v a lue o b se rved f o r e ach a s semb lage a nd t h e e x -

o ft h e l i ne c onnec t ing t h e e xpe c ted v a lue s i sa lmo s t h or i z on ta l , s ugge s t ing t h a t h e te rogene i ty v a lue s a r e n o t

p e c ted v a lue o b ta ined f o r t h a t s amp le s i ze b y t h e s imu l a t ion . B ecau se t h e w id th o ft h e c onf idence b ands r ema in r e la t ive ly s t ab le a c ro s s a l l s amp le s i ze s , t h e d ev ia t ion s , r a the rt h an zs co re s , w e re u sed . F o r t h is p urpo se , t h e l i ne o fm ean e xpe c ted r i chne s s i st a ken t or e p re sen t ah eu r is t ic c on s truc t t o wh ich t h e r e a l a s semb lage s c an b e c ompa red i n ar e la t ive m anne r . T o t e s t t h e d i f f e rence s b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic s ugge s ted b y F igu re 5 , s epa ra te h i s tog ram s o f d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e m ean w e re p roduced f o r t h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s ( F igu re s 6a nd 7 ) . T he r a nge o f b o th o ft h e se d i s tr ibu t ion s a r e t h e s ame . I na dd i t ion , t h e re i so n ly as l igh td i f f e rence b e tween t h e m ean s o ft h e se t wo d i s tr ibu t ion s , c o r re spond ing i n r e a l v a lue s t o a n a ve rage d i f f e rence o fa bou t t wo m o re t a xa p e r a s semb lage i nt h e l a te N eo l i th ic . A t t e s t y i e lded a s co re o f 2 .768 ( ‚ p= . 008 ) . T h is c onf irm s t h a t t h e re i s as i gn if ican t d i f f e r e nce b e tween t a xonom ic r i chne s s i n l a te N eo l i th ic s i te s c ompa red t oe a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s . H oweve r , t h e s c a le o f t h e se d i f f e rence s i sd ra s t ica l ly r e duced w hen t h e e f f e c t s o fs amp le s i ze h ave b een e s t ima ted a nd r emoved .

s eve re ly i n f luenced b y s amp le s o f t h is s i ze r a nge . T he re i s , h oweve r , am a rked d i f f e rence i nt h ew id th o ft h e9 5% c onf idence i n terva l a c ro s s t h e g raph . T h is i nd ica te s t h a t , a l though t h e m ean i ndex v a lue s t h em se lve s a r e n o t a f f e c ted , t h e re i s amuch g rea te r r a nge o f e r ro r i nt h e v a l u e s c a lcu la ted f o r t h e s ma l le r a s semb lage s . A s w i th t h e r i chne s s t e s t , t h e n u l l h ypo the s is c an b e r e je c ted b a sed o n t h e o b serva t ion t h a t t h e v a lue s f o r a l l o f t h e a s semb lage s a r e n o t r e s t r ic ted t o t h e b and d ef ined b y t h e c onf idence i n terva l . C lo se r i n spec t ion o f t h is p a t te rn h a s b e en c ar r ied o u t u s ing t h e s t ra igh t v a lue s f o r h e te rogene i ty c a lcu la ted f o r e ach a s semb lage . U se o f t h e d ev ia t ion v a lue ( d if f e rence b e tween o b se rved a nd e xpec ted s co re ) d oe s n o t s e em n ece s sa ry i nt h is c a se b e cau se o ft h e w ide d i f f e rence s b e t ween t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ions o f s m a l l v e r su s l a rge s i te s . S p l i t t ing t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion i n to e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic g roup s ( F igu re 9 ) r e su l t s i n ah i s tog ram i n w h ich i ti s c l ea r t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f d i e t -b read th i sd i f f e ren t f o r e a ch p e r iod . B o th t h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a r e c ha rac -

B o th h i s tog ram s s how t h e p re sence o f af ew a s semb lage s w i th e x t reme r i chne s s d ev ia t ion s . F o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic ( F igu re 6 ) , a s semb lage s 3a nd 2 2 s how l ow a nd h i gh d i f f e rence s , r e spec t ive ly , o f am agn i tude g rea te r t h an t wo s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e m ean . T he l a te N eo l i th ic a s s emb lage 2 9 a l so s how s u p a s al ow e x t reme v a lue i n F igu re 7 . B a sed o n r i chne s s a l one , t h e se a s semb lage s a ppea r t o b e d i f f e ren t f r om t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h o se a na l y zed .

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g ene i ty i nt h e l a te r N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T hu s , a l though b o th t h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic s how s i te s w i th l ow a nd h igh h e te rogene i ty , t h e re i s ag rea te r p ropo r t ion o f e a r ly s i te s w i th l ow v a lue s . T he l a te N eo l i th ic s how s af ew mo re s i te s t h a t a r e mo re h e te roge -

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n eou s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e re i s at e ndency f o r t h e l e s s h e t e r ogeneou s s i te s i n t h e e a r ly p er iod t oh ave l owe r a b so l u te i n d ice s t h an t h e l e s s h e te rogeneou s s i te s i n t h e l a te r p er iod .

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s amp le s i ze i s am a jo r f a c to r s t ruc tur ing d i f f e rence s i n t a xonom ic v a r iab i l i ty b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic . 5 1 1 . 5 2 2 .5 3 3 . 5 4 4 . 5 5 5 . 5 6 8 . 5 7 7 . 5 f a una l a s semb lage s . T he e f f e c t s o f s amp le s i ze a r e f a i r ly H e te rogene i ty s t ra igh tf o rwa rd w i th r e spec t t o r i chne s s : l a rge r a s sem F igure 9 .H is togram o fh e te rogene i ty v a lue s f o re a r ly b l age s c on ta in a g rea te r v a r ie ty o f a n ima ls t h an s ma l le r a nd l a te N eo l i th ic f auna l a s semb lage s . a s semb lage s . S ince e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s t e nd t ob e s m a l l e r t h a n l a t e r o n e s , t h e y a l s o t e n d t o b e l e s s r i c h . t e r iz ed b y ab road r ange o f v ar iab i l i ty i n t e rm s o f t a xo h e d ev ia t ions b e tween t h e o b served r i chne s s n om ic h e te rogene i ty . T he d i s t r ibu t ion s f o r b o th p er iod s When t s c o r e s a n d t h e s c o r e s o f e x p e c t e d r i c h n e s s b a s e d o n s a m a r e s kewed i nf a vo r o f l owe r v a lue s ; t h e re t e nd s t o b e a l e s i ze a r e c ompa red , t h e se d i f f e rence s a r e s hown t ob e g rea te rn umbe r o fs i te s w i th l ow h e te rogene i ty a nd f ewe r p s i g n i f i c a n t . H ow e v e r , t h e y d o n o t a p p e a r t o b e p a r t i c u s i te s w i th h i gh v a lue s . O ne o bv iou s d i f f e rence i st h e d i s a r ly l a rge a nd t h e r a nge s o ve r lap e x tens ive ly . B e cau se c on t inuou s n a ture o f t h e s co re s f o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic : l r i c h n e s s i s s o d i f f i c u l t t o s e p a r a t e f r om s a m p l e s i z e i n t h ree a s semb lage s s e em t o b e u nu sua l ly h e te rogeneou s t h e s e a s s em b l a g e s , s i m p l i s t i c s t a t em e n t s w h i c h r e l a t e c ompa red t o t h e r e s t o f t h e p opu la t ion . I n c on t ra s t , t h e n c rea s ing r i chne s s t h rough t ime t o s h if ts i n a n ima l e x d i s tr ibu t ion o f d i e t -b read th f o r t h e l a te r a s semb lage s i p l o i t a t i o n c a n n o t b e s u p p o r t e d . E a c h t i m e p e r i o d , h ow a ppea r s m o re c on t inuou s , a l though s omewha t s kewed . e ve r , d oe s c on ta in as ma l l p e rcen tage o fs i te s w h ich d i f f e r C ompa r ison s o ft h e h e te rogene i ty s co re s o fe a r ly a nd l a te s i gn if ican t ly f r om t h e m ean ( i e , h ave d ev ia t ion s f a r N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s w e re m ade u s ing t h e o b se rved g rea te r o r l e s s t h an t h e m ean d ev ia t ion ) , a nd c ou ld b e t h e v a lue s b e cau se c o r rec t ion f o r b i a s u s ing d ev ia t ion s w a s f o cus o ff u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion . u nne ce s sa ry . T he g roup m ean s f o r e a r ly a nd l a te a r e 2 .4 amp le s i ze a l so a f f ec ts h e te rogene i ty , a l though i n a ± 1 . 04 a nd 3 . 5 ± 1 . 21 , r e spec t ive ly . At t e s t y i e lded a S i f f e ren t w ay ; t h e d eg ree o fr a ndom e r ror a s soc ia ted w i th s co re o f t= 3 .51 ( p = . 0 01) , s ugge s t ing a s i gn if ican t d e te rogene i ty s co re i s g rea te r f o r s ma l l a s semb lage s d i f f e rence d e sp i te t h e o ve r lap i n s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s . A n ah h an f o r l a rge o ne s . I n b o th e a r ly a nd l a te g roup s , t h e a l te rna t ive p rocedu re f o r t e s t ing t h e d i f f e rence b e tween t m a jo r i ty o f a s semb lage s a r e c ha ra c te r ized b y l ow h e t e rogene i ty , w i th a s ma l l p ropor t ion o f s i te s s how ing h ighe r v a lue s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s sem b l age s a ppea r t od i f f e r s i gn if ican t ly f r om t h e l a te r g roup , e spe c ia l ly w hen t h ree u nu sua l ly d ive r se e a r ly s i te s a r e e x l uded . G ene ra l ly , l owe r h e te rogene i ty s co re s i n d ica te a s 1 974 ) . O r ig ina l ly p ropo sed t o d ea l w i th t h e p rob lem o f c emb lage s w h ich a r e r e la t ive ly l e s s r i ch , w i th a m o re c omb in ing r a d ioca rbon d a te s w i th v a ry ing s t anda rd s neven c on tr ibu t ion o f i n d iv idua l t a xa . T he r i chne s s d ev ia t ion s , t h is m an ipu la t ion p rov ide s an ew m ean a nd u na lys is h a s a l ready s hown t h a t t h e d i f f e rence s i n t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion f o r g rouped v a lue s . When t h e g roup a umbe r o f t a xa i n e a r ly v e r su s l a te a s semb lage s i sv e ry m ean s a r e r e ca lcu la ted u s ing t h e w e igh ted a ve rag ing n ma l l ( on t h e o rde r o f t wo t a xa ) . T he d i f f e rence s i nh e t t e chn ique , g roup d i f f e rence s d ive rge f a r the r a nd s t anda rd s rogene i ty v a lue s a ppea r t o b e g rea te r t h an w ou ld b e d ev ia t ion s a r e m a rked ly r e duced . T he e a r ly N eo l i th ic e ccoun ted f o r b y t h e o b se rved d i f f e rence s i n r i chne s s . g roup s how s am ean o f2 .35 ± . 0 5 ; t h e l a te N eo l i th ic a a T h is i mp l ie s t h a t t h e re m ay b e s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence s i n m ean o f3 . 72 ± . 0 1 . e venne s s . T he e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s , w i th t h is I tm igh t b e a sked i ft h e t h ree e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s w i th i n f e r red l owe r t a xonom ic e venne s s ( i e . mo re u nequa l h i gh h e te rogene i ty s hou ld b e c on s ide red a s o u t l ie r s . c on t r ibu t ion o f c omponen t t a xa t o t h e w ho le o f a n a s S uppor t f o r t h is i n te rp re ta t ion i s d i scu s sed b e low . s emb lage ) , c an b e c ha rac ter ized a s mo re f o cu sed o r W i thou t t h e se t h ree s i te s , t h e m ean h e te rogene i ty f o r t h e s pec ia l ized t h an t h e l a te r o ne s . e a r ly N eo l i th ic d rop s t o 2 .09 ± . 4 75 . R eca lcu la t ion o f t h e t -t e s t y i e ld s av a lue o f 5 . 1 ( p < . 0 01) . T he e a r ly T he Mean ing o fT axonom ic D iver s i ty t h e se t wo g roup s o f s i te s a l low s t h e i n f orma t ion c on t a ined i n t h e c onf idence r a nge d e r ived f r om t h e s imu la t i on t ob e i n corpo ra ted i n to as t a t is t ica l c ompa r ison . T he i n d iv idu a l v a lue s f o r e ach g roup w e re c omb ined u s ing a w e igh ted a ve rag ing t e chn ique ( Long a nd R ippe teau

