Ancient Synagogues in Israel: Third - Seventh century C.E. 9780860546405, 9781407347882

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
LIST OF AUTHORS
Foreword
Table of Contents
THE STATE OF ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE RESEARCH
GATHERING IN THE SYNAGOGUES ON FESTIVALS, SABBATHS AND WEEKDAYS
I. NEW DISCOVERIES IN SYNAGOGUE EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCH
THE SYNAGOGUE OF HURVAT SUMAQA
THE SYNAGOGUE AND BETH MIDRASH OF MEROTH
THE SYNAGOGUES OF HORVAT RIMMON
II. PROBLEMS OF SYNAGOGUE CHRONOLOGY
THE CAPITALS OF THE SYNAGOGUE OF CAPERNAUM - THEIR CHRONOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION WITH REGARD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALS IN THE DECAPOLIS AND IN PALESTINE
DONATIONS AND TAXES IN THE SOCIETY OF THE JEWISH VILLAGES IN ERETZ ISRAEL DURING THE 3RD TO 6TH CENTURIES CE.
III. INSCRIPTIONS AND COINS IN SYNAGOGUES
DID ANCIENT SA MARITAN INSCRIPTIONS BELONG TO SYNAGOGUES?
IV. SYNAGOGUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE
UNIDENTICAL SYMMETRICAL COMPOSITION IN SYNAGOGAL ART
DUKHAN, ARON AND TEVA. HOW WAS THE ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE FURNISHED?
THE RECENT HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE
KHIRBET SUSIYA - THE BEMA AND SYNAGOGUE ORNAMENTATION

Citation preview

Ancient Synagogues in Israel Third - Seventh century C.E.

Proceedings of Symposium University of Hafia, May 1987

edited by

Rac-hel Hachlili

llN:'nT.l· \J.:Jil n"'"T.l.111:i.1N7 REUBEN AND EDITH HECHT MVSEVM

il£>)n ntr>07J))1N UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA

BAR International Series 499 1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc ., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S499, 1989: 'Ancient S ynagogues in Israel' © The Individual Authors, 1989 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546405 paperback ISBN 9781407347882 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546405 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

L IST OF AUII IORS D r . H answu l fB loedhor n , B ib l . -A r ch . I n s t i tu t L i ebe rme i s te r s t ra s se 1 2 1 ) -7400 T üb ing en D r . S h imon D a r , B a r I l an Un ive r s i ty , I s rae l D r . R ache l H ach l i l i , H a i f a Un ive r s i ty , I s rae l Z v i I l an , 3 6 D an ie l Mo r i tz S t . T e l A v iv , I s rae l D r . A r ieh K ind le rE r e tz I s ra e l Mu seum , T e l -Av iv , I s rae l D r . Amo s K lone r , I s rae l D epa r tmen t o f An t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu seums , J e rusa lem , I s rae l P rof . J o seph N aveh , H eb rew U n ive r s i ty , J e ru sa lem , I s rae l P rof . S hmue l S a f ra i , H eb r ew Un ive r s i ty , J e ru sa lem , I s rae l D r . Z eev S a f ra i , B a r I lan U n ive r s i ty , T e l -Av iv , I s rae l P rof . And rew R . S eag e r , B a l l S t a te U n ive r s i ty , Munc ie , I nd iana , U .S .A . D r . Z eev Y e iv in , I s rae l D epa r tmen t o f An t iqu i t ie s a nd Museum s , J e ru sa lem , I s rae l

A s s is tan tE d i to r :

N aom i Me rhav

A cadem ic P rog ram C omm i t te e :

R a che l H a ch l i l i J o s eph N av eh S amue lS a f ra i Z e ev Y e iv in

A l lp ho tog raph sc s z tu r te sy o ft h e I s ra e l D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie sa nd Mu seum s

i

F oreword T h i s b ook c on ta in s a r t ic le s w h ich a r e t h e f r u i t o f af ou r -day S ympos ium o rgan ized b y t h e R euben a nd E d i th I ech t Mu seum , H a if a Un ive r s i ty , o n May 2 5 -28 , 1 9 87 , o n " Anc ien t S ynagogue s" . I tw a s a t tended b y s c ho la r sf r om I s rae l a nd a b road . S i x teen l e c tu r e sw e r ed e l ive r ed , b o th i n II e b r ew a nd E ng l i sh . T he f ou r th d ay o ft h eS ympo s ium w a sd evo ted t o at ou ro f Go lan a nd G a l i lee S ynagogue s ,c onduc ted b yt h ee xcava to r st h em se lve s . T he l e c tu re s w e r e g r ouped i ns e s s ion s o n t h e f o l low ing t op ic s : N ew D i scove r ie s i nS ynagogue E xcava t ions a nd R e sea r ch ; S ynagogue A r t a nd A r ch i tec tu r e ; I n scr ip t ion sa nd C o in si nS ynagogue s ; P rob lem so nt he Ch rono logy o fS ynagogue s . I ti sh oped t ha t t h i s v o lume w i l l b e au sefu l a dd i t ion t o t h e r e cen t w ave o fn ew p ub l ica t ion s d ea l ing w i th S ynagogue si n An t iqu i t ie s .

H I

T ab le o f C on ten ts F or eword T ab le o fC on ten t s H a ch l i l i , R ache l S a f ra i , S h r nue l

T he S t a te o f Anc ien t S ynagogue s R e s ea r ch G a ther ing i nt h e S ynagogue s o n F e s t iva l s , S abba ths a nd Weekday s

7

I .N ew D is co ve r ie s i nS ynagogue E xca va t ions a nd R e s ea rch D a r , S h i rnon a nd M in tz l ce r , J ohanan H an , Z v i K lone r , Amos

17

T he S ynagogue o f Hur va t S umaqa T he S ynagogue a nd B e th M id ra sh o f Me ro th T he S ynagogue s o fH or va t R immon

21 43

H . P rob lems o fS ynagogue C h rono logy B loedhorn , H an swu l f

T he C ap i ta l s o ft h e S ynagogue o fC apernaum T he i r Ch rono log ica l a nd S tyl i s t ic C la s s i f ica t ion w i th R ega rd t ot h e D eve lopmen t o fC ap i ta l s i nt h e D ecapo l i s a nd i n P a le s t ine

49

I I . I n scr ip t ions a nd C o ins i nS ynagogue s K ind le r , A r ie N aveh , J o seph

D ona t ion s a nd T axe s i nt h e S oc ie ty o ft h eJ ew i sh V i l lag e s i nE r e tz I s rae l d ur ing t h e 3 r d t o 6 t h C en tu r ie s CE .• D id Anc ien t S ama r i tan I n sc r ip t ion s B e long t oS ynagogue s?

55 6/

I V . S ynagogue s A r t a nd A rch i tec ture H ach l i l i , R ache l S a f ra i , Z eev S eag e r , R . And r ew Y e iv in , Z , eev

65

Un iden t ica l S ymme tr ica l C ompo s i t ion i nS ynagoga l A r t D ukhan , A ron a nd T eva : H ow w a s t h e A nc ien t S ynagogue F u rn i shed? T he R ecen t H i s tor iog raphy o fA nc ien t S ynagogue A r ch i tec tu re Kh i rbe t S us iya , t he b ema , a nd S ynagogue O rnamen ta t ion

69 85 93

Abb rev ia t ion s L i s t o fP l a te s

101 103

i v

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

THE S TATE OF ANC IENT S YNAGOGUE RESEARCH R ache l H ach l i l i Un iv e r s i ty o fH a i f a I n t h e l a s t d ecade , many mo r e s y nagogue s h ave b een d i s cove r ed i ne x cava t ion s c a r r ied o u t i n I s ra e l ; s u ch d i s cove r ie s c ompe l u s t ol ook a ga in a ts ome a sp ec t s o fs ynagogue a r ch i tec tu r e . Two i mpor tan t a sp ec t s o fa nc ien t s ynagogue a r ch i tec tu r e s hou ld b ee xam ined : A . T he G a l i l ean a nd G o lan s ynagogue f a cade sa nd e n t ranc e s ; B .T he l o ca t ion o ft h e T o rah s h r in e a nd i t s s i gn if i cance i ns ynagogue a r ch i tec tu r e .

A .T he G a l i lean a nd G o lan S ynagogue s ' F acades T he n o r ther n g r oup o f G a l i lean a nd G o lan s ynagogue s e xh ib i t s ac on s ide rab le u n i fo rm i ty i n s t one c on s t ruc t ion , a r ch i tec tu ra lp l an ,a nd p a r t icu la r ly i nt h er i ch ly o rnamen ted p o r ta l sa nd f a cade s w h ich d if e rf r om s ynagogue si no the rp a r t s o ft h e L and o fI s ra e l . T he G a l i lean s ynagogue s , w i th t h ee x c ep t ion o fC ho ra z in a nd H . S hu ra , w e r ea l b u i l to fl i me s tone w he r ea st h e Go lan s ynagogue s w e r e o fb a sa l t . T he f a cade s o ft h e n o r ther n g r oup o fs ynagogue s a r e r i ch ly or namen ted , w h ich s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e s ynagogue w a si n tended t oi mp r e s sa nd a t t ra c ta t ten t ion ( Ha ch l i l i 1 9 88 :c hap .V I I Ip p .200 -206 ) . T he o rna te e n t rance -f rame s o f t h e G a l i lean a nd G o lan s ynagogue s c an b e d i v ided b y t h e o rnam en ta t ion o n t h e i rl i n te l s a nd d oo r jamb s i n to t h r ee d if e r en t t yp e s : T ype A ( f i g .! ) : t h e s e p o r ta l s h av e amou lded s t one l i n te l u sua l ly d eco ra ted o nt h e f a ce , t h e u pp e r p a r t f o rm ing at o ru s l ike d eco ra ted f r i ez e . T he l i n te l w a s s uppo r ted b y t wo d oo rpo s t s wh ich w e r e u ndeco ra ted mou lded mono l i th s . T he s ynagogue s o f B a r cam ( ma in p o r ta l , f i g .2 ) C ape rnaum ( f i g .3 ) , Me i ron , S umaqa ( ma in e n t r ance , f i g .4 ) h ad t h i s t yp e o ff a cade . T yp e B( f i g .5 ) : t h ee n t rance so ft h i st yp eh ave amou lded s t one l i n te l w h ich i sd eco ra ted o ni t sf a c e a nd s ome t ime s h ad a t o ru s l ik e f r i ez e ; i ti ss uppo r ted b y t wo d oorpo s t s c a rved a s p i la s t e r s a nd c r owned w i th Do r ic o r C o r in th ian c ap i ta l s . T h i s t yp e i ss ome t ime s c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e f a cade ' s s i de e n t rance . T he m a in e n t rance o f H . c Ammud im ( f i g .6 ) , C apemaum s i de e n t rance s ( f i g .7a ,b ) a nd H . S umaqa s i de p o r ta l s ( f i g .4 ) a l so D a r ( f i g .9 ) b e long t ot h i s t yp e . T yp e C( f i g .8 ) : t h i s t yp e o fe n t rance i sc ha ra c te r i s t ic o fa nd p ecu l ia r t ot h e Go lan s ynagogue s . I t s ma in f e a tu r e i st h e r i ch ly c a rv ed s i ng le e n t rance w ho se s t ruc tu r e c on s i s t s o f amou lded l i n te l a nd d oo rpo s t s c on s t ru c ted o fs e v e ra l a sh la r b a sa l t s t one s o n A t t ic b a s e s . T he se a r e u sua l ly d e co ra ted w i th ac on t inuou sc a rv ed f r ame ( s ee K a z r in ,f i g .9 ;A s sa l ieh ,f i g .10 )a nd I . K ane f( Ma coz 1 9 8 1 : 103 ) . I n t h e f i r s t t wo s ynagogue s t h e l i n t e l h a s ab road c a r ved b and c on ta in ing a n h e ra ld ic d e s ign . A s im i la rl i n te lw a sf ound a tT yb e ( f i g . 11 ) a nd s im i la r d oo rpo s t s c ome f r om D abbu ra ( Ma coz 1 9 8 1 : 1 09 ) , Z um im ra ( Ma coz 1 9 8 1 : 1 0 4 ) , D ab iya ( Ma coz 1 9 80 : 1 9 ) a nd S av i tan ( Ma coz 1 980 : 3 ) . T he o n ly G a l i l ean s ynagogue w i th t h i s e n t rance -f rame t yp e i sC ho ra z in ( f i g .12 ) , h ow eve r t h e l i n te l ' s o rnam en ta t ion i sd e s t royed . T h e d if e r enc e s b e tween e n t rance -f rame t ype s Aa nd I ,o n t h e o ne h and , a nd t yp e C , o n t h e o th e r , a r e : 1 )t h e d oo rpo s t s o ft yp e s Aa nd B a r e e a ch m ade o f amonol i th , w h i le t he d oo r jamb s o f t yp e Ca r e c ompo s ed o f s e ve ra l s t one s w i th A t t ic b a se s ; 2 )t h e d eco ra t ion o f t h e p o r ta l i s c onc en t ra ted o nt h e l i n te l a nd d oo rpo s t s , w i th a n a dded d e s ign o n t h e l i n te l f a ce i t s e l f . E n t rance -f rame s o fG a l i l ean a nd G o lan s ynagogue s c an b e c ompa r ed t o t h e p or ta l s o fS y r ian p agan t emp le s a nd c hu r che s o ft h e s ame p er iod ( 3 rd -7 th c en tu r ie s C .E . ) .

1

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

B .T he l o ca t ion o ft h eT o rah s h r ine a nd i t ss i gn if i canc e i nS ynagogue A r ch i tec ture** T he T o rah ( t he S c r ip tu r e s ) b ecame a s ymbo l o f s u rv iva l a nd p r e s e rva t ion f o r t h e J ew s t h roughou t t h e a g e s , a nd h a s r ema ined a s ama jo r c on s t i tuen t o ft h e J ew i sh s p i r i t . R ead ing t h e T o rah w a s a lway s t h e mo s t i mpor tan t d u ty i n t h e s ynagogue . I ti sc l ea r , t h e r e f o r e , t ha t t h e r epo s i tory f o rt h e A rk o ft h e s c rol s , t ha t i s ,t h e T o rah s h r in e , w ou ld b e come t h e mo s t p rom inen t f e a tu r e o ft h e s ynagogue . I n f a c t , t h e ma jo r a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e o fa nc ien t s ynagogue s w a s t h e T o rah s h r ine , as t ruc tu r e w h ich c on ta ined t h e A rk o ft h e S c ro l l s . I tw a s a lway s l o ca ted o n t h e J e ru sa lem -o r ien ted w a l l ( a l so H a ch l il i 1 9 88 : c hap . V I I I , p p . 167 -187 ) . A v e ry i mpo r tan t f a c t h a s e me rg ed f o l low ing r e cen t e x cava t ion s i n I s rae l : a lmo s t e ve ry e x cava ted s ynagogue y i e ld s e i the rf r agmen t s , t r a ce so f ap l a ce , o rt h ea c tua l s i t ei t se lf f o rt h eT o rah s h r in e , wh ich a pp ea r si nt h r ee a r ch i tec tu ra l c on s t ruc t ion s s e r v ing a sr e po s i to r ie s f o rt h e A rk : a ) ar a i sed p l a tf o rm a s ab a se f o rt h e a ed i cu l a , made o fs t one a nd w ood ; b ) an i che , w h ich h ou sed t h e w ooden A rk o ft h e S c ro l l s ; c )a n a p se , w h ich h ou sed t h e A rk o ft h e S c rol s a nd s ome t ime s a l so t h e m eno ro th . T he b ema i s ar a i sed s t one p l a t f orm b u i l t i nf r on t o f an i che o r a p se , w h ich d o e s n o t h ou se t h e A rk , a nd w a s p robab ly e mp loy ed i nt h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah . T yp e so fT o rah s h r ine s a )A ed i cu l a An a ed icu la e x i s ted i n many s ynagogue s . T h i s i sc onf i rmed b yt wo t y p e so fe x i s t ing f r agmen t s d i scove r ed d u r ing e x cava t ion s . 1 )I n s om e s ynagogue s , as t one b a se o r p l a t f o rm h a s s u rv ived w he r ea s i no the r s , s e v e ra l ( two t o f i ve ) c ou r se s o fs t one h av e b een f ound . T h i s b a se h a s b een i n co r r ec t ly c a l led ab ema . O n t op o f s u ch ab a se s t ood as t ruc tu r e u sua l ly c on s i s t ing o fc o lumn s a nd al i n te l w h ich t og e the rc r ea ted t h e a ed icu la ( f i g .13 ) . T h i s a ed icu la s t ruc tu r e w a s a lway s b u i l t a s a n i n te r io r a dd i t ion t o t h e a l r eady e x i s t ing J e ru sa lem -or ien ted w a l l . 2 ) I n s e v e ra l s ynagogue s s ma l l c o lumn s o r d eco ra ted l i n te l s h ave b een f o und a nd d e s igna ted a s a ed icu la e . T h i s f o rm o ft h e a ed icu la , r e con s t ruc ted f r om r ema in s f ound i ns ome s ynagogue s , c on s i s t s o f ab a se wh ich i s ap l a t f o rm o f s t one s s u rmoun ted b y as t ruc tu r e c on s i s t ing o f s i ng le o r d oub le c o lumn s ( s uch a s c o lumn s f ound a t C ho ra z in , K a z r in , a nd Umm e l -Kana t i r ) , s uppo r t ing a d eco ra ted l i n te l ( s uch a st h e N ab ra te in l i n te l ) . A cc e s s w a s g ene ra l ly f r om t h e f r on t o r , i n s ome c a se s , f r om t h e s i de s ( Kaz r in , R ehov ) a nd w a s u sua l ly g a ined b y s t ep s . A ed i cu la eh av e b een f ound i ns e ve ra l l o ca t ion s w i th in t h e s ynagogue s : i ) o ne a ed i cu l a , s i tua t ed b e tw een t h e ma in a nd s i de e n t rance s , o n t h e i n te r io r o f t h e J e ru sa lem -o r ien ted s ou th f a cade , s u r v ive s i no ne G o lan a nd s e ve ra l G a l i lean s y nagogue s ( f i g .14a ) : c Ammud im , c En N e shu t , G u sh H a lav , K az r in , M e i ron , R ehov a nd I . S hem ea ( f i g .15 ) . Two a ed i cu l ae f l ank ing t h e c en tra le n t rance a nd b u i l t o n t h e i n te r io r o ft h e J e ru sa l em -o r ien ted s ou the rn w a l l ( f i g .14b ) a r e f ound a tf ou r o ft h e G a l i lean s ynagogue s a nd a tS a rd i s i nA s ia M ino r ( f i g .15 ) : C ap e rnaum " P la t f o rm s " M a nd N f l ank ing t h e i n ne r s i d e o f t h e m a in e n t ranc e o n t h e J e ru sa lem -o r ien ted f a cade w ou ld s e em t ob e t h e b a s e s o ft wo a ed icu la e ; C ho raz in , Ma rou s . Two p ha s e s a tt h e s ynagogue a tN ab ra te in , a nd S a rd is , ( s ee S eag e r , P l .XLV , f i g .8 ) h av e t wo a ed icu lae e a ch . A ed i cu l ae o n t h eJ eru sa l em -o r i en ted w a l lf ac ing o ra d jacen t t ot h ee n tranc e( f i g . 1 4 c ) . T he b a se s o ft h e se a ed i cu la ew e r eu sua l ly s ma l l , a pa r tf r om t wo l a rg eo ne sf ound a tK a z r in a nd R ehov . T hey w e r e f ound a tS h ema S ynagogue s i nb o th p ha s e s o ft h e s ynagogue ; H a rn rna th G ade r ( pha s e I ) ; K a z r in ; Ma roz H ay im ; R ehov a nd R i rnmon I I ( f i g . 15 ) .

b ) N iche 2

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

T h en i che i s as t one s t ruc tu r eb u i l ti n s ide t h eJ e ru sa lem o r ien ted w a l ld u r ing t h ef ou r th c en tu ry . I ts e rv ed a s ar epo s i to ry f o rt h eA rk o ft h e S c ro l l s . N iche s w e r e c on s t ruc ted i nt wo f o rm s : i )s em i c i r cu l ar s t ru c tu r ec on s t ru c ted a sa na dd i t ion t ot h e i n ter na l w a l l , p ro t rud ing f r om i ti n to t h e m a in h a l la nd a pp roa ched b y s t ep s . T he f o l low ing s y nagogue s h ave s em ic i r cu la rn i che s : ' A rb e l , ' E sh temo ca , S u s iya a nd N av eh ( f i g . 16 ) . T he mo s t f amou s n i che o ft h i s t ype i si nt h e D ia spo ra s ynagogue o fD u ra -Eu ropo s , d a t ing t o t h e m id th i rd c en tu ry CE . T h e s e cond f o rm i st h e r e c tangu l a r n i che b u i l t a st h e r e su l t o fb l ock ing a n e n t rance , t hu s d i c ta t ing t h e r e c tangu la r f o rm . T he f olow ing s y nagogue s h ave r e c tangu la r n i che s ( f i g . 1 6 ) :Be th S he a n B , B e th S he ca r im , c En G ed i I , H amma th T ib e r ia s A , H amma th T ibe r ia s B , R i rnmon I . c )T he a p se W i th t h e i nnova t ion o ft h e a p se a sr e po s i to ry f o r t h e A rk a tt h e e nd o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry , t h e T or ah s h r ine b ecame a n i n teg ra l e l emen t i nt h e s ynagogue b u i ld ing a nd w a s c on s truc ted a tt h e s am et ime a st h eb u i ld ing i t s e l f . I tw a su sua l ly as em ic i r cu la rs t ruc tu r ee x tend ing o u t s ide t h e ma in h a l l a l ong t h e w id th o ft h e n ave a pp roached b y s t ep s a nd s ome t ime s h av ing ad e co ra ted mo sa ic f l oo r . I t sf a cade p robab ly c on s i s ted o fc o lumn s a nd a n a r cua ted l i n te l d e co ra ted w i th ac on ch . I t w a s mu ch l a rge rt h an t h en i ch eo ra ed icu la e , a nd ,t h e r e f o r e ,c ou ld h ou se t h eA rk a nd p robab ly t h e meno ro th wh ich w e r ea l so n eeded i nt h ec e r emony . T he se s ynagogu e sh ave a p s e s : B e th - ' A lpha , B e th -She 'a n A , G a za , G e ra sa , H amma th g ade r , H amma th -T ibe r ia s , ( l ev e l I ) ,J e r icho , Ma con , Ma coz -Hay im , Ma ca ran ( f i g .17 ) . T h e b ema i s ar a i sed s t on e p od ium o r p l a t f orm a dded t ot h e w a l l f o und o n ly i nf r on t o ft h e n i che o ra p se . Ab ema i nf r on to f an i che i sf o und a t c En G ed i , ' E sh temo ca a nd S u s iya , ; i nf r on t o fa na p se i nB e th - ' A lpha , G e ra sa , H amma th G ade r , Ma con a nd Ma coz Il a y i rn . S om e o f t h e s e a dd i t iona l p od ia s e rv ed a sf o o tho ld s f o r a s cend ing t o t h e n i che o r a p s e ; t h ey may h av e b een u s ed a s s uppo r t s f o r h o ld ing o the r r i tua l o b jec t s , p a r t icu la r t h e m eno ro th . T he b ema c ou ld h av e a l so s e r ved a s ap l a t f o rm f o r p raye r , f o r r e ad ing t h e T o rah , a nd f o r r e c i t ing t h e l e s son so ft h e w eek . T he F o rm o ft h eT o rah s h r ine T h ef o rm o ft h e T o rah s h r ine c an b e r e con s t ruc ted b y r e f e r ence t oa r t i s t ic r e nd i t ion so n s t one a nd mo sa ic s , a nd b y a r ch i te c tu ra l f r agmen t s u sua l ly b e long ing t oa e d icu lae f o und i ne x cava t ion s o fs y nagogue s . A r ch i te c tu ra lf r agmen t so fa ed icu lae a r ec o lumn s a sf o und f o ri n s tan ce i nC ho ra z in ( Y e iv in , 1 9 85 , 1 9 87 : 3 2 -33 ) , ad oub le c o lumn f r om K a z r in , f r om Umm e lK ana t i r ( Ma coz 1 9 8 1 : 1 0 6 ) , ar e l ie f -co lumn f r om Z um im ra ( Ma coz 1 9 8 1 : 1 0 4 ) . A t Ma rou s t h e a ed icu la s u rv ived w i th a c o lumn . Al i n te lb e long ing t oa ed icu la w a sf ound a tN ab ra te in ( Mey e r s e ta l . 1 9 8 1 ) . A r t i s t ic r end i t ion s o ft h eT o rah s h r ine a r e f ound i nr e l ie f s a nd d r aw ing s a tB e th S he ca r im a nd o ns e v e ra l mo sa ic f l oo r s s u ch a sI l amma th T ib e r ia s , S u s iya a nd B e th S he ' an . C onc lu s ions T ypo log ica ld if e r enc e s i nt h eT o rah s h r ine s s hou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t ol o ca l p r e f e r ence s , p opu la r v ogue so rh i s to r ica ld ev e lopm en t . C h rono log ica l ly ,t h ea ed i cu l a ,a l r eady i ne x i s tenc eb yt h es e cond c en tu ry , i st h e e a r l ie s t t y pe o fT o rah s h r ine . I tw a s t h e mo s t p opu la r a nd c ha ra c te r i s t ic t ype i n G a l i l ean a nd G o lan s ynagogue st h roughou tt h a t p er iod . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f n ew s ynagogue s i n t h e s i x th c en tu ry s how s as i gn if i can t c hang e i n s y nagogue a r ch i tec tu r eb yt h ea dd i t ion o ft h e a p se a s aT o rah s h r ine e nc lo su r e . S eve ra lr e nova ted s y nagogue sh ad t h e i ra ed icu la o rn i ch er e p la ced b y a n a p s e a l r eady i nt h ef i th c en tu ry ( Hamma th G ad e r a nd Ma coz H ay im ) . I n t h e s i x th c en tu ry t h e a p se w a s a n i n t eg ra l ly p l ann ed s t ruc tu r e . H ow eve r , t i l l n ow , n o G a l i l ea no rG o lan s y nagogue c on ta in ing a p s e s h a s b een d i s cove r ed .

3

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

D a t ing T he d a t ing o fs ynagogue si so ne o ft h e mo s td eba t ed s ub jec t sa mong s cho la r s . T he e xcava t ion s o fs ynagogu e s a nd t h e r e su l tan t d a ta s u ch a s i n sc r ip t ion s , c o in s , p o t te ry , a r ch i t e c tu r e , a nd a r t a l h e lp t oe s tab l i sh t h e d a t ing o ft h e s ynagogue s ( a l so H a ch l i l i 1 9 88 : C hap . XV I , p p .396 -400 ) . On ly t h r ee i n sc r ip t ion s w h ich p rov ide a b so lu te c h rono logy , h ave b een f o und i n s ynagogue b u i ld ing st od a te . 1 ) aG r eek d ed ica to ry i n sc r ip t ion o ft h e G aza s ynagogue mo sa ic p avemen t m en t ion ing t h e y ea r 5 08 /9 C .E . ; 2 )t h e A rama ic i n sc r ip t ion o ft h e B e th - ' A lpha mo sa ic f l oo r m en t ion ing t h e Empe ro r J u s t in ian I ( 5 18 -527 C .E . ) ; 3 )t h e H eb r ew i n s c r ip t ion o n t h e N ab ra te in l i n te l , wh i ch m en t ion s t h e d a te o fb u i ld ing wh i ch w a s 5 64 C .E . O the r i n sc r ip t ion s c ou ld d a te s ynagogue s b y i n f e r enc e , s u ch a st h e D abbu ra l i n te l i n sc r ip t ion . S cho la r s g en e ra l ly a g r ee t ha t s ynagogue s i nt h e L and o fI s ra e l w e r e c on s t ruc ted d u r ing t h e e nd o f t h e s e cond , b eg inn ing o ft h e t h i rd c en tu ry C .E . U n t i l r e cen t ly , s c ho la r s d i v ided t h e s ynagogu e s i n to t h r ee t yp e s f olow ing e a ch o the r c h rono log ica l ly : t h e e a r l ie s t t ype -t h e G a l i lean s ynagogue s f r om t h e 2 nd -3 rd c en tu r ie sC .E .o n ; t h et r an s i t iona lt yp e( b road h ou s es ynagogue s ) , s u ch a sS u s iya a nd E sh temoa , d a ted t o t h e 4 th -5 th c en tu r ie s C .E . , a nd t h e l a te s t B yzan t ine t y p e ( ba s i l ica l p l an w i th a n a p se ) , u sua l ly d a ted t ot h e 6 t h c en tu ry C .E . H oweve r , s ynagogue e xcava t ion s a nd r e sea r ch i nt h e l a s t f ew d ecade s s t rong ly c ha l leng e s u ch t ypo logy a nd c h rono logy . 1 )R ec en t e xcava t ion s o f many G a l i lean s ynagogue s h ave s hown t h a ta l though m o s to ft h em w e r e e r ec ted i nt h e 3 r d c en tu ry C .E . ( bu t s e e C ap e rnaum , L of f r eda a nd o the r s , A SR 1 9 8 1) a nd w e r e t h e r e f o r et h e e a rl i e s t g r oup o fs ynagogue s , t h ey w e r e c on s tan t ly r e s to r ed a nd r e con s t ruc ted d u r ing t h e 4 th t o 6 t h c en tu r ie s C .E . ( Meye r s 1 9 80 ; Meye r s e ta l , 1 9 82 ; Y e iv in 1 985 , 1 9 88 ) . 2 ) S ynagogu e s d i scove r ed w i th in t h e l a s t d ecade i n t h e Go lan w e r e e r ec ted a tt h e e nd o f t h e 4 th -ea r ly 5 t h c en tu r ie s C .E . ( Ma coz 1 9 8 1 ) . 3 )T he mo s tp rol if i cp e r iod o fs ynagogue c on s truc t ion w a sd u r ing t h e 6 t h c en tu ry C .E . Many n ew s ynagogu e sw e r ee r ec ted i nt h ec oun t ry . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r eo ft h e n ew b u i ld ing si st h ea p s e , w i th t h e e x c ep t ion o ft h e G al i lean a nd G o lan s ynagogu e s . 4 ) T h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic f e a tu r e s a nd s im i la r i t ie s n o ted i n s ome s ynagogue s ' c ons truc t ion a nd o rnamen ta t ion a r et h er e su l to fl o ca lt r ad i t ion a nd f a sh ion ;t h ey h ave n oc h rono log i ca ls i gn i f ican c e . T ha t i se spec ia l ly c l ea r f r om t h e c ha ra c ter i s t ic o rnam en t ed f a cade s o f t h e G a l i l ean a nd G o lan s ynagogue s c on s t ruc ted c on t inuou s ly t h roughou t t h e p e r iod . 5 )A s ar e su l t o ft h e l a te s t e x cava t ion s a nd r e sea r ch , an umb e r o f s c ho la r s m a in ta in t ha t m any s ynagogue s c on t inued t o f unc t ion d u r ing t h e 7 t h a nd 8 t h c en tu r ie s ( f o r e xamp le , H amma th T ibe r ia s , K a z r in , Me ro th , N ab ra te in a nd S u s iya ) . I n c onc lu s ion , i ts e em s t ha t s ynagogue s i n t h e L and o f I s ra e l w e r e e r e c t ed , r e s to r ed , a nd r e con s t ruc ted d u r ing t h e M i shna ic a nd T a lmud ic ( Roman -Byzan t ine )p e r iod s ,a nd s ome c on t inued t of unc t ion u n t i l t h e 8 t h c en tu ry C .E . . F o r i t s d a t ing , e a ch s ynagogue s hou ld b e e xam ined i n d iv idua l ly i n i t s h i s to r i ca l c on tex t a nd w i th r e f e r enc e t oa n a na ly s i s o fi t se x cava t ion , f i nd s , a r t , a nd a r ch i tec tu r e .

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

B IBL IOGRAPI I ICAL NOTES I n t h e l a s t d ecade t wo c omp i la t ion s o f A nc ien t S ynagogue s i n t h e L and o f I s ra e l h ave b een p ub l i sh ed , o ne b y H ü t tenme i s t e ra nd R e eg , 1 9 77 a nd t h eo the rb y C h ia t , 1 9 82 . B o th p rov ide d a ta a nd ab ibl iog raphy o n e a ch s i t e . T he p rob lem i st ha t i nb o th b ook s t h e r e i sn o c l ea r d if e r ence b e tween e x cava ted s ynagogue s , a nd s i t e s t hough t t o b e s ynagogue s m e r e ly o n t h e b a s i s o fs ome s c an ty f i nd ing s . S ome n ew r e s ea r ch b ook s o n A nc ien t S ynagogue s h ave b een p ub l i shed i nt h e l a s t t wo y ea r s ; t wo b ook s r e su l t ing f r om s ympo s ia p roc eed ing s a r e : o ne i n H eb r ew e d i ted b y A . K a she r , A . O ppenhe ime r a nd A . R appapor t , ( 1 987 ) ; t h e o the r , i nE ng l i sh , p ub l i shed i n 1 9 87 , e d i ted b y I . L . L ev ine . Ab ook o n G r eek i n sc r ip t ion s f r om s ynagogue s b y L . R o th -Ga r son w a s p ubl i shed i n 1 9 87 . As u r v ey p ubl i shed b y Z . I l an ( 1 987 ) i nH eb r ew i n c lude s s ome n ew d a ta . H oweve r , t h i s t oo make s n o c l ea r d i s t inc t ion b e tw e en s ynagogue b u i ld ing s w h ich h ave a c tua l ly b een e x cava ted o r s u r v ey ed , a nd t ho se f i nd s w h ich o n ly g i ve a n i n d ica t ion o f ap o s s ib le s y nagogue s i t e .

T he s ub jec t w a s d i scus sed b y t he a u tho r a t t he S econd I n te rna t iona l S em ina r o n J ew ish A r t , May 2 , 1 988 . Heb rew Un ive is i ty .

J e rusa lem ,

* * Th i s w a s d e sc r ibed a t al e c tu re b y t h e a u tho r a t t he Twe lf th A rchaeo log ica l Conf e renc e h e ld i n I s rae l , F eb rua ry 1 8 , 1 986 . T e l Av iv Un ive rs i ty .

B I BL IOGRA PHY Ch ia t , M . -J . 1 982

Hand book o fS ynagogue a r ch i te c tu re . Ch icago -Ca l ifo rn ia

Ha ch l i l i , R . 1 988

Anc ient J ew i sh A r t a nd A rchaeo logy i n t he L and o fI s rae l . L e iden .

Hü t tenme is te r , F . , R eeg , G . 1 977 D ie An t ike S ynagogen i n I s rae l , T e i l 1 , 2 . W ie sbaden I l an , Z . 1 987

S ynagogue s i n t he G a l i lee a nd G o lan A r ie l 5 2 . J e rusa lem ( Il eb rew ) .

I l an , Z . a nd E . Dama t i 1 987 Me ro th , T he Anc ient J ew i sh V i l lage , T e l Av iv ( Il eb rew ) . K a she r , A . Oppenhe ime r , A . , R appapo r t U . ( e d i to rs ) 1 0 1 987 S ynagogue s i n A nt iqu i ty , J e rusa lem ( Heb rew ) . L ev ine , L . I . ( e d i to r ) 1 987 T he S ynagogue i n L a te A nt iqu i ty . P h i lade lph ia . Maoz , Z . 1 980 1 98 1

T he J ew i sh S e t t l emen t s a nd S ynagogue s i n t he G o lan T he S oc ie ty f o r t he P ro tec t ion o f Na tu re . K az r in ( Heb rew ) . T he A r t a nd A rch i tec tu re o ft he S ynagogue s o f t he Go lan A nc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , J e rusa lem .

Mey e rs , E . M . 1 980 Anc ien t S ynagogues i n Ga l i lee : The i r r e l ig ious a nd Cu l tura l s e t t ing B A 4 3 : 9 7 108 . Meye rs , E .M . e ta l . 1 98 1 T he A r t o f Nab ra te in -A F i rs t G lanc e . B A 4 4 : 2 37 -243 . 1 982 S econd P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 98 1 E xcava t ions a te n -Nab ra te in , I s rae l . B ASOR 2 46 : 3 5 -54 . R o th -Ga rson , L . 1 987 T he G reek i n s c r ip t ions f rom t h e S ynagogue s i n E re tz -I s rae l , J e rusa lem ( Heb rew ) .

1 985

Y e iv in , Z . R econs t ruc t ion o f t he S ou the rn I n te r io r Wa l l o f t he Kho raz in S ynagogues . E re tz -I s rae l 1 8 ( NB . Av igad Vo lume ) : 2 68 -276 , ( Il eb rew ) . 1 987 Anc ien t Cho raz in Come s B ack t o L if e . RAR X I II : 2 2 -36 .

5

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

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Plans of Synagogues with Apses: 1) Jericho; 2) Macoz Hayim; 3) Macon; 4) Gaza; 5) Beth- :, Alpha; 6) Nacaran; 7) Gerasa; 8) I lammath Gader; 9) Beth She :,an A.

GATHER ING I N THE S YNAGOGUES ON F EST IVALS , SABBATHS AND WEEKDAYS S hmue l S af ra i

H eb r ew Un iv e r s i ty , J e ru sa lem T he f i r s t a nd p r ima ry e l emen t i n d i v ine w o r sh ip i nt h e s ynagogue i na nc ien t t ime s w a s n o t p ray e r , b u t t h e r e ad ing o ft h eT o rah . T h i sf a c ti sr e v ea led c l ea r ly i nt h e v a r iou ss ou r ce sb o th f r om t h e t ime o ft h e S econd T emp le a nd a f te rwa rd s . I tc an b e d emon s t ra ted f r om b o th e a r ly a nd l a te T a lmud ic s ou r ce s , f r om t h e e v idence i nt h e N ew T e s tamen t -i nt h e G o sp e l s a nd t h e A c t s o ft h e Apo s t l e s -f r om t h e w r i t ing s o fP h i lo a nd J o sephu s , a nd f r om e p ig r aph ic e v idence . I nT o s ef ta Meg ila , C h . 3 ,H a lakha 1 8( a nd i np a ra l le l p a s sag e s i nb o th T a lmud s ) ' w e r e ad : O ne d oe s n o t a c t l i gh t ly i ns ynagog ue s ; o n e d oe s n o t e n te r t h em i nt h e h ea t b ecau s e o ft h e h ea t , i nt h e c o ld b ecau se o ft h e c o ld , o r i nt h e r a in b ecau se o ft h e r a in . O ne d oe s n o t e a t i nt h em , n o r d r ink i nt h em , n o r s l eep i nt h em , n o r w a lk a r ound i nt h em n o r r e lax i nt h em , b u t o n e d oe s r e ad a nd s t udy a nd p r ea ch i nt h em . Ae u logy f o rt h e p ub l ic may b e made i n t h em ; R abb i Y ehudah s a id : T o w ha t d oe s t h i s r e f e r ? T o s ynagogue st ha t a r e f unc t ion ing , b u t i ft h ey a r e i nr u in s , t h en t h ey a r el e f ta nd a low ed t og r ow w e ed s o u t o fd i s t r e s s . T h i s T anna i t ic h a l akha , r e coun t ing t h e t h ing s n o t t o b e d one i nt h e s ynagogue a nd t ho se t o b ed one , m en t ion s r e ad ing a nd l e a rn ing , b u t d oe s n o t m en t ion p raye ra ta l . R abb i Y ehudah w a s f am i l ia r w i th t h i s h a l akha s i nce h e a dded t o i tt h a t o ne may make ae u logy f o r t h e p ubl i c i n a f unc t ion ing s ynagogue , b u t m ay n o t u s e ar u ined s ynagogue a ta l b ecau s e o f d i s t r e s s .2 A l so i n R abb i Y ehudah ' s f amou s d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e g r ea t s ynagogue i nA lexand r ia i nT o sef ta S uk l ca 4 : 6 ( a nd i np a ra l le l T a lmud ic p a s sag e s ) 3,T o rah r e ad ing a nd t h e b ened ic t ion o v e r t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o r ah a r e m en t ioned , b u t n o t p raye r : And aw ooded p l a t f o rm i nt h e m idd le , a nd t h e h azzan o ft h e s ynagogue s t and s u pon i tw i th ac l o th ab anne r ?i nh i s h and s , s omeon e t a ke s t h e T o rah s c ro l lt o r e ad i t ,a nd h e , t h e h azzan , r a i s e s t h e c l o th a nd t h ey , t h e c ong r ega t ion , r e spond a men t o e ve ry b ened i c t ion a nd h e r a i se s t h e c l o th a nd t h ey a n swe ra men . T he b ened ic t ion i so v e r t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah , b u t p raye r i sn o t m en t ioned .4 T he h a l akho t o f t h e s y nagogue a pp ea r i nt h e M i shna i nt h e t r a c ta te Meg i l la i nt h e c on tex t o ft h e l aw s o fr e ad ing t h e S c rol o fE s the ra nd o ft h er e ad ing o ft h eT o rah , n o t i nt h e M i shna B e rakho ti nw h i ch t h e f i r s t c hap te r s s e t f o r th t h e l aw s o f t h e r e c i ta t ion o f S hema c a nd o f p raye r . P eru s ing t h e t r ac ta te B e ra ld io t c hap te r s I -V a nd t h e p a ra l l e l p a s sag e s i nt h e T o se f ta , o ne f i nd s t h e i n d iv idua l p ray ing wh i l e c ove r ing h im se l fw i th w a te r ( 3 :5 ) , c a r ry ing t h e d ead ( 3 : 1) , r i d ing ad onkey ( 4 :5 ) , a t op at r ee o r as c af o ld ( 2 :4 ) , s t and ing i n ar oad o r ma rke t ( 4 : 1 a nd T o se f ta 3 : 20 ) , b u t n o t i n as ynagogue . On ly o n S abba th a nd f e s t iva l d ay s , o n w h ich t h e Mu saf ( a dd i t iona l ) s e rv ice i sr e c i ted , i st h e r e a ny h in to f as ynagogue 5. T h e s ynagogue i sm en t ion ed f r equen t ly i nt h e G o sp e l s a nd i nt h e A c t s o ft h e A po s t le s , b u t a lway s i nr e f e r ence t ot h er e ad ing o ft h eT o rah a nd t h e P rophe t so rp ub l ic t e a ch ing a nd p r ea ch ing . T hu s i ti si nt h e t r ad i t ion s r e ga rd ing J e su s g o ing f r om p l ace t o p l ace i nt h e G a l i le e a nd t e ach ing h i s i d ea s a nd d ec la r ing h i s " g ood t i di ng s ', o r w hen h e e n te r s as ynagogue a nd t a ke s p a r t i nt h e d i v in e s e rv ice g o ing o n t h e r e ' . T h roughou t t h e s t or ie s o fJ e su s , t h i s p a t ter n r ep ea t s i t s e l fw i thou t a ny m en t ion o f p ray e r . P raye r i t s e l f i sf e a tu r ed f r equen t ly i n t h e s t o r ie s o f J e su s i n v a r iou s c on t ex t s , b u t n eve rr e la ted t ot h e s ynagogue 8. O n ly i no ne p a s sag e d o w e f i nd J e su s w arn ing t h e p eop l e n o t t o p ray i n a n o s ten ta t iou s f a sh ion w h i le s t and ing i nt h e s ynagogue . Mo r eove r , h e m en t ion s t h e s ynagogue a l ong w i th t h e c o rne r s o ft h e ma rke t s , p r e f e r r ing p ray e r i n as e c r e t p l a c e i n ah i dden r oom9. I nt h e B ook s o fA c t s w e f i nd t h e s ame s i tua t ion . I nt h e c ou r se o fP au l ' s e ndeavo r s , t h e r e a r e a bundan t r e f e r ence st os ynagogu e s , f r om t ho se i nJ e ru sa lem t ot ho se i nC yp ru s , G r eece , S y r ia a nd A s ia M ino r . I nn o t o ne c a s e i sp ray e rm en t ioned , b u t a lway s t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah a nd s t udy . I n A c t s 1 3 :5 i ts a y s t ha t i nS a lm i s , C yp ru s , t h ey p r ea ched i nt h e " s ynagogue s o f t h e J ew s " a nd a f te rw a rd si nt h e s ame c hap t e rP au la nd h i se n tou r ag er e a ch A n t ioch i nP s id ia ,e n te rt h es ynagogue o n t h e S abba th a nd " a f te r t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah a nd t h e P rophe t s t h e h ead s o ft h e s ynagogue s e n t a nd s a id . . ." ( 1 3 : 15 ) . I n 1 5 :2 1 i ts a y s t h a t " Mo s e s f o r g ene ra t ion s h ad i ne ve ry t own t e a che r s o fh i s w o rd w ho r e a l ! : nt h e s y nagogue s o n e ve ry s abba th ." I ° 7

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

An umb e r o ft ime s i nh i s v a r iou s w o rk s P h i lo m en t ion s c ommon s y nagogue p ra c t i ce s o ft h e J ew s a nd t h e p a r t icu la rp ra c t ice s o ft h e E s sene s a nd T he rap eu tae . H e n ev e r m en t ion s a ny th ing o the rt h an t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah a nd t h e e xp l ica t ion o fl aw s . I n" On t h e L i f e o f Mo s e s" h e t e l s o ft h e c u s tom o ft h eJ ew s i nt h e t ime o f Mo se s t oc ong r ega te o n t h e s e ven th d ay a nd s t udy , c on t inu ing : " And f r om t h en u n t i l t h i s t ime , t h e J ew s e ngag e i nt h e T o rah o ft h e i r a n c e s to r s o n e v e ry s e ven th d ay a nd s a nc t i f yt h a tt ime f o rk now ledg ea nd s t udy o fn a tu ra l m a t te r s , "1 2 s i n ce wha t a r et h eh ou se s o fp r aye ri nt h e t own s i fn o t s c hoo l s f o r u nde r s tand ing . . . t ok now a nd f u lf i l l o u r o b l iga t ion st oG od a nd man ." I nt h e " Hypo the t ica "1 4 P h i lo t e l l s o ft h e p opu la r p r a c t ice " t o g a the ro nt ho s e S abba th d ay s i n o ne p l a ce a nd s i t t ing t o g e the r i na n a u ra o fs a nc t i ty . . . t ol i s t en t ot h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah . . . a nd ap r i e s t a mong t ho se p r e sen t o r a n e l de rw ou ld r e ad t h e h o ly l aw s t ot h em a nd e xp la in t h em ." 1 5 I n Th e Emba s sy t oG a iu s "1 6 P h i lo t e l so ft h er i gh ts o ft h eJ ew so fR ome i nt h et ime o fA ugu s tu s t og a the ri nt h e s ynagogue s " ma in ly o n S abba th a nd h o ly d ay s a nd l e a rn i np ub l ic t h e w i sdom o f t h e i ra nce s to r s ." S im i la re xp r e s s ion s a r ef ound e l s ewhe r e i nh i s w r i t ing s .1 7 P h i lo ' s d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e E s sene si ss im i la r . I n The L ib e r ty o ft h e R igh teou s "1 8 h et e l l s h ow t h eE s sene sg a the ro nt h e S abba th " i nh o ly p l a ce sc a l led s ynagogue s . . . o ne t a ke so u tt h eh o l yb ook s a nd r e ad s a l oud a n d o ne o ft h e l e a rned s t and s n ea r h im a nd e xp la in s t ho s e t h ing s w h ich n eed c l a r if i ca t ion ." L ik ew i se h i s d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e T he rap eu tae . H e t e l l s o ft h e i r p ra c t ice o fp ray ing t w i ce ad ay i nt h e i rr oom s a nd o n ly o n t h e s e v en th d ay d o t h ey m ee t i nt h e c ommon h o ly p l a ce i nw h ich t h e e l de r s p eak s t o t h em i nw o rd s o fw i sdo rn 1 9 .H e d oe s n o t m en t ion s p ec i f ica l ly t h e r e ad ing o ft h eT o rah o ro the rh o ly b ook s , b u t o ne m ay p r e sume t h a t r e ad ing w a s i n c lud ed i no ne m anne ro ra no the r . I nt h ew r i t ing s o fJ o sephu st h e r e i sn o d i r ec t r e f e r ence t od i v ine s e r v ic e i nt h e s ynagogue . T o t h e e x ten t t h a t s ynagogue s a r e m en t ioned i ti si nr e la t ion t ot h e a c t s o fh o s t il i ty b e twe en g en t i le s a nd J ew si nC a e sa r ea o rt ot h e g a the r ing o ft h e p eop l e o fT ib e r ia s i nt h e g r ea t s y nagogu e t h e r e .2 ° H ow eve r , i nt wo p l a c e s , h e m en t ion st h a t o n t h e S abba th t h ey g a the rt os t udy t h e T o rah .2 1 T he e p ig raph ic e v idence w e m en t ioned i st h e s ynagogue i n sc r ip t ion f ound i ne x cava t ion s i n J e ru sa lem c a r r i ed o u t b y We i l i n 1 9 13 -19 14 i nw h ich i ti ss t a ted t h a t t h e s y nagogue w a s b u i l t b y T heodo tu s , s on o fV e t inu s 2 .F u r the ro n ,t h ei n sc r ip t ion s a y st h a tt h e s ynagogue w a sb u i l tf o rt h e p u rpo se o f ' r ead ing t h e T o rah a nd s t udy ing t h e c ommandmen t s ( av I a y ma t I8 1 V OU T EOV i c a t t s[ 5 1 .5ax [ iJ v )a nd t h eh o s te la nd t h er oom s a nd t h ew a te rf a c i l i t ie sf o rh ou s ing t h ep oo r f r om a b road ." T h i si n sc r ip t ion l i s t st h ev a r iou s p urpo s e so ft h e s y nagogue , c i t ing o n ly t h e r e ad ing o f t h e T o rah a nd t h e s t udy o f c o mmandmen t s , b u t w i thou t m en t ion ing p r aye r a t a l . T he i n sc r ip t ion b e long st ot h e e nd o ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry B .C .E . o rt h e b eg in ing o ft h e f i r s t c en tury C .E . , a nd t h ep i c tu r ei tg i ve sf i t st h el i t e ra ry e v idenc e , i . e . , t h a t t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah a nd s t udy w e re t h ef i r s t a nd p r ima ry f ounda t ion o fs ynagogue l i f e . We h ave n o tl i s ted a l o ft h e s ou r ce sf r om w h ich w e c an a r r ive a tt h i sc onc lu s ion . P a r t i cu la r ly n o tewo r thy a r e a dd i t iona l T a lmud ic s ou r ce s , b u t t ho s e a l r eady q uo ted a r e s uf i c ien t t oe s tabl i sh t h a t t h e p r ima ry b a s i s o f d i v ine s e rv ice i n t h e s y nagogue w a s t h e r e ad ing o f t h e T o rah . Undoub ted ly t h ey a l so p rayed i nt h e s ynagogue -s uf i ce i tt or e ca l l t h ev a r iou sh a l akho tr e ga rd ing t h eo rde ro fp ray e ri nt h e s y nagogue l i s ted i nt h e i ti s hna (M eg i l l a , C h .4 ) a nd e l s ewhe r e -h oweve r i n v a r iou s t r ad i t ion s f r om a v a r i e ty o f g r oup s , p r e se rv ed i n an umbe r o f d if e r en t w ay s , t h e e mpha s i si sa lway se x c lu s iv e ly o nt h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah . An umbe ro fs c ho la r s2 3 h ave p o in ted o u t t h a tt h eb ened ic t ion sr e c i ted a f t e rt h e h af ta ra a r en o t o n ly b ened ic t ion st ob e s a id a f te r ar e ad ing f r om t h e P rophe t sb ecau se , i nc on t rad i s t in c t ion t ot h e b l e s s ing s s a id a f te rt h er e ad ing o ft h e T o rah , w h ich i sb r i e fa nd p e r ta in s o n ly t ot h e T o rah , g i v ing t hank s f o r t h e T o rah o ft r u th , t h e b l e s s ing a f t e r t h e h af tar a i n c lude i nt h e i r v a r iou s r e c en s ion s2 4 p raye r st ou ch ing o n aw ide r a ng e o fi su e s : c on so la t ion , t h ek i ngdom o fD av id ,t h eT o rah a nd t h e T emp le s e rv ice , a nd t h e s a nc t if i ca t ion o f t h e S abba th , a nd t h ey a r e r e c i ted i n am o s t f e s t ive m anne r2 5 .S ome s c ho la r s h ave h ypo th e s iz ed t h a t i na nc ien t t ime s t h e se b l e s s ing s c on s t i tu ted t h e n uc leu s o ft h e p ray e r t ob e r e c i ted o n ag i v en d ay . I no the r w o rd s : o r ig ina l ly , t h e c ong r ega t ion w ou ld g a the r f o r t h e r e ad ing o f ap a s sag e i nt h e T o rah a nd t h e P rophe t s ; a f te r t h e r e ad ing , t h e l e ad e r o rt h e p e r son w ho w a s h ono r ed w i th t h e r e ad ing f r om t h e P rophe t s w ou ld a dd an umbe r o fb en ed ic t ion s ,a nd t h e se w e r et h ee n t i r ep r aye rs e rv ice . T he l a nguag ea nd c on ten to ft h eb l e s s ing s a st h ey h ave c ome d own t o u s a r e s im i la r t o t h e b l e s s ing s r e c i ted b y t h e H igh P r ie s t o n Y om K ippu r a f te r t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah :2 6 " And h e r e c i te s e i gh t b ened ic t ion s o ve r t h em -o n t h e 8

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

T o rah a nd o nt h eT emp le s e rv i ce a nd o nt hank sg iv ing a nd o na t on emen to fs i na nd o nt h eT emp le . .a nd o n I s ra e l a nd o n J e ru sa lem . a nd o n t h e p r ie s t s ." A cco rd ing t o t h e M i shna t h e s ame b en ed ic t ion s a r et ob er e c i ted b yt h e k i ng a f te rr e ad ing " t he k i ng ' s p or t ion :" " On S ukko t w h en t h e H igh P r ie s t b l e s s e s t h em , t h e k i ng b l e s s e s t h em , b u t h e s ub s t i tu te s ' p i lg r imag e f e s t iva l s ' f o r ' a tonem en t ' ."2 7 H e r e t oo n o p r aye r i sm en t ioned a sp r eced ing , a nd o n ly a f te r t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah d i dt h ey r e c i te t h ee i gh t b l e s s ing sw h ich c on s t i tu ted t h e p r aye r . I nb o th i n s tance s t h a t w e h av e c i ted , t h e r e ad ing b y t h e h igh P r ie s t o n Y om K ippu r a nd t h e r e ad ing i n t h e c e r emony o f c onvoca t ion ( h aqhe l ) , t h e r e i sn o m en t ion o f ar e ad ing f r om t h e P rophe t s . B o th t h e H igh P r ie s t a nd t h e k i ng d o n o t r e ad a ny th ing b u t t h e T o rah , y e t t h ey r e c i ted b en ed ic t ion s l i k e t ho se o ft h e h af ta ra . T he se b l e s s ing s a r e n o t i n t r in s ica l ly l i nked t o t h e r e ad ing f r om t h e P rophe t s b u t t o t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah , s i nce i ne a r l ie s t t ime s t h e r e w a s n o r e ad ing o t h e rt h an f r om t h eT o rah a nd o n ly l a te ro n , i nt h e t ime o ft h e S e cond T emp le w a st h ep rophe t ic p a s sag e a ppended . T hu s i ti sr e a sonab le t o p r e sume t h a t t h i s c ha in o f b l e s s ing s r e la ted t o t h e p a r t icu la rd ay o ff e s t iv i ty w a s c r ea ted i na nc ien t t ime s , w hen o n ly t h e T o rah w a s r e ad . T h i s s t ruc tu r e o f ag a th e r ing w a s r e ta ined i nt h e f o rm o ft h e g a th er ing o n p ub l ic f a s t s w h ich , a c co rd ing t ot h e B aby lon ian t r ad i t ion , o pen sw i th a ni n ve s t iga t ion o fl o ca l n eed s , i . e . , w he the ra ny g r ea ta bu se w a sc o mm i t ted i nt h et own a nd h ow i ts hou ld b em ade r i gh t ;a nd a f te rwa rd s" t hey r e ad i nt h e T o rah s c ro l l. a nd a dd f r om t h e r e o n p a s sag e s o fm e r cy ." 2 8 T h i s mode l i sa t t r ibu ted i nt h e T a lmud t ot h ed e ed s o fE z ra a sd e sc r ib ed i nt h e b ook o fN ehem iah , c h .9 . T he p eop le g a the ra nd a r e s e pa ra ted f r om " a l l t h e f o r e igne r s "a nd a f t e rwa rd s " t hey r o s e t os t and a nd t h ey r e ad f r om t h e B ook o ft h e L o rd t h e i r G od "( v e r se 3 )a nd f i na l ly , " t hank ing a nd p ro s ta t ing t h em s e lve s b e f o r e t h e L o rd t h e i r God "( i b id . ) . T h ep r io r i ty a nd c en t ra l i ty o ft h e T o rah r e ad ing i nt h e d i v ine s e rv ice o ft h e s ynagogue e xp la in s t h e f a c t t ha t d u r ing t h e t im e o f t h e S econd T emp le t h e s y nagogue , f unc t ioned o n ly o n t h e S abba th . A l lt h e s ou r ce so u t s ide t h e T a lmud ic t r ad i t ion w h ich t e l l o fg a the r ing s i nt h e s y nagogue o rv ' s i t s t ot h e s y nagogue , d e sc r ibe t h e se a so ccu r ing o n ly o n t h e S abba th 2 9 o r o n F e s t iva l s , a nd n o t o ne o ft h e se s ou r ce s m en t ion s e v en o nce ap ubl i c g a the r ing f o r r e ad ing t h e T o rah o r p raye r o n aw e ekday . S om e s ou r ce s e v en r e la te e mpha t ica l ly t h a t t h e g a the r ing o rt h e v i s i to r s ' c om ing t ot h e s y nagogu et a ke sp l a c ee v e ry S abba th .3 ° O ne m ay c l a im t h a to nt h eS abba th t h e r ew e r e mo r e v i s i to r st ot h e s y nagogue a nd c on s equen t ly t h e r e a r e mo r e r e f e r ence st og a the r ing o nt h e S abba th . H owev e r , t h e r e p ea ted e mpha s i s i nt h e s ou r ce s o ft h e c ong r ega t ing o n t h e S abba th o r S abba th s , o ne a f te rt h eo the r ,e v en t h r ee c on secu t iv eS abba th sa si nt h ec a se o fP au li nT he s sa lon ica3 1 , b r ing s u st ot h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e s y nagogue o pe ra ted o n ly o r p r ima r i ly o n t h e S abba th . We s hou ld n o tf o rg e t t ha t P au l t r ave led f r om c ommun i ty t oc ommun i ty a nd p r ea ched c e a se le s s ly , s ot h a t h e w ou ld h a rd ly h ave b een r e luc tan tt oc ome t ot h es y nagogue o n aw eekday i fi th ad b een o pen t h en . Among t h en ame sb yw h ich t h es ynagogue i sk nown i sa l so t h et e rm c r aßa u tov i . e ." s abba th h ou se . " J osephu s u s e s t h i s n ame c i t ing A ugu s tu s ' e d ic t : l i e w ho s t ea l s " t he i r h o ly s c r ip tu r e s o r m oney f r om t h e s a ba teon i sd amned a s at h ie fo fh o ly o f e r ing s a nd h i s p rope r ty c onf i sca ted ."3 2 C h r i s t ian S y r ia cl i t e ra tu r e a l so m en t ion s " b e t s h ab ta d eyehuda i "( The J ew s ' S abba th h ou s e ) a nd i n p l u ra l " b e ts habe id eyehuda i ."3 T anna i t ic s ou r ce st e s t i f yt ot h ef a c tt h a tp eop le c ong r ega ted i nt h e s y nagogue o n Monday sa nd T hu r sday s t o r e ad t h e T o r ah . T he M i shna ( Meg i l l a 4 : 6 ) a s s e r t s : " On Monday s , T hu r sday s a nd S abba th a f te rnoon s ,t h ey r e ad i no rde r ,b u ti ti sn o tc oun ted i nt h et o ta l , "i . e . ,i nt h eT o rah r e ad ing o n S abba th a f t e rnoon s t h ey m ake n o f u r the r p rog r e s s t owa rd s c omp le t ing t h e r e ad ing o f t h e T o r ah ,b u to nt h ec on t ra ry ,r e pea tt h e s ame p a s sag eo nt h ef o l low ing S abba th mor n ing c on t inu ing f r om w he r et h ey e nded o nt h ep r ev iou sS abba th mo rn ing .3 4 Ab a ra i ta i nt h e T o s eph ta a nd i nb o th T a lmud s3 5 r epo r t s ac on t rove r sy o n t h i s s ub jec t b e tw een R . Me i r a nd R . Y ehuda . T he M i shna q uo ted a bove s u i t st h eo p in ion o fR . Y ehuda . B u ta c co rd ing t oR . Me i ro ne c on t inue st h er e ad ing o n S abba th a f t e rnoon a tt h e p o in t a tw h ich h e l e f t o f o n S abba th mo rn ing , a nd l i kew i s e , o n Monday morn ing a nd T hu r sday morn ing , c on t inue s r e ad ing i n s e quence , p i ck ing u p t h e c on t inua t ion o nt h ef olow ing S abba th morn ing . T he M i shna c i te so n ly t h eo p in ion o fR . Y ehuda , w h i ch t h e B aby l on ian T a lmud r u led w a s t h e p r e f e r r ed p r a c t ic e3 6 . L ikew i s e , T rac ta c te S of e r im p r e s en t so n ly t h ev i ew o fR . Y ehuda .3 7 T o seph ta T a can i t ( 2 :4 ) : " Monday s a nd T hu r sday sw e r e s e t a s id ef o rf a s t s o ft h ei n d i v idua l3 8 a nd o nt ho se d ay st h ec ou r t ss i ti nt h et own sa nd t h ey m ee ti nt h e s y nagogue a nd r e ad t h e T o rah . " I na no the r s ou r c e , t h e T anna i t i c t r ad i t ion a t t r ibu te s t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o r ah o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday st oa n a nc ien t i n junc t ion : " The P roph e t s a nd t h e E lde r s d e c r e ed t ha t t h e T o rah w ou ld b e r e ad o n t h e S abba th , Monday a nd T hu r sday ."3 9 I te xp la in s t h e 9

