An investigation of the fundamental principles in the development and maintenance of morale

522 61 3MB

English Pages 75

Report DMCA / Copyright

DOWNLOAD FILE

Polecaj historie

An investigation of the fundamental principles in the development and maintenance of morale

Citation preview

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF MORALE

A P ro je ct P r e se n te d to t h e F a c u lt y o f t h e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t o f t h e R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D e g r e e M a s te r o f S c i e n c e i n E d u c a tio n

by Jam es C o le y H a r r is A u g u st 1 9 5 0

UMI Number: EP46347

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

UMI EP46347 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code

ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346

BA

' SI

A l t 1/

Th is p r oj ec t report, w ri t te n un der the direction of the candidate's advi ser a n d a p p r o v e d by him, has been p r ese nt ed to an d a c c e p te d by the F ac u lty of the Sc h o o l of E du c ati on in p a r ti a l fu lfi llm en t of the requirements f o r the de gr e e o f M a s t e r of Science in Education.

Adviser

Dean

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE ....................................

1

..............................................................

1

THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM The s i t u a t i o n

R e v i s e d s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b le m

. . .

1

A u t h o r it y f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e s c o p e a n d im p o r ta n c e o f t h e p r o b le m

.

2

The s c o p e a n d d e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e p r o b le m

5

D e f i n i t i o n o f a t e c h n i c a l w o r d .....................

6

The im p o r ta n c e o f t h e p r o b le m

6

. . . . .

The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c h a p t e r s o f t h e rep ort II.

............................................................................. .................................................. .

^

The e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p r o b l e m ..........................

9

The d e v e lo p m e n t o f b i b l i o g r a p h y

9

METHOD OF PROCEDURE

How r e l i a b i l i t y c o n c e iv e d III.

7

. . . .

a n d v a l i d i t y w e re .....................................

10

.

.........................................

12

P h y s ic a l w e ll-b e in g

...............................................

12

Support by c i v i l i a n

p o p u l a t i o n .....................

13

R e a so n t o f i g h t

.........................................................

1^

G-roup i n f l u e n c e

.........................................................

16

L e a d e r s h i p ........................................................................

17

R e c o g n itio n

18

MILITARY MORALE

.

.

...................................................................

iii CHAPTER

PAGE * ....................................................

19

T r a i n i n g .............................................................................

19

Summary

20

I n f o r m a t io n

IV .

.

.

..............................

BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY

..............................................

23

>

-O p p o r tu n ity t o make s u g g e s t i o n s and p a r ­ tic ip a te

i n t h e company

. . . . . . .

23

L e a d e r s h i p ........................................................................

25

R e c o g n itio n

...................................................................

27

.

29

-S e c u r ity

.

.

.

.............................................

.

K n ow led ge o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s an d com pany p o l i c y ............................................................................. T r a in in g

.

B e l i e f in t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e jo b G ood w o r k in g c o n d i t i o n s ' V.

.

SCHOOL AUTHORITIES ON MORALE

. . . . . . .

S o c ia l s a t is f a c t io n

/

.

32

.

33

....................................

Summary

P urpo s e

.

30

. . . . .

...................................

3^ .

35 '3 8 38 39

S h a r in g i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

..........................

^0

L e a d e r s h i p .......................... .....

..........................

^1

....................................................

^2

E con om ic s e c u r i t y

R e c o g n itio n o f t e a c h e r s Y e a rb o o k a g r e e m e n t

Summary

.

....................................

....................................................

.......................................................................

^3 ^

^5

iv CHAPTER V I.

PAGE

SURVEYS

.......................................................................................

G en eral su rv ey s

..............................................................

M I c h a e lis 1 su rv ey

....................................................

S e c u r i t y ............................................................. P a re n ts

.

.

.........................................................

W orking c o n d i t i o n s

47 47 47 47 47

...............................................

48

T e a c h e r s ........................................................................

48

P u p i l s .............................................................................

48

P r in c ip a l

..............................

49

L e ip o ld and Y a r b r o u g h 's s u r v e y

.....................

49

S e c u r i t y ........................................

50

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ..............................

50

C o l l e a g u e s ...................................................................

50

I n d iv id u a l r e s p o n s ib ilit y

..........................

50

...................................................................

50

Community

P u p i l s ....................................................... S p e c ific

su rv ey s

..............................................................

C r a l l e and B u r t o n ' s s u r v e y P a r tic ip a tio n

. . . . . . .

51 51 51

.........................................................

51

G r i e v a n c e s ...................................................................

52

S u p e r v i s io n

..............................................................

52

R e c o g n itio n

..............................................................

52

P erso n a l r e la tio n s h ip s R o c k e tt's su rv ey

...............................

52

.........................................................

53

CHAPTER

V II.

PAGE Summary

..............................

5^

CONCLUSIONS

..............................

56

F u n d a m en ta l p r i n c i p l e s

.........................................

56

..............................................

58

.............................................................................

60

Secondary p r in c ip le s Summary V III.

RECOMMENDATIONS

........................................................

.

61

.........................................

61

...............................................

63

F u n d a m en ta l p r i n c i p l e s Secondary p r in c ip le s

C o n c l u s i o n ............................ BIBLIOGRAPHY

63 . . . . .

6k

CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM The p u r p o s e o f t h i s p r o j e c t w as t o d e t e r m in e some o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e s In t h e d e v e lo p m e n t and m a in te n ­ a n c e o f m o r a le .

T h is c h a p t e r h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e s i t u a t i o n

fro m w h ic h t h e p r o b le m a r o s e .

It

s t a t e d t h e p r o b le m and

p r e s e n t e d a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s c o p e and im­ p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r o b le m . t e c h n i c a l w ord d e f i n e d .

The p r o b le m w as d e l i m i t e d an d a The c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e d t h e im p o r t­

a n c e o f t h e p r o b le m a n d p r e s e n t e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c h a p te rs. The s i t u a t i o n .

The I n v e s t i g a t o r h a s b e e n em p lo y ed

i n an e le m e n t a r y s c h o o l i n t h e L os A n g e le s C i t y S c h o o l D is ­ tr ic t.

The w r i t e r h a s a c t e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e p r i n c i p a l f o r

t h e p a s t tw o y e a r s , and h a s s e r v e d a s ch a irm a n o f a number o f f a c u l t y c o m m it t e e s .

E x p e r ie n c e w i t h v a r i o u s g r o u p s h a s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t some g r o u p s w ork w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f e n ­ t h u s ia s m an d z e a l w h i l e o t h e r s a r e m ore p o n d e r o u s .

The

r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s f a c t h a s c r e a t e d an a w a r e n e s s o f t h e im­ p o r t a n c e o f a h i g h m o r a le . R e v i s e d s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b le m . th e l i t e r a t u r e ,

A f t e r r e v i e w in g

t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b le m w as r e v i s e d t o

i n v e s t i g a t e t h e fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e s i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t

an d m a in te n a n c e o f m o r a le * s tu d ie d :

(l)

The f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s w ere

What do t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon

a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

( 2 ) What do b u s i n e s s an d i n ­

d u s t r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o ra le ?

^ ( 3 ) What do e d u c a t o r s a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o ra le ? What do s u r v e y s among t e a c h e r s an d p r i n c i p a l s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g e le m e n t s o f m o r a le ? A u t h o r it y f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s c o p e a n d im­ p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r o b le m .

W illia m Burton-*- com m ented t h a t one

o f t h e g r e a t e s t c r i t i c i s m s o f e d u c a t i o n w as t h a t th e im p o r t­ a n t p r o b le m o f m o r a le h ad h a r d ly b e e n a t t a c k e d .

He p o i n t e d

t o t h e l a c k o f o b j e c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , an d t h e many c u r ­ sory d is c u s s io n s .

He e m p h a s iz e d t h a t t h e f i e l d

o f m o r a le

o f f e r e d on e o f t h e r i c h e s t a r e a s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n com m enting on t h e W e ster n E l e c t r i c C om pany's e x ­ p e r im e n t s w i t h m o r a le , on e w r i t e r s a i d : I n t h i s g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n i t w o u ld seem t h a t i n ­ q u i r i e s s u c h a s t h o s e u n d e r ta k e n b y o f f i c e r s o f t h e W e ster n E l e c t r i c Company h a v e an u r g e n t p r a c t i c a l im­ p o r t a n c e t h a t i s s e c o n d t o no o t h e r human u n d e r t a k in g . How c a n h u m a n it y 's c a p a c i t y f o r a s p o n t a n e o u s c o ­ o p e r a tio n b e r e s to r e d ? I t i s In t h i s a r e a t h a t l e a d ­ e r s h i p I s m o st r e q u i r e d , a l e a d e r s h i p t h a t h a s n o t h in g t o do w i t h p o l i t i c a l "ism s" o r e l o q u e n t sp eech es. What I s w a n te d i s k n o w le d g e , a t y p e o f k n o w le d g e t h a t h a s e s c a p e d u s i n tw o h u n d re d y e a r s o f

W illia m B u r to n , "The T e a c h e r 's M o ra le a s an Im­ p o r t a n t F a c t o r i n T e a c h in g S u c c e s s ," C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f E le m e n ta r y E d u c a t i o n , 6 : 2 1 8 , May, 1938*

3 p r o s p e r o u s d e v e lo p m e n t . How t o s u b s t i t u t e human r e ­ s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r f u t i l e s t r i f e an d h a t r e d s — t h i s i s o n e o f t h e m o st im p o r ta n t r e s e a r c h e s o f o u r t i m e . I t is ou r hope t h a t th e in q u ir ie s d e s c r ib e d in t h i s book are t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s m a l l c o n t r i b u t i o n to s u c h k n o w le d g e .^ The im p o r ta n c e o f m o r a le w as d i s c u s s e d b y H eron: I f m anagem ent c a n n o t in d u c e a lm o s t a l l o f u s t o w ork e f f e c t i v e l y , o u r A m e rica n way o f l i f e i s a f a i l u r e . Our s y s te m o f e x c h a n g in g t h e p r o d u c t s o f o u r w ork th r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f m anagem ent i s u n a b le to s t a n d up i n o u r m odern w o r l d . Our s y s t e m o f f r e e c h o i c e a s t o w h at we s h a l l buy m ust g i v e way t o a s y s te m i n w h ic h o u r c h o i c e s are d ic t a t e d .3 I n M o ra le f o r a F r e e W orld t h i s r e f e r e n c e w as made t o t h e im p o r ta n c e o f m o r a le : The I m p o r ta n c e o f m o r a le i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d i f ­ f i c u l t y o f th e t a s k , t h a t i s , t h e e x t e n t to w h ic h s u c ­ c e s s f u l p e r fo r m a n c e r e q u i r e s t h e u tm o s t u s e o f a l l la te n t c a p a c itie s . T h is t o p i c r e c e i v e s s p e c i a l e m p h a s is i n t im e o f w ar o r c r i s i s , when t h e r e a r e u n u s u a l o b s t a ­ c l e s t o o v e rc o m e and h a r d s h ip s t o b e e n d u r e d a n d when in t e r n a l r i v a l r i e s and c o n f l i c t s a r e c l e a r l y f a t a l to c o lle c tiv e e ffo r t. B u t m o r a le i s a f a c t o r i n a l l s o c i a l l i f e , and i t s n e g l e c t in n o rm a l t i m e s i s a s e r i o u s d e f e c t i n m odern d e m o c r a c i e s .^ The s c o p e o f m o r a le w a s m e n tio n e d by W h ite : S i n c e 1 9 2 0 t h e r e h a s b e e n much d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n a ­ t u r e and v a l u e o f I n d u s t r i a l m o r a le . L e a d e r s i n an y a c t i v i t y — s p o r t s , e d u c a tio n , b u s in e s s , r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s ,