N eo l i th ic w e igh ted a ve rage a l so d rop s t o 2 . 13 ± . 0 5 . T h is s t reng then s t h e i n terp re ta t ion o f h i ghe r h e te ro -

I tm u s t b e r e cogn ized t h a t t a xonom ic d i ve r s i ty i n z ooa r -

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A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope a s semb lage s , l a ck ing o bv iou s s p a t ia l s t ruc tur ing , h ave een c ha rac te r ized b y a na lys t s a s g ene ra l s i te o r k i tchen s o le ly d i e ta ry d ive r s i ty o r , e ven mo re s imp ly , p a t te rn s i n b e fu se ( e g . F i sche rga s se , Auve rn ie r , Twann ) . F auna l r e a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion . T he i n te rpre ta t ion o ft h e m ean ing o f r c haeo log ica l a s semb lage s d oe s n o t n e ce s sar i ly r e f le c t

ad ive r s i ty s t a t is t ic i ss ub je c t t oa l l t h e p rob lem s i n he ren t i n i nve s t iga t ing a r chaeo log ica l v ar iab i l i ty i n g ene ra l . P re se rva t ion , s amp l ing , a nd a na ly t ica l o r r e po r t ing b i a se s c omb ine t ob lu r t h e p a t ter n ing d ue t op reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty , a nd c omp l ica te t h e c u l tu ra l i n te rp re ta t ion s w h ich a r e t h e

m a in s f r om c on tex t s s uch a s t h e se , wh ich h ave a c cumu la ted o ve r l onge r p er iod s o f t ime a nd p robab ly c on ta in r e fu se f r om av ar ie ty o fa c t iv i t ie s , a r e e xpe c ted t o b e b o th q ua l i ta t ive ly a nd q uan t i ta t ive ly d i f f e ren t f r om

b one d epo s i ted i n s ma l le r , s pe c ia l -a c t iv i ty tu rned refu se i t s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t d i f f e ren t ia l r e fu se a ccumu la t ion g oa l o fa ny a r chaeo log ica l e ndeavo r . T he a bove a na lyse s p h ave s hown t h a t t h e re a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence s b e tween b e tween t h e t wo p e r iod s h a s g rea t ly e nhanced a ppa ren t e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s i n t e rm s o f d i f f e rence s i n d i ve r s i ty b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te a s sem l age s . I tc ou ld a l so i mp ly t h e e x is tence o f s i gn if ican t s amp le s i z e a nd a m ea sure o f g ene ra l d ive r s i ty . T he b i f f e rence s i n o ccupa t ion d ura t ion o r i n ten s i ty a s w e l l , d eg ree t o w h ich t h e se d i f f e rence s m ay b e r e la ted t o d h ich a r e p robab ly b e s t i nve s t iga ted t h rough s t ud ie s o f c u l tura l a s o ppo sed t o n on -cu l tu ra l f o rma t ion p roce s se s w c omb ined c l a s se s o fg ene ra l s e t t lemen t d ebr is . mu s ts t i l l b ee xp lo red .

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S ou rce so fV a r iab i l i ty i nD ive r s i ty

T he o b se rva t ion t h a t s amp le s i ze i s am a jo r f a c to r s t ruc t u r ing v ar iab i l i ty i n b o th r i chne s s a nd d i ve r s i ty o f N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t d i f f e rence s a mong t h es i te s i nt e rm s o fa b so lu te s amp le s i ze a r e w i th o u t m ean ing . T he f a c t r ema in s t h a t e a r ly N eo l i th ic s e t t l emen t s t e nd t o y i e ld s ma l le r f a una l a s semb lage s t h an l a te r s i te s , i n d ica t ing t h a t d i f f e rence s i n a s semb lage s i ze r e su l t f r om m o re t h an m e re ly a s amp l ing b i a s . I ts hou ld a l so b e p o in ted o u t i n t h is c on tex t t h a t t h e a s semb lage s c ome f r om a v a r ie ty o f r e g ion s t h roughou t w e s t -cen t ra l

P u t t ing a s ide t h e p rob lem s c rea ted b y d i f f e ren t ia l c on t e x t s , t h e re a r e an umbe r o fp o ten t ia l s ou rce s o fv a r iab i l i t y w h ich h ave u ndoub ted ly c on tr ibu ted t ot h e t a xonom ic d i ve r s i ty n o ted a bove . I t s hou ld b e e mpha s ized t h a t

E u rope , w e re e xcava ted u nde r d ive r se c ond i t ion s o ve r a n umbe r o f d ecade s a nd a na lyzed b y mu l t ip le i n ve s t iga t o r s . A l though t h is d oe s n o t e l im ina te b i a se s d ue t o d i f f e ren t s t ra teg ie s o fe xcava t ion a nd a na lys is , i td oe s s e rve t oh omogen ize t h e ir e f f e c t s s omewha t , l e nd ing s t reng th t o t h e g ene ra l p a t tern ing r e cogn ized a bove . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t d i f f e rence s i n s amp le s i ze b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s c an b e r e la ted t os ome c omb ina t ion o f g ene ra l d i f f e rence s i nt h e r o le o fa n ima ls i nt h e e conomy , t h e n a tu re o f s i te o ccupa t ion ( du ra t ion , i n ten s i ty ) a nd d i spo sa l p a t te rn sb e tween t h e t wo p e r iod s .

n e i the r t h e e a r ly n o r t h e l a te N eo l i th ic g roup r e p re sen t s a t r ue t empo ra l h or izon o r c u l tura l e n t i ty . R a the r , c on s truc t i on o f t h e se g roup s w a s d i c ta ted b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f a una l r e po r t s w i th in t h e a rea o f i n te re s t ( we s t -cen t ra l E u rope ) . A s t h e p urpose o f t h is a na ly s is h a s b een t o t e s t f o rg ene ra l d i f f e rence s i ns t ra teg ie s o fa n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion b e tween B andke ram ik a nd f ou r th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia c u l tu re s , t h is l e ve l o fi n ve s t iga t ion w a s d eemed a pp ropr i a t e . I tc anno t , h oweve r , s uppor t d e ta i led i n f e rence s a bou t l o ca l s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s . N eve r the le s s , t h e re a r e s ome v e ry g ene r a l o b serva t ion s w h ich c an b e m ade a bou t d ive r s i ty a nd s pa t ia l o r c u l tura l p a t te rn ing . J u s t a st h e re i sn o s imp le d i v is ion b e twe en t h e d i ve r s i ty s co re s o f e a r ly a nd l a te s i te s i n g ene ra l , t h e re a ppea r s t ob e n o w ay t op red ic t , b a sed o n e i the r c u l tu ra l a f f i l ia t ion o r g eog raph ic r e g ion , w he the r a n a s semb lage

w i l l b e c ha r ac te r ized b y h igh o r l ow d i ve r s i ty . T he f i ve W i th r e spe c t t o t h e l a t te r t wo f a c to r s , t h e re a r e c l ea r a s semb lage s o f t h e A l the im g roup , f o r e xamp le , s how d i f f e rence s i nt h e n a tu re o f t h e d epo s i t s y i e ld ing b one i n v e ry d i f f e ren t h e te rogene i ty v a lue s . I n a dd i t ion , t h ree e a r ly v e r su s l a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s . Mo s t f a una l r ema in s , s i te s w i th mu l t ip le c u l tura l l e ve ls ( Fe ldme i len i n deed mo s t r ema in s , f r om B andke ram ik s i te s h ave b e en V o rde rf e ld , E schne r -Lu tzengüe t le a nd Twann ) s how r e cove red f r om t h e n ume rou s p i t s d i s tr ibu ted t h roughou t q u i te d i f f e ren t v a lue s f o r t h e ir c omponen t a s semb lage s . t h e s e t t lemen t s . T he p r inc ip le s s t ruc tu r ing t h e c on s truc t i on a nd u se o f t h e se p i t s a r e i n comp le te ly u nde r s tood , b u t t h ey d o s e em t oh ave b e come a r ea s f o r a c cumu la t ion o f s e conda ry d eb r is , a t l e a s t i n t h e l a te r s t age s o f t h e ir e x is tence . U nde r rep re sen ta t ion o fb one s i nt h e se c on tex t s