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

p u rpo se o f t h i s i n junc t ion : t o p r ev en t t h r ee d ay s f r om p a s s ing w i thou t w o rd s o fT o rah . T he t r ad i t ion sf r om E r e tz I s ra e la t t r ibu te t h ed ec r ee o fr e ad ing t h e T o rah o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s t o E z ra .4 ° U ndoub ted ly t h e p ra c t ice o f r e ad ing o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s i sa n a nc ien t o ne s t emm ing f r om t h e t im e o f t h e S econd T emp le , l i ke t h e c u s tom o f f a s t ing o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s . T he b a ra i ta q uo ted a bove a nd o the r s ou r ce s t h a t m en t ion t h e p ra c t ice o ff a s t ing o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s d a te f r om a f te r t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e T emp le . O ne s ou r ce e v en s t a te s e xpl i c i t ly t h a t t h e f a s t s o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s w e r e i n s t i tu ted b ecau s e o ft h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t h eT emp le : " And o u rt e a che r sr u led f u r the rt h a t t h ey s hou ld f a s t o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday sf o r t h r e e r e a son s -f o r t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e T emp le , f o r t h e T o rah t h a t w a s b u rned a nd f o r t h e d ef i lemen to ft h e N ame ." '" H ow eve r , many o the r s ou r ce s r e v ea l t h a t i tw a s c u s toma ry t of a s t o n Monday sa nd T hu r sday se v en d u r ing t h et ime o ft h e T emp le . E a r ly C h r i s t ian l i t e ra tu r em en t ion s t h i sp ra c t ice . E p iphan iu st e l so ft h eP ha r i s ee si nt h ep a s tt e n se ,i . e . ,i nt h et im eo fJ e su s ,w ho f a s ted t w ice aw eek -o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s4 2 .I n t h e D ida che 8 : 1 , wh ich p r eda te s E ph iphan iu s a nd c l ea r ly r e f l ec t s t h e l a s t y ea r s o ft h e S e cond T emp le , t h e w r i te r a dd r e s s e s t h e C h r i s t ian s : " Bu t l e t n o t y ou r f a s t s b e w i th t h e h ypoc r i te s f o r t h ey f a s t o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s , b u t f a s t y ou o n Wedne sday s a nd F r iday s ." T h e P ha r i s ee s (µ cu t T COV W toKpu taw i nt h e N ew T e s tamen t ) f a s ted o n Monday sa nd T hu r sday s . T he P ha r i see i nt h e Go spe l o fL uke ( 1 8 :10 :2 ? ) w ho e xp r e s s e s s e l f sa t i s f ac t ion o ve r h i s f a s t ing t w ice a w eek , s u r e ly m ean t t h a t h e f a s ted o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s . B u te v en t hough i ts ome t ime sa pp ea r st oh ave b e en t h en orm t of a s to n Monday sa nd T hu r sday s , n ev e r the le s s i tw ou ld s e em t h a t t h a t w a s o n ly t h e c u s tom o f i n d iv idua l s o r g r oup s ( h a vu ro t ) o fP ha r i see s o r s t ud en t s i nt h e l a nguag e o fo ne o ft h e s ou r ce s .4 3 I nt h i s m anne r w e c an u nde r s tand t h e m ean ing o ft h e P ha r i s ee i n L uke w ho t a ke s c r ed i t f o r f a s t ing o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s s i nce t h a tw a sn o t aw ide sp r ead c u s tom b u t o n ly t h e p r a c t ice o fd evou ti n d iv idua l sw ho c a r r ied o u t t h e c ommandmen t s f e rven t ly . T he se i n d iv idua l s w ou ld c ong r eg a te t or e ad t h e T o rah , a nd v i l lag e r s w ho h ad n o s y nagogue s o ft h e i r o wn c ou ld j o in t h em i no rde r t o h ea r t h e T o rah r e ad ing o nt h e " d ay so fc ong r ega t ion "( y eme ih a -ken i sa ) . T ho s ew ho f a s ted c onduc ted as e rv i ce f o r t h ef a s t , b u tt h e r ei sn o j u s t if i ca t ion t op r e sume t h a t d u r ing t h e T emp le p e r iod t h e r ew a s ar e gu la r p ray e ri nw h ich a l o ft h ep ubl i ct ook p a r t o n aw eekday morn ing o ra f t e rnoon , o n Monday s a nd T hu r sday s . T h roughou t t h e a nc ien t l i t e ra tu r eo ft h es a g e st h e r ea r en ume rou s r e f e r ence st ot h ei mpo r tance o fp raye ri np ubl i c . L i kew i s e t h e r e a r e n ume rou s r e f e r ence s i nT anna i t ic a nd Amo ra ic l i t e r a tu r e t o t h e o rde r o fp ubl i c p r ay e r i nt h e s y nagogue o n S abba th a nd f e s t iva l s . A l so n ume rou s a r e t h e a c coun t s o fJ ew i sh m en a nd w omen a t tend ing t h e s ynagogue e v e ry d ay , m orn ing a nd e v en ing . H owev e r , a l o ft h e se s a y ing s , h a l akho t a nd e v en t s a r e m en t ioned t h e t ime o fT anna im w ho l i v ed a f te rt h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e T emp le . T he r e i sn o p o in t i nl i s t ing t h em a l , b u t a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e P a l e s t in ian T a lmud ( B e rakho t 5 : 8 , p . 8a -b ) , t h e B aby l on ian T a lmud a d l o c . ( 6b o r 4 7 b ) ,a nd o th e rp a s sag e s , r e v ea l s t h a t a l s t em f r om t h e s a y ing s o fT anna im w ho l i ved a f t e r t h e d e s t r uc t ion o ft h eT emp le , a nd n o t o ne o ft h em d a te sf r om e a r l ie s t t ime s . T he s ynagogue o p e ra ted f o rh und r ed so fy ea r s d u r ing t h e S e cond T emp le p e r iod , af a c tw h ich w e c an l e a rn f r om i n ter na l J ew i sh t r ad i t ion , f r om b o th J ew i sh a nd g en t i le w r i te r s , a nd f r om e p ig raph ic a nd a r cha eo log ica l s ou r ce s ; b u t t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e T emp le b rough t a bou t af u r the r d ev e lopmen ti nt h es ynagogue s e rv ice . Af ew c og en tf a c t sf r om t h eg ene ra t ion o fY avne w i l ls uf i ce t ob ea ro u tt h e se p o in t s : ( 1 ) W i th t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e T emp le , R abban Y ohanan b . Z akka i e s tabl i shed t h e p r ie s t ly b en ed i c t ion a st h e c on c lu s ion o ft h e s ynagogue s e rv ice : " The r a bb i s t a ugh t : T he p r ie s t s m ay n o t a s cend t h ed ukhan ( pu lp i t )w i th t h e i rs hoe sa nd t h a ti so ne o fn i n ed ec r ee sw h ich R abban Y ohanan b .Z akka id ec r eed .' E ven b e f o r et h ed e s t ruc t ion o ft h eT emp le ,t h ep r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion h ad b e en c a r r ied o u ti nt h es ynagogue ,b u tt h er u l ing t h a t t h e p r ie s t s mu s ta s cend b a r e f oo ta dded a ne l emen t o ft h e T emp l e a tmo sphe r e t o i t s e x ecu t ion i nt h e s y nagogue b ecau se i nt h e T emp le t h e e n t i r e s e rv ice w a s c onduc ted b y b a r e f oo t p r i e s t s . L i kew i s e , a s t h e p r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion c on c lud ed t h e o f e r ing o ft h ed a i ly s a c r if i ce i nt h eT emp le , '" s oi tc onc luded t h e s ynagogue s e rv ice ,c om ing a tt h e e nd o ft h e c am ida . T he l a s tp r aye ro ft h ec am ida i sk nown i n Amo ra ic l i t e ra tu r e a s" G ran tP ea ce " ( s im s ha l om ) , b u ti ti sa lway s r e f e r r ed t oi nT anna i t ic l i t e ra tu r e a s" t he p r i e s t ly b ened ic t ion ( b i rka t k ohann im ) .4 6 T h et e x to ft h i sf i na lb ened ic t ion d oe s n o t s t and b yi t s e l f , b u tf o rm s ar e spon s et ot h e p r i e s t ly b en ed i c t ion b yt h ec ong r ega t ion o rt h e l e ade r .4 7 I ti sr e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a tt h i sd e c r ee , w h ich g av et h e p r ie s t ly b en ed ic t ion i nt h e s y nagogue as t and ing s im i la rt ot h a t wh i ch i th ad i nt h e T emp le a sp a r to ft h ed a i ly s a c r if i ce ,w a sm ade o n t h ep r e sump t ion t h a tp ub l ic p raye ri sc onduc ted e v e ry mo rn ing . 1 0

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

2 ) I n t h e M i shna ( Berakho t 4 : 3 ) , R abban G am l ie l r u led t h a t " e v e ry d ay ap e r son s hou ld p r ay e i gh t e en b ened i c t ion s ." H i s c oleague s d i sag r ee w i th h im , s ome s a y ing t h a t o ne s hou ld r e c i te a n e qu iva l en to fe i gh teen b l e s s ing s , o the r s s p ec if y ing " i fh e i sa b le t os a yt h ep raye rf l uen t ly " , a nd s t i l l o th e r s r a i s ing o b jec t ion s t o t h e a r rang emen t , c l a im ing t h a t p r eo rda ined p ray e r i sn o t h ea r t f e l t s upp l ica t ion . T he d i s cu s s ion o f t h e " e igh teen b ened ic t ion s " p r e suppo se s p ub l ic p r aye r t h a t i n c lud e s t h e p r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion , a nd e v en a n i n d iv idua l p r ay ing p r iva te ly s a y s t h e " p r ie s t ly b en ed ic t ion "i nc on f o rm i ty w i th p ub l ic p ray e r . T he r e co l lec t ion o fp raye ro nw e ekday si nt h et ime o f t h e T emp le , a s m en t ion ed i nt h e l i t e ra tu r e , i sv e ry d i s tan t f r om t h e f o rma t o f t h e e i gh teen b l e s s ing s . T he M i shna ( Tam id ,b eg inn ing o fc h . 5 )d e sc r ibe st h eg a the r ing o ft h ep r ie s t sf o rp ray e r i nt h e C hambe r o f H ewn S t one a f te r p r epa r ing t h e d a i ly s a c r if i ce t o b e o f e r ed . T he i r s e r v ice i n c lud e st h e r e ad ing o ft h e S hema C ,t h e T en C ommandmen t s , a nd as hor tp ray e rc onc lud ing w i th t h e p r i e s t ly b ened ic t ion ." T h e T ra c ta te T am id i nt h e M i shna r e por t s t h e r e a l i ty j u s t p r io rt ot h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h eT emp le ,a nd i ti sd oubf tu li fa tt h a tt ime t h e r ea l r eady w a s af i x ed t e x to fe i gh teen b en ed ic t ion s . T h ep r ie s t ly b en ed ic t ion i sl i ke ly t oh av e b een i n c luded b ecau s e t h e p r ie s t sh ad j u s t g a th e r ed a nd w e r e p r epa r ing t h em s e lv e st oo f e rt h e d a i ly s a c r if i ce . 3 )O ne b a ra i ta t e s t if i e s e xpl i c i t ly : " Sh im c o n h a -Paqu l i a r rang ed t h e e i gh teen b ened ic t ion s b e f o r e R abban Gaml i e li nY avne ."4 9 I nr e c en t g ene ra t ion s n ume rou s s c ho la r s h ave d eba ted t h e m ean ing o ft h i s t r ad i t ion .5 ° A l r eady i nt h e B aby lon ian T a lmud i tp r e sen ted ap rob lem t h a t d emanded a n e xp lana t ion , s i nce a d ja cen t t oi ti st h e t r ad i t ion t h a t " one h und r ed a nd t w en ty e l de r s , a nd a mong t h em p rophe t s , o rda ined t h e e i gh teen b ened ic t ion s i nt h e i r o rd e r ." 5 I T he T a lmud e xp la in s : " They f o rgo tt h em a nd h e ,S h im c o n ,a r rang ed t h em a ga in ." 5 2 T h i se qu ivoca t ion i sn o th i s to r ica l ,b u tt h e r e i sn od oub tt ha t s ome p ray e r sw e r e a c c ep ted i na nc ien t t ime s a nd t h e i rc ha ra c te ro rt r a ce s o ft h e i r n a tu r eh ave l e f tt h e i r ma rk i nd if e r en tr e f e r ence s i nS econd T emp le l i t e ra tu r e .5 3 H ow ev e r , w e c an f i nd n o g enu ine i n d ica t ion f r om t h e t ime o f t h e T emp le o f ac ha in o f e i gh te en b ened ic t ion s c omp r i s ing t h r ee i n t roduc to ry b l e s s ing s , t w e lv e i n te rmed ia te b l e s s ing s o r s uppl i ca t ion s ( r ec i ted o n w eekday s o n ly ) , a nd t h r ee c on c lud ing b l e s s ing s . I ti sn o t u n l ike ly t h a t a s ar e su l t o ft h et r ad i t ion t h a t t h e o rde r o fp r aye r d evo lv ed f r om t h e e a rl i e s t d ay s o ft h e T emp le , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t i nt h e p e r iod o fY avne aw eekday p r ay e ro fe i gh teen b ened ic t ion se x i s ted ,t h eo rd ina t ion o ft h o s ee i gh te en b en ed i c t ion s c ame t ob e a t t r ibu ted t ot h e " Men o ft h e G r ea t A s semb ly ." O n t h e c on t ra ry , w e c an s a y w i th c e r ta in ty t h a t t h e f o rma t o ft h e c Am ida o f S abba th a nd f e s t iva l s ,i . e . ,t h r ee i n t roduc tory b l e s s ing s ,t h r ee c onc lud ing b l e s s ing s ,a nd o ne i n te rm ed ia te b l e s s ing s p ec if i ca l ly p e r ta i n ing t o t h e S abba th o r f e s t iva l , a l r eady e x i s ted b e f o r e t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e T emp le .5 4 " Ah ol iday t h a tf a l l so n t h e S abba th -B e t S hamma i s a y s : o ne r e c i te se i gh t b ened i c t ion s s a y ing t h e b l e s s ing o ft h e S abba th b y i t s e l fa nd t h e b l e s s ing o ft h e h o l iday b y i t s e l f , s t a r t ing w i th t h e S abba th . A nd B e t H ile ls a y s : o ne r e c i te s s e ven , s t a r t ing w i th t h e S abba th a nd e nd ing w i th t h e S abba th ,a nd w i th t h es a nc t if i ca t ion o ft h eh o l yd ay i nb e tween . B e tS hamma is a id : H on it h e Sma l l w en t d own b ef o r e t h e a r k a nd s a id s e ven a nd t h e e n t i r e p eop le s a id t o h im : y ou h ave s a t i s f a c t ion ." 5 C e r ta in ly B e t S hamma i a nd B e t H i l le l w e r e d e s c r ib ing a n e v en t t h a t t ook p l a ce b e fo r et h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h eT emp le , a nd t h e f o rma t o ft h e s e s i x b ened ic t ion s e x i s ted i nt h e t ime o ft h eS e cond T emp le . P e rhap s w e w ou ld n o tb ew rong t op r e sume t h a t t h e p ubl i c p raye r s o n S abba th s a nd h ol iday s o p en ed a nd c l o s ed w i th t h r e e b l e s s ing s , a l o ft h em h av ing ag ene ra l r e l ig iou s s i gn if i canc e , b u t o n w e ekday s , w hen t h e i n d iv idua l p r ayed a l one , t h ey w ou ld b eg in w i th s upp l ica t ion s , t h e f i r s t s uppl i ca t ion b e ing " You g r an t man k now ledg e . . ." j u s t a s m any o f t h e p raye r s o f t h e Q um ran c ommun i ty o pen w i th ar e qu e s to rn o te o ft hank sf o rk now ledg e .' 6A f t e rt h er e que s tf o rk now ledg e c ame t h e o the rr e que s t sw h ich a dded u pt ot we lve b ened ic t ion s o rp e rhap s l e s s . T h i sf a c t may a l so e xp la in t h er e la t ive b r ev i ty o ft h e t h i rd b ened ic t ion " You a r e h o ly . "5 7 I na l t h e v e r s ion s w e h ave , t h i s b ened ic t ion i ss ho r t , b ecau se i tw a s e xpanded b y t h e q edu sha , w h ich w a sr e c i ted o n ly i np ubl i ca nd a tf i r s to n ly o nS abba th sa nd f e s t iva l s . A se a r ly a st h eG aon i cp e r iod t h e q edu sha w a s n o t r e c i t ed i nE r e tz I s ra e l e x cep t o n S abba th s a nd h o l iday s .5 8 Wh a t S h im c o n P aqu l id i d w a s n o tt os e td own t h ef i na lt e x t o ft h e e i gh teen b ened ic t ion sb u t t oa r rang e t h e b a s ic f o rma t : a dd ing t h et h r ee f i r s tb l e s s ing s a nd t h e t h r ee l a s t t ot h e w eekday p r ay e r a nd a r rang ing t h e t w e lv e i n te rmed ia te b l e s s ing s , t h e w eekday p e t i t ion s f o r t h e i n d iv idua l a nd t h e c ommun i ty . A nd i n deed , e v en i nt h e g ene ra t ion o fY avne w e f i nd t h a t t h ey p r ayed e i gh teen b ened ic t ion s i np ub l ic o nw e ekday s , a si nt h es t o ry t o ld o fS hmu e lh a -Qa tan ,t h eo l de rc on tempo ra ry o fR abban G am l ie l , w ho w en tb e fo r et h ea r k" a nd t h ough ta bou t ( t he b en ed i c t ion f o rh e r e t i c s ) f o rt wo a nd t h r e eh ou r s , b u t t h ey d i dn o tr emove h im ." 5 9 T ha t i st os a y , t h ey d i d n o t s t op h im f r om r e c i t ing t h ep r ay e ro n b eha l fo ft h ep ub l ic ,e v en t hough t h eh a l akha r u le st h a to ne w ho e r r si nt h eb ened ic t ion f o rh e r e t ic s " i st ob er emoved .' ° 11

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

I no u ro p in ion ,i nt h et ime o ft h eT emp le as e ven -f o ld p r ay e rw a sr e c i ted i np ubl i co nS abba th s a nd h ol iday s , t h r ee i n t roduc to ry b ened ic t ion s , t h r ee c onc lud ing b ened ic t ion s a nd as p ec ia lo ne f o r t h e S abba th o rf e s t iva l . T he se s i xb ened ic t ion s w e r e r e c i ted i np ubl i c a nd t hu s t h e i r c on t en t i so f g ene ra l r e l ig iou s s i gn i f ican ce . I nt h e c ou r s e o ft h e ir r e c i ta t ion t h ey w ou ld r e c i te t h e Q edu sha a nd c on c lud e w i th t h ep r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion . O nw eekday s , t h e i n d iv idua l w ou ld c ommenc e t h ep raye r w i th " You g r an t k now ledg e " a nd c onc lude w i th " l ie t h a t h ea r s p ray e r s .' I n t h e g en e ra t ion o f Y avne , a tt h et ime o fR abban Y ohanan b en Z ak l ca i a nd R abban G aml i e l , w i th t h e d e s t ru c t ion o f t h eT emp le a nd t h ec e s sa t ion o ft h e d a i ly s a c r if i ce i nt h eT emp l e , i . e . , t h ec e s sa t ion o fp ubl i cd a i ly w o r sh ip , t h ey b egan t op ray i np ubl i c o n w eekday s a sw el a nd t h e r e f o r e a dded t h e o p en ing a nd c onc lud ing b l e s s ing s t o t h e w eekday p r ay e r , e nd ing w i th t h e p r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion . T he Q edu sha w a s s t i l lr e c i ted o n ly o nS abba th sa nd h ol iday s , a nd c on sequen t ly t h et e x t o ft h eb l e s s ing " You a r e h o ly "r ema ined m in ima li nt h ec u s tom o fE r e tz I s ra e l . T hu s w e s e e t h a t i nt h e f i e ld o fp ubl i c p raye r , a si no the r a r ea s o fp ubl i c l i f e , t h e t e a che r s o f I s ra e l i nt h e g ene ra t ion o fY avne w e r e a b le t ot r an s f orm t h e c a ta s t rophe o ft h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e T emp le i n to as ou r ce o fc r ea t iv i ty a nd r e con s t ruc t ion i nt h e l i f eo ft h e J ew i sh p eop le . T ran s la ted b y M icha e l G la tz e r

1 2

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988 NOTES I .

P .T . , Meg i l la , Ch . 3 ,7 4a ; B .T . , Meg i l la , 2 8a -b .

2 .

T he B aby lon ian T a lmud e xpand s t h e i n te rp re ta t ion b y m eans o f " The re i sa n om is s ion . . ." a nd t he P .T . e xp la in s R . Y ehudah d if e ren t ly , b u t i n aw ay t ha t c onf l ic t s w i th t he s imp le mean ing o ft h e T osef ta , a tl e a s t t ha t o f t h e v e rs ion t ha t w e h ave . ( Cf . L i ebe rman , T osef ta K if shu ta , ( Heb rew ) a d l o c . , p . 1163) . F o r o ur p urpo se s i t makes n o d if e renc e t ha t t h e h a lakha w a s d ec ided a cco rd ing t o t h e v i ew o f R . Y ehudah , w ho a ppended a dd i t ion s t o i t . C f . M ishna , Meg i l la , 3 : 3 .

3 .

P .T . , S ukka , Ch . 5 ,5 5b ; B .T . , S ukka , 5 3a .

4 .

S im i la r ly R abbenu N i s s im r u led i n "Meg I l la t S e tar im " t ha t o ne may a nsw e r " amen " e ven i ft h e c ong rega t ion d i d n o t h ea r t h e b ened ic t ion , b ecause i tw a s ab l e ss ing o ve r t he r ead ing o ft he T o rah a nd n o t ab l es s ing o ft h e r e ad ing o ft h e S hema C o r o ne o f t h e e i gh teen b ened ic t ion s . ( 1 1qu t im m in S ef e r Meg i l la t S e tar im , ( Heb rew ) e d . S .A . P oznansk i , r ep r in t f r om HaZof el e - Hohma t I s rae l , ( Heb rew ) V I -V 1 1 [ 1 9211923 ) . C f . T osef ta K if shu ta , p p .89 1-892 . ( Heb rew ) .

5 .

C f . M i shna , B e rakho t , 4 : 7 . C f . , I b id . 5 : 4 . Ma imon ides p resen ted t he l aw s a pp ly ing t o t h e s ynagogue , wh ich s t em f r om t h e T rac ta te Meg i l la , i n c hap te r 1 o f t he l aw s o f p rayer (M i shneh T o rah ) . H is a pp roach r ef l ec t s t he p e rc ep t ion o ft h e s ynagogue t ha t w a s p redom inan t l a te r , i . e . t h e p r ima ry f unc t ion o ft h e s ynagogue i sp raye r r a the r t han r ead ing t h e T o rah o r s t udy .

6 .

Ma t thew 4 : 23 a nd p a ra l le l p a ssage s : Ma rk 1 : 39 a nd L uke 4 : 44 . Ma t thew 9 : 35 a nd a p a ra l le l p a ssage : L uke 4 : 15 . I n t h e s t o ry o ft h e h ea l ing o n t h e S abba th i n Ma t thew 1 2 :9 13 a nd Ma rk 3 : 1-5 i td oe s n o t s ay t ha t h e w a s t e ach ing a tt ha t t ime , b u t i nL uke 6 : 6 11 i ts ay s t ha t J e sus c ame t o t h e s ynagogue t o t e ach . I n Ma t thew 1 3 :54 i ti st o ld t ha t J e sus r e tu rned t oh i s t own a nd s t ud ied i n t h e s ynagogue . I n ap a ra l le l p a s sage i n Ma rk 6 : 1 i ts ay s t ha t i tw a s t h e S abba th . I n Ma rk 1 : 2 1 i ts ay s t ha t J e sus a r r ived w i th h i s d i sc ip le s a tC ape rnaum a nd h u r r ied t o t h e s ynagogue o n t h e S abba th i no rde r t o t e ach . As im i la r s t o ry may b e f ound i nJ ohn 6 : 59 . I n L uke 4 i td oe s n o t s ay t ha t h e c ame t ot h e s ynagogue t o t e ach , b u t f r om t h e c on t inua t ion o ft h e s t o ry i tw ou ld s e em t ha t i tt ook p lace i nt h e s ynagogue .

7 .

C f . i np a r t icu la r L uke 4 : 16 -28 .

8 .

Ma t thew 1 4 :23 a nd t h e p a ra l le l p a ssage i n Ma rk 6 : 46 . L uke 2 2 :4 1 .

9 .

Ma t thew 6 : 5 .

1 0 .

F o r f u r the r e xamp le s i nA c t s , c f . 1 4 : 1, 1 7 : 1-2 , 1 7 : 10 , 1 7 : 17 , 1 8 : 1-4 , 1 8 : 19 , 1 9 :8 , 2 2 : 12 ; c f . a l so 1Co r in th ians 1 4 :34 .

1 .

B ook I , 2 15 -216 . I n t h e Heb rew t r ans la t ion b y S . Dan ie l ( J e rusa lem 1 986 ) , p . 313 .

Ma t thew 2 6 :36 a nd t h e p a ra l le l p a s sage s i n Ma rk 1 4 :32 a nd

1 2 .

T ha t i si nt he T o rah , wh ich i s" na tura l l aw . "

1 3 .

s choo l .

1 4 .

T h is q uo ta t ion i st aken f r om t h e s e c t ion o f P h i lo t r ansc r ibed i n E useb ius , " P raepa ra t io E vange l i ca , " P a r t 1 ,V II 1 2 13 . I n t h e Heb rew t r ans la t ion , Dan ie l , o p .c i t . , p . 163 ( a ga in , E ng l ish t r ans la t ion p ref e r red . )

1 5 .

T he p rac t ice o fc a l l ing u p s even r eaders w a s u nknown i nt h e He l len is t ic d i a spo ra a nd a s t e s t if ied t o i nt h e T osef ta a nd t h e P .T . : " The l e Cu zo t [ s peake rs o f G reek ] d i d n o t d o s o , b u t o ne r eade r r eads t h e e n t ire p o r t ion " ( T osef ta Meg i l la 3 : 13 , P .T . 7 5a ) . C f . R abbenu Hanane l 's c ommen ta ry o n Meg i l la 2 3a a nd L i ebe rman i n T osef ta K if shu ta v o l . V( New Yo rk 1 962 ) , p p . 1179 1180 . ( Heb rew ) .

1 6 .

P a r . 1 56 . I n Heb rew t r ans la t ion , Dan ie l , o p .c i t . p . 94 . ( a ga in , E ng l ish t r ans la t ion p ref e r red ] .

1 7 .

I n D e S pe c ia l ibus L eg ibus I , 6 1 -63 ; D e S omn i l s I , 1 27 . v e -ha -Rom i t , " T e l Av iv 1 979 , p p .232 -233 ( Heb rew ) .

1 8 .

P a rs . 8 1-82 . I n H eb rew t r an s la t ion b y Menahem S te in , T e l A v iv 1 937 , p . 156 .

1 9 .

D e V i tae C ontemp la t iva , p a rs . 3 0 -31 . I n Dan ie l 's Heb rew t r ans la t ion , p . 189 . C f . a l so D e O pf ic io Mund t , p a r . 1 28 .

2 0 .

T he J ew i sh Wa r s , I , 2 85 -289 a nd V I I 4 4 ; A n t iqu i t ie s , X IX , 3 00 ; V i ta , 2 76 -277 .

2 1 .

A n t iqu i t ies , XV , 4 3 ; A ga ins tA p ion , 1 , 1 75 .

2 2 .

F i rs t p ub l i shed b y R . We i l , REK 7 1( 1920 ) , p p .30 -34 ; e x tens ive ly d i scus sed i n t h e r e sea rch l i t e ra tu re . C f . d e ta i led b ib l iog raphy i nF . Hü t tenme i s te r a nd G . R eeg , D ie A nt iken S ynagogen i nI s rae l , W iesbaden 1 977 , p p .192 195 , 5 25 ; mo s t r ec en t ly r epub l ished b y L ea Ro th -Ge r son , 1a -Ke tovo t h a -Y evan io t m i -Ba te l h aKne sse t b e -E re tz I s rae l , J e rusa lem 1 987 , p p .76 -86 . ( Heb rew ) .

2 3 .

J . Mu l le r i n h i s c ommen ta ry o n t h e T rac ta te S of e r im , L e ipz ig 1 878 , p p .181 , 1 84 ; K . Koh le r , " The O r ig in a nd C ompos i t ion o ft h e E igh teen B en ed ic t ions e t c . , " HUCA I9 1924 ) , p p .392 ,4 04 . J .H e inemann , Ha -T ef i l la b e -T equf a t h a -T anna im v e -ha Amo ra im , J e ru sa lem 1 964 , p p . 143 144 . ( II eb rew ) .

2 4 .

r he b ened ic t ion s f o r t h e h af tara a r e men t ioned i n t h e B aby lon ian T a lmud i nS habba t 2 4a a nd P e sah im 17b . T he o l des t v e rs ion t o h ave c ome d own i n i t s e n t i re ly i st ha t f ound i n T rac ta te S of e r im , h a lakha 7 13 ( e d . H igge r , p p .245 -249 ) . Ano the r s im i la r v e rs ion i s f ound i n t h e p raye rbook o f R ay . cAm ram Gaon , e d . Go ldschm id t , p p .77 -78 . C f . t h e v e rs ion i n Mahzo r V i t ry , p . I58 . My c o l league Dav id F lu s se r p o in ted o u t t o me t ha t t h ee xp re ss ion " Fa i thfu l ( ne ce man ) a r e y ou , L o rd o u r God ." i st aken f r om t he v e rse o f P sa lm 1 45 ( Ashre l ) f o r t h e l e t te r " nun " . T h i s v e rse w a s om i t t ed f r om t h e a cc ep ted v e rs ion o f t h e P sa lm a nd R abb i Yochanan p rov ided a n e xp lana t ion f o r t h e om i ss ion o f t h e l e t te r " nun " f r om " Ashrer ( rn . I 3 e rakho t 4 b ) , b u t t he l e t te r " nun" a nd i t s v e rse a r e f ound i n s ome manu sc r ip t s , i nt h e L a t in a nd S y r iac v e rs ions o f t h e S ep tuag in t a nd i nP sa lm 1 45 , wh ich s e rved a s al i t u rg ica l p sa lm i n Qum ran l i t e ra tu re ( DJD V I , p p .37 -38 ) . I n o the r w o rds , t h e b ened ic t ions r e c i ted a f te r t h e h af ta ra w e re p h ra sed w hen t h i s v e rse w a s s t i l l ap a r t o ft h e p sa lm .

1 3

C f . A . K a she r , Y ehude l M Iz ra im h a -He l l en I s t i t

A nc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

2 5 .

I n nac ta te S of e r im i ts ay s t ha t j u s t a s t he r e c i ta t ion o f t h e b ened ic t ion s a f te r t he h af ta ra b eg ins , t he c ong rega t ion r i se s a nd s ay s : " Fa i thfu l a re y ou , L o rd o ur God . . . " a nd a f te rwa rds h e w ho r e c i ted t h e h af tara r e turn s t o h i s s ub jec t a nd s ay s : " Fa i thfu l a r e y ou . . .

2 6 .

M i shna : Y oma 7 : 1; S o ta 7 : 7 .

2 7 .

C f . S o ta , I b id .

2 8 .

TB . T a ca n i t 1 2b ; Meg i l la 3 0b . C f . A l lon , Mehqar im b e -T o /do t I s rae l , I T e l A v iv ] , 1 958 , p . 125 . ( Heb rew ) .

2 9 .

C f . Ma t thew 1 2 :112 ; Ma rk 1 : 2 1, 6 : 2 : L uke 4 : 16 , 6 : 6 , 1 3 : 10 . C f . t he l if e o fJ oseph , c hs . 5 3 -54 .

3 0 .

C f . L uke 4 : 3 1 ; A c t s 1 3 :14 r ega rd ing An t ioch ia i n P s id ia ; A c t s 1 7 : 1-2 r ega rd ing T he ssa lon ica a nd 1 8 :4 r ega rd ing Co r in th . L ikew ise P h i lo w ho t e l ls o ft he p rac t ic e s o ft he E s sene s ( s ee a bove n o te 1 5 ) a nd o ft he The rap eu tae ( above n o te 1 6 ) .

3 1 .

S ee t he p rev ious n o te .

3 2 .

A n t iqu i t ie s XV , 1 64 . C f . S . Z e i t l in , JQR 4 2 ( 1 95 1-52 ) , p . 252 , n o te 3 .

3 3 .

P ayne -S m i th , T he saurus 4 97 .

3 4 .

T he i s sue i st hus e xp la ined a cco rd ing t o t he b ara l ta i n1 .7 ' . , Meg i l la 3 1b .

3 5 .

T osef ta Meg i l la , 3 : 10 ; R .T . , Meg i l la 3 1b ; PT . , Meg i l la Ch . 3 ,7 4c . I n P .T . b o th o p in ions a r e a t t r ibu ted t o R . Z i ra _

3 6 .

B .7 ' . Meg i l la 3 1b , a cco rd ing t o R . Z ira .

3 7 .

1 0 :2 , e d . I igge r , p . 2 10 .

3 8 .

T h i s i st he r ec en s ion i n Ms . E rf u r t a nd t ha t c op ied i nR ab iyah , I , # 849 , p . 596 . T h is v e rs ion a ppea r s t o b e t h e mo re g enu ine a nd s u i t s t h e w o rd ing o ft he B aby lon ian 7 ' a lmud (Meg i l la , 1 0a ) , r ega rd ing i n d iv idua ls w ho f a s t o n Monday s a nd T hu rsday s . And a s w e s ha l l s e e b e low t he se f a s ts w e re p rac t ic es w i thou t c o rre la t ion t o t he p ray e r f o r r a in . C f . L iebe r man , T osef ta K if shu ta , p p . 1082 1083 ( Heb rew ) .

3 9 .

Mekh i l ta d e R abb i l s hma Masekhe t d e V ay i sa , s e c t ion 1 ,1 .1 54 ; Mekh i l ta d e R aShbl , p . 103 ; B aba Q ama , 8 2a ; M id rash v el izh i r o n E xodus , 2 1b ; P e s iq ta Z u t ra ta 5 1a .

4 0 .

PT . , Meg i l la Ch . 4 , 7 5a ; T rac ta te S of e r im 1 0 : 1, 2 09 2 10 . H igger , I b id . , n o t e t o l i ne s 6 -9 .

4 1 .

C f . e nd o f b ara i ta a ppended t o Meg i l la t T a ca ra t . T he v e rs ion g iven h e re i sb a sed o n t h e e d i t ion o f Man tua 1 514 . C f . e d . N eubaue r , p . 24 .

4 2 .

H ee res . 1 5 , 1 . C f . A l lon , Mehqar lm b er o l edo t I s rae l , Vo l . I , T e l A v iv 1 958 , p p . 120 127 . ( Heb rew ) .

4 3 .

T rac ta te S of e r im , Ch . 2 1 , h a lakha 1 ,3 54 .

4 4 .

R osh Hashana , 3 1b ; S o ta 4 0a , C f . S . S a f ra i , " New A spec t s o f t he Ques t ion o f t he P o s i t ion a nd A ch ievemen t s o f R abban Yohanan b en Z akka i a f te r t he D e s t ruc t ion , " ( i n Il eb rew ) G eda l ia A l ton Memo r ia l V o lume ( e d . M . Do rman , S .S a f ra i , a nd M . S te rn ) , T e l A v iv 1 970 , p . 2 12 a nd n o te 7 0 o n p . 223 .

4 5 .

B en S i ra 5 0 : 2 9 -30 ; M i shna , 7 ' am id 7 : 2 ; S if re , S hem in ! , c h . 1 ( 4 5c ) o n L ev i t icus 9 : 22 ( "And A a ron r a is ed h i s h and o ve r t he p eop le a nd b l es sed t h em a nd h e d esc ended f r om mak ing t h e s i n -of f e r ing a nd t he b u rn t of e r ing a nd t he c omp le t ion o f f e r ing s ) -t h e m id rash g ive s t he f o l low ing i n te rp re ta t ion : " Th is v e rse i sd i s jo in ted ; i fn o t i tw ou ld h ave b een b e t te r t o s ay ' a nd h e d esc ended f r om mak ing t he s i n -of f e r ing . . . a nd A a ron r a ised h i s h and o ve r t h e p eop le a nd b l es sed t hem ' , " ( t he a dd i t ion i sb a sed o n Ms . Rome A s sman i , 6 6 , e d . F inke ls te in , p . 192 ) . F o r a mo re d e ta i led r ec ens ion , c f . M id rash h a -Gado l o n L ev i t icus ( e d . S te insa l tz ) , p . 216 . R ega rd ing t he d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e o rde r o f T emp le w o rsh ip a c co rd ing t o B en S i ra a nd i n T anna i t ic t r ad i t ion , c f . L ev i G inzburg , P er ush im v e -H idush im b i -Ye ru sha lm i , I I ( New Yo rk 1 94 1) , p .79 , a nd n o te 5 5 t he re ; S .S a f ra i , L e -To ledo t B a i t S hen i , J e rusa lem , Mehqa re l E re tz I s rae l 1 1V , J e rusa lem 1 955 , p p .35-4 1 . ( Heb rew ) .

4 6 .

F o r t h i s t e rm a s u sed b y Amo ra im , C f .B .T . B e rakho t , 2 9b , Meg i l la 1 8a ( Cf . a l so PT , B e rakho t Ch . 2 , 5 a ) , S o ta 3 8a . F or t he u se o ft he t e rm b yT anna im , C f . M i shna R osh Hashana , 4 : 5 , T am id 5 : 1 a nd S if re , Emo r , C h .11 ( 10 1d ) .

4 7 .

E v iden t ly t h is e xp la ins h ow i tc ame t o b e t ha t i n t he a f te rnoon a nd e v en ing s e rv ic e s , w hen t he re i sn o p r ies t ly b ened ic t ion , t he re i s as ho r tened v e rs ion o f t h e p raye r " Sha lom R ay " ( g rea t p eace ) , d eve loped , k nown p r ima r i ly f r om A shkenaz i s ou rc es . T he o pen ing " g rea t p eac e " s t ands o n i t s o wn a nd i sn o t ar e sponse t o t he l a s t w o rds o f t h e p r ies t ly b ened ic t ion " and g ran t t he m p eace , " w h i le t h e e xp re ss ion " g ran t p eac e , " w h ich o pens t he l o nge r v e rs ion , c l ea r ly i s . C f . S iddur R ay cAmram G aon ( e d . Go ld schm id t ) , p . 50 . C f . t he l i t e ra tu re l i s ted i n Y .M . M ogen , Ha -T ef i l la b e -I s rae lT e l Av iv 1 972 , p . 396 , n o te 5 6 . ( Heb rew ) .

4 8 .

C f . J o seph He inemann , Ha -7 ' e f i l la b i -T equf a t h a -T anna im , J e rusa lem 1 964 , p p .17-47 . ( Heb rew ) .

4 9 .

BT . , B e rakho t 2 8b ; Meg i l la 1 7b .

5 0 .

S ee p a r t ia l l i s t o f t h e l i t e ra tu re i nG . A l lon , T o ledo t h a Y ehud im b e -E re tz I s rae l e t c . , I ,T e l A v iv 1 954 , p . 166 , n o te 2 02 . ( Heb rew ) . A mo re u p to -da te l i s t may b e f ound i n E lbogen , o p .c i t . , p . 185 a nd c f . mo re r e c en t ly Naom i Cohen , " Sh im c ( ) r i h a -Pequ l i A rranged E igh teen B ened ic t ions " ( i n H eb rew ) , T arb iz 5 2 ( 1983) , p p .547 -555 .

5 1 .

B .T . Meg i l la 1 7b . I n t he a cc ep ted r ecens ion : " Rabb i Yohanan s a id , ( o the rs r epo r t i tw a s s t a ted i n aB a ra i ta ) : A h und red a nd t wen ty e l de rs e t c ." Howeve r i n mo s t o ft he mo re r e l iab le v e rs ions : " Rabb i Y irm iya s a id a nd s ome s ay R abb i l i tyya b a r Abba . . . " T h is t r ad i t ion a ppea rs i n S if re o n D eu te ronomy , 1 343 , 3 95 , w h ich r ead s : 'Wh ich t he e a r ly p rophe t s o rda ined . " C f . a l so R .T . , B e rakho t 3 36 a nd P .T . B e rakho t , c h .2 , 4 d .

5 2 .

T h is p a ssage i sl a ck ing i n s ome manu sc r ip t s ( D iqduqe i h a -Sof e r im f a i ls t o p o in t o u t t h is om is s ion ) . 1 34 .

1 4

F o r t h e m en t ion o f t h is p a ssage i n l a te r s ou rce s , c f .

a nd V a t ican

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

5 3 .

T he mos t c omp le te l i s t o f b ened ic t ions i st ha t i n t h e H eb rew v e rs ion o f B en S t ra ( on ly i nt he v e rs ion f ound i nt he C a i ro Gen iza a nd n o t i n t h e a nc ien t t r ans la t ions ) 5 1 : 12 : " P ra ise t o t he r edeeme r o f I s rae l . . . P ra ise t o H im t ha t g a the rs t he d i spe rsed o f I s rae l . . . P ra i se t o H im t ha t b u i lds h i s c i ty a nd h i s s anc tua ry . . . P ra ise t o H im t ha t c hooses t h e c h i ld ren o f Z adok a s p r ies t s e t c . Undoub ted ly t h e re i s ac onnec t ion h e re w i th t he e i gh teen b ened ic t ions o r p a r t o f t h em , b u t t he n umbe r o f p raye rs , t h e i r p hra s ing , a nd t he ir o rder a r e v a s t ly d if e ren t f r om t he e i gh teen b ened ic t ions wh ich s u rv ived i nu se .

5 4 .

T o sef ta R osh h a -Shana , 2 : 17 .

5 5 .

I n t h e manusc r ip t s : "May y ou h ave s a t isf ac t ion , " i . e . , t h ey p ra ised h im .

5 6 .

C f . Hodayo t p . 14 , 1 . 8 : " I w i l l t hank y ou , 0 L o rd , w ho g ive s t h e h ea r t o f y our s e rvan t u nde rs tand ing ; " p . 7 , 1 . 6 : " I w i l l t hank y ou , 0 L o rd , f o r y ou h ave s uppo r ted m e w i th y ou r s t reng th a nd b rea thed y ou r h o ly s p i r i t i n to m e ; " 1 0 , 1 . 14 : " B lessed a re y ou , 0 L o rd , m e rc ifu l a nd mo s t g rac iou s God , t ha t y ou h ave made me a wa re o fy ou r i n te l l igenc e , " a nd many o the r e xamp les .

5 7 .

T he p ove r ty o ft h i s b l es s ing s t ands o u t b y c ompa r ison t o t h e c on ten t a nd f o rm o f a l t he o the rs i nt he ei lm idah . Dav id F lus se r p o in ted o u t t h is f a c t t o m e .

5 8 .

T rac ta te S of e r im , 2 0 :5 , p . 345 . They a l so a dded t h e s ay ing o f t he q edusha o n Il anukka a nd o the r d ay s o n wh ich t h e re i sa n a dd i t iona l s e rv ic e . R ega rd ing t h e c onf l ic t s b e twe en t he c us toms o f E re tz I s ra e l a nd B aby lon ia a bou t t he s ay ing o f t h e q edusha , c f . G inze l S che ch te r I , p . 555 -556 , a nd G inzburg , o p .c i t . , p p .523 -526 . C f . A . J e l l inek , B e t h a -M id rash , I led e r8 , V ienna 1 887 , p . 162 .

5 9 .

B .T . , B e rakho t 2 8b -29a a nd , i na bb rev ia ted f o rm , P .7 ' . B e rakho t , c h .5 , 9 c .

6 0 .

C f . M i shna , B e rakho t , 5 : 3 a nd BT . , B e rakho t 2 9a .

1 5

A nc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

I . NE W D ISCOVER IES I N SYNAGOGUE EXCAVAT IONS AND RESEARCH

THE S YNAGOGUE OF HURVAT SU MAQA S h imon D ar -J ohanan M in tzker

I s ra e l D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t i e s a nd Mu s eum s S umaqa w a s aJ ew i sh t own le ti nt h ep e r iod o ft h e M i shnah a nd t h eT a lmud ,l o ca ted o n Moun t C a rm e l , 2 1 / 2 k i lom e t r e s s ou th o fD a lya t e lC a rme l , a nd f i v e k i lome t r e s w e s t o ft h e h i ghe s t p o in t i nt h e Moun t C a rme lr a ng e , k nown a st h e Mah raqah ( f i g .! ) . F i r s t E xp lo ra t ion s T h e f i r s t s c ien t if i c d e sc r ip t ion o f H u r va t S umaqa w a s t h a t o ft h e B r i t i sh S urv ey o f We s ter n P a l e s t in e , ' a c co rd ing t ow ho se a c coun tt h es i t ew a si mpor tan ta nd h ad n ume rou ss t ruc tu r e sa mong w h ich t h e mo s t p rom inen tw e r et h er ema in so fa n i mp r e s s ive b u i ld ing i d en t if i ed b yt h e s u rv eyo r s a st h e s ynagogue o ft h e t own le t . T he B r i t i sh s u rv eyo r s s ugg e s ted , o n t h e s t r eng th o ft h e v i s ib le f a cad e a nd a r ch i t ec tu ra l d e ta i l s w h ich h av e s i nce d i sapp ea r ed , t h a t t h e b u i ld ing w a s as ynagogue o ft h et y pe t ob e s e en a tB a r eam a nd Me ron 2. O the r s u rv eyo r s a nd s c ho la r s v i s i ted S umaqa a tt h ee nd o ft h e 1 9 th a nd b eg inn ing o ft h e 2 0 th c en tu ry ; a mong t h em w e r e t h e F r en chman , V ic to r G ue r in ;3 t h e E ng l i shman , S i r L aw r enc e O l iphant4 a nd t h e G e rman , G ra fv on Mül inen 5. I n 1 9 05 , e x cava t ion s o ft h e s ynagogue w e r e c a r r ied o u t b y t h e G e rman s c ho la r s , K oh l a nd Wa tz ing e r , w ho a l so s ugg e s ted a r e s to ra t ion o f i t s f o rm a nd m ea su r emen t s .6 T h e i r e x cava t ion s e em s t oh av e b een r e s t r ic ted a nd o fs ma l l e x ten t , h ence t h e i r r e s to ra t ion w a s b a s ed o n a na log ie s d r awn f r om t h e G a l i lean s ynagogue sw i th w h ich t h ey w e r e f am i l ia r . T he a r ea r ound S umaqa w a s s u rvey ed a s p a r t o ft h e w o rk o f t h e A r cha eo log ica l S ur vey o f I s ra e l ;t h e s u rvey w a sc a r r ied o u tb yt h e n or ther nt e am h eaded b y Y a caqov c O lam i . ( Th i s s u rvey h a sn o ty e tb een p ubl i shed ) . E x cava t ion s w e r e c onduc ted f r om 1 9 83 1988 u nde rt h e a u sp ice s o ft h e L and o fI s ra e l S tud ie s D epa r tm en t o f B a r I l an U n iv e r s i ty , w i th t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f t h e C anne l F i e ld S choo l o f t h e S oc i e ty f o r t h e P ro tec t ion o f N a tu r e . T h i s w o rk w a s d i r ec ted b y D r . S h imon D a r , w i th t h e a s s i s tan ce o f A z r ie l S i eg e lmann . D r . J ohanan M in tzke r w a s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e s t udy o f t h e a r ch i tec tu r e o ft h e s ynagogue . T h i s s t udy w a s s uppo r ted i np a r t b y t h e D r . I r v ing a nd C he rna Mo skow i tz C ha i ri nL and o fI s ra e l S t ud ie s . T he I d en t if ica t ion o ft h eS i te . S umaqa , o r S umaq i nA rama ic , i s ab u sh t oday k nown a s' t anne r s ' o g ' ( Rhu s c o r ia r ia ) u s ed a s ab a se f o rc ond imen t s , m ed ic ine sa nd t a nn ing .7 S eve ra l s c ho la r sa r em en t ioned i nT a lmud ic l i t e ra tu r ew ho b o r et h en ame o fS umaq o r an ame d e r ived f r om i t . H i l f i b en S amqa i i sr e f e r r ed t o i n G en . R . , 5 1 , 2 :R . T i copa o f S umaqa f i nd s m en t ion i nP .D ema i , I I , h a lakha a nd R . A bba S amuqa i nJ e r . , B e r . , I X , h a l . 1 . S .K le in t hough t t h a t s ome o ft h e a bov e s c ho la r s o r ig ina ted f r om t h e t own le t o fS umaqa o n t h e C ann e 1 .8 T he e xca va t ion so f1 983 -1988 : ap r e l im ina ry r e po r t T h e a r cha eo log ica l p robe s o f K oh l a nd Wa tz ing e r w e r e n o t c onc lu s ive , a nd t h e mo r e w e s t ud ied t h es i t ew ef e l tt h a tt h e i rp l an w a sb a sed o nt oo m any u np roved h ypo the se s . We e s t ima ted a sw el t ha t s c ien t if i c e x cava t ion w ou ld b e al o ng p roce s s . F i ve s e a son sw i th o n ly a bou to ne t h i rd o ft h e s ynagogue e x cava ted r e vea led t h a t w e h ad n o t u nde r e s t ima ted o u r t a sk : t h e s ynagogue w a s b u i l t o n t h e s ou ther n s l op e o f ah i l l , p ha s e s o f d e s t ruc t ion a nd r e con s truc t ion b u i l t u p a t opog raphy wh ich w a s mo r e t han 3m e te r s h i ghe r i nt h e n o r th t han t h e p r e sumed o r ig ina l f l oo r , w h e r ea si nt h e s ou th w ef ound t h a tw eh ad t od i gd own t oa bou t 2 . 5m b e low t h i s s ame l e ve l . We f ound t h a t t h e r ew e r ef i ve p ha se so fo ccupa t ion o ft h e s i t e . I nt h i sp ap e rw e s ha l ld e sc r ibe t h e e x i s t ing s t ag e o fi n f orma t ion i np ha s e s Va nd I V ( t he l a t e r p ha se s : I I , Ia nd Ih ave n o th ing 1 7

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

t o d o w i th t h e s y nagogue ) , a nd w e s h a l l p ropo se h ypo the t ica l r e con s t ruc t ion s w h ich s um u p t h e p r e s en t s t ag eo fo u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e monumen t . D e sc r ip t ion o ft h ee xca va t ion s We s t a r ted t oe x cava te i nt h eE a s t , a l ong t h e e a s ter nf r on t . We c on t inued i nt h e S ou th , w he r e w e f ound t h e f ounda t ion o ft h e s ou ther nw a l l ( f i g s .2 -5 ) , a nd , l a s t s e a son , w e s t a r ted t oi n v e s t iga te t h ew e s ter np a r to ft h e s ynagogue . Ap l a s te r ed , l e v e led f l oo r s t r e tche s f r om L 16 t h rough L 156 t o L 163 . I nt h e N or th t h e p l a s te r o ft h e f l oo r c l imb s u p t oc ov e r W10 ( t he " b ench " ) a nd t h e l ow e r p a r t o f W6 . I nt h e E a s ti tf m i she sa ga in s t WI . I nt h e S ou th i tf i n i she s i n as t r a igh t l i ne a ga in s t a s uppo sed w al ( W 11 ) . I nt h e We s t i td oe sn o t p a s s W16 , W4 , a nd W3 . T he f l oo r c on s i s t s o ft h r ee p a r t s : 1 )s t one s o l ing , 2 )r ammed l i me w i th e ven ly c r u shed s t one s a bou t 2 0cm . t h ick a nd 3 ) ah a rd l i me p l a s te rf i n i sh a bou t 8 6mm t h i ck . We d o n o t y e t k now w he the r i tc ov e r s a ny e a rl i e r p ha se s o fc on s t ruc t ion , s u ch a ss t y loba te s a nd c o lumn f ounda t ion s . N e i the rh av ew ea r r iv ed a t af i na lc onc lu s ion a bou tt h er e la t ion b e tween t h e f l oo r a nd t h e f i v e g r oov ed c o lumn s w h ich r ema in s t and ing . T he n or the rn p ar t o ft h e f r on t e l eva t ion ( W 1 ) h a s s u r v ived c ompa ra t iv e ly w e l l . I ti sc on s t ruc ted o f l a rg e a sh la r s t on e s w i th c ombed -ch i s e l d r e s s ing , b u i l t w i th v e ry f i ne j o in t s ( w i thou t mor ta r ) . I nt h e i n te r io r i tw a s mo s t p robab ly p l a s te r ed . T he ma in e n t ran ce a nd a n o r ther n d oo r a r e a lmo s t c omp le te ly p r e se rv ed ( m i s s ing p a r t s c ou ld b e r e con s truc ted f r om t h e SWP d e sc r ip t ion ) . T he n o r the rn j amb o f t h e s ou ther n d oo r w a s n o t f ound i ns i tu . T he s ou ther n p a r t o f t h e w a l l i sc omp le te ly m i s s ing . I t s hou ld b en o ted t h a tt h el owe rp a r to f WI i nt h e N or th -Ea s t i sd r e s sed b ed rock . T he a r ea i nf r on t o ft h ew a l l( L 15 1 ) s e em st ob eu nf in i shed . A nu n lev e led r o ck f l oo rs l op e st owa rd s W 1t ot h eE a s t . W6 i sc ompo sed o f many a r ch i tec tu ra l f r agmen t s w h ich w e r e i ns e condary u se ; i ti sb u i l ta ga in s t t h e n or th er nj amb o ft h e n or ther nd oo ra nd f i n i shed w i th an ew d oo r j amb . T h i s s how s c l ea r ly t h a t t h i s w a s aw a l l w h ich w a s b u i l t w h en t h e o r ig ina l b u i ld ing w a s a l te r ed . T he i n ne re l eva t ion o ft h ew a l lw a sp l a s te r ed , a sw a sb ench W10 b u i l t a ga in s ti t . B eh ind W6 , a tL 152 w ef o und av e ry h a rd m ix tu r e o fs t on e s , m any o ft h em a r ch i tec tu ra l f r agmen t s , w i th l i me c onc r e te . I nt h e n or th , t h i sc onc r e te f i l l ing f in i sh e sa ta na r t if i c ia lt e r race o ft h eb ed rock . T he t e r race i sa bou t 1 2 5 cm h i gh a nd , s i nce i ti sn o t c omp le te ly s moo th , s e em st ou st oh av e b een l e f tu n f in i shed . A s l op ed p l a s te r r e ve temen t h e lp s u s r e con s t ruc t W5 , aw a l l w h ich w a s b u i l t o n t h i s r o ck te r ra ce . N one o fi t sw a l lh a sy e tb een f ound i ns i tu ; t h e s t one s f ound i nL 11 a r e d r e s s ed i na d if e r en t ly f r om W 1 ,a nd i ti sp o s s ib l e t h a t t h ey b e long t o al a te r s t ag e o fc on s truc t ion . We d i d n o t f i nd a ny t r a ce s o fc on s t ruc t ion i nt h e S ou th . I tw a s ah a rd d ec i s ion t o c on t inue d own t h e e x cava t ion i nL 158 a nd L 15 , b u t i tw a s w or th i t : w e d i s cove r ed i nb o th l o c i t h e f i r s t c ou r s e o f b eau t i fu la s h la rs t on e s , d r e s s ed i nt h e s ame w ay a st ho se i n WI , b u i l ti n to af ounda t ion t r en ch c u t i nt h e b ed r o ck . T he n am e w e g ave t ot h i s s ou the rn w a l l i s W9 . O n t h e n or ther n p a r t o ft h i s s ou th er n w al , r i gh t o n as l op ing b ed r o ck , w a s f ound ab i g a c cumu la t ion o f s t one s , w i th m any a r ch i tec tu ra l m embe r s . We b e l ieve t h a t t h e s e a r e t h e f ounda t ion s t one s o ft h e n on -ex i s ten t w a l l w h ich h a sn o tb een d i s cov e r ed ? Many s u rp r i s e s a wa i ted u s i nt h e We s t , w he r e w e f ound u n f in i shed s t ag e s o fc on s t ruc t ion o f W15 ( f i g s .6 ,7 ) : A t L 157 t h eb ed rock w a st e r rac ed i np r epa ra t ion f o rt h e f o unda t ion s t one sw h ich h ad b een l a id , a nd i nL 17 1 w ef ound t wo c ou r se s o fs t one s , t h e s ou ther np a r t o fw h ich w a s n eve r c on t inu ed , a nd t h en or ther np a r t w h i ch w a s b u i l t i n s ide an a tu ra l c av i ty i nt h e r o ck . R econs t ruc t ion o fp ha s e s Va nd I V T h e p o ten t ia l r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e s ynagogue i sb a s ed o n as yn the s i s o f t h r ee m a jo r c omponen t s : 1 .Ana ly s i so ft h ea r cha eo log ica le v idence . 2 .A f u l li n ven to ry o fa r ch i t ec tu ra la nd or namen ta lf r agmen t s a nd d eb r i s . 3 .S tudy o ft h em e t ro log ica l s y s tem . N o t ing d own d i f f e r en tm ea su r emen t s , w e w e r e s t ruck b y t wo ma jo rp henomena : 1 . Mea su r emen t sw h i ch o ccu ro v e ra nd o v e ra ga in . 2 .S imp l e a r ch i tec tu ra l r e la t ion s b e tw e en d if e r en t m ea su r em en t s , s u ch a s t h e p ropor t ion o f 4 : 3 b e tw een t h e i nn e r m ea su r em en t s o f W9 a nd W11 . We s ha l l n o t d i scu s s i n t h i s p ap e r t h e m e thodo logy o ft r y ing t od i scove rt h e f o o t o rc ub i t u s ed b y t h e b u i lde r s o ft h e s ynagogue . A f te r much s t udy w e b el i eve t ha t t h i s m ea su r e w a s ap ou s 2 87mm l o ng d i v ided i n to 1 6d ak ty l o i . T he 1 8

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

i nn e r w id th i s4 8 p ow l o ng , a nd i t s l e ng th i s6 4 p ow l o ng . W i th t h i s m ea su r e i nh and i tw a s p o s s ib le t ou nde r s tand t h e s ubd iv i s ion si np ha s e Va nd t wo i n te r co lumna rm ea su r e s . W16 a nd W12 b e long t op ha s e Va nd g av eu s ah i n tr e ga rd ing t h em a jo rd i v i s ion o ft h ec en t ra l h a l l . A na ly s i s o f many f r agmen t s a nd d eb r i s o fc o lumn s h e lped u s t o d i s cov e r t h a t t wo s e t s o f c o lumn so ft h e I on ic o rde re x i s t ed i nt h e s ynagogue , i d en t ica l i ns t y le b u t d i f f e r en t i ns i z e . I no u r r e con s t ruc t ion , i ti ss ugg e s ted t h a t t h e l a rg e rc o lumn s w e r e i n s ide t h e s y nagogue , a nd t h e s ma l le r i n ap o r t ico . T h e s umm ing u po fa l t h e a bov e -men t ioned d a ta i si no u rp ropo sa l o ft h e p l an o f p ha se V ( f i g .8 ) . We w e r e l u cky e nough t o f i nd s om e a r ch i tec tu ra l f r agmen t s w h ich h e lp ed u s s ugg e s t a h ypo th e t i ca l r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e f r on t e l eva t ion ( f i g .9 ) : l i n te l s o fd oo r s , ac onch w h ich g ave u s t h eh ead a ng le o ft h eg ab le , s e v e ra lt yp e so fc o rn iche s , a nd f r agmen t so f at h r ee d imen s iona l s t a tue o fa ne ag l e wh ich m igh th av e s t ood a bove t h el i n te l o ft h e ma in d oorway . I nt h ep re sen ts t ag eo fo u rr e s ea r ch w eb e l ieve t h a tt h eb u i ld ing o fP ha s e Vh ad ab a s i l ica !p l an , t ha t i t sw e s te rn w a l l h ad t oc on f o rm t oa n e x i s t ing s i tua t ion a nd w a s t h e r e f o r e n o t p erp end icu la r t ot h e s i de w a l l s , a nd t ha tt h e s y nagogue a dap ted i t s e l ft ot h e d i f icu l t t opog raphy b yq ua r ry ing i n t h e N o r th a nd f i l l ing i nt h e S ou th . Many p uzz l ing p o in t sf o r ced u st oa dm i t ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h eb u i ld ing o ft h es ynagogue s t a r ted a tt h eE a s tw i th t h e f r on t f a cad e a nd t ha t f o r s ome r e a son i tc e a sed b e f o r e t h e w ho le p ro jec t w a s r e a l i z ed : 1 N o p avemen t w a s f ound . I ti sp robab le t h a t t h e s o l ing o ft h e " p la s te rf l oo r " w h ich i sa bou t 3 0 cm b e low t h et h r e sho ld so ft h e d oo r si sa c tua l ly af ounda t ion f o rt h i s p avemen t . 2 . S om eo ft h eo rnamen t sa r ec l ea r ly u nf in i shed . 3 . T h e a r ea i nf r on t o ft h e s y nagogue w a s n ev e r s moo thed d own a nd n o p avemen t o fP ha se V w a sf ound t h e r e . 4 . T h et e r raced r o ck i nL ll , w h ich s e rv e s a st h e l owe rp a r t o f W5 , i sn o t s moo th ly f i n i shed . 5 . T h e r ea r en o s i gn so fw ea ro ro fa nu pp e rc ou r se o nt h es t one so f W9 ,b o th i nL 157 a nd L 158 . .6 . T he p l a s te r ed f l oo r , w i th i t ss t one s sol ing d oe s n o t r e a ch W9 . 7 . B o th i nL 157 a nd L 158 , n o r th o n W9 af ounda t ion o f aw a l l( W 11 )d i r ec t ly o nt h eu nwo rk ed b ed rock w a sf ound ; t h i si n co rpo ra te s many b roken s t one so fP ha s e V . N o s i gn o ff i l l ing f r om P ha s e Vw a sf ound i nt h e s e l o c i . W15 w a sn eve rf i n i shed . I nL 157 w ef ound t e r race sc u ti nt h er o ck w h ich w e r ep robab ly p r epa r ed a sf o o t ing s f o rt h e u nbu i l t w a l l , a nd i nL 17 1 ap a r t o ft h i s w a l l w a s f o und b u i l t i n ac av i ty i nt h e r o ck . I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h i sp a r t o ft h e w al w a sl e f ta s as t a r t ing p o in t o ft h e b u i ld ing o p e ra t ion . O nt h e b a s i s o fp o t te ry , c o in f i nd s , a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l a na ly s i s , t h e r e i s ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a t p ha se Vb e long s t o t h e 3 r d c en tu ry C .E . A r ch i tec tu ra l a nd s t yl i s t i c p a ra l l e l s r e la te i tt o t h e G a li l ean s ynagogue so ft h eo l d e rc onv en t ion r e p r e sen ted b y B a r cam , Me ron , H i rb e t S hema 2,Gu sh H a lav a nd K ho raz in9. T he s ynagogue s i t e y i e lded an umb e r o fc i ty c o in s o ft h e 3 r d c en tu ry C .E . , a nd s e v e ra l f r agmen t s o fe a s ter n T e r ra S i g ila ta ; a l so t h e n oz z le o fa n ' He rod ian ' l amp . T he s e f i nd s s ug g e s tt ha tt h e r eh ad b e en s e t t l emen to nt h es i t e o ft h e s ynagogue i nt h ef i r s ta nd s e cond c en tu r ie s o ft h ep r e sen te r a . T he f i r s tb u i ld ing h ad p robab ly b e en d el ibe ra te ly d e s t royed i nt h ec ou r s eo ft h e f ou r th o re a r ly f i f th c en tu ry C .E . T h er e a son sf o rt h ed e s t ru c t ion c ou ld b ep ol i t ica lp e r secu t ion b yt h e C h r i s t ian B yz an t ine r u le r s a ga in s t t h e J ew i sh c ommun i t i e s i nP a le s t ine"),o rt h e S ama r i tan r e vo l t s w h ich s p r ead e v en t ot h e v i c in i ty o f Moun t C a rme 11 . P ha s eI V ( f ig s . 1 0 ,11 ) Many t i l e f r agm en t s p rov e t h a t i nt h i s p ha se t h e b u i ld ing w a s r oo f ed . Wa l l s W6 a nd W11 n a r rowed t h e o r ig ina l p l an . F o rt h e s ma l le rh a l l t h e r e w a s n o n e ed o fs uppo r t ing c o lumn s . T he s t on e su sed a r ee i the rr e -u sed f r om P ha s e Vo rs ma l le ro ne s , d r af t ed i n ad if e r en t w ay f r om t ho se o ft h e e a r l ie r s t ruc tu r e a nd b u i l t w i th n o s p ec ia l a t t en t ion t o as moo th f i n i sh o ft h e j o in t s . T he i n n e rw a l l s w e r e p l a s te r ed a nd t h e r e w e r e b enche s a l ong t h e w a l l s . We b el i eve t h a t , a tt h i s s t ag e , am enorah w a ss c ra tched o no ne o ft h ef r on t s t one s ( f i g s . 1 2 ,13 )1 2 .B e twe en t h e s t one p av ing s l ab s i nl o cu s 1 5 1 ah oa rd o fs i x i n te r fu sed c o in s w a s f ound 1 3 .T he e a r l ie s t c o in w a s o ne o fJ u s t in I ( 5 65 -578 C .E . ) a nd t h e l a te s t o f H e ra cl iu s ( 6 10 -64 1 C .E . ) , m in ted i nN icomed ia i n6 18 /6 19 C .E . I tm ay b e c on je c tu r ed t h a t P ha s e I Vo ft h eb u i ld ing w a s c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e h oa rd . 1 9

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

Many p rob lem s h ave s t i l l t ob e s o lved i no rde r t ou nd e r s tand t h e s ynagogue a nd i t s d if e r en t s t ag e s . F u r th e r e x cava t ion s w i l l p e rhap s h e lp u s s o lv e s ome o f t h em : t o f i nd o u t t h e r e la t ion s b e tw een t h e b u i ld ing a nd i t s i mm ed ia te e nv i ronmen t a nd p l ung e u s i n to n ew , u nknown ma te r ia l w h ich m igh ta dd n ew i n f o rma t ion o nt h eS ynagogue o fH ur va tS umaqa i np a r t icu la ra nd t h es t udy o fa nc ien t s ynagogue si ng ene ra l .

NOTES 1 .

C .R . Conde r -H .H . K i tchene r , T he S ur vey o f We s te rn P a l es t ine , V o l . 1( London 1 88 1) p p .318 -320 .

2 .

E ncyc loped ia o fA rchaeo log i ca l E xcava t ions i n t h e Hob, L and , M . A v i -Yonah a nd E . S te rn ( e ds . ) V o l .3 , J e rusa lem 1 977 , S .V . K fa r B i r cam , p p .704 -707 ; Me i ron , p p .856 -862 .

3 .

M .V . Guk r in , D e s c r ip t ion d e l aP a l e s t ine , S amar ie 2 ,( Pa r is 1 875 ) p p .207 -208 ( Heb rew e d . ) .

4 .

L . O l iphan t , Ha if a , o r L if e i n Mod e rn P a l e s t ine , ( London 1 887 ) p p .55 -56 ( Heb rew e d . ) .

5 .