F . J . R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , and W illia m J . D ic k s o n , Man­ a g em en t an d t h e W orker (C a m b r id g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H arvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 9 )» p* x i v . ^ A le x a n d e r H. H er o n , Why Men Work ( S t a n f o r d , C a l i f . : S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19&3T, p . ^ A m erica n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m in i s t r a t o r s , M o r a le i n a F r e e W orld (W a s h in g to n , D .C .: A m erica n A s s o c i a ­ t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m in is tr a to r s , 19^ ) » p . 2 8 .

a d v e r t i s i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n — d e a l w i t h m o r a le more o r l e s s c o n s c i o u s l y an d s p e c i f i c a l l y . ^ A n o th e r w r i t e r s p o k e o f t h e s c o p e and th e n a t u r e o f m o r a le a s f o l l o w s : F or any p e r s o n who h a s h e l d a p o s i t i o n o f r e s p o n s i ­ b i l i t y i n a b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n — o r an y o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h a t m a t t e r — t h e w ord " m o r a le ” com es t o h a v e r e a l m ea n in g ; t h a t i s , i t r e f e r s t o s o m e th in g w h ic h i s f e l t t o b e o f g r e a t im p o r ta n c e ^ e v e n i f t h a t s o m e th in g r e ­ m a in s v a g u e a n d i l l u s i v e . The n a t u r e o f m o r a le w as d i s c u s s e d b y H i l l i n t h e s e w o r d s: P e r h a p s th e p r im a r y r e a s o n f o r t h e n e g l e c t o f t h e m o r a le f a c t o r i s t h a t m o r a le i s so i n t a n g i b l e a s c o m -, p a r e d w i t h o t h e r p r o b le m s o f m a n a g e m e n t./ R o e th lis b e r g e r s t a t e d th a t th e s e in t a n g ib le in f lu ­ e n c e s can and s h o u ld b e u n d e r s t o o d b y s a y i n g : I t i s o u r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e s e s k i l l s no l o n g e r n e e d t o r e m a in i n t u i t i v e a n d p e r s o n a l . T hey ca n b e c l e a r l y f o r m u la t e d a n d a p p l i e d . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e s k i l l s i n o u r m odern b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s th e c h a lle n g e o f our tim e s . T h er e i s a n e e d f o r t h e e x p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n a d d r e s s in g i t s e l f t o t h e a d e q u a te d i a g n o s i s and u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e a c t u a l human s i t u a ­ t i o n s — b o t h i n d i v i d u a l an d g r o u p — w i t h i n t h e b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n .®

•5 L e o n a r d D. W h ite , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e S tu d y o f Pub­ l i c M m l n l s t r a t i o n (New Y ork : The M a cM illa n Company, 1 9 3 9 )> p. 4 6 l. ^ F . J . R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , M anagem ent an d M o ra le (Cam­ b r id g e , M a ssa c h u se tts: H arvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 1 )* p. I 89. Y ork:

^ L ee H. H i l l , P a t t e r n f o r G-ood L ab or R e l a t i o n s (New M cG -raw -H lll B ook Company, 1,9^7)» p - 51* O

R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , M anagem ent an d M o r a le , o p . c i t . , p.

193.

The s c o p e an d d e l i m i t a t i o n le m o f m o ra le *

o f th e p r o b le m .

The p r o b ­

a s p o i n t e d o u t b y R o e t h l i s b e r g e r * ^ W h ite * 1 ®

an d t h e A m erica n A s s o c i a t i o n

o f S c h o o l A d m in is t r a t o r s ,11 i s

im p o r ta n t i n p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y f i e l d

o f endeavor.

H i l l , 15*

and R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , 1 ”'1 i n d i c a t e d t h a t much o f t h e e x i s t i n g k n o w le d g e o f m o r a le i s v a g u e a n d i n t a n g i b l e .

T h er efo r e r a ­

t h e r th a n a t t e m p t in g t o d e t e r m in e a l l p o s s i b l e f a c t o r s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e m o r a le , t h e s t u d y w as d e l i m i t e d to in v e s tig a tin g

th e p r o b le m o f

t h e fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e s i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t

a n d m a in te n a n c e o f m o r a le .

The v a r i o u s a v e n u e s o f i n v e s t i ­

g a t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s p r o b le m w ere f o r m u la t e d i n t o th e s e q u e s tio n s :

(l)

What d o t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s

a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

( 2 ) What do b u s i n e s s

and i n d u s t r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

( 3 \ y ^ h a t do e d u c a t o r s a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s

u p on a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o ra le ?

S w What do s u r v e y s among

t e a c h e r s an d p r i n c i p a l s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g e le m e n t s o f m o r a le ?

( 5 ) What, do c o a c h e s and a t h l e t e s b e l i e v e t o b e

m o r a le b u i l d i n g i n f l u e n c e s ?

( 6 ) What do r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s

9 I b id . , p. 189. 1® W h ite , l o c . c i t . 11 A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , l o c . c it. 12 H ill,

lo c . c i t .

13 R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , M anagement and M o r a le , p.

189-

o p

.

c it .,

c la im

t o b e I m p o r ta n t e le m e n t s o f m o r a le ?

( ? ) What do

p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a g r e e upon a s b e in g im p o r ta n t f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

( 8 ) What do p o l i t i c i a n s

im p o r ta n t t o m o r a le ? m o r a le f a c t o r s ?

c o n c u r upon a s b e i n g

( 9 ) What do s t u d e n t s o l a l m e t o b e

( 1 0 ) What e x p e r im e n t s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c te d

t o d e te r m in e p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n in g m o r a le ? The q u e s t i o n s l i s t e d in c lu s iv e .

above d id n o t p u rp o r t to be a l l

T hey d i d a t t e m p t , h o w e v e r ,

to i n d i c a t e

th e b ro a d

s c o p e op en t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

B e c a u s e o f jfche e x t e n s i v e ( I s c o p e , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r d e l i m i t e d t h i s pamper t o t h e f i r s t f o u r q u e s t i o n s a s t h e y w ere th o u g h t t o b e t h e m ore im p o r t a n t o n es. D e f i n i t i o n o f a. t e c h n i c a l w o r d . th e lit e r a t u r e

An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f

sh ow ed t h a t t h e r e w e re n e a r l y a s many d e f i n i ­

t i o n s o f th e w ord " m orale" a s a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n on t h e su b ­ je c t.

F o r t h e p u r p o se o f t h i s p a p e r m o r a le w a s c o n s t r u e d

t o mean t h e m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s w h ic h l e a d s them e i t h e r t o s u b o r d i n a t e o r c o i n c i d e t h e i r p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s f o r th e advancem ent o f a p a r t ic u la r g o a l . The im p o r ta n c e o f t h e p r o b le m . b e r g e r ,^ 1^

W h ite ,

R o e th lis -

and H e r o n , ^ d i s c u s s e d th e g r e a t im p o r ta n c e o f

W h ite , l o c . c i t . R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , M anagem ent and M o r a le > o p . c i t . ,

p. 189±0 H ero n , l o c .

c it.

m o r a le .

B urton,and

a b o o k b y R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , 1 ® empha­

s iz e d th e g r e a t n eed f o r in v e s t ig a t io n s in th e f i e l d m o r a le .

of

R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , ^9 b e l i e v e d t h a t i t w a s b o t h im­

p o r t a n t a n d p o s s i b l e t o f o r m u l a t e an d a p p ly th e i n t a n g i b l e f a c t o r s o f m o r a le . The im p o r ta n c e o f t h e p r o b le m w as g i v e n f u r t h e r em­ p h a s i s fro m t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n o u t o f w h ic h i t g r e w . The i n v e s t i g a t o r f e l t

t h a t t h e u n d e r s t a n d in g o f som e o f

t h e m ore fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e s

i n d e v e lo p in g and m a in t a in ­

i n g m o r a le w o u ld b e h e l p f u l t o o n e a s s u m in g g r o u p r e s p o n s i ­ b ilitie s . The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c h a p t e r s o f t h e r e p o r t . s t u d y w as d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t c h a p t e r s . c u s s e d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b le m .

T h is

C h a p te r o n e d i s ­

C h a p te r tw o w as d e v o t e d

t o t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p r o b le m , t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f b i b ­ l i o g r a p h y , an d how r e l i a b i l i t y an d v a l i d i t y w e r e c o n c e i v e d . C h a p te r t h r e e d i s c u s s e d t h e q u e s t i o n ,

“What d o t h e m i l i t a r y

a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o ra le? " fo u r I n v e s t ig a t e d th e q u e s tio n ,

C h a p te r

“What d o b u s i n e s s and in d u s ­

t r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m orale?"

17

B u r to n , l o c . c i t .

18

■ R o e t h l i s b e r g e r and D ic k s o n , M anagem ent and t h e W ork er, l o c . c i t . R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , M anagem ent an d M o r a le , o p . c i t . ,

P* 193-

C h a p te r f i v e

s o u g h t t o a n sw e r t h e q u e s t i o n ,

"What do edu­

c a t o r s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o ra le? " in v e s t ig a t e d th e q u e s tio n ,

C h a p te r s i x

"What do s u r v e y s among t e a c h e r s

a n d p r i n c i p a l s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g e le m e n t s o f m ora le? " C h a p t e r . s e v e n p r e s e n t e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a s drawn fro m ch a p ­ t e r s t h r e e th r o u g h s i x on f i n d i n g s .