O ne p o s s ib le e xcep t ion t o t h is a ppa ren t l a ck o f g eo g raph ic o r c u l tu ra l p a t tern ing m ay b e t h e t h ree e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s wh ich y i e lded h i gh h e te rogene i ty s co re s . T he s i te s i n q ue s t ion , H ienhe im , R egen sbu rg -

( Mü l le r 1 964 ) . I n an umbe r o f w ays , t h e n a ture o f l a te N eo l i th ic d epo s i t s i s u sua l ly q u i te d i f f e ren t . Ma jo r e a r thwo rk s a ts ome s i te s h ave a c ted a s ar e po s i to ry f o r

P ü rke lgu t a nd R egen sbu rg -Kumpfmüh l , a r e t h e o n ly e a r ly s i te s w i th f a una l r ema ins f r om t h e R egen sbu rg K e lhe im a r ea o f t h e D anube v a l ley i n B avar ia . T h is s ugge s t s t h a ta tl e a s t i nt h is c a se , t h e e xcep t iona l ly h i ghe r h e te rogene i ty m ay b e r e la ted t o c ha r ac ter is t ic s o f t h e l o ca l e nv ironmen t o r s e t t lemen t s y s tem . I n g ene ra l , t h ough , v a r iab i l i ty i n d i ve r s i ty d oe s n o t s e em t o b e s t r ic t ly a s soc ia ted w i th s ubgroups o f a r chaeo log ica l c u l -

l a rge a moun t s o f g ene ra l s i te d eb r is ( e g . A l the im , G a lgenbe rg , R iekof en , G ro s sob r ingen ) . Many o t he r

c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e l o ca l e nv ironmen t .

c an o f ten b e r e la ted t od eca lc if ica t ion o fo rgan ic r ema in s i nt h e l o e s s -ba sed s o i ls ( C la son 1 970 , 1 977 ; Modde rman 1 982 ) . O the r a u tho r s c i te l i t t le o r n o e v idence f o r d e te r i o ra t ion o f b one s r e cove red f r om B andke r am ik s i te s

t u re s a nd m ay o n ly i n s ome i n s tance s r ef lec t c e r ta in

4 6

T axonom ic D iv er s i ty i nN eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s F ina l ly s ome c onc lu s ion s m ay b e d rawn r e ga rd ing t h e se r e su l t s a nd t h e s cheme s o f c hang ing r e sou r ce u se d e s c r ibed f o rt h ed eve lopmen to ff ood p roduc t ion i ng ene ra l ( Chr is ten son 1 980 ) a nd t h e f ou r th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia BC i n p ar t icu la r ( Shennan 1 986 ; S he r ra t t 1 981) . T h is r e q u ire s t h e a s sump t ion s t h a t t h e g ene ra l s equence wou ld a l so b e r ef le c ted i n t h e f a una l c omponen t a l one , a nd t h a t t h e d i f f e rence s i n f a una l d i ve r s i ty d o , i n f a c t , r ef le c t p r ima r i ly d i e ta ry s e le c t ion . I n g ene ra l , t h e a n ima l e conomy c an b e c ha rac ter ized a s m o re f o cu sed o r s pe c ia l ized i nt h e e a r ly p e r iod , a nd mo re d i ve r s if ied i n t h e l a te r o ne . S ome d eg ree o f d ive r s if ica t i on i nt h eu se o ff auna l r e sou rce si su nde rway i nt h e l a te r p e r iod i n t h e s en se t h a t e a ch t a xon m ay b e c on t r ibu t ing l owe r , a nd m o re e qua l , a moun t s t o t h e t o ta l s ub s is tence . T he re i sn o c l ea r e v idence o f i n ten s if ied u se o f an a r row r a nge o ft a xa i nt h e l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s , a tl e a s t a t t h is s ca le o fa na lys is .

S ummary T he a na ly se s o f d ive r s i ty l e ad t o an umbe r o f g ene ra l c onc lu s ion s a bou t t h e s t ruc tu re o f N eo l i th ic f a una l a s s emb lage s . F i r s t , t h e re i s as l igh t t r end t owa rd a n i n c r ea se i n t h e n umbe r o f t a xa i n f a una l a s semb lage s f r om

t h e e a r ly t ot h e l a te N eo l i th ic . T he o bv iou s d i f f e rence s i n s amp le s i ze b e twe en t h e t wo p e r iod s a re a tl e a s t p ar t ia l ly r e la ted t o d i f f e ren t ia l d epo s i t iona l c on tex t s o f b one i n B andke ram ik a s c ompa red t o o the r Neo l i th ic s i te s . I ti s u nc lea r h ow t h e se d i f f e rence s i n d epos i t ion s hou ld b e e xp la ined ; t h e r e la t ive i mpor tance o f f a c to r s l i ke o c c upa t ion d u ra t ion , i n ten s i ty , s i te f unc t ion , e t c . , r ema in t o b e t e s ted w i th a na lyse s o f g ene ra l s e t t lemen t r e fu se . S e cond , b o th e a r ly a nd l a te s i te s s how a b i a s t owa rd l owe r h e te rogene i ty . W i th t h ree e xcep t ion s , e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s t e nd t o h ave l owe r h e te rogene i ty v a lue s t h an t h e s i te s o f t h e l a te r p er iod . T he se s i te s m ay b e c ha r ac te r ized a s m o re f o cu sed o r s pe c ia l ized i n t e rm s o f s e le c t iv i ty o f f a una l r e sour ce s t h an l a te r o ne s . T he t h ree e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s w i th h igh h e te rogene i ty a r e g eo g raph ica l ly n ea r e ach o the r . T he ir h ighe r s core s m ay r ef le c t u n ique c ha rac te r is t ic s o f t h e l o ca l s e t t lemen t s y s tem . F ina l ly , t h e d eg ree o fe mpha s is o n s pe c if ic f a una l r e sou r ce s i sn o t e n t ire ly c l ea r f r om a n a na lys is o f d i ve r s i ty a l one -t h e s co re s r ef le c t s im i la r i t ie s a nd d i f f e rence s i nt h e s t ruc tu re o fa s semb lage s , n o t t h e ir a c tua l c ompo s i t i on . T he r e la t ive a bundance s o f s pe c if ic t a xa a r e t h e s ub je c t o ft h en ex t c hap te r .

4 7

C hap ter 7

TAXONO M IC ABUNDANCE I N NEOL ITHIC FAUNAL ASSE MBLAGES P a t te rn ing i nt h e r e la t ive a bundance s o fm a jor t a xa f ound i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s m igh t b e e xpe c ted a t an umbe r o f d i f f e ren t l e ve ls o f m agn i tude . A t t h e b roade s t s c a le , t wo e a r ly s y s tem s o f a n ima l h u sband ry h ave b e en d e s c r ibed f o r E u rope i n g ene ra l : a Med i ter ranean s y s tem , w i th a n e mpha s is o n s heep a nd g oa t s ; a nd a c en t ra l E u ropean s y s tem i n wh ich c a t t le w e re p redom inan t , a c compan ied b y o v icap r ine s ( C la son 1 973 ) . T h is l a t te r s y s tem c an b e i d en t if ied a sc ha rac te r is t ic o fB andke ram ik g roups . B y t h e l a te Neo l i th ic , b o th o ft h e se p a t tern s w e re s upposed ly p r e sen t i n E u rope n o r th o f t h e A lps , w i th a p o s s ib le a r ea o fo ve r lap i nt h e Sw is s sou th G e rman a r ea ( C la son 1 973 ) . D if f e rence s i nt h e a bundance s a nd c ha rac t e r is t ics o fs pe c if ic t a xa h ave o cca s iona l ly b een r e la ted t o t h is b road l e ve l o f v a r iab i l i ty i n a n ima l k eep ing ( e g . B u sch 1 985 :55 ) .

o ft h o se w i th w e l l -p re served a nd a na lyzed f a una l r ema in s c ome f r om t h e n or thern r e g ion s o f t h e B andke ram ik d i s t r ibu t ion . T he p reced ing d i ve r s i ty c hap te r h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e re a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence s i n t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o f p a r t icu la r t a xa b e twe en e a r ly a nd l a te g roups , a nd t h a t t h e re i sg rea te r v a r iab i l i ty a mong t h e l a te r a s semb lage s t h an i ss e en f o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . T he a pproach t a ken h e re i st oc ompa re t h e a moun t a nd k ind o f v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e a bundance s o f s pec if ic t a xa b e twe en e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s a s aw ho le . I n t h is m anne r , t h e n a tu re o f t h e g ene ra l d i f f e rence s i n a n ima l u se b e twe en t h e s i x th a nd t h e f ou r th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia BC i s a d d re s sed w i thou t r e f e rence t op a r t icu la r c u l tu ra l c on tex t s .