M i l l inen G ra fV on , B e i t rage Z ur K enn tn i s d e s Ka rme ls , ZDPV , 3 1 ( 1 908 ) p p .157 160

6 .

H . Koh l -C . Wa tz inge r , A n t ike S ynagogen i n G a l i l e e : ( L e ipz ig 1 9 16 ) , p p . 145 147 .

7 .

D . Ge ra , I EJ , Vo l . 3 5 Num . 2 3 ( 1 985 ) p . 161 .

8 .

S . K le in , G a l i l ee ( J e ru sa lem 1 967 ) , p . 129 ( Heb rew ) .

9 .

G . F oe rs t e r , " A B a s i l ica P lan a s aCh rono log ica l C r i te r ion i n S yngagogues " , S ynagogues i n An t iqu i ty , A . Ka she r e ta l( e d s . ) ( J e rusa lem 1 987 ) p p . 173 179 ( Heb rew ) .

1 0 .

G . F oe rs te r , " The S ynagogues i n Ga l i lee " , T he L and s o f G a l i l ee , V o l . I .A . S hemue l i e t a l ( e d s . ) , ( Ha ifa 1 983) p p .231-256 ( Heb rew ) .

1 .

M . Av i -Yonah , " The S ama r i tan R evo l t s a ga in s t t he B yzan t ine Emp ire " , E re tz -I s rae l , Vo l .4 ( J e ru sa lem 1 956 ) p p . 127 132 ( Heb rew ) . J .B en -Zv i , T he B ook o ft h e S ama r i tans , R ev . e d . ( J e rusa lem 1 970 ) p p .97 -98 ( Heb rew ) .

1 2 .

S . Da r , " The S ynagogue a tH i rb e t S umaqa o n Mt . Ca rme l " , i b id . , ( No .9 , p p .2 13 -230 ) .

1 3 .

A . K ind le r , T he Cu ra to r o ft h e Num isma t ic P av i l ion o f t h e T e l Av iv Museum , k ind ly p rov ided t h i s i n fo rma t ion .

L IST OF F IGURE S F ig . 1 F ig .2 F ig .3 F ig .4 F ig .5 F ig .6 F ig .7

H . H . H . H . H . H . H .

S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa ,

F ig .8 F ig .9 F ig .10 F ig .11 F ig .12 F ig .13 F ig .14

H . H . H . H . H . H . H .

S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa , S umaqa ,

L oca t ion map . P ha se s Va nd I V o fS ynagogue e xcava ted a r ea . S ynagogue . P ha ses V a nd I V , c ha rac te r i s t ic s e c t ion s . T he e a s t f r on t o ft h e S ynagogue . T he n o r the rn p a r t o ft h e S ynagogue , L oc i 1 52 , 1 5 , 1 5 1, f r om We s t t o E a s t . L ocu s 1 58 . T he f ounda t ion t r ench a nd t he f i rs t c ou r se o ft h e o r ig ina l W9 , P ha se V . L ocu s 1 57 . F ron t , t h e f i r s t c ourse o ft he s t ones o f W9 . I n t h e u ppe r p a r t W16 , a nd t h e p l a s te red f l oo r o f L ocus 1 63 . S ynagogue P ha se V : S ugges ted p lan . S ynagogue . S ugges ted f r on t e l eva t ion . T he S ynagogue . P ha se I V : S ugge s ted p lan . T he n o r the rn d oo r o ft h e S ynagogue , b locked b y W6 , p ha se I V . T he s ma l l Meno rah i n c i sed o n as t one o n t he e a s te rn f r on t o ft h e S ynagogue . T he S ynagogue . T he s ugge s ted r e s tora t ion o ft h e e ag le o ft h e S ynagogue b u i ld ing . T he S ynagogue . T he l i on l i n te l o ft h e n o r the rn d oo r .

2 0

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L oca t ion map .

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P LATE X I I

F ig .4

F ig .5

I . S umaqa , The e a s t f r on t o f t h e S ynagogue .

1 . S uma c ia , The n o r the rn p a rt o f t he S ynagogue , L oc i 1 52 , I S , 1 51, f rom Wes t t o F as t .

PLATE X I I I

F ig .6

I . S u maqa ,

F ig .7

S u maqa ,

locus 1 58 . The f ounda t ion t r ench a nd t he f i rs t c ourse o f t he o r ig ina l W9 , p hase V .

L ocus 1 57 .

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p la s tered f l oor o f L ocus 1 63 .

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PLATE X IV

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I . S umaqa , l ' he S ynagogue . P ha se I V : S ugges ted p l an .

b

PLATE XV

F ig .11

I . S u maya , The n o r the rn d oo r o f t he S ynagogue , b locked b y W6 , p ha se I V .

CM .

F ig . 12

l t . S urnaqa , T he s ma l l Menorah i n c ised o n as t one o n t he e as tern f r on t o f t he S ynagogue .

PLATE XV I

0

2 0 A,

F ig .13

I . S umaqa ,

The S ynagogue . T he s ugges ted r e s to ra t ion o f t he e ag le o f t he S ynagogue b u i ld ing .

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. 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 9 . 1 0 . 1 1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 2 . 2 3 . 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 6

PLATE XX I I

F ig . 1 3 . E n t rance o fS tage 1 1 , j ambs i ns e conda ry u se F ig . 1 2 . B e th A l id rash i nf r on t

F ig . 1 4 . P lan o f s ynagogue a nd B e th A l id rash , s t age I I

PLATE XXII I

F ig . 1 5 . R econs t ruc t ion o f s ynagogue , s t age I l l

F ig . 1 6 , L inte l o f R e th Mid rash : e n trance , w i th i n sc r ip t ion

5 0

F ig . 1 7 . D raw ing o f l i n te l

PLATE XXIV

F ig . 1 8 . a , 1 1 Mosa ic f l oor o f B e th Mid rash w i th i n scr ip t ion

F ig . 1 9 . Mosa ic f l oor o f B e th Mid rash , l ook ing s ou th

F ig . 2 0 . Recons truc t ion o f B e th Mid rash .

THE S YNAGOGUES OF HORVAT R I M MON Amo s K lone r

I s ra e l D epa r tmen t o fA n t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu s eum s I orva t R immon ( Kh i rbe t Umm e rR amam in , i ns ome m ap sm i s taken ly c a l led Kh i rbe t Umm e r -Rama l i ) i sl o ca ted i nt h e s ou ther nJ uda ean S hephe lah , a bou t 1km s ou th o fT e l H a ig a nd 1 / 2 km s ou th o fK ibbu tz L ahav ( I s ra e lg r id r e f : 1 3 7 0 86 ) . T he s i t e i ss i tua ted o n ah i l l 4 70 m . a bov e s e a l e ve l . T o t h e e a s t i s af e r t i le v a l ley B iq a tY ava l - c ompr i s ing p a r t o ft h e e r o s iona l b o rde r s e pa ra t ing t h e s l op e so ft h e H eb ron h i l l s t ot h ee a s ta nd t h e U pp e rS hephe lah t ot h ew e s t . T ot h e w e s t a r e H a r L ehav im a nd G iveö t L ahav , h i l l s r i s ing t o a bou t 5 00m a bov e s e a l eve l a nd w h ich f o rm t h e s ou ther n b ounda ry o f t h e S hephe lah . T he a r ab le l a nd o f t h i s f e r t i le v a l ley w a s a n i mpo r tan t e l emen ti nt h ea g r icu l tu ra le x i s tence o ft h e e a r ly s e t t lemen t . T he a nc ien t r ema in s c ove r ed a n a r ea o fa pp rox ima te ly 1 0 0 d unam s . Wa l l s , g ene ra l ly b u i l t o f s t one si ns e cond ary u s e ,w e r ev i s ib le o nt h e s u r f ace , a sw e l la sm any c ave sw h ich w e r eh ewn i nt h e s of tl i me s ton eb e low t h eu pp e rl a ye ro fn a r i . P r io rt oe x cava t ion , t h er ema in so f as qua r e s t ruc tu r e c ov e r ing a n a r ea o fa bou t 1 0 00 s q . m . p ro t ruded o n t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e s i t e . T he n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn w a l l s w e r e p r e s e rved t o ah e igh t o f a pp rox ima te ly 3 m . , t h e i r u pp e r c ou r se s p ro jec t ing a bove t h e r u in s a nd d eb r i s w h ich c ov e r ed t h e s i t e . I n many a r ea s i tw a s p o s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh d r e s sed s t one s o r ig ina l ly f o rm ing p a r t o fe a r l ie r b u i ld ing s a nd t h en r e u s ed i ns t ruc tu r e s f r om t h e 1 9 th -20 th c en tu r i e s . I n s e v e ra l c a se s t h e e a r ly w a l l s w e r e p l unde r ed d own t o t h e f ounda t ion s c au s ing much d amag e a nd i n many c a se s l e av ing n o th ing mo r e t h an r obbe r t r enche s wh ich w e i d en t if i ed d u r ing e x cava t ion . T he e xcava t ion D u r ing 1 9 78 -198 1 , t h r ee s e a son s o f e x cava t ion s w e r e u nde r taken b y t h e D epa r tmen t o f A n t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu seum s , u nd e r t h e d i r ec t ion o ft h e a u tho r a nd w i th t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f T e s sa M inde l a nd A v i N avon l.Wo rk w a s c oncen t ra ted o n t h e c en t r a l s t ruc tu r e o n t op o f t h e h i l l . I nv e s t iga t ion sw e r el im i ted t ot h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea . Ow ing t oi l i c i t d i gg ing i nt h e r e g ion , e s p ec ia l ly i no ne o ft h e c eme ter ie s o ft h ee a r ly s e t t lemen t l o ca ted 3 00m .t ot h es ou thw e s t 2,w o rk a tt h es i t eb egan a s as a lvag ee x cava t ion . O u rp r ima ry g oa l s w e r e : 1 )t oi d en t i f yt h e s i t e ;a nd 2 )t oi n ve s t iga te t h e p o s s ib le e x i s tence o fa ne a r ly s ynagogue t h e r e . T he e x cava t ion s r e vea led b u i ld ing s a nd f i nd s f r om f o u r m a jo r p e r iod s o v e r s e ven s t ra ta , a nd a s ynagogue w h ich s panned t h r ee o ft h e s e s t ra ta ( IV -V I ) . S e cond T emp le P e r iod ( S t ra fe I I I I ) R ema in s o ft h e e a rl i e s t s e t t lemen t o nt h e s i t e w e r ef ound o n b ed rock . L a te rb u i ld ing o nt h e s e f l oo r s a nd w a l l sp r even ted u sf r om o b ta in ing ac omp le te p l an o fa ny i n d iv idua l u n i t . T he p o t te ry d a ted f r om t h e e nd o ft h e s e cond a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e f i r s t c en tur ie s B .C .E . T h i s s e t t lemen t o fh ou se s c on t inued u n t i lt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry CE . A l though w e d i d n o t u ncov e r c o in so ro t he rs i gn if i can tf i nd sf r om t h e p e r iod o ft h e B a r K okhba r e vo l t , i ti s mo s t p robab le t h a t t h e f i r s t s t ag e o ft h e v i l lag e c on t inued u n t i l t h a tt ime 3.T h i s p ha se w a s i n d ica ted i n mo s t a r ea s o f t h ee x cava t ion b yf i nd s , s ome o fw h ich w a r ran t s p ec ia l m en t ion . O n t h e b ed rock b enea th t h e w e s te rn a i s le o f t h e l a te s y nagogue ( s ee b e low ) , ar ound o v en ( t abun ) w a s u ncov e r ed . I tw a s 1 . 3m . i n d i ame te r a nd b u i l t o f c l ay b and s ( 3 cm . t h ick ) , a nd c on ta ined c ook ing p o t sf r om t h e f i r s t a nd b eg inn ing o ft h e s e cond c en tur ie s C .E . T he t a bun w a s f u l l o fa sh a nd w a s p r e s e rv ed t o ah e igh t o f4 0cm . I tw a s b u i ld o n t h e f l a t tened b ed rock w h ich s e r ved a st h ef l oo ro ft h a ta r ea . I n ar oom t ot h en or th ,a na dd i t iona l t a bun w a sf ound w i th p o t t e ry f r om t h ef i r s tc en tu ry B .C .E -f r agmen t s o fj a r s , j u g s , b ow l s a nd o the rv e s se l s d a t ing f r om t h e l a te H elen i s t i cp e r iod . C on tempo ra ry l i v ing l e ve l s w e r e i d en t if i ed i no t he r r oom s , o ne o fw h ich r e vea l ed ac omp le te j u ga nd a d ja cen tt oi ta no s t ra con i n s c r ib ed w i th t h e I eb r ew l e t te r s : V 2 1 ) . ) o rI MV . I no th e ra r ea s o ft h ee x cava t ion s , ac o in f r om Y ea r 2o ft h eJ ew i sh Wa ra ga in s tt h e R oman s( 6 7C .E . )w a sf ound , a sw e l l a s al a rg e c av e f i l ed t o ah e igh t o f2 m . w i th a s h , e a r th a nd p o t te ry d a t ing f r om t h e f i r s t c en tu ry B .C .E . O the r s i gn if i can t c on tempo ra ry f i nd s w e r e v e ry s mal f r agmen t s o f p a in ted N aba tean w a r e . 4 3

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

I ti sr e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a t as e t t lemen tc on t inued t oe x i s ta tH orva t R immon i nt h es e cond h a l fo ft h e s e cond c en tu ry a nd b eg inn ing o ft h e t h i rd c en tu ry C .E . An umb e ro fc o in s a nd af ew p o t te ry s h e rd s w e r e f ound f r om t h i s p e r iod , b u t t h e l a rg e q uan t i ty o fs i gn if i can t f i nd s b e long s t o t h ep e r iod f o l low ing t h em idd le o ft h et h i rd c e n tu ry C .E . T he s y nagogue a nd s e t t lemen t o ft h e t h ird c e n tu ry C .E . ( S t ra tum I V ) D ue t oi t s l o ca t ion d i r e c t ly b enea th t h e l a te r s y nagogue s , t h e p ub l ic b u i ld ing w h ich e x i s ted o n t h e s i t e a t t h i s t im e w a s mo s t p robab ly a l so a s ynagogue . We w e r e u nab le t o c l a r i f y i t s a r ch i tec tu ra lp l an i nf u l ,b u ti ts e em st h a ti tw a s ab road room t y pe l i ke t h en ea rby o rs l i gh t ly l a t e r s ynagogue si nH or va t E sh temo ca 5 a nd H o rva t S u s iya6. T o t h e e a s t o ft h e s t ruc tu r e w a s as t y loba te o n w h ich t h r ee p ede s ta l s w e r e f o und i ns i tu . T he e xa c t s hape o ft h e c o lumn s t h a t o r ig inaly s t ood o n t h e se p ede s ta l s c ou ld n o t b e v e r i f ied . T h e n o r th ea s te rn c orne r o f ar e c tangu la r n i che w a s p r e se rved a l ong t h e n o r the rn w a l l . I tw a s c oa ted w i th w h i te p l a s t e ra nd p a in ted w i th r e d s t r ip e s . T he t op o ft h e n i che w a s a tl e a s t 2 . 5m . a bov et h e f l oo ro ft h es ynagogue . T h i sn i che p robab ly h ou sed t h e H o ly A rk w h ich w ou ld h ave b een l o ca ted i nt h ec en t r eo ft h en o r the rn w a l l a nd o r ien ted t owa rd sJ e ru sa lem . F ragmen t s o fw h i te p l a s te r o n al a ye ro fs h e rd s w e r ef o und a t ta ched t oo the rp a r t s o ft h e s ou ther nf a ce o ft h ew a l l . I ts e em st h a t a l t h e w a l l so ft h e s y nagogue w e r e p l a s te r ed a nd s ome p a in ted i nd if e r en t c o lo r s . T he w e s ter n w al o ft h e b u i ld ing w a s b u i l t u pon t h e f l oo r s o ft h e S e cond T emp le p e r iod . I t s c on s t ruc t ion m ad e u s e o fb u i ld ing s t on e s f r om e a r l ie r s t ruc tu r e s . S ome o ft h e se s how ed v a r iou s a r ch i tec tu ra lp rof i l e s a nd o the r s w e r e s t i l lf a c ed w i th r ema in s o fp l a s te r . We w e r eu nab le t ol o ca te t h e s ou ther nw a l l o ft h e s t ruc tu r e . T h ef l oo rw a sm ade o fc r u shed l i me l a id o n af o unda t ion o fs ma l l s t one sa nd p ounded t of o rm ah a rd s u r f ace . T he l a te s t f i nd s b enea th t h i s f l oo r a r e f r om t h e m idd le o ft h e t h i rd c en tu r y C .E . , a nd t hu sw e d a te t h e b u i ld ing o ft h e s t ruc tu r e t ot h e s e cond h a l fo ft h a t c en tury . T he many d eco ra ted a r ch i tec tu ra l f r agmen t s t h a t w e r e f o und b roken a nd s ma shed w e r e mo s t p robab ly u s ed i nt h i s p ha s e o ft h e s y nagogue . S ome o ft h em w e r e a l so u s ed i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e l a te r s ynagogue o f t h e f ou r th t o s i x th c e n tu r ie s C .E . , a nd i n s ome o f t h e f i ls . T he a r ch i tec tu ra lf r agmen t sc on s i s ted o fl i n te l s , d oorpo s t s , s e c t ion so f af r i ez et h a t d e co ra ted t h el e ng th o ft h e w a l l s , c o lumn s , b a se s a nd v a r iou s c ap i ta l s i n c lud ing f r agmen t s o fC o r in th ian c ap i ta l s . T he b and so fr e l i e fd eco ra t ion i n c luded r i ch v eg e ta l mo t if sc on s i s t ing o fv i ne s c ro l l s w i th g r ap ec l u s te r s , f l ow e r s a nd l e ave s , a nd mo t i f s i nt h e c l a s s ica l t r ad i t ion , s u ch a se gg a nd d a r t , m eande r p a t ter n s , t w i s ted r op e b and s , c hecke r b oa rd p a t ter n s , a nd o the r s . I ts e em s t h a t t h e i n te r io r o ft h i s e a r ly s ynagogu e w a s e l abo ra te ly a dor n ed . T he s y nagogue o ft h ef o u r th -s ix th c e n tu r ie s C .E . ( S t ra tum V a -Vb ) I nt h e s e cond h a l fo ft h ef ou r th c en tu ry , an ew s y nagog ue w a s b u i l t . I tw a s r e c tangu la ri np l an a nd m ea su r ed 1 3 .5m . n or th sou th b y 9 . 5m . e a s t -we s t . T h i s s y nagogue m ade u s e o ft h e w e s ter n w a l l o ft h e e a r l ie r b u i ld ing , b u t n ew w a l l s w e r e b u i l t a l ong t h e n or th , s ou th a nd e a s t s i de s . A r e c tangu la r b ema a d jo ined t h e n or the rn w a l l w h ich f a ced J e ru sa lem . T he f l oo r w a s al a ye r o f p l a s te rl a id u pon af ounda t ion o fs ma l lf i e ld s tone s ; i ns ome a r ea st h i sp l a s te rc ove r ing w a s s t udded w i th s ma l l y elow i sh p ebb l e s g i v ing ag r anu la r e f ec t . T h i s s ame g r anu la r p l a s te r w a s a l so f o und o n t h e w al s . T he e n t ran ce t ot h e b u i ld ing w a s p robab ly f r om t h e s ou th , a nd w e c an a s sume t h e e x i s tenc e o fs ome s o r t o ff o r ecou r t o rn ar thex a d jo in ing t h ee n t rance . S om e t ime a tt h e e nd o ft h e f i th c en tu ry o rb eg inn ing o ft h e s i x th c en tu ry t h e s y nagogu e w a s r e pa i r ed a nd t h e e nc lo s ing w a l l s o ft h e c omp lex s t r eng thened . T en p i l la r b a se s i n s e r t ed i n to t h e f l oo r ,d i v ided t h eh a l li n to ac en t ra ln ave a nd t wo s i de a i s le s ;t h ef ounda t ion t r enche sw e r ec a r e fuly r e pa i r ed t o f i tt h e f l oo r . T h i s s y nagogue w a s i nu s e f o r a bou t o ne h und r ed y ea r s , d u r ing w h ich t ime t h e s pa c e a l ong t h ew e s t s i de o ft h eh a l lb e came ad ump f o rb roken a nd d i sca rded o b jec t so r , p e rhap s , as t o rag e a r ea f o rr i tua l o b jec t s i n tended f o rf u tu r e u s e ( f i g .! ) . C o ins ,h oa rd s a nd s ma l l f i nd s T o t h e w e s t o ft h e s ynagogue h a l l w a s ap a ra l le l l o ng " r oom " w h ich u t i l i sed t h e w e s ter n w al o ft h e s y nagogue h a l l . B o th i t s w e s ter n a nd e a s te rn w al s w e r e e r ec ted o n f l oo r s o ft h e S e cond T emp le p e r iod . I nt h e w e s ter nh a l l ( W I) as ma l l h o le b e tw een t wo s t one s c on ta ined ah oa rd o f 4

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

6 4b ronz e c o in sf r om t h et h i rd ,f our th , a nd b eg inn ing o ft h ef i f th c en tu r ie sC .F . T h i sw a s ah i dden " c a ch e " t o w h ich c o in s w e r e a dded f r om t ime t o t ime . A pa r t f r om t h i s h oa rd , 1 6 0 a dd i t iona l b ron ze c o in sf r om t h e t h i rd -f i f th c en tu r ie s C .E . w e r e f ound i nt h e a sh f i l o ft h e r oom . T he ma jor i ty o fc o in s w e r e f ound i nt h e s ou the rn p a r t o ft h e " r oom " ( Loc , 6 4 ) . I ts e em s t ha t t h i s w ho le a r ea w a s i n ten t iona l ly f i l led w i th e a r th a nd l a rg e s t one s . E x cava t ion o ft h i s f i l l , 0 . 8m d e ep , r e v ea l ed many o the r s p ec ia l o b jec t s ma in ly o fb ronze . T hey i n c luded s e ve ra l s e c t ion s o fa c and e lab ra : h ook s a nd r od s t ha t s u spended i n d iv idua l g l a s s w ick l amp s ( f i g .2 ) ; e l abo ra te ly c a s t l e av e s , b ranche s a nd l amp h o lde r s o r c ov e r s ; ac omp le te b ronze l amp , v a r iou s c ha in s a nd p i ec e s o fp l a t ing f r om d if e r en t v e s se l s . P i ece s / i tem s o fj ewe l ry o fv a r iou s m a te r ia l s w e r e a l so f ound i n t h e f i l l . T he se i n c luded a g o ld p endan t , g l a s s a nd s t one b ead s a nd a p endan t c on s i s t ing o f a g r een i sh r e c tangu la r s t one ( f a ienc e ? ) i n sc r ib ed w i th E gyp t ian h i e rog lyph s a nd d a ted t o t h e 7 6 c en tu r ie s B .C .E s u r rounded b y as i l ve rf r ame . O the r f i nd s i n c luded ab one h and l e , i v o ry o b je c t s , af l a t g l a s s p l a te i n to w h ich t wo s ma l l b ronz e h ook s f o r s u sp en s ion h ad b een i n se r ted a nd s ome i r on o b jec t s . A t a bou t t h e s ame l e ve l o ft h i sf i l , t wo c o in h oa rd si np o t te ry v e s se l s ( f i g .3 ) w e r e u ncove r ed .7 T he v e s se l s h ad b een c l o sed b y as t one a nd w e r e b u r ied u p s ide d own a bou t 1 m . a way f r om e a ch o the r ( f i g .4 ) . T h e r e i sn o d oub t t ha t t h e h oa rd s h ad b een i n ten t ionaly b u r ied ;t h ey w e r ec a r e fuly s e a l ed a nd c ove r ed w i th e a r th f r om a bove . T h ec o in so fo ne h oa rd h ad b een w rapp ed i nc l o th ,t i ny f r agmen t s o fw h ich w e r e p r e se r v ed . O ne h oa rd c omp r i s ed 3 5 c o in s , a nd t h e o the r 1 2c o in s . B o th h oa rd s c ove r t h e s ame c h rono log i ca l s pan : f r om t h e t ime o fV a len t ine I( 364 -375 C .E . ) u n t i l t h e d ay s o fA na s ta s iu s I( 4 9 1 -5 18 C .E . ) . T he t a b le b e low d e ta i l s t h e h oa rd s w h ich c on ta ined c o in s o ft h ed eno m ina t ion s s o l idu s ( t he b a s ic B y zan t ine c o in ) , h a l fs o l idu s ( s em i s s i s ) , at h i rd o f as o l idu s ( t r em i s s i s ) . HOARD A IOARD B S o l idu s S em i s s i s T r em i s s i s S o l idu s S em i s s i s T r em i s s i s Empe ror V a l en t in ian I ( C .E . 3 64 -375 )

2

1

1

T heodo s iu s I ( C .E . 4 02 -450 ) Ma r c ian ( C .E . 4 50 -457 ) L eo I ( C .E . 4 57 -474 )

2

5

L eo I a nd Z eno ( C .E . 4 73 -474 ) Z eno ( C .E . 4 74 -49 1 )

1

1

4

B a s i l i scu s ( C .E . 4 74 -476 )

1 0

1

A na s ta s iu s I ( C .E . 4 9 1 -5 18 ) 3

1

4

2 T o ta l : 1 2

7

1

3

8

9 T o ta l : 3 5

2 5

T he t wo h oa rd s i nd ica te s im i la r p a t te rn s o fc i r cu la t ion : t h e w or n s pec imen s d a te ma in ly f r om t h et im eo fV a len t in ian I to L eo I ,a nd t h el e s sw or nc o in s ,w h ich w e r ei nc i r cu la t ion f o r ar e la t ive ly s hor t t ime , d a te t o ap e r iod b e tw een L eo Ia nd A na s ta s iu s I . T he h oa rd s w e r e a s s emb led d u r ing t h e r e ign o f A na s ta s iu s I ,a tt h e e nd o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry o r b eg inn ing o ft h e s i x th c en tu ry C .E . , a bou t t h e y ea r 5 00 C .E . T h e h oa rd s i n d ica te ad eg r ee o f w ea l th e n joyed b y t h e i nhab i tan t s o f R immon d u r ing t h e p e r iod o ft h e e a r ly s ynagogue u n t i l t h e e nd o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry C .E . 4 5

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

Du r ing t h e f i th c en tu ry , t h e a r ea o ft h e s y nagogue w a s s u r rounded b y w a l l s wh ich c r ea ted a l a rg e e nc lo su r e , 3 4m . n or th s ou th a nd 2 9 .5m . w e s t -ea s t . T he s y nagogue w a s l o ca ted i n t h e n or th -we s te rn s e c t ion o ft h e e nc lo su r e a nd w a s s u r rounded b y r oom s . T he e n c lo su r e w a i l s w e r e p r e se rv ed t o ah e igh t o f3 m ; b u i l t i np a r t o n t h e b ed rock a nd a l so o n e a r l ie r w a l l s . A r ch i tec tu ra l f r agmen t s f r om t h e e a r l ie r s y nagogue a nd s t one s f r om b u i ld ing s o f t h e S econd T emp l e p e r iod s e t t lemen t w e r er e u s ed i ne r ec t ing t h e se w a l l s , e s p ec ia l ly t h e w e s ter n w a l l , p a r t o fw h ich w a s b u i l t u s ing t h ec a s t ing t e chn iqu e . T he l a te s y nagogue a nd s e t t lemen to ft h es i x th a nd s e ven th c e n tur ie s C .E . ( S t ra ta V I -V I I ) A t t h e v e ry e nd o ft h e s i x th o r a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e s e v en th c en tu ry C .E . , t h e s y nagogue w a sr e nova ted ( f i g .5 ) . I tc on t inued t h ef i th c en tu ry s y nagogue i nh av ing ar e c tangu la rp l an w h ich m ea su r ed 1 3 .5m n or th sou th a nd 9 . 5m . w e s t -ea s t , t h e s ynagogue h a l l c ove r ed a n a r ea o f 1 3 0 s q . m . T he w a l l s o fe a r l i e r s ynagogu e s w e r e r e u sed i nt h i s s t ruc tu r e . T he b u i ld ing w a s d i v ided i n to an ave a nd t wo a i s le sb yt wo r ow s o ft h r ee f r e e s tand ing c o lumn s a nd t wo p i la s te r s , o ne a d ja cen t t ot h e n or the rn w a l l a nd t h e o the rn ex t t ot h e s ou ther nw a l l . O n ly t h ef ounda t ion s o ft h ep i l la r s w e r ef ound i ns i tu ;t h ey w e r es qua r eb l ock so fs t one i n tended t os uppo r tr ound b a se sa nd c o lumn s , f r agmen t so fw h ich w e r ef ound i ns e conda ry u s e i nv a r iou s p a r t s o ft h e s i t e . Ar e c tangu la rb ema o r ig ina l ly j o ined t h en o r ther nw a l lo ft h es ynagogue w h ich f a c ed J e ru sa lem . T he b ema m ea su r ed 5 m . w e s t -ea s t a nd 1 . 7m . n or th sou th . A l though o n ly af ew o r ig ina l s t one s r ema in ed i ns i tu , t h e l im i t s o ft h e b ema w e r e c l ea r ly d ef ined b y t h e e dg e o ft h e s t one s l ab f l oo ro f t h e s ynagogue h a l lw h ich s u r rounded i t . T h r ee o pen ing s i nt h e s ou ther n w a l l l e d i n to t h e b a s il i ca l s ynagogue h a l l : t h e c en t ra l o ne l e d i n to t h en ave ,a nd t h et wo s i de o ne si n to t h ea i s le s . On ly f r agmen t so ft h eo r ig ina l s t one t h r e sho ld o ft h e s i de e n t rance w e r e p r e se rv ed , w h i le t h a t o ft h e c en t ra l e n t rance w a s u p roo ted a nd r e u sed , a sw e r e t h e d oo rpo s t s a nd a l t h e a sh la r s o ft h e s ou ther n w a l l . T o t h e s ou th o ft h e s y nagogue , a w id e e n t rance h a l l w a s b u i l t m ea su r ing 1 6m . w e s t -ea s t ( t he s y nagogue i t s e l fw a s 9 . 5m . w ide ) a nd 1 . 5m . n o r th sou th . T h ef l oo ro ft h e s y nagogue w a sp aved w i th r e c tangu la r s t one s l ab s w h ich w e r e l a id i ns t ra igh t r ow si n an o r th sou th d i r ec t ion ( f i g .6 ) . T h i ss ymme t ry w a sb roken i nt h ec en t r eo ft h ef l oo rw he r e t h e s t on e s w e r e l a id t o f o rm as qua r e c a rp e t e a ch 3 m . s qua r e a nd f i v e s i x -p e ta l l ed r o s e t te s w e r e e ng raved o n t h e s e s t one s ( f i g .7 ) . A bove t h e r o se t te s t o t h e n or th , f a c ing J e ru sa lem , as e v en b ranch ed c and e lab rum ( meno rah ) w a s i n c i sed , a ppa r en t ly a dded s l igh t ly l a te r . G r ea t c a r e w a s t a k en i nt h e p av ing o ft h e s ynagogue f l oo r ; a bov e t h e f l oo r o ft h e e a r l ie r s ynagogue , f ou r l a y s o f p e r f ec t ly l e v e l l ed s t on e s w e r e l a id . T he se s t one s w e r e o f s im i la r s i ze a nd s hap e a nd p roduc ed a u n i f ied h a rd s u r f a ce . A l though t h e l i me s tone s l ab s o ft h e f l oo r w e r e w o rn a nd b roken i n many p l a ce s , the g r ey c emen tf ounda t ion o nw h ich t h ey w e r ep l ac ed w a so fs u ch q ua l i ty t h a tt h en ega t ive i mp r in t s o ft h e b roken s t one s w e r e p r e s e rved . S ec t ion s t h a t w e c u t b enea th t h i s f l oo r r e vea led c o in so fJ u s t in i an ( 5 27 -565 C .E . ) , T ib e r iu s C on s tan t inu s ( 5 78 -582 C .E . ) , a nd f r om t h e e a r ly y ea r s o f P hoca s . T he se c o in s w e r e i n ten t iona l ly p l a ced b enea th t h e c emen t f o unda t ion a nd t hu s d a te t h ef l oo rt ot h ev e ry e nd o ft h e s i x th c en tu r y C .E . I ts e em s t h a t t h e b u i ld ing c on t inued i nu s e a tl e a s t u n t i l t h e A rab c onque s t a nd p robab ly f o r s ome t im et h e r ea f te r . L a te ra dd i t ion si nt h ef o rm o fb enche so rp a r t i t ion sw e r ef ound o nt h ef l oo r , b u t w e w e r e u nab le t o d e te rm ine w he the r t h ey b e long ed t ot h e p ha s e w hen t h e s t ruc tu r e s e rv ed a s as ynagogue o rt o al a t e rt ime f o rs ome o the ru s e . T h e l a te s t p ha se o ft h e o ccupancy w a s r e p r e s en ted i n mo s t a r ea s s u r round ing t h e s ynagogue . I nt h e s ou th er np a r to ft h el ong w e s ter nr oom , at a bun o n a n a sh f l oo rs e a led t h ee a r l i e rf i l lw h ich c on ta ined t h ec o in sa nd o th e rs p ec ia lf i nd s . T h i sf l oo rw a sb o rde r ed o nt h en o r th b y af l im sy w a l l ( W35 )a nd ,b enea th t h ef l oo r ,o ne c o in f r om t h e t i me o fH e ra cl iu sw a sf ound . T h i sa r ea m ay h av e b e en ak i tchen o r s om e o the r w o rk room , p robab ly i nu s e p a ra l l e l t ot h e s ynagogue . A dd i t iona l o ven sw e r ef ound i na no the rr oom , a tt h en or thwe s t c or n e ro ft h e c omp lex ( Room 5 ) -o ne f r om t h e S econd T emp le p e r iod , a nd a no the rl a t e ro ne w h ich w a s b u i l tw i th n o a wa r ene s so ft h ee a r l ie r t a bun b enea th i t . Two o v en sf r om t h e L a te B y zan t ine p e r iod w e r e f ound o ne a bove t h e o th e rt o t h ee a s t o ft h e s ynagogu e . T he l ow e ro ne h ad ac h imney made f r om al o ng n a r row j a r , t h e b a se o fw h ich w a sc u to f . T he a r ea o ft h e se t a bun sy i e lded m any r i ch f i nd so fp o t te ry v e s s e l sa nd g l a s s c on ica ll amp sw h i ch w e r ei n se r ted i n to c ande lab ra . 4 6

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

I nt h el owe rf i l lo fo ne o ft h er oom st ot h en or th o ft h et wo t a bun s ,f i v ep o t te ry f r agmen t s ,f ou r o f w h i ch c ou ld b e j o ined t og e the r , w e r e f ound i n sc r ib ed w i th a n A rama ic i n can ta t ion . T h e i n sc r ip t ion w a s i n c i s ed o n as h e rd e s pec ia l ly i n tended f o rt h a t p u rpo s e a nd n o t o n ab roken v e s s e l f r agm en t . T he c omp le te t ab le t , t r ap ezo ida li ns hap e , w a s 9 . 5 cm . h i gh , 7 . 5 cm . w ide a tt h eb a s ea nd 1cm . w ide a t t h e t op . O n i tw e r e i n sc r ib ed e i gh t l i ne s o f w r i t ing a nd a n i n th l i ne o f mag ic s ymbo l s . T he f i r s t t wo l i ne s c omp r i sed t h en ame so fs i xa ng e l s , e a ch w i th in as e pa ra te r e c tangu la r f r ame : 1h r ' w t ' t h' w t q w lhwn 2s p twn s w sg r [ I T h e s i x th n ame w a s m i s s ing , b u t p a r t o fi t s f r ame r ema ined . T he f o l low ing i s av e r s ion o ft h e i n s c r ip t ion a s c omp le ted b y J .N av eh o n t h e b a s i s o fp a ra l le l s f r om t h e C a i ro G en iz eh a nd o the r i n can ta t ion t ex t s8 ( f i g .8 ) . 1h r ' w t ' t h' w t q w lhwn 2s p twn s w sg r [ ] 3Y ou h o l ly ( a nd m igh ty ) ] a ng e l s 4[ Ia d ju r e ] y ou , j u s t a s[ t h i s s h e rd ] 5[ b ur n s , s o s ha l l ] b ur nt h e h ea r t o fR [ . . . son /daugh te ro f ] 6[ Madan a f te r m e , I. [ . . .and y ou s hou ld t u rn ] 7[ h i s /he rh ea r t a nd m i ]nd a nd k i dney , s o [ t ha t h e / she w i l l d o ] 8my d e s i r e i nt h i s [ I • 9( mag i c c ha rac te r s ) T he a mu le ti se v idence o ft h e s phe r eo fb e l ie f s h e ld b yt h ee a r ly i nhab i tan t so fR immon i nt h ef i f th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie s . I d en t if ica t ion o ft h es i te 1 .I n E u s eb iu s O noma s t ikon , u nde r t h e e n t ry H o rmah C E c Em ic t ( J o shua 1 5 :4 ) : " And n ow i ti s E m i taw al a rg e v i l lag e o fJ ew s 1 6m i le s s ou th o f c E leu the ropo l i s "9.

3

I nt h e L a t in t r an s la t ion , I i e ronymu s d ef ined i t s l o ca t ion mo r e p r ec i s e ly i nt h e D a roma . 2 .T h e d i s tance 1 6m i le s ( 2 6km . ) a s c r ibed b y E u seb iu s i st ha t b e tw een I 3 e i t G ov r in a nd R immon , a l ong t h e a nc ien t r oad b e tw een t h e se t wo s e t t lemen t s . 3 .T h eA rab ic n ame Kh i rbe t Umm e r -Ra rnam in ( The r u in o ft h e mo the r o fp omeg rana te s i nt h e d im inu t ive ) . 4 .T h e c o r r e la t ion b e tween t h ea r cha eo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e e x cava t ion so f 1 9 78 -198 1 a nd t h e h i s to r i ca l w r i t ing sw h ich m en t ioned al a rg e v i l lag e o fJ ew s a r ound t h e y ea r3 00 C .E . o r ig ina t ing i n t h e S e cond T emp l e p e r iod , a nd w i th as ynagogue i nt h e s e t t lemen t a tt h e t op o ft h e h i l l . 5 .I ti sr e a sonab l e t o a s sume t h a t a t l e a s t s ome o f t h e s ou r ce s m en t ion ing R immon a nd B iqa t R immon i nR abb in ic l i t e ra tu r e( To s ef ta A h i l o t 1 6 , 1 3 ;[ Zucke rmande le d . 6 14 , 3 71 T o s ef ta M iq vao t 6 ,2 ;[ Zucke rmande l 6 58 , 2 1 L am en ta t ion s R abbah I ;G ene s i s R abbah 6 4 ; P a l e s t in ian T a lmud , H ag igah C h . 3 , 1 3 , 2 )r e la te t o t h e s i t e d i scu s sed h e r e w h ich w a s s i tua ted i nt h e s ou th o f " The D a rom " . A J ew i sh s e t t lemen t c on t inued h e r e u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod a nd w a s u ndoub ted ly al a rg e r e s iden t ia lc en t r e . 6 .T h e n am e m n in ( Ha r imona ) w a s m en t ioned a s as e t t lemen t i no ne o ft h e d ocumen t s o ft h e s e cond J ew i sh Wa ra ga in s tt h e R oman s i nt h e y ea r s 1 3 2 135 C .E .1 ° 7 .T h e B r i t i sh S u rvey o f We s te rn P a le s t ine w ro te : " En R immon ( Nehem iah X I : 2 0 ) a ppea r s t o h ave b een t h e s ame a s R immon ( J o shua XV : 3 2 ) , a nd m ay p robab ly b e t h ep r e sen tr u in o f Umm e rR umam in "1 . H or va t R immon y i e lded n o r ema in s e i the r f r om t h e t ime o ft h e F i r s t T emp le o rt h e P e r s ian p e r iod . H ow ev e r , t h e t r an s f e ro ft h e n ame f r om at e l t o an ea rby s i t e i s ac o mmon e nough p henom enon i n I s ra e l . Whe the r ( o r n o t ) t h e a d jac en t T e l H a l i fw a s t h e s i t e o fb ibl i ca l R immon o r I o rmah , t h e r e i sn o d oub t r e ga rd ing t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fR immon f r om t h e R oman p e r iod w i th t h e s i t e w e h av e s t ud ied .

4 7

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

NOTES I .

T he e xcava t ion s b egan i nO c tobe r 1 978 f o r t h ree w eeks o f t e s t ing . Du r ing 1 979 1981, s ea sons l a s t ing f i ve a nd s i x w eeks w e re h e ld i n O c tobe r a nd November a s w e l l a s a dd i t iona l d ay s i n Ma rch 1 98 1 . Mea su remen t s a t t he s i te w e re made b y at e am o f s u rveyo r s f r om t he D epa r tmen t o f A n t iqu i t ie s h eaded b y M . F e i s t a nd b y a rch i tec t a rcha eo log is t G . S o la r . S i te p ho tog raphy w a s b y A . K ap lan , A . T a lm i a nd t he a u tho r . Z . Radovan p ho tog raphed t he f i nds . M icha l B en Ga l a nd K a rmen II o l lande r d rew t he f i nds , R a che l B a rkay a nd Ma rc ia S ha raban i i d en t if i ed t h e c o ins . S tuden t s a nd v o lun tee rs f r om I s rae l a nd a b road c a r r ied o u t mo s t o f t h e e xcava t ion w o rk . F o r t he f i r s t s ea son , wo rke rs f r om n e ighbo r ing v i l lage s w e re emp loyed a nd p a r t o f t he i r s a la ry w a s c on t r ibu ted b y t he K e ren K ayeme t o f I s rae l ( K .K .L . ) . T he e xcava t ion t e am w a s h oused i n K ibbu tz L ahav a nd e n joyed t h e h o sp i ta l i ty a nd a s s is tanc e o f t h e K ibbu tz membe rs , i t s i n s t i tu t ions a nd t he J o e A l lon s t udy c en t re .

2 .

S ee ab r ief n o te : I . R i mmon , Hadasho t A rkheo log iyo t ( Archa eo log ica l N ew s le t te r ) No .59 -60 , 1 976 , p . 40 ( Heb rew ) .

3 .

Du r ing t he s t udy o fc aves c u t i nt h e b ed rock o f t he s i te s ome b u r rows w e re r eco rded . S ee n ow , a bou t t he H id ing S y s tems d a ted t o t he s e cond J ew i sh Wa r a ga ins t t he R omans ( 1 32 135 CE . ) , A . K lone r a nd Y . T eppe r , T he H id ing C omp l exe s i n t h eJ ud ean S hephe lah , T e l Av iv , 1 987 ( Heb rew ) .

4 .

E .R . Goodenough , J ew i sh S ymbo l s i n t h e G reco -Roman P e r iod I ,1 953 , p p .225 -232 ; S ee a l so A . K lone r , ar ev iew o f J . S . Ch ia t , Handbook o f S ynagogue A rch i tec tu re , B u l l e t in o f t h e S choo l o f O r ienta l a nd A f r i can S tud ie s ( BSOAS ) L ondon , V o l . XLV I 3 , 1 983 , p . 54 1; a bou t t he b road room s ynagogue a t I . S hemac s e e E .M . Meye r s , A .T . K raabe l , J .F . S t range , " Anc ien t S ynagogue E xcava t ions a t K h i rbe t S hemac,Uppe r Ga l i lee , I s ra e l 1 970 1972 , AASOR 4 2 , 1 976 .

5 .

Z . Y e iv in , " The S ynagogue o f F , sh temoa " i n L . I . L ev ine ( e d . ) p p . 120 122 .

6 .

S . Gu tman , Z . Y e iv in , a nd E . N e tze r , " Excava t ions i nt he S ynagogue a t If o rva t S us iya " , i nL ev ine ( e d . ) o p .c i t . No .5 , p p . 123 128 .

7 .

Amo s K lone r a nd T es sa M inde l , " Two B yzan t ine Hoa rds f r om t h e A nc ien t S ynagogue o f Il o rva t R i mmon " , I s rae l N um i sma t i cJ ou rna l , V o l .5 , 1 981 , p p .60 -68 , P l s . 1 4 15 .

A nc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , J e rusa lem 1 98 1,

8 .

J . Naveh a nd S h . S haked , Amu l e t s a nd Mag ic B ow l s , J e rusa lem a nd L e iden 1 985 , Amu le t 1 0 , p p .85 -89 .

9 .

E useb iu s : O nomas t ikon d e r b i b l i schen O r t snamen , e d . E . K los te rmann , L e ipz ig 1 904 , 8 8 : 1 7 , 1 46 -25 .

1 0 .

P . B eno i t , J .T . M i l ik , R . d e V aux , L e s G ro t te s d e Murabbaa t , D i s cove r ie s i n t h e J ud ean D ese r t , V o l .2 , Oxfo rd 1 96 1, p p . 139 140 .

1 .

C .R . Conde r & 1 .11 .K i tchene r , S ur vey o f We s te rn P a le s t ine , I l l , L ondon 1 883 , p . 392 .

L IS ' I ' OF F IGURE S 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

S ynagogue a nd e nc losu re , s t ra ta Vb -V I I . B ronze b ranches o fc ande lab ra , 4 th -5 th c en tu r ies . P o t t e ry v es se l s o f t he t wo g o lden h oa rds . Hoa rd B i ns i tu . T he s ynagogue c en t ra l h a l l , b ema a nd n a r thex , f a c ing s ou th . S lab -s tone f l oo r s t ra ta V I -V II , f a c ing s ou th , f ound d ur ing s econd s ea son . C en t ra l c a rpe t , w i th f i ve s i x -pe ta l led r o se t te s a nd as even -b ranched c ande lab rum , f a c ing n o r th . I ncan ta t ion t ab le t : d raw ing a nd r econs t ruc t ion .

4 8

PLATE XXV

F ig . I S ynagogue a nd e nc lo su re , s t ra ta Vb -VI I .

F ig . 2 B ronze b ranches o fc ande lab ra , 4 th -5 th c en tur ies .

J a r o f h ea rd A .

J ug o f i wa fd

F ig . 3 P o t te ry v es se ls o f t he t wo g o lden h oa rds .

PLATE XXV I

F ig . 4 hoa rd 1 3i ns i tu .

F ig . 5 .

T he s ynagogue c en t ra l h a l l , b ema a nd n a r thex , f a c ing s ou th .

F ig . 6 .

S lab -s tone f l oo r s t ra ta V I -V 1 1 , f a c ing s ou th , f ound d ur ing s e cond s ea son .

PLATE XXVI I

F ig . 7 C en t ra l c a rpe t , w i th f i ve s i x p e ta l led r o se t tes a nd as even b ranched c ande lab rum , f a c ing n o r th .

1 2 3 L I

6

8 9

u r reTn i ) r p vi -r pr z e, z 9 b r um

3

[ 7 1DDr I 1 j 7 ,1 r I ]? iD M I' [MX 1 7 2W7 2 ]

4

p i n -m in 1 z

r 2 5 [ T D r im ] n u < n i r im [ c ynr j i r m,5 1 20 n avn 1 r i z 5 ] _111

[ 13DT I T 11

1 17 J [ ]

J 17 13 1 1 '2 ‚Y

5 6 7 8

( mag ic c harac ter s )

F ig . 8 I ncan ta t ion t ab le t : d raw ing a nd r e cons t ruc t ion .

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

H . PROBLE MS OF SYNAGOGUE CHRONOLOGY

THE CAP ITALS OF THE S YNAGOGUE OF CAPERNAU M THE IR CHRONOLOG ICAL AND S TYL IST IC CLASS IF ICAT ION W ITH REGARD TO THE DEVELOP MENT OF CAP ITALS I N THE DECAPOL IS AND I N PALEST INE H answu lf B loedhorn B ib l . A r ch . I n s t i tu t T üb ing en

T h e i n i t ia li mpu l s el e ad ing t o my o ccupa t ion w i th t h es ynagogue o fC ape rnaum w a st h ed eba te s u r round ing i t s d a t ing . N ew e xcava t ion s h ad c aled i n to q ue s t ion t h e f o rme r ly h e ld d a t ing t ot h e 2 nd o r 3 r d c en tu ry , w h ich h ad b een b a s ed o n d eco ra t ion . ' F ind s o f p o t te ry a nd c o in s l e d t o a d a t ing t ot h e l a te 4 th c en tu ry o re v en t h e m idd le o ft h e 5 t h c en tu ry f o rt h e c ou r tya rd .2 S om e I s ra e l i s c ho la r s , a mong t h em M . A v i -Yonah a nd G . F oe r s te r ,3 i n s i s ted o n t h e e a r l ie r d a te , a r gu ing t ha t s ynagogue s o ft h e 5 t h c en tu ry w e r ef i t ted w i th mo sa ic f l oo r s a nd a n a p s i so nt h e s i de f a c ing J e ru sa lem . H ence t h e f i nd s c on t rad ic t t h ev e ry v e r s ion o fa r ch i tec tu ra lh i s to ry t h a th ad b een t h eb a s i so fs ynagogue r e sea r ch s i nce t h et h i r t ie s . I td ef ined : " e a r ly "o r" Ga l i la ean "s ynagogue s ( 2nd -3 r d c en tu r ie s ) w i th a b a s i l ica ! f l oo r p l an , t h e s ho r t s i de o f w h ich w a s o r ien ted t owa rd J e ru sa lem , as t one f l oo r a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l o rnamen ta t ion ; t h en t h e s o -ca l led " b roadhou se " s ynagogu e , w ho se l ong s i de f a c e s J e ru sa lem ( 3 rd -4 th c en tur ie s ; a nd f i na l ly t h e " a p s ida lb u i ld ing s " w i th t h e i r i mp re s s ive mo sa ic f l oo r s a nd a p s i s f a c ing J e ru sa lem ( 5 th -6 t h c en tu r ie s ) . h oweve r , e i gh te en s ynagogue s w e r e n o t e nough t o f o rm a s ound b a s i s f o r s u ch c a tego r ie s , t o w h ich t h e s ynagogu e s c ou ld n o t b e a c cu ra te ly a s s igned . N one o f t h e e x cava t ion s r e v ea led a r e l iab le s t ra t ig raphy , a nd c l a s s if i ca t ion t ook p l a ce a c co rd ing t o c ompa r i son s o f d eco ra t iv e e l emen t s o r mo sa ic f l oo r s . B y t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e s e ven t ie s , t h r ee t ime s a s many s ynagogue s h ad b een d i s cov e r ed , a nd mo r e a c cu ra te d a t ing w a s m ade p o s s ib le b y i mp rov ed e x cava t ion m e thod s . P a ra l le l t o t h e e x cava t ion a tC ape rnaum , E r ic Meye r s u nde r took as u rvey i n G a l i lee ( Me ron , Kh i rbe t S hema c , Gu sh H a lav a nd N evo raya ) w h ich s u rp r i s ing ly r e vea led t h a t n one o f t h e se G a l i lean s ynagogue s h ad b e en b u i l t b e f o r e t h e s e cond h a l f o f t h e 3 r d c en tu ry .4 A t t h e s ame t ime , n ew f i nd s d emon s t ra ted t ha t mo sa ic f l oo r s e x i s ted i nt h i s c a tego ry a sw e l l ( e .g . a t 3Ammud i rn a nd H a rnma t T ib e r ia s ) .5 T he mo s t i mpor tan t e v idence u ncov e r ed w a s t h e p r e senc e o f c u l t i n s ta l la t ion s ( b ema a nd a r on h a -qod e sh ) i nt h e i n te r io r . I ne a ch c a se t h e s e w e r e l o ca ted o n t h e s i de f a c ing J e ru sa lem . T h i s p u t a n e nd t ot h e d eba te s u r round ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e s y nagogue a st h e c r i ter ion f o ri t s d a t ing .6 T he n ew ly d i scove r ed f i nd s c hang ed t h e p i c tu r e : 1 .T h e b a s ic p a t te rn o fa l s ynagogue s t ruc tu r e s i st h e b a s i l ica w i th an av e a nd a i s le s . I t s p l an i s v a r iab l e , d epend ing o n l o ca lf a c to r s . 2 . Wh i le t h e s i t ed e te rm ine st h eo r ien ta t ion o ft h e b u i ld ing a s aw ho le , i n te r io rf u rn i sh ing sp rov ide f o ri t so r ien ta t ion t owa rd J e ru sa lem . 3 . V a r ia t ion s i n i n ter io r f u rn i sh ing s i nt e rm s o f d eco ra t ion o r mo sa ic s ( o r b o th ) d epend o n t h e p e r son o r c ommun i ty c o mm i s s ion ing t h e s t r uc tu r e a nd h i s o r i t s f i nanc ia l p o s s ib i l i t ie s . S uch v a r ia t ion s c anno t b e a s s ign ed t o ap a r t icu la r p er iod . T h e s t ruc tu ra l d eve lopmen t o ft h e s ynagogue o fC ape rnaum i s mo r e c omp lex t han p r ev iou s ly a s sum ed . R ema in s o fe a r l ie rb u i ld ing s h ave b een f ound b enea th t h e p r e s en t s t ruc tu r e , t h e l owe s t l a y e r s t emm ing f r om t h e l a t e H elen i s t ic p e r iod a nd t h e 1 s t c en tu ry C .E .7 T h e s t ra t ig , raphy o ft h ee x i s t ing s t ruc tu r eo ft h e s ynagogue a low si tt ob ed a ted u nque s t ionab ly t o t h e l a te 4 th c en tu ry . H ow ev e r , s i nc e t h e d eco ra t iv e e l emen t s a r e u ndoub t ly o l de r , t h ey mu s t b e d ea l t w i th s e pa ra te ly . T h i s s ynagogue i se sp ec ia l ly w or th i n v e s t iga t ing d ue t ot h el a rg en umbe r o f c ap i ta l s i tc on ta in s . I n n o o the r s ynagogue h ave s o many b e en p r e se r ved . I ndeed t h e C o r in th ian c ap i ta l s e rve s a s ag u ide l ine t o t h e h i s to ry o fa nc ien t a r t w he r eve ro the re v idence s u ch a si n s c r ip t ion s o rw r i t ten d ocumen t s i sl a ck ing . T h i s i n v e s t iga t ion i sd e s igned t o h e lp d emon s t ra te t h a t i nt h e d eba te s u r round ing t h e d a t ing o ft h es y nagogue o fC ap e rnaum t h et wo v i ew sc i ted a tt h eb eg inn ing , w h ich a pp ea rt ob e mu tua l ly e x c lu s iv e , a r e i nf a c t -t a k ing i n to a c coun t t h e a pp ropr ia te o b se rva t ion s -b a s ed o n t wo d i f f e r e r ing 4 9

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

l e ve l s o fa r gumen ta t ion . F o rt h i s r e a son Is ha l l a t temp t , b y e xam in ing t h e c on c lu s ion s d r awn i n e a ch c a s e , t op u t f o rwa rd an ew s o lu t ion . I n o rde r t o c l a s s i f y t h e c ap i ta l s o ft h e s ynagogue o f C ap er naum i nt e rm s o fc h rono logy a nd s t y le , w e n eed b o th d a ted a nd u nda ted c ompa r i son s f r om t h e s u r round ing a r ea . My e xam ina t ion o fa r ch i tec tu ra l o rnamen ta t ion i nt h e D ecapo l i s o ft h e 2 nd a nd t h e 3 r d c en tu r i e sf r om D ama s cu s t o P h i lade lph ia ( a nd e s p ec ia l ly i nG e ra sa )8 r e v ea led t h a ti nt h e 2 nd c en tu ry t h es t anda rd C o r in th ian c ap i ta l i n a r ea s o f S y r ian i nf luenc e w a s ma rked b y as l ende r c a la thu s . T h i s c a la thu s b o r e t h e d eco ra t ion a nd ,c l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt h eu pp e rp a r t ,t h ea bacu s . T he s pa ce b eh ind t h es l ende ra can thu s l e av e s i sc a rv ed d eep ly , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t h e l e ave s o ft h e u ppe r r a ng e s t and o u t f r om t h e b ody o f t h e c ap i ta l . T he c l o s ed c a lyce s r e s t o n t h e p l a in c au l icu l i . F rom t h em t h e s c u lp tu ra l ly -f r e ed v o lu te sr i s et oc u rve b enea th t h ep ro trud ing c orne r so ft h ea ba cu s , s uppor ted b yt h ea l r eady p r e sen t o u te r l e av e s o ft h e c a ly ce s . T he a ba cu s i sd eco ra ted b y t h e b road ly sp r ead ing a ba cu s f l owe r a nd i n mo s t c a se s b ea r s or namen t s o ff l u te s a nd o vo l i . T he a c cen t c hang e s a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 3 r d c en tu ry : or namen t t a ke s p r io r i ty o ve rt e c ton ic c on s ide ra t ion s , w h ich a r e n eg lec ted . T he c o r e o ft h e c ap i ta l b ecome s mo r e a nd mo r e c oncea led b eh ind t h e l e a f d eco ra t ion , w h ich s t ead i ly c l imb s h ighe r . T he c au l icu l i a r e s upp r e s sed t o a n i n c r ea s ing d eg r ee a nd t h ec a lyce sf i t ted i n to t h ec a la thu sl i ke at h i rd c r own o fl e av e s . T h i sp r even t s t h e h el i ce sa nd v o lu te s f r om u n f o ld ing f r ee ly , t hu s d ep r iv ing t h em o ft h e i r s uppo r t iv e f unc t ion . T he e mpha s i s o n h o r izon ta l ly a r rang ed z one s o fd eco ra t ion a nd t h e i n c r ea s ing p ro t ru s ion o f t h e a ba cu s c or n e r s g i v e t h e c ap i ta l s amo r e c ompa c t , a lmo s t s qua r e shap ed p rof i l e , i nc on t r a s t t o t h e s l ende r , c y l ind r ica l c a la thu s o ft h e 2 nd c en tu ry c ap i ta l w i th i t s m e rg ing c r own so fl e av e s .9 L i t t le e v idence i sa va i lab le c onc e rn ing t h e d eve lopmen t o fc ap i ta l s i n P a le s t in e . T he e x i s t ing b u i ld ing s g o b a ck n o f u r the rt han t h e 3 r dc en tur y . A l though t h e i rc l a s s if i ca t ion c anno tb e s e cu r ed b yi n sc r ip t ion s ,t h ep e r iod o fc on s t ruc t ion c an b e d e term ined o nt h eb a s i so fd e co ra t iv ed e s ign ,a nd i ns ome c a se s ( Be t -Sh e ca r im , S ama r ia -Seba s te ) p o t te ry i sa va i lab le . An umb e ro fb u i ld ing sw h ich h ad p r ev iou s ly b een i g no r ed w e r e t h e r eby t a ken i n to a c coun t ( e .g . t h e P e r i s ty l e i nA sca lon l ° a nd t h e t h ea t r e i n B e t S he 'a n ( S cy thopo l i s ) ) .1 T he i nf luence o f o u t s ide w o rk shop s -i n t h i s c a se t ho se o fA s ia M ino r -o n l o ca l w o rkman sh ip i se x emp l if i ed i nS ama r ia -Seba s te a nd B e t S he ca r im . I n a dd i t ion , S y r ian b u i lde r s w e r e a tw o rk i n P a le s t ine ( e .g . a tt h e t emp le o f HA rn r i t1 2 ,a nd T e l Q ede sh ,1 3 a tt h e s ynagogue o fY a f ia c ,1 4 a nd i nS ama r ia -Seba s te l 5 i t s e l f ) . T he f i r s t b u i ld ing t o b e e xam ined i st h e P er i s ty le i n A sca lon .1 6 R eg r e t tab ly , i th a s b een n eg lec ted i nt h e l i t e ra tu r e , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t i tp rov ide s a n i mpo r tan t c l ue t o a r ch i tec tu r e a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l s c u lp tu r e i nP a le s t ine , a sw e l l a sf o r t h e r e s ea r ch o fR oman w o rk shop s . Un f o r tuna t e ly , t h e P e r i s ty le i sn e i the r f u l ly e x cava ted n o r h a s i tb een p r e s en t ed i np ub l i shed f o rm . N ev e r the le s s t h i s much i sc e r ta in : a tt h e s ou ther n e nd o ft h e l ong p e r i s ty le -i tm ea su r e s a pp rox ima t e ly 10 m e t r e s x2 0 m e t r e s -t h e r e a r e t wo s ma l l r oom s . T he r oom i n t h e m idd le c on ta in s a n a p s i s . N ume rou s c o lumn s , p ede s ta l s , a nd C or in th ian c ap i ta l s h ave b een p r e s e rv ed , a l ong w i th f ou rf i gu r ed r e l ie f s . T hey a r e o f ma rb le , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h i s m a te r ia l w a s i mpo r ted . O ft h ea mbu la tor ium an umbe ro fa lmo s ti n ta c tc o lumn c ap i ta l sa nd o ne c or n e rc ap i ta lr ema in . Wh i le t h e ma t e r ia l i n d ica te s o r ig in s o u t s ide P a le s t ine , t h e d eco ra t ive e l emen t s a low f o r a n e v en mo r e p r ec i s e d ef in i t ion : t h e u n i f o rm s p r ead o f t h e a can thu s or namen t a bov e t h e c ap i ta l , t h e e venne s so fe a ch l e a fu n i t ,t h ef a nn ing o u to ft h el e a fu n i t s ,p a r t icu la r ly t ho se i nt h em idd le ,t of o rm aq uad ran t , a nd t h e p o in ted t i p s -a l o f t h e se t h ing s p o in t i n t h e d i r ec t ion o f A s ia M ino r , t o A ph rod i s ia s .1 7 A c ompa r i son w i th t h e or namen ta t ion o f t h e B a s i l ica o f F orum S ev e r ianum i n L ep t i s Magna ,1 8 b u i l t b e twe en 2 10 a nd 2 16 C .E . , e nab le s t h e d a t ing o ft h e P er i s ty le i nA s ca lon a nd i t s a s s ignmen t t o aw o rk shop f r om A ph rod i s ia s . S im i la r ly , t h e w o rk o ft h e s e a r t i san s c an b e t r a ced i nt h e t h ea t r e o fS cy thopol i s .1 9 Y e t h ow w e r e t h e s e l o ca l w o rk shop s a b le t o a dop t t h e se f o rm s ? T h i s c an b e i l u s t ra ted u s ing t h e e xamp le o fS ama r ia -Seba s te :2 ° T he l ow e rp ar t o ft h e c ap i ta l i sc i r cu tn f e r enced i n an e t l ike f a sh ion b y aw r ea th o fl e av e s ; t h e t e c ton ic f un c t ion i se xagg e ra ted . T he or namen ta l f o rm s a r e a c cen tua ted , a nd t h e d e s ign o ft h e l e ave s a ga in p o in t st ot h e i n f luence -t hough n o t t ot h e p e r f ec t ion -o fA s ia M ino r . 5 0