C h a p te r e i g h t g a v e t h e

r e c o m m e n d a tio n s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r . T h is c h a p t e r h a s d i s c u s s e d t h e s i t u a t i o n fr o m w h ic h t h e p r o b le m a r o s e .

It

s t a t e d t h e p r o b le m and p r e s e n t e d

a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s c o p e and Im p o r ta n c e o f t h e p r o b le m .

The c h a p t e r d e l i m i t e d t h e p r o b le m a n d d e ­

f i n e d a t e c h n ic a l w ord.

I t d i s c u s s e d t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e

p r o b le m a n d p r e s e n t e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r s . n e x t c h a p t e r w a s d e v o t e d t o m eth o d o f p r o c e d u r e .

The

CHAPTER I I METHOD OP PROCEDURE The p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b le m . le m .

T h is c h a p t e r d e a l t w i t h t h e e m e rg e n c e o f t h e p r o b ­

The d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y w as d e s c r i b e d ,

and t h e m eth o d o f a t t a i n i n g r e l i a b i l i t y

and v a l i d i t y w ere

g iv e n . The e m e r g e n c e o f t h e -problem .

The p r o b le m em erged

fro m t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r ’ s own e x p e r i e n c e w i t h g r o u p r e s p o n s i ­ b ility .

I t becam e e v i d e n t t h a t m o r a le w as a h i g h l y s i g n i f i ­

cant fo r c e .

A r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e

in d ic a te d th a t th e

p r o b le m o f m o r a le w as one o f im p o r ta n c e t o a n y p e r s o n i n a p o s itio n o f r e s p o n s ib ilit y .

The l i t e r a t u r e r e f e r r e d t o t h e

g r e a t n eed fo r i n v e s t ig a t io n o f th e I n ta n g ib le f a c t o r s o f m o r a le so t h a t t h e y c o u l d b e f o r m u la t e d and a p p l i e d . su rv ey o f th e l it e r a t u r e

A

r e s u lt e d in th e q u e s tio n s p r e s e n te d

in d e t a i l in c h a p te r o n e. The d e v e lo p m e n t o f b i b l i o g r a p h y .

In o r d e r to le a r n

w h at t h e m ore c u r r e n t t h i n k i n g w as on t h e s u b j e c t o f m o r a le , t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y w as l i m i t e d to t h e p a s t t w e lv e y e a r s .

The

b e s t p o s s i b l e b i b l i o g r a p h y w as d e v e lo p e d by s e t t i n g u p c r i - ~ te r ia .

The l i t e r a t u r e i n

t h e m i l i t a r y f i e l d w as c o n f i n e d

t o t h a t w r i t t e n by m i l i t a r y men o f t h e r a n k o f m a jo r o r

a b o v e , and p s y c h o l o g i s t s o r p s y c h i a t r i s t s w i t h m i l i t a r y e x p e r ie n c e .

A u th o r s i n t h e f i e l d

o f b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y

w ere r e s t r i c t e d t o p e r s o n n e l o r i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s d i ­ r e c t o r s , an d c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r s i n t h e a r e a o f b u s i n e s s a n d in d u s tr y .

E d u c a tio n l i t e r a t u r e an d s u r v e y s w e r e l i m i t e d t o

th o se w r itte n by p r in c ip a ls ,

s u p e r in te n d e n ts ,

f e s s o r s in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n , le a r n e d o r g a n iz a t io n s .

c o lle g e pro­

and p u b l i c a t i o n s o f

When an a u t h o r i t y c o n t r i b u t e d t o

b o t h a b o o k a n d a p e r i o d i c a l , o n l y t h e b o o k w as s e l e c t e d t o a v o id d u p lic a t io n o f a u t h o r it y . lite r a tu r e

W ith one e x c e p t i o n ,

th e

i n v e s t i g a t e d w a s c o n f i n e d t o t h a t w h ic h d i s c u s s e d

t h e t o p i c o f m o r a le i n g e n e r a l , r a t h e r th a n m a t e r i a l s r e ­ s tr ic tin g

t h e m s e lv e s t o a s m a ll a r e a o f m o r a le .

The e x c e p ­

t i o n w as w i t h t h e tw o s p e c i f i c

su rv ey s in th e f i e l d

m in is tr a tio n and s u p e r v is io n .

T hey w e r e u s e d t o su p p le m e n t

t h e s m a ll num ber o f g e n e r a l s u r v e y s .

o f ad­

T hey w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t

t o f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g o n l y t o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d s u p e r v i s i o n . From t h e a b o v e c r i t e r i a , p e r io d ic a ls w ere s e l e c t e d

se v e n book s and th r e e

in th e f i e l d

o f m i l i t a r y m o r a le .

F o u r t e e n b o o k s i n b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y w ere f o u n d and u sed .

T w e lv e e d u c a t i o n a r t i c l e s a n d on e p u b l i c a t i o n fro m a

l e a r n e d o r g a n i z a t i o n w ere fo u n d t h a t m et t h e s t a n d a r d s . g e n e r a l and tw o s p e c i f i c

su rv ey s in

e d u c a t i o n w ere l o c a t e d

t h a t m et t h e c r i t e r i a . How r e l i a b i l i t y

Two

an d v a l i d i t y w e re c o n c e i v e d .

A ll

t h e a v a i l a b l e r e f e r e n c e s t h a t m et t h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e b i b ­ l io g r a p h y i n e a c h o f t h e f i e l d s i n v e s t i g a t e d w ere u s e d . T h er efo r e r e l i a b i l i t y

o f a random s a m p lin g p r o c e d u r e w as

n o t needed in each o f th e a r ea s s tu d ie d . f o r m u la t e d i n

t h e c o n c l u s i o n s w ere b a s e d upon t h e c o n s e n s u s

o f th e a u t h o r i t i e s in th e v a r io u s f i e l d s gave r e l ia b i li t y tio n .

s tu d ie d .

T h is

t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s drawn i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a ­

The w e ig h t o f a u t h o r i t y o f

s e le c tio n

The p r i n c i p l e s

th e l i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e

o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t m et t h e c r i t e r i a ,

d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r , gave v a l i d i t y to

p r e v io u s ly

th e s t u d y .

T h is c h a p t e r d e a l t w i t h t h e e m e rg e n c e o f t h e p r o b le m , t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f b i b l i o g r a p h y , a n d how r e l i a b i l i t y v a l l d l t i t y w e re c o n c e i v e d .

and

The n e x t c h a p t e r i n v e s t i g a t e d

t h e q u e s t i o n , What do t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

CHAPTER I I I MILITARY MORALE The m eth od o f p r o c e d u r e u s e d t o d e t e r m in e som e o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e s o f m o r a le w a s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c o n d c h a p te r .

T h is c h a p t e r w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n ,

"What do t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c ­ t o r s o f m o ra le? " P h y s ic a l w e ll- b e in g .

Some m e n tio n w as made o f t h e

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l by f o u r (7 1 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e b o o k s and tw o (6 6 p e r c e n t ) o f th e p e r io d ic a ls . o f s u s ta in in g

Among t h e p o s i t i v e

i d e a s o f f e r e d w ere t h o s e

a b a l a n c e among w o r k , p l a y , and r e c r e a t i o n . 1

S p e c i f i c s u g g e s t i o n s f o r r e c r e a t i o n i n c l u d e d m o tio n p i c t u r e s , g a m e s , r a d i o e n t e r t a i n m e n t , l e t t e r w r i t i n g , r e a d i n g , and 2 d a n c in g . G -en eral Q-eorge M a r s h a ll r e g a r d e d r e c r e a t i o n a l w e l ­ fa r e

s o h i g h l y t h a t a s p e c i a l d i v i s i o n w as c r e a t e d i n 19^0

t o d i r e c t and e n c o u r a g e r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d o t h e r m o r a le b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t s .

N e g a t iv e f a c t o r s nam ed b y t h e

a u t h o r s a s d e t r i m e n t a l t o m o r a le , w h ic h p e r t a i n e d t o

1 Roy G -rink er a n d Joh n S p i e g e l , Men U n der S t r e s s (P h ila d e lp h ia : B l a k i s t o n , 1 9 ^ 5 )* P* 37* Norman M e ie r , M i l i t a r y P s y c h o lo g y (New Y ork: H a rp er an d B r o t h e r s , 1 9 ^ 3 )* P * 6 9 •

13 p h y s ic a l w e ll-b e in g w ere:

f a t i g u e , b a d n o u r is h m e n t, p o o r

l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t r a u m a t ic e x p e r i e n c e s . who c o n s i d e r e d h e a l t h im p o r t a n t i n w ere:

O th e r w r i t e r s

t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o r a le

D o l l a r d ,^ S o lo m o n ,^ S la d e n ,^ U l i o , ^ a n d M o ck .7 Su pp ort by c i v i l i a n

p o p u la tio n .

B a c k in g o f t h e s o l ­

d i e r by t h o s e on t h e home f r o n t w as fo u n d to b e e s s e n t i a l O

t o m i l i t a r y m o r a le . p o s s ib le to

M e ie r

b e l i e v e d t h a t i t w as n e a r l y im­

s e p a r a t e th e c i v i l i a n

m o r a le in a d e m o c r a c y . w as so h ig h ly

m o r a le fro m t h e m i l i t a r y

He f e l t t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y m a ch in e

d e p e n d e n t upon t h e c i v i l i a n

t h e tw o c o u l d n o t b e s e p a r a t e d .

p o p u la tio n th a t

The p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t

o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w as s a i d t o b e t h e r e a s o n men w a n te d

3

Joh n B o l l a r d , F e a r i n B a t t l e I n f a n t r y J o u r n a l , 1 9 4 4 ) , p* 39*

(W a sh in g to n :

The

4

H arry C. Solom on and P a u l I . Y a k o v le v , M anual o f M i l i t a r y N e u r o p s y c h ia t r y ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W. B . S a u n d e r s Company, 1 9 4 4 ) , p . 471* fie ld , 335*

^ F ra n k J . S la d e n , P s y c h i a t r y and t h e War ( S p r in g ­ I llin o is : C h a r le s C. Thom as, P u b l i s h e r , 1 9 4 3 )> P* 6

G e n e r a l Jam es U l i o , “M i l i t a r y M o r a le ," A m erica n J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , 4 7 :3 2 5 * N ovem b er, 1 9 4 1 . ^ Jam es Mock and C e d r ic L a r s o n , " M o ra le— The S o u l o f t h e Army," F r o n t i e r s o f D e m o cr a cy , 7 : 2 3 7 , May, 1 9 4 1 . 8

M e ie r i l o c .

c it.