Un i t s O f Ana ly s i s

he a bundance s o f d i f f e ren t t a xa c an b e c ompa red u s ing A t t h e o the re x t reme , ac e r ta in a moun t o fv a r iab i l i ty i st o T b e e xpec ted a tt h e l e ve l o f t h e i n d iv idua l s i te o r o ccupa - t h re e b a s ic k ind s o f m ea su remen t s : t h e n umbe r o f i d en t i i ed s pec imen s ( N ISP ) , m in imum n umbe r o f i nd iv idua ls t i on . T he i mpo r tance o f t h e i mmed ia te c u l tura l a nd /o r f MN I ) a nd b one w e igh t . T he p ro s a nd c on s o fe ach t y pe p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t h a sb een p o in ted o u t i n an umbe ro f ( c a se s . Nob is a tr ibu ted much o f t h e v ar iab i l i ty i n c om - o f m ea su remen t h ave b een a mp ly d i scu s sed i n g ene r a l p o s i t ion a mong N eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s i n n o r thern l i t e ra tu re o n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f f a una l r ema in s f r om G ermany t o l o ca l e nv i ronmen ta l c ha rac te r is t ic s ( Nob is a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a nd n eed o n ly b e b r ie f ly r e v iewed 1 955 ) . I ti sm o re d i ff icu l t t o e xp la in t h e s t r ik ing d i f f e r - h e re . T he r e la t ive u t i l i ty o fe a ch o ft h e se m ea su re s c an b e e nce s b e tween t h e a s semb lage s f r om t h e a d jacen t s i te s o f B u rgäsch i see -Süd a nd B urgä sch isee -Südwe s t ( S tamp f l i 1 964 ) i n l i gh t o f t h e ir s ha red p hy s ica l s e t t ing . I n a dd i t i on , an umbe ro f mu l t icomponen t s i te s s how c l ea r d i f f e r -

e va lua ted w i th in t h e c on tex t o fq uan t if ica t ion o f d a ta f o r a na lys is . T h is d i scu s s ion i sn o t c once rned w i th p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e i n i t ia l i d en t if ica t ion o fr ema in s , o r t h e r e cogn i t ion o fs i te spec if ic t a phonom ic b i a se s .

e nce s i n a s semb lage c ompo s i t ion w hen t h e e nv ironmen t a l , i fn o t t h e c u l tu ra l , a s soc ia t ion s o f t h e h ave r ema ined t h e s ame .

N ISP

o ccupa t ions

Mo s t a r chaeo log is t s a s sume t h a t p a t te rn ing i ns ub s is tence e conom ic p r a c t ice s o ccu r s p r ima r i ly a t t h e l e ve l o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l c u l ture , c ond i t ioned b ya spe c ts o ft h e l o ca l e nv ironmen t . Many a na ly se s o f f a una l a s semb lage v ar i a b i l i ty h ave b e en d i re c ted a t t h e i n ve s t iga t ion a nd c om p a r ison o f e xp lo i ta t ion s y s tem s o f p a r t icu la r a r chaeo l o g ica l c u l tu re s ( eg . H igham 1 966 ; S ake l lar id is 1 981 ; U e rpmann 1 977 ) . I t h a s a l ready b een p o in ted o u t i n C hap te r 3t h a t t h is l e ve l o f i nve s t iga t ion m ay n o t b e a p p ropr ia te i nt h e c a se o fa l N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s b e cau se o f t h e ir d i f f e rence s i n t empora l a nd g eog raph ica l s c a le . A r e la ted p rob lem i nvo lve s t h e i n adequa te r epre sen ta t ion o f s i te s , e ven w i th in a r chaeo log ica l c u l ture s o f t h e s ame g ene ra l d u r a t ion a nd m agn i tude . I n t h e s amp le o fa s sem b l age s u sed h e re , t h e re a r e an umbe r o f C o r ta i l lod s i te s w i th f a una l r ema ins a na lyzed , b u t o n ly o ne a na ly s is e ach f r om B aa lbe rg a nd R ivnac . A n e ven s t ronge r g eog raph i c a l b i a s e x is t s i nt h e s amp le o fe a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s : m os t

T he n umbe r o fi d en t if ied s pec imen s ( N ISP ) i st h e s t a r t ing p o in t f o r a l l o the r t y pe s o f q uan t if ica t ion o f f a una l r e m a in s . T he m o s t c r i t ica l p rob lem a s soc ia ted w i th N ISP i s t h e d i f f e ren t ia l f r agmen ta t ion o f s ke le ta l e l emen t s a nd a n im a ls o f v a r iou s b ody s i ze s . I n N eo l i th ic f a una l s t ud i e s , t h e re h a s b een s ome a t temp t t oa d ju s t f o r t h is b y t h e c r ea t ion o f af r agmen ta t ion i n dex . B a sed o n t h e a s sem b l age a tE go lzw i l 5 , S t amp f l i i d en t if ied a n a ve rage n um b e r o f f r agmen t s p e r e l emen t f o r l a rge u ngu la te s ( S tamp f l i 1 976a ) . T he se f a c tor s w e re t h en mu l t ip l ied b y t h e f r equency o f e ach e l emen t i n t h e b ody o f as i ng le i n d iv idua l , a nd t h e r e su l t ing f i gu re s u sed a s e xpec ted v a lue s a ga in s t w h ich r aw N ISP v a lue s w e re c ompa red f o r i n ve s t iga t ing e l emen t a nd t a xonom ic a bundance . An um b e r o f s ub sequen t i n ve s t iga tor s h ave a dop ted t h is t e ch n i que a nd S t ampf l i 's f a c to r s i nt h e ir a na lyse s o fr ep re sen t a t ion o f N eo l i th ic t a xa ( e g . B a r the l 1 985 ; B e cke r a nd J ohan s son 1 981 ) . T he u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion o f t h is a p p roach s e em s t o b e t h a t f r agmen ta t ion i s t h e r e su l t o f t a phonom ic p roce s se s o fu n spe c if ied o r ig in wh ich d o n o t

4 9

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope T ab le 4 .N ISP f o rn ine t a xa i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . 1 24 = E a r ly , 2 5 -59 = L a te . A SSE MBLAGE

C a t t le

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7 1 0

3

( con t inued . . .) v a ry b e tween a s semb lage s . T h is i s a q ue s t ionab le i nr e cen t y ea r s . T he c a lcu la t ion o f am in imum n umbe r o f a s sump t ion a tb e s t , e spe c ia l ly i n t h e l i gh t o f t h e n ume r - i nd iv idua ls i su sua l ly u nde r taken i nt h e a t temp t t of a c i l i o u s t a phonom ic s t ud ie s w h ich h ave b een u nde r taken i n t a te c ompa r ison o f t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o f d i f f e ren t r e cen t y ea r s ( B info rd a nd B e r t ram 1 977 ; B ra in 1 981 ; t a xa o r a s semb lage s w h ich h ave d i f f e ren t t a phonom ic L yman 1 984 ) . M in ima l ly , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t s u ch f a c to r s h i s tor ie s . I nt h is w ay , i tm ay c i r cumven t t h e p rob lem o f s hou ld b e d e r ived i n dependen t ly f o r e ach a s semb lage , d i f f e ren t ia l f r agmen ta t ion . An i n i t ia l s e t o f d i ff i cu l t ie s a nd s ome a t temp t m ade t o i d en t if y t h e h uman o r n a tu ra l e me rge s w i th t h e mu l t i tude o f w ay s wh ich h ave b een a gen t sa tp l ay i ne ach c a se . p ropo sed f o ra c tua l ly c oun t ing MN I s , m any o fw h ich a r e O the r mod if ica t ion s o fN ISP h ave a ppea red i nt h e p a leon t o log ica l a nd z ooa r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra ture i n t h e c on tex t o f a s semb lage q uan t if ica t ion a nd c ompa r ison . T he se i n c lude t h e u se o ff a c to r s t oc on t ro l f o rd i f f e ren t n umbe r s o f s ke le ta l e l emen t s i n v a r iou s t a xa ( Sho twe l l

h igh ly i d io sync ra t ic . T h is , c oup led w i th t h e f a c t t h a t f ew i nve s t iga to r s e xp l ic i t ly s t a te t h e ir c r i te r ia f o r t h e i d en t if i c a t ion o fi n d iv idua ls , s e r iou s ly u nde rm ine s t h e c ompa ra t i ve u t i l i ty o f MN I c oun t s .

1 955 ) ,

T he mo s t i mpor tan t c ha rac te r is t ic t o r e cogn iz e a bou t

q uan t if ica t ion b y u se o f d i agno s t ic z one s (Wa t son 1 979 ) o r t h e c a lcu la t ion o f m in imum n umbe r s o f e l emen t s ( B inf o rd 1 984 ) . A l though a l l o f t h e se m od if ica t ion s m ay p rov ide a dd i t iona l i n f orma t ion a bou t s i te spec if ic a s sem b l age v a r iab i l i ty , t h ey a r e a l l o n ly i n f requen t ly u sed , n o t

MN I i si t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th s amp le s i ze ( Gray son 1 984 ) . MN I i sr e la ted t o s amp le s i ze i n m uch t h e s ame w ay a s

e a s i ly c a lcu la ted o n p ub l ished d a ta , a nd o fl im i ted u se f o r i n te ra s semb lage c ompa r ison .

MN I T he u se o f MN I h a s r e ce ived p e rhap s t h e mo s t a t ten t ion

r i chne s s i n t h a t a s t h e n umbe r o f b one s i d en t if ied t o a t a xon i n c rea se s , t h e n umbe r o f i n d iv idua ls wh ich c an b e i d en t if ied , b a sed o n t h e r e cur rence o f b ody p a r t s , i n c r ea se s l o ga r i thm ica l ly . T he e f f ec t i s t h a t t h e r e la t ive i mpor tance o f r a re t a xa m ay b e o ve re s t ima ted , w h i le MN Is o f t a xa a th ighe r s amp le s i ze s a r e a lmo s t c e r ta in ly u nde re s t ima t e s . B eyond t h e se p rob lem s , t h e re i s t h e b a s ic q ue s t ion o f

5 0

T axonom ic A bundance i nN eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s T ab le 4( Con t inued ) . Hor se

D og

R ed D ee r

W i ld P ig

R oe D ee r

A u roch s

3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7

2 238 2 55 1 991

2 73 1 94 1 277

9 77 2 50 3 628

0 3 3 12

3 3 3 6 7 9

5 56 6 9 1 695

7 1 9 8 42

6 1 5 3 03

0 0 4 4

7 29 1 054

1 84 1 88

2 66 1 556

2 0

1 6 6 92

1 09 9 97

1 2 5 6

9 2 2

4 0 2

2 19 3 43 1 47 3 02 3 15 3 57

3 6 2 0 1 34 5 1 9 2 2 22

6 8 9 8 11 1 84 2 44 9 41

0 6 9 0 0 0 0

3 1 6 1 3 1 98

1 2 8 0 0 1 8 849

7 2 1 0 0 4 1 835

1 3 2 1 1 1 612

0 0 0 7 0 1 908

3 825 8 3 7 36 9 03 6 50 1 83 1 76 1 683 3 064 1 568 1 06 1 335 8 9 5 23 1 292 2 551

3 867 19 2 61 3 64 2 25 7 8 1 3 72 5 70 7 93 4 4 2 07 4 9 1 22 4 12 5 45

1 069 1 01 1 560 3 19 2 09 13 1 5 2 858 3 64 4 05 3 5 4 64 5 1 5 9 4 21 8 66

0 2 0 4 1 2 0 1 00 1 27 2 6 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 3

3 32 9 5 2 7 5 8 1 2 2 1 63 1 05 2 8 3 0 0 1 58 7 94

2 641 3 1 2 23 1 22 2 4 2 47 2 52 4 182 2 62 3 8 2 136 2 6 1 36 4 79 6 760

1 076 1 3 8 4 1 2 9 2 1 1 3 57 6 2 7 3 4 78 0 1 6 14 194

3 87 7 8 8 0 5 3 4 08 3 1 6 6 1 3 68 6 2 4 2 1 2 33

0 0 5 0 0 2 5 6 1 21 1 1 2 1 4 20 3 1 44 1 1 81

5 8 5 9

7 17 2 14

1 78 3 25

1 4 36

5 40 3 05

105 2 85

2 96 2 71

4 3 5 7

3 4 1 3

A SSEMBLAGE

C a t t le

O v icap r .