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B e f o r e f i na l ly t u rn ing t o C ap e rnaum w e mu s t c on s ide r t h e c ap i ta l s o f t h e s ynagogue o f B e t S he a r im . 2 1 T hey h ave b e en i g no r ed i n t h e p a s t d e sp i te t h e i r s i gn if icanc e f o r t h e d a t ing o ft h e b u i ld ing . O n ly f r agm en t s o ft h e c ap i ta l s r ema in , y e t t h e se s t i l l d i sp lay t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t d e ta i l s . T he a n ima l sh ead sa r ep a r t icu la r ly i n te r e s t ing : o ne c ap i ta l i sa dor n ed b yt h eh ead o f al i on ,a no the r b y t ha t o f ab u l l . T h e se h ead s r e p lace t h e a bacu s f l owe ro n t ha t s i de o ft h e c ap i ta 1 .2 T h e s upp r e s s ion o f t h e h el i ce s o f t h e se c ap i ta l s p rov ide s ac on t ra s t t o t h e c ap i ta l s o f S amar ia -Seba s te . H e r e t h ey a r e o n ly al i ne d i v id ing t h e z one o fd eco ra t ion f r om t h e l a rg ea bacu s . Y e t t h e c a r e f u l w o rk ing o ft h e l e av e s w i th t h e i rc l ea ro u tl ine a nd t h e i n te r chang e o fl i gh t a nd d a rk i n an e t l ik e c ove r o v e r t h e c ap i ta l d a te s t h e t wo t ype s c l o se t og e the r , i . e . , t o t h e f i r s t h a l fo ft h e 3 rd c en tu ry . L e t u sn ow t u rn t ot h e c ap i ta l s o ft h e s ynagogue o fC ap emaum . T he e x i s t ing s t ruc tu r e sa r eh e r ed i v id ed i n to t h r ee g r oup st oe nab le t h e i rc l a s s i f ica t ion a c co rd ing t o d if e r ing p ha se s o fc on s t ruc t ion , w h e r eby d eve lopmen t s p r ev iou s ly t r a ced i nt h e D ecapo l i s a nd P a le s t in e a r et aken i n to a c coun t . Tw e lv e c o lumn c ap i ta l s a nd t wo c or n e r c ap i ta l s h ave b een p r e se rved i nt h e s ynagogue .2 3 T hey c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo g r oup s . ( Th e c ap i ta l s o ft h e c ou r tya rd , i . e . , t h e t h i rd g r oup , a r e t o b e t r ea ted s e pa ra te ly . ) T he f i r s t g r oup , G roup K , c on s i s t s o fe i gh t c o lumn c ap i ta l s a nd t wo c o rn e r c ap i ta l s . T he i r h e igh t i sa pp rox ima te ly 8 0 cm . T he s e cond g r oup , G roup S ,i sm ade u p o ft h e r ema in ing f ou r c ap i ta l s , w h ich a r e a pp rox ima te ly 7 0cm i nh e igh t . F i r s t l e t u s c on s id e r G roup K2 4 ( f i g .1 ) : T he se c ap i ta l s a r e ma rked b y s pa r s i ty o ff o rm a nd r e s t ra ined d eco ra t ion . T he f unc t ion o ft h e c a la thu s h a s b een d i sgu i sed : t h e l i p o f t h e c a la thu s i sn o mo r e t han a n a r row b and b a r e ly d i s t ingu i shab le f r om t h ec a la thu s . T he h e l ice s a nd v o lu te s , i n a smuch a st h ey e x i s ta ta l , n o l o ng e r p e r fo rm as t reng then ing f unc t ion . T og e the r w i th t h e c a ly ce s t h ey f o rm ad eco ra t ive l a ye r , a sd o b o th r ow s o f a can thu s l e av e s , w ho s e e che lon f o rma t ion h i de s t h e c a la thu s . N one the le s s t h e a c an thu s l e a f d i sp lay s d e ta i led w o rk ing , a nd t h e r e p ea ted f l a t tened f a n f o rma t ion u nde r l ine s t h e n e t l ik e p a t te rn s u r round ing t h e c ap i ta l . T h e r e l i e fo fl e ave s i sc ha ra c te r ized b y s pa r s i ty o ff o rm a nd i sl i m i ted t o t h e p o r t raya l o ft h e s moo th m id -r ib s a nd t h e b road ly sp r ead ing t i p s w i th t h e i rl ob e r ib s a nd d ep r e s s ion s . C ompa r i son s w i th t h e c ap i ta l s o f A sca lon a nd S ama r ia -Seba s te r e v ea l n o t iceab le c ommon e l emen t s s u ch a st h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic f a n l ike l e ave s . H owev e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o r e o ft h e c ap i ta l i s" pa ck ed i n " , m ean s t ha t t h e d eco ra t ive e l emen t t a ke s p r e cedence o v e rt h e t e c ton ic f unc t ion . G roup Sd if e r sf r om t h ef o rm e r g r oup i n an umbe ro fs ma l l d e ta i l s2 5 ( f i g .2 ) : T h e u neven c ha ra c te r o fi t s m emb e r s i sc on sp icuou s -o n t h e o ne h and t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h e f o rwa rd c u rv e o f t h e c a la thu s a nd t h e c on t ra s t ing b a ckwa rd movemen t o f t h e a ba cu s a r e d e s igned t o e n su r e t e c ton ic b a lance ; o n t h e o the r , t h e h e l ice s a nd v o lu te s a r e p r e sen t o n ly a s n a r row b and s o fd eco ra t ion o n t h e s t one ma s s . T hey p l ay n o s t r eng then ing r o le . Y e tt h ec orne r s o ft h e a ba cu s r e ach w ay p a s t t h e b ody o ft h e c ap i ta l . T he a can thu s l e ave s a r e s p r ead o ve r t h e c ap i ta l : t h e w id e m id r ib a nd d e ep d ep r e s s ion s o ft h e l e ave s c au s e t h e l e a fs t ruc tu r e t o d i sapp ea r , s o t ha t e v e ry t wo n e ighbo r ing h a l f leave s w i th t h e i r r e sp ec t ive p a t ter n s b e come an ew d e co ra t iv e mo t i f . C onv e r se ly , t h e l e av e s o f t h e u pp e r r a ng e a r e p l a ced s i de b y s i de a nd u nconnec ted . T he c au l icul i a r e l i nked b y a r ch e s w h i ch r e p ea t t h e l i ne s o ft h e l e av e s o n t h e c a ly c e s . A l though t h e t e c ton i c e l emen t i s i n co rpo ra ted , t h e d eco ra t iv e f unc t ion p r edom ina te s . I ti sp robab le t ha t a l ong s ide t he w o rk shop i n f lu enced b y A s ia M ino r , wh ich p roduced t h e c ap i ta l s o f G roup K , a no th e r w a s a tw o rk . T h e f ou r c ap i ta l s i nq ue s t ion p rov ide u s w i th f ew c l u e s a st ot h e o r ig in o f t h i s g r oup . A s Is e e i t ,S y r ian i nf luence c anno t b e e xc luded , e sp ec ia l ly i n f luenc e s f r om t h e s ou th o fS y r ia ( e .g . t h et emp le so fA t i l a nd S ana rnen ) .2 6 I nd ica t ion so ft h i sa r e p rov ided b yt h es ha rp t i p s o f t h e l e ave s , t h e d eep d ep r e s s ion s , t h e d i s so lu t ion o fi n d iv idua l f o rm s i nf a vo r o f ag eome t r ica l p a t ter n , a nd t he e mpha s i s o n d eco ra t ive r a the rt han t e c ton ic p r ior i t ie s . 5 1

A nc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

T h i s c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te s t h e d if e r enc e i nt h e t im e o fo r ig in b e twe en t h e s e c ap i ta l s a nd t ho se o fS ama r ia -Seba s te . We n ow f i nd o u r se lve s i nt h e s e cond h a l fo ft h e 3 r d c en tu ry . I ti sf r om t h i s t ime t h a t t h e r ema in ing o rnamen ta l e l emen t s p r e se rved i nt h e s ynagogue a l so s t em . T he se a r e : t h e p or ta l s o n t h e s ou the rn e n t ran ce s i de , t h e c ap i ta l s o ft h e e a s te rn d oo r , t h e f r i ez e s a nd s i l l s . C ompa r i son s w i th B e t S he ca r im , Y af ia ca nd T e l Q ede sh p rov ide p roof o ft h i s d a t ing . O ne i sn a tu ra l ly t emp ted t o d raw ac onnec t ion b e tween t h e s e a r ch i t ec tu ra l e l emen t s a nd t h e b a sa l t w a l l ( "mu ro d ib a sa l tof ) w h ich , a c co rd ing t ot h e l a te s t e x cava t ion s i nt h e i n te r io ro ft h e s ynagogu e , s e r ved a st h e f ounda t ion s f o r ab u i ld ing o ft h e 3 r d c en tu ry . F o l low ing t h e d eva s ta t ing e a r thquak eo f3 63 C .F . , t h er e u sab le p a r t sw e r e i n teg ra ted i n to t h er e con s truc t ion o nt he s ame s i t e . I nt h e 5 t h c en tu ry ac our tya rd c omp lex w a s b u i l t o n to t h e s i de o ft h e s ynagogue .2 7 F o l low ing t h e l i n e o ft h e s t r e e t , i t s p l an w a s at r apez ium . F ou r c ap i ta l s h ave b een f ound i nt he c ou r tya rd : o ne c o lumn c ap i ta l , o ne c o rne r c ap i ta l ( f i g .3 -4 ) , o ne p i la s t e rc ap i ta l ( f i g .5 ) a nd t h ec ap i ta lw i th t h e Meno ra o n o ne s i de ( f i g .6 ) .2 8 T he i r s t one ma s s i sd eco ra ted p r edom inan t ly w i th d en s e ly a r rang ed r ow s o fa can thu s l e av e s . T he c o r e o ft h e c ap i ta l s i sf l anked a tt h e s i de s b y n a r row b and so fv o lu te s a nd b o rde red a tt h et op b y at h in a ba cu s . Ac ompa rab le c ap i ta l o ft h e 5 t h c en tu ry i st ob ef o und i nt h e' T heo tocu sC hu r ch o n Moun t G e r iz im .2 9 H en ce t h e s ynagogue o f C ape rnaum p r e sen t s amuch mo r e c omp lex p i c tu r e t han p r ev iou s ly a s sumed . F o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l or namen ta t ion s t em s f r om t h e s e cond h a l fo ft h e 3 r d c en tu ry , a tw h ich t ime t h e i mpo s ing b a sa l t f ounda t ion s w e r e e r ec ted a top a n o l de r r e s iden t ia l i n s ta l la t ion . I ts e em s r e a sonab l e t o a s sume a c onnec t ion , b u t u nequ ivoca l e v idence i sl a ck ing . A t t h e c l o se o ft h e 4 th c en tu ry , f o l low ing t h e e a r thquake o f 3 63 C .E . ,3 ° an ew s ynagogue w a s e r e c ted o nt h es ame f ounda t ion s ,i n co rpo ra t ing t h er ema in ing o rnamen ta le l emen t s . T he c our tya rd w a s a dd ed i nt h e 5 t h c en tury . T h e o the r e x cava t ion s o fs ynagogue s i nG a l i lee h ave e s tabl i shed o v e r t h e p a s t f ew y ea r s t h a t n o e v id en ce i st o b e f ound o f s ynagog ue s b u i l t p r io r t o t h e m idd le o f t h e 3 r d c en tu ry . Many b u i ld ing s h ave b e en p r e se rv ed s t emm ing f r om t h e l a s t d ecade s o ft h a t c en tur y , c ove r ing ab road s p ec trum o fs ynagogue a r ch i tec tu r e . T he se i n c lude b o th s ma l l b u i ld ing s o f 1 5 0m 2 a nd l a rg e o ne s o f 4 00m 2, s pa r se ly f ur n i shed ( Kh i rbe t S hema c )b u t c on ta in ing s ump tuou s mosa ic f l oo r s ( Ha rnma t -T ibe r ia s ) . I tc an b e s hown t h a t r e nova t ion a nd r e con s t ruc t ion t ook p l a c ea nd t ha ts ome s ynagogue s w e r e a bandoned . T he t ime s pan c ove r s a bou t f i ve c en tur ie s . I ti sw i th in t h i s f r amewo rk t h a t t h e s ynagogue o fC ape rnaum b e long s .

5 2

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

NOTES The a bove a r t ic le i st he a b s t rac t o f my d i s se r ta t ion " D ie K ap i te l le d e r S ynagoge v on K ape rnau m I h re c h rono log ische u nd s t i l i s t ische E ino rdnung i m Rahmen d e r k ap i te l len tw ick lung i nd e r D ecapo l is u nd i nP a la e s t ina " , w h ich i st o a ppea r i n i lus t ra ted f o rm a t t he e nd o f 1 987 i nt h e " Abhand lungen d e s D eu t s chen P a läs t ina -V e re ins " . T h is a bs t rac t w a s t r ans la ted b y G len ine Ham lyn , Tüb ingen . 1 .

H . Koh l -C . Wa tz inge r , " An t ike S ynagogen i n Ga l i läa " (WVDOG 2 9 , 1 9 16 ) ; E .L . S uken ik , A nc ien t S ynagogue s i n P a l e s t ine a nd G ree ce " ( 1934 ) ; E .L . S uken ik , B u l l e t in o ft he L ou i s M . R ab inow i tz F und f o r t he E xp lo ra t ion o f Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 ,1 949 , 8 .

2 .

V .C . Corbo i nG .C 1 . B o t t in i ( E d . ) , S tud ia I l le roso l ym i tana I I ( 1982 ) , 3 13 .

3 .

M . Av i -Yonah , Ade l3 2 , 1 973 , 2 9 ; I EJ 2 3 , 1 973 , 4 3 a nd G . F oe r s te r , I EJ 2 1, 1 97 1, 2 07 ; b o th a u tho r s c on t ra : V .C . Co rbo , L A 2 0 , 1 970 , 7 ;S t . L of f reda , L A 2 2 , 1 972 , 5 ;1 E J 2 3 , 1 973 , 3 7 . C f . G . F oe rs te r , G a l i l ean S ynagogue s a nd t h e i r R e la t ion t o He l l en i s t ic a nd R oman A r t a nd A r ch i te c tu re ( unpub l ished P h .D . , J e rusa lem 1 972 ) .

4 .

E .M . Meye rs -A . Th . K raabe l -J .F . S t range , Anc ien t S ynagogue E xcava t ions a t K h i rbe t S hema ' , U ppe r G a l i lee , I s rae l 1 970 -1972 ( A ASOR 4 2 , 1 976 ) ; F .M . Meye rs -J .F . S t range -C .L . Meye rs , E xcava t ions a t Anc ien t Me i ron , U ppe r G a l i l ee , I s rae l 1 971 -72 , 1 974 -75 , 1 977 (Me i ron E xcava t ion P ro jec t 3 , 1 981) ; E .M . Meye rs e ta l . , BASOR 2 39 , 1 979 , 3 3 ( Gu sh Ha lav ) ; E .M . Meye rs e ta l . , BASOR 2 44 , 1 98 1, 1 ;2 46 , 1 982 , 3 5 ( Nevo raya ) .

5 .

L . 1 . L ev ine , ! EJ 3 2 , 1 982 , 1(i s . mmud im ) M . Do than , Hamma th T ibe r ia s . E ar l y S ynagogue s a nd t he He l l en i s t ic a nd R oman R ema ins , 1 983 .

6 .

C f . E .M . Meye rs , BA 4 3 , 1 980 , 9 7 .

7 .

V .C . Co rbo ( no te 2 ) 3 13 a nd S t . L of f reda i b id . 2 73 .

8 .

Many o f t hese c ap i ta ls a re u npub l ished . F o r Dama scus c f . C . Wa tz inge r -K . Wu lz inge r , D amaskus . D ie a nt ike S tad t (WVd t t ü rkDK 4 , 1 921) ; f o r R o s t ra ; H .C . B u t le r i n P ub l i ca t ions o f t he P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty A rchaeo log i ca l E xped i t ions t o S y r ia 1 904 1 905 a nd 1 909 I , A rch i tec tu re A , S ou the rn S y r ia I V , B os ra ( 19 14 ) ; F o r Ge ra sa , C .H . K rae l ing ( Ed . G e rasa . C i ty o ft h e D ecapo l i s ( 1938 ) a nd F . Z ayad ine ( Ed . ) , J e rash A rchaeo log i ca lP ro jec t 1 981 -1983 I( 1986 ) . F o r t he d i scu ss ion o f t he c ap i ta ls c f . E d . We igand , J ahrbuch d e s d t . A rch . I ns t i tu t s 2 9 , 1 914 , 3 7 a nd J ahrbuch f ü r K uns tw i ssens chaf t 1 924 2 5 , 7 7 . 165 .

9 .

C f . E d . We igand , J ahrbuch 2 9 , 1 914 , 5 8 a nd J ahrbuch 1 924 -25 , 9 5 ; W . -D . I l e i lmeye r , K o r in th i s che N o rma lkap i te l l e . S tud ien z u r G e sch i ch te d e r r öm i schen A rch i tek tu rd eko ra t ion ( RM -E rgh . 1 6 , 1 970 ) 19 .

1 0 .

J . Ga rs tang , PEQ 5 3 , 1 92 1 , 2 1 .73 ; 5 4 , 1 922 , 12 ; 5 6 , 1 924 , 2 4 .

1 .

S h . App lebaum , SCI 6 , 1 981-82 , 7 7 .

1 2 .

Unpub l ished ; c f . G . F oe rs te r , HA 6 5 -66 , 1 978 , 3 ; M .

1 3 .

M . F ische r e ta l . , T e lA v iv 1 , 1 984 , 1 46 .

1 4 .

E .L . S uken ik , B u l l e t in ( no te 1 ) 2 , 1 951 , 5 ; f o r t he b ib l iog raphy s e e F . Hü t tenme is te r -G . R eeg , D ie a nt iken S ynagogen i n I s rae l ( TAVO -Be ih . B1 2 , 1 977 ) 4 79 .

F i sche r , L evan t 1 8 , 1 986 , 1 32 .

1 5 .

J .W . C rowfoo t e ta t . , S amar ia -Sebas te I ,T he B u i ld ings ( 1942 ) .

1 6 .

S ee n o te 1 0 .

1 7 .

F o r Aph rod i s ia s s e e He i lmey e r ( no t e 9 ) 9 7 .

1 8 .

F o r L ep t i s Magna s ee a l so I l e i lmey e r ( no te 9 ) 1 00 .

1 9 .

S ee n o te 1 .

2 0 .

S ee C rowfoo t ( no te 1 5 ) 5 5 ( Fo rum a nd B a s i l ica ) .

2 1 .

F o r t he b ib l iog raphy s e e Hü t t enme is te r /Reeg ( no te 1 4 ) 6 8 .

2 2 .

Unfo r tuna te ly t he f i na l r epo r t o ft he e xcava t ion o ft he s ynagogue i ss t i l l m iss ing .

2 3 .

No t a l l o ft hese c ap i ta ls a re p ub l ished . S ee Koh l / Wa tz inge r ( no t e 1 )2 3 ; G . O rf a l i , C apha rnaum e ts e sr u ine s ( 1 922 ) 2 5 .56 a nd n ow M . F i sche r , L evan t 1 8 , 1 986 , 1 3 1 (-E l 1 7 , 1 984 , 3 05 ) .

2 4 .

T he n u mbe rs a re t he n umbe rs o ft he p lan b y Co rbo ( no te 2 )3 43 p 1 . 1 : c o rne r c ap i ta l 7 :O rfa l i 2 6 f i g .23 , M . F i sche r , E l 1 7 , 1 984 , 3 07 p 1 .37 , 1 ;c o rne r c ap i ta l 1 0 : K oh l / Wa tz inge r 2 4 f i g .45 ; c ap . 12 a nd 1 4 u npub l i shed ; c ap . 13 : M . F i scher , E l 1 7 , 1 984 , 3 07 p 1 .38 , 1( = L evan t 1 8 , 1 986 , 1 34 p 1 .35 ) ; c ap . 1 5 : h e re f i g .1; t wo c ap i ta ls i nt he g a rden a l so u npub l ished .

2 5 .

Cap . 4 : O rfa l i 2 6 f i g .24 , M . F i sche r , E l 1 7 , 1 984 , 3 07 p 1 .37 , 1 ,h e re f i g .2 ; c ap .5 : Koh l / Wa tz inge r 2 3 f i g .44 ; c ap .8 : M . F ische r , E l 1 7 , 1 984 , 3 07 p 1 .37 , 1 ;c ap .9 : u npub l ished .

2 6 .

J . D en tze r -Feydy i n : J . -M . D en tze r ( Ed . ) , " Hau ran I R eche rches a rcheo log ique s s u r l aS y r ie d u S ud I r epoque h e l len is t ique e t r oma ine " ( BA H 1 24 , 1 986 ) 2 97p 1 . 15a (M i l ) a nd p 1 . 16a ( Sanamen ) . C f . t he S y r ian i nf luenc e i n P a les t ine : C rowfoo t ( no te 1 5 ) 3 6 p 1 .84 , 6 (Sama r ia , S t ree t o f Co lumns ) a nd F . Z ayad ine , AAS 2 1 , 1 971 , 1 49 p 1 .40 , 1( Sama r ia , T hea t re ) .

2 7 .

O rfa l i ( no te 2 3) 5 4 ; V .C . Co rbo , L A 2 7 , 1 977 , 1 68 ; S t . L of f reda , L A 2 9 , 1 979 , 2 15 .

2 8 .

Co rner c ap i ta l 2 6 : Koh l / Wa tz inge r 2 4 f i g .46 , O rf a l i 5 6 f i g .99 , M . F ische r , E l 1 7 , 1 984 , 3 07 p 1 .38 ,2 ; ac o lu mn c ap i ta l : O rfa l i 5 6 f i g . 1 00 ; p i la s te r c ap i ta l : O rfa l i 5 6 f i g .10 1; m eno ra c ap i ta l : O rf a l i 5 6 . 8 8 f i g . 119 12 1 . 124 , M . F i sche r , E l 1 7 , 1 984 , 3 07 p 1 .37 ,3 (= L evant 1 8 , 1 986 , 1 33 p 1 .34 ) .

5 3

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

2 9 .

R . K au tzsch , K ap i te l l s tud ien ( 1 936 ) 10 n o .331 p 1 .2 1; J .W . p 1 .27a -b .

3 0 .

F o r t h e e a r thquake s e e K .W . R u sse l , R A SOR 2 38 , 1 980 , 4 7 a nd B ASOR 2 60 , 1 985 , 4 2 .

5 4

C row foo t , E ar l y C hu r che s I n P a l e s t ine ( 194 1) 1 49

PLATE XXV I I I

F ig . I .

Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls

F ig . 2 . Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls

F ig . 3 . Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls

PLATE XXIX

F ig . 4 .

F ig . 5 .

Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls

F ig . 6 .

Co r in th ian c ap i ta l s

DONAT IONS AND TAXES I N THE SOC IETY OF THE J EW ISH V ILLAGES I N ERETZ I SRAEL DUR ING THE 3 RD TO 6 TH CENTUR IES CE . A r ie K ind le r

T e lA v iv U n ive r s i ty I nt h e J ew i sh v i l lag e i nE r e tz I s ra e l t h e r e w a s u sua l ly o n ly o ne s ynagogue . H ow ev e r , af ew e x c ep t ion s a r e k nown , s u ch a st wo i nG u sh I l a lav a nd , a sw e l e a rn f r om t h e w r i t ten s ou r c e s , a t l e a s t s e v en i nt h e c i ty o fT ibe r ia s . T h e r e w a s ac l o se c onnec t ion b e tw een t h e P a t r ia r cha te a nd t h e s ynagogue s o ft h e G a l i lean v i l lag e s . R abb i J ehuda I ana s s i c l a imed t h a t t h ey f e l u nde r t h e j u r i sd ic t ion o ft h e P a t r ia r cha te , a nd t h e r e e x i s t s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t f i nanc ia l s uppo r t w a s g i ven b y t h e P a t r ia r ch f o r t h e b u i ld ing o fs y nagogue s . I n mo s tv i l lag e st h es ynagogue w a st h eo n ly p ubl i cb u i ld ing . T he s ub jec to fo u rr e sea r ch i sa l so t oe xam in e t h e w ay s t h e b u i ld ing o f as y nagogue w a s f i nanced . We may r e f e r t ot h e s uppo r t o f t h e P a t r ia r ch b u t , . whe r e s u ch s uppo r t w a s g i ven , i tc e r ta in ly d i d n o t c ove r a l t h e e xp en se s i n vo lv ed . F und s , t h e r e f o r e , h ad t o b e r a i sed f r om t h e p eop le o ft h e v i l lag e p rop e r o r e v en f r om o u t s ide , a sw ew i l l s e el a te r . F o rs ome o ft h e v i l lag e r sf und ra i s ing w a s a nh ono r ,w h i le f o ro t he r s ab u rd en . I n s ome c a s e s t h e i n hab i tan t s o f ac i ty o r v i l lag e w e r e f o r ced t o b u i ld t h em s e lv e s a s y nagogue a nd t ob uy aT o rah s c ro l la nd aB ook o ft h e P roph e t s l. T h ei mpo r tance o ft h e s y nagogue i n av i l lag e w a sd ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t i tw a s n o t o n ly ap raye r h ou s e , b u t a l so am ee t ing -p la ce w he r e c ommun i ty m a t te r s w e r e d i scu s sed a nd d ec i s ion so fp ub l ic i n te r e s tm ade . T h en ume rou si n s c r ip t ion sd i scov e r ed i nt h ee x cava ted s y nagogue sa t te s tt o av a r iega ted s y s tem o fd ona t ion si nc a sh ,k i nd a nd l a bo r ,w h ich w a si n vo lv ed i nt h ee f o r to ft h ev i l lag e r st ob u i ld t h e i r p ubl i cb u i ld ing . I ns ome c a se s as ynagogue w a s e r e c ted f o l low ing t h e d ona t ion o f as i ng le p e r son . T h eodo tu s b u i l t as ynagogue i n J e ru sa lem ; R abb i J o se b a r H an ina a l so b u i l t as y nagogue a t h i s o wn e xp en s e 2. A no th e r n o tab le d ona t ion , r a r e h oweve r , w a s m ade b y R abb i I s s i w ho d ona ted t h e w ho le mo sa i cf l oo r, a nd t h ep l a s te rf o rt h e s y nagogue o fS u s s ia . Mo s t o ft h e d ona t ion s , w e r e much s ma l le r , mo s t p robab ly b ecau s e t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e p eop le w e r e p oo r . B u t t h ey s t i l l i n d ica te ac on s ide rab le e f o r t o n t h e p a r t o fi n d iv idua l s t od ona te p a r t s o ft h e b u i ld ing , s u ch a s ac o lumn , al i n te l , ag a teway , o r ap a r t o ft h e mo sa ic f l oo r . T ho se w ho s e em t oh ave h ad t h e money p a id f o rt h e s ed e ta i l si nc a sh , w h i le o the r s ,t h ep oo r e ro ne s ,w ho w e r e c r a f t sm en i nc on s t ruc t ion w o rk , b u i l tp a r t so ft h e s y nagogue w i th t h e i ro wn h and s3. T h ew ea l th i e ri n hab i tan t s , s ome o fw hom w e r ea l so t h ea dm in i s t ra to r so ft h ec ommun i ty ,w e r e a b l e t oc on t r ibu te much mo r e , b u t a sf a r a st h e i n s c r ip t ion s r e vea l , t h ey f o rm ed n o t mo r e t h an a bou tt e np e r -cen to ft h ed ono r s . A t t ime s c on t r ibu t ion s c ame a l so f r om o u t s ide t h e v i l lag e o r c i ty . S o w e k now t h a t ab ench w a sb u i l tb yt h ep eop le o f Ma con f o r as y nagogue i nT ib e r ia s4 a nd t h a t d ona t ion s w e r e m ade b y v i s i to r st ot h e s ynagogue so fG ada ra , G a za a nd S eppho r i s . A sm en t ioned ,t h es y nagogue a sp ubl i cb u i ld ing o ft h ev i l lag e , s e rv ed n o to n ly a s ap ray e rh ou s e b u t a l so a s am ee t ing -p la ce w he r et h e a dm in i s t r a to r s o ft h e c ommun i ty w e r e e l e c ted a nd a c ted o n b eha l fo ft h e v i lag e r s . E i the r i nt h e s y nagogue p rope r o r i na n a nnex ( a nd i n many s ynagogue s s u ch a nn ex e s w e r e d i s cove r ed ) , t h e r e w a s t h e B e th M id ra . sh a nd t h e l o ca l s c hoo l f o r t h e c h i ld r en . T he s y nagogue p r op e ro rt h e a nnex a l so s e rv ed a s ah o s te l f o r v i s i to r s . 5

Anc ien tS ynagogues 1 988

T h e s ynagogue o f ac i ty w a sb u i l t a l so w i th t h e h e lp o fd ona t ion s m ade b y v i s i to r s , a nd t ob e ad ono rw a s p robab ly c on s ide r ed ag r ea th ono r . T h i s s t and s i nc on t ra s t t os ynagogue so fv i l lag e s w h i ch s e em t oh ave r e c e iv ed n o o u t s ide d ona t ion s 5.I ti sk nown t h a t a dm in i s t ra to r sd ona ted e v en t oa no th e rc i ty , p robab ly t og l o r i f yt h e i ro wn n ame s . A s p ec ia l t a x d e s igna ted f o r t h e b u i ld ing o f as ynagogue w a s i mpo sed i ff o und n ec e s sa ry . H ow ev e r ,t h e r ea l so w a s av o lun tary t a x ,a sw ec an e x t ra c tf r om s ynagogue i n sc r ip t ion sw h ich r e ad : ' A l l t h e p eop l e o ft h e c i ty o f B e th ' A lpha / 6 ;' A l l t h e c ommun i ty o f Ma con ' ;7 ' Th e w ho le H o ly C ommun i ty o fJ e r icho ;8 ' The c ommun i ty o f l I u lda a nd C a e sa r ea% 9 ' A l l t h e p eop l e o ft h e t own ' ( Su s s ia ) ; ' Th e H o ly C ommun i ty ' ( Su s s ia ) . C ha r i tab le d ona t ion sw e r e a l so m ade t os upp ly t h e f u rn i tu r e o ft h e s ynagogue . Wha t d i d t h e i n d iv idua l d ona te ? ' Yahab ' w a s at e rm f o r d ona t ion s i n c a sh . S ome t ime s , h oweve r , d ona t ion s w e r e m ade i nk i nd . S o , f o ri n s tanc e , t h e p eop le o fB e th ' A lpha d ona ted o ne h und r ed s e' a o fw hea t w h ich w e r e s o ld b y t h e G abba i , t h e t r ea su r e r , a nd t h e e qu iva l en t i nc a sh c ove r ed t h ee xpen se si n vo lved i nm ak ing t h e f l oo ro ft h e s y nagogue . S uch as a le o f ad ona t ion i n k i nd c ou ld a l so s e rve a n/ o the rp u rpo s e ; f o r i n s tance , t h e r e w a s ad ona t ion o ff o od m ade f o r t h e r e demp t ion o fp r i sone r s' . T ha t much i sk nown a bou t t h e f i nanc ing o ft h e b u i ld ing o f as y nagogue . H e r e w e s hou ld r emembe r , t h a t t h e e x cava t ion s q u i te f r equen t ly t e s t i f y t h a t t h e r e w e r e s ome t ime s t wo o r t h r e e p ha s e s t o t h e b u i ld ing o f as ynagogue ; t h i s m ean s t h a t t h e e fo r t s t o b u i ld a s y nagogue w e r e r e n ewed e v en tua l ly a f te r ag ap o f 1 5 0t o2 00 y ea r s . E a ch o f t h e c ommun i t ie s l e d ar a the r s em i -au tonomou s e x i s tenc e ; t h i s i n c lud ed f manc ia l ma t te r s a nd j u r i sd i c t ion . T he a dm in i s t ra to r s o ft h e c o mmun i ty a l so h ad t ot a ke c a r e o fv a r iou s p ub l ic s e rv ice sw h ich w e r e ac ond i t ion s i n e q ua n on f o rt h e s t y le o fl i f el e di nt h ev i l lag e ;e xamp le s i n c lude t h e b u i ld ing o f ac i ty w a l l , ap rope r g a teway i n to t h e v i l lag e , w a te r i n s ta l la t ion s s u ch a s c i s te rn s a nd M iq va co th lI,t h e u pkeep o ft h e s t r ee t s , t h e i r l i gh t ing 1 2 ,a sw el a st h e l i gh t ing o ft h e s ynagogue p rop e r , t h e B a th a nd t h eB e th -l iam id ra sh 1 3. I n t h e R oman a nd G r eek w o r ld , t h e h i g h a dm in i s t ra to r s p a id f o r t h e i r p o s i t ion a nd e v en f i nan c ed p a r to ft h e i ra c t iv i t ie s . T he r ei sn oh i n to ft h i si nt h eJ ew i sh w r i t ten s ou r c e s . R abb iA q iba a nd R abb i H an ina b en T e radyon w e r e l e ade r s ( Pa rna s s im ) o f ac ommun i ty a nd i tw a s n o t s t a ted t h a tt h ey c on t r ibu ted o ft h e i ro wn money" . T he l e ade r sh ip o ft h eJ ew i sh c o mmun i t i e sw a so p en t o e v e rybody , a nd t h e a ppo in tmen t o f a dm in i s t ra to r s w a s n o t l i m i ted t o t ho se o fd i s t ingu i shed b i r th o r w ea l th . I tw a s , h oweve r , n a tu ra l t h a t t h e w ea l thy a dm in i s t ra to r w ou ld c on t r ibu te f r om h i sp ocke tt ot h ei n s t i tu t ion h eh eaded . T hu s ,f o ri n s tanc e , R abb iE l ieze rw a sc ho s en a dm in i s t ra to r o fc ha r i t ie s i no rde rt of e ed t h e p oo ri nh i s h ou se . I l e c on t r ibu ted f r om h i s p e r sona l w ea l th , b u t h i sa c t iv i t ie s w e r e a l so s ub s id iz ed b yt h ec ommun i ty ' s. T h e R abb in ic s ou r ce sd on o tg i ve u sa nu nequ ivoca l a n swe ra bou tt h el e v ie sf o rt h ec ommuna l t r ea su ry . T he l e ade r so ft h e c o mmun i ty d ec ided u pon t h e l e v ie s mo s t p robab ly o n t h e b a s i s o fa g r adua ted s y s t em t a k ing i n to a c coun tt h ee conom ic s t a tu so ft h ei n hab i tan t s ; ak i nd o fp rog r e s s ive t a xw i th t h er i ch p ay ing mo r et han t h ep oo r . O ft h i s ,h oweve r ,t h e r ei sn oi n d ica t ion i nt h ew r i t ten s ou r ce s . U pon w hom w a s t h e c o mmun i ty t a xl e v ied? I tw a sc e r ta in t h a t t h e c ommun i ty t a xw a s l e v i ed u pon t h eh ead so ff am i l ie s ;i ti sp robab le t h a to the rm a le a du l t so fa tl e a s tt w en ty y ea r so fa g ew e r e a l so r e qu i r ed t op ay . T he t a xw a s s im i la rt ot h e h a lf sheqe 1t a xl e v ied f o rt h eT emp le i nJ e rusa lem p r io rt oi t sd e s t ruc t ion i n7 0 C .E . a nd i na c co rdance w i th E xodu s 3 0 :11 16 . T h e mo ra l o bl iga t ion o ft h e w ea l thy o ft h e c i ty o r v i l lag e w a s t o d ona t e , a n a c t w h i ch a dded t ot h e i rl o ca lp r e s t ig e . On t h eo the rh and ,h ow ev e r ,a nd j u s ti no rde rt om ee tt h em in imum o ft h e i r o b l iga t ion st owa rd t h ec o mmun i ty , t h ep oo r e s t g ave o n ly aP e ru tah 1 6. T ho s e w i thou t f i nanc ia l m ean s d ona t ed d ay s o fw o rk o rt h em s e lv e s b u i l t p ubl i c i n s ta l la t ion s , e . g . , d i gg ing c i s te rn sf o rp ubl i cu s el 7 o rp l an t ing t r ee si np ubl i c p l ace s . T he v i l lag e c o mm i t tee r e nde r ed a m in imum o f s o c ia l s e rv ice s t o t h e m emb e r s o f t h e c ommun i ty ; s u ch a s as oup -k i tchen , P a s sove r a lm s f o r t h e p oo r , b u r ia l a nd t u to r ia l p aym en t s . T he t e a che rw a sp a id b yt h e c ommun i ty f o ru p t o2 5c h i ld r en , w h ich w a s t h e n orm . We r e t h e r e , 5 6

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

I I . I NSCR IPT IONS AND CO INS I N SYNAGOGUES

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

h ow ev e r , u p t o 4 0 c h i ld r en i nh i s c l a s s , h e w a s e n t i t led t ot h e h e lp o fa no the r t e a che r w ho s e p ay w a s s ub s id iz ed b yt h ec ommun i ty . I no the rc a s e st h ew ea l th ie s tp a id t h et e a che rf o rt h e i rc h i ld r en ' s s c hool ing a nd o nt ha t a c coun t s ome p oo rc h i ld r en c ou ld j o in f r ee o fc ha rg e . F rom t h e a bove w el e a rn t h a tt h e s o c ia l s e rv ice sw e r e a imed a ta l m emb e r so ft h ec ommun i ty , b u t e s p ec ialy t ot h e p oo r . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e s oc ia l s e r v ice s , r i tua l s e rv ice s a l so h ad t o b e f i nanc ed . T he se i n c lud ed t h e m a in tenance o ft h e s ynagogue , t h e ma in tenance o ft h e s e r v ice p rop e rt h e r e in , t h e p aymen tf o rt h e s ynagogue b ead le ( whe r e t h e r e w a s n o a r rang emen t f o r av o lun ta ry b ead le b y r o ta t ion ) , t h e c opy ing o f aT o rah sc rol , a nd f i naly , t h ep u r cha se o ft h e B ook so ft h e P rophe t s . T he i n sc r ip t ion s a l so r e f l ec t t ha t t h eu pkeep o ft h e s ynagogue s w a s d ep enden t o n p r iva te d ona t ion s . A l l t h i s w a s ama jo r b u rden o n t h e a ve rag e v i l lag e rw ho h ad t op ay o the r h eavy c ompu l so ry t a x e st ot h e g en t i le a u thor i t i e s o fE r e tz I s ra e l , s u ch a st h e t r ibu tum c ap i t i sa nd t h e t r ibu tum s o l i . T he t r ea su ry c o l lec ted t h e ma in d ona t ion s i n c a sh , b u t n o mo r e t han t h r e e a nnua l c ha r i ty d ona t ion s w e r e i mpo sed o n t h ec ommun i ty 1 8. Av i s i to r w ho s t ay ed i n av i l lag e f o r t h i r ty d ay s h ad t o g i ve t h e t r ea su ry ad ona t ion f o rt w e lve mon th s1 9, b u t h ow much t h i s w a s , i sn o t s t a ted . T h e d ona t ion s w e r e v a r iou s ly d e s igna ted . T he p u rpo se o ft h e ' Zedaqa ' w a s , i nt h e ma in , t o h e lp t h ep oo r , b u t s ome t im e s i tw a s d ed ica ted t ov a r iou s mun ic ipa l s e r v ice s . I tw a sp r e f e r r ed t ha t c ha r i tab le d ona t ion s b e h and l ed b y t h e s ynagogue t r ea sury ; c ha r i ty m ean t t a k ing c a r e o ft h ep oo r , t h e s i ck , t h e w idow s a nd t h e o rphan s . T h e ' P e s iqd" w a ss ome t ime sa no bl iga tory d ona t ion ,i no the rw o rd s , at a xo f ac e r ta in a moun t w a s i mpo sed o n t h e p eop le b y p ubl i c p r e s su r e . T hu s , t h e I l aham o r a no the r i mpo r tan t m embe r o f t h e c ommun i ty a nnounced a t t h e S abba th ' s m ee t ing i n t h e s ynagogue t h e p u rpo se o f t h e c ol e c t ion o f money a nd t ho s e p r e sen t h ad t o o b l ig e t h em s e lv e s t o d ona te c e r ta in a moun t s . A n i n sc r ip t ion i n t h e s ynagogue o f U s se f iyeh b l e s se s t ho se w ho f u lf i l led t h e i r o b l iga t ion s2 1 . I ti s , h ow eve r , a l so k nown t ha t p eop le w ho h ad o b l iga ted t h em s e lve s t od ona te t o c ha r i ty a nd d i d n o t d o s o2 w e r e s ummoned t oc ou r t . A c co rd ing t o B e th S hamma i , n o c ha r i ty s hou ld b e g i v en o n aS abba th t o t h e p oo r ; n o t e ven f o ro rphan s s hou ld ama r r iag eb e c onduc ted o n t h e S abba th . B u t a s mo s t c ommun i t ie s a c ted a c co rd ing t o B e th I l i l le l , c u s tom s w e r e n o t t h a t s t r ic t ly o b s e rved . T h e b o rde rl i ne b e twe en av o lun ta ry d ona t ion a nd at a x i ss ome t ime s u nc lea r . We c ome , f i na l ly , t o t h e t r ea su ry o f t h e Me ro th s ynagogue w h ich w a s t h e i mp e tu s f o r t h i s r e s ea r ch . S o f a r s ome 7 5 s ynagogue s h av e b e en d i scov e r ed a nd p a r t ly e x cava ted i nE r e tz I s ra e l : 2 0a r ei n J uda ea ; 2 0 i nt h e G a l i lee ; 8o the r s i nt h e N or th -Ea s ter np a r to fE r e tz I s ra e l ; a nd af u r the r 2o nt h e e a s t s i de o ft h e r i ve rJ o rdan ; a nd 2 5 a r e i nt h e G o lan H e igh t s . O ft h e se , i no n ly 1 3( i n c lud ing Me ro th ) w e r e c o in t r ea su r ie s d i scove r ed . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

B e th ' A lpha B e th -She ca r im C a e sa r ea C ap e rnaum E in -Ged i Gu sh -Ha lav

7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 .

I l ama t -T ib e r ia s K a tz r in C ho ra z in Ma coz I l a y im

( 1 929 ) -3 6c o in s ( 3 37 -5 27 C .E . ) ( 1 940 ) -1 2 00 c o in s ( 3 07 -3 52 C .E . ) ( 1 962 ) -3 700 c o in s ( 3 00 -3 52 C .E . ) ( 1 906 ) -2 70 s i l v e ra nd 1 2 75 b ronze c o in s ( 6 1 -270 C .E . ) ( 1 968 197 1 ) -?c o in s ( p e r iod ? ) ( 1 977 -1978 ) -2 27 c o in s i nt h e e x cava t ion a nd a h oa rd o f 1 4 5 c o in s , 10 o fw h ich a r e p rov inc ia l t e t rad ra chm s . ( 1 972 ) -3 1 c o in s ( l a te 4 t h c en tu ry ) ( 1 970 ) -8 2c o in s ( t he l a te s t P hoca s 6 03 C .E . ) ( 1 963 ) -4 00 c o in s ( 2 86 -3 50 C .E . ) ( 1 974 ) -5 0 c o in s ( p e r iod ? ) 5 7

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

1 . 1 2 . 1 3 .

Me ro th R ehov R immon

( 1 985 ) -4 82 c o in s , 2 44 o fw h ich a r eg o ld ( 4 98 -6 08 /09 C .E . ) ( 1 969 ) -2 7g o ld c o in s ( 7 th c en tu ry C .E . ) ( 1 979 ) -4 7g o ld c o in s ( l a te 4 t h t oe a r ly 6 th c en t . C .E . )

T he Me ro th s ynagogue t r ea su ry c on ta ined ah ug eh oa rd c on s i s t ing o f5 6s o l id i , 3 8s em i s se sa nd 1 5 0t r em i s s e s ( a l lg o ld c o in s ) , a sw el a s 25 f o lk sa nd 1 3h a l f -f o l le s( b ronz ec o in s )f r om Ana s ta s iu s ( 4 98 C .E . ) t o H e ra c l iu s ( 6 08 /09 C .E . ) , i . e . c ov e r ing t h e m a in p a r t o ft h e 6 t h c en tu ry C .E . F rom t h e a bov e l i s t o fc o in s d i s cov e r ed i ns ynagogue e x cava t ion sw el e a rn t ha t mo s tt r ea su r ie s c on ta in ed c o in s o ft h e L a te R om an a nd B yzan t ine p e r iod s ; t h e l a t te r i sc ove r ed i nt h e ma in b y b ronze c o in s o ft h e f o ll i sd enom ina t ion . G o ld c o in sw e r e r a r ea nd f ound o n ly i nl im i t ed n umbe r s . Wha t w a s t h e p u r cha s ing p owe r o ft h e se f o l le s d ur ing t h e s i x th a nd e a r ly s e v en th c en tu r ie s ? T he R abb in ic s ou r c e s s h ed s ome l i gh to nt h e s ub jec t a sw er e ad 2 3 t ha tt h ed a i ly w ag e so f aw o rke r r ang ed b e tween s i xa nd t e nf ola r e s ( f o l le s ) a nd t ha tt h ep r ic eo f ap ound o fm ea t o r al o a fo fb r ead w a s t wo f ola r e s2 4 .T he c ompa r i son o fw ag e s w i th p r ice s o ff ood s tuf f s g i ve s u s s om e i n d ica t ion o ft h es t anda rd o fl i v ing o ft h ea ve rag ev i lag e ra nd t h ep u r cha s ing p ow e ro ft h e mon ey a nd r e f l ec t s o nt h ec ompo s i t ion o ft h eh oa rd . T he r a te w a s 1s o l idu se qua lt o 1 8 0f o l le sw i th s l i gh tf l uc tua t ion s f r om t ime t ot ime . F rom t h e a bov e , i ta pp ea r s t ha t aw o rk e r e a rned a bou t o ne s o l idu s amon th . T h i s i sa bou t 4 0% l e s s t han a R oman l e g ionna i r e ' s s a la ry d u r ing t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c en tu r ie s w h ich w a s o n e a u reu s o fa bou t 7 . 5 g r s c ompa r ed w i th t h e a pp rox ima te ly 4 . 5 g r s . o ft h e s ol idu s . G o ld h ad as t ab le v a lue t h roughou t t h e a g e s ; p r ic e s , o n t h e o the r h and , w en t u p f r om c en tu ry t o c en tu ry , af a c t w h ich f u r the rr e duced t h e p u r cha s ing p owe ro ft h e w o rke r ' s mon th ly i n come . H ow much c ou ld a w o rke r , w ho h ad t o s uppor t h i s f am i ly a nd w ho p robab ly h ad n o p e rmanen tw o rk t h roughou tt h ey ea r , c on t r ibu te t ot h e c o mmun i ty t r ea sury ? As em i s s i s( 2 .35 g r s ) e qua l s 9 0f o l le sa nd at r em i s s i s( 1 .50 g r s ) 6 0f o l le s ,w h ich m ean sa pp rox ima te ly e l ev en d ay so fw o rk i n t h e c a s e o f t h e s em i s s e s a nd a pp rox ima te ly s e ven d ay s o f w o rk i nt h e c a se o ft h e t r em i s s e s . H oweve r , ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o ft h e i n hab i tan t s o f Me ro th s e em t o h ave b een f a rm e r s w ho p robab ly h ad amo r es t ab le i n come a nd c ou ld c on s equen t ly a f o rd t h ec on t r ibu t ion o f ah i ghe rs um t ot h e t r ea su ry . N e i the r d o w e k now , f o r e xamp le , i fas em i s s i s o r at r em i s s i s w a sa n a nnua l o ra q ua r te r ly c on t r ibu t ion . T ak ing i n to a c coun t , h oweve r , t h e f a c t t h a t n o mo r e t han t h r ee a nnua l c ha r i ty d ona t ion s2 5 , w e r ei mpo s ed o nt h ec ommun i ty i ti sl i k e ly t h a tt h es ame r u le w a sa l so a pp l ied i nt h e v i l lag e o f Me ro th . I fw ec onv e r tt h eg o ld c o in so ft h e Me ro th t r ea su ry i n to f o l le s ,w ea r r ive a tt h ee no rmou sf i gu r e o f 1 7 ,640 ; a dd ing t o t ha t t h e n umbe r o fb ronz e c o in s a c tua l ly f ound i nt h e h oa rd , w e r e a ch t h e f i gu r eo f 1 7 ,874 , w h ich i sc on s ide rab le c ompa r ed w i th t h e l ow n umb e r so ff o l le sf r om o t he rh oa rd s f ound i nt h e v a r iou s s ynagogue s a sm en t ioned a bov e . T h i s w ou ld a l so b e e x t r eme ly l a rg eb o th i n s i z e a nd w e igh t a nd w ou ld h ave r equ i r ed amuch l a rg e r t r ea su ry t han t h e o ne d i s cov e r ed . I ti s t h e r e f o r e l i ke ly t ha t mo s t c on t r ibu t ion s w e r e e i the r made i n g o ld o r c hang ed i n to g o ld b y t h e t r ea su r e rf o rt h e c onven i ence o ft h e s ma l le rv o lume a nd w e igh t . C on s ide r ing n ow t h e Me ro th t r ea su r y w h ich , b y i t s n a tu r e , w a s a" c a sh f l ow " w i th i n com ing a nd o u tgo ing s um s a nd n o t af r oz en h oa rd , w e may e s t ima te t ha t t h e c o mmun i ty o f Me ro th manag ed r a th e rw e l lw i th i t sp ub l ic f und s . We a r e , h oweve r , u nab le t o t e l l w ho c on t r ibu t ed h ow mu ch a nd o n w ha t b a s i s , v o lun ta ry o ro bl iga tory . I n g en e ra l , f r a c t ion s o fs o l id i , n ame ly s em i s s e s a nd t r em i s s e s , a r e r a the r r a r e t oday c ompa r ed w i th t h e a ppea ran ce o fs ol id i . H ow ev e r ,t h e i ra ppea rance i nt h e Me ro th t r ea su ry i ns u ch r e la t iv e ly h i gh n umb e r s f i nd s a n e cho i nt h e c a sh d ona t ion s m en t ion ed i nv a r iou s s ynagogue i n sc r ip t ion s : E sh temo ca : 1t r em i s s i s ; G ada ra : 5s o l id i a nd 1t r em i s s i s ; G ada ra : ( Bne i I l a ci r ,i . e . m embe r s o ft h e c o mmun i ty ) : 1t r em i s s i s ; G ada ra : 1s em i s s i s ; a nd Ma con : 3s o l id i . T he J ew s i n E r e tz I s ra e l l i ved a mong g en t i le s a nd t h e mode l o f t h e manag em en t o f t h e G ra eco -Roman p o l i s w a s a th and . T h i s p o l i s h ad as y s tem o ft a x -colec t ion a nd o fs e rv ice . T h e w ea l thy f i nanced mo s t o ft h e c o mmun i ty s e rv ice s , w h ich e nab led t h em t o i nf luen c e t h e i n ter na l a nd e x te rna l p ol i c ie s o ft h e c i ty . T he J ew i sh c o mmun i t ie s i ng en t i le c i t ie s a c cu s tomed t h em s e lve s t ot h ec ommun i ty l i f el e dt h e r ea nd a dop t ed t h ec u s tom o ft h ef o r e ign t a x -colec t ion s e r v ice s y s tem a nd t h e manne ri nw h ich d ona t ion s w e r e m ade a mong g en t i l e s . T h e s y s tem o f t a xa t ion /dona t ion c onduc ted i n t h e J ew i sh v i l lag e s b y t h e l e ad e r s o f t h e c o mmun i t i e s p o in t s t o i t s p opu la r c ha ra c te r . T he c oope ra t ion o fa l m embe r s o ft h e c o mmun i ty 5 8

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

i nc a r ry ing t h e b u rden o ft h e v i l lag e b udg e t r e duced t h e s u sp ic ion t h a t t h e r i ch m ino r i ty m igh t i n f luence t h e d i r e c t ion o ft h e c ommun i ty ' s a c t iv i t ie s . T o s umma r iz e , i ns p i te o ft h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e J ew i sh p opu la t ion w a s p oo r a nd h eavy t a xb u rd en sw e r ei mpo sed o nt h em b yt h eg en t i le a u tho r i t ie s , ac on s ide rab le e f o r tw a s made b y t h ec o mmun i t ie st ol e ad a no r d ina ry l i f e , i n c lud ing a l t h e a sp ec t s o fi t sJ ew i sh c ha ra c te r . T he Me ro th t r ea su ry may w el s e rv ea sa n i l u s t ra t ion o ft h i s .

ACKNO WLEDG MENT T he a u tho r w i shes t o e xp re ss h i s g ra t i tude t o D r . Z eev S a f ra i f o r h i s u sefu l r ema rks a nd b ib l iog raph ica l h in t s a nd t o D r . Z v i I l an f o r h i s p e rm is s ion t o u se t h e ma te r ia l o ft h e Me ro th t r ea su ry .

NOTFS I .

T osef ta , B aba Me tz ia , x i , 2 3 .

2 .

P a le s t in ian T a lmud v i i i , 2 1 , p . 2 .

3 .

Naveh , J . , O n S tone a nd Mosa i c , T he A rama i c a nd Heb rew I nsc r ip t ions f rom A nc ien t S ynagogue s , ( Heb rew ) , p p .19 -23 . J e rusa lem 1 97 .

4 .

T osef ta , Meg i l lah ,i i i , 4 : 15 .

5 .

B aby lon ian T a lmud , x xv i , p . l .

6 .

Naveh , o p .c i t . , p . 72 .

7 .

Naveh , o p .c i t . , p . 92 .

8 .

Naveh , o p .c i t . , p . 103 .

9 .

Av i -Yonah , M . , " Va r ious s ynagogua l r ema in s -H i lda " , L ou is R ab inow i tz F und , B u l l e t in I I ( 1 960 ) , p p .5 1-60 .

1 0 .

T osef ta , S heb l i t , v i i , 9 ; T osef ta , P eah , i v ; P a le s t in ian T a lmud , D ema l i , 2 3 , p . 2 .

1 .

M i shna , B aba B a thra , I ;5 ;P a l e s t in ian T a lmud , B aba B a thra IB aby lon ian T a lmud , B aba B a thra v i i , 1 .

1 2 .

T osef ta , P e sah im i ,1 7 ; M i shna , T e rumo th , I .

1 3 .

S h . Z ucke r , " Reac t ions t o t h e K a ra i te A ve i le i Z ion movemen t i n t h e R abb in ic L i te ra tu re " , F e s t schr if tf o r Hanoch A lbe ck , J e ru sa lem 1 963 ( Heb rew ) , p . 396 .

1 4 .

P a le s t in ian T a lmud v i i i , 2 1 , p . 1 .

1 5 .

P a l e s t in ian T a lmud , D ema l i , 2 3 , p . 2 .

1 6 .

T osef ta , P eah , i v , 1 0 .

1 7 .

T osef ta , B ama K ama v i , 5 ;T osef ta , B aba Me tz ia I ,2 7 -31 .

1 8 .

P a l e s t in ian T a lmud , S heqa l im i ,4 6 , p . 4 .

1 9 .

T osef ta , P eah i v , 9 ;

2 0 .

T osef ta , T e rumo th i ,1 0 ; P a l e s t in ian T a lmud , T e rumo th i ,4 0 , p . 2 ; R av i ' , G if i n , I i , p . 1 .

2 1 .

Naveh , o p .c i t . , p . 66 .

2 2 .

T osef ta , S ukkah , i ,5 ;B aby lon ian T a lmud , S ukkah x x ix , p . 2 .

2 3 .

G enes is R abba l x x , 1 3 .

2 4 .

G ene s i s R abba x i x , 7 .

5 9

PLATE XXX

1

3

2

4

5

F ig . 1 .

Co ins 1-S o l idus ( Jus t in ianus 15 27 -5 65 CE ) ; 2 -S em iss is ( Jus t inus I 5 65 -5 78 CE ) ; 3 -T re m iss is ( Jus t inus 1 5 65 -5 78 CE ) ; 4 -F o l l is ( Jus t in ianu s 15 27 -5 65 CE ) ; 5-Ha lf -Fo l l is ( Jus t inus 1 5 65 -5 78 CE ) . ( A l l t he c o ins a re f r om t he Me ro th t r ea su ry ) .

D I D A NC IE NT SA M A R ITA N INSCR IPT I O NS BEL O N G TO SY N A G O G UES? J oseph Naveh H eb r ew U n ive r s i ty , J e ru sa lem T h e a n c ien t S ama r i tan i n sc r ip t ion s k nown t o d a te a r e i n la id i n mo sa ic p av emen t s , e ng rav ed o n s t on e , o r i n sc r ib ed o n b ron z e a mu le t s a nd p o t te ry l amp s . E a ch o f t h e t h r ee e x tan t mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion s i n S ama r i tan l e t te r s w a s u nea r thed , t og e the r w i th G r eek d ed ica to ry i n s c r ip t ion s , i n B e th -She a n , T e l l Q a s i le a nd S ha c a l b i tn , i n b u i ld ing s w h ich w e r e c on s equen t ly d ef ined a s S ama r i tan s ynagogu e s . Whe r ea s i nB e th -She can t h e S ama r i tan l e t te r s c omp r i s e t h e G r eek v o t ive t e x t K t )p te f 3 or lIc t . E c ppa t . Kat O tVC tV ( Nav eh 1 9 8 1 ) , t h e T e l Q a s i le mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion i si n S ama r i tan A rama ic ( T sa f r i r 1 9 8 1 ; Ma cuch 1 9 85 ) ,a nd t ha tf r om S ha ca lb im i st h eS ama r i tan v e r s ion o f t h e H eb r ew v e r se s E xodu s 1 5 :18 -n n t e iv 1 5 7 3 ' f i n e ( Suken ik 1 949 ) . T he se t h r ee b u i ld ing s a nd t h e i n sc r ip t ion s i nt h em a r e s o f a r t h e o n ly c l ea r r ema in s o fa nc ien t S ama r i tan s ynagogue s . I ti s , h ow eve r , g ene ra l ly a s sumed t ha t s ome t wo d oz en a nc ien t S ama r i tan i n sc r ip t ion s e ng rav ed o n s t one , mo s t o fw h ich w e r ef ound i nS he chem a nd i t s v i c in i ty , a sw e l l a si n Emmau s , G a za a nd e l s ewhe r e , b e long ed t oS ama r i tan s ynagogue s . R eeg ( 1 977 : p . 55 1) , i nt h e E ng l i sh s umma ry o fh i s w o rk o na nc ien t S ama r i tan s ynagogue s w ro te a sf o l low s : Mo s t o f t h e se i n sc r ip t ion s c i te t h e D eca logue , b u t p a s sag e s f r om E x . 1 5 , N um . 1 0 , D eu t . 4a l so s e em t o h ave b een f am i l ia r . A no the r i n sc r ip t ion c i te s t h e T en Wo rd s o f C r ea t ion . Al i t u rg ica l t e x t w a s f ound i n c Imwa s . A t p r e s en t t h e r e i sn o e v idenc et ha t t h e s e i n sc r ip t ion s o r ig ina ted i n as ynagogue s i nce n one o ft h em w a sf ound i nc onn ec t ion w i th a s ynagogu e ( my i t a l i c s -J .N . ) . . . S ome o ft h e s t one s u s ed f o r t h e i n sc r ip t ion s , h owev e r , i nd ica te t ha t t h ey w e r e u sed i n p ub l ic b u i ld ing s . . . A l l t h e t e x t s a r e a l so c ommon t o t h e S ama r i tan l i t u rgy . T he r e f o r e , i t s e em s s a f e t o c on s ide r t h e se i n s c r ip t ion s a se v idence f o r as ynagog ue , e ven i ft h i s c anno t b e d ef in i te ly e s tabl i shed . S i x te en a nc ien t S amar i tan a mu le t s h ave b een u ncove r ed t o d a te ( Pumme r 1 9 87 ) . T he se a r e ma in ly b ronze p endan t s a nd r i ng s b ea r ing a bb r ev ia ted v e r s ion s o f P en ta teucha l v e r se s , t h e mo s t c ommon o f wh ich a r e f i n, n t np ( Num . 1 0 :35 ) ; 11 '2 f i n e ( Ex . 1 5 :3 ) ; -r n t 4 f i n, ( D eu t . 6 : 4 ) ; p ier 5 ND p r t ( Deu t . 3 :26 ) ;1 NDi f in , e m ,2( Ex . 1 5 :26 ) . Mo s t o ft h e s e v e r se s a r e w e l l -known mJ ew i sh mag ica l t e x t s ( Naveh a nd S haked , p . 98 , 1 46 , 1 8 7 , 2 39 ; N aveh , f o r thcom ing ) . T h e s hor t i n s c r ip t ion s i nG r eek , S ama r i tan o r P a le s t in ian C hr i s t ian A rama ic , o np o t te ry l amp s f r om t h el a te R oman , B y zan t in e a nd e a r ly I s lam ic p e r iod s , h ave as t rong a f in i ty w i th l i t u r gy a nd mag i co ft ha tp e r iod . T he f i v el amp sb ea r ing S ama r i tan t e x t sa r eI nn 1 3 " al amp t ob u rn a lway s " , ( Ex . 2 7 :20 ; L ev . 2 4 :2 ) ;n t 2Nn n i tn N 5 i n i n " i ti sc u r s ed " ( Deu t . 7 : 26 ) " t he [ l and ) s ha l l n o t b e s own , n o r s hal b ea r [ g ra in l " ( D eu t . 2 9 :22 ) ; 1 1V .P 5 1 43 ( Deu t . 3 :26 ) ; r i n lp ( Num . 1 0 :35 ) a nd t h e S ama r i tan l e t te r si na l phab e t ica l o rde rf r om a l ef t on un ( Naveh 1 9 87 ) . N ow , ac ompa r i son b e twe en t h e S ama r i tan i n sc r ip t ion s o n s t one , mo sa ic , a mu le t s , a nd l amp s c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te s t ha t t h e mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion s f o rm as e pa ra te g r oup , w he r ea s t h e t h r ee o the r s h av ev e ry much i nc o mmon . Mo s to ft h ev e r s e s c i ted i nt h es t one i n sc r ip t ion sr e cu ri na bb r ev ia ted f o rm s o n t h e S ama r i tan a mu le t s a nd i n s c r ibed l amp s ( Nav eh 1 9 87 a nd f o r thcom ing ) . I tt h e r e f o r e s e em s l i ke ly t ha t Mo se s G a s te r ' s s t a temen t made mo r e t han s e ven ty y ea r s a go i ss t il v a l id . D i s cu s s ing s ome m ed ieva l o r mode rn S ama r i tan a mu le t s , h e w ro te r e ga rd ing t h e S ama r i tan i n s c r ip t ion s o n s t one -b o th t ho s e f r om a n t iqu i ty a nd f r om t h e M idd le A g e s -a sf olow s ( Ga s te r 1 9 15 , p p .135 -136 : T he S ama r i tan i n s c r ip t ion s w h ich h ave h i the r to b een d i s cove r ed a nd w h ich s e em t or ang ef r om t h ef i f th t ot h ef ou r te en th c en tury , a r eo f av e ry p ecul ia rc ha rac te r . T hey a r e t o al a rg e e x ten t i n sc r ip t ion s o n l i n te l s a nd d oorpo s t s . T he l i n te l s a nd d oo rpo s t s w e r e u sed a st h e p l a ce sw h ich w e r e mo s tc on sp i cuou su pon w h ich t ow r i te o rt o make s i gn s a nd ma rk s o f as ymbol i ca l c ha ra c te r , a si st e s t if i ed b y t h e c ommand i nE x . x i , 2 , t ha t t h e I s ra e l i te s i nE gyp t s hou ld s p r ink le t h e b lood o ft h e P a sca l L amb o ve r t h e l i n te l s a nd d oo rpo s t s s ot ha t t h e a ng e l o fd e s t ruc t ion b eho ld ing t h e b lood s hou ld p a s s o v e r t he h ou se s o ft h e I s ra e l i t e s a nd l e ave t h em u nhu r t . A mo r e d ef in i te i n junc t ion w e f i nd i n D eu t . v i , 9 ,w hen i ts a y s : " Ye s ha l l w r i te t h em u pon t h e d oo rpo s t s o ft hy h ou se s a nd u pon t hy g a t e s ." T h i s c ommand h a s b een t a ken l i t e ra l ly b y t h e J ew s a nd 6 1

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

t h e S ama r i tan s . T he J ew s , h oweve r , h ave mod if i ed i ti n a smuch a st h ey d o n o t w r i te t h e i n sc r ip t ion o n t h e v e ry d oo rpo s t s a nd l i n te l s b u t u se s mal s c rap s o f p a r chmen t u pon wh ich t h ey w r i te t wo s e c t ion sf r om D eu t . v i , 4 9 ; x i , 1 3 -2 1 , w h ich a l so f o rm p a r t o ft h e t e f i l l in . T he se a r e f a s tened t o t h e d oo rpo s t s a nd h ave t h ence t a ken t h e n ame o fm ezuzah . T he S ama r i tan s h ave i n te rp r e ted t h i s c ommand d if e r en t ly . T hey h ave t a ken " t he w o rd s " m en t ioned i nv e r s e 6t om ean " t h e w o rd s , " i . e . , t h e " t en w o rd s " o r t h e " Ten C ommandmen t s , " a nd w e f i nd t h e r e f o r e o n s ome o f t h e S ama r i tan monumen t s e i the r t h e w ho le o r p a r t o ft h e T en C ommandmen t s . . . B u t t h e s e a r e n o t t h e o n ly w o rd s w h ich a r e f ound i n t h e S ama r i tan i n sc r ip t ion s t h e p rophy la c t ic c ha ra c te r o f wh ich s t and s o u t mo s t p rom inen t ly w hen c a r e fu l ly e xam ined . O the r v e r s e s h ave b e en s e l ec ted f r om t h e B ib le b e s ide s t h e T en C ommandmen t s . . . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e i n sc r ip t ion s .c on ta in s ympa th e t ic a nd s ymbo l ica l s en tence sf r om t h e P en ta teuch , w o rd s o fp ro tec t ion o ro fb l e s s ing . . . S ome o ft h e s e r e f e r t o t h e d e s t roy ing a ng e l w ho s hou ld p a s s o v e r t h e h ou s e w i thou t c au s ing a ny h u r t o r h a rm t o t h e i nma te s . A f te rt a k ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h ee v idenc e a va i lab le t oday ,t h e r ec an h a rd ly b ea ny d oub tt ha t G a s te r ' s o p in ion i s much mo r ej u s t if i ed t han t h ec u r r en t v i ew . E ven R eeg a dm i t st h a ti nt h el i n te l i n sc r ip t ion f ound a t Emmau s " Da s Z i ta t a u s E x . 1 2 :23 w e i s t e he r a u fe i n P r iva thau s a l s a u fe i ne S ynagog e h in ." ( p .608 ) . T he r e i sn o r e a son f o r s uppo s ing t h a t t h e a nc ien t S ama r i tan s ynagogue s i n P a l e s t in e d if e r ed e s sen t ia l ly f r om t h e J ew i sh o ne s o f t h a t t ime . T he i n sc r ip t ion s i n a nc ien t J ew i sh s ynagogue s , e ng raved o n s t one , i n la id i n mo sa ic , o r w r i t ten o n p l a s te r w a l l s , w e r e ma in ly d ed i ca to ry i n sc r ip t ion s . T ex t s s im i la r t o t ho s e o ft h e S ama r i tan s t one i n sc r ip t ion s w e r e v i r tua l ly n o t f ound i n t h e a nc ien t J ew i sh s ynagogue s . ' T he o n ly J ew i sh e qu iva len t t o t h e S ama r i tan i n sc r ip t ion s w a s d i scov e r ed i nP a lmy ra (01 , N o s . 8 2 1 -823 ) . T he r e o n al i n te l , D eu t . 6 : 4 -9 , a nd o n t h e a d ja cen t d oorpo s t , D eu t . 7 : 15 , w e r e e ng rav ed . M i t twoch ( 1 902 ) r i gh t ly a r gued t ha t t h e se b e long ed t o t h e e n t ran ce o f ap r iva te h ou se . T he p rophy la c t ic c ha ra c te r o f t h e se v e r s e s i sq u i te c l ea r ; t h ey r e cu r f r equen t ly i nJ ew i sh a mu le t s a nd m ag ic t e x t s . I n B .7 ' . B aba Me tzra 1 07b t h e e xp r e s s ion " a l l s i ckne s s " i n D eu t . 7 : 15 w a s i n te rp r e ted a s " e v i l e ye " . T h i s v e r se i sp a ra l le l t o E x . 1 5 :26 w h i ch i sv e ry c o mmon i nb o th J ew i sh a nd S ama r i tan a mu le t s( Nav eh ,f o r thcom ing ) . M i shna S anhed r in 1 0 : 1 s a y st ha t A l l I s ra el i te sh av e as ha r ei nt h ew o r ld t oc ome . . .A nd t h e se a r et h ey t ha th ave n o s ha r e i nt h ew o r ld t oc ome . . , o rh et ha tu t te r sc ha rm so ve r aw ound a nd s a y s " Iw il p u tn one o ft h e d i sea s e s u pon y ou . . ." ( Ex . 1 5 :26 ) . A s m en t ioned a bov e , mo s t o ft h e P en ta teuch v e r s e s c i ted i nt h e S ama r i tan s t one i n sc r ip t ion s w e r e u s ed i nt h e J ew i sh i n can ta t ion t e x t s . T he D eca logue s e em s t ob e e x cep t iona l i nt h i s r e spec t . T he r e a r e , h oweve r , t wo a nc ien t J ew i sh o ccur r ence s o f t h e D eca logue , a nd i n b o th c a s e s t h ey a ppea rt og e th e rw i th t h e s h ema c ( D eu t . 6 : 4f . ) : ( 1 ) t h e s e cond -c en tu ry B .C .E . N a sh p apy ru s f r om E gyp t c on ta in s t h e D eca logue a nd D eu t . 6 : 4 -5 ( A lb r igh t 1 9 37 ) ; ( 2 ) i n at e f i l l in f r om Q um ran ( i . e . p r eda t ing 7 0 C .E . ) , a mong o the r P en ta teucha l t e x t s t h e s h ema c a nd t h e D eca logu e a r e a l so i n c luded ( Yad in 1 969 ) . I ts e em s l i ke ly t ha t t h e N ash p apy ru s s e rved e i the r a s a n a mu l e t o rf o ra v e ry s im i la rp u rpo se . T hu s , i nt h e S econd T emp le p e r iod t h e D eca logue w a s s t i l l aJ ew i sh p ray e r a nd p r e sumab ly i th ad ap rophy la c t ic f unc t ion . O n ly l a te rd i d i tf a l l i n to d i su se , a sP .T . B erakho t 1 : 8 , 3 c t e s t if i e s : T he D eca logue s hou ld h ave b een r e c i ted e ve ry d ay , b u t i ti sn o t d one b ecau s e o f t h e c l a im o ft h e m in im t ha t i tw a s o n ly g i ven t o Mo s e s o n Moun t S i na i . A s sum ing t ha t t h e a nc i en t S ama r i tan s ynagogue s d i d n o t d if e r e s sen t ia l ly f r om t h e c on tempo ra ry J ew i sh o ne s o n t h e o n e h and , a nd a f t e r d ef in ing t h e p rophy lac t ic n a tu r e o f t he P en ta teucha l t e x t s i n t h e S ama r i tan i n sc r ip t ion s e ng raved o n s t one o n t h e o the r , i t may b e c onc luded t ha t t h e a nc ien t S ama r i tan i n s c r ip t ion s o n s t one , o ra tl e a s t mo s t o ft h em , b e long ed t o p r iva te h ou se s . A s D eu t . 6 : 9 c o mmand s , t h ey w e r e w r i t ten " upon t h e p o s t s o ft hy h ou s e , a nd o n t hy g a te s . " T h e i rp u rpo se w a s t op ro tec t t h e h ou s e s a nd t h e i rd we l le r s f r om t he e v i l e y e ,d emon s , s p i r i t s , s i ckne s se s a nd o the rm i sf or tune s .

