Anglo-Saxon Settlement and Landscape: Papers presented to a Symposium, Oxford 1973 9780904531053, 9781407323411

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF TEXT FIGURES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
CONTRIBUTORS
THE ANGLO-SAXON COUNTRYSIDE
PROBLEMS OF CONTINUITY
AN EARLY SAXON LANDSCAPE AT MUCKING, ESSEX
ABINGDON AND REGION: EARLY ANGLO-SAXON SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE
EARLY SAXON SETTLEMENTS IN DORCHESTER ON THAMES
THE SAXON SETTLEMENT AT NEW WINTLES, EYNSHAM, OXFORDSHIRE
A ROMAN IRON AGE AND EARLY MIGRATION SETTLEMENT AT FLÖGELN, KR. WESERMÜNDE, LOWER SAXONY: Investigations into the Evolution of a "Siedlungskammer" in the Elbe-Weser Triangle since Neolithic Times
THE ANGLO-SAXON SETTLEMENT OF BONHUNT, ESSEX: AN INTERIM NOTE
EXPERIMENT AND THE ANGLO-SAXON ENVIRONMENT
WHITHER ANGLO-SAXON SETTLEMENT ARCHAEOLOGY?
THE CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH PLACE-NAMES
OFFA'S AND WAT'S DYKES - SOME EXPLORATORY WORK ON THE FRONTIER BETWEEN CELT AND SAXON
ANGLO-SAXON SETTLEMENT: THE DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
THE OLD ENGLISH FOREST its natural flora and fauna
THE EMERGENCE OF THE VILLAGE CHURCH IN ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND

Citation preview

Anglo-Saxon Settlement and Landscape Papers presented to a Symposium, Oxford I 97 3 edited by Trevor Rowley

British Archaeological Reports 6 1 974

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England General Editors: A.R.Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. Mrs Y.M.Hands D.R.Walker, B.A. Advisory Editors: ,C. B.Burgess, M.A. Neil Cossons, M.A., F.S.A., F.M.A. Professor B.W.Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, B.A., M.A., F. S.A. Professor G.D.B.Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. Frances Lynch, M.A., F.S.A. P.A.Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. P.A.Rahtz, M.A., F.S.A.

B.A.R. 6, 1974: "Anglo-Saxon Settlement and Landscape" (ed. Trevor Rowley) © Oxford University Department for External Studies, 1974 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780904531053 paperback ISBN 9781407323411 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531053 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

ANGLO-SAXON S ETTLE MENT AND LANDSCAPE

CONTENTS Page L is t o f P la tes

1

L is t o f T ex t F igures

1

A cknow ledge men ts

2

Ed i tor 's I n troduct ion

3

Con tr ibu tors

4

C . T ay lor :

The Ang lo-Saxon Coun trys ide

D . Brown :

Prob le ms o f Con t inu i ty

1 6

The Ear ly S axon L andscape a t

2 0

W. & Mrs. M.U. J ones :

5

Muck ing , E ssex D . Mi les :

Ab ingdon a nd Reg ion :

Ear ly

3 6

Ang lo-Saxon S et t Ev idence tle men R .T . Row ley :

Ear ly S axon S et t i n tle men

4 2

Dorches ter Mrs. M. Gray :

T he S axon S et t a t New tle men

5 1

Win t les , Eynsha m , Oxon W. m mermann : H .Zi

A Ro man I ron Age a nd Ear ly

5 6

Migra t ion S et t a t F löge ln , tle men Kr. Wesermünde , L ower S axony K . Wade :

T he Ang lo-Saxon S et t o f tle men B onhun t , E ssex :

7 4

An I n ter im

Note T he West S tow Env ironmen ta l

Exper i men t a nd t he Ang lo-

Archaeo logy Group :

S axon Env iron men t

K . Wade :

Wh ither Ang lo-Saxon Archaeo logy?

8 7

T he Chrono logy o f Eng l ish

9 3

ling Mrs. M. G el :

78

P lace-Na mes l: D . H il

fa Of 's a nd Wa t 's Dykes -So me Exp loratory work o n t heF ron t ier

1 02

b etween Ce l t a nd S axon P . S awyer :

tle men Ang lo-Saxon S et t : T he

1 08

Docu men tary Ev idence D .P . K irby : J . G od frey :

The O ld Eng l ish Forest The Emergence o f t he V il l age Church i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land

1 20 131

L IST OF PLATES Page 2 5

P la te I

A er ia l p hotograph o f c rop mark f eatures a t Muck ing

P la te I

F if th c en tury b e lt s e t f ro m Muck ing

f ac ing 3 0

P la te I I

Ear ly f i f th c en tury c law b eaker f ro m Muck ing

f ac ing 3 1

P la te I V P la te V

T he ' S ied lungska m mer ' , F löge ln ,fro m a m ap o f 1 769 Flöge ln , excava t ion t renches 4 a nd 5

5 8 6 1

P la te V I

F löge ln , s econd/ th ird c en tury p os t-ho lehouse

6 2

P la te V I I

F löge ln , f our th/ f if th c en tury h ouses

7 0

L IST OF TEXT F IGURES

F ig .

1

F ig .

2

Muck ing , E ssex : M uck ing :

l in p lans ocato

i n ter im p lan o f e xcavated f eatures

2 1 2 6

F ig .

3

S axon s et tle men tb etween D orchester a nd Ab ingdon

3 7

F ig .

4

Ear ly S axon r ectangu lar s tructures a t Dorchester

4 3

F ig . F ig .

5 6

Reconstruct ion o f t own p lan o f med ieva l Dorchester Saxon f eatures a t New Win t les , Eynsham , Oxfordsh ire

F ig .

7

Elbe- Weser T r iang le , G ermany

5 7

F ig .

8

Sunken h ouse p lans , f ro m F löge ln

5 7

F ig . 9 F ig . 1 0

L ong h ouse p lans f ro m F löge ln Plan a nd s ect ions o f g ranar ies , F lögeln

6 4 6 8

F ig . 1

W est S tow , H ut 2 1

8 0

F ig . 1 2

Place-Names i n t he B irm ingham r eg ion

F ig . 1 3 F ig . 1 4 F ig . 1 5

Place-Na mes a nd Dr if t G eo logy t o t he n or th o f Coven try M a 's a nd Wa t 's Dykes : n or thern e nds Of fa 's a nd Wa t ts Dykes i n t he T revddyn a rea

1

4 7 5 2

9 5 9 9 1 03 1 05

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

T hanks a re d ue t o Mrs. J . D ean , Miss S . H ermon a nd Mrs. S . Sm ith f or h e lp w ith t he p roduct ion o f t he t ypescr ipt , Professor S . Frere a nd Mrs. S . Hawkes f or c o m men ts o n t he Dorchester p aper , t he Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity Co m m it t ee f or Aer ia l Photography f or p erm iss ion t o r eproduce P late Ia nd t he D irector o f t he Ox ford Un ivers ity Depar tmen t f or Ex terna l S tud ies f or e nab l ing t he s ympos iu m t o t ake p lace.

2

I NTRODUCT ION T he f i rst Ox ford S ympos iu m o n Ang lo-Saxon Archaeo logy w as h e ld i n 1 970 , a nd a l though i t was o r ig inal ly i n tended t o p ub l ish t he p apers , i n t he e ven t , n oth ing a ppeared .

T he s econd S ympos ium w as h e ld i n October 1 973 a nd h ap-

p i ly t h is t ime i th as p roved p oss ib le t o p ub l ish a s amp le o f t he p apers.

T he

ly b c ho ice o f p apers f or i nc lus ion h as e ssen t ial een my o wn , b u t s ome c on tr ibu tors t o t he S ympos ium f e l t u nab le t o p roduce p apers a s t he ir ma ter ia l i s d ue t o a ppear e lsewhere. Ib e l ieve , h owever , t ha t t hese 1 5 p apers d o r ef lect t he g enera l t one a nd b a lance o f t he Ox ford meet ing . I tw as d ec ided t o i nv ite c on tr ibu tors f rom e cono m ic h istor ians , p lacel a n ame h istor ians , a nd h istor ica l g eographers a s w el s a rchaeo log ists.

T he

tle men t he me o f t he c on ference was s et t a nd l andscape i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , c hosen i n t he h ope t ha t b y b r ing ing t ogether s cho lars o f d i f feren t d isc ip l ines i t wou ld b e p oss ib le t o e xa m ine more e f fect ive ly t he p re-Norman l andscape. I tw as d ec ided t o om it t owns f ro m t h is p ar t icu lar c on ference , a nd c oncen tra te o n t he r ura l l andscape o f v il lages , f i e lds a nd w oods. l c N o o veral onc lus ions w ere e xpected o r a ch ieved a nd t he S ympos iu m p osed more q ues t ions t han i ta nswered .

B ecause o f c urren t r esearch many o f t he

l n p apers a re i nev itab ly i n ter im s tate men ts a nd may w el eed r ev is ing b y t he t ime o f t he n ex t S ympos iu m i n 1 976.

I ti s q u ite c lear t ha t much more i n tense

l w ork i s r equ ired p ar t icu lar ly o n t he d eve lopmen t o f t he v i lage :

i ti s b ecom-

l age f ly i ng i ncreas ing ly o bv ious t ha t t he med ieva l v il orm c annot a u to mat ical b e p ro jected b ackwards i n to t he midd le -o r e ven t he l ate-Saxon p er iod .