5 17 1 22

P ig

w he the r o r n o t MN I r e p re sen t s ac l a s s o f i n f orma t ion C r i t ic ism s h ave s u r rounded t h e p a r t icu la r f a c to r u sed w h ich i si n tr in s ica l ly mo re m ean ingf u l t h an s imp le b one ( Ca s te e l 1 978 ) , a s w e l l a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e chn ique c oun t s . I n a lmo s t a l l c a se s , MN I s a r e c l ea r ly u nde re s t i - d oe sn ' tp rov ide a ny i d ea o ft h en umbe ro fa n im a l s o r t a xa m a te s o f t h e n umbe r o f i n d iv idua ls o r ig ina l ly p re sen t i f , r e pre sen ted i n t h e a s semb lage ( Ma to lc s i 1 970 ) . S uch i n de ed , a n a s semb lage w a s d e r ived f r om a c o l le c t ion o f d i e ta ry r e con s truc t ion s mu s t a lways d epend o n a dd i t iona l c omp le te i n d iv idua ls i nt h e f i r s t p l ace . A n MN I e s t ima te k now ledge f r om a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s -e g . d u ra t ion o f i sc e r ta in ly n o c l ose r t o ar ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e " t rue " o ccupa t ion , n umbe r o f o ccupan t s , k now ledge o f o the r o r ig ina l p opu la t ion , n o r i si tn e ce s sa r i ly mo re a ccu ra te i n d i e ta ry c omponen t s . A s h a s b een s hown i n t h e d i e ta ry i t s r e f lec t ion o ft h e r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion o fp a r t icu la r t a xa r e con s truc t ion s p re sen ted i nC hap te r 3 ,i n te rpre ta t ion s a r e t oa n a s semb lage . n o t a lway s s t ra igh tf orwa rd e ven w hen t h e se p a rame te r s a r e k nown .

B one We igh t

T he u se o f b one w e igh t f o r q uan t if y ing f a una l a s sem b l age s h a s b een h a r sh ly c r i t ic ized i nt h e Ame r ican l i t e ra t u re ( e g . C a s te e l 1 978 ; K le in a nd C r uz -U r ibe 1 984 ) , a nd o n ly i n comp le te ly u sed i n t h e E u ropean . B one w e igh t s h ave b een mo s t f r equen t ly u sed t oc a lcu la te m ea t q uan t i t i e s a nd t h e c on tr ibu t ion s o f v ar iou s t a xa t o t h e s ub s is t e nce e conom ie s o fp a r t icu la r s i te s . Mos t a na lyse s f o l low s ome v a r ia t ion o f K uba s iew icz 's m e thod , w h ich r e cog n i zed t h e a l lome tr ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween b one w e igh t a nd b ody w e igh t i na n i n d iv idua l ( Kuba s iew icz 1 956 ) . I n t h e s imp le s t a pp l ica t ion , b one w e igh t i sm u l t ip l ied b y a n e mp ir ica l ly d er ived f a c to r t oc a lcu la te t h e a moun t o fm ea t w h ich w ou ld h ave b e en a s soc ia ted w i th t h e b one .

A dd i t iona l c r i t ic ism s o f t h e a na ly t ica l u se o f b one w e igh t s h ave f o cu sed o n t h e i n s tab i l i ty o f d en s i ty a nd w e igh t i n m any a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s : d i agene t ic p ro c e s se s c an i n c rea se o r d e c rea se a bso lu te v a lue s . R ea l is t ica l ly , t h is d oe s n o t p re sen t s uch ap rob lem w hen o n ly r e la t ive q uan t i t ie s f r om s im i la r r e cove ry c on tex t s a r e c on s ide red a nd c ompa red . F u r thermo re , o nce t h e n o t ion o f c onver t ing b one w e igh t s i n to m ea t w e igh t s i s d i s c a rded , w e igh t e me rge s a s am ea su re o f r e la t ive a bun d ance

i n s ome

w ays

s upe r io r

t o N ISP

o r

MN I .

F ragmen ta t ion i s i gno red i n t h e c ompa r ison o f b one w e igh t s a mong d i f f e ren t t a xa , a nd t h e d ependence o n r epe t i t ion o fs ke le ta l p ar t s i n he ren t i n MN I c a lcu la t ion s i s r emoved . G iven t h e se o bv iou s a dvan tage s , i ti ss u rpr i s ing

5 1

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s t em s i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope e o

d i scussed i n C hap te r 4 : c a t t le , s heep a nd g oa t , p ig , a u r o chs , w i ld p ig , r ed d eer . I n a dd i t ion , t h re e o the r t a xa

1 1

4 0 -

2 0

.11 E a r tY

wh ich a r e o f ten p resen t , t hough u sua l ly i n v e ry l ow f r e -

E l L a te

q uenc ie s , a r e i n c luded : h orse , d og , a nd r oe d ee r . A s i n t h e d iver s i ty a na lyse s , t o ta ls o f c a t t le a nd p igs h ave b een a d jus ted t o i n c lude b one s i d en t if ied a s B os s p . a nd S us s p . S heep a nd g oa t w i l l a ga in b e c omb ined . T ab le 4 p re s en t s t h e n umbe r o f s pec imen s i d en t if ied t o t h e se n ine t a xa f o r e a ch o f t h e 5 9 N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T he o n ly a dd i t iona l m an ipu la t ion o ft h e se v a lue s w a s t o s um N ISP a c ross t h e se n ine t a xa a nd c a lcu la te t h e p e rcen t r epre sen t a t ion f o re a ch t a xon w i th in e ach a s semb lage .

F- 1

2

3

4

5

D om inance o fT axa /Evenne s s

N umbe ro fT axa o ve r 1 0%

T he r e su l t s o ft h e d iver s i ty a na lyse s s ugge s ted t h a t d i f f e r -

F igure 1 0 . H is tog ram o ft a xonom ic e venne s s .

e nce s i n t h e r e la t ive c on tr ibu t ions o f i nd iv idua l t a xa , o r

t h a t b one w e igh t s a r e s o i n con s is ten t ly r e por ted a nd i n -

e venne s s , m ay h ave c on tr ibu ted s i gn if ican t ly t o t h e o b -

f r equen t ly u sed . T he ir m a jor d i sadvan tage i n t h e c on tex t o ft h is a na lys is i st h a t , e ven w hen r e por ted , b one w e igh t s

s e rved d i f f e rence s b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T h is c an b e f u r the r i n ve s t iga ted b y ac om -

h ave r a re ly b een b roken d own i n to u sefu l a na ly t ica l

p ar ison o f t h e r e pre sen ta t ion o f t h e n ine m a jor t a xa i n

c a tegor ie s i ns ame w ay a sN ISP .

g rouped e a r ly a nd l a te a s semb lage s . F igu re 1 0 s how s t h e n umbe r o f t a xa wh ich a r e p re sen t i n f r equenc ie s h ighe r

T he se t h ree m e thods o f q uan t if ica t ion e ach h ave t h e ir

t h an 1 0% f o r b o th p e r iod s . T h is f i gure i lus tra te s t h e f a c t

own s e t o f a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tages , a nd a r e b e s t

t h a t e a r ly a s semb lage s a r e c harac ter is t ica l ly d om ina ted b y o n ly a f ew t a xa , f r equen t ly t wo , w i th t h e r ema in ing t a xa

u sed i nc oncer t t oe xp lore t h e i nd iv idua l c ha rac ter is t ics o f e ach f a una l a s semb lage . N ISP i sa t p re sen t t h e m ea sure mos t o f ten r e por ted i n t h e l i t e ra ture , a nd i su sed i n t h is

p re sen t i n l ow p ropor t ions . N eo l i th ic p a t tern a ppea r s

i n ve s t iga t ion o f t a xonom ic a bundance p r imar i ly f o r t h is r e ason . A n u nfor tuna te c onsequence o f t h is d ec is ion h a s b een t h e f o rced e xc lus ion o f af ew m a jor works i n wh ich o n ly MN I w a s r epor ted ( e g . H e sche le r a nd R üege r 1 942 ; H igham 1 966 ; S ake l lar id is 1 979 ) .

I n c ompa r ison ,

s omewha t d i f f e ren t :

t h e l a te a s sem -

b l age s o f ten h ave t h ree o r more t a xa c on tr ibu t ing a tl e a s t 1 0% e ach t o t h e t o ta l s amp le . I n g ene ra l , t h e p a t ter n i d en t if ied i nt h e d ive r s i ty a na lyse s o ft h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fa b roade r r a nge o f a n ima ls i n t h e l a ter p er iod i sr e f le c ted e ven i nt h is s ma l le r t a xonom ic s pec trum .