6 2

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988 NOTE I .T he o n ly e xcep t ion i sp e rhap s t he l i n te l i n sc r ip t ion c i t ing D eu t . 2 8 :6 , " B le ssed s ha l l y ou b e w hen y ou c ome i n , a nd b l e ssed s ha l l y ou b e w hen y ou g o o u t " , wh ich w a s f ound i n Ho rva t Ma r ish . A cco rd ing t o t he e xcava to rs ( I lan a nd Dama t i 1 987 , p . 56 ) i tb e longed t o aB e th M id ra sh t ha t w a s b u i l t i n ar e la t ive ly l a te p e r iod ( a f te r t he m idd le o f t he s even th c en tu ry ) .

B IBL IOGRAPHY A lb r igh t , W .F . 1 937 " A B ib l ica l F ragmen t f r om t he Maccaba ean A ge : T he Na sh P apy rus , J RL 5 6„ p p .145 176 . C IJ J . -B . F rey , C o rpus I ns c r ip t ionum J uda icarum , I , Rome 1 952 . Ga s t e r , Mo ses 1 9 15 " Sama r i tan P hy lac t e r ie s a nd Amu le t s " , P SRA 3 7 , p p .97 107 ; 1 35 144 ; 1 63 174 , I l an , Z . & Dama t i , E . 1 987 " Kh . Ma rus ( Me ro t ) , 1 985 1986" , I EJ 3 7 , p p .54 -57 . Macuch , Rudo lf 1 985 " A N ew I n te rp re ta t ion o ft he S ama r i tan I nsc r ip t ion f r om T e l l Qa s i le " , ! EJ 3 5 , p p .183 185 . M i t twoch , E ugen 1 902 " Heb rä ische I nsch r if t en a us P a lmy ra " , B e i t räge z u r A s sy r io log ie 4 ,p p .203 -206 . Naveh , J . 1 981 " A G reek D ed ica t ion i nS ama r i tan L e t ter s " , I EJ 3 1, p p .220 -222 . 1 987 " Insc r ip t ions o n P o t t e ry L amps " , E l 1 9 , p p .266 -269 ( Heb rew w i th E ng l i sh s u mma ry ) . F o r thcom ing : " Some C ons ide ra t ions o n t he Anc ien t S ama r i tan I nsc r ip t ions " . Naveh , J .& S haked , S . 1 982 Amu l e ts a nd Mag i c B ow l s : A rama i c I ncanta t ions o fL a te A n t iqu i ty , J e ru sa lem -L e iden . P umme r , R e inha rd 1 987 " Sama r i tan Amu le t s f r om t he Roman -Byzan t ine P e r iod a nd T he i r Wea re rs " , RB 9 4 , p p .25 1-263 . R eeg , Go t tf r ied 1 977 D ie a nt iken S ynagogen i n I s rae l , I , W iesbaden . S uken ik , E .L . 1 949 " The S ama r i tan S ynagogue a tS a lb i t " , B u l l e t in o ft h e L ou i s M . R ab inow i tz F und f o r t he E xp lo ra t ion o fA nc ien t S ynagogues , I ,p p .25 -30 . T sa f r i r , Yoram 1 981 " A N ew R ead ing o ft h e S ama r i tan I nsc r ip t ion f r om T e l l Qa s i le " , I EJ 3 1 , p p .223 -226 . Y ad in , Y iga e l 1 969 " Te f i l l in ( Phy lac t e r ie s ) f r om Qumran ( XQPhy l 1 4 ) " , E l 9 ,p p .60 -85 ( Il eb rew ) .

6 3

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

I V . SYNAGOGUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE

UN I DENT ICAL S Y M METR ICAL CO MPOS IT ION I N SYNAGOGAL ART R ache l H ach l i l i

Un ive r s i ty o fI l a i f a

A n t i the t ic s ymme tr ica l c ompo s i t ion , w h ich o c cu r s i nf i gu ra t ive a nd d e co ra t ive s ub jec t s , i so ne o ft h e b a s ic e l emen t s o fO r i en ta l a r t ( f i g s . 1 3 ; A v i -Yonah 1 9 8 1 : 1 4 4 ) . T he se e xamp le s a l s how i d en t ica l f i gu r e s s ymme t r ica l ly f l ank ing ac en t ra l f i gu r e o r o b je c t . S ymme try i sa l so ad i s t inc t iv e f e a tu r e o f J ew i sh a r t w he r e t h i s c ompo s i t ion i su nconven t iona l i n t h e manne r i n wh ich i ti s r e p r e s en ted : e i th e r 1 )r e nde r ed i na n u n id en t i ca ls ymme t ry ; o r 2 )i na n u n symme t r ica l d e s ign b y t h e d ep ic t ion o fd if e r en t f l ank ing mo t i f s ( Hach l i l i 1 9 88 : 3 76 -379 ) . 1 .F r equen t ly a n t i the t ic d e s ign sa r e c ompo sed s ymme t r ica l ly , e v en t hough s ome o b jec t so ra n ima l s a r e c l ea r ly n o t i d en t i ca l , a nd a r e i n ten t ional y r e p r e sen ted d i s s im i l a r l y . T h i s c ha rac te r i s t ic i sf ound mo s t ly o n s ynagogue mo sa i c p av emen t s . T h i s t e ndency b eg in s i nt h e t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r i e s a nd i t sp opu la r i ty i n c r ea s e sd u r ing l a te r p e r iod s . I mp r e s s ive e xamp le s o ft h i s u n iden t ica l s ymme t ry t e ndency a r e f o und i n t h e r e p r e s en ta t ion s o n s ynagogue mo sa ic p avemen t s : a ) A s ymme t r ica l c ompo s i t ion o f aT o rah s h r ine f l anked b y m eno ro th a nd r i tua l o b je c t s i s d ep i c ted o n s e v e ra lp ane l s . ( Fo re xamp le , t h e B e th h lpha T o rah s h r ine p ane l ( f i g .4 ) i su n iden t ica l i na lmo s t a l i t sh e ra ld ic e l emen t s : t h e m enoro th f l ank ing t h e A rk a r e u n iden t ica l i nt h e i rb a se s a nd i nt h e l amp s o n t h e b a r ; t h e f ou r r i tua l o b jec t s a r e e a ch d ep ic ted d if e r en t ly ; t h e t wo l i on s a pp ea r s im i la rb u t h av e d if e r en t t a i l s ; a nd t h e b i rd s a r e e a ch r e nde r ed d if e r en t ly . I nt h e c en t r eo ft h e B e th h lpha z od iac p ane l( f i g .5 )t h eh o r se s ,t wo o ne a ch s i de o ft h es un g od , a r e r e nde r ed s ymme tr ica l ly b u t a r e p o r t rayed d if e r en t ly , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e i r h ead d eco ra t ion . T he m eno ro th i nt h e S u s iya p av emen t ( f i g . 6 )d if e rc omp le te ly f r om e a ch o the r , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e i r b ranche s , a nd b a s e s . T he e n t rance p ane l a t I l u s e i f a ( f i g 7 a ,b ) s how s t wo m eno ro th e a ch d ep i c ted i n ac omp le te ly d if e r en t manne r : w he r ea s o ne h a s p o t te ry l amp s , g l a s sl amp sa r e s hown o n t h e o the r ; f u r the rmo r e , t h e b ranche s a r e r e nde r ed d i s s im i la r ly . S l igh t ly u n iden t ica l i st h e I amma th T ib e r ia s u pp e r p ane l , s how ing a s ymme t r ica l r e nd i t ion ( f i g .8 ) , b u t e v en h e r et h er i t ua l o b jec t s : t h e l u la va nd e t hrog , t h e t wo s hof a ro th , a nd i n cen s es hov e l s a r e d i s s im i la r i nt h e i r d e ta i l s . T he s hof a ro th a nd t h e i n cen s e s hove l s d ep ic ted o n t h e s ynagogue p av em en t o fB e th S he can a r e e a ch d if e r en t ( f ig .9 ) . b ) On s e ve ra l s ynagogu e mo sa ic p avemen t s , a n ima l s f l ank i n s c r ip t ion s a nd m enoro th a s w e l l a st h eA rk . T he s e a n ima l sa r e u sua l ly s im i la r , a l though d if e r ence s i nd e ta i l sc an b ed i s t ingu i sh ed . T h e H amma th T ib e r ia s p av emen t s how s l i on s f a c ing e a ch o the r a c ro s s t h e i n s c r ip t ion ( f ig .1 0 a ) . T he s e l i on s d if e r i nf a c ia l d e ta i l s s u ch a st he i r c a r s . T he B e th S he can B s ma l l s ynagogue h a s a n i n s c r ip t ion f l anked b y b i rd s ( f i g .1 0b ) w h ich d if e r i ns i z e , t h e l e f t b e ing t h e l a rg e r . T h e cE n G ed i c en t ra l e mb lem s how s b i rd s s ymme t r ica l ly p l aced b u t w i th d if e r ence s i ns i z e a nd s t ance ( f i g .11 ) . c )T he N a ca ran B ib l ica l s c ene o f D an ie l f l anked b y l i on s d ep ic t s t h e l i on s s ymme t r ica l ly b u t e a ch w i th ad if e r en t t a i l p o s i t ion ( f i g .12 ) : t h e l e f tl i on h a s a n u pwa rd tu rned t a i l w he rea st h er i gh t l i on h a s h i s t a i l b e twe en h i s h i nd l e g s . T he e n t rance p ane l a t N a ca ran d ep ic t s t wo u n iden t ica l ( r epa i r ed ) s t ag sf a c ing e a ch o the r ( f i g .13 ) . O n t he T ib e r ia s s ynagogue mo sa ic p avemen t a n i n sc r ip t ion i sf l anked b y u n iden t ica l l u la v a nd e t h rog ( f ig .14 ) . O n t h e u pp e r p a r t o ft h e Ma con s ynagogue p avemen t t h e l i on s f l ank ing t h e m eno rah d if e ri n m ane a nd h ead s ( f i g .2 1 ) . 6 5

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

I n f une r a ry a r t a t B e th s h ea r im t h e s ame t e ndency i se ncoun te r ed . T he c a rv ing s o f t h e a ed icu la ef l ank ing t h ea r co so le ( f i g . 15 )a r ee xecu ted s ymme t r i ca l ly b u ta r ed if e r en ta nd u n iden t ica l : t h e l e f t d ep ic t s a n A rk i n s ide t h e a ed icu la , w he r ea s t h e r i gh t a ed icu la c on ta in s am eno rah . Meno ro th f l ank ing a r k s p a in ted i nr e d o n s e a l ing s t one s a r e u n iden t ica l ( f i g .16 , a b ) : a )t h e l e f t m eno rah h a s ah o r izon ta l b a r w i th l amp s w he r ea st h e r i gh t m eno rah l a ck s t h i s f e a tu r e . b ) On t h e o th e r d r aw ing o n ly t h e l e f t m enorah s how s l amp s o n i t s b a r . c )O n t h e o the r d ep i c t ion t h e l e f t m eno rah h a s f i v e b ranch e so n ly w h i le t h e r i gh t h a s s e ven . S ome o ft h e B e th S he ca r im s a r cophag i a l so e xh ib i t t h i s t e ndency t o u n iden t ica l s ymme t ry : t h e " Sh el " s a r cophagu s s how s t wo a ed icu la e a s ymme t r ica l ly d ep ic ted o n t h e p ane l o ft h e f a cade . E a ch a e d icu la h a s i ni tad if e r en t f i gu r e , o ne al i on , t h eo th e r ab i rd ( Av igad 1 9 76 : P 1 .43 ; 1 ) . T h e " L ion " s a r cophagu s i sd i s t ingu i shed b y i t s h e ra ld ic s c en e o f al i on a nd al i one s s f l ank ing a n u nf in i shed v a s e ( Av igad 1 9 76 : P 1 .40 ,1 ) . T he l i one s s i ss h or t e r , h a s al a rg e r , e x tend ed t ongu e , a nd h e re a r sa nd h i nd l e g sd if e rf r om t ho se o ft h el i on . T he l i on i sl a rg e rt h an h i sm a te . T he s ame d imen s iona ld if e r ence i ss e en o nt h es i de so ft h e " N ika e "a nd " Meno rah "s a r cophag i( Av igad 1 9 76 : P l s .46 : 2 , 3 ) , w h e r e s ymme t r ica l h e ra ld ic d o lph in s a r e r e p r e s en ted : o ne i sl a rg e r t han t h e o the r . A f u r the ru n iden t ica ls c ene i sc a r ved o nt h en a r row s i de o ft h e " S h e l l "s a r cophagu s : al i on a nd l i one s s f l ank a na n ima l , p robab ly ag a ze l le ( Av igad 1 976 : P l . XL I I I : 2 ) . 2 )D if f e r en t mo t i f s f l ank ing ac en t ra l d e s ign i n as ymme t r ica l c ompo s i t ion a r ee ncoun te r ed o n t h e b eau t i fu l r e l ie f f r om cE n N e shu t ( cE n S am sam , f i g . 17 ) w h ich p o r t ray s af i gu r e f l ank ed s ymme t r ica l ly b y al i on a nd al i one s sd if e r ing f r om e a ch o th e ri ns e x , s i z e , a nd t a i l p o s i t ion . T he e ag le sf l ank ing t h e s c ene a te a ch e nd a r ea l so u n iden t ica l . O the r r e p r e s en ta t ion s i n c lude h e ra ld ic d e s ign s o f mo t i f s o n c a rved s ynagogue l i n te l s : f o r i n s tance , l i n te l sf r om C ap e rnaum ( f i g . 1 8 a -c ) . Ac en t ra l mo t i fs u ch a s aw r ea th , c onch , o ra nA rk o ft h e S c rol si sf l ank ed b yt wo d i s s im i la rf l o ra l mo t i f sw h ich d if e re i the ri ns i ze o ri na c tua ld e s ign . T h e mo s t o u t s tand ing e xamp le o f t h i s f e a tu r e i sf ound i nt h e e n t rance p ane l o ft h e mo sa ic p av em en to ft h e B e th h lpha s ynagogue w he r e t h e i n sc r ip t ion i sf l anked b y al i on o no ne s i de a nd b y ab ul o n t h e o the r ( f i g .19 ) . A v i -Yonah ( 1 98 1 :5 1) m a in ta in s t h a t t h e a n ima l s w e r e s e lec ted f o r • t h e i rs ymbo l ic v a lue . 3 ) I nhab i ted s c rol p avemen t s s ome t ime s c on ta in a n t i the t ic d e s ign s w i th u n iden t ica l d e ta i l s ( Ha ch l i l i 1 9 87 ) . A t G aza s ome o ft h em eda l l ion s a r e i n hab i t ed b y s im i la rh e ra ld ic a n ima ls ( f i g .20 , r ow s 5 , 7a nd 9 ) ; e v en t h e se , h owev e r , s how d if e r enc e s : t h e l e opa rd s i nr ow 9h av e u n iden t i ca l t a i l s . I nr ow 3 ,d if e r en t a n ima l s f l ank ad og : al i one s s a nd h e r c ub o n o ne s i de a nd at i g r e s s o n t h eo th e r( f i g .20 ) . O n t h e Ma con s ynagogue p avemen t t h e t wo e l ephan t s i nr ow 8a r e r e nde red d if e r en t ly f r om e a ch o the r , p a r t icu la r ly t h e i rt r unk s ( f i g .2 1 ) . T he s ame a s ymme t r ica l p a t te rn m ay b e o b se r v ed i nf une ra r y a r t , f o r i n s tance t h e " Acan thu s " s a r cophagu s Aa t B e th S he ca r im ( Av igad 1 9 76 : f i g .66 ) . O n t h i s s a r cophagu s a r e c a rved t h r ee g a r land s , t h e c en t r a l g a r land c on ta in ing a l i on w h ich i sd ep ic ted f l anked b y r emnan t s o f t wo d if e r en t w ho r l s o fl e ave s . " Acan thu s " s a r cophagu s B( Av ig ad 1 9 8= 7 6 : f i g .67 ) h a s t wo d if e r en t r o se t te sd ep ic t ed a bov et h et wo l a te ra lg a r land s . H e ra ld ic s ymme t ry w i th u n iden t ica l e l emen t s i so n ly s e ldom e ncoun te r ed o n p agan r e l i e f s o f N aba tean t emp le s a nd t omb s ( G lueck 1 9 65 : P l s . 1 2 , 3 8a ,b , 5 4 a ,b , 1 6 7a ,b ,c , 1 7 7 ) , a sw e l l a s o n mo sa i c p avem en t s i nc hu r che s , s u ch a sS he i la ] , a nd t h e t own o f N ebo ( S a i le r a nd B aga t t i 1 9 49 : P l s . 1 4 :1 , 2 0 :1 -4 , 2 1 :1 , 2 8 :1 , 3 ,3 0 :1 , 3 4 :3 , 3 7 :3 , 3 9 :2 , e t c . ) . Un iden t ica l s ymme t ry w a s as t y le i n ten t iona l ly a dop ted b y t h e J ew s i np a r t icu la r a nd w a s a n i n teg ra lp a r t o fb o th J ew i sh s ynagoga l a sw e l l a sf u ne ra ry a r t .T he i n c l ina t ion t od ep i c tu n iden t ica l o b jec t so ra n ima l sw i th in t h eh e ra ld ic d e s ign mu s th ave b een i n ten t iona la si tw ou ld h av eb een j u s t a se a sy t op o r t ray c omp le te ly i d en t ica l d e s ign s . F ur the rmo r e , i tn eed n o t b e r e la t ed t ou n sk i l l f u l a r t i s t i c t r ea tm en t s i nce s ome d e s ign s d o u s e s ymme tr ica l p a t t e rn s . O ne m ay c on jec tu r e t ha t i ti s a s soc ia ted w i th ad e s i r e t oa vo id ap e r f ec t ion o n ly G od c ou ld a ch ieve . O n t h e o the r h and , t h i s t r end may h ave b een d u e t o t h e c ha ra c te r o f J ew i sh p opu la r a r t , t o t h e a r t i s t s ' s t anda rd s o f c ompo s i t ion , a nd t h e i rc u l tu ra le nv i ronmen t w h ich d i d n o t t r ad i t iona l ly d emand p e r f e c t ion . 6

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988 B IBL IOGRAPHY Av i -Yonah M . 1 981 O r ien ta l E lemen t s i n t he A r t o f P a le s t ine i n t h e Roman a nd B yzan t ine P e r iods i nA r t i n A nc ien t P a l e s t ine . J e rusa lem , p p . 1117 . Av igad N . 1 976 B e th S heca r im I l l . J e ru sa lem . G lueck 1 965 D e i t ies a nd D o lph ins . N ew Yo rk . Hach l i l i R . 1 987 . On t he Mo sa ic is t s o f " The S choo l o f Gaza " , E re tz I s rae l 1 9 ( Av i -Yonah v o lume ) 4 6 -58 ( Heb rew ) . Hach l i l i R . 1 988 Anc ien t J ew i sh A r t a nd A r chaeo logy i n t h e L and o fI s rae l . L e iden . S a l le r S .Y . & B aga t t i B . 1 949 T he T own o fN ebo . J e rusa lem .

L IST OF F I GU RES F ig . 1 . F ig . 2 . F ig . 3 a -c F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

4 , 5 . 6 . 7 a ,b . 8 . 9 . 1 0a ,b . 1 . 1 2 , 13 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6a -c 1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0 . 2 1 .

P laque o f s he l l i n lay f r om t he e nd o ft he s ound -box o f U r l y re . P a ir o f mons te rs w i th u p ra ised a rms , f r om C a rchem ish . 1 2 A f te r P r i tcha rd , T he Anc ien t N ea r E as t I n P ic ture s . 1 954 . N ew Yo rk N im rud I vo r ie s ; a f te r R .D . B a rne t t , T he N imrud I vo r ie s , L ondon 1 957 : P I .XXV I : S 20 ; b ) P I .XX II : S 47a ; c ) P l . XXX IV : S 50 . B e th ' A lpha mosa ic p avemen t s S usy ia mo sa ic p avemen t Hu se ifi mo sa ic p avemen t I lamma th T ibe r ia s mo sa ic p avemen t B e th S he ca n A mo sa ic p avemen t a ) I lamma th T ibe r ia s , b ) B e th S he ca n B . cE n Ged i mo sa ic p avemen t Naca ran , mo sa ic p avemen t T ibe r ia s s ynagogue mo sa ic p ane l . B e th S he ca r im t omb c a rv ing B e th S he ca r im p a in ted s t ones cE n N e shu t ( = E n S am sam ) r e l ief . Cape rnaum c a rved l i n t e l s . B e th ' A lpha e n t rance mo sa ic p ane l . Gaza s ynagogue mo sa ic p avemen t . Maco n mo sa ic p avemen t

6 7

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B a r I lan U n ive r s i ty , R ama t -Gan D oz en s o f s ynagogue s h av e b e en e x cava ted i n I s ra e l a nd a b road . F rom f r agmen ta ry i n sc r ip t ion s a nd l i t e ra ry e v id ence w e h ave i n f orma t ion a bou t mo r e t han o ne h und r ed s ynagogue s i n t h e D ia spo ra a nd n ea r ly a no the r h und r ed i n E r e tz I s rae l . F rom t h e e v e rg row ing c o rpu s o f a r cha eo log ica l d a ta , w e m ay d i scer nt h em any d if e r en t p l an s , b o th e x te rna la nd i n ter na l , b y wh ich s ynagogue s t ruc tu r e s w e r e d e s igned . h ow ev e r , t h e f u rn i sh ing w a s p r ima r i ly made o f w ood a nd t h e r e f o r e h a s n o t l e f t t a ng ib l e e v idenc e . T he p u rpo se o ft h i s a r t ic le i st o b r ing t og e the rb o th t h e e x tan t l i t e ra ry e v idence a nd t h e p a l t ry a r cha eo log ica l e v idence i no rde r t o c r ea te ap i c tu r e o ft h e p r ima ry f u rn ish ing so ft h ea nc ien t s ynagogue . Wh i le d o ing s o , w e s t r e s sr e g iona ld if e r enc e so nt h e o ne h and , a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd c h rono log ica l d ev e lopmen t o n t h e o the r . I .D o t h e P r ie s t s A scend t h eD ukhan? T h ep r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion ,o ne o ft h e mo s t a nc ien t a sp ec t so ft h ed i v ine s e r v ice i nt h e s y nagogue , o r ig ina t ed i nt h e T emp le s e r v i ce . Af t e rt h e d e s tr uc t ion o ft h e S econd T emp le , R abban Y ochanan b en Z akka i i n s t i tu ted t h e p r ie s t ly b en ed ic t ion i nt h e s ynagogue a s ar em ind e ro ft h eT emp le . ' T he t e rm s u sed t o d e sc r ibe t h i s c e r emony w e r e n e s ia t k apa im ( r a i s ing o f h and s ) a nd a l i ya l a -dukhan ( a scend ing t he p od ium ) . T h e l a t te r t e rm w a s i n co rpo ra ted i nJ ew i sh l i t e ra tu r e t o t h e d eg r ee t ha t i n Y idd i sh t h e r oo t " dkhn " b ecame a v e rb t ha t m ean t t o u t te r t h e p r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion ( dukhan en ) . I ti sd oub tf u lw he the rt h e many u s e r so ft h et e rm " a scend ing t h ed ukhan "e v e ra sk ed t h em se lve s w ha ti st he e t ymo log ica ls ou r ce a nd h i s to r ica lb ackg round o ft h et e rm . Wha tw a st h ed ukhan u pon w h i ch t h e p r ie s t s a s cend ed i no rde rt ou t te rt h eb ened ic t ion? I nt h eT emp le ,t h ep r ie s t ss t ood u pon t h e s t ep s o ft h e h a l l ( c f . T o s ef ta , S o ta , 4 : 7 a nd p a ra l le l p a s sag e s ) . B u t t h e d ukhan w a s ak i nd o f s mal s t ag e o r s h e l f , t h e l i k e s o f w h ich w e h ave n o r e co rd i nt h e d a i ly l i f e o ft h e s y nagogue ; a n i n v e s t iga t ion o f t h e h i s to r ica l c on tex t d ur ing w h ich t h e t e rm w a s c o ined w i l l e nab le u s t o u nd e r s tand i tb e t te r . T he s ou r ce o ft h e t e rm " a s c end ing t h e d ukhan " T he e xp re s s ion a l i ya l a -dukhan a pp ea r s i n an umbe r o f s ou r c e s , a l o f t h em e i the r i n t h e B aby l on ian T a lmud o r i nw r i t ing s t h a t d r aw o n t h e B aby l on ian T a lmud ; i np a ra l le l s ou r ce s f r om E r e t z I s ra e l t h e t e rm u s ed i sa lway s n ' e s ia t k apa im . E xam ina t ion o f af ew e xamp le s w i l l i l u s t ra te t h i s d i s t inc t ion : T h e P a l e s t in ian T a lmud s a y s , i n r e f e r ence t o am ino r w ho k now s h ow t o t a ke c a r e o f t h e c l ean l ine s s a nd r i tua l p u r i ty o fh i s b ody , " bu t h e d oe s n o t g o b e f o r e t h e t e va [ s ee b e low ] n o rd oe s h e r a i se h i s h and s ( no s e e tk apa v ) n o r d oe s h e a s cend t h e d ukhan u n t i l h i s b ea rd i sf u l ; R abb i Y ehuda h a -Na s i s a y s : a nd a lo ft h e se f r om t h e a g eo ft wen ty a nd o ve ra si ti ss a id : " a nd t h ey s ha l l h av e t h e L ev i te s s t and u p f r om t wen ty y ea r sa nd o ve rt op r e s ide o ve rt h ew o rk o ft h eh ou s e o ft h e L o rd . "2 I n t h i s s ou r ce i ti sc l ea r t ha t o n ly t h e L ev i te s a r e m ean t t o a s cend t h e d ukhan a nd t h e p r ie s t ly b ened i c t ion i sr e f e r r ed t oa st h e r a i s ing o fh and s . T he B aby l on ian T a lmud o f t en q uo te sT anna i t ic e xp r e s s ion so rt ho se o f Amo ra im o fE r e tz I s ra e l u s ing t h e e xp r e s s ion " a sc end ing t h e d ukhan " , b u ti ti sh i gh ly d oub t fu lt h a tt h eq uo ta t ion i sp r ec i s e , a nd i ti sr e a sonab le t o p r e sume t h a t i nt h e B aby l on ian T a lmud t h e t e rm ino logy w a s c hang ed . I n t ho se c a se s w he r e ap a ra l l e l f r om E r e tz I s ra e l e x i s t s , w e c an d emon s t ra te t h e p roc e s s o fs t y l i s t i c t r an s f orma t ion o ft h e t e rm ino logy : ( 1 ) B .T . : n o t P .T . : ( 2 ) B .7 ' . :

R . Y eho shua b en L ev i s a id : a ny p r ie s t t ha t d oe s n o t a s cen t t h e d ukhan . . .3 R . Y eho shua b en L ev i s a id : a nd e v e ry p r ie s t t h a t d oe s n o t a s cend t h e d ukhan . . . E ve ry p r i e s tt h a t s t and s i nt h e s ynagogue , b u t d oe s n o t r a i s eh i s h and s . . .4 A da s a id : R . S im la i s a id : as ynagogue i nw h ich e ve ryone i s ap r ie s t -t h ey a s cend t h e d ukhan . . .5 6 9

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

P .T . :

R .A ha : R .T anhuma b a rH iyya i nt h en ame o fR . S im la i : at own i nw h ich e v e ryone i s ap r ie s t , t h ey r a i se t h e i rh and s . . .6

( 3 ) B .T . :

We h av e l e a rned t h a t R . T a r f on s a id : a no th e r t i me Ia s cend t h e d ukhan a f te r my mo the r ' s b ro the r .7

P .T . :

R . T a tf on s a id : O nce Is t ood w i th my b ro the r s t h e p r ie s t s i n al i ne .8

T he f o low ing e xamp le i s mo r e a mb iguou s : ( 4 ) B .T . : Mo se s i n i t ia ted t h e p r ie s thood a nd t h e d ukhan , a nd t h e s a c r if i ce s a nd T o rah . . . t h e d ukhan -i nt h a th e s t ood E laza rt h e s on o fA a ron o n t h e d ukhan ( T anhuma ) .9 P .T . :

Mo se s i n i t ia ted t h e p r ie s thood a nd t h e d ukhan , t h e s a c r i f ice s a nd t h e T orah . . , t h e d ukhan -i nt h a th e s t ood E laza r o n t h e d ukhan a si ti ss a id : " t he c h i e fo ft h e c h ie f s o fL ev i . . . E l aza r ( Tanhuma B ub e r ) . 1°

I n" Tanhuma B ube r " E l a za ri sa ppo in ted t ot h e d ukhan b y v i r tue o fh i s b e ing ac h i ef o fL ev i , a nd i n" Tanhuma " i tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t t h e t a sk w a s g i ven h im a s ap r ie s t , t h a t i st o u t te r t h e p r i e s t ly b ened i c t ion . H ow eve r i ti tp o s s ib le t h a t o u r r e cen s ion o ft h e T anhuma i si n a c cu ra te a nd t h a tt h e r e i sn o d if e r ence b e tween t h et wo s ou r ce s . T he t e rm " t o a s cend t h e d ukhan " a pp ea r s i nT anna i t ic e xp r e s s ion s q uo ted i nt h e B aby l on ian T a lmud , e . g . : " R . S hemen b a r Abba s a id : w he r e f o r e [ d o w e k now ] t h a t ap r ie s t w ho a s c end s t h e d ukhan s hou ld n o t s a y . . ." ( Ro sh h a -Shana , 2 8b ) ; " The R abb i s t a ugh t : t h e p r ie s t s m ay n o t a s c end t h e d ukhan i nt h e i r s hoe s " ( I b id . 3 1b ) ; " And l i kew i se R . Y o s e s a id . . . i fm y f r i end st e l l m e ' a sc end t h ed ukhan ' , Is h a l la l so a s cend "( Shabba t 18b ) ; " h ew ho l o ok su pon t h e p r ie s t s w hen t h ey a s cend t h e d ukhan a nd u t te r t h e b ened ic t ion w h i le t h e T emp le s t ood . . ." ( 1 Iag iga 1 6 a ) -e v en t hough a s d e sc r ibed a bov et h ep r ie s t si nt h e T emp le d i d n o t s t and o n a ny p od ium a ta l . T he t e rm a l so r e cu r s i ns ou r ce st h a t d r aw o nt h e B aby l on ian T a lmud , s u ch a sB am id ba rR abba o n N umb e r s 6( t he P en ta teucha ls ou r ce o ft h ep r ie s t ly b ened i c t ion ) , Y a l ku tS h im con i ,a nd M id ra sh h a -Gad o l , q uo ted a bove , a nd l i kew i se i nt h e T a rgum o fP sa lm s( 1 34 :2 ) " . . the h o ly d ukhan . . ." ,a nd T a rgum Y ona than o n N umb e r s 6 : 23 " r a i se t h e i rh and s o n t h e d ukhan " , t h i s a dd i t ion l a ck ing i nt h e o th e rt r an s la t ion s . ' II ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e e xp r e s s ion " t he p r ie s t a s cend s " i s as h o r tened f o rm o ft h ep r ie s ta s cend st h e d ukhan " , b u t t h a t i su nce r ta in .I 2 T he se q uo ta t ion sl a ck p a ra l le l si nt h el i t e ra tu r eo fE r e tz I s ra e l , b u t i nt h e l i gh t o fw ha tw eh av e d emon s t ra t ed a bove , a nd t h ef a c tt h a tt h et e rm d ukhan d oe sn o ta ppea ra ta l i ns ou r c e sf r om E r e tz I s ra e l , w e m ay p r e sume t h a t t h e e xp r e s s ion s i nt h e B aby l on ian T a lmud w e r e s t y l i z ed s o a s t o i n c lude t h et e rm c o mmon ly u s ed i nB aby lon ia , j u s t a se v idenc ed b y t ho se c a se s i nw h ich w eh av e p a ra l le l sf o rc ompa r i son . We may s um u po u rc onc lu s ion st hu sf a r a sf o l low s : ( 1 ) T he a nc i en t e xp r e s s ion w a s " r a i s ing o fh and s " ; i nB aby lon ia w ide sp r ead u se w a s m ad e o ft h e e xp r e s s ion t o" a scend t h e p od ium:4 3 2 )B ara i to t a nd s a y ing s o f Amo ra im f r om E r e tz I s r a e l w e r e s t y l ized i nB aby lon ia a nd t h e n ew t e rm w a s i n t roduced i n to t h em . T h i s p henomenon i sk nown f r om o th e re xam ina t ion s o fT anna i t ic m a te r ia l i nt h e B aby l on ian T a lmud , b u t t h i s p a r t i cu la r c a s e i sa ne x t r eme e xamp le o fw ide sp r ead " c o r r ec t ion "o fa nc ien tT anna i t ic m a te r ia l .

T he h i s tor i ca lr e a l i t y b eh ind t h e e xp r e s s ion " t o a s cend t h e d ukhan " A t f i r s t g l ance o n e w ou ld p r e sume t h a t t h e u s e o ft h e e xp r e s s ion " t o a s cend t h e d ukhan " i n r e f e r enc e t ot h e p r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion i sd e r iv ed f r om t h e d e s c r ip t ion s o ft h e s i ng ing o ft h e L ev i te s i nt h eT emp le . T he L ev i t e s , a si sw el k nown , c han ted f r om ap od ium ; t h e w o rd s" t he L ev i te so n t h e i r d ukhan " i s aw ide ly u s ed e xp r e s s ion i n o u r l i t e ra tu r e . H oweve r , t h i s e xp lana t ion i s p rob lema t i c b ecau se i td oe s n o t e xp la in w hy t h e e xp r e s s ion w a s c o ined i n t h e B aby l on ian T a lmud , l e ad ing u st oc onc lude t ha tt h es a g e so fB aby lon ia w e r ef am i l ia rw i th ap od ium t h a ts t ood i nt h e s ynagogue st h ey k n ew . T h i sp od ium w a s u nknown i nE r e tz I s rae l , o ri fa ta l , i tw a sh a rd ly w id e sp r ead , a nd t h e r e f o r e t h e n ew t e rm " t o a s cend t h e d u khan " w a s c o ined o n ly i nB aby lon ia . 7 0

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

T he p od ium mu s t h ave b een v e ry w ide sp r ead , s i nc e o the rw i se i tw ou ld b ed if i cu l tt oc omp r ehend h ow t h e n ew t e rm p a r t ly r e p la ced t h ep r ev iou s t e rm . T he e xp r e s s ion d ukhan i sp robab ly o f G r eek o r ig in a nd u sua l ly a pp ea r s i n t h e s ou r ce s a s d akhon 1 4 -s ome th ing u pon w h i ch v e s s e l s s t and . T he d ukhan i nt h e T emp le w a s a n e l onga ted s t ruc tu r e w i th t h r ee s t ep s , e a ch o ne h a l f a ma ( 2 5 -30 c m s . ) i nh e igh t .I 5 T h i s m ay h av e b een t h e s hap eo ft h e d ukhan i nt h e s y nagogue , b u t w e c anno t b e a b so lu te ly c e r ta in r e ga rd ing t h i s p o in t . T he p r ie s t s s t ood d u r ing t h e b en ed ic t ion i n t h e " s ac r ed " d i r ec t ion , i . e . , t h e d i r ec t ion o f J e ru sa l em . T he T o s ef ta s a y s e xp l ic i t ly : " And w hen t h e p r ie s t s r a i s e t h e i r h and s , t h e i r f a ce s a r e t owa rd s t h e p eop le a nd t h e b a ck s a r e t owa rd s t h e s a c r ed ( q od e sh ) ." 1 6 I ti sh a rd t o p r e sume t h a t t h ey s t ood a nywhe r e b u t i nt h e d i r ec t ion o fJ e ru sa lem s i nce o the rw i s e t h ey c ou ld n o t h av e b een f a ce t of a ce w i th t h ec ong r ega t ion ,w h ich s t ood f a c ing J e ru sa lem .1 7 A dd i t iona l B aby lon ian s ou r ce s r e vea lt h er e la t ion o ft h ep r ie s t st oo the ri t em si nt h es y nagogue . T he G ema ra a s k s : " Doe st h e t e va c on s t i tu te a[ l ega l ] p a r t i t ion [ t ha t w ou ld p r even t t h e e x ecu t ion o ft h e p r ie s t ly b ened ic t ionr A nd w ha t i s[ t he l aw o f ] ap a r t i t ion ( meh iza ) ? C ome a nd l e a rn w ha t R . Y eho shua b en L ev i s a id -e v en ap a r t i t ion o fi r on d oe sn o ts e pa ra te I s ra e lf r om t h e i r F a the ri nh eaven ." 1 8 T he c l au se " Doe s at e va c on s t i tu te ap a r t i t ion " i st o b e f o und i na l t h e r e sc en s ion s o f t h e B aby l on ian T a lmud , b u t i ti s m i s s ing i nt h e p a ra l le l s ou r ce s i nt h e P a l e s t in ian T a lmud .1 9 I si tp o s s ib le t h a t t h e r u l ing " t he t e va d oe sn o t c on s t i tu te ap a r t i t ion "w a s m ade o n ly i no rde r t or a i se t h e t h eo r e t ica l p rob lem ? A t a ny r a te i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e p r ie s t s s t ood n ex t t ot h e t e va a nd p robab ly t h e t e va s t ood b e twe en t h em a nd t h ep eop le . T h i si st h em ean ing o ft h em id ra sh i nB am idba rR abba t h a tq uo te s R . Y eho shua b en L ev i " Any p r ie s t w ho d oe s n o t b udg e i no rde r t oa s cend n ea r t h e t e va . 2 °. " .B e low w e s ha l l r e tur nt ot h e q ue s t ion o fh ow t h e s a c r ed a r ea i nt h e s y nagogue w a s a r rang ed .

I . T he T e va ( Che s t ) a nd t h eA ron ( A rk ) A . T he T e va T e va w a s ac ommon t e rm f o r a n i t em o ff u rn i tu r e u s ed f o r s t or ing t h ing s . O ne m ay p r e sume t ha tt h e t e va i n as y nagogue h e ld h o ly b ook s . T h i s m ean ing o ft h ew o rd e l im ina te st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t ha tt h e t e va w a s o r ig ina l ly m ean t t os e rv e a s ab a se f o rp u t t ing d own t h eT o rah s c ro l l . T ha tm ay h ave b een as e conda ry u s e o r , i nt h e c ou r s e o ft ime , t h e u s e s m ay h av e u nde rgone s ome c hang e s w h i l e r e ta in ing t h e o l d n ame . T hu s t h e t e va w e k now f r om t h e m ed ieva l s y nagogue i sn o c he s t a ta l b u t s ome k i nd o fs t ag e o r s h e l f , a nd i n deed s ome m ed ieva l s ou r ce s r e f e r t o i ta s ab ima o r b ama , as ub jec tw h ich i sb eyond t h ef r amewo rk o ft h i s a r t ic le . A s i sw el k nown , t h e r e i sn o i n d ica t ion i na nc ien t s y nagogue s ( b e f o r e t h e d e s truc t ion o ft h e S econd T emp le ) o f a ny k i nd o fa r ch i te c tu ra l ly s i gn if i can t f u rn i sh ing . T he l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s a l so d e sc r ib e t h e t e va a sc a r r ied i n to t h e v i l lag e s qua r e o n f a s t s , i n d ica t ing t h a t i tw a s n o t ap e rmanen t i t em o ff u rn i tu r e o fa r ch i tec tu ra ls i gn i f ican ce a nd r i tua lf u nc t ion .2 I T h i s movab le t e va w a sb rough t i n to t h e s ynagogue a tt h e t im e o f p r ay e r a nd s e t d own f a c ing t h e c ong r ega t ion w i th i t s b ack t owa rd st h e s a c r ed .2 We h ave n o a r cha eo log ica l r emnan t s f r om t h e s e cond c en tu ry o r t h e f i r s t h a l f o ft h e t h i rd c en tu ry C .E . , b u t i ns ome o ft h e l a t e r s y nagogue s an i che o r p od ium w a s d i s cove r ed o n w h ich p r e sumab ly t h e h o ly a r k w a s p l a ced , a nd o ne c an a t temp t t o t r a ce t h e i n c r ea s ing a r ch i tec tu ra l i mpor tance o ft h i s o b jec t . S ome o ft h e s y nagog ue s f r om t h e t h i rd c en tu ry p o s se s s an i che ,2 3 a nd l a te rs ynagogu e s ap od ium , s om e t ime si n ar a i s ed a p se .2 4 T he p roce s sw a sn o tu n i f o rm t h roughou t t h e c oun t ry a nd t h e r e f o r e i ti si mpo s s ib le t o s ugg e s t mo r e t h an a p r el im ina ry s k e tch o f t h e c h rono log ica l d ev e lopmen t i n vo lv ed . C l ea r e v idence o ft h i s m ay b e f o und i nt h e e x cava t ion s o f H i rbe t S hama i nw h ich t h e p od ium w a s a dded i nt h e s e cond s t ag e o ft h e s ynagogue ; i n cE n G ed i ,2 6 w he r e a n e n t rance w a s t r an s f o rmed i n to as ma l l n i che , a nd a f te rwa rd s , al a rg e r p od ium w a sb u i l t ; a nd s im i l ar ly a to th e rs i t e s . T he T anna i t i c l i t e ra tu r e i n d i ca te s t h a t t h e t e va h ad a l r eady b ecome a f i x ed e l emen t i n t h e T anna i t ic p e r iod . T he r e g u la rt e rm a pp l ied t ol e ad ing t h e s e r v ice i s" t o p a s sb e f o r et h e t e va "o r" t o g o d own b e f o r e t h e t e va .' 7 C on sequen t ly i ti sc l ea rt h a t t h e t e va w a s af i x ed i t em . T he u s eo ft h e e xp r e s s ion t o" g o d own 'i nr e f e r ence t ot h e t e va i n d ica te st h a t i tw a s r a i sed o n ap od ium o rn i che , a sf ound i nt h e e x cava t ion sa tK ho ra z in . T he w ide sp r ead c u r r ency o ft h e e xp r e s s ion l e ad s o ne t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t i tw a s af i x ed i t em a nd n o t s ome th ing moveab le , a l though i ti sp o s s ib l e t o 7 1

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

m a in ta in t h a t t h e t e va w a s b rough t i n to t h e s y nagogue f o r e a ch s e rv ice , e v en w hen t h e r e w a s n o r e ad ing o ft h eT o rah . T h i se xp lana t ion , h ow eve r , d oe s n o t w i th s tand c r i t ic i sm . B .T he A ron T he t e rm a r on a s a n e xp r e s s ion f o r a n i t em o f f u rn i tu r e p l a ced i n t h e s a c r ed p a r t o f t h e s ynagogue ( t he w a l l i nt h e d i r e c t ion o fJ e ru sa lem ) d oe s n o t a ppea r i nT anna i t ic s ou r ce s ; i nt h e B aby l on ian T a lmud i ti so n ly m en t ioned t w ic e , b u t u namb iguou s ly o n ly o nce . I n ab a ra i tha t r an sm i t ted i nt h e n ame o fR . I s hma e l b en E l aza r ( Shabba t 3 2a ) : " I gno r amu se s d i ef o rt wo s i n s : b ecau se t h ey c a l lt h e a r on q od e sh ' a rna 'a nd b ecau s et h ey c a l lt h e s ynagogue ' b e t h dam A p r ev iou s s a y ing , q uo ted a nonymou s ly , r e ad s ' b ecau s e t h ey c a l l t h e a ron q od e sh ' a rna" a nd i ti su nc lea rw he the rt h i s i sp a r t o ft h e b a ra i tha o r as a y ing o ft h e B aby lon ian Amo ra R . Aha , w ho se o p in ion w a s i n teg ra ted i n to t h e b a ra i tha . A t a ny r a te , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e f i r s t m en t ion o ft h i s e xp r e s s ion i sb y at a na f r om E r e tz I s ra e l , a nd t h e r e f o r e w e c anno t r e ga rd i ta s r e f l ec t ing B aby lon ian u sag e . We c anno t b ec e r ta in t h a tt h er e f e r ence i st ot h ea r ki nt h es ynagogue a nd n o t t ot h e a r ki nt h eT emp le , a l though t h ef a c tt h a t R . I s hma e l r e f e r sf i r s tt oa na r k a nd t h en t o as ynagogue w ou ld s ugg e s t t h a t t h e a r k w a s a l so i n t h e s y nagogue . T he J ew i sh m ed ieva l c omm en ta to r so nt h i sp a s sag eh ave t a ken i tt om ean t h a t a r na i st h el i t e ra lt r an s la t ion o fa r on ,b u t t h a t t h e u s e o ft h a t t e rm i sd e roga tory s i nce t h e h ou s eho ld c ab ine t w a s a l so c a l led b y t h a t n ame . T he p rob l em w i th t h i se xp lana t ion i st h a tt h e P a l e s t in ian T a lmud r e f e r st ot h ea r ko ft h es y nagogue a sa r na o ra r ona [ s ee b e low ] . T hu st h ep e jo ra t iv ec ha rac t e ro ft h et e rm a r na c anno t b e u nde r s tood u n le s sw ep r e sume t h a ti ts t emmed f r om al o ca l r e f e r enc e t os ome a r k i n ad e te s ted p agan t emp le . I n my o p in ion t h e p or t en t o ft h e p a s sag e i st h a t o ne mu s t n o t r e f e r t ot h e a r k i n as ynagogue a s a r na b ecau se t h a t t e rm s hou ld b e r e s erv ed f o r t h e a r k i nt h e T emp le o fJ e ru sa lem . S im i la r ly , L and sbe rg h a s e xp la in ed t h a t i nt h e s e cond p a r t o ft h e b a ra i tha t h e o b jec t ion t o t h e t e rm b e t h a ' a m s t em sf r om i t su s e a s ap opu la rt e rm f o rt h e T emp le . 28 A g a in , i n t h e B aby l on ian T a lmud ( Bekho ro t 4 7b ) , t h e a r k o f t h e s y nagogu e i sr e f e r r ed t o e xp l ic i t ly : " And R ay H unna s a id ' N ine a nd t h e a r on j o in [ t o c on s t i tu te aq uorum ) ; ' R ay N ahman s a id t oh im ' And i st h ea r on aman ? . . ." S ub sequen t ly t h eG ema ra c o r r e c t si t s e l fa nd om i t st h ew o rd a r on . T h i s i st h e o n ly p a s sag e w h ich u s e s t h e t e rm a r on t o d e sc r ibe t h e s a c r ed p l ac e i n t h e B aby lon ian s ynagogue . T he t e rm t e va a pp ea r s f r equen t ly , o fc ou r se , a nd s ome o ft h e s er e f e r enc e s w i l lb eq uo ted b e low . T he Med ieva lT o sa f i s t sm ade n o te o ft h i sf a c t ( c f . T o saf o to n S habba t3 1a ) . I n E r e tz I s ra e l t h e e xp r e s s ion a r on , o r a r ona i nA rama ic , i so cca s iona l ly u s ed t od e sc r ib e t h e c o mmon r e a l i ty o f t h e s ynagogue . T he r e f e r ence i n P .T . B ikku r im , C h .3 ( 6 5 c ) i sp a r t i cu la r ly i n te r e s t ing : " t he a r on f a ce s t h e p eop le a nd t h e p r ie s t s f a c e t h e p eop le ." T h i s s e n tenc e p a r aph ra se s o r a ppend s t h e b a ra i tha i nT o s ef ta Meg i l l a 3 ( 4 ) , 2 1 , e x c ep t f o r o ne d if e r ence : t h e T o s ef ta s p eak s o ft h e t e va a nd n o tt h e a r on . T he a r on a ppea r si n an umbe ro fr e f e r enc e s f r om E r e tz I s ra e l a nd i ti sc l ea rt h a ti tw a sc ove r ed b y av e i lo rp a rokhe t .2 9 A ron i s as y nonym f o r t e va , n o t ad if e r en to b jec t . C f . P .T . T odan i t ,C h .4 ( 6 5a ) . T he M i shna t h e r ed i scu s s e st h er emova lo ft h e t e va t ot h et own s qua r eo np ubl i cf a s t s . T he G ema ra u s e s t h e t e rm a r on s a y ing : -T he b r ideg room g oe s f o r th f r om h i s r oom -t h a t i st h e a r on ."3 ° T he r ef o low s ad e sc r ip t ion o fa ni n c iden tf r om t h et ime o fR . I l a( l a te t h i rd c en tu ry C .E . ) d u r ing w h ich t h ey w ou ld r emove t h e a r ona . T hu s i ti sc l ea r t h a t a r on w a s a no th e rt e rm f o r t e va t h a tc ame i n to u s ed u r ing t h e Amo ra ic p e r iod . T he i n t roduc t ion o f an ew t e rm m ay r e f lec tt h ef a c t t h a tt h e a r on w a sl a rg e ri ns i z et h an t h e t e va a nd p e rhap sh ad mo r eo f as a c ramen ta l c ha ra c te r ,l i ke t h e a r k i nt h e T emp le . T he r e i sa n a c coun t o f R . Y ona w ho b u i l t t h e a r on i nt h e f a sh ion o fa t ow e r a nd p l a ced o b jec t s i n i t s l ow e r c ompa r tmen t ( P .T . Meg i l l a , C h .3 , 7 3 rd ) . T h i s s ou r ce e xp la in st h e d i scove ry o fs ma l ld e co ra t ive o b jec t s i nt h en i che o ft h ea r k a t Ma con -N i r im .3 1 I nt h e s ynagogue a tD u ra E u ropu so n e o ft h ei n sc r ip t ion s m en t ion s c l ea r ly b e t a r ona .3 2 I n c iden ta l ly , t h e i n sc r ip t ion so fs y nagogue si nE r e tz I s ra e lu s e t h e t e rm t a ga r a the rt h an a r on . T he se l i t e ra ry d e sc r ip t ion s a nd t h e d ep ic t ion s o ft h e h o ly a r k i ns y nagogue mo sa ic sc o r r e spond t ot h e a p s e f ound i nt h e l a te r s y nagogue i nw h ich t h e r e w a s al a rg e a nd b eau t i fu l a r k o n ar a i s ed p od ium , s ome t im e s s e t o fb y ar a i l ing o r a t ta chmen t f o r ac ur ta in . B u t t h e l i t e ra ry t e s t imony i s o l de r , s t emm ing f r om t h e m idd l e o ft h e Amo ra ic p e r iod ( t h i rd c en tu ry ) . O n ly i ns om e o ft h e s y nagogue s f r om t h i s p e r iod a r e t h e r e i n d ica t ion s o f ab u i l t in a r k ( e .g . K ho ra z in a nd cE n G ed i a nd i nt h e d i a spo ra a tD u ra E u ropu s a nd S a rd i s3 ) .T hu s i tw ou ld s e em t h a t t h e c on s tru c t ion o f a n a r on i n s tead o ft h e s imp le r t e va w a s ap roce s s t h a t d eve loped g r adua l ly f r om t h ee a r ly Amo ra ic 7 2

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

p e r iod , e ven tua l ly b ecom ing a ni n teg ra l p a r t o ft h e s ynagogue a nd t h ec en t ra la r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t o ft h e p raye rh a l l . Iw i l l n o t d ea l h e r e w i th t h e p r ec i se s hap e o ft h e a ron . R e tu rn ing t o t h e s i tua t ion i n B aby lon ia , w e mu s t r e ly a lmo s t e x c lu s ive ly o n l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s s i nce w e h ave n o a r cha eo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e B aby lon ian p e r iod . H ow ev e r , t h e s ynagogue s i nn e ighbor ing S y r ia may r e f l ec t B aby lon ian u sag e . As hor t p a s sag e i nt h e B aby l on ian T a lmud ( So ta 3 9b ) m ay i n d ica te t h e s i tua t ion i nB aby lon ia : " R . T anhum s a id t ha t R . Y eho shua b . L ev i s a id : ' The c ong r ega t ion may n o t d i spe r s e u n t i l t h e T o rah s c rol h a s b een t a ken ' [ a nd p u t d own i ni t s p l ac e 13 4 a nd S hmue l s a id : ' u n t i li th a sg one o u t ; b u tt h ey w e r en o ti nd i sag r e emen t ; t h i so ne r e f e r r ed t ot h ec a se w he r et h e r e i sa no the re x i t ,a nd t h e o th e r , t he c a se w he r e t h e r e i sn o o the r e x i t ;3 5 R ay b a r A h ina s a id : i tw a s e xp la ined t o m e -' You s ha l l w a lk a f t e r t h e L o rd y ou r God ' ." On t h i s p a s sag e t h e r e a r e n ume rou s t e x tua l v a r ia t ion s , b u t n ev e r the le s s i ti sc l ea r t ha t t h e r e a r e t wo f undamen ta l o p in ion s r e ga rd ing w hen t h e c ong r ega t ion m ay e x i t : a )a f te rt h e T o rah s c ro l l h a s b een " t aken "o r " t aken a nd r e p la ced " ; b ) a f t e rt h e s c ro l l h a s b een t a ken o u t . T he B aby lon ian G aon im 3 6 i n te rp r e ted t h e p a s sag e a sr e f e r r ing t o as i tua t ion i n w h i ch t h e T o rah s c ro l l i sn o t k ep t i nt h e s ynagogue i t s e l fb u t i n as i de r oom , i nw h ich c a se t h e r u l ing i st o w a i t u n t i l i th a s b een t a ken o u t ; b u t i ft h e r e i sa n a dd i t iona l e x i t , o ne may g o o u t t h e r eby . T h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion s u i t s t he o p in ion o fS hmue l a l one . O n t h e o the r h and , i nt h e t ime o fR . Y eho shua b . L ev i ( a n Amora o fE r e tz I s rae l o ft h e t h i rd c en tu ry ) t h e r e w a s a l r eady a n a r k i nt h e s ynagogue . T he r e f o r e , R . Y eho sha b . L ev i i n s i s ted t h a t t h e c og r ega t ion w a i t a nd p ay r e sp ec t t o t h e T o rah u n t i l t h e s c ro l l w a s r e tu rned t ot h e a r k . T h i s a r k w a s , b y a l i n d ica t ion s , i n t h e s ynagogue . S hmue l d e s c r ib e s ad if e r en t s i tua t ion i nw h ich t h e a r k i so u t s ide t h e p raye r h a l l , a nd t h e r e fo r e i ti sn o t o b l iga tory t o h ono r t h e T o rah i n i t s l e av ing t h e s ynagogue . T hu s t h e e xp lana t ion o ft h e G emara " t hey w e r en o t i nd i sag r eemen t "i sa u then t i c , b u tt h ec on t inua t ion " t h i s o n e . . . t he o the r " a r e l a te r a dd i t ion s made b y a n e d i to r w ho c ou ld n o t f a thom t h e i d ea t h a t t h e s c rol s a r e k ep t i nt h ep ray e r h a l l . T he c on t rove r sy , o v e rw he the rt oe s cor tt h eT o rah s c ro l la f te rt h er e ad ing o ft h eT o rah r ema in s e v en l a te r o n , a pp ea r ing a so ne o ft h e d i s t inc t ion s b e tw een t h e c u s tom s o fE r e tz I s ra e l a nd t ho se o fB aby lon ia i nt h e " S ef e rh a -H i luk im "c ompo s ed i nt h e G aon ic p e r iod .3 7 B u t t h i s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t i nr e a l i ty t h e r e w a s s t i l l n o a r k f o r t h e s c ro l l s i nt h e s ynagogue . T he B aby lon ian c u s tom n o t t oo b se rve a ny s p ec ia l c e r emony u pon r e tu rn ing t h e s c ro l l s t ot h e a r kd e r ived i n deed f r om t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a rk w a s o u t s ide t h e p raye r h a l l , b u t i tc on t inued t o b e p r a c t iced e ven a f t e r t h e a r k may h av e b een i n s ta l led i nt h e s ynagogue i t s e l f . I n Meg i l l a 2 6b , R ava s ugg e s t s t o t h e w o r sh ippe r s i nt h e " Roman S ynagogue " ( p r e sumab ly o f Mehoza , R ava ' s t own ) t oc l o se t h e d oo r o rw indow 3 8 t h a t l e ad s t ot h e h a l lway b yp u t t ing t h e a r k t h e r e : " L i f t u p t h e t e va a nd p u t i td own s i nce i ti s as t a t iona r y w ooden v e s s e l a nd a ny s t a t iona ry w ooden v e s s e ld oe s n o t r e ce iv e c on tam ina t ion , a nd s e r ve s a s ap a r t i t ion f r om c on tam ina t ion . T he R abb i s s a id t o R ava : s om e t ime s t h ey c a r ry i tw hen t h e T o rah s c rol i su pon i t . . . i ft ha ti st h ec a s e , t h en i ti si mpo s s ib le . " T h e R abb i s a nd R ava d o n o t d if e r o ve r t h e l aw b u t o ve r t h e s i tua t ion i n t h i sp a r t icu la r s ynagogue . R ava p r e sume s t ha t t h e a r k i sp or tab le b u t i sg ene ra l ly s t a t iona ry , t hu s l i k e a ny o the r s t a t iona ry w ooden o b jec t i td oe s n o t r e ce ive c on tam ina t ion ( c f . M i shna , K e l im C h .15 , M i shna 1a nd R a sh i , R i tba a nd Me i n io n B .T . H ag iga 2 6a ) . I nt h e o p in ion o ft h e R abb i s t h i s a rk w a s m ean t t ob e c a r r ied f r equen t ly , w hen t h e T o rah w a s u pon i t ,a nd t h e r e f o r e c ou ld n o t b e r e ga rded a s as t a t iona ry o b jec t . T hu s t h i s p a s sag e r e f l ec t s at r an s i t iona l p e r iod i nt h e p roce s s w he r eby t h e a r k r e ce ived ap e rmanen t p l a ce a nd b ecame ar i tua l a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t i nt h e s ynagogue . O ne s hou ld p o in t o u t t ha t e ven R ava d oe s n o t a s s e r t t h a t t h e a r k w a s k ep t i n t h e p raye rh a l l . T he m id ra sh ic t r ad i t ion s r e coun t t wo p i l la r st h a t s t ood b e f o r et h eh o ly a r k : " i t sp i l la r sh e made o f s i l ve r -t h e se a r e t h e t wo s i l ve r p i l la r s t ha t s t ood b e f o r e i t[ b e f o r e t h e a r k ] l i ke as t oa ." T h i s m id ra sh i sm ean tt od e sc r ib e t h e T emp le , b u t t h e s p eake r m ay h av e i mag ined t h e s i tua t ion i nt h e mo r e f am il ia r s ynagogue .3 9 I n t h e s ynagogue s o f D u ra -Eu ropo s a nd S a rd i s , a nd e ven i n Y e iv in ' s r e con s t ruc t ion a tK ho ra z in , t h e a r k i si n an i che i nt h e c en t ra l w a l l , r e a ched b y ar oof ed f l i gh t o f s t ep s . T he r oof w a s s uppor ted b y t wo c o lumn s . T hu s w hen t h e m id ra sh r e f e r s t ot h e c o lumn s a s ak i nd o fs t oa , i tm ay b e d e sc r ib ing t h e a r k i nt h e a nc ien t s ynagogue , b u ti tmay b et ha ti nl a te r s ynagogue sa sw el , s t on eo rw ooden p i l la r sw e r e p l a ced a tt h e s i de so ft h e s t ep st h a tl e dt ot h ea r k , a nd t ha t t h e m id ra sh r e f e r s t ot h em . T he se d e sc r ip t ion s s u i t t h e d ep ic t ion s f ound o n s a r cophag i a nd m eda l l ion s . 7 3

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

I I . T he p ar okhe t( c u r ta in ) I n B aby lon ia t h e t e rm f a r i sa w a s m en t ioned i n t h e s a y ing o f R ava m en t ion ed a bove ( B .T . Meg i l l a2 6b ) " And R ava s a id :A tf i r s t It hough tt h a tf a r i sa w a st h ea c ce s so ry t oa na c c e s so ry : w hen Is aw t h a tt h ey t i r e a nd p l a ce t h es c ro l lu pon i t ,4 ° Is a id i ti sa na c ce s so ry t oh o l ine s sa nd t h e r e f o r e f o rb idden ." Wha t i sm ean t i se v iden t ly s ome f o rm o f c ov e r f o r t h e t e va l i ke t h a t w h ich t h e m ed i ev a l s a g e s c a l led am i tpaha t . T he t e va i t s e lf w a s a n " a cc e s so ry t oh o l ine s s " a nd i t s c ov e rt h e " a cce s so ry t oa na c ce s sory ." B u ts ome t ime st h e s c ro l l i sp l a ced u pon t h ec ov e ro ft h e t e va a nd t hu s t h ef a r i sa b ecame a n " a c ce s so ry t oh o l ine s s ." Med ieva l s c ho la r sf ound i td if i cu l tt oc once ive o ft h e r e a l i ty d e sc r ibed i nt h i s p a s sag e b ecau s e t h e t e va w i th w h ich t h ey w e r e f am i l ia r w a s f a r t oo l a rg e f o r t h e s c ro l l t o b e p l a c ed u pon i t . Mo r eove r , i nt h e s y nagogue st h ey k new , t h e T o rah s c ro l lw a s a lway s p l a ced o n t h e b ama ( m igda l -a lmemo r ) . B u t t h i s p a s sag e d i scu s se s as i tua t ion i nB aby lon ia w he r e t h e t e va w a s l ow . T he r e ade rh e ld t h e s c rol i nh i sh and a nd w hen h et i r ed , o rw h en t h et r an s la to rr e c i ted t h et r an s la t ion , h e may h ave p u t i td own o n t op o ft h e t e va , t h a t i s , o n t h e c l o th t h a t w rapp ed t h e t e va -t h e f a r i sa . T h e m ed ieva l c ommen ta to r s g ene ra l ly e xp la ined t h e t e rm f a r i sa i n t h e c on tex t o f t h e s ynagogue t h ey k new , mo s t r e ga rd ing i ta s av e i l i n s ide t h e a r k ( c f . R a sh ! , A rukh Y am s " , Me in ) o r o u t s ide i t( c f . T o sa f o t a d l o c . ) . O the r s r e ga rded t h ef a r i sa a s ac u r ta in h ang ing i nf r on t o ft h e a r k ( c f . R ab i ya 6 90 a nd o the r s ) . A n e xam ina t ion o ft h e se o p in ion s i so fv a lue f o r as t udy o ft h e s ynagogue i nt h e M idd le A g e so n ly . I nE r e tz I s ra e lw eh av ea c coun t so f ap a rokhe tt ha t s u r rounded n o to n ly t h ea r k ,b u ta l so ap a r t o rp e rhap s a l o ft h e a p se . R . Am i r e commend s w ind ing t h e T o rah s c ro l l b eh ind t h i s c u r ta in» w h ich c ou ld b e d one o n ly i ft h e c ur ta in s e t o f ac e r ta in a r ea n ea r t h e a r k . T he s e t r ad i t ion s s u i t t h ea r cha eo log ica le v idence o fs ynagogue si nJ udea a nd p a r t i cu la r ly o ft ho s ei nt h eG a l i l ee i nw h ich t h e a r k w a s l o ca ted i na n a p s e , o f t en r a i s ed , t h a t s e rved a s ar oom s e pa ra ted f r om t h ep ray e rh a l l b y ap a r t i t ion . A sw e s aw a bov e , i nB aby lon ia t h e p r ie s t s s t ood o n t h e d ukhan a nd t h e t e va w a s i nf r on t o ft h em . T hu s t h e t e va w a s n o t e xa c t ly i nt h e s ou th o ft h e s y nagogue ( i n B aby lon iaf a ci ng J e ru sa l em ) , b u t al i t t le f a r the ri n s ide . I ti sr e a sonab l e t oa s sume t h a t t h i s r ul ing a pp l ie s t o amovab le t e va s i nce i ti sd if i cu l tt oi mag ine ap e rmanen t a r kp l aced e l sewhe r et h an i nt h ef a rw a l l o ft h eb u i ld ing f a c ing J e ru sa lem . T hu s t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e t e va , l i k e t h e f a i lu r e t ou s e t h e t e rm a r on , i sa n a dd i t iona l d if e r ence b e tw een t h e s ynagogue so fE r e tz I s ra e l a nd t ho se o fB aby lon ia .