A s

l y et w e a re i n n o p os i t ion t o d escr ibe o r g enera l ise a bout t he S axon v i lage a s t ered ' t here a ppears t o b e ag rea t d iv ide b etween t he e ar ly s cat Muck ing Type ' tle men l s et ts a nd t he t rad i t iona l n uc lea ted med ieva l v i lage. T hese p apers d o , h owever , r ef lect t he w ide r ange o f i n terest a nd work o n t he p hys ica l f orm o f Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , a nd emphas ise t he a bso lu te n ecess i ty o f ac o mb ined a pproach t o t he s ub ject .

I n o rder t o r econstruct t he

S axon l andscape we n eed t o e xam ine t he e v idence o f d ocumen ts , a rchaeo logy a nd t opography . T he s cho lar who r e l ies o n o ne s ource o n ly a t t he e xpense o f l b t he o thers w il e i n n o p os i t ion t o r evea l t he who le t ru th . F ro m t he o u tset o f t he meet ing t here w as d isagree men t a bou t t erm inology . T herefore r a ther t han a t te mpt t he i mposs ib le t ask o f s tandard isa t ion , t he t erm ino logy u sed i n t he p r in ted p apers a nd o f c ourse t he v iews e xpressed t here in a re t hose o f t he i nd iv idua l c on tr ibu tors.

T revor Row ley

3

CONTRIBUTORS

D . Brown , I V I .A ., F .S .A ., Ass is tan t Keeper , Depar tmen t o f An t iqu it ies , Ashmo lean Museum , Ox ford . Mrs. M. G el , M. A ., Ph .D., ling Ed itor o f Eng l ish P lace-Na mes S oc iety S urveys o f Ox fordsh ire a nd B erksh ire. Rev. J . G od frey , M. A ., F .S .A ., Rector o f Donhead S t . Andrew . Mrs. M. Gray , F ie ld Archaeolog ist , S o merset . D . H il l, S taf utor , Manches ter Un ivers ity Ex tra- Mura l Depar tmen t . f T Mrs. M. U . J ones , B .A ., Excava t ion D irector , Muck ing Excavat ion Com m it t ee. W. T . J ones , A . R.P.S ., Ass istan t D irector , Muck ing Excavat ion C omm it t ee. D . P . K irby , M. A ., Ph .D., F .R. H is t . S ., Un ivers ity C ol f Wa les. l ege o D . Mi les , B .A ., Ass istan t D irector , Ox fordsh ire Archaeo log ica l Un i t . R . T . Row ley , B .A ., B .L it .A . , t., F.S S taf utor , Ox ford Un ivers ity Depar tmen t f or Ex terna l S tud ies . f T Professor P . S awyer , M. A ., S choo l o f H istory , L eeds Un ivers i ty . C . T ay lor , F .S .A ., Roya l Co m m iss ion o n H istor ic Monu men ts , Cambr idge. K . Wade , B .A ., F ie ld Of ficer , Nor fo lk Archaeo log ica l Un it . T he West S tow Env ironmen ta l Archaeo logy G roup. W. H . Z i m mermann , D .Ph i l., Wissenscha f t l icher S achbearbe iter a t t he N ieders L andes inst itu t f ür Marschen -u nd Wur ten forschung .

4

THE ANGLO-SAXON COUNTRYS IDE

Chr istopher T ay lor

T he p rob le m o f t ry ing t o a ssess t he a ctua l a ppearance o f t he Ang loS axon c oun trys ide i s i m mense.

T he e v idence w e h ave , f ro m a rchaeo logy ,

p lace-na mes , d ocu men ts a nd t he e x ist ing l andscape i s s l igh t , c on f l ict ing a nd u sual ly c annot b e r econc i led .

F ur thermore i ti s i mposs ib le t o g enera l-

i se a bout t h is c oun trys ide f or i tv ar ied c ons iderab ly a s ar esu l t o f g eog raph ica l c ond it ions a nd e ven more f ro m t he s peed a nd amoun t o f S axon s et tle men t a nd c on tro l . I n a dd it ion t he S axon p er iod c overed s evera l c en tur ies d ur ing wh ich many c hanges c ou ld a nd d id o ccur . Y et i ti s n ecessary t hat we s hou ld t ry t o u nderstand t he S axon l andscape , n ot o n ly f or i t s i n tr ins ic i n terest , b u t t o h e lp u s c omprehend more f u l ly b oth t he p reced ing Ro man o ne a nd t he more i mpor tan t l a ter med ieva l l andscape. T he t hree c o mponen ts o f t he S axon r ura l l andscape w ith wh ich we mus t c oncern o urse lves a re : t he p at f s et t , i .e. where p eop le l i ved ; t ern o tle men t he p at f e s tates , i .e. t he e cono m ic a nd t enur ia l b as is o f S axon s oc ie ty ; t ern o a nd f i e ld s ystems , i .e. t he a gr icu ltura l o rgan iza t ion a ssoc iated w ith t he s et tle men ts a nd c on ta ined b y t he e sta tes. B as ical ly f or a l l t hese t hree t here s ee ms t o b e a process o f c on t inu ity a nd s low c hange f ro m a t l eas t t he l ate Ro man p er iod t hrough t o med ieva l t imes . S ETTLE MENT PATTERNS T he ma in p rob le m a r is ing f ro m t he p at t ern o f Ang lo-Saxon s et tlemen t i s t o e xp la in h ow t he f am i l iar a rrange men t o f a pparen t ly n uc lea ted v i l lages , wh ich w e n ow h ave o ver much o f E ng land a nd wh ich a ppear t o h ave b een i n e x istence b y t he e leven th c en tury , c a me i n to b e ing , f or t h is p at tern i s s eemi ng ly v ery d if feren t f ro m t he g eneral ly d ispersed a rrange men t o f v i l las , h am le ts , f armsteads a nd o ccas iona l v i l lages wh ich a rchaeo log ica l e v idence g ives o f t he Ro man p er iod . T he e as iest w ay t o e xp la in t h is i s t o a ssume t o ta l d iscon t inu ity b etween t he Ro man s et t p at nd t he S axon o ne : t ha t i s , t hat t he ma jor ity tle men tern a o f Ro man s et tle men ts w ere a bandoned a s t he ir i nhab itan ts w ere d r iven away o r w iped o u t b y t he i ncom ing S axons , who t hen s et n t he b est p laces a nd tled i d eve loped a s yste m o f n uc leated s et tle men t . H owever , i n v iew o f modern r esearch a nd n ew e v idence i ti s b eco m ing i ncreasing ly d i f f icu l t t o h o ld t o t h is i dea. One o f t he most i mpor tan t p ieces o f t h is n ew e v idence i s t he f l ood o f

5

a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l n ow p our ing i n f ro m e xcava t ion a nd p art icu lar ly f ro m f i e ld work .

T h is s hows w ithout d oub t t ha t t he p opu la t ion o f Roman

Br i ta in was f ar h igher t han w e h ave h itherto s upposed .

We a re n ow f ind-

i ng f or t he Ro man p er iod a s a who le a verage d ens it ies o f o ne s et tle men t p er 2 .3 s quare k i lo metres , r egard less o f s o i l a nd s i tuat ion .

T hese

d ens it ies c an r ise t o a s many a s f our s et tle men ts p er s quare k i lo me tre i n f avourab le a reas . I n t he e ast M id lands many l a te-Ro man s et tle men ts a re n ow b e ing d iscovered o n t he h eavy c lay l and w ith in t he s o-cal l ed p r imary n a dd it ion t here a re i ncreas ing n umbers o f v ery l arge f orested a reas .1 I n on-urban Ro man s i tes b e ing d iscovered c over ing a s much a s t en h ectares ( c . 2 5 a cres ). 2 T hough o bv ious ly n ot a l t hese s et ts w ere s i mu ltaneous ly o ccup ied , l tle men t he n umbers s how t hat t here was a lways a c ons iderab le Ro mano-Br it ish p opu lat ion o ver much o f t he Br it ish I s les a nd e spec ial n t hose a reas ly i s et ar ly b y S axon p eop les. tled e

T he a ctua l p opu la t ion o f l a te Ro man

Br ita in i s , o f c ourse , u nknown a s i s t he n u mber o f i nco m ing S axons , b u t t he e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t t he l at ter mus t h ave b een f ar l ess n umerous t han t he f or mer.

Cer ta in ly we s hal ave t o f i nd many more e ar ly S axon l h

c e meter ies a nd s et ts b efore we c an s ugges t t hat t here were more tle men S axons t han Br itons , e ven i n e astern Eng land i n t he f i f th c en tury . T he e x istence o f al arge l a te-Ro man p opu lat ion , l i v ing i n ad ispersed p at f s et t , l eads t o c er ta in c onclus ions a bou t t he e fect o n t ha t t ern o tle men f s et t p a ttern o f t he S axon i nvaders. tle men

F irs t ly i ti s d i f icu l t t o b e l ieve f

t ha t t he S axons c ou ld h ave d r iven o u t o r c o mp lete ly a nn ih i la ted t he Br it ish p opu lat ion e ven i ft hey h ad wan ted t o.