I ti so bv iou s f r om t h e d i scus s ion o f r i chne s s i n t h e p re -

S pec ie s Abundance

c ed ing c hap te r t h a t m any t a xa a ppea r o n ly r a re ly i n t h e a na lyzed a s semb lage s , a nd c an b e e xc luded f r om c ons id -

F igure s 1 t h rough 1 4 p resen t h i s togram s o f t h e r e la t ive

e r a t ion a t t h is p o in t . A c o l lec t ion o f d ome s t ic a nd w i ld

a bundance s o f t h e m a jo r t a xa -c a t t le , o v icapr ine s ,

a n ima ls w as c hosen t h a t c ou ld r e a sonab ly b e e xpec ted t o

a nd r e d d ee r -f o r t h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s sem -

a ppea r i n mos t , i fn o t a l l , a s semb lage s . A t o ta l o f 1 0 s pec ie s h ave b een s e lec ted : s i x d ome s t ica te s a nd f our

b l age s . I ti se v iden t f r om t he g raphs o f c a t t le a nd o v i -

w i ld a n ima ls . T he l i s t o fa n ima ls u sed i n c lude s t h ose t a xa

p or t ions o f t h e N ISP i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s

p ig

c apr ine s t h a t t h e se t wo t a xa o f ten a ccoun t f o r h i gh p ro -

2 5

BO E a r ly

E a r tY

El l L a te

0

E l L a te

1 0

5 '

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0 %

5 0

8 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 00

1 0

2 0

3 0

C a t t le

F igure 1 . H is togram o fc a t t le f r equenc ie s i n N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

4 0

5 0

8 0

7 0

8 0

1 00

%O v icap r ine F igure 1 2 . H is togram o fo v icapr ine f r equenc ie s i n N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 2

T axonom ic A bundance i nN eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s 8 0

( s ) I l i E a r ly

1 111 E a r ly

C D 0 3 8 0 . . 7 3

E l L a te

L a te

a o • a ) C D

▪ c l) 2 00 -

1 0

2 0

J 1 3 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 00

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

%P i g

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 00

%R ed D ee r F igure 1 4 . H is togram o fr ed d ee r f r equenc ie s i n

F igure 1 3 . H is togram o fp ig f r equenc ies i nN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

een a na lyzed s epa ra te ly . w h i le t h e ir c on tr ibu t ions i n t h e l a te r s amp le o f s i te s i s b

O n ly c omponen t s a s soc ia ted

s omewha t l owe r . L a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s t e nd t oh ave

w i th e i genva lue s g rea te r t h an

h i ghe r p ropo r t ions o fb o th p ig a nd r ed d ee r . T he se d i s t r i -

T ab le s 5a nd 6 s how t h e l o ad ings f o r e ach t a xon a l ong

1a r e c ons ide red h e re .

b u t ions g i ve s ome i dea o f wh ich t a xa a r e mos t d om inan t .

t h e f i r s t t h ree c omponen ts , a l ong w i th t h e p e rcen t v ar ia -

H oweve r i ti ss t i l l n o t c l ea r h ow e a r ly a nd l a te a s sem -

t i on e xp la ined b y e ach c omponen t f o r e a r ly a nd l a te ,

b l age s d i f f e r w hen mu l t ip le t a xa a r e c ons ide red , o r i ft h e

r e spec t ive ly . I n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic , t h e f i r s t t h ree c om -

f r equenc ie s o ft a xa c ova ry i na ny w ay .

p onen ts a ccoun t f o rj us t o ver 7 3% o f t h e t o ta l v ar iance ; i n t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic , t h e f i r s t t h ree c omponen t s a ccoun t

V ar iance a nd C ovar iance Among T axa

f o r a bou t 6 7% o f t h e v a r iance . A l l v a lue s g iven h e re

P r inc ipa l c omponen ts a na lys is h a s b een u sed t o i d en t ify

r e f e r t ou nro ta ted l o ad ings . V ar imax r o ta t ion w a s c ar r ied

t h e t a xa w h ich a ccoun t f o r t h e mos t v a r iance w i th in e ach

o u t i ns ome a dd i t iona l r uns , b u t d id n o t a ppea r t oc hange

g roup o f s i te s , a nd t o i n ve s t iga te p a t ter n s o f c ova r iance

l o ad ing v a lue s a pprec iab ly , n or c on tr ibu te t o t h e i n te r -

a mong t h e se t a xa . T h is t e chn ique p e rm i t s as imp le s um -

p re tab i l i ty o fc omponen ts .

m ary o f t h e i n forma t ion c on ta ined i nt h e d a ta b y w ay o f m a thema t ica l t r ansforma t ions o f t h e r aw v a r iab le s -i n t h is c a se ,

%N ISP o f e ach t a xon i n e ach a s semb lage .

P r inc ipa l c omponen ts a na lys is w a s s e lec ted a s am eans o f a ch iev ing e conomy o f r epre sen ta t ion , a nd n o t i n a n a t t emp t t o r e p re sen t t h e s t ruc ture o f t a xonom ic c ovar iance i nt e rm s o f ah ypo the t ica l c ausa l mode l , a s i n t r ue f a c tor a na lys is ( K im a nd Mue l le r 1 978 :18 ) .

I n b o th g roups , t h e f i r s t c omponen t b a s ica l ly r e pre sen t s a d ome s t ic -w i ld d i cho tomy w i th w i ld t a xa l o ad ing w i th h i gh p os i t ive v a lue s . T he re a r e s ome d i f f e rence s i n t h e a c tua l s equence o fs pec if ic t a xa a l ong t h is c omponen t , a s w e l l a st h e l o ad ings o fp ar t icu la r d ome s t ica te s . F or e xam p l e ,

i n t h e e a r ly a s semb lage s , o v icapr ine s a nd c a t t le

a ch ieve o n ly l ow n ega t ive v a lue s ; i n t h e l a te Neo l i th ic , c a t t le l o ads w i th amode ra te ly h igh v a lue o f. 75 .

T he g roups o f e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s h ave T ab le 5 .L oad ings o fm a jor t a xa o n f i r s t t h ree c omponen ts f o r e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

COMPONENT LOAD INGS

2

3

R ed D eer

0 .896

0 .011

0 . 163

W i ld P ig

0 .805

0 .069

0 .226

D og

0 .795

0 .050

0 .022

A u rochs

0 .763

0 .066

0 .053

R oe D ee r

0 .538

0 .060

0 .629

C a t t le

0 .393

0 .846

0 .210

O v icapr ines

0 .424

0 .404

0 .785

H or se

0 .030

0 .675

0 .376

P ig

0 .285

0 .287

0 .710

3 7 .269

2 0 .955

1 4 .955

P e rcen t o fT o ta l V ar iance E xp la ined

5 3

A n ima lP roduc t ion S y s tem s i nN eo l i th ic C en tra lE urope T ab le 6 .L oad ings o fm a jo rt a xa o n f i r s t t h ree c omponen t s f o r l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

CO MPONENT LOAD INGS R ed D ee r W i ld P ig C a t t le R oe D e e r O v icapr ine s

1

2

3

0 .860

0 . 138

0 .152 0 .085

0 .817

0 .255

0 .756

0 .289

0 .475

0 .618

0 . 178

0 .552

0 .589

0 .0 10

0 .289

A u roch s

0 .527

0 .579

0 .009

D og

0 .206

0 .739

0 .034

H o r se

0 .088

0 .681

0 .262

P ig

0 .440

0 .251

0 .690

P e r cen to fT o ta l V ar iance E xp la ined

3 5 .865

1 7 .868

1 3 .229

T he n ex t c omponen t i ss omewha t mo re d i ff icu l t t o i n te r - b l age s . A s im i la r p henomenon c an b e s e en i n t h e t h ird p re t , a nd i d en t if ie s t ho se t a xa w h ich c on t r ibu te mo s t t o c omponen t . P ig r ep re sen t s ar e la t ive ly l ow f r equency v ar iab i l i ty a mong a s semb lage s o nce b a s ic w i ld -dome s t ic t a xon i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic , w h i le i ti so f ten p r e sen t i n d i f f e rence s h ave b e en a ccoun ted f o r . T he se t a xa c an b e h i ghe r f r equenc ie s i nt h e l a te r p er iod . r e la t ive ly c l ea r ly i d en t if ied f o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . T he r e su l t s o f t h e p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s c omp le V ar iab i l i ty i sd i s t r ibu ted a l ong ad imen s ion w i th c a t t le a t m en t t h e i n f o rma t ion a l ready d er ived f r om t h e i n ve s t iga t h e h igh p o s i t ive e nd , a nd o v icapr ine s a tt h e h i gh n ega t i on o fd i ve r s i ty . I tc an b e s een t h a t t h e more f o cu sed o r t i ve e nd . I n t h e l a te N eo l i th ic g roup , t h e s e cond c ompo l e s s d i ve r se n a tu re o ft h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s c an n en t i s i d en t if ied b y mode ra te ly h igh l o ad ings o f t wo b e a t t r ibu ted p r ima r i ly t o t h e d om inance o f d ome s t ic l ow -f requency d ome s t ica te s : d og a nd h o r se . a n im a ls , i np a r t icu la r , t of l uc tua t ion si nt h e r e la t ive a bun I n t h e t h ird c omponen t , amode ra te ly h igh n ega t ive l o ad - d ance s o fc a t t le a nd o v icapr ine s w i th in i nd iv idua l a s sem i n g i sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ame t a xon f o r b o th e a r ly a nd b l age s . T he g rea te r d ive r s i ty o f t h e l a te N eo l i th ic a s sem l a te a s semb lage s : d ome s t ic p ig . A lso i nb o th g roup s , r o e b l age s r e su l t s f r om t h e s l igh t i n c re a se i n t h e u se o fw i ld d e e r s how s u p w i th mode ra te p o s i t ive o r n ega t ive l o ad - a n ima ls , a nd a r e l iance o n d i f f e ren t c omb ina t ion s o f i n gs ( i e . a bove a b so lu te v a lue o f . 5 ) . I t s a s soc ia t ion a l ong m u l t ip le t a xa i n mode ra te ly h igh f r equenc ie s . T he se t h is a x is w i th p i g i sn o t e a s i ly i n te rp re tab le , r a the r , t h e e me rg ing p a t ter n s o f c ova r iance c an b e f u r the r i n ve s t i l o ad ing o f t h is t a xon i sp robab ly b e s t u nde r s tood a s a g a ted b y c ompar isons o f t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o f p a r f unc t ion o f i t s l ow r e la t ive a bundance i n b o th g roup s o f t i cu la r t a xa t oe a ch o t he r , a nd t o t h e m ea su re o fh e te roa s semb lage s . T he p a t te rn s o f v ar iance i n e a r ly a nd l a te a s semb lage s s ha re s ome c ommon f e a tu re s . I n b o th g roup s , t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t d imen s ion o f v ar iab i l i ty i n vo lve s t h e o ppo s i t i on o fw i ld a nd d ome s t ic t a xa . S ub t le d i f f e rence s i n t h e l o ad ings o f i n d iv idua l t a xa s ugge s t t h e r e la t ive a bun d ance s o fw i ld t a xa c on tr ibu te s l igh t ly mo re t o t h e t o ta l v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic s amp le , w h i le t h e re i s s omewha t m o re v a r iab i l i ty a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m a jo r d ome s t ica te sa sw e l l a sw i ld t a xa i nt h e l a te rg roup . Am a jo r d i f f e rence i st h a t w h i le t h e s e cond c omponen t i s m ade u p o f d om inan t t a xa i n t h e e a r ly g roup , i tc om p r ise sl ow -f requency t a xa i nt h e l a te r g roup . T h is r ef lec t s t h e g rea te ru n iform i ty i nt h e u nde r ly ing s t ruc tu re o fe a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s : t h e n ega t ive c ova r iance o f c a t t le a nd o v icap r ine s a ppea r s t o b e ac on s is ten t f e a tu re a t a lmo s t a l l s i te s . I n c on t ra s t , t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic a s sem b l age s a r e c ha rac ter ized b y r e la t ive ly h igh a nd e qua l f r equenc ie s o f m u l t ip le t a xa , s o t h a t t ho se t a xa w h ich a c coun t f o r t h e m os t v a r iab i l i ty i n a c tua l i ty r e pre sen t f a ir ly s ma l l a nd u nequa l c on tr ibu t ions t o t h e a s sem -