14 s u p p o r t from t h o s e a t hom e. tifie d

G -rlnker^ f e l t t h a t men i d e n ­

t h e m s e l v e s n o t o n l y w i t h t h e i r own “o u t f i t , "

b u t on

a much b r o a d e r b a s i s w h ic h e n c o m p a ss e d t h e w h o le army and th e e n t ir e n a tio n . fe e l,

he s a i d ,

t o t h e w ar i s fic e

W ith r e g a r d t o t h e way a s o l d i e r may

" . . .

a n y t h in g w h ic h i n d i c a t e s i n d i f f e r e n c e

in te r p r e te d a s in d iffe r e n c e

a n d t h u s d i s t u r b s t h e i r m o r a le ." ^ ®

to t h e i r s a c r i­ O th e r w r i t e r s t h a t

s a i d i t w a s i m p e r a t i v e t o m o r a le t o h a v e t h e n o n - f i g h t i n g p o p u la tio n f u l l y

su p p o r t th e m i li t a r y p e r s o n n e l w ere:

D o l l a r d , ^ M e n n in g e r ,1 2 S l a d e n , ^ R e a so n t o f i g h t .

a n d Mock.

A w o r th y c a u s e f o r f i g h t i n g w as

s a i d t o b e a b a s i c f a c t o r i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y m o r a le . B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l J am es U l i o E m o tio n a l f e r v o r t o s a u l t may b e r o o t e d i n th a t a r e g e n u in e , t h a t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l th a n

to o k t h i s p o s i t i o n :

h o ld a g a i n s t an I r r e s i s t i b l e a s ­ f i d e l i t y t o i d e a l s and s t a n d a r d s a re u n d e r sto o d , th a t a re d e a r er h i s own p e r s o n a l l i f e . 1 *

^ G r ln k e r , p p . c i t . , p . 4 8 .

10

'

-

L oc.

c it.

^ D o lla r d , l o c . c i t . 1o W illia m C. M e n n in g e r , P s y c h i a t r y i n a T r o u b le d W orld (New Y ork : The M a cM illa n Company, 1$W8) , p . 6 o . 13 14

S la d e n , p p .

c i t . , p. 262.

M ock, l o c . c i t .

15 U l i o ,

lo c .

c it.

15 M e ie r 1 ** w as o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t s e l f - m o t i v a t i o n w a s t h e m o st p o w e r f u l o f a l l m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e s . an i n d i v i d u a l who f e l t

He b e l i e v e d t h a t

a d i r e c t i n t e r e s t in th e r e s u l t o f

a w ar w as c a p a b le o f p r o lo n g e d and v i g o r o u s e f f o r t .

Solom on

sta te d : A r e a s o n t o f i g h t w h ic h s a t i s f i e s h i s c o n s c i e n c e . W h eth er t h i s i s t o p r o t e c t h i s f a m i l y o r h i e c o u n t r y , t o s u r v i v e , t o do h i s d u t y , t o p r e s e r v e fr e e d o m , t o f o l l o w t h e w i l l o f h i s l e a d e r , d e p e n d s upon t h e i n ­ d iv id u a l. T h is a u t h o r w e n t on t o l i s t

a n e g a t i v e a s p e c t w h ic h may a f ­

f o r d th e s o l d ie r w it h a r e a so n t o f i g h t : fig h tin g .

“F e a r o f n o t

F ear o f th e co n se q u en ce s o f d e f e a t ,

h i s b u d d ie s w i l l s a y i f

f e a r o f w hat

he d o e s n ' t f i g h t o r do h i s s h a r e . " 1 ®

O th e r w r i t e r s who w ere i n a g r e e m e n t t h a t a r e a s o n t o f i g h t h e l p e d m o r a le w e r e :

B r o t e m a r k l e ,1 ^ Mock,^® G -r in k e r ,2 1 D o l -

l a r d , 22 M e n n in g e r ,2 ^ S l a d e r , 2 ^ and M ir a .2"*

16 ^

M e ie r , op -

c i t . , p . 51*

S o lo m o n , l o c . c i t . lo c . c it .

^ R. A. B r o t e m a r k le , " D ev elo p m en t o f M i l i t a r y M o ra le i n a D e m o cr a cy ," A n n a ls o f t h e A m erica n Academy o f P o l i t i ­ c a l and S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , 2 1 6 : 8 5 , J u l y , 1 9 4 1 . 20 M ock, o p . c i t . , p . 239* 21 G -rin k er, p p . c i t . , p.

39*

op

D o lla r d ,

lo c . c i t .

2® M e n n in g e r , o p . c i t . , p . 89* 24 S la d e n , p p . c i t . , p . 297* E m i li o M ir a , P s y c h i a t r y i n War (New Y ork : N o r to n a n d Company, 1 9 4 3 ) , p . 1 2 2 .

W. W.

16 G roup I n f l u e n c e .

S i g n i f i c a n c e w as g i v e n t o t h e i n ­

f l u e n c e o f t h e g r o u p on m o r a le b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s .

They

s a i d a s o l d i e r w as a b l e t o l o s e h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y w i t h i n a group. unit,

When t h e s o l d i e r becam e t h e member o f a p a r t i c u l a r i t w as s a i d he no l o n g e r w as a b l e t o

o f h im s e lf.

th in k e x c l u s iv e ly

He w as a b l e t o a ssu m e t h e c o n f i d e n c e a n d

s t r e n g t h o f t h e g r o u p a s b e i n g h i s own. th e d e s i r e o f n e a r ly a l l p e o p le t o m o tiv e s o f s o c i e t y .

M e ie r 2 ^ w r o te o f

co n fo rm t o t h e a c t s and

I f one d ared t o b e d i f f e r e n t ,

he w as

im m e d ia t e ly s u b j e c t e d t o r i d i c u l e an d s c o r n . The a u t h o r i t i e s f e l t

t h a t t h e g r o u p w a s c a p a b le o f

e x e r c i s i n g an a lm o s t i n e s c a p a b l e a n d d om in an t c o n t r o l o v e r in d iv id u a ls .

U n c o n s c io u s l y th e i n d i v i d u a l a c c e p t e d t h e d e ­

m ands o f t h e g r o u p a s b e i n g h i s own.

The a u t h o r s t h a t su p ­

p o r t e d t h i s v i e w p o i n t , b e s i d e s M e ie r , w e r e : m a r k l e ,2 ®

G - r i n k e r ,

S o l o m o n , M e n n i n g e r , ^ S la d e n ,-^ 2 and

M e ie r , o p . c i t . , p . 7 8 . U lio , l o c * c i t . 2 ® B r o t e m a r k le , p p . c i t . , p . 8 0 . G r ln k e r , p p . c i t . , p . 1 2 6 . 30 v S o lo m o n , l o c . c i t . 31

' M e n n in g e r , p p .

-^2 S la d e n , o p .

U l l o , 2^ B r o t e -

c i t . , p. 90.

c i t . , p . *K)6.

17 M ir a .33 L e a d e r s h ip .

L e a d e r s h ip w as a s c r i b e d b y many w r i t e r s

a s b e i n g v e r y im p o r t a n t t o m o r a le .

M en n in g er had t h i s t o

sa y ab ou t le a d e r s h ip : When t h e o f f i c e r w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y t o do s o p r o ­ v id e d f o r th e s o l d i e r ’ s w a n ts, t h a t s o l d i e r g a in e d a f e e l i n g o f c o n fid e n c e in h i s le a d e r . T h is c o n f i d e n c e s i m p l i f i e d t h e p r o b le m o f a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e r e g im e n t a ­ t i o n o f h i s b e h a v io r . The c l o s e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e l e a d e r t o h i s m en, t h e m ore r e a s s u r i n g a n d t h u s t h e more h e l p f u l he c o u l d b e i n t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e o f new and tr y in g s i t u a t i o n s . As h e c o u ld g a in s a t i s f a c t i o n in a p a s s i v e d e p e n d e n c e upon h i s l e a d e r , th e new s o l d i e r w as a b l e t o g i v e up h i s p e r s o n a l i n i t i a t i v e , w i s h e s , p r e f ­ e r e n c e s , and l i b e r t y , t o becom e s u b m i s s iv e and o b e d i­ e n t. 34 I t w as s a i d t h a t t h e l e a d e r s h o u ld r e f r a i n from un­ d u ly h a r s h c r i t i c i s m

and s t r i v e f o r f a i r n e s s i n w ork a s s i g n ­

m e n t s , p u n is h m e n t, and p r o m o tio n .

I t a l s o w as s a i d t h a t a

l e a d e r m u st b e t e c h n i c a l l y c o m p e te n t t o command t h e c o n f i ­ d e n c e o f h i s m en.

He m ust p o s s e s s a s t r o n g c h a r a c t e r ,

co u ra g e, and th e a b i l i t y

t o d e a l i m p a r t i a l l y w i t h m en.

O th e r a u t h o r s who c o n c u r r e d i n t h e o p i n io n t h a t l e a d e r s h i p w as im p o r ta n t t o m o r a le w e r e :

33

M ir a , o p . c i t . , p .

121.

3^ M e n n in g e r , o p . c i t . , p . 83* oc G -rin k er, o p . c i t . , p . 4 6 . M e ie r , p p . c i t . , p . 71*

37 D o l l a r d , l o c . c i t .

M e ie r ,3 6

D o l l a r d ,3 7

/

V \

18 S o l o m o n , S l a d e n , - ^ U lio ,^ R e c o g n itio n .

and B r o t e m a r k l e . ^

The a u t h o r i t i e s u r g e d t h a t c o n s i d e r a ­

t i o n b e g i v e n t h e men a s i n d i v i d u a l s and a r e s p e c t m ain­ ta in e d f o r t h e ir p e r s o n a lit ie s .

I n com m en tin g on t h e un­

n e c e s s a r y dem ands w h ic h w e r e c o n d u c iv e t o u n f a v o r a b le e m o t io n a l r e a c t i o n s ,

S olom on i n c l u d e d ,

“C a l l o u s n e s s o r I n ­

d i f f e r e n c e o f Army to w a r d p e r s o n a l p r o b le m s . “

G -r in k e r ^

r e f e r r e d t o i n s t a n c e s w h e r e men h ad r e s p o n d e d c h e e r f u l l y u n d e r s t r e n u o u s and d i s c o u r a g i n g p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s when th e y f e l t

t h a t t h e i r g r o u p w as w o r th y o f t h e i r a f f e c t i o n .