Po l it ica l l eaders a nd t he u pper c las-

s es may h ave b een f orced t o l eave o r h ave b een k i led , b u t t he b u lk o f t he l Br it ish p easan try mus t h ave s tayed where i t was a nd p assed u nder t he p o l it ica l o r t enur ia l c on tro l o f t he S axon l ords a nd t he ir f o lowers. l S econd ly , a nd more d irect ly c oncerned w ith t he p at f s et t , tern o tle men i s t he f act t ha t i n t he i n it ia l s tages o f t he S axon s et t t here c an h ave tle men b een f ew p laces where t he S axons c ou ld h ave p lan ted a nuc lea ted s et tlemen t o n v irg in l and .

By t he l ate Ro man p er iod a l t he ' b est ' s i tes , t ha t i s l

t hose most s u itab le f or s et t i n s tr ict ly d eterm in is t ic t erms , w ere tle men a lready o ccup ied .

T herefore t he S axon s et ave h ad o n ly t wo tlers must h

c ho ices , e ither t o o ccupy e x ist ing Ro man s i tes o r t o s et tle o n r e mote o r marg ina l l and n o t t hen u sed b y t he e x ist ing p eop le. T here i s e v idence t ha t b oth t hese a lternat ives w ere t aken u p . C er ta in ly t here c an b e f ew e x ist ing v i lages i n s ou thern a nd e astern l Eng land t hat w il ot , a f ter d e ta i led f i e ld i nvest iga t ion , s how s ome l atel n Ro man o ccupat ion . S uch e v idence i s c on t inual om ing t o l i gh t . 3 Even ly c more c onc lus ive i s t he e v idence f rom d eser ted med ieva l v i lages many o f l wh ich h ave p roduced i nd icat ions o f p re-Saxon o ccupat ion . a re t he p agan S axon c eme ter ies.

I n a dd it ion t here

Many s how i n t he ir g rave g oods t ha t

Br i tons a nd S axons l i ved i n c lose s ocia l , e conom ic a nd p ersona l r e lat ions h ips , a nd t here fore p robab ly l i ved i n t he s ame s et ts. tlemen a n t i s t he l ocat ion o f many o f t hese c e meter ies :

6

More i mpor t-

most o f t he m a re

a pparen t ly q u ite u nre la ted t o t he l a ter med ieva l v i lages , a feature w h ich l h as n ot a lways b een e asy t o e xp la in .

H owever r ecen t e xcava t ion a nd f i e ld-

w ork p o in t t o t he f act t ha t many c emeter ies a re r e la ted t o Romano-Br i t ish s et tlemen ts i n t ha t t hey l i e w i th in o r a ga ins t t he m .

Many i nd iv idua l e x-

amp les a re k nown , a s a t t he S pong H il emetery , N or fo lk , b u t more c onl c v inc ing i s t he e v idence f rom w ho le a reas.

F or e xamp le i ti s n ow c lear

t ha t e very o ne o f t he k nown p agan S axon c e me ter ies i n t he e as tern h a l f o f tlemen N or thamp tonsh ire i s i ns ide o r v ery c lose t o a R oman s et t . tle men On t he o ther h and a n i ncreas ing n umber o f e ar ly S axon s et ts n ow b e ing e xcavated n ot o n ly s how n o e v idence o f Ro man o ccupa t ion , b u t a re a lso o n d is t inct ly u n favourab le s i tes i n t erms o f l oca t ion a nd p os i t ion when tlemen v iewed b y t he n orma l r u les o f s et t s tudy .

S i tes s uch a s West S t ow ,

fo o n t he S uf lk h ea th land , C ha lton D own o n t he h igh H ampsh ire c ha lk lands l a nd Muck ing o n h igh , p oor l and i n E ssex , a re a l r ecen t ly e xcava ted e xamp les.

tle men T he v ery e x is tence o f t hese s et ts i n s uch p laces may i n-

t er p d ica te t ha t i n t he f i f th c en tury t here w ere n o b et laces i n t he a rea i n wh ich t o e s tab l ish a new h ome. tlemen T hus i ti s l i ke ly t ha t t he e ar l ies t S axon s et t w as c arr ied o u t b y tled d r e la t ive ly f ew p eop le w ho s et own w ith a nd w ere p erhaps i n t enur ia l a nd p o l i t ica l c on tro l o f t he e x ist ing p eop le .

Mos t S axons l i ved i n t he s ame

p laces a s t he B r itons a nd o n ly where t here was n o r oo m w ere t hey f orced o n t o r emote marg ina l l ands .

t f T here w as t hus v ery l i t le d i ference b e tween

tern o tlemen t he f our th-century Roman p at f s et t a nd t he f i f th-cen tury S axon o ne . H owever i ti so bv ious t ha t t h is s i tua t ion d id n ot r e ma in s ta t ic. C er ta in ly tlemen t he many l a te-Roman s et ts w ere a bandoned b efore t he e nd o f t he f i f th c en tury a nd p robab ly e ar l ier .

Y e t t h is w as n ot au n ique n or e ven a new

f ea ture i n t he Eng l ish c oun trys ide .

tle men Wh i le many s et ts w ere c er ta in ly

o ccup ied t hroughou t t he R oman p er iod t here i s p len ty o f e v idence t o i nd ica te tlemen t ha t t he s et ts w ere b e ing a bandoned a nd r ep laced t hroughou t t he Ro man e ra . T here a re o ccupa t ion s i tes e s tab l ished i n t he f i rst c en tury a nd a bandoned i n t he t h ird o r e s tab l ished i n t he s econd c entury a nd a bandoned i n . t he f our th o r e nd less c omb ina t ions o f t hese .

T here a re l a te I ron Age s i tes

wh ich c on t inued i n to t he R o man p er iod a nd w ere t hen d eser ted . F ur ther b ack i n t he p reh istor ic p er iod t here i s p len t ifu l e v idence o f t he s ame movetlemen tlemen terns men t o f s et t a nd t herefore o f f l uc tua t ing s et t p at . I n f act t ern t hroughout t he w ho le o f t he l a te p reh istor ic a nd Ro man p er iods t he p at tlemen o f s et t w as a c ons tan t ly c hang ing o ne i n l oca t iona l t erms , e ven i fi t s l b as ic c o mponen ts o f f arms , h am lets a nd v i lages r ema ined much t he s a me. T he c om ing o f t he S axons h ard ly s eems t o h ave c hanged t h is , f or t he tern o s ame f l uctua t ing p at ccurs a t l east i n e ar ly S axon t imes. T he v ery f ac t t ha t s i tes s uch a s C ha l ton D own , Wes t S tow a nd Muck ing c an b e e xc ava ted w i th s uch i mpor tan t r esu l ts i s b ecause t hey h ad r e la t ive ly s hor t l i ves a nd w ere s oon a bandoned .

T h is p icture d oes n ot s eem t o e nd w ith t he

u l t ima te e s tab l ishmen t o f S axon d ominat ion b y t he s ix th c en tury . F or a s l a w el s t he a bandonmen t o f l a te-Ro man a nd e ar ly-Saxon s i tes i n t he f i f th

7

c en tury t here i s a grow ing b ody o f e v idence t ha t t he s ame e s tab l ishmen t tle men o f n ew s et ts a nd t he ir e ar ly a bandonmen t w en t o n i n to t he s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies a nd e ven l a ter .

D e ta i led f i e ld-wa lk ing i n e as t N or th-

l mid-Saxon o amp tonsh ire h as p roduced a number o f smal ccupa t ion s i tes l q u ite u nre la ted t o t he med ieva l v i lages , a nd s im i lar s i tes h ave b een f ound 4 E xcava t ion h as a lso e lsewhere i n B ed fordsh ire a nd N orthamptonsh ire . r evea led more c onc lus ive e v idence a s a t C ongham i n N or fo lk where a m id-

S axon h ouse h as b een d iscovered , a nd more p ar t icu lar ly a t D uns tab le , B ed fordsh ire , w here a t l east t en h u ts o f s ix th-to s even th-cen tury d a te h ave b een f ound s cat long o ne a nd a ha lf m i les o f ar idge .5 Once tered a a ga in i ti s t he e ar ly a bandonmen t o f t hese s i tes wh ich h as made t he ir d i c overy p oss ib le. T here i s t hus g row ing a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or a type o f S axon s e tt l e men t q u ite d i feren t f ro m t he n ormal ccep ted o ne. T ha t i s , i tw as f ly a p ar t o f a long t rad i t ion o f ac ons tan t ly c hang ing p at p o f a l tern made u l k inds o f o ccupat ion s i tes f rom smal arms teads t o v il l f l ages.