F igure 1 5 . P lo t o fp e r cen t c a t t le a nd p e r cen t o v icapr ine s f o r e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

5 4

T axonom ic A bundance i nN eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s wh ich f ou r d i f f e ren t t a xa a ccoun t f o r 1 0% o r mo re o ft h e t o ta l N ISP -h ence t h e ir g rea te r d ive r s i ty . S i te 5 s how s •

r e la t ive ly h igh a bundance s o ft h ree m a jo r t a xa , i n c lud ing as t r ik ing ly h igh p ropor t ion o fp ig .

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H e te rogene i ty

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T he se e xcep t ion s a s ide , mos t o f t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o f m a jo r t a xa i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic c an b e a ccommoda ted w i th in o ne p a t te rn . T h is i n vo lve s a s t ra tegy o fc a t t le a nd o v icapr ine e xp lo i ta t ion , i n wh ich a

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2 .

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f ew s i te s s how a n e x t reme c oncen t ra t ion o n e i the r o v i c apr ine s o rc a t t le w h i le t h e m a jor i ty s how s ome c omb ina t i on o ft h e se t a xa . I n al i t t le o ve r h a lf o ft h e s i te s , a s sem b l age s a r e c ompo sed o f 5 0% t o 8 0% c a t t le , a nd 1 0% t o 4 0% o v icap r ine s .

4 0

4 0

8 0

1 0 0

%C a t t le F igure 1 6 . P lo t o fp e r cen t c a t t le a nd h e te rogene i ty f o r e a r ly N eo l i th ic . g ene i ty u sed i nC hap te r6 .

E a r ly N eo l i th ic T he c on t r ibu t ion o fc a t t le r e la t ive t o s heep a nd g oa t h a s b een i s o la ted a sa n i mpo r tan tc omponen to fv a r iab i l i ty f o r e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . F igu re 1 5 s how s as c a t te r p lo t o f %N ISP f o r t h e se t wo t a xa . Mo s t o f t h e a s sem b l age s f a l l i n al i nea r b and , i lu s t ra t ing as t rong n ega t ive r e la t ion sh ip i n r e la t ive f r equenc ie s . A s semb lage s w h ich h ave h i gh p ropor t ion so fs heep a nd g oa t h ave c or re spond i n g ly l ow f r equenc ie s o fc a t t le , a nd v i ce v e r sa . T he re i sa s ma l l g roup o ff ou rs i te s ( 3 , 5 , 1 9 , 2 0 ) l o ca ted i nt h e_ b o t t om l e f t p or t ion o ft h e p l o t w h ich a ppea r t oh ave l ow f r e q uenc ie s o fb o th t h e se m a jo r t a xa . F igu re 1 6 p re sen t s as c a t te rp lo t o f %N ISP c a t t le f o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s p lo t ted a ga in s t t h e ir h e te ro g ene i ty v a lue s . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween f r equenc ie s o f o v icapr ine a nd c a t t le i s c l ea r ly m ir ro red i n t h is p l o t . Mo s t o f t h e a s semb lage s f a l l i n ac u rv i l inea r b and i nt h e l owe r p o r t ion o ft h is f i gu re . T he a s semb lage s i nt h e l e f t h and s e gmen t o f t h is b and a r e t ho se s hown i n F igu re 1 5 t oh ave h i gh p ropo r t ion so fs heep a nd g oa t . T he se a s sem b l age s a r e a l so c ha rac te r ized b y r e la t ive ly l ow h e te ro g ene i ty v a lue s . A s w e m ove t owa rd t h e r i gh t , a nd a s sem b l age s d om ina ted b y c a t t le ,

I ti sd i f f icu l t t or e la te t h e se p e r cen tage s t oa c tua l n umbe r s o f s t ock , b u t s ome g ene ra l iza t ion s a bou t t h e u se o f t h e se t a xa f o l low f r om t h e d i scu s s ion o f p a rame te r s o f a n ima l p roduc t ion p re sen ted i nC hap te r 4 .T he f i r s t t h ing t on o te i st h a t t h e t wo m a jor t a xa a r e r e la t ive ly c ompa t ib le f o r c omb ined m anagemen t . C a t t le a nd o v icapr ine s c an o f ten g raze t o ge the r , t h ough l o ca l e co log ica l p a rame te r s o f ten f a vo r t h e c omb ina t ion o f c a t t le w i th o n ly o ne o f t h e se t a xa ( i e . s heep o r g oa t ) ( Dah l a nd H jor t 1 976 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s u i tab le f o rage i nN eo l i th ic f o re s t s m ay w e l l h ave n ece s s i ta ted t h e c omb ina t ion s o f d ome s t ic a n ima ls w i th a s l i t t le i n te r spe c if ic c ompe t i t ion a s p o s s ib le . H oweve r , g i ven t h e p rob lem s o f i d en t if iab i l i ty o f o v i c apr ine s , a nd o u r l im i ted k now ledge r e ga rd ing g raz ing c ompe t i t ion i nm ixed d ec iduou s f o re s t s , t h e p ref e rence o f o ne o v icap r ine o ve r a no the r i si mpos s ib le t o p red ic t o r t e s t . T he f a c t t h a t t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o f t h e se t a xa a r e n ega t ive ly c o r r e la ted m ay b e r e la ted t o an umbe r o f f a c to r s . B o th c a t t le a nd o v icapr ine s c an b e e xpen s ive t o m a in ta in i n l a rge n umbe r s , a nd t h e ir c omb ina t ion m ay o n ly b e p o s s ib le w i th c e r ta in p ropor t ion s t o m in im ize c onf l ic t i nl a bo r a s soc ia ted w i th t h e ir k e ep ing . T h is i se s p ec ia l ly t r ue i fe i the r t a xon i se xp lo i ted f o r mo re t h an o ne b ody p roduc t , f o r i n s tance , m ea t a nd m i lk . When p roduc t i v i ty i n t e rm s o f m i lk a nd /o r m ea t y i e ld i st a ken i n to

t h e h e te rogene i ty s co re s

c t _ c o

i n crea se u p t o av a lue o fa bou t t h ree , t h en d ec rea se a ga in a s %N ISP f o rc a t t le a pp roache s 8 0% . O f t h e f o u r s i te s i d en t if ied a s d i f f e ren t i n F igu re 1 5 , t h ree o f t h em ( 3 , 1 9 a nd 2 0 ) a r e a l so s e t a pa r t i nF igu re 1 6 b y t h e ir h igh h e te rogene i ty s co re s . A s semb lage 5 a p p ea r s m o re s im i la r t o t h e a s semb lage s i n t h e c a t t le o v icap r ine c on t inuum , a l though i ta l so s how s as l igh t ly h ighe r h e te rogene i ty v a lue . I n spe c t ion o f F igu re 1 7 r e v ea ls t h e s ource o f t h e se d i f f e rence s f o r t h e se a s sem b l age s . S i te s 3 , 1 9 a nd 2 0 a l l c on ta in 2 0% o r m o re r e d d ee r b one s . T hey a l so c on s t i tu te t h e o n ly a s semb lage s i n

5 5

F igure 1 7 . R ep re sen ta t ion o fm a jo r t a xa a ts i te s 3 , 1 9 , 2 0 a nd 5 .