He m e n tio n e d t h a t g i v i n g r e c o g n i t i o n when m e r i t e d w as on e o f t h e m eans b y w h ic h m e n ' s a f f e c t i o n c o u l d b e k e p t . ita r y a u th o r itie s th a t a ls o com p on en t o f m o r a le w e r e :

30

39

M il­

s u p p o r te d r e c o g n i t i o n a s a B r o t e m a r k l e , ^ U l i o , ^-5 M o c k ,^

S olom on , o p . c i t . , p . 5 0 0 . S la d e n , o p . c i t . ,

p. 262.

^ U lio , op. b i t . , pp. 3 2 ^ -2 5 . hi B r o t e m a r k le , l o c . c i t . 42 S o lo m o n , o p . c i t . , p . 5 0 0 .

^3

d r in k e r , p p . c i t . , p . 1 2 6 .

^

B r o t e m a r k le , l o c . c i t .

^ U lio , lo c . c i t . 46 M ock, o p . c i t . , p.

239.

19 M e ie r , ^

a n d M e n n i n g e r .^

I n fo r m a tio n *

The m i l i t a r y w r i t e r s f e l t t h a t a

c o n s t a n t s u p p ly o f in f o r m a t i o n w as n e c e s s a r y t o m a in t a in m o r a le .

F u r t h e r , t h e i n f o r m a t io n w as t o b e p r e s e n t e d i n

s u c h a way t h a t t h e men c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d i t . ^ S t a t e s Army f e l t

The U n it e d

t h a t p r o p e r I n f o r m a t io n w as s o im p o r ta n t

th a t th ey e s t a b lis h e d a s p e c ia l d i v is io n

t o h a n d le e d u c a ­

t i o n an d i n f o r m a t i o n . O th e r a u t h o r i t i e s who com m ented on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f in f o r m a t i o n w e r e : M e n n in g e r ,5^

Mira,

T r a in in g .

B r o t e m a r k le , 5 1

Bollard,

52 S o lo m o n ,53

5 5 a n d M ock .56 The s k i l l and k n o w le d g e o f how t o f i g h t

w a s r e c o g n i z e d a s I m p o r ta n t b y a num ber o f t h o s e i n v e s t i g a t e d . i

471 M e ie r , o p . c i t . , p . 2 3 5 . 48

o M e n n in g e r , p p . c i t . , p . 83* M e ie r , op* c i t . , p . 7 6 .

5® G -rin k er, p p . c i t . , 5 1 B r o t e m a r k le , l o p . ^

D o lla r d , l o c .

p . 39* c it.

c it.

53 S o lo m o n , o p . p i t . , p . 500* ^

M e n n in g e r , p p .

c i t . , p. 8 9 .

55 M ir a , p p .

c i t . , p. 126.

^

c i t . , p . 239*

Mock, p p .

20 T hey f e l t

th a t t r a in in g g r e a t ly red u ced r is k and enhan ced

th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f v ic t o r y .

T r a in in g w as b e l i e v e d t o d e ­

v e l o p c o n f i d e n c e a n d ad d t o t h e s e c u r i t y f e e l i n g .

Among

t h o s e who s u p p o r t e d t h e n e e d f o r t r a i n i n g a s an e le m e n t o f m o r a le w e r e :

B r o t e m a r k le ,^ ? M e i e r , 5& D o l l a r d , ^

g e r , 60 S l a d e r , ^ Summary. u t iliz e d .,

M ennin­

and U l i o . ^ Of t h e s e v e n b o o k s a n d t h r e e p e r i o d i c a l s

n on e s t a t e d t h a t t h e i t e m s d i s c u s s e d i n

t e r w e r e n o t im p o r ta n t t o m o r a le .

t h i s chap­

The f o l l o w i n g w e r e th e

c h a p te r 's fin d in g s : ( 1 ) P h y s i c a l w e l l - b e i n g i n c l u d e d g o o d n o u r is h m e n t , s u ffic ie n t r e s t , in ju r y .

r e c r e a tio n ,

an d fr e e d o m from d i s e a s e and

P h y s i c a l w e l l - b e i n g w as s a i d t o b e im p o r t a n t t o

m o r a le b y f o u r ( 7 1 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e m i l i t a r y b o o k s an d two (6 6 p e r c e n t )

o f th e p e r io d ic a ls .

( 2 ) The b a c k in g a n d s u p p o r t o f t h o s e a t home w as s a i d t o b e a f a c t o r i n g o o d m o r a le b y f i v e

57

B r o t e m a r k le , l o o , c i t .

5^ M e ie r , o p . c i t . , p . 5 6 . 59 P o l l a r d , l o o , c i t . M e n n in g e r , p p . c i t . , ^

S la d e r , o p . c i t . ,

p. 580.

p . 263*

62 u l i o , o p . c i t . , p . 2 3 ^*

(7 1 p er c e n t) o f

21 b o o k s and one (3 3 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e p e r i o d i c a l s . ( 3 ) The s e v e n b o o k s and t h r e e p e r i o d i c a l s a g r e e d , 100 p er c e n t ,

th a t th e p o s s e s s io n

o f a r e a s o n t o f i g h t w as

v i t a l t o m o r a le . ( 4 ) 0-roup i n f l u e n c e b r o u g h t p r e s s u r e o n t h e i n d i v i d ­ u a l t o c o n fo r m t o t h e g r o u p d em a n d s. p o r t e d by s i x

(8 6 p e r c e n t )

T h is v i e w w as su p ­

o f th e b o o k s and tw o ( 6 6 p e r

c e n t) o f th e p e r io d ic a ls . ( 5 ) L e a d e r s h ip w a s s a i d t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t b y s i x per c e n t) ic a ls .

o f t h e b o o k s a n d tw o (6 6 p e r c e n t )

L e a d e r s h ip i n c lu d e d :

(8 6

o f t h e p e r io d ­

t e c h n i c a l c o m p e te n c e , s t r o n g

c h a r a c t e r , c o u r a g e , an d f a i r n e s s . ( 6 ) R e s p e c t i n g t h e p r o b le m s a n d p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e men a n d g i v i n g r e c o g n i t i o n t o e a c h o f them w as s a i d t o b e n e c e s s a r y b y f o u r ( 5 7 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e b o o k s and t h r e e p er c e n t)

(1 0 0

o f th e p e r io d ic a ls .

( 7 ) S o l d i e r s s h o u ld r e c e i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e w ar w as t h e v i e w o f s i x (6 6 p e r c e n t)

(8 6 p e r c e n t )

o f t h e b o o k s an d two

o f th e p e r io d ic a ls .

( 8 ) T r a in in g f o r w ar s k i l l s w as s a i d t o b e v a l u a b l e i n b u i l d i n g m o r a le b y f o u r (5 7 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e b o o k s and tw o (6 6 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e p e r i o d i c a l s . T h is c h a p t e r d e a l t w i t h th e q u e s t i o n :

What do t h e

m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o ra le ? The f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r r e s o l v e d t h e q u e s t i o n :

What do

b u s i n e s s an d i n d u s t r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

CHAPTER IV BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY The l a s t c h a p t e r I n v e s t i g a t e d t h e q u e s t i o n , What do t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ? tio n :

The p r e s e n t c h a p t e r c o n c e r n e d i t s e l f w i t h t h e q u e s ­ What do b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e

upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

A ll fo u r te e n books th a t

m et t h e c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r w e re u sed in t h i s c h a p te r . O p p o r tu n ity t o make s u g g e s t i o n s an d p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e com pany.

E le v e n o f t h e b o o k s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e w o r k e r s

d e s i r e d t o f e e l t h a t t h e y Kb e l o n g e d M t o t h e com pany a n d t h a t t h e i r r e c o m m e n d a tio n s r e c e i v e d c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

T h is

q u e s t i o n w as a s k e d b y o n e w r i t e r : I f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o sh a r e i n t h e t h i n k i n g and p la n n in g i s a n i n f l u e n c e t o e n l i s t t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e fo re m a n a n d s u p e r v i s o r i n h i s w o rk , w h at c a n p r e v e n t i t fr o m b e in g an e q u a l l y p o t e n t i n f l u e n c e on w o r k e r s who h a v e no i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r w ork ?1 The sam e w r i t e r w e n t on t o

say:

W h erever w o r k e r s h a v e f r e e a c c e s s t o i n f o r m a t i o n , f r e e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t h i n k o u t t h e i r w o rk , an d f r e e c h a n n e ls t h r o u g h w h ic h t o make t h e i r t h i n k i n g e f ­ f e c t i v e , t h e y g i v e l i v i n g d e m o n s t r a t io n o f why we

S ta n fo r



_

Work ( S t a n f o r d , C a l i f . : 77*

24 w ork . Thompson s a i d t h a t ,

" E m p lo y ers s h o u ld e n c o u r a g e em­

p l o y e e s t o o f f e r s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r w ork; a n d , s u g g e s tio n s a re p r a c t ic a l,

i f th e

p e r m it them t o u s e th em ." ^

One a u t h o r d e p l o r e d a s i t u a t i o n t h a t d i d n o t make t h e m o st o f t h e a v a i l a b l e

ta le n t.

In h is w ord s,

"What a

w a s t e o f i d e a s r e s u l t s w hen you f a l l t o s e e k s u g g e s t i o n s a n d a s s i s t a n c e from e m p lo y e e s .

.

.

.

E ach i n d i v i d u a l w a n ts

t o b e an Im p o r ta n t c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e g r o u p e f f o r t s . " ^ The o p p o r t u n i t y t o a c t u a l l y own a s h a r e i n p a n y w as s u g g e s t e d a s a n o t h e r m eans o f g i v i n g a chance to p a r t ic ip a t e

i n t h e com pany.

w e ll s t a t e d in t h e s e w ord s:

t h e com­

t h e e m p lo y e e s

T h is p o i n t w as

"Man t e n d s t o p u t f o r t h

g r e a t e r e f f o r t f o r a c a u s e i n w h ic h he h a s a f i n a n c i a l sta k e . O th e r a u t h o r i t i e s who f e l t t h a t i t w as im p o r ta n t f o r w o r k e r s t o make s u g g e s t i o n s a n d p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r

2 I b id . , p. 82. C la u d e Edward T hom pson, P e r s o n n e l M anagem ent f o r S u p e r v i s o r s (New Y ork: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c ." 1 9 4 8 ) , p . 6 2 .

** P a lm e r J . K a lse m , P r a c t i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n (New Y ork: M cG ra w -H ill B ook Company, 1 9 4 5 )*

p. 20.

5 H en ry B eau m on t, The P s y c h o lo g y o f P e r s o n n e l (New Y o rk :

L ongm ans, G reen an d Company, 1 9 4 5 7 7 p* 2 5 1 .

