Animal Cognition 9781137367297, 1137367296

Table of contents :
Evolution, adaptation, cognition, and behavior : an introduction on minds, thought, and intelligence in animals --
Other ways of seeing the world --
Concept formation --
Time and number --
Cause and effect --
Reasoning --
Navigation --
Social cognition and self-awareness --
Social learning --
Remembering --
Animal communication in the wild --
Language --
Conclusion and comparisons.

Citation preview

Animal Cognition

Also by Clive D. L. Wynne Do Animals Think? (2004)

Anima

nition

Evolution, Behavior and Cognition

2nd edition Clive D. L. Wynne, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, Arizona State University

Monique A. R. Udell, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University

pal grave •

First edition e Clive D. l. Wynne 2001 Second edition e Clive D. L. Wynne & Monique A R. Udell 2013 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC 1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First edition published 2001 Second edition published 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke. Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin's Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave• and Macmillan• are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN: 9784230-29422-{; hardback ISBN: 9784230-29423-3 paperback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

For my mother, and in memory of my father - Clive 0. L. Wynne For my parents, and my husband Chet - Monique A. R. Udell

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Contents

List of Figures

XI

xv

Preface to the Second Edition Acknowledgements

XVII

Author Biographies

XXll

1

Evolution, Adaptation, Cognition, and Behavior: An Introduction

1

On Minds, Thought, and Intelligence in Animals

3

Historical Background: Darwin, Wallace, and the Minds of Beasts

4

A Cautionary Tale and a Canon

11

Clever Hans: the horse with the intelligence of a 14-year-old child

11

Lloyd Morgan's canon: the most awesome weapon in animal psychology

14

Now and the Future

14

Further Reading

15

Web sources 2

15

Other Ways of Seeing the World

17

Vision

18

The pigeon's eye view of the world: a case study in animal vision Patterns and pictures

23

Smell

27

Hearing

30

Magnetic sensitivity

32

Electric sense

34

Sensitivity to air pressure

35

Conclusions

35

Further Reading

36

Web sources 3

37

Concept Formation

39

Perceptual Concepts

40

Object Permanence

50

Relational Concepts

56

Same-different

57

Stimulus equivalence

59

Conclusions

62

Further Reading

62

Web sources 4

21

63

Time and Number

65

Time

66

Learning about time of day

66

Learning about short time intervals

68

Numbers

74

Relative number judgments: more or less

vii

74

viii

Contents Absolute number

76

Counting

78

Conclusions

85

Further Reading

85

Web sources 5

Cause and Effect Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlovian conditioning through the animal kingdom

91

What is learned in Pavlovian conditioning?

95 98

Outline

98

Learning from consequences

99

Instrumental conditioning throughout the animal kingdom

101

What is learned in instrumental conditioning?

105

Biological predispositions and roadblocks

109

Conclusions

112

Further Reading

115 115

Reasoning

117

Tool Use

117

Insight

121

Reasoning by Analogy

129

Series Learning I: Transitive Inference

130

Series Learning II: Linear Ordering

134

Fairness

135

Conclusions

137

Further Reading

138

Web sources Navigation Spatial Reasoning

139 141 141

Dead reckoning

142

Routes, landmarks, and beacons

144

The sun-compass

146

Cognitive maps and shortcuts

146

Case studies

152

Pigeon homing

152

Bees foraging

157

Distractions, side biases, and other considerations

160

Migration

163

Conclusions

168

Further Reading

169

Web sources 8

89 89

Web sources

7

87

Outline

Instrumental Conditioning

6

85

Social Cognition and Self-Awareness

169 171

Self-Recognition: Is That Me? - Studies on Mirror Recognition

172

Sensitivity to the Actions of Others

179

What Are You Looking At? Sensitivity to the Gaze of Others

187

Theory of Mind

190

Do You See What I See?

193

Conclusions

197

Further Reading

198

Web sources

198

Contents 9

Social Learning Social Influence Social facilitation Stimulus and local enhancement Affordance learning Social Learning: What Is It, Why Do It? Imitation - The Sincerest Form of Flattery True imitation Emulation Same end, different means Same means, different end Same means, competitive end Teaching Teaching in meerkats Teaching in ants Teaching in apes Conclusions Further Reading Web sources

10

Remembering Simple Memories Short-Term Memory Capacity Duration Serial order effects What causes forgetting? Long-Term Memory Food-storing birds Marsh tits and chickadees Nutcrackers Pigeons Implicit and Explicit Memory Metamemory - knowledge of what one remembers Episodic memory - what, when, and where Conclusions Further Reading Web sources

11

Animal Communication in the Wild The Dance of the Honeybee Chicken Alarm Calls Vervet Monkeys of Kenya Diana Monkeys Eavesdropping on Other Species' Signals Dolphins The Function and Evolution of Referential Calls Conclusions Further Reading Web sources