I V . Wa sT he re aB ima ( A C en t ra l P la tf o rm ) i nt h e M idd le o ft h e P raye r H a l l? An a dd i t iona l a r ch i tec tu ra l p o in t o fi n te r e s t -ap l a t f orm o r t ow e r i nt h e c en t e r o ft h e p r ay e r h a l l -h a s b een ap e rmanen t f e a tu r e o ft h e s ynagogue f r om t h e M idd le A g e s t ot h e p r e sen t d ay . L e t u s e x am in e w ha t i sk nown a bou t t h e b eg inn ing s o ft h i s c u s tom a nd t o w ha t d eg r ee i tw a s c ommon d u r ing t h e p e r iod o ft h e M i shna a nd t h e T a lmud . T he c en te r w a s c l ea r ly n o t at e va o r b ook c he s t ,b u t ap l a t f o rm w h ich h e ld at a b le o r ap l a ce f o rt h er e ade ro ft h eT o rah o rt h ep r eache r . T hu s f a r n o c on s t ruc ted p l a t f o rm s h ave b een f ound i nt h e c en te r o fs ynagogue s e x cava ted i n E r e tz I s rae l . I ns ome c a se s s e conda ry p l a t f o rm s , n ea r t h e c e n t ra l p l a t f o rm , h av e b e en d i scov e r ed i nt h e w a l l t h a t f a ce s J e ru sa lem a nd w e s h a l l d i s cu s s t h em b e low . L i kew i se , r ema in s o f ar e a r p l a t f o rm o ppo s i te t h e s a c r ed d i r ec t ion h ave b een f ound ,4 2 b u t i nt h e c en te r o ft h e h a l l t h e r e h a s b een n o e v idence o f ap e rman en t s t ruc tu r e . N a tura l ly , t h i s d oe s n o t p rove t h a t t h e re w a s n o p o r tab l e p l a t f o rm m ade o f w ood , b ecau s e s u ch a p l a t f orm w ou ld n o t h av e l e f t r ema in s . N one the le s s ,o nt h eb a s i so ft h ef o l low ing f a c t sw ec an d emon s t r a te t h a ti nE r e tz I s ra e ln o s t ruc tu r e w a sk nown i nt h ec en te r o ft h e s y nagogue : I .O bv iou s ly , w hen t h e t e va w a s p or tab le , i tw a s p l aced i nt h e d i r ec t ion o ft h e s a c r ed , f a c ing t h e c ong r ega t ion , a sd e sc r ib ed a bove , t hu sl e av ing n o f unc t ion t ob e s e rv ed b y ac en t ra lp l a tf o rm . 2 .A cco rd ing t ot h e c u s tom o fE r e tz I s ra e l ( a pp rox ima te ly t h e f i th t on i n th c en tu r i e s ) , d u r ing t h e c i r cu i t s o ft h e i fo s hano t o n S ukko t , t h ey d i d n o t ma r ch a r ound a ny o b jec t b u t a r ound t h e h az zan w ho h e ld aT o r ah s c ro l li nh i sh and s . T h i sw ou ld i n d ica te t h a tt h e r ew a sn os t ruc tu r ei nt h ec en te r o ft h e s ynagogu e . 7 4

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

3 .T h e s ynagogue mo sa ic s t h a t h ave b e en u nea r thed l e f t n o r oom f o r ap l a t f orm i nt h e c en te r . I f t h e r ew e r e s u ch ap l a t fo rm , e v en ap a r t ia l ly p or tab le o ne , t h ed e s igne r so ft h e mo sa ic f l oo r sw ou ld h av et a ken i ti n to a c coun t . O fc ou r se t h e mo sa ic s a r e i nl a te s y nagogue s : t h e mo sa ic sa tl i am rna t T ib e r ia s ( f ou r th c en tu ry ) , a nd i nB e t A lpha a nd J e r icho , r e p r e sen t an o rm p r eva len t t ot h e s i x th a nd s e ven th c en tu r ie s , a nd e v en t h ey g i ve n o e v idence o f ac en t ra l p l a t form . 4 . I n s ome o f t h e s ynagogu e s t h e r e i sn o p l a ce , p hy s ica l ly o r a r ch i tec tu ra l ly , f o r as i gn i f ican t a dd i t iona le l emen t , e . g . t h ew ide s truc tu r ed s ynagogue s o f II i rbe t S u s ia a nd I l i rb i t S hama . T h i s i sn o t t o s a y t h a t ac en t ra l p l a t f o rm c ou ld n o t h ave b een b u i l t i n t h e l o ng -nav ed s t y le o f s ynagogue s . 5 .D eco ra t ion s f o und i n s y nagogue mo sa ic s , t omb s , a nd a dd i t iona l a r ch i te c tu ra l r emnan t s u s e mo t i f s f r om t h e s ynagogue -t h e a r on a nd t h e m eno rah , b u t t h e r e i sn o d ep ic t ion o f ac en t ra l p l a t f o rm . We c an s umma r i ze c au t iou s ly t h a tt h e r e i sn o e v idence f o r ac en t ra lp l a t f o rm i nt h e s y nagogue o fE r e tz I s rae l ; i tw a sv e ry l i k e ly u nknown o ra tl e a s t l i t t le k nown . O u t s ide E r e tz I s rae l , a r cha eo logy h a s r e vea led ad if e r en t p i c tu r e . I n S a rd i s , f ou r h o le s w e r e d i s cov e r ed i nt h e c en te ro ft h e s ynagogue , b y w h ich ap or tab le w ooden p l a t f o rm c ou ld h av e b een c onne c ted . T h i ss ynagogue i sr i ch i na r ch i tec tu ra lf e a tu r e si nt h ee a s ter nw a l l( t he s a c r ed d i r ec t ion ) , t wo l a rg en i ch e sf o rs t o r ing T o rah s c rol s ( o rs e a t s f o re l de r s ? ) a nd i nf r on t o ft h em at a b le w h ich s e r v ed p r e sumab ly f o rr e ad ing t h eT o rah ( s ee b e low ) , as e a tf o re l d e r si nt h ew e s to ft h e s ynagogue a nd ap l a ce f o r t h e p r eache r . T he r e m ay h av e b e en ac en t ra l p l a t f orm o f s t one o r w eed i nt h e s ynagogue a tD u ra E u ropu s . T he a r cha eo log i s t s w ho d ug t h e r e f ound t h a t t h e f l oo r t i l e s i nt h e c en te rh ad b e en r e p la ced , p e rhap si n d ica t ing t h a t t h e r e w a s o n ce as t ruc tu r e t h e r e .4 3 I no the rs ynagogue sn op l a t f o rm w a sf ound a nd t ho s et h a th ave mo sa ic f l oo r sd on o ts how a ny i n d i ca t ion t ha t t h e a r t i san s w ho e x ecu ted t h e mo sa ic s l e f t r oom f o r ap l a tf o rm . I n P l ad iv ( Bu lga r ia ) , as ma l l p a r t o ft h e c en te r o ft h e s y nagogue r ema in s , b u t i td oe s n o t s e em t h a t t h e r e w a sa ny p l ace f o r ap l a t f o rm ,4 i nI l amam L i f ,w he r et h ef l oo ri sf u l ly p r e s er ved ,t h e r ew a sn op l a c e f o r ap l a t f orm .4 5 T he e x cava t ion s i n Moph sah i s ta ( Tu rkey )" r e vea l t h e s ame s i tua t ion a s t h a t f ound i n s ynagogue s w i th mo sa ic f l oo r s i n E r e tz I s ra e l . Whe r eve r t h e mo sa ic f l oo r h a s b een p r e s e r ved i n i t s e n t i r e ty , t h e r e i sn o i n d ica t ion o f ac en t ra l p l a t f o rm , e . g . B e t A lpha , I l ama t T ib e r ia s , S u s ia , N a ca ran ,J e r icho a nd o the rp l a c e s . T he e p ig raph ic a nd l i t e ra ry e v idence i s mo r e c omp lex . A ph raa te s , i nh i s p o lem ic a ga in s t t h e J ew s , c omp la in s a bou t t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s a c r ed i mp lemen t s . " And t h ey m ake a n a r on a nd a c h e s t ( t e va ) f o r b ook s w h ich t h ey w e r e n o t c ommanded t o d o ."4 7 T he c omb ina t ion o fa r on a nd t e va m ay r ef l ec tt wo s e pa ra t ep l a ce si nt h es y nagogue ,b u tt h ey m ay o n ly b es y nonym sf o rt h es am e t h ing ( p e rhap s af r ame a nd a n i n te rna l b ox ) . T he S yr ian c hu r ch f a the r , A ph raa te s , l i ved i nt h e f ou r th c en tu ry i nt h eP e r s ian Emp i r e" a nd t h e r e f o r eh i sd e sc r ip t ion r e f e r sp r ima r i ly t o B aby lon ian p ra c t i ce . S cho la r s a r e i n d i spu te r e ga rd ing t h e q ue s t ion o f w he th e r A ph raa te s a c tua l ly k new J ew i sh c u s tom sf i r s th and . N eu sne r ,f o re x amp le , c l a im s t h a t h i s a t ta ck s o nJ uda i sm a r e n o tb a sed o na n a cqua in tance w i th R abb in ic J uda i sm b u t o n h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e B ib l ica l t e x t . T h i s q ue s t ion i sw e l l b eyond t h e s c ope o ft h e p r e s en t i n qu iry , b u t i td oe s s e em t ha t e v en i fh i s f am i l ia r i ty w i th J uda i sm w a s n o t e x t rao rd ina ry , h e d i d k now many t h ing s t h a t w e r e c ommon ly p ra c t iced b y h i s n e ighbo r s , p a r t icu la r ly o f t h e l owe r s t ra ta o f s o c i e ty . F unk a nd G ab in c o l le c ted an umb e r o f e xamp le s . F o ro u rp u rpo s e s , i ti si mpo r tan tt op o in t o u tt h ea c cu sa t ion sb yt wo C h r i s t ian w r i te r s a ga in s tt h eJ ew sb ecau se t h ey r e ga rd t h e a r on i nt h e s y nagogue sa s ak i nd o fa l ta r . L ikew i s eD an ie l a l -Qum s i , t h e K a ra i te , m ade as im i la rc l a im a ga in s t t h e R abb in i te s , a nd t h e c l a im i sr e i te ra ted i n ac o r rup t v e r s ion p r e se rv ed i n" M id ra sh h a -! e f e tz . "4 9 A ph raa te s w a s t hu s t h e f i r s t t om ake s u ch ac l a im , a nd t h eo n ly o n ew ho se d e sc r ip t ion m ay b e i n te rp r e ted a sr e f er r ing t ot wo s e pa ra te p l ac e s i nt h e s ynagogue : t h e a r on a nd t h e t e va . T he f a c t t h a t t h e o the r d en ig ra to r s m ake n o m en t ion o f as e cond p l a ce i sn o t a c c id en ta l , a nd A ph raa te s s hou ld n o t b e c on s t rued a s a n u namb iguou s r e f e r ence t o as e cond p o in t o fs a c r ed i n te r e s ti na dd i t ion t ot h e a r on . T he s i tua t ion i sc l ea r e ri nt h e G aon ic p e r iod , d u r ing w h ich w e h ave e v idence f o rt h e f i r s t t im e o f at e va t ha t i sn o t l o ca ted i nt h e f a r w a l l o ft h e s ynagogue b u t w h ich m ay b e e nc i r c led b y t h e c ong r ega t ion d u r ing f e s t iv i t i e s . T he r e f e r ence d e a l s w i th t h eh o shana c i r cu i t s ,a nd R . S aadya G aon s a y s , " And t h ey s hou ld g or ound t h e t e va e a ch d ay o ne c i r cu i t . . ." 5 ° T he s ou r c e st h a t a r ei n f luenced 7 5

Anc ien tS ynagogues 1 988

b yt h ep ra c t ice si nE r e tz I s ra e l a l so m en t ion t h i s c u s tom , b u t w i th as i gn if i can t t e x tua l d if e r enc e : " And t h eh azzan o ft h es ynagogue s t and sl i ke a n a ng e lo fG od a nd t h eT o rah s c rol i nh i sa rm ,a nd t h e p eop le g o r ound h im l i ke [ t hey w ou ld ] t h e a l ta r ." 5 1 T he c u s tom o ft h e h o shana c i r cu i t s i sa l so d e sc r ib ed h e r e , b u t i ti sn o t t h e t e va t h a t i sg one r ound , b u t t h e h azzan h o ld ing t h e T o rah s c rol . I ti st hu s l i ke ly t ha t t h e s ou r ce s f r om E r e tz I s ra e l k new o fn o t e va i nt h e c en te r o ft h e s ynagogue b u t i nt h e f a r w a l l , p a r t o f t h e h o ly a r k o r n ea r i t . B o th t h e e a rl i e s t s ou r ce s w h ich r e la te t h i s c u s tom , Y a l ku t S h ine o n i a nd M id ra sh T eh i l im , a r e l a t e c o l lec t ion s ( n in th , t e n th c en tu r ie s ) , b u t mo s t o ft h e ma te r ia l i nt h em i sa nc ien t . T he t r ad i t ion sg a the r ed i nM id ra sh T eh i l im a r e g ene ra l ly r e l iab le , a nc ien t s ou r ce sf r om E r e tz I s ra e l ; a ta ny r a te i ti sl i ke ly t h a t w e h ave h e r e a n e cho o ft h e p ra c t i ce i nE r e tz I s ra e ld u r ing t h e G aon ic p e r iod . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween p r ac t ice s c ommon i n B aby lon ia a nd E r e tz I s ra e l e xp la in s a no the r s u rp r i s ing G aon ic h a lakha i nS ef e rh a -H i luk im : " Re s iden t s o f B aby lon ia t u rn t h e i r f a ce s t owa rd s t h e c ong r ega t ion a nd t h e i r b a ck s t owa rd s t h e h o ly a r k ; r e s iden t s o fE r e tz I s ra e l t ur n ed t h e i r f a ce s t owa rd s t h e h o ly a r k . "5 2 M a rgo l io t a nd L ew in e xp la ined t h i s t o m ean t h a t t h e B aby lon ian s p r e se rv ed t h e a nc ien t p r ac t ice s w he r eby t h e c ong r ega t ion s a t f a c ing t h e h o ly a r k a nd t h e e l de r s w i th t h e i rb a ck s t ot h e a r k , b u t i nE r e tz I s ra e l , t h ey a l r eady s a t i nr ow s l i ke i nt h e l a te m ed ieva l s ynagogue s o fE u rope . T h i s e xp lana t ion i sd if i cu l t t oa c cep t b ecau se t h e re i sn o e v id en ce t h a t i n E r e tz I s ra e lt h ey g av eu pt h ea nc ien tc u s tom ; o n t h e c on t ra ry , t h i sp r a c t ice s e em st oh ave p r eva i led i nt h e s y nagogue s o f t h e O r ien t t h roughou t t h e M idd l e A g e s a nd u n t i l t h e t w en t i e th c en tu ry . T he r e f o r e , Iw i sh t os ugg e s t an ew i n t e rp r e ta t ion o ft h e p a s sag e . T he r e f e r ence i sn o t t ot h e a r on , b u tt ot h e t e va , wh ich a sw e h ave s e en i s as y nonym f o ra r on . I nE r e tz I s ra e lt h ec ong r ega t ion s a t f a c ing t h e a r on -e x c ep tf o rt h e e l de r s ; i nB aby lon ia d u r ing t h e G aon ic p e r iod , t h e t e va w a sp l a ced i nt h e c en te ro ft h e s y nagogue , a nd s ome o ft h e c ong r eg a t ion s a t w i th i t sb a ck t oi t . T h i s a ppl i ed i np a r t icu la r t ot ho s e w ho s a t n o t o n t h e b enche s a l ong t h e w a l l s , b u t o n t h e m a t s i nt h e m idd l e o ft h eb u i ld ing .5 4 T he c u s tom o f h aqqaf o t o r h o shano t ( c i r cu i t s ) o n S ukko t i sm en t ioned b y t h e A rab ic w r i te r A l B a run i( t en th c en tu ry ) . A l B a run it e rm st h eo b jec tt ob eg one r ound a lm inba r ,a nd h ee xp la in s t h a t i ti ss im i la r t ot h e p u lp i t o n w h ich t h e p r ea che r s t and s i n amo sque ." C la r if i ca t ion o ft h i s p a s sag e a nd i t s r e levance t ot h e t e va -b ima i nt h e A rab ic p e r iod i sb eyond t h e s c op e o ft h i s p ape r , b u t w em ay c onc lude t h a t ac en t ra lo b jec t o ft h i s k i nd w a s k nown i nB aby lon ia ; i nw r i t ing s f r om t h e G en iza m en t ion i sm ade o f ai n bo li nt h e s y n eogue s o f E r e tz I s ra e l ( A shke lon ) a nd i nt h e s ynagogue o f t h e J e ru sa lem i te s i n F u s ta t ( Egyp t ) ." E v en i fw e m ay e s tabl i sh t h a t t h i s w a s a c o mmon f e a tu r eo ft h e s ynagogue o fB aby lon ia a nd o fE r e tz I s rae l ,w ec anno tb ec e r ta in t h a te v e ry r e f e r ence i st o t h e s ame o b jec t . I n t h e t wo r e f e r ence s f r om t h e G en iza t h e r e i sn o i n f o rma t ion r e ga rd ing t h e p r ec i s el o ca t ion o ft h e i n bo l . T he e t ymo logy o ft h e w o rd i n bo li su ndoub ted ly G r eek , b u t t h a t f a c t a l one i si n suf f i c ien t t o a low u s t o c on c lude t h a t t h e r e w a s ap l a t f orm w i th t h a t n ame i nt h e s ynagogue s o f B yzan t ine E r e tz I s rae 1 .5 7 G o i te in c o r r ec t ly p o in t ed o u t t h a t t h e p l a t f orm i nt h e C h r i s t ian c hu r ch w a s c a l led a mbona i nS y r iac a nd a mbone i nL a t in , p e rhap s l e ad ing t ot h e t e rm u s ed i nt h e s y nagogue . T he p r ea che r s t ood o n t h i s p l a t f orm w h ich w a s l o ca ted a tt h e e nd o ft h e a p se . Mo r eove r G r eek w a s s pok en i nE r e tz I s ra e l many y ea r s a f t e r t h e Mu s l im c onque s t , a nd t h e c us tom o fc on s t ruc t ing a p l a t f o rm i nt h e s y nagogue m ay h ave d ev e lop ed a tt h i s l a te d a te w h i le t a k ing i t s n ame f r om t h e v e rna cu la r l a nguag e -G r eek . Mo r eove r , t h e u s e o f aG r eek t e rm d oe s n o t b y i t s e l f p rov e c on t inu i ty f r om t h e B yzan t ine p e r iod . H oweve r , i n f a c t , t h e t e rm d oe s a pp ea r o n B yzan t in e i n sc r ip t ion s . I n t h e s y nagogue o f S i da t h e r e i sa n i n s c r ip t ion o f s i x l i ne s i nw h ich E i sa ch i s t h e P ron te s t i s o ft h e s y nagogue t e l l s o ft h e e r ec t ion o ft h e s y nagogue a nd t h e i n s ta l la t ion o f ma rb le f a c ing f r om t h e p l a t f o rm ( ambon ) t ot h e s ima .5 8 K rau s s" i n t e rp r e ted a mbon p l a t f orm a nd s ima ( s lop ing r oo f ) . T hu st h e a mbon r e p r e s en t s t h ef l oo ro ft h e s y nagogue . I fE i sa ch i sh ad c ove r ed t h e e n t i r e s ynagogue w i th m a rb le , h e w ou ld h av e s a id t h a t i te x tended f r om t h e f l oo r t ot h e r oof , a nd n o tp o in to u tt h ep l a t f o rm . C on sequen t ly ,i ti sc l ea rt h a th em ean tt h a to n ly p a r tw ou ld a ppa r en t ly b e t h e s a c r ed w a l l . T hu s w e m ay c onc lude t h a t t h i s p l a t f o rm w a s i nt h e s a c r ed w a l l o ra d ja cen t t oi t . K rau s s a l so m en t ion s t h e b ima ( b ama - p l a t f o rm ) i n t h e c en te r o f t h e s ynagogue o f A lexand r ia ,6 ° b u t t h i s s t ruc tu r ew a s r e nowned f o r i t sg r ea t s i z e . A c co rd ing t ot h e d e sc r ip t ion , t h e h azzan s t ood o nt h i sp l a t f o rm a nd s i g na l led t h e c ong r eg a t ion w hen t oa n swe r " amen ' i nr e spon se t ot h e l e ade r6 1 o r t o t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah .6 2 T he h azzan d i d i n deed s t and n ex t t ot h e r e ade r , w h ich i n d ica te st h a tt h i sp l a t f o rm w a si nt h e m idd le o ft h es y nagogue . B ecau se o fi t se x t rao rd ina ry s i ze , t h i s s y nagogue m ay n o t b e r e ga rded a st y p ica l . I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t ha t b e cau se o ft h a t s i z e , 7 6

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

an ew a r ch i tec tu ra l s o lu t ion -t h e c on s truc t ion o f ap l a t f o rm -w a s f i r s t a pp l ied t h e r e . T he s ame a ppl i e s t ot h e s ynagogue a tS a rd i sa nd i tmay h av eb e en t h ec a s ei no the rl a rg e s ynagogue sa sw e l l . I n t h e s ynagogue o fS y ra cu s e t h e r e i s ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h e mak ing o f af r wac rew rov 6 3 , t ha t i s , ab ench o rf oo t s too l o ft h e p l a t f orm . T h i s i n s c r ip t ion a l so om i t s t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e p l a t f o rm , b u tt h et e rm ino logy s ugg e s t s ar a i s ed o b jec tw h ich h ad af oo t s too lo rs h e l f ,a no b jec ts e pa ra te f r om t h e a r k b u t p e rhap s b e f o r e i to ra d jacen t t oi t . I n ap a s sag e i n P .T . Meg i l l a C h .3 , 8 3d , t h e B aby lon ian s a g e R ay Y ehuda s a y s i nt h e n ame o f S hmu e l : " The p l a t f o rm ( b ima ) a nd t h e l u h in d o n o t h av e t h e s anc t i ty o ft h e a r k ; t h e i n ga l in ( b el ? ) d oe s n o t h av e t he s a nc t i ty o ft h ea r k6 4 , b u t d oe s h av e t h e s a nc t i ty o ft h e s ynagogue ." T h e u se o f b ima a nd a r on t og e the r i n d ica te s ap l a t f orm o n w h ich a n a r k w a s p l a ced , a nd t hu s d oub t a r i s e s r e ga rd ing t h e n a tu r e o ft h e s a nc t i ty t ob e a t t r ibu ted t oe a ch . S im i la r ly t h e s ame p a s sag e d i scu s s ed t h e i n ga l in ( b e l l o r o the r d eco ra t ive a do rnmen t a t tached t o t h e a r k ) .b 5 T he l u h in m en t ion ed may h ave b een w ooden p ane l s w h ich a do rned t h e a r k o r wh ich f e nced i to f , b u t c l ea r ly n o tt h eb ox i n wh ich t h eT o rah s c ro l l w a sh ou s ed b ecau se , i fi tw e r e , t h e s a g e sw ho d eba ted t h ed eg r ee o fs anc t i ty t o b e a t t r ibu ted t o i tw ou ld h av e c on s ide r ed t ha t i tm ay h av e t h e s a nc t i ty o f aT o rah s c ro l l i t se l f . T hu s w e may c onc lude t h a t t h e r e i sn o e v idenc e f o r ac en t ra l p l a t f orm i nt h e s ynagogue o f E r e tz I s ra e l . T he r e i se v idence f o r s u ch ap l a t f o rm i nS a rd i s a nd p e rhap s i nD u ra -Eu ropu s ; c l ea r e r e v iden ce m ay b e f ound o n ly f r om t h e G aon ic p e r iod ; a nd t h e p r a c t ice w ou ld s e em t o h ave d eve loped i nB aby lon ia a nd n o t i nE r e tz I s ra e l . One m ay p r e sume t ha t i nt h e B aby lon ian s ynagogue o f t h e t h i rd a nd f our th c en tu r ie s t h e r e w a s ad eg r ee o ft e n s ion b e tween t h e a nc ien t p ra c t ice o fk e ep ing t h e s c ro l l s i n ac he s t o u t s ide t h e p raye rh a l l a nd t h e c u s tom p r eva len t i nE r e tz I s ra e l o fc on s t ruc t ing a n or na te a r k i nt h e w a l l t ha t p o in t st owa rd s J e ru sa lem . T he d emand t o i n c lude s ome f o rm o fs a nc tor ium i nt h e d e s ign o ft h e s ynagogue i sa lmo s t s e lf -exp lana to ry : n o t o n ly b ecau se i tw a st h e n o rm i nt h e s ynagogue so fE r e tz I s ra e l a nd o f t he D ia spo ra , a nd o f t emp le s a nd c hu r che s a s w e l l , b u t b ecau se i ti st h e n a tu ra l p r e requ i s i te o f ar e l ig iou s s t ruc tu r e l i ke a s ynagogue . Mo r eov e r , i nt h e c ou r s e o f p raye r T o rah s c rol s w e r e n eeded , s a c r ed b ook s b e f or e w h ich t h e c ong r ega t ion w ou ld s t and u p a nd p ay i t s r e spec t .6 T h e se s c ro l l sh ad t ob ep r e s e r ved i nt h es ynagogue b ecau s et h ey c ou ld n o tb et r an spor ted t h e re o n t h e S abba th .6 7 T h i s f a c t r e qu i r ed as p ec ia l c on ta ine r i nw h i ch t ok eep t h e s c rol sf o rt h e i r g r ea t v a lu e , i ff o r n o o the r r e a son . T he a sp i ra t ion t o c on s truc t ab eau t i f u l c on ta ine r w i th b o th a r ch i t ec tu ra l a nd s ymbo l ic s i gn if i cance , i sc l ea r ly u nde r s tood ; i ti sd if i cu l t t o i mag ine w ha t c ou ld p reven t s u ch ac onc ep t f r om i nf i l t ra t ing t h e s y nagogue . T hu s i nE r e tz I s ra e l t h e r e la t ive ly s imp le , p or tab le c he s t w a s t r an s f ormed i n to a n or na te a r k . I n B aby lon ia t he p roce s s w a s d if e r en t : p o s s ib ly i tw a s d if i cu l t f o r t h e c ong r ega t ion t op a r t w i th t h e p ra c t i c e o fb r ing ing t h e c he s t , o rt h e s c ro l l w i thou t t h e c he s t , i n to t h e s ynagogue . A s ar e su l t o ft h i st e n s ion , ak ind o fc omp rom i se w a s r e a ched : o nt h eo ne h and ap e rmanen ta r kw a si n s ta l led , a nd o nt h eo the r ac h e s to rp l a t f o rm e i the ri nt h ec en te ro ft h e s ynagogue o ri nt h es a c r ed a r ea t ha t t u rned t owa rd s J e ru sa lem . I n t h i s w ay t h e t wo a r ch i tec tu ra l c en te r s o f t h e s ynagogue s l ow ly e me rg ed -t h e a rk b e came ak i nd o fs anc tor ium a nd t h e c he s t ap l a t f orm o n w h ich t h e T o rah w a s p l a ced o n ly w h i le b e ing r e ad .

V . K u r saya T h e B aby l on ian T a lmud ( Meg i l l a 2 6b ) r e f e r s t oa n a dd i t iona l o b jec t : t h e k u r saya . T h i s o b jec t i sm en t ion ed i nt wo d if e r en t c on t ex t s , b o th o ft h em i ns a y ing so fR ava ( f our th c en tu ry ) . T he f i r s t r e f e ren c e : " Rava s a id -Iu sed t os a yt ha tt h e k u r saya i sa na c ce s sory t oa na c c e s so ry a nd p e rm i t ted , b u t w hen Is aw t ha t t h ey p l a c e t h e T o rah s c ro l l u pon i t , Is a id i ti sa n a c ce s sory t o h o l in e s s a nd t hu s f o rb idden ." T he s e cond r e f e r ence : -I h e t e va t ha t h a s b een r u ined m ay b e m ade i n to as ma l l t e va , b u t n o t ak u r saya ." Med ieva l e x eg e te s o ft h e T a lmud ( Ra sh i a nd a l -Fa s i , a d . loc . , O r Z a ru ca , # 386 ) e xp la ined t h e t e rm k u r saya a sr e f e r r ing t ot h e w ood en b ima f am i l ia r t ot h em f r om t h e m ed i eva l s ynagogue . T h i s b ima w a s r e ga rded a st h e " a cce s sory t o a n a c ce s sory [ o fh ol ine s s ] " b ecau s e i tw a s c u s toma ry t o s p r ead ac l o th o ve r i ta nd p l a ce t h eT o rah s c ro l lu pon t h ec l o th , t hu s mak ing t h e c l o th a n a c ce s so ry a nd t h e b ima a n a c ce s so ry t oa na c ce s so ry . S uch at a b le w a sf ound i nS a rd i s i nt h e w a l l a d ja cen t t ot h e a r k p o in t ing t owa rd J e ru sa lem . 7

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

I ft h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion i sc o r r ec t , i tw ou ld b e e v idenc ef o rt h e e x i s tence o f ap l a t form o rt a b le i n t h e c en te r o ft h e s y nagogue . H oweve r t h i s e xp lana t ion p r e s en t s s e ve ra l p rob lem s : i ti sh a rd t o i mag ine t h a t t h e t a b l e o n w h ich t h e T o rah s c ro l l i sp l a c ed i st ob e r e ga rded " t he a c ce s so ry o fa n a c ce s so ry "s i nce , a f te ra l , t h et a b le i sh o ld ing u pt h e s c ro l l . Mo r eov e r , k u r sa ya m ean s " c ha i r "a nd w hy w ou ld R ava r e f e rt o at a b le a s ac ha i r ? F ur the rmo r e , a sw e s h a l l s e e b e low , i nt h i sp e r iod t h e s c rol w a sh e ld i no ne ' sh and sa nd n o t p l a ced o n t h e t a b le a si tw a si nt h e M idd le A g e s . T he r e f o r e , i tw ou ld s e em r e a sonab le t o s ugg e s t t h a t t h e k u r sa ya w a s ac ha i r i nt h e f o rm o fa c a th ed ra , w h i ch w a su s ed i nt h e s ynagogue d ur ing t h es e rmon a l one . A s i sw e l lk nown , t h el e ade r o fp raye ra nd t h er e ade ro ft h eT o rah s t ood b u tt h ep r ea che rs a t . T he s a g ew a st e a ch ing ,o fc ou r se , a nd h e h e ld as c rol i nh i s h and , f r om w h ich h e q uo ted v e r se s i nt h e c ou r s e o fh i s s e rmon ; a sh e w a s h o ld ing t h e s c rol h e s a t o n ak u r saya . T he c ha i rw a s a n " a cc e s sory t oa n a c ce s so ry "b ecau se t h e s c ro l l w a s n o t p l a ced o n t h e c ha i r . O cca s iona l ly , i ft h e p r ea che r t i r ed o fh o ld ing t h e s c ro l l i t w a s s e t d own u pon i t , mak ing t h e c ha i r a n a c ce s so ry t oh o l ine s s . T h i s c ha i rw a sl e s s s a c r ed t han at e va , a nd t h e r e f o r e i ti sc l ea r w hy o ne m ay n o t r e du ce t h e w ood f r om t h e h o l ine s s o f at e va t o t h eh o l ine s so f ac ha i r . T h i sk u r saya o rk u r sa may b et h ec a thed ra w h ich i sf o und i nt h es y nagogue a tK ho ra z in ( a nd p o s s ib ly i nH ama t T ib er ia s a sw e l l ) . O bv iou s ly c a thed ra a nd k u r sa a r e a lmo s t s y nonymou s . T h e c a thed ra s e rv ed i nt h e s ynagogue a s as e a t f o r t h e s a g e s a nd e l de r s , b u t t h e c a thed ra i n K ho raz in e v iden t ly h ad as p ec ia l f unc t ion . T he c a thed ra c a r r ie s a n i n sc r ip t ion t h a t m en t ion s " . . t h i s s t oa a nd i t ss t ep s ." h oweve r i ti su nc lea r w ha t s t oa i sr e f e r r ed t o a nd w he the r t h e s t ep s b e long t ot h e s t oa o rt ot h e g r ea t s t one c ha i r . Z . Y e iv in h a sd ea l t w i th t h i s s ub jec t l a te ly r e a ch ing t h e c onc lu s ion t ha t t h e s t oa i sn o tt h eh a l l c on ta in ing a r ow o f s t ep s s i nce t h e e n t i r e s ynagogue i so ne l a rg e s t oa .6 8 I tm ake s n o s e n se t o i n sc r ibe ad ed ica t ion o ft h ee n t i r eh a l lo ft h e s ynagogue i n ama rg ina l manne ro nt h e s i de o f as t one c ha i r . T h e r e f o r e i tw ou ld s e em t h a t t h e s t oa i sn one o the r t han a n i t z taba -as h e l f , at y p e o f p od ium , t h a t e v en t oday i sc a l led a n i t z taba . Y e iv in r e con s truc t s a n i t z taba u pon w h ich as t one c ha i r -ac a thed ra -i sp l a c ed , a nd b e f o r e t h e c ha i r s t ep sa nd t wo p i l la r s . T h i sd e sc r ip t ion p e r f ec t ly f i t st h e k u r saya o fR ava i nB aby lon ia ; a nd , a sm en t ioned , t h i s c a thed ra s e r v ed a st h e s e a t o ft h e p r ea che r , t h er e ad e rn o t s i t t ing a ta l . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h i s w a s n o mo r et h an as e a to fh ono rf o r t h e s a g e , b u t t h e t e s t imony i nt h e B aby lon ian T a lmud m i t iga te s a ga in s t t h a t e xp lana t ion b ecau se t h ei n sc r ip t ion t e s t if i e st ot h ei mpor tance o ft h e o b jec t a s ap a r t o ft h e d i v ine s e r v ice . Y e iv in s ugg e s t st h a tt h ec a thed ra b e t a ken a se v idence f o rt h ef u nc t ion o f as e conda ry p l a t f o rm u pon w h ich i tw a sp l a ced . T ha t may i n deed b et h e c a s e , b u t a tt h ep r e sen tt i me t h e r ei sn of u r the r e v idence t os uppo r t t h i sh ypo the s i s .

V I . A Women ' s G a l le r y S .S af r a ih a sd emon s t ra ted t h a td u r ing t h e p e r iod o ft h e M i shna a nd t h e T a lmud t h e r e w a s n o s p ec ia l ly b u i l t w om en ' s g a l le ry i nt h e s y nagogue . Women p r ayed t og e the r w i th m en o r , a t mo s t , o ccup ied o ne o ft h e s e c t ion s o f t h e p r ay e r h a l 1 .6 9 S .D . G o i te in ," o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e w om en ' s g a l l e ry k nown t oh ave e x i s ted i nt h eb a lcony o f as y nagogue i nC a i ro 7 1 a nd i nD am ie t ta d u r ing t h e G aon i cp e r iodn e xp r e s sed s e r iou sd oub tt h a tt h i sc ou ld h ave b een a ni nnova t ion f r om t h a tp e r iod , c on s ider ing t h e f a c t t h a t i nt h e c on tempo ra ry Mu s l im s o c ie ty , n o s u ch s t ruc tu r e e x i s ted . I nf a c t , G o i t e in ' s e v id enc e p rove s o n ly t h a t i n t h e G aon ic p e r iod t h e w omen ' s g a l l e ry w a s ak nown p henomenon , b u ti tc anno tb et a ken f o rp roof o ft h e s i tua t ion h und r ed s o fy ea r se a rl i e r . T he r e a r e af ew h i n t sw h i ch c an a dvance t h e c l a r if i ca t ion o ft h eb ackg round f o rt h ef o rma t ion o ft h ew omen ' sg a l le ry . I nt h eM id ra sh P i rke i Ma sh iah w er e ad : " R . E l iez e rb enYa ä cov s a id -t h e b e th m id ra sh o ft h eH o ly O n eB l e s sed B e H e . . .a nd a lt h ep l ac id [ s haanano t ]w omen ,w ho h ad p a id t h e t u i t ion f o rt h e i r s on st ob et a ugh tT o rah , B ib le a nd M i shna , s t and ing [ b eh ind ] t h e p a r t i t ion o f r e ed s , b u i l t l i k e af e nce ,h ea rt h e v o ice o fZ e rubab e l b en S ha l t ie l , w ho t r an s la t e s b ef o r e t h e H o ly O ne B l e s s ed B e H e . . ."7 T h i s p a s sag e g i ve s a n i mag ina ry d e sc r ip t ion o ft h ed i v ine s t udy h a l l . T he w omen a r ef ound b eh ind at empo ra ry p a r t i t ion m ade o fr e ed s . O ne may p r e sume t ha tt h eh om i l i s t w ho u s ed t h i s d e s c r ip t ion e nv i s ion s t h e b e th m id ra sh w i th w h ich h e i sf am i l ia r , i nw h ich t h e r e i s n o p e rmanen tw omen ' s g a l le ry , b u ti nw h ich b e fo r e t h e s e rmon , w h ich a tt h a t t ime w a s g ene ra l ly c onduc ted i nt h e s y nagogue , at empo ra ry p a r t i t ion w a sc on s t ruc ted . Th i sp a s sag e ,t h en ,r e p r e sen t s at r an s i t iona l p e r iod b e tw een m ix ed s e rv ice s ( a nd s e rmon s ) a nd t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ap e rmanen t w omen ' s g a l le ry . 7 8

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

T h ed a te o ft h i sp a s sag e i si nd oub ts i nce t h ea t tr ibu t ion t oR . E l iez e rb en Y a 2a cov i sd ub iou s a nd p e rhap s p seudo -ep ig raph i c . T he e n t i r e m id ra sh w h ich d ea l s w i th e s cha to log i ca l m a t te r s m en t ion se v en t sw h i ch t ook p l a ce b e tw een t h eA rab c onque s ta nd t h eC ru sade s ,b u ti n c lud e so l de r ma te r ia l . T he r e f o r e , i tw ou ld s e em r e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a t t h i s p a s sag e d a te s f r om s ome t ime b e tween t h e s i x th a nd t e n th c en tu r ie s .1 4 D u r ing t h i sp e r iod o ft h ee a r ly M idd le A g e s ,t h e r ea r en ume rab le i n s tanc e so fg r ow ing s t r ic tn e s s i nm a t te r so fr i tua ls e pa ra t ion a nd p u r if i ca t ion . T he c l ea r e s t c a s eo ft h i st r end m ay b ef o und i nt h e " Ba ra i tha d e -N ida "( t r ea t r i se o nr i tua ls e pa ra t ion )p ub l i shed b y H o row i tz ,7 5 w h ich p r e s c r ib e sh a r sh r e s t r ic t ion s o ft h e r i tua l ly u nc l ean , i n c lud ing t h e p roh ib i t ion o fw omen f r om e n te r ing s y nagogue s o r e v en h ou se s i nw h ich s c rol s w e r e k ep t , d u r ing t h e m en s t rua l p e r iod , a nd f u r the r r e s t r i c t ion s b eyond t ho se k nown f r om T anna i t ic a nd Amo ra ic l i t e ra tu r e .7 6 T h e se r e s t r ic t ion s h av e a n e cho i n G aon ic l i t e ra tu r e a s w el .7 I ti sr e a sonab le t o a s sume t h a t d u r ing t h i s p e r iod o f d r a s t ica l ly i n c r ea s ing s t r ic tne s s r e ga rd ing t h e l aw s o fr i tua l p u r i ty , w omen w e r e u l t ima te ly r emov ed f r om t h e p ray e rh a l la nd r e lega ted t o aw omen ' s g a l le ry . Mo r eove r , i faw omen ' sg a l le ry h ad i n deed a l r eady e x i s t ed , t h e r e w ou ld h av e b een n o n eed t o p roh ib i t w omen f r om e n te r ing t h e s y nagogue d u r ing t h e i r m en s t rua l p e r iod . I ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h i s c l a im i so n ly h ypo the t i ca l s i nc e t h e p roh ib i t ion h a sn o h a l akh i cb a s i sw ha t soeve rb u t i sb a s ed o n ly o n a n e mo t iona l a t t i tude t ow h ich f o rma le xp lana t ion sd o n o t a pp ly . I nC h r i s t ian c hu r che s b u i l t d u r ing t h i s t ime ( t he s i x th t o t h e e i gh th c en tu r ie s ) b a lcon i e s w e r e b u i l t t os e rv e a sw omen ' s g a l l e r ie s . N eve r the le s s , i td oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly f o low t h a t t h e c hu r che s i n f luenc ed t h e b u i ld ing o ft h e s y nagogue o r ,f o rt h a tm a t te r ,t h a t p r a c t ice so f mode s ty p r eva len ti n Mu s l im s o c ie ty i n f luenced J ew i sh s o c i e ty . O n t h e c on t ra ry , i tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t i n ter na l J ew i sh i n s t inc t s t e nded t owa rd s i n c r ea sed s t r ic tne s s r e ga rd ing r i tua l p u r i ty 7 5 a nd t h e s e i n s t inc t s a l so b rough t a bou t t h e a dop t ion o f s t r ic te r l aw s o f mode s ty w h ich f o und t h e i r e xp r e s s ion i n t h e c on s t ru c t ion o f as e pa ra te b a l cony f o rw omen i nt h e s y nagogue . I nc onc lu s ion ,t h ew omen ' sg a l le ry w ou ld s e em t ob e a n i n nova t ion o ft h eg r ay p e r iod b e twe en t h e e nd o ft h e Amo ra ic p e r iod a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e G aon ic p e r iod , a bou t w h ich v e ry l i t t le i s k nown . A sd i scu s sed a bov e , t h i s w a st h e t ime d u r ing w h ich t h e c en t ra l p l a t f o rm w a si n s t i tu ted i n t h e B aby lon ian s y nagogue ,a nd o the rp hy s ica lc hang e s ,w i th w h ich w eh av en o td ea l ti nt h i sa r t ic le , a l so t ook p l ace i nt h e s y nagogue . T he f a c t t h a t e x ter na l s t a i r ca se s , l e ad ing t o b a lcon ie s , w e r e c on s t ruc ted i nt h e s ynagogue so fS u s ia a nd Me ro th r ough ly a tt h i s t ime ( s ix th t oe i gh th c en tu r ie s ) may a dd s uppor t t ot h e c h rono log ica l r e con s truc t ion s ugg e s ted h e r e , a l though t h e b a lcon ie s w e r e n o tn ec e s sa r i ly w omen ' sg a l le r ie sb u t m ay h ave s e r v ed an umb e r o fo the rp u rpo s e s .

V I I . C onc lus ions : Whe re a nd h ow w a s t h ed i v ine s e r v ice c onduc ted i nt h e S ynagogue ? T hu s f a r w e h ave t r i ed t o u nde r s tand t h e v a r iou s a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e s d i sce rn ib le i n t h e d if e r en t s ou r ce s t h a t h av e r e a ched u s . A t t h i s p o in t , w e s hou ld e xam ine t h e s ub jec t f r om a d if e r en ta ng l e . S i nc et h e many l i t u rg ica l a c t iv i t ie s c a r r ied o u t i nt h e s y nagogue a r e k nown t ou s , w ec an t r yt oc l a r if yh ow a nd w h e r et h ey w e r et ook p l a ce a nd a pp ly t h er e su l t so ft h i si n ve s t iga t ion t oo u r s t udy o ft h e a r ch i tec tu ra lf e a tu r e si nt h e s y nagogue p r aye r h al . I nt h i s c on tex t w e n e ed t o d i s cov e rt h ep u rpo s eo rf u nc t ion o ft ho s ef e a tu r e sa nd d ev ice sf o rw h ich n one h a sy e tb e en d ef ined . I nt h e s ynagogue t h ef o l low ing l i t u rg ica l a c t iv i t ie s w e r e c a r r ied o u t : I .P raye r T he l e ade r o ft h e c ong r eg a t ion ( s he / iah h az ibbu r ) s t ood , b u t t h i s d i d n o t r e qu i r e a ny s p ec ia l f u rn i sh ing s i nce t h e r e w e r e n ow r i t ten p r aye rbook s . O ne o ft h e c olec t ion s o fh a l akha f r om E r e tz I s ra e l d a t ing f r om t h e e a r ly M idd le A g e s '9 m en t ion s t h e o p t ion o f ac a thed ra u pon w h ich a n e l de r ly o r i l s h e / iah z i bbu r s hou ld s i t . T he a s sump t ion i st h a t t h e s h e / iah z i bbu r s hou ld b e p rom inen t , a nd t hu s h e m ay b e a low ed t o s i t i fh i s s e a t i sr a i sed . O ne m ay p r e sume t h a t t h e s h e / iah z i bbu r s t ood u pon ar a i sed p l a tf o rm f a c ing t h e c ong r ega t ion a nd , a sd i s cu s s ed a bov e , h i s p l a ce w a si nf r on to ft h e t e va w h ich r o s ea bove h im , a sr e vea led i nt h ee xp r e s s ion s " p a s sb e f o r et h e t e va , "o r" d e scend b e f o r et h e t e va ." Two a dd i t iona l m en s t ood n ea rt h es h e / iah z i bbu r ,8 ° a nd f r om t h i s w em ay c on c lude t h a tt h e a r ea o ft h e p l a t f o rm w a s s uf i c ien t t oh o ld s e v e ra l p eop le . 7 9

A nc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

2 .T he p r ie s t ly b ened ic t ion A s w e h ave s e en , i nB aby lon ia t h e p r ie s t s s t ood o n t h e p od ium i nf r on t o ft h e t e va . I nE r e tz I s ra e lt h ey e v iden t ly s t ood n ea rt h e a r ko ro n t h e s t ep s t h a t l e d t ot h e a r k , a si nt h e m id ra sh " a nd t h e r e f o r e t h e p r ie s t s w en t u p t o t h e a r k ( a ron ) s o t h a t a l t h e p eop le c ou ld b e b e f o r e t h em " ( Bam idba r R abbah 1 :11 ) . T he u s e o ft h e t e rm a r on i n d ica te s as ou r c e f r om E r e tz I s ra e l . T h i s d e sc r ip t ion p a r t i cu la r ly s u i t s t h e s y nagogue s o ft h e f o ur th t os i x th c e n tur ie s , i nw h ich t h e a r k w a s i n an i che o ra p se a pp roa ched b y an umb e ro fs t ep s . 3 .T he r e ad ing o ft h eT o rah T he r e ade r a nd h i s a d junc t s s t ood f a c ing t h e c ong r ega t ion 8 I o n t h e s t ep s o ft h e a r k o r j u s t b enea th i t . I nB aby lon ia , a tl e a s tu n t i lt h ef ou r th c en tu ry ,t h e t e va w a sb rough ti nf r om o ne o ft h e a d ja cen t r oom s , a nd i n E r e tz I s ra e l s i nce T anna i t ic t ime s t h e r e w a s ap e rmanen t t e va t h a t d ev e loped i n to ad eco ra t iv eh o ly a r k . T hu s , f o rt h er e ad ing o ft h e T o rah a na r ea w a sr e qu i r ed t h a t c ou ld h o ld a tl e a s tt h r e ep eop le . I ns ome o ft h e s ynagogue st h i s a r ea w a sj u s t b e f o r e t h e a r k , b u t i n o the r s t h e s t ep s i n f r on t d i d n o t l e av e e nough s pa c e ( Kho raz in , I s h ta sno ca ,S u sy ia , H i rb e t S ham ca ? ) . I nt h el a t te rc a se , t h ey w ou ld s t and o n t h e f l oo r i nf r on t o ft h e a r k o ro n as e conda ry p l a t f o rm s u ch a s t h a t i n S u s ia o r H i rb e t Me ro th . H ow ev e r , t h e a r ea o f t h i s p l a t f o rm w a s i n suf f i c ien t t o a low s e v e ra l p eop le t o s t and c om f o r tab ly a nd p e r f orm t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah d e co rou s ly . T he r e f o r e , i ti sh a rd t o s e e t h e s e conda ry b ima a s a n a pp rop r ia te p l ace f o r p ubl i c r e ad ing o ft h eT o rah . A cco rd ing t ot h e h a l akha , t h er e ade r s t ood a nd h e ld t h e T o rah s c ro l l i nh i s h and ;8 2 t hu s t h e r e w a s n o n eed f o r at a b le . I nf a c t , d u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h e r e w a s n o p u rpo se f o r a ny t a b le l i ke t h a t o ft h em ed ieva l s y nagogue . 4 .T he s e rmon D u r ing t h et e a ch ing o ft h eT o rah , i ti sc u s toma ry f o rt h e r a bb i t os i to n ar a i s ed c ha i r a nd t h e p eop le t os i ta th i s f e e t " s oak ing u p t h e d u s t a tt h e f e e t o ft h e s a g e s " .8 3 T he r e f o r e i ti sr e a sonab l e t oa s sume t h a tt h ep r ea che ri nt h es ynagogue s a t d u r ing h i s s e rmon a nd t h a t s u ch w a st h ef un c t ion o ft h e " c a thed ra "o r" ku r saya " . S i nce t h e s e conda ry p l a t f o rm i su n su i tab le f o r a ny o the r p u rpo s e , i ti sr e a sonab le t oc onc lude t h a t i ts e r v ed a s t h e b a se f o rt h i s c a thed ra o rs e a t o fh ono r . 5 .T he c ong rega t ion T he c ong r ega t ion s a t o n s t one b enche s a l ong t h e w a l l s o ft h e p r ay e r h a l l ; i nB aby lon ia t h e r e i sm en t ion o f" z iper .8 4 I tw ou ld s e em t h a tt h ey a l so s a t i nt h ec en te ro ft h eh a l la sw a st h ep r a c t ice i nt h e S epha rd i s ynagogue s i nt h e M idd le A g e s . T r an s la ted b y M icha e l G la tze r

8 0

A nc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

NOTES * Th is s t udy w a s c a rr ied o u t w i th t h e s uppo r t o ft h e A . a nd Z . Mo skov i tz C a thed ra f o r t h e S tudy o fE re tz I s ra e l a tB a r I l an Un ive r s i ty . 1 .

On t h e h i s to ry o f t h e p r ies t ly b ened ic t ion , c f . A . G inzbe rg , P e rush im v e -I l idush im b e -Ye rusha lm i , 1 1 , p . 9 1; S . S a f ra i , " Rabban Yohanan b en Z akka i a f ter t h e D es truc t ion o f t h e T emp le " ( Il eb rew ) , G eda l iah A lon Memor ia l V o lume ( e d . M . Do than a nd o the r s ) , T e l Av iv , 1 97 1, p p .2 12 -2 13 ; I .E lbogen , Ha -7 ' ef i la b e -I s rae lb e H i tpa thu ta , T e l A v iv 1 972 , p p .54 -56 . ( Heb rew )

2 .

P .T . S ukka , Ch .3 , 5 4a . E lbogen h i n ted a tt h is d i s t inc t ion , b u t t hough t t ha t i tw a s b e tween Amo ra ic a nd T anna i t ic s ou rce s . ( See a bove , n o te 1 ) .

3 .

B .T . S o fa 3 8h . T h is v e rs ion a ppea rs i n t h e m id rash im t ha t s t em f r om t h e B aby lon ian T a lmud a s w e l l , s uch a s M id rash h a -Gado l 6 : 23 ; P i t ron T o rah o n N umbe rs a d l o c . : B am id bar R abbah 1 :11 ( Th is p a r t o fB am id bar R abbah i sk nown t o b e l a t e a nd d ependen t o n t h e B aby lon ian T a lmud ) ; Y a lku t S h im co n i o n N umbe r s 6 : 23 a nd e l sewhe re . Howeve r i nt h e S he l l to t ( on N umbe r s , # 140 , e d . M irsky , J e rusa lem 1 977 , p . 23) : " R . Y eho shua b en L ev i s a id a ny p r ie s t who d oes n o t r a ise h i s h ands v i o la tes w ha t i sw r i t ten i n t h e To rah . " S ee b e low , n o te 5 a nd M id rash v e H izh i r o n N umbe rs a dl o c .

4 .

P .T . B e rakho t . Ch .3 , 6 a , c h .5 , 9 d ; N az i r , C h .7 , 5 6a . N e s ia t K appa im # 4 11 .

F o r ac on f i rma t ion o f t h is v e rs ion , c f . O r Z aru ca , H i lkho t

5 .

B .T . S o fa , i b id . a nd c f . t h e v e r s ion i n M id rash v e H izh i r , Na so # 20 . B u t i n t h e S he l i to t ( i b id . ) k appe ihen" ( r a ise u p t h e i r h ands ) .

6 .

P .T . B e rakho t , Ch .5 , 9 d ; G i t t in C h .5 , 4 7h ; O r Z aru ca ,i b id .

" po r s in e t

7 .

B .7 ' . K iddush in , 7 1a .

8 .

S if re Z u ta 6 ,2 7 ; P .T . Yoma , Ch .3 , 4 0d .

9 .

T anhuma , Noah , Ch . 14 ; c f . M id rash h a G ado l o n N umbe r s 3 : 32 ; P .T . S habba t , Ch .10 , 1 2c : " He w a s t h e d uke o f d ukes ; " i nB am id ba r R abbah ( Ch .4 ,2 1) i n te rp re ted t h is p a ssage c o rrec t ly : n a s i o f n es i im ; c f . B amd iba r R abbah 7 : 3 .

1 0 .

T anhuma B ube r , 2 0 .

1 .

T he d a t ing o f t h e t r ans la t ion k nown a s t h e T argum Y ona than i sv e ry d if i cu l t ; c f . t h e c onc lu s ions o f Yo rk i nA .D . Yo rk , " The Da t ing o fT a rgum ic L i te ra tu re , " J .S .T .J . 5 ( 1974 ) , p p .49 -62 . Many c l a im t ha t t he T a rgum i sa nc ien t a nd s t ems f r om E re tz I s rae l . I ft ha t i st h e c a se , t h en t h is s en tenc e i nt h e T a rgum i st h e o n ly i n s tance i nE re tz I s ra e l o fu se o f t h e t e rm " t o a sc end t h e d ukhan ; " c onsequen t ly i ti sl i ke ly t ha t i ti s al a te v e rs ion , o r p e rhaps al a te a dd i t ion t o t h e T argum . T he e n t i re w o rk s hou ld n o t b e d a ted a cco rd ing t o as i ng le v e rse , b u t t h i s v e rse d oes c omp lemen t a n umbe r o fo the r v e rses t ha t a r e a cknow ledged a s l a te t r ans la t ions i n T argum Y ona than , s uch a s G ene s is 2 1 :2 1 a nd o the rs ; c f . a l so T argum S h i r h a S h i r im 4 : 7 .

1 2 .

C f . e . g . B .T . S o fa 3 8b a nd M id rash h a -Gado l o n N umbe r s 8 : 23 . T he f u l l e xp ress ion i s" kohen o l e l adukhan ."

1 3 .

Ano the r l a te r t e rm i s" po r s in k apehem" , w h ich may b e d e r ived f r om t h e e xp re ss ion " l if ros a ls hema c" ,o r p e rhap s u nde r t h e i nf luenc e o f t h e manne r i nw h ich t h e p r ie s ts s p read t h e ir h ands d u r ing t h e p r ies t ly b ened ic t ion .

1 4 .

F o r d akhon , c f . M i shna , K e l im 7 : 2 ; A rukh h a S ha l em , d kn ( Vo l .3 , p . 57 ) .

1 5 .

M i shna , M iddo t 2 : 6 ; C f . S . K le in , E re tz Y ehuda , T e l Av iv 1 939 , p . 127 .

1 6 .

T osef ta , Meg i l la , Ch .4 , Ha lakha 2 1 ; P .7 ' . B ikku r im Ch .3 , 6 5c a nd c f . S if r i N aso # 39 , p . 43 ; B .T . S o ta 3 8a , 4 0a .

1 7 .

T osef ta , i b id .

1 8 .

B .T . S o fa 3 8h ; M id rash v e -H lzh i r , Na so , p . 143 .

1 9 .

P .7 ' . B e rakho t , Ch .5 , 9 d ; P .7 ' . G i t l in , Ch .5 , 4 7b ; T he s ay ing o f R . Y eho shua b en L ev i a ppea rs i n t h e P a l e s t in ian T a lmud , h oweve r n o t i nt h e f o rm o f ar e spon se t o aq ue s t ion , b u t a s a n i n dependen t s ay ing . P resumab ly t h is s ay ing w a s t h e n uc leu s a round w h ich t h e e n t i re p a s sage w a s c r ea ted i nt h e f o rm o f ad eba te .

2 0 .

B am idbar R abba 1 : 1 ; t h e e n t i re p a s sage i sn o t u n ifo rm b u t r a the r e c lec t ic , b a sed o n d if e ren t s ourc e s . C f . c on t inua t ion o ft ha t p a ssage a nd b e low , I V .

2 1 .

M i shna , T a ca n i t 2 : 1 ; E lbogen , p . 353 . As t one w a s d i scove red i nC ape rnaum u pon w h ich w a s e ng raved ad raw ing o fa n a rk o n w hee l s . S ee b e low n o te 2 2 .

2 2 .

T osef ta , Meg i l la , Ch .4 ( 3 ) , Ha lakha 2 1 . Con t ra ry t o L i ebe rman 's o p in ion t h is r u l ing c anno t a pp ly t o p ub l ic f a s t s s i nc e t he e n t i re p a ssage i nt h e T o sef ta d ea ls w i th p raye r i nt h e s ynagogue . C f . L i ebe rman , T osef ta K if shu ta a d l o c . a nd S . K raus s , S ynagoga l e A l te r tume r , H i lde she im 1 966 , p p .350 -352 , 3 66 . Ar e l ief d raw ing o f a n a rk o n t op o f a w agon w a s d i scove red i nC ape rnaum . T h is t aay h ave b een as chema t ic d raw ing o ft h e p o r tab le t e va , b u t i t may a l so h ave b een a n i mag ina ry r ep resen ta t ion o ft h e a rk t ha t w ande red w i th t h e p eop le o f I s rae l i nt h e w i lde rnes s .

2 3 .

On Kho raz in c f . : Z . Y e iv in , " The S ynagogue a t K ho raz in -A P ropo sed R econs t ruc t ion o f t he I n te r io r o f t h e S ou the rn Wa l l " ( Heb rew ) , E re tz I s rae l , 1 8 ( 1 985 ) , p p .268 2 76 . The i s sue o f t h e p rec ise r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s hape o f t h e a rk i sn o t u nde r d i scus s ion h e re . F ina l ly , s e e G . F oe rs te r , " Synagogue s i nt he Ga l i lee " ( Heb rew ) i n A rzo t h a -Ga l l ! , e d . b y A . S hemue l i a nd o the rs , Ha ifa 1 983 , p p2 36 -247 .

2 4 .

F o r as u mma ry , c f . F oe rs te r , I b id . , p p .244 -252 .

8 1

t h e

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988 2 5 .

E . Meye rs , "H i rba t S hama - t h e S e t t lemen t a nd t h e S ynagogue , " ( Heb rew ) Q admon lo t 5( 1 972 ) , p p .58 -6 1 ; B . Meye rs , A .T .Kra iabe l , J .F . S t range , A nc ien t S ynagogue 's E xcava t ions a t K h i rbe t S hema , Uppe r Ga l i lee , I s ra e l 1 970 1972 , Du rham [ N .C . ] 1 976 . As im i la r s t a tus p reva i ls i n Gush Ha lav a nd e l sewhe re .

2 6 .

D .Ba rag e ta l . , " The S econd S ea son o f E xcava t ions o ft h e S ynagogue a t p . 54 .

2 7 .

I n Amo ra ic s ou rce s t h e e xp res s ion " t o d e sc end b efo re t h e t e va " a ppea rs f r equen t ly , b u t i nT anna i t ic s ou rce s i ti s r a re , a ppea r ing o cca s iona l ly , e . g . T osef ta B e rakho t Ch .2 , Ha lakha 9 ; T osef ta R osh h a -Shana , Ch .4 , Ha lakha 1 2 . Th i s may i n d ica te t ha t o n ly f r om l a te T anna i t ic t ime s w a s t h e t e va r a ised a bove t h e f l oo r o ft h e s t ruc tu re .

2 8 .

F . L and sbe rge r , " The House o f t h e P eop le , " HUCA 2 2 ( 1 940 ) , p p .149 155 . E lbogen , p . 46 ' 7 , n o te 8 .

2 9 .