25 com pany w e r e :

H ill,^

H e y e l ,? J u c i u s ,®

S h e p a r d , 9 McMurry,10

K n o w le s," ^ an d Y o d e r . ^ L e a d e r s h in .

The im p o r ta n c e o f c a p a b le l e a d e r s h i p

w as w e l l e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way: To b e a g o o d l e a d e r , o n e m u st h a v e a g o o d u n d e r s ta n d ­ in g o f i n d u s t r i a l p s y c h o lo g y . I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t th e l e a d e r u n d e r s t a n d i m p u ls e s an d i n s t i n c t s . E xcep t a s a l e a d e r c a n a n t i c i p a t e t h e n e e d s o f th e m em bers o f h i s g r o u p and s o d i r e c t h i s own a c t i v i t i e s t h a t h e b e c o m e s t h e i r i n t e r p r e t e r t o m anagem ent and a s y m p a t h e t ic co u n ­ s e l o r i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r p r o b le m s , h e c a n n o t b u i l d a f i r m f o u n d a t i o n o f m o r a le * -*-3 The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l e a d e r i n m o t i v a t i n g th e w o r k e r w as com m ented upon b y H eron:

"The a v e r a g e Job f o r

t h e a v e r a g e w o r k e r c a n be made i n t e r e s t i n g

o r d u l l m o st

L ee_H . H i l l , P a t t e r n f o r G-ood L a b o r R e l a t i o n s (New M cG -raw -H ill B ook Company, I n c . , 1 9 ^ 7 ) , p* 66. 7 C a r l H e y e l, Human R e l a t i o n s M anual f o r E x e c u t i v e s (New Y ork: M cG -raw -H ill B ook Company, I n c . , 1939 )> P* 190.

Y o rk :

® M ic h a e l J . J u c i u s , P e r s o n n e l M anagem ent (C h ic a g o : R ic h a r d D . I r w i n , I n c . , 194-9 )» p . 6 6 9 o J e a n L . S h e p a r d , Human N a tu r e a t Work (New Y ork: H a rp er an d B r o t h e r s , P u b l i s h e r s , 1938), p . 21 6. 10



R o b e r t N . M cM urry, H a n d lin g P e r s o n a l i t y A d ju stm e n t i n I n d u s t r y (New Y ork: H a rp er and B r o t h e r s P u b l i s h e r s ,

w m rl:

62.

^ A sa K n o w le s, M anagem ent o f M anpow er, (New Y ork: The M a cM illa n Company, 1 9 4 3 )> P * 17* D a le Y o d e r , P e r s o n n e l M anagem ent and I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s (New Y ork: P r e n t l c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1948*51 p» 485* ^

K nowles, o p .

cit..,

p . 15*

26 d i r e c t l y b y t h e m anner i n w h ic h i t

i s p r e s e n te d and su p er­

v i s e d b y t h e im m e d ia te b o s s . 8^ McMurry1 ^ e m p h a s iz e d t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e l e a d e r i n i n s p i r i n g th e w o r k e r .

He b e l i e v e d t h a t an e m p lo y e e m ig h t

b e m o st u s e f u l i f h e w as a b l e t o i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f w i t h h i s e m p lo y e r .

I f a man w as g i v e n a q u a l i f i e d and c o - o p e r a t i v e

fo r e m a n o r d e p a r tm e n t h e a d , i t w as e a s y f o r a p r o p e r id e n ­ tific a tio n

to ta k e p la c e .

One o f t h e m o st f r e q u e n t l y m e n tio n e d f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d l e a d e r s h i p w as t h a t o f f a i r t r e a t m e n t and t h e ab sen ce o f fa v o r itis m .

On t h i s s u b j e c t H a ls e y s a i d :

T h er e s h o u ld b e a c o n s t a n t a n d i n t e l l i g e n t e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f m anagem ent t o b e a b s o l u t e l y f a i r i n e v e r y p o l i c y an d e v e r y p r a c t i c e . C r i t i c i s m , p r a i s e , promo­ t i o n , l a y o f f s , o r w h a t e v e r may come w i l l b e h a n d ed o u t o n t h e b a s i s o f m e r i t o n l y .1 6 Among t h e q u a l i t i e s w h ic h t h e w r i t e r s m e n tio n e d a s b e i n g v i t a l t o l e a d e r s h i p w ere c o u r t e s y an d sy m p a th y .

The

a u t h o r i t i e s b e l i e v e d t h a t a l e a d e r s h o u ld s e t a g o o d e x ­ am p le and g i v e e n c o u r a g e m e n t.

T hey f e l t t h a t b e i n g co n ­

s i s t e n t and g a i n i n g t h e c o n f i d e n c e o f w o r k e r s w as im p o r t a n t . P a t i e n c e , g e n u in e i n t e r e s t i n e a c h w o r k e r , and t h e a b i l i t y

H ero n , l o o , c i t . McMurry, o p . o l t ♦ , p . 5 8 .

16

G-eorge D. H a l s e y , Handbook o f P e r s o n n e l M anage­ m ent (New Y ork: H arp er and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 # ? )V p . S .

27 to g iv e c o n s tr u c tiv e c r it ic is m

w e r e o t h e r f a c t o r s m e n tio n e d

a s n e c e ss a r y t o le a d e r s h ip . The r e m a in d e r o f t h e t h i r t e e n a u t h o r s .who m e n tio n e d l e a d e r s h i p a s im p o r t a n t t o m o r a le w e r e : m o n t ,1® B r a k e , ^

T h om p son ,1 ? B eau­

H i l l , 20 D o o h e r ,2 1 H e y e l , 22 S h e p a r d ,2^

K a ls e m ,2 ^ and Y o d e r . 2-5 \iR e c o g n lt io n . ly

The a u t h o r i t i e s i n v e s t i g a t e d u n an im ou s­

a g r e e d t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n w as o n e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s w h ic h

a f f e c t e d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t and m a in te n a n c e o f m o r a le .

The

p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e c e i v i n g r e c o g n i t i o n fro m o n e ' s f e l l o w w ork ers w as s a id t o a r o u se i n t e r e s t s a i d , “N o t h in g i s

17 18

so s a t i s f y i n g

in o n e 's jo b .

McMurry

e m o tio n a lly a s r e c o g n it io n

T hom pson, l o c . c i t . B eau m on t, o p . c i t . , p . 2 4 4 .

197 F r a n c e s D rak e a n d C h a r le s D r a k e , A Human R e l a t i o n s C a seb o o k f o r E x e c u t i v e s an d S u p e r v i s o r s (New Y ork: H i l l Book Company, 1 9 4 7 ) , p . 4 4 . 20 H i l l ,

op. c i t . ,

McG-raw-

p. 54.

21 J o s e p h D o o h e r , e d i t o r , an d V iv ie n n e M a r q u is, The S u p e r v i s o r * s M anagem ent G u id e (New Y ork : A m erica n M anage­ m ent A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 4 9 ) , p . 3 8 . 22 H e y e l, l o c .

c it.

23 S h e p a r d , o p . c i t . , p . 21k. 24

K alsera, o p . c i t . ,

2^ Yoder, pp.

p. 26.

c i t . , p . 497*

1

!

28 a n d p r a i s e f o r g o o d w ork w e l l d o n e .

\

It is

th e b e s t a n t i-

nfi

d o te f o r p e r s o n a l i n s e c u r i t y . 11

H alsey w rote o f r e c o g n it io n in t h i s way: Each em ployee sh o u ld be made t o f e e l t h a t h i s e f f o r t s are r e a l l y a p p r e c ia te d . The s u p e r v is o r sh o u ld c o n s c io u s ­ l y and c o n s i s t e n t l y lo o k f o r and comment p le a s a n t ly about t h in g s w h ich r e a l l y a r e w orthy o f fa v o r a b le comment. 2 7 One s i t u a t i o n was d e s c r ib e d by Shepard2® i n w hich m orale was e x tr e m e ly lo w .

A p u b lic r e l a t i o n s e x p e r t came to

exam ine th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s .

The changed a t t i t u d e s were com­

m ented upon a s f o llo w s : The g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e th rou gh ou t th e p la n t was much b e t t e r . T h is was p ro b a b ly due in la r g e p a r t to th e em p lo y es 1 f e e l i n g t h a t t h e i r c o n c e r n s and s a t i s f a c ­ t i o n s were r e c e iv in g a t t e n t i o n . 29 The o th e r w r it e r s who co n cu rred t h a t r e c o g n it io n was an elem en t c o n t r ib u t in g to m orale w ere:

Knowles

on

D r a k e ,3 1 H l l l , 3 2 H eron ,33 D o o h er, 3^ H e y e l,3-5 J u e iu s ,3 6 26

McMurry, p p . c i t . , p. 6 1 .

2 ? H a ls e y , p p . c i t . , p. 3« 2® Shepard, p p . c i t . , p. 215* 29 L o c . c i t . 3® K n o w le s, p p . c i t . ,

p . 15*

D rake, pp. c i t . , p . ^5* 3 2 H i l l , op. c i t . ,

p . 5^*

33 H ero n , p p . c i t . ,

p. 18.

3^ D ooher, p p . c i t . , p . 3 6 * 3-5 H e y e l, l o c . c i t .

36 J u c iu s , pp. p i t . ,

p. 2 9 0 .

29 T h o m p s o n , 3 7 K a l s e m , 3 8 B e a u m o n t, 3 9 a n d Y oder.**0

S e c u r ity . a s one o f th e

The s e c u r i t y o f o n e ' s jo b w a s a t t r i b u t e d

s u p p o r t in g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le .

The w o r k e r

w a n te d t o f e e l t h a t h i s j o b w as s e c u r e a s l o n g a s he d i d s a t i s f a c t o r y w ork . A f t e r an e x a m in a t io n o f many w o r k e r p o l l s , fo u n d t h a t j o b s e c u r i t y d i f f e r e d i n p o s i t i o n p o lls ,

but i t

H eron^

on v a r i o u s

u s u a l l y h e l d a p l a c e n e a r t h e m id d le o f t h e

p o l l w i t h r e g a r d s t o f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g m o r a le . K n o w les s a i d ,

“W ork ers w a n t a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a n c y

o f jo b s e c u r i t y a n d r e g u l a r p a y .