12

Language Ape Language Studies Words Sentences Kanzi

ix 201 201 202 203 205 206 211 212 216 217 217 220 221 223 224 225 226 228 228 231 232 234 237 237 239 242 245 245 245 247 249 252 252 253 255 256 256 259 262 267 268 269 270 273 274 274 274 277 278 278 287 289

x

Contents

Language Training with Other Species Communicating with Dolphins Irene Pepperberg and Alex Conclusions Further Reading Web sources

13

Conclusions and Comparisons Brain Size Learning Set Taking the Person Out of Animal Personality Are There Really Differences between Species? Further Reading Web sources

291 291 292 293 295 295 297 297 301 304 307 311 311

Notes

312

References

313

Index

339

List of Figures

1.1

Sand goby

1.2

Clever Hans with his trainer Mr. von Osten

2.1

Diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum showing human and

6 12 19

pigeon zones of sensitivity 2.2

View from above of the apparatus used by Delius and colleagues to assess pigeons' sensitivity to the polarization of light

21

2.3

Examples of the stimuli used by Reid and Spetch (1988)

24

2.4

Two representative displays used by Robert Cook

25

2. 5

A pigeon choosing between two objects in Spetch and Friedman's

(2006)

experiment

2.6

Resting orientations of cattle (A), roe deer (B), and red deer (C)

2. 7

Weakly electric African fish

3.1

Examples of stimuli readily classified by pigeons as fish (left) and

26 33 34

a picture commonly misclassified (right) in Herrnstein and de Villiers's experiment

3.2

43

Apparatus used by Bhatt and colleagues pigeons to classify each of

40

(1 988) to

train

pictures into one of four categories.

Note the four pecking keys, one at each corner of the screen showing the image

3.3

44

Images similar to those used in Aust and Huber's studies of the ability of pigeons to recognize pictures as real objects

3.4 3.5 3. 6 3.7 3.8

Two sample images from the experiment by Fersen and Lea One of Hanggi's horses choosing between a filled and an open sunlike stimulus

49

Gagnon and Dore's testing arena for dogs

51

A dog in Miller and colleagues' (2009) experiment

53

Apparatus used by Wright and colleagues to study pigeons' comprehension of the same-different concept

3.9

58

Design of Urcuioli and colleagues' (1989) stimulus equivalence experiment

60 69

4.1

Timing behavior of rufous hummingbirds

4 .2

The average rate of lever pressing for a group of rats accustomed to receiving food reward every

4 .3

40

seconds

71

Proportion of responses to the long key made by pigeons after stimuli of different durations

4.4

57

Performance of two groups of pigeons on a same different concept task

3.10

46 47

72

On the left, Rocky the raccoon is selecting the transparent cube containing an object in an early phase of training. On the right,

4.5 4.6

Rocky is receiving social reinforcement

76

One of Davis and Bradford's rats selecting the correct tunnel

78

Examples of stimuli used by Brannon and Terrace showing different numbers of various kinds of objects (the originals were colored)

xi

82

xii 4.7

Li st

of Figures

Sarah Boysen's chimp Sheba selecting the set of items that match the numeral shown on the screen

83

4.8

The room in which Sheba carried out the adding task

84

5.1

I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936)

90

5.2

Sketch of Aplysia showing siphon, mantle, and gill

92

5.3

The standard (left) and jumbled (right) groups from Rescorla's truly random control experiment

96

5.4

Design of Kamin's blocking experiment

97

5.5

An example of one of Thorndike's puzzle boxes

99

5.6

Consequences and outcomes of instrumental conditioning

100

5.7

Pigeon in an operant chamber

102

5.8

Rat in an operant chamber

103

5.9

T and radial mazes

103

5.10

Pigeons playing ping-pong

105

5.11

Rafiki's treatment analysis

108

6.1

Tool use of crows confronted with a familiar food bowl or novel stimuli in a food retrieval task

6.2

Grande completing Kohler's block stacking task while Sultan watches

6.3

6.5 6.6

123

A capuchin monkey pushing a pole into Visalberghi and Limongelli's 'trap tube' so as to obtain a candy

6.4

120

125

Six of the arrangements used by Hood and colleagues (1999) on the gravity task

126

string-pulling task

127

Simple (A) and more complex (B &. C) versions of the Illustration of the Pitcher and the Crow based on Aesop's tale, and a photograph of the real-world counterpart as reported by Christopher Bird and Nathan Emery (2009)

6.7

128

Examples of the items used to test Sarah's comprehension of analogy

130

7.1

A sketch based on Tinburgen's famous digger wasp experiment

145

7.2

A sketch of the maze used by Tolman and Honzik to study detour learning in rats

7.3

The mazes used in two stages of the experiment described by Tolman and colleagues

7.4

147 148

The triangular test area used by Chapuis and Varlet to test dogs' spatial reasoning ability

149

7.5

Homing of anosmic pigeons

155

7.6

Pigeons taken out on two routes return by two different paths

156

7.7

Experimental pigeons kept in a home aviary (left-hand diagram) through which an odor of benzaldehyde is blown by fans

157

7.8

Evidence that bees do not have a proper cognitive map

159

7.9

Barrier problem set by Kohler

160

7.10

One of the barrier problems used by Poucet et al.