A n ima l P roduc t ion S y s t ems i nN eo l i th ic C en t ra lE urope c on s ide ra t ion , i ti so bv iou s t h a t c a t t le u sua l ly r e p re sen t t h e mo re s ub s tan t ia l c on t r ibu tor s t o t h e e conomy . T he i mpor tance o f s ma l le r n umbe r s o f o v icapr ine s i n t h is c on tex t m ay b e r e la ted t o m in im iz ing t h e r i sk a s soc ia ted w i th af o cu s o n l a rge a n ima ls w i th al o nge r r e p roduc t ive c yc le . S heep a nd g oa t s c an b o th i n c rea se t h e ir n umbe r s r a p id ly , a nd m ay p rov ide m ea t o r m i lk a tp er iod s w hen c a t t le a r e l e s s p roduc t ive . S i te s w i th e x t reme s i n e i the r t a xon m ay r e p re sen t d i f f e ren t f unc t iona l a spe c t s w i th r e g a rd t ot h e i rt o ta l e conom ic s t ra tegy , o ro ne s a t wh ich t h e l o ca l e nv ironmen t a l lowed o ne t a xon t o f l ou r ish a t t h e e xpense o f t h e o the r . A l terna t ive ly , t h e se a s semb lage s c ou ld r e p re sen t d i f f e ren t p os i t ion s a l ong ab oom a nd b u s t c yc le o fc omb ined c a t t le a nd o v icapr ine u se , a s s e en , f o r i n s tance , i n modern A f r ican g roup s c omb in ing l a rge a nd s ma l l s tock m anagemen t . Among t h e A r iaa l R end i l le , p er iod ic l o s s o f c a t t le t h rough d i sea se , r a id ing o r d eb t

c l ea r f r om t h e r e su l t s o f t h e d ive r s i ty a nd p r inc ipa l c om p onen t s a na lyse s w h ich t a xa , i fa ny , c ova ry w i th in t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . A g ood p l ace t o s t ar t i sb y i n ve s t iga t ing s ome o f t h e r e la t ion sh ips i d en t if ied among t a xa i nt h ee a r ly g roup o fs i te s . F igu re 1 8 s how s as c a t te rp lo t o f %N ISP f o r c a t t le a nd o v icapr ine s f r om l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T he s t rong n ega t ive r e la t ion sh ip i d en t if ied f o r t h e e a r ly a s semb lage s i sn o t o bv iou s h e re , r a the r , i ta ppe a r s t h a t t h e a s s em b l age s m ay b e s p l i t i n to a t l e a s t t wo g roups b a sed o n t h e se t a xa . I n t h e l owe r l e f t q uad ran t o f t he p lo t , a s sem b l age s 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 3 3 , 3 5 , 4 1 , 4 4 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 4 9 , 5 3 , 5 7 , 5 8 , a nd 5 9 c on s t i tu te o ne g roup , w h i le t h e r ema in ing 2 1 s i te s c an b e c on s ide red as e cond g roup .

m ay b e c ompen sa ted f o r b y t empo ra ry c oncen t ra t ion o n s he ep o r g oa t h e rd ing . T he r e la t ive ly r a p id a cqu is i t ion o f a n ima l w ea l th t h rough s m a l l s t ock k e ep ing c an t h en l e ad

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5.

t ot h e a cqu is i t ion o f m o re e xpen s ive l a rge s t ock ( F ra tk in 1 988 ) .

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4.

T he p i c tu re w h ich e me rge s f r om t h is d i scu s s ion o f t a xo n om ic a bundance i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic i so ne o f al a rge ly s ha red s t ra tegy e xh ib i t ing a n a r row r a nge o f v ar iab i l i ty . A t t h e m omen t , i ti su nc lea r h ow t h e f ew s i te s w h ich d o

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n o t s ha re t h is p a t te rn s hou ld b e e xp la ined . A s semb lage s

U n l ike t h e c a se i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic , i ti sn o t e n t ire ly

S.

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3 , 19 , a nd 2 0 , s e t a pa r t b y t h e ir h i gh ly d i ve r se a s sem b l age sa nd u se o fw i ld a n ima ls , s e em t or e p re sen t aq ua l i t a t ive ly d i f f e ren t s t ra tegy p e rhap s r e la ted t o t h e ir s ha red e nv i ronmen t . A s semb lage 5 ,w i th i t s a bundance o fp i g , i s e qua l ly d i ff i cu l t t or e la te t oa ny a dd i t iona l a s semb lage s i n t h is p e r iod .

L a te N eo l i th ic

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F igure 1 9 . P lo t o fp e rcen t c a t t le a nd h e te rogene i ty f o r 2 1 l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T h is s e cond a nd l a rge r g roup o f a s semb lage s a ppe a r s t o s how a r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en c a t t le a nd o v icapr ine r ep re s e n ta t ion s im i la r t o t h a t n o ted f o r t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . I n t h e e a r ly a s semb lage s , t h e n a tu re o f t h is r e la t ion sh ip b e c ame c l ea r i nt h e p lo t o fp e r cen t c a t t le a nd h e te rogene i ty .

C D

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F igure 1 9 p l o t s t h e se t wo o bserva t ion s f o r t h e l a te N eo l i th ic . I ts hou ld b e r e ca l led t h a t ac u rv i l inea r p a t te rn i nt h e l owe r p o r t ion o f t h e p lo t w a s v i s ib le i n t h e c or re s pond ing f i gu re f o r e a r ly a s semb lage s . T he r e la t ion sh ip

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g ene i ty w h ich a ppea r t o f o cus o n c a t t le , a s i n t h e e a r ly

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b e twe en t h e se t wo v a r iab le s i n t h e l a te r s amp le s i s a l i nea r n ega t ive o ne . T he re a r e af ew s i t e s o f l ow h e te ro -

4 0

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%C a t t le F igure 1 8 . P lo t o fp e rcen t c a t t le a nd p e r cen t o v icapr ine s i nl a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

p er iod . H oweve r , t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic p a t tern o f as pec t r um o fc a t t le a nd o v icapr ine c omb ina t ion s w i th in an a r -

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r ow r a nge o f h e te rogene i ty v a lue s c anno t b e t r aced . a o

I n s tead , t h e re a r e an umbe r o f a s semb lage s w i th h igh h e te rogene i ty , c on ta in ing r e la t ive ly s m a l l p ropo r t ion s o f c a t t le . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t m u l t ip le t a xa c on tr ibu te i nl ow f r equenc ie s t o t h e g rea te r h e te rogene i ty o f t h e se a s sem b l age s . T h is c on t ra s t s w i th t h e m a jo r i ty o fe a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s , i nw h ich t h e h e te rogene i ty o fa s semb lage s h a s b een

5 6

T axonom ic A bundance i nN eo l i th ic F auna lA s semb lage s 8

•

7 .

H e te rogene i ty

t h e se s i te s . I na dd i t ion , s i te s 2 6 , 3 3 a nd 3 5 , f a ir ly h e te ro g eneou s a s semb lage s , d o n o t f i t t h e l i nea r p a t te rn i d en t i -

8 .

5 .

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f i ed i nF igure 2 0 a l l t h a t w e l l , a ga in i nd ica t ing t h e p re s e nce o f o ne o r m o re a dd i t iona l t a xa i n r e la t ive ly h igh f r equenc ie s . •

F igu re 2 1 g i ve s t h e %N ISP f o r t h e n ine m a jo r t a xa a tt h e

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l e s s h e te rogeneou s s i te s : 2 9 , 3 8 , 4 0 , a nd 4 4 . Two o ft h e a s semb lage s a r e d om ina ted b y t wo t a xa : c a t t le a nd o v i c apr ine s i n t h e c a se o f s i te 2 9 , p ig a nd c a t t le i n a s sem b l age 4 4 . T he o the r t wo a s semb lage s a r e d om ina ted b y c a t t le , w i th o v icapr ine s a nd p igs a s a dd i t iona l i mpor tan t t a xa . A s im i la r b a r g raph i n F igu re 2 2 p re sen t s %N ISP f o r t h e m a jo r t a xa i n a s semb lage s 2 6 , 3, a nd 3 5 . P ig r e p re sen t s t h e mo s t a bundan t t a xon a te a ch o ft he se s i te s , w i th v a r iou s c omb ina t ion s o ft wo o r t h re e o the r t a xa a l so

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4. 0

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a ppea r ing i nh i gh f r equenc ie s .

8 0

F igure 2 0 . P lo t o fp e r cen t r e d d ee ra nd h e te rogene i ty f o r 1 4 l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s .

T he h i ghe r r e la t ive a bundance o f p i g i n l a te N eo l i th ic s i te s i ss hown i nb o th o f t h e se g raph s , a s w e l l a s b y t h e h i gh l o ad ing o f t h is t a xon o n t h e t h i rd c omponen t o f t h e p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na lys is . P ig , c a t t le a nd r ed d ee r ,

s e en t ob e p r im a r i ly ap roduc t o f t h e r e la t ive a bundance s o fo n ly t wo t a xa .

t h en , c an b e i d en t i f ied a s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t t a xa a mong t h e s amp le o fl a te N eo l i th ic s i te s c on s ide red h e re , w i th a

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R ed D ee r

H e te rogene i ty v a lue s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ma l le r g roup o f 1 4 a s semb lage s a ppea r t ob e r e la ted t ot h e r e la t ive a bun d ance o f ad i f f e ren t t a xon : r ed d e e r ( F igu re 2 0 ) . Mo s t o f t h e p o in t s i n F igu re 2 0 f a l l i n al i ne a r b and s how ing a n ega t ive r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p e rcen t r e d d ee r a nd h e te rogene i ty . A s i n t h e c a se w i th t h e p rev iou s g roup , t h e re a r e an umbe r o f a s semb lage s o f l ow h e te rogene i ty i nw h ich a s i ng le t a xon , r e d d e e r i n t h is c a se , a c coun t s f o r5 0% o r m o re o ft h e t o ta l N ISP . S i te s w i th h i ghe rh e t e rogene i ty v a lue s o fa bou t 4a nd a bove c on ta in r e la t ive ly s ma l le r p ropo r t ions o f r e d d ee r . T he re a r e af ew a s -

n umbe r o f a s semb lage s d om ina ted b y e ach t a xon . I n a dd i t ion t ot h e se t a xa , o v icapr ine s r ema in i mpor tan t a ta n umbe r o f s i te s a l though , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f af ew a s semb lage s l i ke 2 9 a nd 3 8 , t h ey a ppea r i n r e la t ive ly l owe r f r equenc ie s t h an i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . T he i r p re sence a nd a bundance s e em t o b e g ove rned b y f a c to r s o t he r t h an t h e c o r re spond ing p ropo r t ion o f c a t t le i n t h e a s semb lage , a s i st h e c a se i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . I n a f i na l a t temp t t o i lu s t ra te t h e r e la t ion sh ip s among m a jo r t a xa i n t h e l a te N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s , t h e r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion s o f t h e t h re e m a in t a xa a r e s hown i n at r iang le g r aph i n F igu re 2 3 . T he p e rcen tage s h ave b een r e ca lcu -

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