I n f ac t s uch

a m ove men t o f s et t i s n o t e ven c on f ined t o t he p re-Conques t p er iod . tlemen S et ts h ave a lways b een e s tab l ished , a bandoned o r moved u n t i l t he tlemen v ery r ecen t p as t . T he l arge n umbers o f d eser ted v i lages o f a l p er iods l l ven more n umerous , i mpor tan t a nd s t il i t le i s o ne a spect o f t h is .6 E l l t e xam ined o r u nderstood a re t he s o-cal hrunken v i lages. T hese a re l ed s l s ome t i mes t he r esu l t o f p ar t ia l a bandonmen t , b u t more o f ten a re d ue t o t he a ctua l move men t o f as et t i n r esponse t o c hang ing c ond i t ions . tle men E xcava t ions o n d eser ted v i lages h ave a lso i nd ica ted h ow s et ts l tlemen nd w ork o n t he morpho logy o f c an move away f rom t he ir o r ig ina l s i tes 7 a e x ist ing v i lages h as s hown h ow s ome h ave a ctual u t o ver t he ir l l y moved o own f i e lds. F or e xa mp le , i n C ambr idgesh ire t he who le o f t he v i lage o f l nd p ar ts o f t he v i lages o f G ran tches ter a nd B urwel ow o ccupy C ax ton 8 a l l n l and wh ich w as o nce p ar t o f t he ir own f i e lds . O uts ide t he ' n orma l ' v i lage t oo t here i s e v idence f or c ons tan t c hange l a nd move men t o f s et ts t hroughou t t he med ieva l p er iod . T he h undreds tlemen o f n ow a bandoned i so la ted moated s i tes wh ich a re s cat cross much tered a o f E ng land s how b oth t he e xpans ion a nd c on tract ion o f s et t a t tle men s ome t ime , w ha tever t he ir d a te. I n more r ecen t p er iods , t he d eve lopmen t o f t he p at f f armsteads a nd c ot o low ing s ix teen th-to n ineteen thtern o t ages f l c en tury e nc losure movemen ts i s y et a nother p hase o f s et t move men t , tlemen wh ich i n s ome p laces i s b e ing f o lowed b y c on tract ion u nder modern f arm ing l a nd s oc ia l c ond i t ions .

T hus t here i s e very i nd ica t ion t ha t t hroughou t

h is tory a nd p reh istory t here w as n ever a fi xed p at f s et t . C ert ern o tlemen t a in p laces w ere c on t inuous ly o ccup ied f rom t he p reh is tor ic p er iod a nd s ome o f t hese s t il re t oday , a s e xcava t ion i s c ons tan t ly r em ind ing u s. l a E lsewhere t here w as c onstan t e xpans ion , movemen t a nd c on tract ion . T he S axon c oun trys ide t herefore w as n o d i feren t f rom t he c oun trys ide a t a ny f o ther p er iod a nd r eacted a s a lways t o e conom ic , s ocia l , c l ima t ic a nd o ther c hanges , e ven i ft hese c hanges a re s t il eyond o ur c omprehens ion . l b Where t hen d oes t he c lass ic n uc lea ted v i lage o f S axon E ng land c ome i n to l

8

t h is p icture?

T he b as ic p rob le m i s i n s ee ing n uc leated v i l lages a t a l l i n

t he S axon p er iod .

Cer ta in ly e xcavat ion u p t o n ow h as n ot s hown u s o ne.

l g tleA s y et we h ave o n ly i so la ted h uts , smal roups o f f armsteads o r s et t ered o men ts s cat ver w ide a reas : tern t i ona l n uc lea ted p at .

n oth ing t ha t i s t yp ica l o f t he c onven-

I n f act w e r e ly l arge ly o n t he e v idence o f

tle men D o mesday B ook , wh ich g ives t he n a mes o f most e x ist ing s et ts , w ith a r ecorded p opu la t ion a nd t hus we a ssu me t hat t hese w ere p ar t o f a tern o tle men n uc leated p at f s et t .

B ut i s t he p icture g iven i n t he D o mesday

ly o l ages? B ook r eal ne o f n uc leated v il

I t may b e t ha t t h is i s a qu ite u n-

l y when i w arran ted a ssumpt ion , e spec ial ts ee ms t hat t hey d id n o t e x ist i n t he e ar ly a nd mid-Saxon p er iods. I n c er ta in n on-Saxon a reas t h is a ssu mp t ion h as a lready b een q uest ioned , l. 9 T here , Professor n otab ly b y W. G . H osk ins f or Devon a nd Cornwal H osk ins p roved t hat t he e n tr ies i n Do mesday B ook f or ' nor ma l ' manors c over u p ap attern o f d ispersed f ar msteads a nd h am lets wh ich s t il l e x ist t oday a nd wh ich h e h as s uggested were b as ical ar t o f a' Ce l t ic ' p at . ly p t ern T he s a me p icture i s a lso t rue f or c er ta in p ar ts o f Dorset a nd p erhaps t he w est M id lands. H owever i n t he more ' S axon ' a reas o f Eng land t h is p at oes n ot tern d e x ist a nd we h ave t oday n uc leated v i lages o f t he c lass ic f or m . B u t d id l t hese e x ist i n t he e leven th c entury?

I ti s p oss ib le t hat t hey d id n o t , a t

l east i n t he f orm w e s ee t he m n ow .

F ro m Do mesday B ook i t se l f we h ave

p opu lat ion f igures wh ich a pparen t ly r e fer t o t hese n uc lea ted s et tle men ts. Whatever mu l t ip ly ing f ac tor we u se t o e st i mate t he t o ta l p opu la t ion o f a ny o ne s et tle men t , we a re s t il l f aced w ith e x tre me ly smal l p laces. F or e xa mp le t he l arge n uclea ted Ca mbr idgesh ire v i l lage o f Me lbourne h ad a p opu lat ion o f 8 19 i n 1 801, t he e ar l iest a ccurate f igure t here i s , a nd r ough ly c on te mporary w ith i t s f i rst c ar tograph ica l p or traya l.

But e ven i fw e u se

a m u lt ip l ier o f f i ve o n t he r ecorded p opu lat ion o f Do mesday B ook , p robab ly much t oo l arge , t he e st i ma ted e leven th-century p opu lat ion i s 2 60 a nd a more r ea l ist ic f igure w ou ld p robab ly b e a round 2 00.

T hus i n t he l ate

e leven th c entury t he v i l lage o f Me lbourne was o n ly a bout o ne q uar ter t he s ize i t was when we f irst r ecogn ise i ta s al arge n uc leated v i l lage. i s o n ly o ne e xa mp le.

T h is

Many v i l lages w il l s how s im i lar r e lat ive p opu lat ion

s izes. More i mpor tant t han t h is i s w hether t he p opu lat ion r ecorded u nder t hese ' v il ' was a ctual i v ing i n ac o mpact s et t . T here i s l ages ly l tle men e v idence f ro m d eta i led t opograph ica l s tud ies o f v i l lages , c o mb ined w ith e ar ly maps a nd med ieva l p opu lat ion s tat ist ics , wh ich s uggests t ha t t h is may n ot b e s o. Research a long t hese l ines h as b een c arr ied o u t b y t he wr i ter i n C a mbr idgesh ire a nd t he t en tat ive c onc lus ions a re o f s o me i n terest .1 0 T here a re i nd ica t ions t hat many o f t he a pparen t ly n uc lea ted v i l lages i n t he c oun ty were , a t a n e ar ly p er iod , n o t n uc lea ted a t a l l b u t were c omposed o f t wo , t hree o r more d ist inct smal l u n its o r g roups o f f ar msteads , s omet imes u p t o o ne k i lo me tre ( j ust o ver h a lf a mi le ) a par t . T he l a ter a nd w el l d ocumen ted g row th o f p opu lat ion h as t ended t o o bscure t h is e ar ly p at t ern

9

a s t he i nd iv idua l p arts h ave c oa lesced i n to o ne s ing le s et tlemen t , o f ten w ith a rather e x tended p lan-form. One s uch i s Grea t S he lford where t he t wo smal l e leven th-cen tury u n its o f s et tle men t g radual ly e xpanded a nd g rew t owards e ach o ther t o t he e x ten t t hat t he h o mesteads f inal ly s urr ounded a t r iangu lar p iece o f meadow l and wh ich b y t he f i f teen th c en tury a t t he l atest h ad b eco me i n n a me , f unct ion a nd a ppearance t he v i l lage g reen . 1 Pre l im inary a te mp ts t o map t h is f or m o f ' po ly-foca l v i lage ' i n t l C a mbr idgesh ire h ave p roduced a s et t p at ich i s n ot o n ly v ery tle men t ern wh s im i lar t o t he e ar l ier Ro man o ne , b u t i n many p laces c o inc ides w ith i t . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t s uch a p o ly-foca l s et t p at s much t o t he tle men t ern owes a p re-Saxon s i tuat ion a s t o t he l ater S axon i n f il l. A ssoc iated w ith t he o bscur ing o f t h is p at s a feature r ecogn ised tern i i n t he n or th o f Eng land a nd t ermed , p erhaps s o mewhat u n for tunate ly , ' s et t b al ' t hat i s t he r egroup ing o f an umber o f smal n its tle men ling l er u i n to o ne c en tre.

1 2 Th is t ype o f a lterat ion o f a n e ar l ier d ispersed s et tlemen t p at o an ucleated o ne may b e t he r eason f or t he many d eserted t ern t

o r n ear-deserted s et ts wh ich h ave b een f ound i n t he Wessex c ha lktle men l ands. 1 3 T he n u merous i nd iv idua l s et ts l in ing t he c ha lk land v al , tle men l eys wh ich a re l i sted i nd iv idual n Do mesday B ook a s h am lets a nd a re n ow ly i l arge ly a bandoned , c ou ld b e t he r esu lt o f r egroup ing i n to t he p resen t n uc leated v i lages. l I n a dd it ion t here i s r esearch b e ing c arr ied o u t i n t he n or th o f Eng land b y B . K . Rober ts , a s w el s b y c on t inenta l s cho lars i n S cand inav ia , wh ich l a h as s uggested t ha t s o me v i lages h ave b een e n t ire ly r ep lanned a nd l a id o ut l a new s o met i me b efore t he t h ir teen th c en tury .