A se n se o f in s e c u r ity

b u ild s o n ly d is c o n t e n t and i n d i f f e r e n c e . “

ho

H a ls e y s t a t e d t h e p r o b le m o f o f f e r i n g

jo b s e c u r i t y

v e r y a p tly : vT h ere s h o u ld b e a s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y an d r e a s o n a b l e fr e e d o m fr o m w o r r y . T h er e a r e many t h i n g s w h ic h th e m anagem ent c a n do t o p r o v id e g r e a t e r jo b p e r m a n e n c e , r e a s o n a b l y s t e a d y and a d e q u a te in c o m e s , p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t u n e x p e c t e d e m e r g e n c i e s , a n d fr e e d o m fro m w ant

37

Thom pson, l o c . c i t .

3® K a lse m , o p . c i t . ,

p. 14.

3 9 B eau m on t, o p . c i t . ,

p . 24-3.

Y od er, p p . c i t . , p . 4 4 1 . ^

H eron, o p . c i t . , p. 18. Knowles, p p . c i t . , p.

16.

30 and d e p e n d e n c y i n o l d a g e . ^ The o t h e r a u t h o r s who w ere i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h th e p o i n t t h a t j o b s e c u r i t y w a s n e c e s s a r y f o r m o r a le w e r e : Hi 1 1 , ^

D r a k e , ^ Kalsem,**'8 an d B ea u m o n t.^ 7 K n ow led ge o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s an d com pany p o l i c y .

H ill

48

e x a m in e d a num ber o f s u r v e y s a n d fo u n d t h a t w o r k e r s

b e l i e v e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e i r com pany an d t h e i r Job w a s on e o f t h e m ore im p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e i r em p lo y m en t. M anagem ent w as f r e q u e n t l y s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n o f t h i s i n ­ t e r e s t on th e p a r t o f t h e i r w o r k e r s . T he a u t h o r i t i e s s t a t e d t h a t e m p lo y e e s d e s i r e d t h e i r com pany and t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s t o e x p l a i n t o th em c l e a r l y an d in

s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e i r d u t i e s and

t h e s t a n d a r d s o f p e r fo r m a n c e e x p e c t e d .

T h is e x p l a n a t i o n w as

s a i d t o b e n e c e s s a r y t o a v o i d a n y m is u n d e r s t a n d in g o f r u l e s a n d t o e n a b le w o r k e r s t o g o a b o u t t h e i r d u t i e s w i t h u n d e r ­ s ta n d in g .

43

.

^

H ill, pp. c it ..,

^5

D rake, l o c . c i t .

H a ls e y , l o c . c i t . p . 5^.

K a lsem , p p . c i t . , p . 1 0 . B eau m on t, p p . c i t . , p . 2^3* H ill,

op. c i t . , p.

67.

31 The l i t e r a t u r e

s a i d t h a t k n o w le d g e o f a n y c h a n g e

th a t a f f e c t e d th e w orkers e it h e r d i r e c t ly or in d ir e c t ly w as e x t r e m e ly im p o r t a n t .

A r b i t r a r y o r d e r s g i v e n w i t h o u t an

e x p l a n a t i o n w e r e i n c l i n e d t o be r e s e n t e d .

One w r i t e r d e ­

s c r i b e d t h e im p o r ta n c e o f in f o r m in g t h e w o r k e r i n t h e s e w ord s: E m p lo y e e s t e n d t o a c c e p t t h o s e c h a n g e s f o r w h ic h t h e y h a v e b e e n a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d , f o r w h ic h t h e y know a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n s . T hey a r e l i k e l y to b e a n t a g o n i s t i c to w a r d c h a n g e s t h r u s t upon them w i t h ­ o u t w a r n in g . *9 The c l a r i t y o f t h e c o m m u n ic a tio n w as s a i d t o b e a s Im p o r ta n t a s t h e g o o d i n t e n t i o n o f b e in g i n f o r m a t i v e .

One

a u t h o r s t a t e d t h e n e e d f o r c l e a r I n f o r m a t io n i n t h e f o l l o w ­ in g s e n t e n c e s : C o n f id e n c e , c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d l o y a l t y , w h ic h a r e t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n m o r a le , can b e d e­ s t r o y e d by i n c o r r e c t u s e o f w o r d s . T h ere s h o u ld n e v e r b e a n y u n c e r t a i n t y i n th e w r i t t e n o r sp o k e n w o r d s o f l e a d e r s a s t o j u s t w h a t i s m ean t a n d w h ere m anagem ent s t a n d s on a n y m a t t e r . -5° A l l t h e a u t h o r i t i e s s a i d t h a t i t w as im p o r t a n t t o I n fo r m e m p lo y e e s a s t o pan y p o l i c y .

t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r w ork a n d com­

In a d d itio n

to t h e w r i t e r s q u o t e d a b o v e

t h a t a g r e e d w i t h t h i s v ie w w e r e :

^

H ill,

op. c i t . , p. 52.

■5° K n o w le s, p p . c i t . ,

p . 19*

H ero n , o p . c i t . , p . 9^» D ooh er, p p . p i t . ,

J

H eyel,

H e r o n ,-51 D o o h er,-5 2 H e y e l , -53

lo c. c it.

p. 37*

32

J u c iu s ,5 ^ Thompson,55 S h ep a rd , 56 K alsem ,57 B eaum ont,58 Y o d e r ,59 H a ls e y ,60 and McMurry.^l T r a in ln g .

E ig h t o f t h e f o u r t e e n a u th o r s b e l ie v e d

t h a t a d e q u a te t r a i n i n g f o r t h e jo b w as o f c o n s e q u e n c e i n b u i l d i n g m o r a le .

L ack o f p r o p e r t r a i n i n g w as s a i d t o be an

u n d e r ly in g c a u se o f i n s e c u r i t y .

H eron s a i d ,

in g g iv e s th e w orker e le m e n ta l f a c t s , cesses,

"A p r o p e r t r a l h

c o m p r e h e n s io n o f p r o ­

an d a s e n s e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f h i s w ork t o t h e

w h o le p r o c e s s . **62 Other training

for

writers

who

the

were:

job

gave

their

support

5 5 Thom pson, o p . c i t . , p p . 6 1 , 6 2 . 56 Shep ard , o p . c i t . ,

p.

215.

c i t . , p. 14.

5^ B eaum ont, o p . c i t . ,

^

p. 246.

Y oder, p p . c i t . , p . 4 7 8 .

6 ° H a ls e y , p p . p i t . , p . 4 .

f\ 1

McMurry, p p .

c i t . , p. 60.

H ero n , o p . p i t - , p* 1 2 9 . 63 H i l l , p p . c i t . , f\lx

p. 88.

D r a k e , o p . c i t . , p . 45*

65 Thompson, p p .

the

need

H i l l , D r a k e , 6** T h o m p s o n , ^ 5

J u c lu s , l o c . c i t .

57 K a lsem , o p .

to

c i t . , p. 6 l-

of

33 S h e p a r d * ^ K a lsem * ^7 Beaum ont*^® an d

D o o h e r .

B e l i e f I n t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e .job.

A fe e lin g o f

p r i d e i n h i s w ork on t h e p a r t o f th e w o r k e r w a s s a i d t o b e p a r t i c u la r ly v a lu a b le to

m o r a le .

c o n v in c e d t h a t h e w as n e e d e d a n d

The e m p lo y e e w is h e d t o b e t h a t t h e a im s o f h i s com­

p a n y and t h e i r p r o d u c t s w e r e w o r th y o f h o h e s t e f f o r t on h i s p a r t. s a id *

A f t e r an e x a m in a t io n o f many w a r tim e p r o g r a m s , H eron “T h o se w h ic h s t a r t e d w it h o u t th e s im p le t r u t h t h a t

e a c h w o r k e r m u st s e e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n h i s w ork u s u a l l y f a i l e d . H a l s e y ities

a p tly

d e s c r ib e d th e f e e l i n g o f th e a u th o r ­

i n t h e s e w o r d s , "A f e e l i n g

o f a t l e a s t a r e a s o n a b le

d e g r e e o f p r i d e i n t h e aim s* m eth ods* a n d p r o d u c t s o f t h e com pany o n e w o r k s f o r i s

c e r t a i n l y a m o st im p o r ta n t com p on en t

o f m o r a le ." 7^O th e r a u t h o r i t i e s who s u p p o r t e d t h e v i e w t h a t a b e ­ lie f

i n t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e jo b w as im p o r t a n t t o m o r a le

66

Sh ep ard *

op.

c i t . * p. 217.

^7 K a lsem , o p . c i t . * p . 8 . /Q

B eau m on t, p p . c i t . * p . 2 5 0 . ^

D ooh er, p p . c i t . , p. 3 6 *

7 ° Heron* o p . c i t . , p . 75* 7^* H a l s e y , p p . c i t . , p.

7*

34 w ere: and

J u c i u e , ? 2 D o o h e r ,7 3 D r a k e ,7 4 S h e p a r d ,7 5 K a ls e m ,76

Hill.77

G-ood w o r k in g c o n d i t i o n s . a u t h o r s com m ented on t h e

Seven o f th e fo u r te e n

i n f l u e n c e o f g o o d w o r k in g c o n d i­

t i o n s a s a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e on m o r a le . lig h tin g ,

v e n tila tio n ,

S u ch e le m e n t s a s

e lim in a tio n o f n o is e ,

p r o v is io n f o r

m u s ic , a d e q u a te t o o l s a n d e q u ip m e n t, w e l l p la n n e d w ork s c h e d u l e s , and am ple s p a c e i n w h ic h t o w ork w e r e s a i d t o d e fin ite ly

a f f e c t m o r a le .

s ir o u s o f c o n d itio n s th a t

W o rk ers, i t w as s a i d , w ere d e ­ c o n t r i b u t e d t o m ore r e l a x i n g

w ork. S h e p a r d 7 ® m e n tio n e d t h a t u n r e s t c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d to

su ch f a c t o r s a s d r a f t s ,

s tu ffin e s s ,

cram ped q u a r t e r s ,

a n d m a t e r i a l t h a t w as h a r d t o h a n d le . O th e r i n d u s t r i a l a n d b u s i n e s s a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t s p e ­ c ific a lly

s t a t e d t h a t d e s i r a b l e w o r k in g c o n d i t i o n s w ere

7 ^ J u c iu s , l o c . c i t . 73 D o o h e r , o p . c i t . , p . 39* 7^ D rake, pp . c i t . , p . 5 6 . 75 S h e p a r d , p p .

c i t . , p. 201.

76 K a lsem , p p . c i t . , p . 1 2 . 77 H i l l ,

op . c i t . , p. 5 4 .

7® S h ep ard , op . c i t . , p . 2 2 1 .