162

7.11

Density of eggs and larva on milkweed plants after prescribed summer burning

7.12

164

Migration path of green turtles tracked by satellite from Redang Island in West Malaysia

167

8.1

A four-month-old dog looking at its image in a mirror

173

8.2

The experimental layout as described in Menzel et al. (1985)

178

8.3

The classic guilty look

182

8.4

Shifted developmental timing as a byproduct of domestication

185

List of Figures 8.5

xiii

In addition to dogs, bats, dolphins, and wolves are among a diverse group of species that have demonstrated the capacity to follow human points to a target in human-guided object-choice tasks.

8.6

186

A chimpanzee choosing between the container pointed to by the guesser and that pointed to by the knower

194

9.1

Imitation in ducks

204

9.2

A mouse eating from a jar containing the same flavor food that a demonstrator had consumed

206

9.3

Food consumption and muzzle sniffing in mice

207

9.4

A Japanese macaque washing potatoes in the ocean to get the sand off them

9.5

Based on Heyes and Dawson's (1 990) setup for the bidirectional control procedure

9.6

210 213

Young chimpanzee solving an opaque (a) and transparent (b) version of a puzzle box in a study conducted by Victoria Horner and Andrew Whiten (2005)

216

An elephant performing the same behavior as the human trainer

219

10.1

A stentor

233

10.2

A rat in a water maze

235

10.3

The delayed matching to sample procedure

236

10.4

The layout used by Spetch and Honig to study pigeons'

9.7

memory for locations in a room

238

10.5

Serial order effect in monkeys

240

10.6

The environment in which Sherry and colleagues studied how birds rely on global cues to remember where they have stored food

10.7

The arena used by Vander Wall to test nutcrackers' memory of stored seed positions

10.8

247 248

A selection of the stimuli used by Fersen and Delius in their study of pigeons' rote memorization ability

250

11.1

Darwin's dog Polly 'watching a cat on a table'

261

11.2

The round (left) and waggle (right) dances of the honeybee

262

11.3

Each line represents the flight path of a bee that attended to the waggle dance of a bee that started at the hive and found its way to the feeder. The diamond release points at the bottom left of the figure are where bees that were attempting to fly out of the hive were shifted to and then released. It can be seen that they fly out of the release points in the approximate direction and distance of the feeder

264

11.4

Sonograms of white-crowned sparrow song

266

11.5

Experimental arrangement for Evans and Marler's experiments on

12. l

communication in chickens

267

Nim signing 'Me hug cat' to a human trainer

280

12.2

Lana operating a Yerkish keyboard

281

12.3

Growth of Nim's vocabulary over a 32-week period compared with that of a child just after her second birthday

282

12.4

Chaser on top of a pile of all the toys she knows the names of

283

12.5

Growth of Chaser's vocabulary

284

12.6

Change in length of utterance for Nim, a deaf child, and a hearing child

287

12.7

Some of the commands used to train Akeakamai

292

13.1

Brain mass against body mass for several different

13.2

species of vertebrates

298

Cephalization indexes of several species

299

xiv

13.3 13.4

List of Figures Human brain compared with that of a reptile, fish, bird, and rat Percentages of correct responses on trial

2

300

of different discrimination

problems plotted against successive problem number for

13.5 13.6

several different species

302

36 successive problems

303

Owner's ratings of the emotions they believe their pets display

306

Picture of dunnart next to trial 2 performance on

Preface to the Second Edition

It has bee11 over a decade since the first edition ofAnimal Cognition appeared, and a lot has happened i11 the sciences of a11imal behavior and cognitio11 in that tin1e. Ten years ago, nobody guessed that a dog \.VOuld be found that knew the names of over a thousand objects (n1eet Chaser i11 Chapter 12) or that a crow would be fou11d on a South Pacific isla11d that could create tools out of pieces of wire (n1eet Betty in Chapter 6). Son1e people 1night have suspected that evidence of culture would be found in chi1npanzees (see Chapter 9) and that pigeons would sho\.v that they can generalize fro1n experience of pictures of people with 110 heads to pictures of heads \.Vithout bodies (Chapter 3) - these latter two discoveries n1ay not be as surprising, but they are 11onetheless fascinati11g. The 2000s \