S o me o f t hese w ere a p-

p aren t ly o n o ld s i tes , b ut o thers were o n n ew o nes. Roberts h as s uggested t ha t s uch r ep lann ing a nd r es it ing was , i n Durha m , t he r esu lt o f r eset tlemen t f o low ing t he h arry ing o f t he Nor th b y Wil he Conqueror 's a rmy l lia m t i n t he y ears 1 068-70. 1 4 Wh i le t h is may b e ac orrect i nterpreta t ion f or Durham , t here i s as urpr is ing n umber o f v i lages e lsewhere i n e astern l a nd s ou thern Eng land wh ich , a t l east o n s uper f ic ia l e xa m inat ion , c ou ld b e c and idates f or t h is k ind o f r ep lann ing a nd r e foundat ion a s n uc leated v i lages .1 5 l F inal n a ny a ssess men t o f t he S axon s et t p at ne mus t ly i tle men t ern o l ook a t a no ther p ar t o f t he e ar ly med ieva l a nd i ndeed t he modern l andscape , t ha t o f i so la ted f ar msteads a nd h am lets i n t he f ormer f orested a nd h eathl and a reas o f Eng land .

Many o f t hese h ave s o-cal s econdary ' p lace l ed '

n a mes a nd a re o f ten r ecorded f or t he f irst t ime i n t wel f th-cen tury o r l a ter d ocumen ts . T hey a re u sual n terpreted a s t he d augh ter s et ts o f ly i tle men o lder v i lages. Cer ta in ly many a re , b u t p robab ly n ot a l c an b e a tr ibuted l l t t o a n e xpans ion o f s et t i n t he t we lf th t o t h ir teen th c en tur ies a s i s tle men o f ten d one , a nd a p roport ion may n ot b e ' secondary ' s et ts a t a l , tle men l b ut t he s t il is t ing p ar t o f ap re-Saxon d ispersed s et at . l -ex tle ment p tern T hough s uch p laces a re u sual ot r ecorded i n d ocumen ts u n t i l a late ly n d ate , t h is i s l arge ly b ecause t he t ype o f d ocumen ts wh ich r ecord t hem d id

1 0

n ot c o me i n to e x istence u n t i l t he t we lf th c en tury o r l a ter .

T he a ctua l

e s tab l ishmen t o f s uch p laces c ou ld b e much o lder a nd r e late t o aS axon e xpans ion o f s et tle men t o r e ven s o me th ing e ar l ier. F or e xa mp le o ne o f t he f ew ' ear ly ' S axon p lace-na mes i n C ambr idges h ire , Y en H al l, i n t he s outh-east p art o f t he c oun ty , b e longs t o a n i sol a ted wood land f armstead , wh ich s hou ld b y a ny n orma l i n terpre ta t ion b e r egarded a s a very l a te s econdary s et tle men t .

I ti s o ne o f al arge n umber

o f s im i lar f arms teads wh ich w ere a l l r ecorded f or t he f i rst t ime i n t he t we l f th a nd t h ir teen th c entur ies.

B ut Y en H al l i s , b y a n a cc iden t o f

t enur ia l h istory a nd d ocumen tary s urv iva l , men t ioned a s a n o ccup ied p lace w i th i t s own a ssoc ia ted e s tate i n at en th-century c har ter .

T herefore i ti s

l i ke ly t hat many o f t he i so lated w ood land f arms o f t he a rea may a lso h ave b een i n e x istence b y t he t en th c entury a nd p robab ly e ven e ar l ier .

I n o ther

p ar ts o f Eng land t oo t he a cc iden ta l r ecord ing o f f armsteads w i th in S axon c har ters b ecause t hey l ay n ear o r o n al and b oundary p o in ts t o t he f act t ha t many o f t he ' secondary ' s et ts i n marg ina l l and a re o f S axon tle men o r ig in . T hese m igh t s t il l b e r egarded a s s econdary s et tlemen ts o f S axon d a te , b u t t here i s e v idence o f e ven e ar l ier o ccupa t ion f or s ome o f t hem. Aga in i n C a mbr idgesh ire t he n ow r e mote a nd d eserted s et t o f P incote i n tle men T ad low p ar ish , wh ich i s f i rst r ecorded i n 176 a nd w ith a n a me t hat i nd icates a s econdary s et tle men t , h as n ot o n ly p ot t ery o f t he e leven th t o f our teen th c entur ies o n i t , b u t mid-and e ar ly S axon p ot t ery a s wel l a s t h ird-and f ourth-cen tury Ro man mater ia l. L ikew ise i n Nor thamptons h ire a number o f n ow d eser ted i so la ted f armsteads a re n ot o n ly s urr ounded b y med ieva l moats b u t h ave e ar ly S axon a nd Ro man p ot n a nd tery i a bou t t he m. A l t h is e v idence s uggests t ha t a t l east p ar t o f t he a pparen t ly l med ieva l e xpans ion o f s et t i s a ctual i ther a S axon e xpans ion o r a tle men ly e r e mnan t o f a R o man d ispersed p at . t ern T hus i n t erms o f p at f s et t t he Ang lo-Saxon c oun trys ide terns o tle men w as , a s i th ad b een a nd w as t o r e ma in , a mix ture o f p r i mary s et t tle men p o in ts , wh ich h ad a lways b een o ccup ied , a nd c ons tan t ly c hang ing s et tlemen t l ocat ions , r espond ing t o v ar ious p ressures b oth man- made a nd n a tura l. E STATES T he p rob le m o fu nders tand ing t he e cono m ic a nd t enur ia l o rgan isat ion o f t he S axon c oun trys ide i s i n s ome ways more d i f f icu lt t han t he u nders tand ing o f t he p at t ern o f s et tle men t .

T h is i s l arge ly b ecause w e h ave n o

d ef in ite i dea o f t he p hys ica l l ayou t o f t he Ro mano-Br it ish e sta tes.

N ever-

t he less s evera l i mpor tan t f eatures a re c lear . F irst ly , many o f what a re n ow r egarded a s n orma l e cc les iast ica l r ura l tle men p ar ishes b ear s ome r e lat ionsh ip t o t he e s ta tes b e long ing t o S axon s et ts. T hat i s t hey a re e cono m ic l and u n its , o rgan ized f or a gr icu lture a nd c arel tle men tle men f u ly a rranged s o t hat e ach s et t o r g roup o f s et ts h as a

1

r easonab le s hare o f t he a va i lab le l and.

T he c onnect ion o f t hese e states

w ith t he Church i s al ater e ven t , when t hey w ere t aken o ver a s c onven ien t u n its f or f inanc ia l a nd s p ir itua l o rgan izat ion . Many o f t hese l and u n its o r p ar ishes c an b e p roved t o b e o f e ar ly d ate f ro m t he S axon l and c har ters wh ich o f ten g ive t he ir b oundar ies. Thus i t i s p robab le t hat most o f t he med ieva l p ar ishes i n e astern a nd s ou thern Eng land a t l east w ere i n e x istence b y t he n in th o r t en th c en tury a t t he l atest . I n a dd it ion c arefu l t opograph ica l w ork h as p o in ted t o t he e x istence o f s eparate l and u n its w ith in t he p resen t a nd med ieva l p ar ishes.

I n

Wessex f or e xa mp le t here i s n ow c lear e v idence f or c oun t less smal l er e states , whose b oundar ies s t il l s urv ive , w ith in l arger p ar ishes . S o me o f t hese p ar ishes h ave u p t o t en s eparate e s tates w ith in t hem .1 6 I n Cambr idges h ire t oo t here a re i ns tances o f an u mber o f s eparate S axon l and u n its w ith in t he modern p ar ish , wh i le work b y t he wr iter i n Nor tha mp tonsh ire h as p roduced s im i lar r esu lts .1 7 I n f act i n c er ta in a reas i ti s p oss ib le t o r econstruct t he b as ic l and u n its o f l arge t racts o f t he S axon c oun trys ide. B u t when were t hese l and u n its e s tab l ished? T he d ocu men tary e v idence t akes u s b ack n o f ur ther t han t he n in th c entury .

H owever i n Dorset t here a re i nd icat ions , b ased

tlemen l arge ly o n t he l ack o f mass ive e ar ly S axon s et t a nd t he l ong c ont inued e x istence o f as ub-Ro man p opu lat ion , t hat s uch b oundar ies c ou ld h ave o r ig inated u nder a R o mano-Br it ish r a ther t han a S axon s yste m o f l and u se .1 8 Mor e i mpor tan t i s t he work o f Mr . D . J . B onney , i n Wi lts h ite , who h as s hown t hat many o f t he l and u n it b oundar ies r ecogn izab le t here were p robab ly i n e x istence b y t he e ar ly f i f th c entury a nd t ha t' t hey 9 I n a m ore r ecen t w ork , a re t herefore a t l east l ate Ro man i n o r ig in .1

Mr. B onney h as s hown h ow c er ta in b oundar ies a re e ven o lder a nd may g o b ack t o p reh istor ic t imes. 2 ° Aga in t herefore w e h ave g row ing e v idence o f a bas ic s yste m o f l and u n its f ro m p re-Saxon t imes wh ich was t aken o ver a nd o n ly s l igh t ly mod itern f i ed b y t he S axons. T he q uest ion o f h ow t he c ons tan t ly c hang ing p at tle men t o f s et t d iscussed i n t he p rev ious s ect ion f i ted i n to t h is e s tab l ished s yste m o f l and u n its i s p robab ly n ot t oo d i f f icu lt t o a nswer . S et tle men ts t he mse lves were p erhaps t i ed t o t he b as ic l and u n its a nd c ou ld , a nd c er ta in ly d id , move a bou t w ith in t he m. A t t imes o f e xpans ion s eparate e s tates o r l and u n its c ou ld b e f ormed w i th in e x ist ing o nes a s n ew s et tlemen ts a ppeared a nd were t hen r eabsorbed when t he s et tle ments w ere a bandoned . F IE LDS l F ie lds a nd f i e ld s yste ms a re p erhaps t he most d if f icu l t o f a l t o s ee i n t he S axon c oun tryside.