P .T . S habba t , Ch .2 , 7 c ; P .T . Meg , l ia , Ch .3 , 7 3d ; f o r a n a rk b eh ind a c ur ta in , s e e P .T . V or ne , Ch .7 , 4 4b ; P .T . Meg i l la , Ch .4 , 7 5b , P .7 ' . S o ta , C h .7 , 2 2a . S of e r im 1 :3 i n s t ruc t s t he h azzan t o r o l l t h e s c ro l l b eh ind a c u r ta in , i nd ica t ing t ha t t he c u r ta in w a s ag enu ine s c reeen b eh ind w h ich t h e re w a s ac ub ic le i n w h ich t h e a rk s t ood a nd s uf i c ien t s pace t o r o l l as c ro l l . C f . K raus s , p p .376 -38 1 : t h e w e l l k nown d raw ing o f ak ind o fc ur ta in h ang ing i n f r on t o f t he a rk , w h ich c ou ld b e r o l led b ack t o t h e t wo s i de s o f ten a ppea red i nJ ew ish a r t a nd i sa l so s ugges t ed i n E s the r R abba 2 : 7 .

3 0 .

P .T . T a ca n i t ,Ch .2 , 6 5a . A dd i t iona l e v idence i st h e d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e a rk i nt h e T emp le , w h ich a cco rd ing t o t h e Amo ra ic s e rmon w a s made o f t h ree t e vo t , e ach o ne c on ta in ing t h e n ex t . C f . P .T . , S heqa l im , Ch .6 , 4 9d ; P .T . S o ta , Ch .8 ,22d , T anhuma V ayaqhe l , 7 ;b u t i nB .T . Y oma 7 2b a l o f w h ich s p eak o f t h ree a rono t , w h ich p rov ide s f u r the r e v idence t ha t e xchang ing t e va f o r a ron w a s n o t c ommon i n B aby lon ia . C f . Goodenough ( no te 4 5 b e low ) , V o l . I , p p . 184 1 90 .

3 1 .

L .Y . R ahman i , " S ma l l F inds f r om t h e S ynagogue o f Maco n ( N i r im ) , " ( Il eb rew ) E re tz I s rae l 6( 1 961) , p p .82 -84 .

3 2 .

Y . Naveh , A l P sef as v aEven , T e l A v iv 1 978 , p . 133 ( Heb rew )

3 3 .

K rau ss , p . 367 fT . R ega rd ing Kho raz in , c f . n o te 2 3 a bove ; b e low ) ( Heb rew )

3 4 .

T he e xp res s ion " and p u t d own i ni t s p l ace " i sl a ck ing i ns ome r e c ens ions , s uch a sV a t ican m s . 10 a nd Ms . Mun ich , Y a lqu tA gado t , Ms . Mon te f io re 8 8 , s ome o ft h e r e f e renc e s i n" R i shon im " c f . T e shuvo th a -Geon im G inze i Q ed em V o l . V , p . 57 . S ef e rcI t im ,p . 260 , O za r h a G aon im o n S o ta , p . 26 1 , Mahzo r V i t r i , p . 94 a nd o the r r e f erence s ( Heb rew )

3 5 .

The l a s t c l ause f r om " t hey w e re n o t i nd i sag reemen t " a ppea rs i n Ms . V a t ican , b u t mus t n o t h ave b een i n t h e t e x t u sed b y t he Gaon q uo ted i nS ef e rh a' ! t im ,w h ich e xp la ins " and S hmue l a dds . . . " . c r s ou rc e s i nt h e p rec ed ing n o te .

3 6 .

C f . B .M . L ew in , O za r h a -Gaon im o n S o ta 3 9b a nd n o te 3 7 b e low ( Il eb rew )

3 7 .

B .M . L ew in , O zar H i luf M inhag im b e in B ene l E re tz I s rae l u ve in B ene i B abe l , J e rusa lem 1 942 , H i luf 4 9 , p p .99 103 ; ( Heb rew ) M . Ma rgo l io t , Ha -H i luk im s hebe in Anshe l h a M iz rah u bene l E re tz I s rae l , J e rusa lem 1 938 , p p . 173 174 . ( Heb rew ) Anc ien t B aby lon ian h a lakha , a so ppo sed t ot h e h a lakha o fE re tz i s ra e l , d i d n o t r e cogn ize a ny r equ i remen t t o r i se b efo re t he T o rah s c ro l l , b u t t h e l a t te r p ene t ra ted B aby lon ia d ur ing t h e Gaon ic p e r iod : c f . L ew in , l o c .c i t . Cou ld t h is b e r e la ted t o t h e f a c t t ha t t h e B aby lon ian p rac t ic e o fe mp lac ing t h e a rk i nt he s ynagogue a l so t ook r oo t ?

3 8 .

C f . t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f Me i r i , w ho d i s t ingu i she s b e tween ad oo r a nd aw indow . T he re a r e n o g round s f o r c e r ta in ty t ha t t h i s d i s t inc t ion i sc o rrec t ; p e rhap s w e s hou ld t a lk a bou t ar egu la r e n t ranc e . I fi n deed a n e n t ranc e i sd i scu s sed , t h is i sp roof t ha t R ava t hough t t ha t t h e t e va h ad t h e f o rm o f at a l l a rk w h ich c ou ld b lock ad oo rway . T he r abb is , o n t h e o the r h and , a r e t a lk ing a bou t as ma l le r t e va u pon w h ich t h e s c ro l l c ou ld b e p l ac ed . I n s ome o f t h e manusc r ip t s t h is p a s sage a ppea r s a s a n e xamp le o f a n a cc e sso ry t o h o l ines s , i n tended o n ly f o r h o ld ing t h e s c ro l ls , c f . L en ing rad Ms . 4 00 ; Oxf o rd Ms . 3 66 ; N ew Y o rk , T ay lo r Ms . 1 41 ; a nd s ome o ft h e " R i shon im ; " s e e a l so D iqduqe l h a -Sof e r im a d l o c . , b u t t h i s s e ems t o b e a n a r t i f ic ia l c onnec t ion b ecause a n " i ndu rna " i s as i de r oom a nd t h e d i scu ss ion t h e re h a s n o r e la t ion t o a c ce s so r ies t o h o l ine ss . T h is i sa n e xamp le o f h ow c opy is t s t r ied t o l i nk t wo s epa ra te p a ssages a nd i n teg ra te t h em i na n a ppa ren t ly l o g ica l manne r .

3 9 .

B am id ba r R abbah , 1 2 :4 ; S h i r h a -Sh i r im R abbah 1 : 54 o n S ong o f S ongs 1 : 11 ; c f . Z .M . R ab inow i tz , G inze i h a M 7d rash , T e l Av iv 1 977 , p . 102 . ( Heb rew ) T h is c ommen ta ry o n t h e m id rash a low s a no the r i n t e rp re ta t ion o f t h e t e rm " s toa " m en t ioned i nt he c a thed ra i n sc r ip t ion a t K ho raz in i na dd i t ion t o t h e o ne p ropo sed r e cen t ly b y Y e iv in ( s ee a bove n o te 2 3) . Y e iv in c l a ims t ha t i td oes n o t r e f e r t o ah a l l o fc o lumns b u t t o as he lf -s tep , b u t i nt h e m id rash i t may r e f e r t o t wo s ma l l c o lumns , o ne o n e ach s i de o f t h e s t a i rca se u pon w h ich t h e c a thed ra w a s s t a t ioned . F o r d raw ing s o fa rks i nJ ew ish a r t , c f . E .M . Goodenough ,J ew i sh S ymbo l s i nt h e G re co R oman P e r iod , N ew Yo rk 1 953 , V o l .!! ! , F igs . 5 3 , 5 8 -62 , 9 64 -967 , 9 73 -974 , 9 78 .

4 0 .

I n t h ree manu sc r ip t s ( London 4 00 , Oxf o rd 3 66 a nd N .Y . T ay lo r 1 41) w e f i nd t h e a dd i t ion " o r t h ey a l so s p read i t o ve r t he s c ro l l " ( c f . D iqc luqe i h a -Sof e r im a d l o c . ) . T h i s a dd i t ion make s i tc l ea r t ha t t he p a rokhe t w a s n o t al a rge c l o th t ha t c ove red al a rge a rk , b u t as ma l l o ne t ha t c ove red at e va . T h i s r e cens ion mus t h ave b een k nown t o s ome o ft he " R i shon im " ; c f . , e . g . R abbenu Hanane l , a dl o c .

4 1 .

S ee a bove n o te 2 9 .

4 2 .

As e conda ry p la t fo rm a ppea rs i n many s ynagogue s , e . g . S us ia , I s h tamo ca , Gu sh Ha lav , Nab ra te in a nd many o the r s ynagogues . I n B e th - ' A lpha t h e re i s al a te s e conda ry p l a t fo rm i nt h e s ou thea s te rn s i de o ft h e s ynagogue . Ar ea r p la t fo rm i s f ound i n B e t -She c a r im ( c f . B . Maza r , B e t S he a r im V o ld , J e ru sa lem 1 958 , p . 25 ) , a nd i n S a rd is . Howeve r i nS a rd is i ti s as ea t f o r many e l de r s a nd i nf r on t o fi ti s as ma l l t ab le u pon w h ich p re sumab ly t h e p reache r p u t d own a b ook . C f . A . S eage r , " The B u i ld ing H i s to ry o f t h e S a rd is S ynagogue , " AJA 7 6 ( 1 972 ) , p p .425 -435 ; I dem e t a l . , " The S ynagogue a nd i t s S e t t ing , " A r chaeo log ica l E xp lo ra t ion o f S ard i s 5 , Camb r idge ( i n p r in t ) . A s im i la r a ppa ra tu s h a s b een f ound i nt h e Y emen i te s ynagogue ( c f . Go i te in , n o t e 5 6 b e low , p . 162 , n o t e 2 ) . I n s o me o ft h e I t a l ian s ynagogues t he ma in p l a t fo rm i sf ound i nt h e d i rec t ion o ppos i t e t h e s ac red . C f . Y . P inke rf e ld , B a te ! K ne s se t b e I t a l ia , J e ru sa lem 1 954 , p . 7 . ( Heb rew ) An a na ly s is o f t h e a rch i tec tu ra l f unc t ion o f t h is p l an w ou ld b e i mpo r tan t f o r i t s u nde rs tand ing , b u t t h is q ue s t ion d epa r t s f r om t h e s ub jec t o f d i scuss ion . T he s ame a pp l ie s t o t h e p o ss ib le i nf luence o ft h e s ynagogue s o fS a rd i s o r B e t S he ca r im o n m ed ieva l s ynagogues .

8 2

cE n

cE n

Ged i , " ( Heb rew ) Q admon io t , 5( 1 972 ) ,

F or a no the r i n t e rp re ta t ion , c f .

Ged i -n o te 2 6 ; D ura E uropus , Y . S uken ik ( no te 4 3

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988 4 3 .

A .L . S uken ik , B e t h aKne sse t s he l D u ra -Eu ropos v e -Z iyu rav , J e rusa lem 1 947 , ( Heb rew ) Goodenough ( no t e 3 9 a bove ) , v o ls .9 10 .

4 4 .

C . Danow , E . Ko s jakova , " A Un ique F ind ing -a n Anc ien t S ynagogue i n t h e P lad iv , " A nnua l [ So f ia ] 1 9 ( 1984 ) , p p .2 10 -221; E . K e s jakova , " The A nc ien t S ynagogue i nP h i loppo l is , " [ b id , p p .223 -226 .

4 5 .

C f . Goodenough ( no te 3 9 a bove ) , V o 1 . 1 1 9 1953) , p p .89 100 .

4 6 .

C f . M . A v i Yonah , " The Moph sah i s ta Mosa ic s -Chu rch o r S ynagogue ? " ( Heb rew ) , Q admon io t 5( 1 972 ) , p p .62 6 5 . T he s t ruc tu re c anno t b e i d en t i f ied a s as ynagogue w i th c e r ta in ty .

4 7 .

I n t h i s c on tex t i ti si n te re s t ing t o p o in t o u t t h e s ynagogue a t A leppo , a n a nc ien t s t ruc tu re d a t ing f r om B yzan t ine t ime s . I n i t s o r ig ina l p l an t h is s ynagogue h ad at h ree -pa r t n ave , wh ich w a s r educ ed t o at wo -pa r t n av e i nt h e e a r ly M idd le A ges . T he p la t fo rm i si nt h e c en te r o ft h e s ma l le r p lan a nd c onsequen t ly b e long s t o t h e m ed ieva l s t ruc tu re . An i n sc r ip t ion i n t h e b u i ld ing m en t ion s " haquba " o r " ha teva " , b u t t h e d a te i su nc lea r . C f . A . Do than " On t h e H i s to ry o ft he Anc ien t S ynagogue i nA leppo " ( Heb rew ) , S ef uno t 1( 1957 ) , p p .25 -6 1 .

4 8 .

A phraa te s , e d . W . Wr igh t , L ondon 1 869 , 1 2 ,2 ,7 ; F . Gav in , Aphraa te s a nd t h e J ew s , N ew Yo rk 1 966 , a nd t h e l i t e ra tu re r e f e rred t o t h e re o n p p .x i -xv i ; S . F unk , D ie Hagad I schen E l emente I n d e r Hom I l len d e r A phraa te s d e s P e r s i chen We i sen , V ienna 1 89 1 . F unk p re sen t s al i s t o f p a ra l le ls b e tween a gado t o f t h e s ages a nd t h e s ay ing s o f Aph raa tes . F o r a n o ppo s i t e v i ew , c f . J .Neusne r , A phraa te s a nd J uda i sm , L e iden 1 97 1 . F o r as ho r t d i scus s ion o f t h i s p a s sage c f . A .L . W i l l iam s , Ad ve r sus J udaeos , C amb r idge 1 971 , p . 97 . Ano the r i n te re s t ing e xamp le w h ich N eu sne r c i tes i s Aph raa te s ' c on ten t ion t ha t t h e J ew s w e re s t i l l of e r ing t h e P a scha l s a c r if ic e i n h i s d ay ( i n B aby lon ia ) . N eusne r c l a ims t ha t t h is a t tack i sn o t b a sed o n a ny e x tan t p rac t ic e b u t o n t h e a s sump t ion t ha t B ib l ica l p ra c t ic e c on t inued t o b e c a r r ied o u t i nt h e d i a spo ra a f te r t h e d es t ruc t ion o ft h e T emp le . Howeve r , a si tt u rns o u t , Aph raa t es w a s r i gh t ; i th a s b een s hown t ha t t h e s ed e r s e rv ice o ft he f i rs t e ven ing o f P a ssove r w a s s t i l l c a rr ied o u t i n J ew i sh h ome s a s d u r ing t h e t ime o f t h e S econd T emp le , i n c lud ing t h e of e r ing o f s ome th ing l i ke a P a scha l s a c r i f ic e . O fc ou rse t h is w a s n o t e xac t ly as ac r if ice , b u t al amb e a ten h a lf roa s ted ( " na " ) , a nd t h ey r e c i ted ab l e ss ing o ve r i ta s i fi t 'we re a s a c r i f ic e . C f . S .Sa f ra i , " H i s to r i ca l N o te s o n M l shna P e sah lm , C hap te r T en " ( Heb rew ) , Ha -M iqra v e -T o l edo t I s rae l ( The J . L ive r Memo r ia l V o lume ) , e d . B . Oppenhe ime r , T e l Av iv 1 972 , p p .299 -36 1 . ( Heb rew ) Aphraa tes w a s s imp ly i n te rp re t ing t h is p opu la r c u s tom a s ag enu ine s a c r i f ic e , j u s t a s h e e xagge ra ted t h e r e sp ec t p a id t o t he a rk i n t h e s ynagogue . C f . S .L iebe rman , M Id rashe l T eman , J e rusa lem 1 940 , p p .24 -25 ; I d em , S hekf in J erusa lem 1 939 , p . 9 .

4 9 .

L i eb e rman , o p .c i t . ( c f . n o te 4 8 a bove , b o th w o rks ) ; W i l l iams , o p .c i t . p . 135 ; p e rhap s t h e a nonymou s w r i te r f r om Dama scus a s w e l l ; L i ebe rman , i b id . , a nd W i l l iams , p . 163 ; h oweve r t h e s ub jec t t h e re i sn o t t he a rk i nt h e s ynagogue , b u t t h e a rk a nd t h e c he rub s i nt h e T emp le ; a nd c f . a l so n o te 2 t h e re . One s hou ld n o te t ha t i n Ch r is t ian l i t e ra tu re t h e re i sa n a po loge t ic t one i nf a c e o f t h e J ew ish c l a im t ha t Chr is t ian p rac t ic e i si d o la t ry . T he refo re , t h e Ch r i s t ian t e s t imony may b e v e ry e xagge ra ted .

5 0 .

S ed e r R ay S a ca d ya G aon ,e d . J . Dav idson e t a l , J e ru sa lem 1 970 , p . 238 . ( Heb rew ) B .M . L ew in c o l lec ted many r e spon sa o n t h is s ub jec t , c f . C zar h a -Gaon lm o n S ukka , ( Heb rew ) p a rs . 1 46 154 ; c f . a l so S . A s sa f , H i luf e l M inhag im b e in Y e sh ivo t S ura v e P umbad i tha , p p . 17 19 . T he t e va i sa l so men t ioned i nr e sponsa o f Ha i Gaon a nd S he r i ra Gaon , a nd s e e a l so T e shuvo t G aon im M lz rah u - Maa rav , 1 22 a nd o the rs . ( Heb rew )

5 1 .

M id rash T eh i l im , 1 7 :5 , p . 65 , a nd c f . a l so 2 6 :2 , p . 109 , a l so q uo ted i nJ e l l inek 's B e t h a -M id ra sh , V o l .5 , 1 63 :10 a nd c f . Y a lqu t s h im co n i o n P sa lms , e nd o f r emez 4 33 . S ome o f t he " R i shon im " q uo te t h is p a s sage i n t h e n ame o f t h e " Y e rusha lm i " -c f . B ube r 's n o tes o n M id rash T eh i l im , p . 65 , S haca re l S lmha o f I t zhak G ia t , H i lkho t L u lav 2 40 ; O rho t Ha im , H i lkho t L u lav 3 3 ; R av iya , 6 92 a nd Ap tow ize r 's n o te s t h e re to , p p .397 -398 . S ee a l so many o the r s ou rce s . The re i sn o d oub t t ha t t h is q uo ta t ion i sn o t f r om t h e P a l e s t in ian T a lmud , a nd i ti sc ommon f o r R l shon im t oa t t r ibu te am ld rash t o i t ,c f . S ef e r h a - Manh lq , E d . R apha e l , p . 404 -406 ; G inze lS che ch te r V o l . I I , p . 609 . E v iden t ly i nI t a ly t hey d i d n o t c i rc le t h e t e va w h ich , a s w e k now , w a s n o t l o ca ted i nt he c en te r o ft h e p raye r h a l l , c f . S h ibo le i h a L eqe t , 3 69 .

5 2 .

Ma rgo l io t , o p .c i t . , n o te 3 7 , p . 156 , B .M . L ew in , o p .c i t , p p .75 -76 .

5 3 .

S ee a bove , n o t e 3 7 .

5 4 .

K rau ss , o p .c i t . , p . 387 .

5 5 .

A l B e run l , e d . S achau , L e ipz ig , 1 874 , p . 277 ; M . S ch re ine r , " L es J u if s d ans a lB e run i , " REJ , 1 2 ( 1 886 ) , p p .25 2 65 . I n mo re r ec en t s t ud ie s t h e re i sn o n ew ma te r ia l o n t h is i s sue .

5 6 .

S .D . Go i te in , " The I nbo l -t h e B ima o ft h e S ynagogue " ( i n II eb rew ) , E re tz I s rae l , 6( 1 96 1) , p p .162 167 .

5 7 .

Go i te in s ugges t s s uch a n i n t e rp re ta t ion i nt h e a bove r e f e renc e .

5 8 .

B .L if sh i tz , D ona teur s e tF onda teu r s , Gaba lda 1 967 , n o .36 , p p .37 -38 .

5 9 .

K rau ss , o p .c i t . , p . 236 ; 3 51-352 .

6 0 .

I b id . , p p .354 -355 .

6 1 .

T osef ta S ukka , Ch .4 , Ha lakha 6 ; P .T . , S ukka , Ch .4 , 5 5a ; B .T . S ukka 2 1a ; c f . L i eb e rman , T osef ta K 1f shu ta , S ukka , p . 891 . Mo s t o ft h e t r ad i t ion s r e f e r t o awooden b a r na ; t h e B aby lon ian T a lmud t o g o lden b ima .

6 2 .

L i ebe rman g i ves t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o n t h e g rounds o f h a lakh ic c ons ide ra t ion s a cco rd ing t o w h ich o ne d oes n o t r e spond " amen " u n le s s t h e v o ic e o f t h e s he l iah z i bbur i sh ea rd . Howeve r , t h e re i sr oom t o d oub t w he the r t h is h a lakha w a s s t r ic t ly o b se rved i n E gyp t . Mo reove r , i ta ppea rs t ha t o ne c ou ld h e re t h e s he l iah z i bbu r , e ven i f u nc lea r ly , a nd t h e d e sc r ip t ion b y w h ich h i s v o ice i sn o t e ven h ea rd i se v iden t ly e xagge ra ted .

6 3 .

L i f sh i tz , o p .c i t . , n o . 102 , p p .83 -84 . K rauss l i nks t h e p la tfo rm ( b ima ) a nd t h e s t and ( ca mud) , h ow eve r i n my o p in ion t h e l a t te r i sa n e n t i re ly d if e ren t i s sue .

6 4 .

T h i s r ec en s ion i sr epea ted l i t e ra r i ly i nO r Z a rcu a , "3 86 , a nd i na dd i t iona l " R I shon lm " .

8 3

A nc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988 6 5 .

L .Y . R ahman i , " The S ynagogue i n Maco n ( N ir im ) , ( Heb rew ) , " E re tz I s rae l 6( 1 96 1) , p . 82 .

6 6 .

On t h i s ma t te r t h e re w a s ac on t rove rsy b e tween E re tz I s ra e l a nd B aby lon ia , c f . B .M . L ew in , o p .c i t . , n o te 3 7 .

6 7 .

I n B aby lon ia t h e re w e re s ynagogue s o u t s ide t h e t own . T h is p ra c t ic e w a s e v iden t ly c hang ed i n t he p e r iod o f t h e Gaon im , b u t t h is i sn o t t h e p lace t o p rove t ha t o r e va lua te t h e s i gn i f icanc e o f t h e p henomenon .

6 8 .

F o r t h e l a s t d i scu ss ion o ft h e p rob lem a nd al i s t o fe a r l ie r l i t e ra tu re , c f . Z . Y e iv in , n o te 2 3 , a bove .

6 9 .

S . S a f ra i , "Wa s T he re a Women 's S ec t ion i n t h e S ynagogue i n Anc ien t T imes ? " ( Heb rew ) , T a rb iz , 3 2 ( 1 963 ) , p p .329 -338 .

7 0 .

S .D . Go i te in , " A Women 's Ga l lery i n t h e S ynagogue B u i ld ing i nt h e Gaon ic P e r iod " ( Heb rew ) , T arb iz , 3 ( 1 964 ) , p .3 14 .

7 1 .

I d em , " The S ynagogue a nd i t s F u rn ish ing a cco rd ing t o G en iza Wr i t ing s , " ( Heb rew ) , E re tz I s rae l , 7( 1 964 ) , p p .8 1-97 , a nd e spec ia l ly p . 86 , l i ne 1 3 .

7 2 .

S .A ssa f , Megoro t u - Mehqa r im b e -T o l edo t I s rae l( Heb rew ) , J e rusa lem 1 946 , p p .152 162 .

7 3 .

B e t h a -M id rash , V o l . III , p . 75 ; ( Heb rew ) Y . E ven S hmue l , M id rashe i G eu la , J e rusa lem -Te l Av iv , 1 954 , p . 34 1 . ( Heb rew )

7 4 .

S ee E ven S hmue l ' s i n t roduc t ions t o M id rashe l G eu la ; o n p p .337 -338 t h e re i s al i s t o fc oun t r ie s w h ich may r ev ea l t h e t ime o ft h e c ompos i t ion .

7 5 .

B a ra t ta d e Masekhe t N ida , p p .17 , 3 0 -33 e t c .

7 6 .

C f . B .M . L ew in , O za r h a -Gaon im o n B e rakho t , J e rusa lem 1 984 ( f ac s im i le e d i t ion ) , p p .48 -49 . ( Heb rew ) T he i n c rea sed s t r ic tne ss i n ma t te rs o f r i tua l s epa ra t ion o r ig ina ted i n E re tz I s rae l . C f . B .M . L ew in , o p . c i t . ( no t e 3 7 , a bov e ) , p a r . 10 , p p .28 -31; M . Ma rga l io t , o p .c i t . ( no te 3 7 , a bove ) p a r . 1 0 , p p . 112 114 .

7 7 .

L ew in , O za r h a -Gaon im o n B .T . B e rakho t 2 0b .

7 8 .

F o r e xamp le , t h e re w a s aw omen 's g a l le ry i nt h e c hu rch a t Gaza i nt h e s i x th c en tu ry ; c f . L auda t io Marc ian i I , 4 7 . T he e n t i re q ues t ion o f mu tua l i nf luenc es b e tween r e l ig ion s r equ i re s ab road m e thodo log ica l s t udy f o r w h ich t h is i s n o t t h e p l ac e .

7 9 .

J . Mann , " The B ook o f D eeds o f t h e S ons o f E re tz I s ra e l , " T a rb iz 1( 1 930 ) , p p .7 -8 . t h e s ha l iah z i bbur s t ood b efo re t he t e va .

8 0 .

P i rqe i d e R abb i E l ieze r , Ch . 4 4 ; Masekhe t S of e r im , 1 4 :9 a nd a dd i t iona l s ou rc es .

8 1 .

S ee n o te 8 0 .

8 2 .

C f . Masekehe t S of e r im , 1 4 :9 , Masekhe t S ef e r T o ra 3 : 9 ; Masekhe tS of e r im I , Append ix 1 ,4 56 ( e d . H igge r , p . 2 18 ) . And p e rhaps o ne c ou ld a dd t o t h e e v idenc e t h e e xp res s ion " One w ho i sh o ld ing aTo rah s c ro l l . . ." ( Sof e r im , 1 3 :5 ) . I n l a te r s ou rc e s t h e e xp res s ion a ppea rs " he w ho a sc ends t o r e ad t h e T o rah " ( Devar im R abbah 8 : 2 ; 1 :6 ; A ppend i ce s t oP e s iq ta d e R ay K ahana I( on p a rsha t v e -Zo t h a -Be rakha ) , e d . Mande lbaum , p ,4 37 , ( Heb rew ) a s o ppo sed t o t h e c ommon t e rm " go re " ( r eade r ) o r " he w ho o pens a nd h e w ho c l ose s " (M i shna , Meg i l la 4 : 2 , P .T . a d . l o c . , 7 4d ) . I ft he u se o f t h e t e rm a sc ends i sn o t c o inc iden ta l , t h en i ts ugge s t s t ha t t h e r e ad ing o f t h e To rah t ook p l ac e o n ar a ised p l a tfo rm , t ha t i s , o n t h e p l a tfo rm o f t h e a rk o r o n as e conda ry p l a tfo rm . F u r the r s t udy i sc a l led f o r . C f . S . L i ebe rman , T osef ta K if shu ta o n Meg i l la , Ch .3 , p p . 1198 1199 . T he s ou rc es o f ten r e f e r t o r e ade rs w ho s t and n ea r t h e " ca mud; " R . S hemue l b a r R ay I t zhak w a rn s t h e t r ans la to r n o t t o l e an o n t h e camud ( P .T . Meg i l la , Ch .4 , 7 4d ) . T hese camud im may b e p i l la rs o f t h e s t ruc tu re , b u t t h ey c ou ld b e s ome th ing e l se e n t ire ly . Y e iv in r e cons t ruc ted t h e c o lumns i nK ho raz in o n t h e s i de o f t h e s t ep s t ha t l e d t o t h e d eco ra ted n i che i n w h ich t he a ron w a s p lac ed . I ft h e r eade r a nd h i s a d junc t s s t ood n ea r t he se s t ep s , t h en t h ey m igh t h ave l e aned o n t ho se c o lumn s , a nd t ha t i sw ha t t h e s ages s ough t t o p reven t . C f . K raus s , o p .c i t . , p p .352 -353 .

8 3 .

S . S a f ra i , E duca t ion a nd t h e S tud y o f t h e T o rah , i n : S . S a f ra i , M . S t e rn , ( e ds . ) . C en tury , I , 1 977 , p p .966 -969 .

8 4 .

B .T . B aba B a t ra 8 b . I n t h e c on tex t , i ta ppea rs t ha t t h e ma t s s e rved a s s e a ts f o r t h e p oo r .

8 4

I n t h is s ou rc e i ti sc l ea r t ha t

T he J ew i sh P eop le i n t h e F i r s t

THE RECENT H ISTOR IOGRAPHY OF ANC IENT SYNAGOGUE ARCH ITECTURE Andrew R . S eage r B a l l S t a te U n ive r s i ty Munc ie , I nd iana , U .S .A .

B e f o r e 1 967 , t h e h i s to ry o fa nc ien t s ynagogue a r ch i tec tu r e s e emed t ob eq u i te c l ea r , a tl e a s tf o r t h e p e r iod f r om t h e t h i rd t h rough t h e s e ven th c en tu r ie s C .E . T h r ee c a tegor ie s o fs ynagogue s h ad b een d e f ined . T he s ew e r e s e en a st h r ee c on s ecu t ive s t ag e si n ad ev e lopmen ta l s equenc e :a n " ea r ly" o r " Ga l i le an" t ype ( f i g . 1 ) , b a sed o n t h e w o rk o f K oh l a nd Wa tz ing e r i n 1 9 16 ;1 t h e " l a te r" o r " Byzan t ine" t ype ( f i g .2 ) e s tabl i shed i nS uken ik ' s b r il ian t s yn the s i s o f 1 9 34 ;2 a nd a n i n te rmed ia te o r " t ran s i t iona l" t ype ( f i g .3 ) p ropo s ed b y A v i -Yonah i n 1 9 6 1 3. T he c h rono logy a ppea r ed t o b e d ef in i te , t ot h e e x ten tt ha t s ynagogue s w e r ec o mmon ly d a ted b yt h ep r e sence o ra b sen ce o fc e r ta in a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd d eco ra t iv e e l emen t s - mo sa ic p av em en t s o r d eco ra t ive r e l ie f c a rv ing s , f o r i n s tanc e . T o mo s t o b se rve r s , t h e i mpor tan tq ue s t ion sh ad b een b o th a s ked a nd a n swe r ed . C e r ta in a noma l ie s h ad b een n o ted , b u t t h e t e ndency w a s t o t r ea t t h e se c a sua l ly o r t o d i sm i s s t h em a s u n impor tan t . I n t h e l a s t t wo d e cade s t h e s i tua t ion h a s c hang ed d rama t ica l ly . V a s t ly mo r e i n f o rma t ion i s a v a i lab le t ou s n ow ,a f te rt h ed i s cov e ry o fn ew D ia spo ra s ynagogue sa tO s t ia a nd S a rd i si nt h ee a r ly 1 960 s , a nd t h e e xp lo s ion o fd a ta f r om s ynagogue s i t e s i n P a le s t ine s i nce t h e S i x D ay Wa r . T he r e cen t e v idence c ha l leng e s v i r tua l ly a l a sp ec t so ft h et r ad i t iona l d eve lopmen ta l t ypo logy , i n c lud ing o u rp r ev iou s u nde r s tand ing s a bou t o r ien ta t ion , o v e ra l l d e s ign , d eco ra t ion , a nd f u rn i sh ing s . Much o fw ha t w e t hough t w e k new h a s t ob e l o ok ed a ta ga in .

T he r e a l iza t ion t ha t t h e t r ad i t iona l t ypo logy w a s b o th i n a ccu ra te a nd m i s lead ing c ame s l ow ly a t f i r s t4. B u t b y t h e e nd o f t h e 1 9 70 s t h e r e w a s w ide sp r ead r e cogn i t ion o f t h e n eed f o r r e -exam ina t ion a nd r e -a s s e s smen t 5.T o s how t h e s c ope o ft h e r e -a s s e s smen t n ow u nde r w ay , t h i s s e c t ion o ft h e p ape rw il s umma r i ze s ome o ft h e w ay s i nw h ich t h e o l d s t ruc tu r e h a s c olap s ed .

C h rono logy T h e c onven t iona l c h rono log y o f a nc i en t s ynagogue s h a s b een t ho rough ly u p se t , e spec ia l ly r e g ard ing t ho se i nG a l i lee a nd t h e G o lan . As e cond o r t h i rd -cen tu ry C .E . d a te f o r t h e s o c a l led " Ga l i l ean" t yp ei sn o l ong e rt e nab le . T he s ynagogue sa t c A rnmud im a nd Me ron a r e n ow t hough t t o h av e b een b u i l t a r ound t h e t ur n o f t h e f ou r th c en tu ry C .E . 6,a nd t h e se may b e a mong t h e e a r l ie s t o ft h e i r t ype f o r w h ich d a te s a r e r e a sonab ly s e cu r e . T he r e v i s ed d a t ing o ft h e l ime s tone s ynagogue a tC ape rnaum , t o t h e l a te 4 th o r e a r ly 5 t h c en tury , i sn ow g ene ra l ly a c c ep ted7. T he Go lan s ynagogu e s o r ig ina l ly p a r t o ft h e G a l i lean c l a s s , m ay b e l a te r s t i l l ; Z v i Ma coz a t t r ibu te s t h e Go lan s ynagogue s ( a nd a l so t h e s ynagogue a t C ho ra z in ) t o t h e f i f th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie s 8. A t N ab ra te in , t h e b a sa l i ca -p lan b u i ld ing p ub l i shed b y K oh l a nd Wa tz ing e r i sn ow g i ven a s i x th c en tu ry d a te ( f i g .4 ) . " Ga l i lean" s ynagogue s o n t h e w ho le a r e c on s ide r ed t oh ave b een b u i l t much l a te r , a nd t h e r ang e o fd a te s i s much b roade rt han t h e o l d c h rono logy a lowed . T he s i x th -cen tu ry b a si l i ca a tN ab ra te in i st h e l a s t o f as e r ie s o f s ynagogue s o n t h e s i t e . T he e a r l ie s tp ha se ( c a . 1 3 5 -250 C .E . ; f i g . 5 )a ppea r st oh ave b een a" b roadhou se ." 9 I no the rw o rd s ,t h e s equence a tN ab ra te in i st h e v e ry o ppo s i te o f w ha t t h e c onven t iona l t ypo logy w ou ld l e ad u s t o e xpe c t ! T he n ew e v iden ce h a sc hang ed mo r et han t h ef r amewo rk o fd a te s ; a nc ien t s ynagogue sc an n o l ong e r b e u nd e r s tood i nt e rm s o ft h e s imp le d ev e lopmen ta l s e quence e nv i sag ed t wen ty y ea r s a go . 8 5

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

O rnamen t O u rn o t ion sa bou ts y nagogue o rnamen th ave a l so b een r e v i sed . We c an n o l o ng e rs p eak e a s i ly o f a" pu rpo se fu ls h if ti ne mpha s i sf r om e x t e r io rt oi n te r io rd eco ra t ion ," 1°o f at r an s i t ion f r om s t one r e l ie f s t o mo sa i c p av emen t s . T he r e a r e , a ppa r en t ly , t h i rd -cen tu ry s y nagogue mo sa ic s a tE n G ed i a nd H a rnma t T ibe r ia s ( p e rhap s a tJ aph ia c t oo ) , a nd y e t f l oo r s o fl i me s tone s l ab s w e r e b e ing l a id i ns ynagogue s a sl a te a st h e s i x th c en tu ry . N ab ra te in i sa n e xamp le . A t K h i rbe t Ma ru s a nd a t G a za , mo sa ic f l oo r sw e r e l a te rr e p la ced b y f l oo r s o fl i me s tone l 1. Mo sa ic f l oo r s a nd r e l ie fc a rv ing i ns t one o ccu ra tt h e s am e t ime i ns e v e ra l s y nagogue s : R ehov ( pha se 1 ) , c Ammud im , cJaph ia a nd E sh temoa c1 2. T h e r e i sa l so mo r e e v iden ce t h an t h e r e u s ed t o b e f o r i n te r io r w a l l p a in t ing - a tR ehov , f o r i n s tance ,a nd c Ammud im . I ng en e ra l ,t h ei n te r io r so fs y nagogue sw e r ep robab ly o r ig ina l ly c ov e r ed w i th p l a s te re s pec ia l ly w he r et h ew a l ls u r f a c e sa r er ough ( a sa tQ i s r in , K e f a r B a r cAm , a nd Me ron ) . T he n ew e v iden ce s ug g e s t st h a tt h e se , t oo , m ay h ave b een c o lor f u l ly p a in ted . L e c te rns ( ? ) T an ta l iz ing r ema in s o fi n te r io rf ur n i sh ing s h ave a pp ea r ed i nr e cen t y ea r s a sw el . S ynagogue s w h ich o nce w e r e . p e r ce iv ed a s b e ing p l a in i n s ide m ay n o t o n ly h av e b een mo r e e l abo r a te ly d eco ra ted t han w et hough tb e f o r e , b u t mo r e e l abo ra te ly f u rn i shed a sw e l l . I n t h e f i r s t p ha se a t N ab ra te in ( f i g .5 ) e x cava t ion s r e vea led a s qua r e d ep r e s s ion i nt h e f l oo r s u r f a ce a tt h e v e ry c en te ro ft h e b u i ld ing . A much l a rg e r r e c e s s a pp ea r s i nt h e c en te r o ft h e f l oo r o ft h e r o ck -cu t b u i ld ing a tK e f a r H ananyah . I n b o th c a se s , e x cava to r s s u rm i s e t h a t t h e f e a tu r e h ou sed aw ooden l e c te rn o r b ema l3 T he d i scov e ry o fs u ch c en t ra l ly loca ted i n s ta l la t ion si sn ew f o rs ynagogue si na nc ien t P a le s t ine . S u rp r i s ing ly ,t h e r ea r ep a ra l le l sf o rt h i s f r om t h e D ia spo ra , a tb o th D u ra -Eu ropo s a nd S a rd i s . A t D u ra ( i n t h e e a rl i e r s y nagogue t h e r e ) , a n a lmo s t s qua r e p a tch i nt h e a s s emb ly room f l oo r ( f i g . 6 ) i sc l o s e ly a na logou s t o t h e f e a tu r e a tN ab ra te in . A t S a rd i s , f o u r ma rb le s l ab s a r e a r rang ed i na s qua r e i nt h e m idd le o ft h e h a l l , e a ch b ea r ing c u t t ing s f o r as t one u pr igh t ( f i g .7 ) . Y e t f o r S a rd i s , a tl e a s t , t h e n a tu r e o ft h e c en t ra l f e a tu r e r ema in s e n igma t ic . I tm ay h ave b een af ou r -co lumned c anopy , o rb a lda ch in , r a the rt h an al e c te rn ; t h e r e i sa n i n sc r ip t ion i nt h e f l oo r mo sa ic , s e t a m id s t t h es t one s l ab s ,w h ich al e c ter no rr a i s ed p l a t f o rm w ou ld h ave o b scu r ed 1 4 .S c r ip tu r ep robab ly w a s r e ad f r om y e t a no th e r f u rn i sh ing , am a s s iv e m a rb le t a b le l o ca ted n ea r t h e w e s ter ne nd o ft h e h a l l ( f i g .8 ) . P la tf o rms /To rah s h r ine s T o r ah s h r in e sw e r e t h ef o ca lf e a tu r e o fm any a nc ien t s ynagogue s , o fc ou r se , b u t n o t i nG a l i lee a nd t h e G o lan a c co rd ing t ot h e t r ad i t iona l i n te rp r e ta t ion . T h i s , t oo , n ow s e em s t oh ave b een a m i sconc ep t ion . S t one p l a t f orm s , o f t en i n te rp r e ted a sb a s e s f o r T o rah s h r ine s , h ave r e c en t ly b e en d i scove r ed i ns e v e ra l s ynagogue so ft h eo l d " Ga l i lean" c l a s s . A t G u sh H a lav ( f i g .9 ) a nd E n -Na to sh ( cE n N e shu t ) , as i ng le p l a t f o rm l i e s t o t h e w e s t o ft h e d oo r i nt h e s ou the rn w al 1 5. P a i r ed p la t f orm sf l ank ing t h e ma in d oo ra r er e por ted a tN ab ra te in ( f i g .5 ) , C aper naum ,a nd K h i rb e t Ma ru s " 6. F o r t h e p a i r ed p l a t f o rm s , S a rd i s a ga in p rov ide s ap a ra l le l f r om t h e D ia spo ra . Tw in s h r in e s a r e c l ea r ly a t te s ted a t S a rd i s ( f i g .8 ) ; b o th p l a t f orm s w e r e i n s i tu a nd p a r t s o f b o th s upe r s t ruc tu r e sw e r ef ound n ea rby . I ns e v e ra lc a se s ,d a te sf o rt h ep l a t f o rm sh av en o tb een f i rm ly e s tab l i shed . B u ta tN ab ra te in t h ey a r e a t t r ibu ted t ot h e M idd l e a nd L a te R oman b u i ld ing p ha se s ( s econd a nd t h i rd c en tur i e s C .E . ) . I r on ica l ly , w hen t h e N ab ra te in s y nagogue w a s r e bu i l t i nt h e s i x th c en tu ry , t h e p l a t f o rm sw e r e n o t r e n ewed ( f i g .4 )1 7. O r ien ta t ion T he p l a t fo rm s Ih av em en t ioned a l l i ea ga in s t t h e w a l l n ea r e s t J e ru sa lem . N o t a l s ynagogue s a r e J e ru sa lem -o r ien ted , h owev e r . I n 1 9 79 , Ip l o t ted o n am ap t h e a l ignmen t o f ad oz en a ppa r en t o r p o s s ib le e x cep t ion s t ot h e r u le 1 8 .T o t h i s m ap m ay n ow b e a dded t h e s ynagogue s o f Kh i rbe t 8 6

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

Z am im ra a nd Ma z ra c a t K ane f ( Kh i rb e t K ane f ) i n t h e G o lan , b o th w i th d oo r s o n t h e w e s t ( f i g . 11 )1 9 ,a nd p o s s ib ly C ae sa r ea , B e th S he 3 a n , a nd B e th S he a r im a s w el . D ep ic t ing t h i s i n f o rma t ion i ng r aph ic f o rm u nde r sco r e st h e c onc lu s ion t h a t n o s i ng le p r inc ip le o fo r ien ta t ion c an a c coun tf o ra l o ft h e v a r ia t ion i nb u i ld ing a l ignmen t . J ohn W i lk in son r e cen t ly r e -a s se s sed t h e l i t e ra ry a nd a r cha eo log ica l d a ta r e ga rd ing t h ed i r ec t ion o fJ ew i sh p raye r . H e c on c lud e s t h a t t h e r e w e r e " s eve ra l w ay s o fh and l ing t h e q ue s t ion" : p raye r s c ou ld b e o f e r ed t owa rd J e ru sa lem a nd t h e H o ly o f H ol i e s ; o r t owa rd t h e w e s t ; o r t owa rd t h e e a s t 2° . H i s i st h e mo s t c onv inc ing e xp lana t ion o f s y nagogue a l ignmen t t o d a te a nd t h e mo s t f a i th fu lt ot h e a r ch i tec tu ra le v idence .

I l Ih ave g one i n to t h i s m uch d e ta i l t o make c l ea r t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h e t r ad i t iona l , d ev e lopmen ta l t y po logy h a s c o l lap sed . I tn o l o ng e r s e r v e s au s e f u l p u rpo se . T h e c oncep t o fa u n i f o rm , " no rma t ive" J uda i sm , i mp l ic i t i nt h e o l d t y po logy , i so b so le te t o o . A .T . K raabe l h a s s hown t h a t d i v e r s i ty i st h e r u le f o r s y nagogue s a nd J ew i sh c ommun i t ie s i nt h e D ia spo ra ( f i g . 1 0 )2 1 .W en ow k now t h a t s y nagogue a r ch i tec tu r e i sn o t " c anon ica l" i na nc ien t P a le s t ine e i the r . R eg iona l i sm h a s r e p la ced n o rma t iv i sm a s t h e p r eva i l ing w ay o f c a t ego r iz ing t h e e v idence 2 . B r ing ing t h e t e chn ique s o fh i s to r ica l g eog raphy t o b ea r , i n 1 9 76 , E r ic Mey e r s r e cogn ized ma jo r c u l tu ra l d if e r ence s b e tween u pp e r a nd l ow e r G a l i lee 2 3 .M o r e r e c en t ly , Z v i Ma coz c ompa r ed t h e s ynagogue so fG al i lee w i th t h o se i nt h eG o lan a nd m ad ei mpor tan t d i s t inc t ion si na r ch i te c tu r ea nd i n or n amen t b e tw een t h e t wo g r oup s o f b u i ld ing s2 4 . T he l a te s t c omp end ium o f d a ta f r om s y nagogue s i t e s i n a nc ien t P a le s t ine , b y Ma r i lyn C h ia t , i s a r rang ed r e g iona l ly r a the r t han t y po log ica l ly 2 5 . T h i s n ew f r am ewo rk h a sl i m i ta t ion s ,h oweve r , We s hou ld b ec a r e f u l n o tt ol e ti ti n te r f e r ew i th o b je c t iv i ty , a st h ec on cep to f" norma t iv i sm" d i d f o r al o ng t ime . L ee L ev ine o b s e rve st h a t " s ome s ynagogue b u i ld ing s a r e s u i g ene r i s a nd d i sp lay l i t t le a f in i ty w i th o the r s t ruc tu r e s i nt h e s ame r e g ion ." H ec i te s K h i rb e t S h ema c a sa n e xamp le 2 6 .E xp la in ing s ynagogue o r ien ta t ion i nr e g iona l t e rm si sp rob lema t ic a sw e l l . T h r ee s ynagogue s i nt h e G o lan h ave d oo r s i nt h e w e s te rn w a l l , b u t t wo s ynagogue s i no th e r p a r t s o ft h e c oun t ry , a t Il u s i f ah ( I sf iya ) a nd G a za , a l so h ave w e s twa rd d oo r s . F ou ro ft h e G o lan s y nagogue sh ave d oo r s o nt h e s ou th . Y e t a tQ i s r in , a l so i nt h e G o lan , ab ema o ccup ie st h e s ou the rn w a l l ;t h ed oo r sa r eo n t h en or th a nd w e s t2 7 .T he i mpl i ca t ion i sc l ea r : t h e r ew e r e mu l t ip l et r ad i t ion so fs ynagogue d e s ign w h ich o ve r lapp ed i ns p a ce a sw e l l a si nt ime .

I V T he r e -open ing o fo l d q u e s t ion s a nd t h e r e -eva lua t ion o ff o rme r c on c lu s ion s h a s r e su l ted i n s om ei mpo r tan tc hang e si nm e thodo logy . An ew a nd r e v ea l ing i n te r e s ti nc on tex tua l i sm h a se me rg ed . I n c r ea s ing ly , s y nagogue sa r eb e ing e x am in ed ( a nd p ub l i shed ) n o t i ni s o la t ion b u t a s p a r t o fl a rg e r s t ud ie s o fl o ca l i t ie s a nd r e g ion s . I nm any c a se sw h e r et h e s u r round ing sh ave b een e x cava ted , t h e b u i ld ing s a r e f o und t ob e p a r t o f b i g g e r c omp lex e s o ri n su la e . A t S a rd i s , f o ri n s tance , t h e s e t t ing i su n ique ( f i g . 12 ) : t h e s y nagogue l i e s w i th in av a s t ( 2h ec ta r e ) R oman b a th -gymna s ium . K now l edg e o ft h e s e t t ing i sc r uc ia l f o r u nde r s tandi ng n o t o n ly t h eo r ien ta t ion o ft h eb u i ld ing b u ta l so i t sr o le i na nd r e la t ion t ot h el a rg e r c ommun i ty 2 8 . A l so a tS a rd i s , t h e h i s to r y o ft h e s y nagogue w a s t h rough ly e xp lo r ed , r e vea l ing as e qu ence o f f ou rd i s t inc tb u i ld ing c ampa ign s2 9 .S y s tema t ic s t ud ie s o ft h e s e quence s a nd d a te s o fc on s t ruc t ion h ave s i nce b een u nde r tak en a to th e r s i t e s a s w e l l . A r cha eo log ica l s t ra t ig raphy h a s n ece s sa r i ly b e come mo r ei mpo r tan ti ns u ch s t ud ie s s i nce d a t ing o n s t y l i s t ic g r ound s h a sp roven s ou n r el iab l e . D a t ing as ynagogu e b a sed o nw he the r i td oe s o r d oe s n o t h ave mo sa ic f l oo r s , f o r e xamp le , i sn o l o ng e r s uppo r tab l e . ( S t i l l , i ti sa s ton i sh ing h ow f ew s t ra t ig raph ic s e c t ion s a pp ea ri nt h e p ubl i shed l i t e ra tu r e ! ) T he se d eve lopmen t sa r eh ea l thy a nd s hou ld b ee ncou rag ed . Iw ou ld l i k e , t h ough ,t oc l o se w i th af ew a dd i t iona lr e commenda t ion s : 8 7

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

1 .T o c ome t o g r ip s w i th t h e r e a l c omp lex i ty o ft h e e v idence , w e mu s t a pp roa ch t h e s ub jec t o b jec t iv e ly , f r e e o fp r econce iv ed n o t ion s a bou t t h e c u l tu r e , c ommun i ty , r e l ig ion , o rb u i ld ing w e a r e d ea l ing w i th . S ev e ra l s i t e s s t ud ied e a rl i e rd e se rve t ob e l o oked a ta ga in w i th f r e sh e y e s , t o s o r t o u tw ha ti se v iden ced a nd w ha ti sc on jec tu ra l . I ti si n app rop r ia te n ow t oe x t rapo la te c a sua l ly f r om t h e o l d t ypo logy w i th r e g a rd t oa r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e s -t oa s sume , f o r i n s tance , t h a t as ynagogue mu s t h av e h ad d oo r s i n ap a r t icu la r w a l l b ecau se t h e t y po logy r e qu i r e s t ha t t h ey b e i n t h a t l o ca t ion , o rt h a t ab u i ld ing w a s as ynagogue b ecau se i th ad b enche s . G ene ra l iz ing f r om at ypo logy i so n ly r e l iab le i ft h e t ypo logy i t s e l fi ss ound a nd i fi t sl i m i ta t ion s a r e c l ea r ly u nde r s tood . 2 . We s hou ld b e o p en t ot h e p o s s ib i l i ty n o t o n ly o fr e g iona l v a r ia t ion b u t a l so o fr e l ig iou sa nd c u l tu ra l p l u r a l i sm e v en w i th in ap a r t icu la r r e g ion . 3 .R ecogn i t ion i sn eeded t h a t t h e b u i ld ing s w e c a l l s y nagogue s p robab ly d i d n o t a l h ou s e t h e s ame s e t o ff unc t ion s . Ab e t k n e s s e t ( hou se o fa s semb ly ) m igh t n o t a l so b e ab e t t e f i l l ah ( hou s e o fp raye r ) , f o r e xamp le 3° . P e rhap s t h e s ynagogue s o ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry C .E . ( i fi n de ed t h ey w e r e s ynagogue s ) 3Il a cked T o r ah s h r ine s b ecaus e t h ey h ad n o t y e t a cqu i r ed t h e f unc t ion o f ab e t t e f i l l ah . 4 .O n t h e o the r h and , n o t a l v a r ia t ion a mong s ynagogu e s s hou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t od if e r ence s i nf unc t ion o rr e l ig iou s p ra c t ice o r a t t i tude s t owa rd o rnamen ta t ion . A va i lab le b u i ld ing ma te r ia l s v a ry f r om p l a ce t op l a c e ;t h ee conom ic so fb u i ld ing m ay c hang eo ve rt ime ;n ew b u i ld ing t e chn ique s may r e p la c e o l de r o ne s . S ynagogue s s hou ld b e e xam in ed w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f ab roade r a r ch i tec tu ra l h i s to ry , t os e pa ra te t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s w h ich a r e d i s t inc t ive t os ynagogue s f r om t ho s e w h ich a r e mo r e w ide sp r ead a nd c i r cum s tan t ia l . 5 . F ina l ly , s om e o fo u rt e rm ino logy n eed s c l a r if i ca t ion . T he w o rd b ema i ss om e t ime su s ed t o i d en t i f y aT o rah s h r ine , s ome t ime s ap l ace f o r s p eak ing o r r e ad ing , a nd s ome t ime s ar a i s ed p l a t f o rm o fi n de te rm ina te f unc t ion . Mo r e s p ec if i c n omen c la tu r e h e r e w ou ld b e h e lp f u l . T he w o rd " o r ien ta t ion" c au se se v en mo r ec on fu s ion . T he p h ra s e " o r ien ted t owa rd J e ru sa lem" i sm ean ing l e s s i ft h e f e a tu r e s f r om w h ich o r i en ta t ion i sb e ing i n f e r r ed a r e n o t s p ec if i ed . I tw ou ld b e b e t te r t o s p eak o ft h ea l ignmen to f ab u i ld ing o rr oom , t h e l o ca t ion o f af e a tu r e , a nd t h ed i r ec t ion o fp ray e r . T he se may o r may n o t c o inc ide .

8

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

NOTES 1 .

H . Koh l a nd C . Wa tz inge r , A n t ike S ynagogen I n G a l l ia : ( Le ipz ig , 1 9 16 ) .

2 .

EL . S uken ik , A nc ien t S ynagogue s I n P a l e s t ine a nd G ree ce ( London , 1 934 ) .

3 .

M . Av i -Yonah , " Synagogue A rch i tec tu re i nt he C la s s ica l P e r iod ," i nJ ew i sh A r t , A n I lus t ra ted H i s to ry , e d . C . R o th ( New Yo rk , 1 961) , c o ls . 1 73 179 . Av i -Yonah 's " t rans i t iona l" t ype i n c ludes t he " b roadhouse" c a tego ry u sed b y o the rs e a r l ie r .

4 .

Many o ft he p rob lem s o fc h rono logy a nd o r ien ta t ion w e re f i rs t b rough t t o my a t ten t ion b y D .L . Mo e , w ho s ha red w i th me h i s 1 972 p ro spec tus f o r ad oc to ra l d i sse r ta t ion a t t h e Ha rva rd Un ive rs i ty D iv in i ty S choo l , " Cape rnaum a nd Anc ien t S ynagogues ."

5 .

T h i s w a s t he f ocus o f t he s e s s ion o n a nc ien t s ynagogue s , o rgan ized b y J . Gu tmann , a t t he a nnua l mee t ing o f t he S oc ie ty o f B ib l ica l L i te ra tu re /Ame r ican A cademy o f R e l ig ion h e ld i n N ew Yo rk o n Novembe r 1 8 , 1 979 . P ape rs f r om t ha t s e s s ion ( by Gu tmann , J .Neusne r , LA . Hof fmann , A .R . S eage r , M .J . Ch ia t , E .M . Meye r s a nd A .T . K raabe l ) a re p ub l ished i n J . Gu tmann , e d . , Anc ient S ynagogue s : t h e S ta te o f R e sear ch , B rown J uda ic S tud ie s 2 2 ( Ch ico , Ca l if . , 1 98 1) .

6 .

On cAmmud im : L . I .L ev ine , " Excava t ions a t t he S ynagogue o f lo rva t cAmmud im ," I s rae l E xp lo rat ion J ou rna l 3 2 : 1 ( 1982 ) , 6 , 11 . On Me ron : C . Meyers , E . Meye rs , a nd J .S t range , " Excava t ions a t Me i ron i n Uppe r Ga l i lee , 1 974 , 1 975 : S econd P re l im ina ry R epo r t ," Ame r i can S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R e sea r ch A nnua l4 3 ( 1978 ) , 7 3 -98 .

7 .

E .g . V . T za f e r is , "New A rcha eo log ica l E v idence o n Anc ien t C ape rnaum ," B ib l i ca l A r chaeo log i s t 4 6 :4 ( Decembe r 1 983) , 1 99 .

8 .

Z . Maco z , " The A r t a nd A rch i t ec tu re o f t he S ynagogues o f t he Go lan ," i nA nc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L . I . L ev ine ( J e rusa le m /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p p .109 , 13 . N eve r the less , Maco z b e l ieve s h i s a na ly s is " con f irms t he a cc ep ted v i ew t ha t mo s t o f t h e s ynagogue s i n t he Ga l i lee w e re b u i l t a nd f l ou r ished f r om t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tu ry C .E . t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he f ou r th c en tu ry CE ." ( p . 113 ) .

9 .

E . M . Meye rs , J . F . S t range , a nd C . L . Meye rs , " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 98 1 E xcava t ions a t e n -Nab ra te in , I s ra e l ," Ame r i can S choo l o fO r ienta l R e sea rch B u l l e t in 2 46 ( 1982 ) , 3 5 -54 . C f . t he e a r l ie r s ynagogue a t Maco z Gayy im , w h ich a l so i sb roade r ( ea s t -we s t ) t han i ti sl ong ( no r th -sou th ) . Y e t t h e p i l la r s a t Maco z f layy im d e f ine an o r th -sou th a x is , s o t h i s s ynagogue i sd i f f e ren t f r om t he o the r b roadhouse s . T he Nab ra te in e xamp le i sa l so s hown w i th i n te r io r c o lumns b u t t hese a re c on jec tu ra l . T he " b roadhouse" t ype , t oo , n eeds t o b e r e exam ined .

1 0 .

M . Do than , "Resea rch o n Anc ien t S ynagogues i nt h e L and o f I s rae l ," i n R e cen t A rchaeo logy i n t h e L and o fI s rae l , e d s . H . S hanks a nd B . Maza r (Wa sh ing ton , D .C . / Je rusa lem , 1 98 1) , p . 92 .

1 .

Z . I l an a nd E . Dama t i , " Kh . Ma rus , 1 983 a nd 1 984 ," I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l 3 4 :4 ( 1984 ) , 2 66 -267 ; A . Ovad iah , " The S ynagogue a t Gaza ," i nA nc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L . I .L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . I29 .

1 2 .

On R ehov : F . V i t to , " The S ynagogue o f R ehov , 1 980 ," I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l 3 0 :3-4 ( 1980 ) , 2 14 -217 . On Ammud im : L ev ine , " 'la rva Ammud im ," p p . 112 p a ss im . On E sh temoa : Z . Y e iv in , " The S ynagogue o f E sh te rnoa ," i nA nc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L . I .L ev in ( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p p .120 122 .

1 3 .

Meye rs , S t range , a nd Meye rs , " en Nab ra te in ," p . 40 ; Z . I l an , " II . K ef a r Il ananya , S u rvey ," I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l 3 3 :3-4 ( 1983 ) , 2 55 .

1 4 .

T he i n sc r ip t ion m en t ions a" p r ies t a nd t e ache r o fw isdom ." A . R . S eage r a nd A . T . K raabe l , " The S ynagogue a nd t h e J ew ish Com mun i ty ," i nS a rd i sf rom P reh i s to r i c t o Mod e rn 7me s , b y G . M .A . II anfmann ( Camb r idge , Ma ss . , 1 983) , p . 170 ; A . S eage r , " The A rch i tec tu re o f t he Du ra a nd S a rd is S ynagogue s ," i n T he D u ra -Eu ropos S ynagogue : AR e e va luat ion ( 1932 -1972 ) , e d . J . Gu tmann ( M issou la , 1 973 ) , p p .90 -92 , n . 44 , 4 8 .

1 5 .

On Gush Ha lav : E . M . Meye r s e ta l . , " P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 977 a nd 1 978 S ea sons a t Gu sh Ha lav ( e l J i sh ) ," Ame r ican S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R e sear ch B u l l e t in 2 33 ( 1979 ) , 3 7 -39 , 4 2 -43 . On cE n -Na to sh ( cE n N e shu t ) : Maco z , "Go lan ," p . 108 . A s h r ine w e s t o f t he d oo r i sc on jec tu red a t Me ron . A t ' Ammud im , a( s econda ry ? ) p l a t fo rm i s a l igned w i th t he c en t ra l d oo r b u t s ome d i s tanc e a way f r om i t :L ev ine , " If o rva t cAmmud im ," p p .4 -5 .

1 6 .

On Nab ra te in : Meye rs , S t rang e , a nd Meye rs , " en Nab ra te in ," p p .37 -38 , 4 0 -43 . On C ap e rnaum : s e e t he d i scus s ion i nJ .F . S t range , " The Cape rnaum a nd l Ie rod ium P ub l ica t ions ," Ame r i can S choo l s o fO r ien ta lR e sea rch B u l l e t in 2 26 ( 1977 ) , 7 0 . On K h i rbe t Ma ru s ( whe re o n ly t he w e s te rn p la tfo rm s u rv ives t oday ) : I l an a nd Dama t i , " Kh . Ma rus ," p . 266 .

1 7 .

T he c on jec tu red r e s to ra t ion o f To rah s h r ines a t Nab ra te in a nd Gush Ha lav i s n o t c onv inc ing h oweve r . The d raw ing s s how t he s h r ine s s t radd l ing t he s t y loba te s , w he re t hey wou ld h ave b een a wkwa rd ly o b scu red f r om v i ew b y t he c o lumns o f t he i n te r io r c o lonnades . Th is w a rran ts f u r the r e xam ina t ion . S uch h ono r if ic f e a tu re s o ugh t t o h ave b een mo re p rom inen t ly p lac ed a nd mo re c l ea r ly v i s ib le , a s t hey a re a t S a rd is a nd c ou ld h ave b een a t C apernau m .

1 8 .

A . R . S eage r , "Anc ien t S ynagogue A rch i t ec tu re : a n Ove rv iew ," i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s : t he S ta te o fR e sea r ch , e d . J . Gu tmann ( Ch ico , Ca l if . , 1 98 1) , f i g . 5 ,w i th d i scus s ion o n p p .4 1-42 . Umm E l -Kana t i r i ss hown i n co r rec t ly ; i ti n f a c t i sa l igned n o r th -sou th .

1 9 .

Maco z , "Go lan ," p . 103 .

2 0 .

J .W i lk inson , " Or ien ta t ion , J ew ish a nd Chr i s t ian ," P a l e s t ine E xp lo ra t ion Q ua r te r l y 16 ( J an . -June 1 984 ) , 1 6 -30 . W i lk inson r a ise s a new t he q u e s t ion o f t he i nf luenc e o f J ew ish c u s tom o n t he d eve lopmen t o fc hu rch a rch i t ec tu re . Ch ia t a rgue s t ha t t he r e la t ion sh ip wa s mu tua l a nd r e c ip roca l ( M . J . Ch ia t , " Synagogue Ch rono logy : A N ew h lypo thes is ," u npub l ished p ap e r r ead a tt he a nnua l m ee t ing o ft he A rcha eo log ica l I ns t i tu te o f Ame r ica , 1 984 ) .

2 1 .

A . T . K raabe l , " The D ia spo ra S ynagogue : A rcha eo log ica l a nd E p ig raph ic E v idence S ince S uken ik ," i nA uf s t ieg u nd N i ed e rgang d e r r öm i s chen We l t , e d . W . 1l aa se ( Be r l in , 1 979 ) , p p .477 -5 10 ; A . T . K raabe l , " Soc ia l S ys tems o f S ix

8 9

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

D ia spo ra S ynagogue s ," i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s : t he S ta te o f R e sea rch , e d . J . Gu tmann ( Ch ico , Ca l if . , 1 981) , p p .79 -9 1 . 2 2 .

T h i s o ccu r red g radua l ly , o f c ou rse , a nd t en ta t ive ly a t f i rs t , f o r e xamp le i n M . Av i -Yonah , " Anc ien t S ynagogue s ," Ade l3 2 ( 1973) , 2 9 -43 ; S eage r , "Du ra a nd S a rd is ," n . 2 o n p . 10 1 .

2 3 .

E .M . Meye r s , "Ga l i lean R eg iona l ism a s aF ac to r i n H is to r ica l R econs truc t ion ," Ame r ican S choo l s o f O r ienta l R e sea rch B u l l e t in 2 2 1 ( 1976 ) , 9 3 10 1 .

2 4 .

M aco z , "Go lan ," 9 8 115 .

2 5 .

M . J . Ch ia t , Hand book o f S ynagogue A r ch i te c ture ( Ch ico , Ca l if . , 1 982 ) . Ano the r r ec en t c ompend ium , a r ranged a l phabe t ica l ly , i sF . Hü t tenme is te r a nd G . R eeg , D ie a n t iken S ynagogen i n I s rae l , 2v o ls . , B e ihef t e z um T üb inge r A t la s d e s V o rde ren O r ien t s , S e r ies B , No . 12 / 1 (W iesbaden , 1 977 ) .

2 6 .

L . I .L ev ine , "Anc ien t S ynagogue s -A H is to r ica l I n troduc t ion ," i n A nc ien t S ynagogue s R e vea l ed , e d . L . I .L ev in ( J e ru sa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 6 .

2 7 .

Z . Maco z a nd A . K i l leb rew , " Qa s r in , 1 983 1 984 ," I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l3 5 :4 ( 1985 ) , 2 89 -29 1 .

2 8 .

S eage r a nd K raabe l , " Synagogue ," p p . 168 1 90 .