We k now t ha t i n t he Ro man p er iod t here w as a n

a gr icu ltura l s yste m b ased o n s o me f orm o f ' Ce lt ic ' f i e lds , t hough n ot n ecessar i ly o f t he c lass ic f orm.

T hose n ow s urv ive t o b e s tud ied o n ly i n

what a re , a nd p robab ly a lways were , marg ina l l and .

1 2

T he a ctua l t enur ia l

arrangements of field ownership, agricultural techniques and crop rota­ tion we can guess at, but not prove. The only conclusion is that there was probably a landscape of small, roughly rectangular fields enclosed perhaps with walls, fences, hedges or merely low banks and scarps. 21 After the Roman period there is no real evidence of field arrangement until the twelfth or thirteenth century when a fully-fledged open or common field system can be seen to be in existence over much of England. From the archaeological point -of view there are the remains of an early plough­ ing technique, ridge and furrow, with a few examples dated to the eleventh century or, earlier. 22 However ridge and furrow is only the result of a particular method of ploughing. On its own it can tell little of the field arrangements and field patterns of the period. Work on ridge and furrow has indicated that in the medieval and later periods at least it could be formed in enclosed fields, in open fields and in temporary ploughed waste­ land. Therefore in the context of the Saxon countryside the discovery of ridge and furrow of early date has a limited value. Archaeologists must find new lines of enquiry if they are to find Saxon fields. Such answers as there are to this problem have come and are coming from geographers and economic historians whose recent work has both cleared away old misconceptions and produced working hypotheses. The work of Dr. Thirsk has cast serious doubt on the idea that the Saxons introduced a fully fledged open or common field system into England and imposed it directly on the existing fields. 23 While her idea that there is no real evidence for strip field arrangements cultivated in common until the post-Conquest period has not met with universal acceptance, 24 there is little doubt that the classic medieval open field system was developed slowly over a long period and was not brought to England in a completed form. This supports the general ideas put forward earlier in this paper and suggests that existing fields as well as the estates and settlements were taken over by the Saxons then slowly modified. Exactly how the Roman system of fields of 'Celtic' type were turned into the medieval open field arrangement is still not certain but a working hypothesis has been suggested by geographers who have tried to explain the documented complexities of late medieval field systems. These include the non-existence of the classic two or three field layout and the occurrence of complex rotations based on individual furlongs. 25 They have suggested a hypothetical sequence of development which started with an intensively cultivated area of arable enclosed fields around a small cluster of farmsteads. These would be associated with a number of plots beyond the permanent arable which were brought into cultivation for short periods. That is a simple form of infield-outfield agriculture. As population increased, or perhaps settlements coalesced and grew to villages, the important intensively cultivated land would have been sub­ divided to make complex rotations possible. Continued population increase and inheritance laws perhaps led to the enlargement of the infield and its increased subdivision into strips. As pasture land became restricted the

13

existing arable land would had to be incorporated into the pastoral side of the economy and common grazing rights developed over it. Whether this is what actually happened is, of course, unknown but at least it is a model which archaeologists now ought to test. For example air photography over the East Midlands by Mr. J. Pickering has led to the identification of, admittedly undated, ditched paddocks or fields under­ lying medieval ridge and furrow, but with boundaries roughly coincidental with the edges of the later furlongs or blocks of ridges. Examination of air photographs in other areas has produced similar evidence. This phe­ nomenon is likely to be a short-lived one. The evidence is coming to light as the modern agricultural destruction of ridge and furrow briefly shows both the ridges and the underlying ditches before it is all removed for ever. Whether present day archaeologists have the time or the resources to find and date these enclosures and to see if they are pre-existing enclosed fields, later subdivided, is debatable. But clearly archaeologists ought to be thinking in these and other terms if we are to prove or disprove the apparently logical model of the geographers. If this model is correct then the Romano-British settlement pattern within its system of estates using intensively cultivated infield systems of agriculture can be seen slowly developing throughout the Saxon period into the nucleated villages, with common or open field systems within parishes, of medieval times. REFERENCES 1. Taylor, C. C. , 'Roman Settlement in the Nene Valley', in Fowler, P. J. (Ed.) Recent Work in Rural Archaeology (1974). 2. Taylor, C.C., 'Archaeological Results from the North Sea Gas Pipe­ line', Proc. Cambs. Archaeol. Soc., 62 (1969), 32-3. 3.

Taylor, C.C., The Cambridgeshire Landscape (1973), 34-40, 54-66.

4.

Med. Arch., XVI (1972), 148 and 158; material held in the Archives of the R.C.H.M.

5.

Med. Arch., loc.cit., 157 and 147.

6.

Beresford, M. W. and Hurst, J. G., (Eds.) Deserted Villages (1971).

7.

Beresford, M. W. and Hurst, J. G., (Eds.) op.cit., 124-7.

8.

Taylor, C.C., The Cambridgeshire Landscape (1973), 226-8.

9. Hoskins, W. G., 'The Highland Zone in Domesday Book', Provincial England (1963), 15-52. 10.

Taylor, C.C., The Cambridgeshire Landscape (1973), 34-6, 54-66.

14

1 1. T ay lor , C .C. ( Ed .) D o mesday t o Dorm itory ( 1970 ), 3 -9. l age P 1 2. Rober ts , B . K ., ' V il lans i n Coun ty Durha m ', Med . Arch . 1 6 ( 1972 ), 3 3.56. ii i 1 3. R .C. H .M . ( Eng .), D orset I ( 1970 ), l xvi i a nd p ass i m. 1 4. Rober ts , B .K ., o p. c it . 1 5. c f . B eresford , M. W . a nd Hurst , J . G ., o p.c it ., 1 24-7, 1 78-9. 1 6. T he e v idence f or t h is h as b een d escr ibed a t l eng th b y Drew , C . D . l ey ' The Manors o f t he I werne Val ', Proc. Dorset Archaeo l . a nd Nat . H ist . S oc., 6 9 ( 1948 ), 4 5-8 a nd T ay lor , C .C., Dorset ( 1970 ), 4 9-72. 1 7.

T ay lor , C .C. ,The C a mbr idgesh ire L andscape ( 1973 ), 7 9-82 ; R. 0 .H . M. ( Eng .) ,Northa mptonsh ire I , f or thco ming .

1 8. T ay lor , C .C., Dorset o p. c it .,6 2. 1 9. B onney , D . J ., ' Pagan S axon Bur ia ls a nd B oundar ies i n Wi ltsh ire ', Wi lts. Archaeo l. Mag ., 6 1, 2 5-30. 2 0. B onney , D .J., ' Ear ly Boundar ies i n Wessex i n Fow ler , P . J ., Archaeo logy a nd t he L andscape ( 1972 ), 1 68-86. 2 1. App lebaum , S ., Ro man Br i ta in , i n F inberg , H . P . R . ( Ed .), T he Agrar ian H istory o f Eng land a nd Wa les , I . I ( 1972 ), 8 3-107. 2 2. B arker , P . a nd L awson , J ., ' A Pre-Nor man F ie ld S yste m a t H en D o men ', Med . Arch ., 1 5 ( 1970 ), 5 8-72 ;

Fow ler , P . J . a nd Tho mas ,

A . C ., ' Arab le F ie lds o f t he Pre-Nor man P er iod , Gw ith ian ', C orn ish Archaeo l., I( 1962 ), 6 1-84. 2 3.

T h irsk , J ., ' The C o m mon F ie lds ', Past a nd Presen t , 2 9 ( 1964 ), 3 -25 ; ' The Or ig in o f t he C o m mon F ie lds, P ast a nd Presen t , 3 3 ( 1966 ), 1 427 .

2 4. T itow , J . Z ., ' Med ieva l Eng land a nd t he Open F ie ld S yste m ', P as t a nd Presen t , 3 2 ( 1965 ), 8 6-102. 2 5. B aker , A . R . H . a nd B ut l in , R . A . ( Eds.), F ie ld S yste ms i n t he Br it ish I s les , ( 1973 ), e sp . 6 53-6.

1 5

PROBLE MS OF CONTINUITY Dav id Brown

I n r ecen t y ears we h ave b eco me u sed t o t he i deas o f c on t inu i ty a nd o ver lap i n t he p rocess o f c hange f rom Roman Br ita in t o S axon E ng land . T he e v idence t akes many f orms : c en tury ;

t he s urv iva l o f t own l i fe i n to t he f i f th

t he r ecogn it ion o f t he a rchaeo logy o f t he a ge o f Ar thur ;

b ur ia ls w ith mi l itary e qu ipmen t i n t he f our th a nd f i f th c entur ies ; c on t inu ity o f meta lwork t rad it ions i n Br i t ish a nd S axon a reas. t h is e v idence i s i n s er ious d ispu te.

t he t he

N one o f

Yet a l l w as q u i te p la in ly n o t c on-

t i nuous t hroughou t t he f i f th c en tury a nd i ti s o n s ome o f t he a reas o f d isc on t inu ity t hat Iw ish t o f ocus a ten t ion . t G er man ic-sty le g raves w ith Roman mi l i tary e qu ipmen t o ccur i n Roman c e meter ies.

T he b est k nown i s a t Dorches ter , Ox fordsh ire, where a m an 's

g rave w i th e qu ip men t o f a bou t AD 4 00 was f ound i n t he Dyke H il ; ls

n earby

were a wo man 's g rave , s im i lar ly G erman ic i n c haracter , a nd a number o f o ther g raves w ithou t g rave g oods. Ro man c e metery .

T hese g raves a l s ee m t o b e p ar t o f a l

T he e v idence a t Dorchester i s p erhaps n o t q u ite c rys ta l

c lear , b u t a t Winchester t here c an b e n o d oub t .

German ic g raves o f men

w i th mi l i tary e qu ip men t a nd o f w o men a re d a ted b ack t o t he midd le o f t he f our th c entury .

T here i s a lso a s im i lar g rave a t R ichborough , K en t .

I ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t hat g raves o f t h is t ype a nd d a te o ccur o n t he c on t inen t i n n or thern France , B e lg ium a nd t he Rh ine land , a nd a lso n or th o f t he Ro man f ron t ier i n H ol l and a nd n or th G ermany .1 T he g raves wh ich o ccur i n t he l ands wh ich a re o u ts ide t he Roman Emp ire c an o n ly b e i n terp re ted a s t he g raves o f men who h ad b een s ou th t o s erve a s s o ld iers i n t he Ro man a r my , b u t who h ad s ubsequen t ly r eturned h o me w ith t he ir e qu iply b men t wh ich was f inal ur ied w ith t hem.

G raves w i th s uch e qu ip men t i n

n or th G ermany a re b oth i nhu mat ion a nd c re mat ion i n t ype. T he p resence o f t hese g raves i n n or thern G ermany i s o f g rea t s ign if itle men c ance f or d a t ing t he b eg inn ing o f s et t i n Eng land . I ft here were a lready migra t ion t o Eng land i n t he l a te f our th c entury , i ti s r easonab le t o p resu me t ha t s o me o f t hese ' returned s o ld iers ' wou ld h ave f ound t he ir way t o Eng land a nd t ha t t hey wou ld h ave d ied a nd b een b ur ied h ere. O f c ourse tler a s uch a m igran t s et s o pposed t o aG erman ic Roman s o ld ier wou ld s how h i mse l f b y b e ing b ur ied i n aS axon c emetery r a ther t han a R oman o ne. S o f ar n one h as y e t c o me t o l i gh t , a nd e qu ipmen t o f t h is d a te i s n otab ly a bsen t f ro m t he g raves i n Ang lo-Saxon c e meter ies. T here a re o f c ourse g raves w ith Ro man mi l itary e qu ipmen t i n Ang loS axon c e meter ies -A b ingdon , Ox fordsh ire ; Petersf inger , Wi l tsh ire ;

1 6

tenham L ong Wit , Ox fordsh ire ;

a nd n ow t he g raves wh ich Mr . J ones h as

s hown u s f rom Muck ing , E ssex , b u t t he e qu ipmen t i n t hese g raves i s t ypoly a t l og ical li t le more a dvanced , a nd l a ter , t han t he D orches ter t ype o f e qu ipmen t , i nd ica t ing t ha t t en o r t wen ty y ears h ave p assed . ly s T h is i s r eal o c ruc ia l a po in t t ha t i ti s w or th r epea t ing . T he e v idence o f t he mi l i tary me ta lwork the s or t o f e qu ipmen t wh ich w as b e ing made a nd u sed i n n or thern F rance , B e lg ium a nd t he Rh ine land -shows t ha t t he G erman ic g raves wh ich a re f ound i n Roman c emeter ies a re c ons is ten t ly e ar l ier t han s im i lar g raves f ound i n Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies .

O f c ourse

t he D orches ter v ar ie ty o f me ta lwork o ccurs i n f ragmen ts a s s i te f i nds o n tlemen a number o f Ro man s et ts .

I t s p resence may mean s o ld iers ;

i t may

e ven mean G erman ic s o ld iers , b u t i td oes n o t , o f i t s own a ccord , mean tlers f tlers i G erman ic s et . T he d i ference b e tween s o ld iers a nd s et n t h is c on tex t i s a po l it ica l o ne. S o ld iers , w i th o r w i thou t t he ir w ives , a re s ub ject t o Roman a u thor ity ;

tlers a s et re n ot .

T here i s o ther e v idence t o s uppor t t h is d iv is ion b etween s o ld iers a nd tlers. T tlers s et he s o ld iers e n joyed t he f ru i ts o f Ro man i ndus try , t he s et d id n o t .

l tery T he o ne ' f ru i t ' wh ich i lustra tes t h is b est i s Roman p ot .

T h is

a nd o ther p roducts w ere u sed b y t he G erman ic s o ld iers a nd t he ir f am i l ies i n t he f our th c en tury . T h is i s c lear f rom t he f i nds a t Winches ter a nd R ichborough a nd t he n umerous c e meter ies i n n or thern F rance a nd t he Rh ine land .

T here i sn o th ing t o s ugges t t ha t t he s o ld iers s tuck t o t he ir o wn

tery t rad i t ions o f h andmade p ot .

t ery i I n n or thern France t he p ot ndus tr ies

k ep t p roduc ing t hroughou t t he f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies a nd Roman-type whee l t ery w l made p ot as u sed b y Merov ing ians o f a l s or ts. n o c on t inu i ty :

I n B r i ta in t here was

tery i l apsed t he R oman p ot ndustry c ol .

l I t makes n o s ense a t a l t o c ons ider t h is i ndus try a s h av ing b een d est royed b y S axon a nd o ther i nvas ions. Manu factur ing c en tres w ere t oo w ides pread t o b e v u lnerab le i n t h is w ay , a nd t he c on t inen ta l e v idence i nd ica tes tlers a t ha t S axon s et re more l i ke ly t o h ave b een k een t o a cqu ire Ro man tery t p ot han t o h ave b een t he means o f i t s d isappearance . T he f a i lure o f t he i ndus try i s d if f icu l t t o u nders tand w hen i t s m id-four th-cen tury v i ta l ity i s c ons idered , b u t t he s ame c an b e s a id o f t he who le Roman w ay o f l i fe.

I t

mus tb e p resumed t ha t ac o mb ina t ion o f e cono m ic f actors disappearance l o f t he d e mand f rom t he a rmy , d isrup t ion o f t rade r ou tes , i nab i l ity t o s el t he p roducts -co mb ined t o c ause b ankrup tcy a nd t he c losure o f t he w orks hops. N o d oub t s ome f i rms managed t o o u t las t t he ir r iva ls b y a few y ears , b u t n ot l ong e nough f or t he e v idence t ob e d etec tab le i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l apse r ecord . E ach n ew e xcava t ion r e in forces t he i mpress ion t ha t t he c ol w as r ap id a nd t o ta l . t ery i T he e nd o f t he Roman p ot ndustry i s o f c ourse o n ly t he mos t o bv ious l apse o s ymbo l o f t he c ol f t he Roman w ay o f l i fe . I ts ee ms c lear ly t o b e a l apse f c ol rom w i th in -ra ther t han o ne f orced u pon i tf rom o u ts ide. I ti s tled i o n ly a f ter t h is t ha t H eng is t a nd H orsa t ype f edera tes a re s et n Eng land . S uch f edera tes q u ick ly e s tab l ish t he ir p o l it ica l i ndependence a nd b ecome t he tlers f i rs t s et .

T hese a re t he p eop le w ho b egan t he f irs t S axon c eme ter ies .

1 7

T he p ot rov ides c onv inc ing e v idence i n s uppor t o f t hese s ta temen ts. t ery p I fs et ad a rr ived wh i le t he Ro man p ot ndustry was s t il l our ishtlers h t ery i l f i ng , t hey wou ld h ave u sed i t s p roducts i n j ust t he s a me way a s t he s o ld iers d id .

T he f act t ha t t he s e tt lers d id n ot u se Roman p ot ugges ts t ha t t hey t ery s

a rr ived a f ter t he c ol f t he i ndustry . l apse o

O f c ourse t here a re s ome Ro man

p ots amongs t t he g rave g oods i n Ang lo-Saxon c e meter ies , b u t t hey a re c o mp ara t ive ly f ew i n n u mber a nd t hey a re n ot a lways t he l atest t ype o f Roman p ot . A t Ca istor b y Norw ich , f or e xamp le , an umber o f Ro man p ots w ere f ound w ith c re mat ions i n t he m ; t hey a re n ot f our th-century b ut s econdc en tury p o ts , f ound a nd r eused b y t he S axon s et n t he f i f th o r s ix th tlers i c en tury .2 T h is i s s trong e v idence o f t he S axon p reference f or Ro man p ott ery .