2 9 .

A . R . S eage r , " The B u i ld ing H is to ry o f t he S a rd is S ynagogue ," Ame r i can J ou rna l o f A r chaeo log y 7 6 ( 1972 ) , 4 25 -435 , p l s . 9 1-94 .

3 0 .

J . Gu tmann , e d . , T he S ynagogue : S tud ie s i n O r ig ins , A r chaeo logy a nd A r ch i tec ture ( New Yo rk , 1 975 ) , P ro legomenon , p .X l , c i t ing S . Z e i t l in , " The E ncyc loped ia J uda l ca : A S pec imen o f Modern J ew i sh S cho la rsh ip ," J ew i sh Q uar te r l y r e v iew 6 4 ( 1973 ) , 7 7 -79 .

3 1 .

M . J . Ch ia t , " F i rs t C en tu ry S ynagogue A rch i tec ture : Me thodo log ica l P rob lems ," i n Anc ient S ynagogues : t he S ta te o fR e sear ch , e d . J . Gu tmann ( Ch ico ,Ca l if . , 1 98 1) , p p .49 -60 .

9 0

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988 B IBL IOGRAPHY Av i -Yonah , M . , "Anc ien t S ynagogue s ," A r ie l 3 2 ( 1973) , 2 9 -43 . R ep r in ted i n T he S ynagogue : S tud ie s i n O r ig ins , A r chaeo logy a nd A rch i te c tu re , e d . J . Gu tmann , 9 7 109 . N ew Yo rk : K tav , 1 975 . Av i -Yonah , M . , " Synagogue A rch i tec tu re i n t he C la ss ica l P e r iod ," i n J ew i sh A r t , An I lus t ra ted H i s to ry , e d . C . Ro th , c o ls . 1 58 188 . N ew Yo rk , 1 96 1 . Ch ia t , M . J . , " F i rs t C en tu ry S ynagogue A rch i tec tu re : Me thodo log ica l P rob lems ." I n Anc ien t S ynagogue s : t he S ta te o f R e sea rch , e d . J . Gu tmann ( Ch ico , C a l if . : S cho la rs P re s s , 1 981 . C h ia t , M . J . , " Synagogue Ch rono logy : A N ew Il ypo the s is ," u npub l ished p ape r r ead a t t he a nnua l mee t ing o f t he A rcha eo log ica l I n s t i tu te o f Ame r ica , 1 984 . Ch ia t , M . J . , Hanc l bood o fS ynagogue A rch i te c ture . B rown J uda ic S tud ies 2 9 . Ch ico , Ca l if . : S cho la rs P ress , 1 982 . Do than , M . , "Resea rch o n Anc ien t S ynagogue s i n t he L and o f I s rae l ." I n R e cen t A r chaeo logy i n t he L and o fI s rae l , e ds . H . S hanks a nd B . Maza r , 8 9 -96 . Wa sh ing ton , D .C . / Je rusa lem : 1 981 . Gu tmann , J . , e d . , Anc ien t S ynagogue s : t h e S ta te o fR e sea rch . B rown J uda ic S tud ie s 2 2 . Ch ico , Ca l if . : S cho la rs P res s , 1 981 . Gu tmann , J . , e d . , T he S ynagogue : S tud ie s i n O r ig ins , A r chaeo logy a nd A rch i te c tu re . N ew Yo rk : K tav , 1 975 . Hü t tenme i s te r , F . a nd R eeg , G . , D ie a nt iken S ynagogen i n I s rae l . 2v o ls . B e ihef te z um Tüb inge r A t la s d e s V o rde ren O r ien t s , S e r ie s B , No . 12 / 1 . W ie sbaden : R e iche r t , 1 977 . I l an , Z . a nd Dama t i , E . , " Kh . Ma rus , 1 983 a nd 1 984 ." I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l3 4 :4 ( 1984 ) , 2 65 -268 . I l an , Z . , "H . K efa r Hananya , S u rvey ." I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l3 3 :3-4 ( 1983) , 2 55 . Koh l , H . a nd Wa tz inge r , C . , An t ike S ynagogen i n G a l i la . L e ipz ig : J .C . I l in r ichs 'sche B uchhand lung , 1 9 16 . K raabe l , A . T . , " The D ia spo ra S ynagogue : A rchaeo log ica l a nd E p ig raph ic E v idenc e S ince S uken ik ." I n A uf s t ief u nd N iede rgang d e r r öm i schen We l t , e d . W . Haa se , 7 7 -510 . B e r l in : D e G ruy t er , 1 979 . K raabe l , A . T . , " Soc ia l S y s tems o f S ix D ia spo ra S ynagogues ." I n Anc ien t S ynagogue s : t he S ta te o f R e sear ch , e d . J . Gu tmann , 7 9 -9 1 . B rown J uda ic S tud ies 2 2 . Ch ico , Ca l if . : S cho la rs P re ss , 1 981 . L ev ine , L . I . , " Excava t ion s a tt he S ynagogue o f Ho rva t cAmmud im ." I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l3 2 : 1 ( 1982 ) , 1 12 . L ev ine , L . I . , "Anc ien t S ynagogue s -A H i s to r ica l I n t roduc t ion ." I n Anc ien t S ynagogue s R evea led , e d . L . I .L ev ine , 1 10 . J e rusa lem : I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty /D e t ro i t : Wayne S ta te Un ive rs i ty P res s , 1 982 . Maco z , Z . , " The A r t a nd A rch i tec tu re o f t he S ynagogue s o f t he Go lan ." I n Anc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L . I . L ev ine , 9 8 115 . J e rusa lem : I s ra e l E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty /D e t ro i t : Wayne S ta te Un ive rs i ty P ress , 1 982 . Maco z , Z . , a nd K i l leb rew , A . , " Qa s r in , 1 983 1 984 ." I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l3 5 :4 ( 1985 ) , 2 89 -293 . Meye rs , C . , Meye rs , E . , S t range , J . , " Excava t ions a t Me i ron i n Uppe r Ga l i lee , 1 974 , 1 975 : S econd P re l im ina ry R epo r t ." Ame r i can S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R e sea r ch Annua l4 3 ( 1978 ) , 7 3 -98 . Meye rs , E .M . , "Ga l i lean R eg iona l i sm a s aF ac to r i n Il i s to r ica l R econs t ruc t ion ." Ame r i can S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R esear ch B u l l e t in 2 21 ( 1976 ) , 9 3 10 1 . Meye rs , E . M . , S t range , J ames F . , a nd Mey ers , Ca ro l L . " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 9 18 E xcava t ions a t e n -Nab ra te in , I s rae l ." Ame r i can S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R e search B u l l e t in 2 46 ( 1982 ) , 3 5 -54 . Meye r s , E . e t a l . , " P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 977 a nd 1 978 S ea son a t Gush Il a lav ( e l -J ish ) ." Ame r i can S choo l o f O r ienta l R e sear ch B u l l e t in 2 33 ( 1979 ) , 3 1-58 . Ovad iah , A . , " The S ynagogue a t Ga za ." I n Anc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L . I .L ev ine , p . 129 132 . J e rusa lem : I s ra e l E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty /D e t ro i t : Wayne S ta te Un ive rs i ty P re ss , 1 982 . S eage r , A . R . , "Anc ien t S ynagogue A rch i tec tu re : An Ove rv iew ." I n Anc ien t S ynagogues : t he S ta te o f R e sear ch , e d . J . Gu tmann , p . 39 -47 . B rown J uda ic S tud ies 2 2 . Ch ico , C a l if . : S cho la rs P res s , 1 98 1 . S eage r , A . R . , " The B u i ld ing h is to ry o ft he S a rd is S ynagogue ," Ame r i can J ourna lo fA r chaeo logy 7 6 ( 1972 ) ,4 25 -435 , p l s . 9 1-94 . S eage r , A . R . a nd K raabe l , A . T . , " The S ynagogue a nd t he J ew ish Commun i ty" I n S ard i sf rom P reh i s to r i c t o R oman l ime s , b y G .M .A . Hanfmann , 1 68 190 . C amb r idge : Ha rva rd Un ive rs i ty P re s s , 1 983 . S eage r , A . , " The A rch i tec tu re o f t he Du ra a nd S a rd is S ynagogue s ." I n T he D ura E uropos S ynagogue : A R e -eva lua t ion ( 1932 -1972 ) , e d . J . Gu tmann , p . 79 116 . R e l ig ion a nd t he A r t s 1 . M issou la , Mon t . : Ame r ican A cademy o f R e l ig ion /Soc ie ty o f B ib l ica l L i te ra ture , 1 973 . R ep r in ted i n T he S ynagogue : S tud ie s i n O r ig ins , A r chaeo logy a nd A r ch i te c ture , e d . J . Gu tmann , p . 149 193 . N ew Yo rk : K tav , 1 975 . S t range , J .J . , " The C ap e rnaum a nd H e rod ium P ub l ica t ions ." Ame r i can S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R e sea rch B u l l e t in 2 26 ( 1977 ) , 6 5 -73 . S uken ik , E .L . Anc ient S ynagogue s i n P a l e s t ine a nd G ree ce . L ondon : Oxfo rd Un iver s i ty P res s , 1 934 . T za f e r i s , V . , "New A rcha eo log ica l E v idenc e o n Anc ien t Cape rnaum ." B ib l ica lA r chaeo log i s t 4 6 :4 ( 1983) , 1 98 -204 . T za f e r i s , V . " The Anc ien t S ynagogue a t Maco z 1ayy im ," I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l3 2 :4 ( 1982 ) , 2 15 -244 . V i t to , F . , " The S ynagogue o f R ehov , 1 980 ," I s rae l E xp lo ra t ion J ou rna l 3 0 :3-4 ( 1980 ) , 2 14 -2 17 . W i lk inson , J . , "Or ien ta t ion , J ew i sh a nd Ch r is t ian ," P a l e s t ine E xp lo ra t ion Q ua r te r ly 16 ( J an . -June 1 984 ) ' 1 6 -30 . Y e iv in , Z . , " The S ynagogue o f E sh temo ca " I n A nc ien t S ynagogue s R evea led , e d . L . I .L ev ine , p . 120 122 . J e rusa lem : I s ra e l E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty /D e t ro i t : Wayne S ta te Un ive rs i ty P re ss , 1 982 .

9 1

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

L IST OF F IGURES F ig . I . F ig . 2 . F ig . 3 . F ig . 4 .

F ig . 5 .

F ig . 6 . F ig . 7 a . F ig . 7 b . F ig . 7 c .

F ig . 8 . F ig . 9 .

F ig . 1 0 .

F ig . 1 . F ig . 1 2 .

Cape rnau m s ynagogue ( 1973) . P lan o f B e th A lpha s ynagogue . A f te r A . K lone r , " Anc ien t S ynagogues i n I s ra e l : An A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey ," i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s R evea led , e d . L . I .L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 15 . P lan o f cE n -Ged i s ynagogue c omp lex . A f te r D . B a rag , Y . P o ra t a nd E . N e tze r , " The S ynagogue a t 'En Ged i ," i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L I .L ev ine ( J e ru sa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 117 . R econs t ruc ted p lan o f Nab ra te in s ynagogue , 5 64 -ca . 7 00 C .E . ( s ynagogue 3 ) . Af t e r E r ic M . Meye rs , J ames F . S t range , Ca ro l L . Meye rs , " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 98 1 E xcava t ions a t e n -Nab ra te in , I s rae l ," Ame r ican S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R e sear ch B u l l e t in 2 46 ( Sp r ing 1 982 ) , f i g . 3( p .39 ) . R econs t ruc ted p lan o f Nab ra te in s ynagogue , c a . 1 35 2 50 C .E . ( s ynagogue 1 ) . A f te r E . M . Meye rs , J .F . S t range , C . L . Meye rs , " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 98 1 E xcava t ions a t e n -Neb ra te in , I s ra e l ," Ame r ican S choo l s o fO r ienta l R e sea r ch B u l l e t in 2 46 ( Sp r ing 1 982 ) , f i g . 1 ( p .37 ) . R econs t ruc ted p lan o f e a r l ie r s ynagogue a t Du ra E u ropos . A f te r L . I .L ev ine , " The S ynagogue o f Du ra E u ropo s ," i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L . I .L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 172 . C en t ra l f ea tu re i n t he Ma in Ha l l o f t he S a rd i s s ynagogue ( 1965 ) . T he f our s l ab s s e t i n to t he f l oo r a re s econda ry i n t rus ion s a s i st he mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion i nt he m idd le . Axonome t r ic d raw ing o ft he S a rd i s s ynagogue . D raw ing b y A .R . S eage r . P lan o fc en t ra l f e a tu re i n t he Ma in Ha l l o f t he S a rd is s ynagogue . The f ou r s tone s a r ranged i n as qua re a nd t he mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion a re s econda ry i n t rus ions . T he i n sc r ip t ion r eads : " Vow o fS a rno& p r ie s t a nd t e a che r o fw isdom ." D raw ing b y A .R . S eage r . S a rd is s ynagogue , l ook ing e a s t f r om t he w es t e nd o ft he Ma in l Ia l l ( 1987 ) . E a r l ie r " bema" ( c en te r ) a nd l a t e r " bema" ( r igh t ) a t t he Gush Il a lav s ynagogue . Af t e r E .M . Meye rs , " Excava t ion s a t Gush l ia lav i n Uppe r Ga l i lee , i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . L . I . L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 77 . P lan s o fs ynagogues i n t he D ia spo ra : 1 .S a rd i s ; 2 . P r iene ; 3 . Du ra ; 4 . D e los ; 5 .O s t ia ; 6 .S tob i . A f te r A . T . K raabe l , " Soc ia l S y s tem s o f S ix D ia spo ra S ynagogue s ," i n A nc ien t S ynagogue s : t he S ta te o f R esea r ch ( Brown J uda ic S tud ies n o .22 ) , e d . J . Gu tmann ( Ch ico , C a l if . : S cho la rs P ress , 1 98 1) , f i g . 1 9 ( p .121) . O r ien ta t ion o fs ome a nc ien t s ynagogue s o f P a les t ine . D raw ing b y A .R . S eage r . P lan o f b a th -gymna s ium c omp lex a t S a rd is . Af t e r G .M .A . Hanfmann , S ard i sf rom P reh i s to r ic t o R oman T imes : R esu l t s o f t he A rchaeo log i ca l E xp lo ra t ion o f S a rd i s 1 958 -1975 ( Camb r idge : Ha rva rd Un ive rs i ty P re ss , 1 983) , f i g .206 .

9 2

P LATE XL I I

F ig . 1 .

o

3

C ape rnaum s ynagogue ( 1 973 ) .

m

F ig . 3 .

P lan o f ` En -Ged i s ynagogue c omp lex .

A f te r D . B a rag , Y . P o ra t a nd E . N e tze r , " The S ynagogue a t cE n Ged i ," i nA n c ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed ,e d . L . I .L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 117 .

F ig . 2 .

P lan o f B e th A lpha s ynagogue . A f te r A . K lone r , " Anc ien tS ynagogues i nI s ra e l : An A rcha eo log ica l S u rvey ," i n A nc ien t S ynagogue s R evea l ed , e d . ( J e rusa lem /De tm ; t , 1 982 ) , p . 15

L . I .L ev ine

PLATE XL I I I

F ig . 5 .

R econs t ruc ted p lan o f Nab ra te in s ynagogue , c a . 1 35 2 50 C .E . ( synagogue 1 ) . A f te r E . M . Meye rs , J .F . S t range , C . L . Meye rs , " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t

F ig . 4 .

R econs t ruc ted p lan o f Nab ra te in s ynagogue , 5 64 -ca . 7 00 C .E . ( s ynagogue 3 ) . A f te r E r ic M . Meye rs , J ame s F . S t range , C a ro l L . Meye rs , " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 981 E xcava t ions a t e n -Nab ra te in , I s ra e l ," Ame r i can S choo l s o f

O r ien ta l R e sea rch

B u l l e t in 2 46 ( Sp r ing 1 982 ) , f i g . 3( p .39 ) .

P l an o f D ur a s ynagogue : P ha se 1 F ig . 6 .

R econs t ruc ted p l an o f e a r l ie r s ynagogue a t Du ra E u ropo s .

A f te r I , . I .L ev ine ,

—

E l ie S ynagogue o f Dura

F , u ropo s ," i nA nc ien t S ynagogues R evea l ed , e d . L . I .L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De tro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 172 .

PLATE MTV

F ig . 7 a .

C en t ra l f e a ture i n t he Ma in Ha l l o f t he S a rd is s ynagogue 9 1965 ) .

T he f our s l ab s s e t i n to t he f l oo r a re

s econda ry i n t rus ions a s i st he mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion i nt he m idd le .

F ig . 7 b .

A xonome t r ic d raw ing o ft he S a rd is s ynagogue .

D raw ing b y A .R . S eage r .

P LATE X IX

F ig . 7 c .

P lan o fc en t ra l f e a ture i nt h e Ma in Ha l l o ft h e S a rd is s ynagogue .

t he f our s t ones a r ranged i n as qua re a nd

t h e mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion a r e s e conda ry i n t rus ions . T he i n sc r ip t ion r e ads : " Vow o fS amo8 , p r ie s t a nd t e ache r o fw isdom ." D raw ing b y A .R . S eage r .

F ig . 8 .

S a rd is s ynagogue , l ook ing e a s t f r om t h e w e s t e nd o f t h e Ma in It a l l ( 1987) .

PLATE X I NI

F ig . 9 .

E a r l ie r " hema" ( c en te r ) a nd l a te r " bema" ( r igh t ) a t t he Gush 1f a lav s ynagogue . " Excava t ions a t Gush

A f te r E .M . Meye rs ,

I l a lav i n Uppe r Ga l i lee , i n A nc ien t S ynagogue s r e vea l ed , e d .

L . I . L ev ine

( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 77 .

F ig . 1 0 .

E lans o f s ynagogues i n t he D ia spo ra : 1 .S a rd is ; 2 . P r iene ; 3 . Du ra ; 4 . D e los ; 5 .O s t ia ; 6 . S tob i . A f te r A . T . K raabe l , " Soc ia l S y s t ems

o rS ix

D ia spo ra S ynagogue s ," i n A nc ien t S ynagogue s : t he S ta te o fR e sea r ch

( Brown J uda ic S tud ie s n o .22 ) , e d . J . Gu t mann ( Ch ico , C a l if . : S cho la rs P re ss , 1 98 1) , f i g . 1 9 ( p . 12 1) .

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O r ien ta t ion o f s ome a nc ien t s ynagogues o f P a les t ine .

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F ig . 1 2 .

P lan o f b a th -gymna s ium c omp lex a tS a rd is .

A f te r G .M .A . I lanf inann„Sa rd i sf rom P reh i s to r i c t o R oman

rme s : R e su l ts o f t h e A r chaeo log i ca l E xp lo ra t ion o f S a rd is 1 958 -1975 ( Camb r idge : Ha rva rd Un ive rs i ty P re ss , 1 9 3) , f i g .206 .

KH IRBET SUS IYA -THE BE MA AND S YNAGOGUE ORNA MENTAT ION Z e 'ev Y e iv in

I s ra e l D epa r tmen t o fA n t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu s eum s T h e mo sa ic o ppo s i te t h e s ma l l b ema o ft h e s y nagogue a tt h e S u s iya s i t e ls how st wo r am s , o ne o n e i th e r s i de , n ex t t o e a ch r am , am eno rah ( c ande lab rum ) a nd aT o rah a r k i nt h e c en te r . T h i s mo sa ic , a sw e l l a si t s s u r round ing o rnamen ta t ion , b e long s t ot h e s e cond p ha se o ft h i s s y nagogue . A t al a te rp ha s e , p robab ly t h e t h i rd , t h e mo sa ic w a s p a r t ly d e s t royed b yt h e d i gg ing o f ac hanne l , p robab ly f o rt h e p u rpo se o fs e t t ing i np l a ce a n a r rang emen to fc hance l s c r een sa nd p o s t sm ean tt o s e pa ra te a nd e mpha s ize t h e b ema ( 5 .90 x 1 . 70m , f i g .1 ) . T he f r on t p a r t o ft h e r am o n t h e r i gh t ( e a s t e rn ) s i d e a nd t h e h i nd l e g so ft h el e f t ( we s ter n ) r am a r e m i s s ing . F o r o u r p u rpo se s , i ti se s sen t ia l t o d e sc r ib e i nd e ta i l t h e m eno ro t a nd t h e a r k o n t h e mo sa ic w h ich a r ec u t a c ro s sb yt h e a bove -men t ioned c hanne l . F rom t h e r ema in s , i ti sp o s s ib le t od i scer n c l ea r ly t h e h o ly a r k a nd i t s t wo d oo r s . E ach d oo r i sd i v ided i n to s qua r e s ( a ppa r en t ly t h r ee i n n umbe r ) , ap a t te rn w h ich s e em s t o b e c ha ra c te r i s t ic o fw ooden d oo r s . Ad eco ra ted p i l la r s t and s i nt h ec en te rw he r et h et wo d oo r sc l o s e , s e pa ra t ing a nd c onnec t ing t h em . A bov e t h e f r ame o ft h e a r k , ac on ch i sd ep ic ted . O ne i the rs i de o ft h ea r k s t and s as e ven -b ran ch ed m eno rah . O nt h er i gh t , t h e r e i s am eno rah w ho s e b ran che s , b ody , a nd t h r ee l e g s a r e d r awn i no u t l ine a nd , o n t h e o the r s i de , t h e r e i s am eno rah w ho s e b ranch e s , b ody , a nd l e g s a r e c ompo s ed o f s ma l l c i r c le s , o ne t ouch ing t h en ex t . O nb o th m eno ro t , ab a rc onne c t st h e e nd s o ft h e b ranche s , a nd a bove t h eb a r , o i l l amp sa r e d ep ic ted . F l ank ing t h e r i gh t m eno rah , o ne c an make o u t as h of a r , w i th ar emnan t o ft h e l ow e r s e c t ion o f ap a lm b ranch (M a y ) a nd ac i t ron ( e throg ) . F l ank ing t h e l e f t m eno rah , ar emnan t o f w ha t a pp ea r st ob e ac en s e rc an b ed i s t ing i i i shed . T h ea r ka nd t h em enoro ta r e e nc lo sed b y ac on s t ruc t ion c on s i s t ing o f ag ab led r oo fr e s t ing o n f ou rp i l la r sw i th t h et wo c en t ra l p i l la r s s uppor t ing t h e g ab le . T he p i la r s r e s t o n b a se s . T ha t s uppo r t ing t h e f a r the s t p i l la r o n t h e r i gh t i sp a r t ly s qua r e a nd p a r t ly r ounded . T he b a se o ft h e s e cond p i l la r ( f rom r i gh t t ol e f t ) i ss qua r e . T he b a se o ft h e t h i rd p i l la ri sm i s s ing , a nd t h eb a se o ft h e f o u r th p i l la r , t h a t f a r the s t t ot h e l e f t , i ss qua r e . T h e b ema2 i sc on s truc ted a s ap ro trud ing s e c t ion o ft h e n or th w a l l ( f i g s . 2 , 3 ) w ho se w e s ter n a nd e a s ter ne dg e s a r e r ounded , a nd w h ich w e r e a ppa r en t ly a dded d u r ing t h e t h i rd p ha s e . I nt h e f ou r th p ha se , t h e l e f t p or t ion o ft h e b ema ( we s ter n ) w a s d e s t royed b y aw a l l t h a t p a r t i t ioned t h e p raye rh a l li n to t wo s e c t ion so fu nequa l s i z e . T he b ema c on s i s t s o ft h r e e b enche s s im i la r t o t h o se t h a t w e r e b u i l t a l ong t h e l e ng th o f t h e n o r ther n w a l l a nd w e r ej o ined t oi t . T he b enche s e nd i ns em ic i r c le s a tt h e t wo e dg e s o ft h e b ema t ot h er i gh ta nd l e f t . A tt h ec en te ro ft h e b ema , ap ro jec t ion c on s i s t ing o ff i ve s t ep sw a sc on s t ruc ted f o ra s c en tt ot h ea r k . T he r ema in so fd ep r e s s ion s ,c hanne l s ,a nd n i che sw i th in t h eb ema i t s e l f make i tp o s s ib l ef o ru st os ug g e s ti t so r ig ina l s t ruc tu r e ( f i g . 4 ) . A tt h e s ou th ea s ter nc o rne r , t h e r ea r e r emnan t s o f as qua r e d ep r e s s ion i nw h i ch ac h an c e l p o s t h ad b een p l aced , a nd o ppo s i te t h i s d ep r e s s ion , a tt h e f o o t o ft h e f i r s tb ench , r emnan t so f as e cond d ep r e s s ion -t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e o ppo s i te c hance l p o s t . B e tween t h e t wo d ep r e s s ion s , t h e r e i sa g r oov e i nt h e s t y loba te . L e f to ft h e b ema , o nl i ne w i th i t sf a cade a nd a tt h er i gh t -hand e d g eo ft h e s t a i r ca s e , ap a r t i sm i s s ing . H e r e , a ppa r en t ly , t h e r e w a s a n a dd i t iona l d ep r e s s ion f o r ap i l la r , a nd b e tw e en t h i sd ep r e s s ion a nd t h a t a tt h e r i gh tc o rne r , t h e r e a r e s i g n so f ag r oove s ymme t r ica lt ot h e f i r s td ep r e s s ion . A bov et h eg r oove ,n ea rt h et h i rd s t a i r ,t h e r ei st h er emnan to f af u r the rd ep r e s s ion . A bov e t h i s , a tt h e m ee t ing p o in t o f t h e u pp e rmo s t b ench a nd t h e u ppe rmo s t s t a i r , t h e r e i sa r emnan to f at h i rd d ep r e s s ion . A sm en t ioned p r ev iou s ly ,t h e p a r t b e tw een t h e c en te r o ft h e b ema a nd i t s l e f te d g ei sm i s s ing . B u t ,a tt h el e f te dg e , ag r oov es im i la rt ot h a ta tt h er i gh te dg eo ft h e b ema w a sf o und . A bove ,n ea r t h el ow e rb ench , s i gn s o f as qua r e d ep r e s s ion i n tended f o r ac hance l p o s t w e r e d i s cov e r ed . 9 3

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I n a l , t h e r e w e r e p robab ly t e n d ep r e s s ion s t ha t h e ld t e n c hance l p o s t s . A t t h e e dg e s o ft h e b ema w e r e f ou r p o s t s , o ne o ppo s i te t h e o the r , t h a t h e ld f ou r c hance l s c r een s b e tw een t h em a nd t h r ee p a i r s a tt h e e dg e s o ft h e s t a i r ca se a r rang ed a tt h e h e igh t o ft h e s t a i r s . T hu s , t h e l ow e rp o s t s w e r e a tt h e l e v e l o ft h e f r on t o ft h e b ema , t h e u pp e r p o s t s l e v e l w i th t h e h e igh t o ft h e b ema , a nd b e tw een t h em , a tt h e c en te r o f t h e s t a i r ca se , t h e t h i rd p a i r o f p o s t s . B e tw een t h e se p o s t s t h in c hance l s c r een s a ppa r en t ly s t ood o n e a ch s i de . T h icke rc hance l s c r een s , p a ra l le lt ot h en or th w a l l , w e r e h e ld b e tw een t h e f r on t p o s t s . H und r ed so fp i ece so fd eco ra ted ma rb le w e r ef ound a tt h es i t eo ft h es ynagogue ,a mong s tw h ich w e r e t we lv e c hance l p o s t s , b roken b i t s o fv a r iou s c hance l s c r een s , f r agmen t s o fb a lu s t rade s a nd ma rb l e p ane l s , a nd f r agmen t s o f as c u lp tu r ed t h r ee -d imen s iona l m enorah 3. T he g r oove s a nd d ep r e s s ion s a r e a n a i d i nt r y ing t op i ece t og e the rt h e f u l c on s truc t iona l d e ta i l s o ft h e b ema ( f i g .5 ) . B y e xam in ing t h e s e d e ta i l s p lu s t h e r ema in ing p o r t ion o ft h e c en t ra l b ema a nd t h e f i gu r e s o n t h e mo sa ic ,4 w e s ha l l a t temp t t od e sc r ibe t h e c en t ra l b ema i nt h e t h i rd p ha s e o fi t se x i s ten ce . T he g ene ra l p i c tu r e a tw h ich w e a r r ive p o in t s t o aT o rah a r k a nd b ema i nf r on t o fi t ,t h e b ema r a i s ed a bov e f l oo rl e v e l , a nd , a ti t s c en te r , as t a i r ca se b yw h ich i tw a s p o s s ib le t o a s c end t ot h e a r k i t s e l f . Un f or tuna te ly , t h e w ho le o ft h e w a l l a nd s u r round ing a r ea i nw h ich t h e a r k h ad b een p l a ced a r e m i s s ing t oday . We h ave n o c ho ice b u t t ot ur n t oo the rd a ta t oa i d u s i nr e s to r a t ion . F o rt h i s p u rpo se , w e mu s t f i r s t e xam ine t h e a r rang emen t o ft h e h o ly a r k a nd t h e b ema o n t h e w al o ft h e s ynagogue a tE sh tamo ca d ue t ot h e g r ea t s im i la r i ty b e tw e en t h e s i t e st h e r ea nd t h eo ne a tS u s iya .5 B o th s ynagogue s a r e b roadhou se c on s truc t ion s w i th e n t rance s f r om t h e n a r row e re a s te rn w a l l . B o th h ad e n t ry p o r t ico s a nd w ide s t a i r sl e ad ing t ot h e s y nagogue i t s e l f ,a nd t h el o ng n or the rn w a l l s b o th f a ce J e ru sa lem a nd h o ld t h e b emo t . B o th h ave t h r ee e n t r ie s o n t h e e a s t -o ne w ide c en t ra l e n t ry a nd t wo n a r row e re n t rance s o n e a ch s i de o ft h e c en t ra l e n t rance . H owev e r , i nc on t ra s t t o t h e b ema a tt h e S u s iya s ynagogue , t h r ee n i che s r ema in o n t h e n or th w a l l a tE sh tamo ca -aw ide rc en t ra l n i che a nd t wo n a r rowe ro ne s o n e i the r s i de . I no rde rt oc omp le te t h er e s to ra t ion w e p ropo s e , w e s ha l l d e sc r ibe an umb e ro fa dd i t iona lf i nd s a mong t h e m any ma rb le f r agmen t s d i scove r ed : I .C hance l s c r een ( f i g s .6 ,7 ) . T h i s s c r een i sc ompo s ed o ft h ir ty seven f r agmen t s . I t so r ig ina l w id th w a s 1 4 3cm . a nd i t s h e igh t s e em s t o h ave b een 9 0 cm . T he s c r een i sd eco ra t ed a nd i n s c r ibed . A t t h e p e r ime te r , t h e r e i se v idence o fh o le s a nd n a i l s t ha t h e ld ad eco ra t ive m a rb le b an i s te r t o t h e s c r een . 2 .A t h in ( 3 5mm ) or namen ted c hance l s c r een , w e l l -p r e se r ved i na l i t sp ropo r t ion s( 5 0cm x9 0c m ) . T h i s s c r een i sc u t a way o n o ne o fi t sl ow e rc or n e r s i nt h e f o rm o f as t ep ( f i g .8 ) . 1At h in c han ce l s c r een , p a r t ly b roken ( f i g .9 ) . 4 .Af r agm en t o f ab a lu s t rade p ane l ( t h ickne s s 3 6 cm ) , b ea r ing a n e ng raved i n sc r ip t ion ( f i g .10 , 11) . 5 .F ragmen t s o f at h r ee -d imen s iona l s c u lp tu r ed ma rb le m eno rah ( f i g s . 1 2 ,13 ) . 6 .F ragm en t o f as ma l l c ap i ta l ( f i g . 1 4a , b ) . 7 .F ragmen t o f as qua r e c ap i ta l ( f i g . 1 5a , b ) . T he l a rg e c hance l s c r e en ( f i g .4 ) g i v e s u s t h e l e ng th o f t h e s c r een a t t h e f r on t o f t h e b ema ( 1 43cm ) , w h ich i sa l so t h e d i s tanc e b e tween t h e t wo f o rwa rd p i l la r s . T he s e cond c hance l s c r e en ( f i g .8 ) g i v e su st h r ee p i ece so fi n f o rma t ion : t h eh e ig h to ft h ec hance l s c r een s ( 9 0cm ) ; t h e d i s tan ce b e tw een t h e p i l la r s o ft h e s t a i r ca se ; a nd t h ei nd ica t ion t ha tt h i s s c r een p robab ly s t ood o n as t ep , s i nce i ti ss qua r e ly c u t o fo n o ne o fi t sl owe r c orn e r s . T he t h i rd s c r een ( f i g .9 ) i sa ppa r en t ly t h e o n e t ha t s t ood o ppo s i te t h e p r ev iou s ly d e s c r ibed s e cond s c r e en . A f r agm en t o ft h e b a lu s t rade i n d ica te s t ha t i tw a s p l ac ed a l ong t h e t op e dg e s o ft h e c han ce l p o s t s . T he f r agmen t s o ft h e ma rb le m eno rah i n d ica te t h a t , i n f a c t , t h e r e w a s a t l e a s t o ne s c u lp tu r ed , t h r ee -d imen s iona l c ande lab rum i n t h i s s ynagogue ( f i g s . 1 ,12 ) . T he s ame h o ld s t r ue f o r t h e 9 4

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Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

c ap i ta l sm en t ioned e a r l ie r . T h e f r agmen t s o ft h e c ap i ta l s ( f i g s . 1 4 ,15 ) i n d ica te t h a t as e t o fp i l la r s b e long ed t ot h e c omp lex i nf r on t o ft h e a r k . T hu s , t h e f i nd s i n d ica te t h a t t h e e n t rance t ot h e b ema w a s f r om t h e ( f i v e s tep ) s t a i r ca s e w h ich r o s ef r om f l oo rl e v e lt ot h ea r ki nt h e n o r th w a l l . T h i s a s c en t w a s b o rde r ed b y t h e s e t o fc han ce l s c r e en s a nd b a lu s t rade s . T he f a cade a nd s i de s w e r e b o rde r ed b y d eco ra ted c hance l s c r een s . T he t h r e e b en che s d i d n o t f o r a s c en t o r s e a t ing b u t r a the r s e em t oh ave b een f o r d e co ra t iv e p u rpo se s o rf o rs t and ing u pon , p o s s ib ly d u r ing t h e b l e s s ing o ft h e P r ie s t s ( f i g .5 ) . T he a r k a nd t h e n ea rby m eno ro t a ppa r en t ly s t ood i nt h e c en te r o ft h e n o r th w a l l , t h e s e c t ion wh i ch i sm i s s ing t o day . B ya na logy t ot h e s ynagogue a tE sh tamo ca , a nd u pon e xam ina t ion o ft h e mo s a ic a nd a dd i t iona l d a ta d e sc r ibed a bove , i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e d ep ic t ion o n t h e mo sa ic ( f i g .! ) i s a c cu ra te ( f i g .5 ) . T he w ide n i ch e a tt h e c en te r h e ld t h e a r k a nd , o n e i the r s i de , t h e r ew a s as ma l l e r n i che c on ta in ing am eno rah . T h i sc o mp lex w a sc ov e r ed b y ag ab led c on s t ruc t ion w h ich w a s j o in ed t ot h e w a l l a nd f o cu sed a t ten t ion o n t h e n i che s . S ome f r agmen t s b ea r ing t h r ee d if e r en t s e t so ff l o ra l d e s ign s , i n tended a s w a l l p ane l ing a nd o rnamen ta t ion i n d ica te t h a t t h e r e w e r e t h r ee n i che s i nt h e n or th w a l l . T he p r ev iou s ly -men t ioned r ema in so fp o s t sa nd c ap i ta l s a ppa r en t ly b e long ed t ot h ec omp lex a d jo in ing t h e w a l l , a ss hown e xpl i c i t ly i nt h e mo sa ic . O nt h e mo sa ic ,a sn o ted p r ev iou s ly , many e l emen t si nc ommon u s ei ns y nagogue sc an b es e en : -m eno ro t , t h ep a lm b ranch ( l u la v ) ,c i t ron ( e throg ) a nd t h ec e n s e r . I na dd i t ion , t h e r ea r eg eome t r ic d e s ign s a sw e l l a s ar ema in ing p a r t o f az od iac ( f i g . 16 ) , a nd ab i b l ica l s c ene d ep ic t ing D an i e l i nt h e l i on s 'd en . S im i la r o rnam en t s t y p ica l o f s ynagogue s a pp ea r i n v a r iou s f o rm s i n m any s u ch b u i ld ing s u n cov e r ed i nI s ra e l a nd a b road . B u t t h ed e ta i led o rnamen t si nt h e mo sa ic a tS u s iya , t h e r emnan t s o f t h e c en t ra l b ona a nd t h e w ea l th o f a r ch i tec tu ra l c omponen t s r e vea led , make p o s s ib le t h e r e s to ra t ion o f t h e b ema a nd a low u s t o s p ecu la te o n t h e m ean ing o f t h e se e l emen t s i n t h e s ynagogue a sa ne xp r e s s ion o fw o r sh ip . I ta ppea r s t h a t t h e p u rpo s e o ft h e se s p ec if i c f i gu r e s i nt h e m o sa i c w a s t od ep ic t , i nt h e ma in , t h e r e a l i t ie s o ft h i s p a r t icu la r s y nagogue a nd i t s u s e6 i nw o r sh ip . F u r the rmo r e , i ti sr e a sonab le t o r e ly o nt h e se or namen t s ,b o th d r awn a nd e ng rav ed , f o r ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h e s y nagogue i t s e l fa sw e l l a si t sf unc t ion . C on s ide r ing t h a t t h e r e ad ing o ft h e T o rah w a s c en t ra l t ot h e f u nc t ion o ft h e s y nagogue , i ti s o bv iou s t ha t t h e f a i th fu l d ep ic t ion o ft h e a r k , i nw h ich t h e H o ly S c r ip tu r e s a r e p l a ced , a nd t h e s p a c e s u r round ing i t ,w e r ei n tended t op o r t ray t h i s d om inan t p hy s ica l e l emen t . T he s ame r u le h o ld s f o r t h e s hof a r w h ich a pp ea r s i n many s ynagogue mo sa ic s a nd i sc en t ra l t ot h e s e rv ice so nt h e H igh H o ly D ay s . S im i la r ly , w e s hou ld u nde r s tand t h ed ep ic t ion o ft h e p a lm b r anch a nd c i t ron ( l u la v a nd e t hrog ) , c ommon ly f o und i n mo sa ic s , s i nce T ab e rna c le s c ou ld n o t b ec e l eb ra ted w i thou tt h em 7. As p ec if i cu s ef o rt h ec en s e rh a s n o ty e tb een a s c e r ta ined -a l though i tt oo i sc ommon i n many mo sa ic s , a nd a ppa r en t ly i nt h e S u s iya mo sa ic a sw e l l . T h e re a r e s e ve ra l i n te rp r e ta t ion s o ft h e m ean ing o ft h e z od ia c a s ad e co ra t ive e l emen t i nt h e s y nagogue 8,b u t i ts e em st ou st h a t t h e r e i s ac onnec t ion w i th t h ei n te r ca la t ion o ft h ey ea ra nd t h e p e rmanen t c a l enda ri n t rodu c ed i nt h e f ou r th c en tu ry b y H i l le l , t h e s on o fR abb i Y ehuda H a -Na s i ( 3 3 1 -365 CE ) . I n te r ca la t ion o f t h e y ea r w a s c a r r ied o u t i n t h e s y nagogue 9. I n T ra c ta te S anhed r in l °, i n te r ca la t ion o ft h e y ea r w a s m en t ioned s o le ly i nc oded l a nguag e , d ue t o i t s i mpo r tance f o r t h e c ommun i ty a nd , p o s s ib ly , b ecau se o ft h et h r ea t p o s ed b yt h e R oman a u tho r i t ie s . T he c e s sa t ion o ft h e u s e o fo b ser ve r s t o s e t t h e y ea r ly c a lenda r a te a ch n ew moon , w a s s e en b y t h e r abb i s o ft h e t ime a sa n e no rmou s i n telec tua l a c comp l i shmen t w h ich f r eed t h e J ew i sh c ommun i ty f r om i t s d ep end ence o n c ommun ica t ion s b a sed o n s i gna l f i r e s a nd p roc lama t ion s a t t h e b eg inn ing o fe a ch mon th , a nd a lowed f o r r e gu la r i ty i nt h e d e te rm ina t ion o fa ppo in ted t ime s a nd f e s t iva l si na l t h eJ ew i sh c o mmun i t ie s a sw e l l a si nt h e D ia spo ra . 9 5

A nc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988

"Th i s mon th s hal b e u n to y ou . ' T o w ha t d oe s t h i s c ompa r e ? T o ak i ng w ho h ad a c l ock . Wh en h i s s on r e ach ed t h e a g e o f manhood , t h e k i ng s a id t oh im ; ' My s on , t h i s c l ock w a s i n my h and s , n ow Ia m p a s s ing i to n t oy ou ' . T hu s , t h e H o ly O n e , b l e s sed b e H e , s a nc t i f ied t h e mon th s a nd made t h e y ea r s p a s s . S i nce t h e p eop le o fI s ra e l h a s r e a ched i t s manhood , H e s a id t o t h em ; ' Un t i l n ow t h e c oun t ing o f t h e m on th s a nd y ea r sh a sb e en i n my h and s . N ow a nd h ence f or th ,i tw i l lb ep a s s ed t oy ou ' ." ( Tanhuma H aKa tan ) . T he i n te r ca la t ion o ft h e y ea rp e r f ormed w i th in t h e s y nagogue , f o l lowed b y t h e i n t roduc t ion o f ap e rmanen t c a lenda r a nd i t s s i gn if i cance f o r t h e o rde r o fl i f e i nt h e J ew i sh c ommun i t ie s , w a s o f f undam en ta l i mpor tanc e . T hu s , t h e c oncep t o f " y ea r" w a s ac r uc ia l f a c to r i nJ ew i sh l i f e a nd w a s d ep i c t ed a s az od iac o r a s al i s t o fs i gn s o ft h e z od ia c a nd mon th s , a sc an b e s e en i nt h e mo sa i c a t cn G ed i . I nc onc lu s ion , t h e s p ec if i c f i gu r e s a nd d eco ra t ion s f o und i na nc ien t s s ynagogue s e xp r e s s ed t h e r e a l i ty t h a t e x i s ted a tt h a t p l a ce a tt ha t t ime ; -a sp hy s ica l e l emen t s t h a t p l ayed am a jo rr o le i nt h e s e rv ice i nt h e s ynagogue , o ra st h ez od ia c s ymbo l iz ing t h ey ea ra nd i t ss ubd iv i s ion si n ap erman en t c a l enda r .

9 6

A nc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

NOTES 1 .

T he e xcava t ion wa s c a r r ied o u t b y S hma rya Gu t tman , a rch i tec t ; E hud N e tze r a nd Z e ce v Y e iv in . The s ynagogue w a s e xcava ted a nd p a r t ly r econ s t ruc ted d u r ing t he y ea rs 1 970 1973 a nd i s a dm in i s te red b y t he D i s t r ic t A rcha eo log ica l O ff ic e r f o r J udea a nd S ama r ia .

2 .

The c omp le t e d e ta i ls o n t he t wo b emo t w i l l b e p ub l ished i n t he f u l l r epo r t o f t he e xcava t ion o f t he s ynagogue a t Kh i rbe t S u s iya .

3 .

F ragmen t s o f s im i la r menoro t h ave b een f ound a t E sh tamoca ( Z . Y e iv in , R econs t ruc t ion o f t he S ou the rn I n te r io r Wa l l o f t he Kho raz in S ynagogue , E re tz I s rae l , 1 8 , 1 985 , p . 272 , p la t es p . 5 4 , n o .5 ) , Kh i rbe t K ho she t ( G . F oe rs te r , Meno ra R e l ief s f rom t he Ga l i lee ; A t iqo t -Heb rew S e r ies , v o l . v i i , p . 78 ) , Me ro th ( Z . I l an & E . Dama t i ; Me ro th T he A nc ien tJ ew ish V i l lage , T e l Av iv , 1 987 ) ( Heb rew ) a nd Maon ( o ra l c ommun ica t ion f r om D r . Z . I l an ) .

4 .

Il ach l i l i , R ; The N iche a nd t he A rk i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s , BASOR 2 23 ( 1976 ) , p p .48 , 4 9 .

5 .

Maye r , L .A . , A . R e if enbe rg ; T he S ynagogue o f E sh tamo ca ,R IES 1 0 11, ( 1943 ) ( Heb rew ) , R eade r A , p . 97 .

6 .

D r . Hach l i l i , i n t he a bove -men t ioned a r t ic le ( s ee n o te n o .4 ) , d i scus ses t he f i gu res s hown i n s ynagogue d eco ra t ions a nd t h e i r r e la t ion t o t he r ea l i t ie s o fs ynagogue w o rsh ip .

7 .

S ukka , C hap . i v , 4 1 ; Menaho t x xv i i ; Mekh i l tha Y i thro ; V ay iqra R abba x xx i i . A t ten t ion s hou ld b e d rawn t o t h i s p a s sage w h ich empha s ize s t he c onnec t ion b e tween c a rry ing a p a lm b ranch ( l u lav ) i n p ub l ic a nd t he mo r ta l d ange r i nvo lved i ns uch a n a c t .

8 .

F ers t e r , G . ; The Z od iac i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s a nd i t s P lace i n J ew ish Though t a nd L i te ra tu re , E re tz I s rae l 1 9 , 1 986 , p p .225 -234 . F oe rs t e r , G . , ; R ep re sen ta t ions o f t he Z od iac i n Anc ien t S ynagogues a nd t he ir I conog raph ic S ou rc e s , E re tz I s rae l 1 8 , 1 985 , p p .380 -39 1 . Ha ch l i l i , R . ; The Z od iac i n Anc ien t J ew i sh A r t , R ep re sen ta t ion a nd S ign i f icanc e , R ASOR 2 28 ( 1977 ) , p . 63 . Yaha lom , Y . ; T he Z od iac i n Heb rew L i turgy ; R e sear ch o n J e rusa l em i n Heb rew L i te ra tu re , J e rusa lem , 1 987 , p p .313 3 22 .

9 .

T a lmud , P e sah lm , Ch . 1, Ha l . 1 .

1 0 .

P .T . S anhed r in x v i i , p age 1 , Ha l . l .

9 7

A nc ien t S ynagogues 1 988 L IST OF F IGURES F ig .l . F ig .2 . F ig .3 . F ig .4 . F ig .5 . F ig .6 . F ig .7 . F ig .8 . F ig .9 . F ig .10 . F ig .11 . F ig .12 . F ig .13 . F ig .14a ,b . F ig .15a ,b . F ig .16 .

T he mo sa ic i nf r on t o ft h e b ema T he ma in b ema -p ho to T he ma in b ema -p l an T he ma in b ema -r e cons t ruc t ion R econs t ruc t ion o f ma in b ema , t h ird l e ve l T he l a rge c hance l s c reen , p ho to T he l a rge c hance l s c reen , d raw ing S c reen w i th p a lm t r ee S c reen w i th p omeg rana te t r ee F ragmen t o fb a lus t rade p ane l , p ho to F ragmen t o fb a lus t rade p ane l , d raw ing F ragmen t o ft h ree -d imens iona l ma rb le m eno rah R econs t ruc t ion o f t h ree -d imens iona l ma rb le meno rah Sma l l c ap i ta l S qua re c ap i ta l Mo sa ic f l oo r w i th r emnan t s o fz od iac

9 8

P LATE I L

The mosa ic i n f ron t o f t he b ema

The m a in b ema -p ho to

PLATE L

F ig .4 .

' r i le ma in b e r m -r e cons truc t ion

PLATE I A

' t he ma in b ema -p l an

PLATE L i l

F ig .5 .

R econs truc t ion o f ma in b ema , t h i rd l e ve i

PLATE L I I I

T h el a r p , Pc happ e l $ c rp en , d raw iqg

PLATE L IV

T he l a rge c hance l s c reen , p ho to

F ig .8 .

S c reen w i th p a lm t r ee

P I , ATE LV

F ig .9 .

F ig . 0 .

S c reen w i th p omegrana te t r ee

F rag ment

o fb a lus trade

p ane l , p ho to

PLATE I ,V I

I r ig .14a

Sma l l c ap i ta l

F ig .1 2 .

F ragmen t o f t h ree -d imens iona l ma rb le meno rah

F ig . 1 5 a

S qua re c ap i ta l

F ig .16 .

Mosa ic f l oo r w i th r emnan ts

o rz od iac

P LATE LV I I

F ig . 1 1 .

F ragmen t o f b a lus trade p ane l , d raw ing

F ig . 14b

F ig . 15b

Sma l l c ap i ta l

S qua re c ap i ta l

PLATE IN I I I

1 Tea .

F ig .1 3 .

R econs truc t ion o f t h ree -d imens iona l ma rb le menorah

Ancient Synagogues 1988

ABBREVIATIONS AASOR AJA ASR BA BASOR DJD EI HUCA IEJ JBL JFA JJF JQR LA PEQ PAAJR RB ZDPV

= Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research = American Journal of Archaeology Ancient Synagogues Revealed, editor: Levine L.I., Jerusalem 1981 = Biblical Archaeologist = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research = Discoveries in the Judean Desert = Eretz Israel

= Hebrew Union College Annual = Israel Exploration Journal = Journal of Biblical Literature = Journal of Field Archaeology = Journal of Jewish Art = Jewish Quarterly Review Studii Biblici Franciscani Liber Annuus Palestine Exploration Quarterly = Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research Revue Biblique = Zeischrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vercins

101

Anc ien t S ynagogue s 1 988 L IST OF PLATES P 1 . 1 Hach l i l i , R . PHI P 1 . 1 11 P L IV P l .V P I .VI P I .V II

F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

I . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 .

P I .V II I

F ig . 1 5 .

P I . IX

F ig . 1 6 .

P I .X

F ig . 1 7 .

PL .X I Da r , S . P I .X I I

P I .X 1 1 1

F ig .1 F ig .2 F ig .3 F ig .4 F ig .5 F ig .6 F ig .7

P I .X IV P I .XV

F ig .XV I P LXV I I I l an , Z . P LXV II I P I .X 1X

P l .XX

P I .XX I P I .XX I I P l .XX I II P I .XX IV

P I .XXV K lone r , A .

P I .XXV I P I .XXVII

F ig .8 F ig .9 F ig . 10 F ig . 11 F ig .12 F ig . 13 F ig . 14 F ig . 1 . F ig . 2 . F ig . 3 . F ig . 4 . F ig . 5 . F ig . 6 . F ig . 7 . F ig . 8 . F ig . 9 . F ig . 1 . F ig . 1 0 . F ig . 1 2 . F ig . 1 3 . F ig . 1 4 . F ig . 1 5 . F ig . 1 6 . F ig . 1 7 . F ig . 1 8 . F ig . 1 9 . F ig . 2 0 . F ig . 1 . F ig . 2 . F ig . 3 . F ig . 4 . F ig . 5 . F ig . 6 . F ig . 7 .

F ig . P I .XXVII I B loedho rn , H . F ig . F ig . F ig . P I .XX IX F ig . F ig .

8 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

T ype A , f a cade e n t rance -f rame B a r cam s ynagogue , ma in e n t ranc e . C ape rnaum s ynagogue e n t ranc e -f rame s R econs t ruc t ion o fS umaqa f a cade T ype 1 3 , f a cade e n t ranc e -f rame R econ s t ruc t ion o f cAmmud im s ynagogue ma in e n t ranc e C ape rnaum e n t rance -f rame s T ype C , f a cade e n t ranc e -f rame K az r in s ynagogue f a cade R econs t ruc t ion o fA ssa l ieh s ynagogue f a cade L in te l o fT ybe s ynagogue e n t ranc e C ho raz in s ynagogue f a cade A ed icu la r e con s t ruc t ion An A ed icu la R econs t ruc t ion : a )o ne a ed icu la b e tween t he ma in e n t ranc e a nd o ne o ft h e s i de e n t ranc es ; h ) a n a ed icu la f l ank ing t h e s i ng le e n t ranc e ; c )t wo a ed icu la f l ank ing t h e ma in e n t rance P lans o fS ynagogues : w i th i )o ne a ed icu la ; i )t wo a ed icu lae ; o ne a ed icu la o ppo s i te t h e e n t ranc e P lans o fS ynagogues w i th N iche s : 1 ) ' E sh temo ca ;2 ) S us iya ; 3 ) B e th S he ca r im ; 4 ) cE n -Ged i ; 5 ) B e th S he Da n 1 3 ;6 ) Il amma th T ibe r ia s A ; 7 ) Hamma th T ibe r ia s B . P lans o f S ynagogue s w i th Ap se s : 1 ) J e r icho ; 2 ) Maco z Il ay im ; 3 ) Maco n ; 4 ) Gaza ; 5 ) B e th - ' A lpha ; 6 ) Na ca ran ; 7 ) Ge ra sa ; 8 ) Hamma th Gade r ; 9 ) B e th S he an A . H . S umaqa , L oca t ion map . H . S umaqa , P ha se s Va nd I V o fS ynagogue e xcava ted a r ea . I . S umaqa , S ynagogue . P ha ses V a nd I V , c ha rac te r is t ic s e c t ions . I . S umaqa , T he e a s t f r on t o ft h e S ynagogue . H . S umaqa , T he n o r the rn p a r t o f t h e S ynagogue , L oc i 1 52 , 1 5 , 1 5 1, f r om We s t t o E a s t . H . S umaqa , L ocus 1 58 . T he f ounda t ion t r ench a nd t h e f i rs t c ou rse o f t h e o r ig ina l W9 , P ha se V . I . S umaqa , L ocus 1 57 . F ron t , t h e f i rs t c ourse o f t h e s t one s o f W9 . I n t h e u ppe r p a r t W16 , a nd t h e p la s te red f l oo r o f L ocus 1 63 . H . S umaqa , S ynagogue P ha se V : S ugges ted p l an . H . S umaqa , S ynagogue . S ugge s ted f r on t e l eva t ion . H . S umaqa , T he S ynagogue . P ha se I V : S ugge s ted p l an . H . S umaqa , T he n o r the rn d oo r o ft h e S ynagogue , b locked b y W6 , p hase I V . H . S umaqa , T he s ma l l Meno rah i n c ised o n as t one o n t h e e a s te rn f r on t o f t h e S ynagogue . H . S umaqa , T he S ynagogue . T he s ugge s ted r e s to ra t ion o f t h e e ag le o f t h e S ynagogue b u i ld ing . 1 . S umaqa , T he S ynagogue . T he l i on l i n te l o f t h e n o r the rn d oo r . P lan o fs ynagogue s t age s 1 I ll A i r V iew Gene ra l V iew T he To rah s h r ine p l a t fo rm T he c ent ra l b ranch o f am eno rah Mosa ic f l oo r R econ s t ruc t ion o rs ynagogue s t ages 1 ,I D eco ra ted c o rn ic e s t one s E n t ranc e o n E a s t Wa l l , s t ages I ,I Co ins f ound i nt h e h o l low i nt h e r ock D raw ing o f t h e amu le t B e th M id rash i nf r on t E n t rance o fS tage I l l , j ambs i ns e conda ry u se P lan o fs ynagogue a nd B e th M ld rash , s t age I l l R econ s t ruc t ion o fs ynagogue , s t age I l l L in te l o f B e th M ld rash e n t ranc e , w i th i n sc r ip t ion D raw ing o fl i n te l a , b Mosa ic f l oo r o f B e th M ld rash w i th i n sc r ip t ion Mosa ic f l oo r o fB e th M ld rash , l ook ing s ou th R econ s t ruc t ion o f B e th M ld rash . S ynagogue a nd e nc losu re , s t ra ta V b -VII . B ronze b ranches o fc ande lab ra , 4 th -5 th c en tur ies . P o t te ry v e sse ls o ft h e t wo g o lden h oa rds . Hoa rd B i ns i tu . T he s ynagogue c en t ra l h a l l , b ema a nd n a r thex , f a c ing s ou th . S lab s tone f l oo r s t ra ta V I -V I ! , f a c ing s ou th , f ound d u r ing s e cond s ea son . C en t ra l c a rpe t , w i th f i ve s i x p e ta l led r o se t te s a nd as even b ranched c ande lab rum , f a c ing n o r th . I ncan ta t ion t ab le t : d raw ing a nd r e cons t ruc t ion . Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls

1 03

Anc ien t S ynagogues 1 988

P I .XXX K ind ler , A .

P I .XXX I Hach l i l i , R .

P I .XXX II P I .XXX III P I .XXXIV P I .XXXV P l .XXXVI

P I .XXXVII

P I .XXXVIII P I .XXX IX P I .XL P I .XL I P I .XL II S eager E .

P I .XL III

P I .XL IV

P I .XLV

P I .XLVI

P I .XLVI I P I .XLV III

P I . IL Y e iv in Z . P I .L P I .L I P 11 , 11 P 1 . 1 , 111 P I .L IV P 1 . 1 ,V P I .LVI

F ig . 6 . F ig . 1 .

Co r in th ian c ap i ta ls Co ins 1-S o l idus ( Jus t in ianus I5 27 -5 65 CE ) ; 2 -S em iss is ( Jus t inus I 5 65 -5 78 CE ) ; 3 -T rem iss is ( Jus t inus I 5 65 -5 78 CE ) ; 4 -F o Ils ( Jus t in ianus I5 27 -5 65 CE ) ; 5 -Il a lf -Fo l l is ( Jus t inus I 5 65 -5 78 CE ) . ( A l l t he c o ins a re f r om t he Mero th t r ea sury ) . F ig . 1 . P laque o f s he l l i n lay f r om t he e nd o f t he s ound -box o f U r l y re . F ig . 2 . P a ir o f mons te rs w i th u p ra ised a r ms , f r om Ca rchem ish . F ig . 1 2 A f te r P r i tcha rd , T he Anc ient N ear E as t i n P ic tures . 1 954 . New Yo rk F ig . 3 a -c N imrud I vo r ies ; a f ter R .D . B a rne t t , T he N imrud I vo r ies , L ondon 1 957 : a ) P l .XXVI : S 20 ; b ) P I .XX II : S 47a ; c ) P l . XXXIV : S SO . F ig . 4 ,5 . B e th 3A lpha mosa ic p avemen ts F ig . 6 . S usy ia mosa ic p avemen t F ig . 7 a ,b . Huse ifa mosa ic p avemen t F ig . 8 . Hamma th T ibe r ia s mosa ic p avemen t F ig . 9 . B e th S he ca n A mosa ic p avemen t F ig . 1 0a ,b . a ) Ham ma th T iber ia s , b ) B e th S he ca n B . F ig . 1 . cE n Ged i mosa ic p avemen t F ig . 1 2 , 13 . Naca ran , mosa ic p avemen t F ig . 1 4 . T ibe r ia s s ynagogue mosa ic p ane l . F ig . 1 5 . B e th S hea r im t o mb c a rv ing F ig . 1 6a ,c B e th S he ca r im p a in ted s t ones F ig . 1 7 . ` En N eshu t ( ` En S amsam ) r e l ief . F ig . 1 9 . B e th A lpha e n t rance mosa ic p ane l . F ig . 1 8 . Capernaum c a rved l i n te ls . F ig . 2 0 . Gaza s ynagogue mosa ic p avemen t . F ig . 2 1 . Maco n mosa ic p avemen t F ig . 1 C ape rnaum s ynagogue ( 1973) . F ig . 2 . P lan o f B e th A lpha s ynagogue . A f te r A . K lone r , "Anc ien t S ynagogues i n I s rae l : An A rchaeo log ica l S urvey ," i n Anc ient S ynagogues R evea led , e d . L . 1 .L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De tro i t , 1 982) , p . 15 . F ig . 3 . P lan o f cE n -Ged i s ynagogue c omp lex . A f te r D . B a rag , Y . P o ra t a nd E . N e tze r , " The S ynagogue a t cE n Ged i ," i n A nc ient S ynagogue s R evea led , e d . L . I .L ev ine ( J e rusa lem /De t ro i t , 1 982 ) , p . 117 . F ig . 4 . R econs t ruc ted p lan o f Nab ra t e in s ynagogue , 5 64 -ca . 7 00 C .E . ( s ynagogue 3 ) . A f te r E r ic M . Meye rs , J ames F . S t range , Ca ro l L . Meye rs , " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 981 E xcava t ions a t e n -Nab ra te in , I s rae l ," Ame r ican S choo l s o f O r ienta l R e search B u l le t in 2 46 ( Sp r ing 1 982 ) , f i g . 3( p .39 ) . F ig . 5 . R econs truc ted p lan o f Nab ra te in s ynagogue , c a . 1 35 2 50 C .E . ( s ynagogue 1 ) . A f te r E . M . Meye rs , J . F . S t range , C . L . Meye rs , " Second P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t he 1 98 1 E xcava t ions a t e n -Neb ra te in , I s rae l ," Ame r ican S choo l s o fO r ienta l R esearch B u l le t in 2 46 ( Sp r ing 1 982 ) , f i g .1 ( p .37) . F ig . 6 . R econs t ruc ted p lan o f e a r l ier s ynagogue a t Dura E uropos . Af te r L . I .L ev ine , " The S ynagogue o f Dura E u ropos ," i n Anc ien t S ynagogues R evea led , e d . L . I . L ev ine ( J erusa lem /De tro i t , 1 982 ) , p . I72 . F ig . 7 a . C en t ra l f e a tu re i n t he Ma in Ha l l o f t he S a rd is s ynagogue ( 1965 ) . The f our s l abs s e t i n to t he f l oo r a re s econda ry i n trus ions a s , i s t he mo sa ic i n sc r ip t ion i n t he m idd le . F ig . 7 b . Axonome t r ic d raw ing o f t he S a rd is s ynagogue . D raw ing b y A .R . S eage r . F ig . 7 c . P lan o f c en t ra l f e a ture i n t he Ma in Ha l l o f t he S a rd is s ynagogue . The f our s t ones a r ranged i n as qua re a nd t he mosa ic i n sc r ip t ion a re s econda ry i n t rus ions . The i n sc r ip t ion r eads : " Vow o f S a m* p r ies t a nd t eacher o f w isdom ." D raw ing b y A .R . S eage r . F ig . 8 . S a rd is s ynagogue , l ook ing e a s t f r om t he w es t e nd o f t he Ma in Ha l l ( 1987 ) . F ig . 9 . E a r l ie r b ema ( c en te r ) a nd l a te r b ema ( r igh t ) a tt he Gush I la lav s ynagogue . A f te r E .M . Meye rs , " Excava t ions a t Gush Ha lav i n Uppe r Ga l i lee , i n Anc ient S ynagogue s R evea led , e d . L . I .L ev ine ( J erusa lem /De tro i t , 1 982 ) , p .77 . F ig . 1 0 . P lans o f s ynagogues i n t he D ia spo ra : 1 .S a rd is ; 2 . P r iene ; 3 . Dura ; 4 . D e los ; 5 . O s t ia ; 6 . S tob i . A f te r A . T . K raabe l , " Soc ia l S ys tems o f S ix D ia spo ra S ynagogues ," i n Anc ien t S ynagogue s : t he S ta te o f R esearch ( Brown J uda ic S tud ies n o .22 ) , e d . J . Gu tmann ( Ch ico , Ca l if . : S cho la rs P ress , 1 981) , f i g . 1 9 ( p .12 1) . F ig . 1 . O r ien ta t ion o f s ome a nc ien t s ynagogues o f P a les t ine . D raw ing b y A .R . S eager . F ig . 1 2 . P lan o f b a th -gymna s iu m c omp lex a t S a rd is . A f te r G .M .A . Il anfmann , S ard is f rom P reh is tor ic t o R oman T ime s-R esu l ts o f t h e A rchaeo log ica l E xp lora t ion o f S ard is 1 958 -1975 ( Cambr idge : Ha rva rd Un ive rs i ty P ress , 1 983) , f i g .206 . F ig .' . The mosa ic i n f r on t o f t he b ema F ig .2 . The ma in b ema -p ho to F ig .4 . The ma in b ema -r e cons t ruc t ion F ig .3 . The ma in b ema -p lan F ig .5 . R econs t ruc t ion o f ma in b ema , t h ird l e ve l F ig .7 . The l a rge c hance l s c reen , d raw ing F ig .6 . The l a rge c hance l s c reen , p ho to F ig .8 . S c reen w i th p a lm t r ee F ig .9 . S c reen w i th p omeg rana te t r ee F ig .10 . F ragmen t o f b a lus t rade p ane l , p ho to F ig .12 . F ragmen t o f t h ree -d i mens iona l ma rb le menorah F ig .I4a Sma l l c ap i ta l F ig .15a S qua re c ap i ta l

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Ancient Synagogues 1988

PI.LVII Pl.LVIII

Fig.16. Fig.I 1. Fig.14b Fig.tSb Fig.13.

Mosaic floor with remnants of zodiac Fragment of balustrade panel, drawing Small capital Square capital Reconstruction of three-dimensional marble menorah

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