B ut t he l ack o f l ater , f our th-cen tury p ot ti mposs ib le tery makes i

f or me t o b e l ieve t ha t t h is c e metery c an h ave b een i n e x is tence wh i le Ro man p ot t il e ing made a nd u sed i n t he n earby t own . t ery was s l b

T he

s a me s or t o f a rgu men t s ee ms t o me t o r efu te t he r ecen t s uggest ion t ha t t here was s imu l taneous o ccupa t ion o f d i feren t p ar ts o f t he v i la a t f l R ivenhal ith Ro mans u s ing s hel ot n o ne w ing a nd l w l -te mpered p t ery i 3 S axons u s ing h and made p ot t ery i n a nother .

Whether a ccep tab le o r n ot , a number o f q ues t ions f o low f rom t h is d isl c uss ion . Wha t h appened t o t he G erman ic s o ld iers when t he Ro man w ay o f l i fe c ol t h appened t o t he Br it ish? L et u s c ons ider t he B r it ish l apsed? Wha f irst .

T he s eque l t o most e cono m ic d isasters i s a per iod o f r eth ink ing

a nd r eorgan isat ion , f o lowed b y r enewed g row th , b u t t h is j ust d id n o t h appen l i n s ub-Ro man Br i ta in. I n t er ms o f t he p ot ndustry , t here i s n o e v it ery i d ence t ha t a nyone w ith t he t echn ica l s k il r ied t o b eg in p ot facture l t t ery manu a ga in , e ven o n a qu ite smal ca le i n s o me c en tre o f p opu lat ion s uch a s l s C irencester o r G loucester.

N or w as t here e ven a ny a te mp t t o r ep lace t

Ro man p ot ith h andmade p ot s t here a ppears t o h ave b een i n t he t ery w tery a f our th c entury . T he g rass-te mpered t ype o f p ot ich l ooked a t o ne t ery wh s tage a s t hough i t migh t h ave b een s ub-Roman c an n ow b e s hown , b y n ume rous c on t inen ta l f inds , t o b e S axon l i ke a l t he o ther h and- made p ot l tery o f t he f i f th c entury .4 T h is c hange f ro m f i ne whee l- made p ot o n o p ott ery t t ery a t a l i s a m easure o f t he d is in tegra t ion o f t he Ro man way o f l i fe. l T he G erman ic s o ld iers i n t he p opu la t ion were o f c ourse a s d ependen t o n t he Ro man way o f l i fe a s t he B r it ish , a nd a nyone more t han a fi rs t g enerat ion n ewco mer was a s v u lnerab le a s t he B r i t ish t o t he e conom ic c ol l apse. T he f ate o f t he d escenden ts o f t he G erman ic p eop le b ur ied i n t he c e metery a t L ankh il ls , Winchester w ou ld n ot h ave b een a ny d i f feren t f rom t he f ate o f t he r est o f t he i nhab i tan ts o f t he a rea.

More r ecen t

a rr iva ls , s uch a s t hose b ur ied i n t he D orchester Dykes a nd t heir c o ll eagues , n o d oub t h ad t he k now ledge t o w ea ther t he s torm , f or t hey c ou ld f a l l b ack o n t he s e lf-suf fic ien t ways o f t he ir c h i ldhood . E i ther t hey j o ined t he s et tlers o r t hey a dop ted s o me c omprom ise way o f l i fe wh ich e ven tual l y merged w ith t hat o f t he s et tlers. D oes t h is mean t ha t t here was a ' but tjo in t ' t ype o f o ver lap b e tween Ro man B r i ta in a nd S axon Eng land? T he a nswer i s b oth y es a nd n o. Y es , i n t he s ense t hat S axon s et tle men t a nd c e meter ies d id n ot b eg in b efore

1 8

l apsed t he Ro man way o f l i fe c ol ;

b u t No , i n t he s ense t hat , d esp ite t he

l apse c ol , Br i t ish p eop le c on t inued t o l i ve i n a l most e very p ar t o f t he c ount ry .

tle men As Professor Frere p uts i t , ' t he r ea l p rocess o f S axon s et t

was a s low , g radua l p enetra t ion i n to a reas o f t he c oun trys ide where t he 5 b reakdown o f t he Ro mano Br it ish e cono m ic s yste m h ad l ef t as o l itude. '

ly t T he s peed a t wh ich t h is s ee ms a ctual o h ave h appened i s a measure o f l apse t he e cono m ic c ol ;

t t here was l i t le l ef t t o c on t inue.

REFERENCES

1 .

J . Ypey , Z ur T ragwe ise f ra fränk ischer G ur te lgarn ituren ... Ber ich ten R . 0 . B . 1 9 ( 1969 );

t h is p aper i ncludes t wo i mpor tan t d istr ibu t ion

maps. 2 .

J . N . L . Myres a nd B . Green , T he Ang lo S axon Ce meter ies a t Ca is tor b y Norw ich a nd Markshal 1973 ), 7 4f . l, (

3 .

W. & K . Rodwel he Ro man V il t R ivenhal itann ia 4 ( 1973 ) l, T la a l, Br

4 .

Co mpare P . F ow ler ( Trans. Br isto l a nd G louces tersh ire Arch . S oc. 8 9 , 1 971, 5 0-52 ), B . Cun l if VCH Wi l ts , I , 4 66 ) a nd D . B rown fe ( ( Oxon iens ia 3 7 , 1 972 , 7 9-81 ) w i th P . C . J . A . Boe les ( Fr ies land t ot d e e lfde e euw , 1 951, 8 9-90 ) a nd W. A . v an E s ( Ber ich ten R . 0 . B . 1 9 , 1 969 )

5 .

S . S . Frere , i n J . S . Wacher ( ed .) T he C iv i tas Cap i ta ls o f Ro man Br i ta in ,(1966)

1 9

AN EARLY SAXON LANDSCAPE AT MUCK ING , ESSEX

tle men s et t f eatures b y M. U . J ones c e meter ies b y W. T . J ones

Crop marks a nd a rchaeo log ica l d iscovery f ro m g rave l p its a re n ot n ew . Bu t t he p resen t r ap id r ate o f d iscovery , p rec ip i tated b y e x tens ive d estruct i on b y q uarry ing f or g rave l , g ives t hese f actors n ew d i mens ions a nd o f fers n ew o ppor tun it ies.

F or t he f i rst t ime i ti s p oss ib le t o p roduce

l maps o f a l s urv iv ing f eatures o f a nc ien t l andscapes wh ich c o mp lemen t smal l s ca le d istr ibut ions o f s pec if ic a r tefacts o n t he o ne h and , a nd l arge s ca le p lans o f s pec if ic s i tes o n t he o ther . T he Muck ing e xcava t ions , i n it iated b y t he Depar tmen t o f t he E nv ironl ow men t i n 1 965 , f ol ing P rofessor J . K . S t .Joseph 's n ote o n ' Aer ia l Reconna issance ' i n An t iqu ity ( P late I ) , h ave i n t he ir f i rst e igh t y ears p roduced a bout t hree q uar ters o f t he g round p lan o f s et tle men t t races r ec orded f ro m t he a ir o ver a c on t inuous a rea n ear ly 1km. l ong a nd 3 50 m. l l w ide. One o f t he ma in p er iods i s e ar ly S axon f o low ing a R oman v i la t o ccupa t ion a tested b y t he f r inge o f af i e ld l ayou t , p refabr icated b u i ld ing l s. mater ia ls a nd s ix wel S uch l andscape e xam inat ion c hecks a g row ing t endency t o b ase s tud ies o n c rop marks a lone. Excavat ion a t Muck ing h as d isproved s ome c ropmark i n terpretat ions , s uch a s h enge f or ' h il lfor t ' , a nd a t t he s a me t ime p rov ided t he f irst o ppor tun ity t o r ecogn ise S axon s unken h uts f rom t he ir c ropmarks. Excavat ion r esu lts h ave a lso c ast d oub t o n t he v a l id ity o f p lough s o i l s urveys u sed a s s ole e v idence ;

s ince , i n s p ite o f d eep s team p lough-

i ng , f i e ld wa lk ing h as p roduced , f or e xa mp le , n o S axon e v idence ; r are ly more t han c asua l f l in ts.

i ndeed

l ows t Area e xcava t ion f ol he l aw o f i ncreas ing r eturns. Each l eng th ly o f d itch o r g ul , p it o r p ostho le , wh ich b y t he mse lves a re r are ly o f i n tr ins ic i n terest , p roduces a picture b y s heer a ccumu lat ion .

S pec if ic

l, c f eatures , s uch a s aS axon h al an t hen b e s een i n as ign if ican t c on tex t . l, p T hus t he 12 s unken h uts , a t l east o ne h al its a nd n ear ly 8 00 g raves ( t he S axon s ta t is t ic u p t o March 1 974 ) r epresen t more t han n ew d iscovery . T hese f eatures c an b e s een b oth i n t he ir r e la t ionsh ip t o e ach o ther , a nd i n t he ir g eograph ica l c on tex t : o n t he g rave l t errace , a t t he h ead o f t he t Tha mes e stuary , a nd i n t he N or th S ea l i tora l ( F ig . 1 ) .

Al andscape

t er c a pproach a lso g ives a bet hance t o a ssess t he c hang ing r o le o f ap iece o f g round .

tle men A t Muck ing t he b as ic f ac tor o f S axon s et t i s t hat i ti s

o n wha t was , i n t he Ro man p er iod a s i ti s t oday , marg ina l l and .

2 0

1/2

, P

M !

K .A f t .

f Al V C k CI NG C NL/1 2C H

T HE

CONTEXT

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