35 b e n e f i c i a l t o m o r a le w e r e :

H i l l , 79 J u c i u s ,® 0 Kalsem,®-*-

T hom pson,® 2 B eau m on t,® 3 a n d Y o d er . Summary.

N one o f t h e f o u r t e e n a u t h o r i t i e s i n v e s t i ­

g a t e d s a i d t h a t t h e i t e m s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r w ere u n im p o r ta n t t o m o r a le .

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t p r e s e n t e d t h e

f i n d i n g s o f th e ' c h a p t e r : ( 1 ) E le v e n ( 7 9 p e r c e n t ) o f th e a u t h o r i t i e s s a i d th a t i t

is

I m p o r ta n t f o r e m p lo y e e s t o make s u g g e s t i o n s and

p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f com pany p o l i c y an d p r o ­ ced ure. ( 2 ) The w r i t e r s m e n tio n e d i n t h i r t e e n (9 3 p e r c e n t ) ity

to

th a t le a d e r s h ip

in flu e n c e d

o f th e books

m o r a le .

The a b i l ­

u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r k e r , s e t a g o o d e x a m p le , a n d show

g e n u in e i n t e r e s t i n e m p lo y e e s w ere s a i d t o be im p o r ta n t m o r a le f a c t o r s .

Among o t h e r q u a l i t i e s t h a t w e r e s a i d t o b e

im p o r t a n t t o l e a d e r s h i p w e r e : im p a r tia lity ,

c o u r te sy ,

J u c lu s ,

p. 88.

lo c . c i t .

K a lsem , p p . c i t . , p . 8 . ®2 Thom pson, o p . c i t . , B eau m on t, p p .

f a i r n e s s and

sy m p a th y , c o n s i s t e n c y ,

79 H i l l , p p . c i t . , Q/\

c o -o p e r a tio n ,

cit. ,

Y oder, o p . c i t . , p .

p. 61. p. 256. 483.

an d p a t i e n c e .

36 (3 ) per c e n t)

The a u t h o r s a g r e e d , In a l l f o u r t e e n b o o k s (1 0 0 t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n b y o n e ' s f e l l o w w o r k e r s and em­

p l o y e r s i n t h e fo rm o f p r a i s e and g e n u in e a p p r e c i a t i o n w as v i t a l to

s u s t a i n i n g m o r a le .

( k ) Job s e c u r i t y i n t h e fo rm o f r e a s o n a b ly s t e a d y and s u f f i c i e n t

in c o m e , i n s u r a n c e , a n d r e t i r e m e n t w e r e c o n ­

s i d e r e d im p o r t a n t t o m o r a le b y s e v e n (5 0 p e r c e n t )

o f th e

books in v e s tig a te d . ( 5 ) I n f o r m a t io n i n t h e form o f u n d e r s t a n d in g o n e ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e com pany w as su b ­ s c r ib e d to by a l l fo u r te e n t i e s a s b e in g a p o s i t i v e

(1 0 0 p e r c e n t )

com p on en t o f m o r a le .

( 6 ) The a u t h o r s s a i d , t h e ir b o ok s,

o f th e a u th o r i­

in e ig h t

(5 7 p e r c e n t )

of

t h a t a d e q u a te t r a i n i n g f o r o n e ’ s jo b c o n t r i b u t e d

t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o r a le . ( 7 ) A f e e l i n g o f p r i d e and a b e l i e f i n t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e w ork i n w h ic h e m p lo y e e s w e re e n g a g e d a d d e d t o m o r a le a c c o r d in g t o e i g h t

(5 7 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e w r i t e r s .

( 8 ) A r e l a x i n g e n v ir o n m e n t w i t h s u c h c o n d i t i o n s a s a d e q u a te l i g h t i n g , v e n t i l a t i o n , fr e e d o m fro m e x c e s s n o i s e , s u f f i c i e n t t o o l s a n d e q u ip m e n t, and a w e l l p la n n e d w o r k in g s c h e d u l e a i d e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f m o r a le . b e l i e f o f sev en

(5 0 p e r c e n t )

T h is w as t h e

o f th e a u t h o r it ie s .

T h is c h a p t e r h a s b e e n d e v o t e d t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n , What do b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s

a g r e e upon a s b e in g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ? s o u g h t t o a n sw e r t h e q u e s t i o n : upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o ra le ?

The e n s u i n g c h a p t e r

What d o e d u c a t o r s a g r e e

CHAPTER V SCHOOL AUTHORITIES ON MORALE The p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r w as d e v o t e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n , What do b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r i a l a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ?

T h is c h a p t e r r e v ie w e d t w e l v e

a r t i c l e s w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f a n s w e r in g t h e q u e s t i o n :

What

do e d u c a t o r s a g r e e upon a s b e i n g f a c t o r s o f m o r a le ? S o c ia l s a t is f a c t io n *

S e v e n o f t h e t w e lv e a r t i c l e s «

sta te d th a t i t

w as im p o r t a n t f o r t e a c h e r s to h a v e s t i m u l a t ­

in g s o c i a l c o n t a c t s w it h t h e i r f e l l o w w o r k e r s.

The f e e l i n g

o f g o o d f e l l o w s h i p w as s a i d t o g e n e r a t e f r i e n d l i n e s s , c o u r te sy ,

and a f e e l i n g o f c o m p le t e c o n f i d e n c e to w a r d o n e ' s

d a lly c o n ta c ts .

The p r o c e s s o f m o r a le b u i l d i n g w as e x ­

p r e s s e d b y Wieman i n t h e s e w o rd s:

“M o r a le s t r e n g t h e n s when

we b e g i n t o r e a l i z e t h e e n r i c h i n g v a l u e s o f f e l l o w s h i p . " ^ The a b o v e p o i n t o f v ie w w a s s h a r e d b y s i x o f th e o th e r w r ite r s .

T hey i n c l u d e d :

N u t t a l l , 2 W eim er,3

R e g in a W e s c o tt W ieman, "M odern M o r a le ," R e l i g i o u s E d u c a t io n , 3 3 : 2 0 9 , O c t o b e r , 1 9 3 8 . ^ L. J o h n - N u t t a l l , "M orale i n E d u c a tio n In 1 9 ^ 4 ," O f f i c i a l R e p o r t (W a s h in g to n , B . C . : The A m erica n A s s o c i a c i a t l o n o f S o h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , 1 9 4 4 ) , P» 7^» ^ B e r n a l R. W elm er, " M a in t a in in g F a c u lt y M o r a le ," A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica n C o l l e g e s B u l l e t i n , 2 5 : 2 7 3 > May, 1939*

39 B u rto n ,

h

H a n le y ,

P u rp ose.


4 p p .

New Y ork :

W a sh in g to n :

Longmans

The I n f a n t r y

B o o h e r , J o s e p h , e d i t o r , a n d V iv ie n n e M a r q u is, The S u p e r ­ v i s o r 1 s M anagem ent G u id e . New Y ork : A m erica n M anage­ m ent A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 4 9 . 190 p p . v B r a k e , F r a n c e s , an d C h a r le s B r a k e , A Human R e l a t i o n s C a se ­ b o o k f o r E x e c u t i v e s a n d S u p e r v i s o r s . New Y ork: McGrawH i l l B ook Company, I n c . , 1947* 1 8 ? pp* - G r in k e r , R o y , a n d J o h n S p i e g e l , Men U n der S t r e s s . d e lp h ia : B la k is to n , 1945. 4 6 4 pp.

P h ila ­

H a ls e y , G e o r g e B . , H andbook o f P e r s o n n e l M anagem ent* Y ork: H a rp er a n d B r o t h e r s , 1 9 4 7 • 402 pp. -H er o n , A le x a n d e r R . , Why Men Work. S ta n fo rd , S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 . 197 pp.

New

C a lifo r n ia :

H e y e l, C a r l, Human R e l a t i o n s M anual f o r E x e c u t i v e s . New Y ork: M cG ra w -H ill B ook Company, I n c . , 1939* 2 5 3 PP* H i l l , Lee H ., P a t t e r n f o r Good L ab or R e l a t i o n s . New Y ork: M cG ra w -H ill B ook Company, I n c . , 1947* 2 3 3 PP* ^ J u c i u s , M ic h a e l J . , P e r s o n n e l M anagem ent* C h ic a g o : B . I r w i n , I n c . , 1949* 774 pp.

R ic h a r d

K a lsem , P a lm e r J . , P r a c t i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n . New Y ork : H i l l B ook Company, I n c . , 1945* 186""pp. K n o w le s, A s a , M anagem ent o f M anpow er* M il l a n Company, 1943* 248 pp.

New Y ork :

McGraw

The Mac­

, McMurry, R o b e r t N . , H a n d lin g P e r s o n a l i t y A d ju s tm e n t* New Y ork: H a rp er a n d B r o t h e r s , P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 4 4 . 2 9 7 PP* • M e ie r , Norm an, M i l i t a r y P s y c h o l o g y . B r o t h e r s , 1943".

New Y ork:

H a rp er a n d

M e n n in g e r , W illia m C . , P s y c h i a t r y i n a T r o u b le d W o rld . New Y ork: The M a cM illa n Company, 1 9 4 8 . 636 pp. M ir a , E m i l i o , P s y c h i a t r y i n War. and Com pany, 1943* 20& p p .

New Y ork:

W. W. N o r to n

" R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , P. J . , M anagem ent an d M o r a le . C a m b rid g e, M a ssa c h u se tts: H a rv a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 . 1 9 4 pp R o e t h l i s b e r g e r , P. J . , a n d W illia m J . D ic k s o n , M anagement a n d t h e W ork er. C a m b rid g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1939* 6 1 5 PP* S h e p a r d , J e a n L . , Human N a tu r e a t Work. New Y o rk : an d B r o t h e r s P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 3 8 . 2 1 9 PP*

H arper

S la d e n , F ran k J . , P s y c h i a t r y a n d t h e War. S p r in g fie ld , I llin o is : C h a r le s C. Thom as, p u b l i s h e r , 1943* 505 pp* S o lo m o n , H arry C . , a n d P a u l I . Y a k o v le v , M anual o f M i l i t a r y N e u r o - p s y c h ia tr y . P h ila d e lp h ia : W. B. S a u n d e r s Company 194^}-. 764 pp. Thom pson, C la u d e E dw ard, P e r s o n n e l M anagem ent f o r S u p e r ­ v is o r s . New Y ork: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 194-8. 192 pp. 'W h ite , L eo n a rd D . , I n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e S tu d y o f P u b l i c Ad­ m i n i s t r a t i o n . New Y ork : The M a cM illa n Com pany, 1939* 611 p p . * Y o d e r , D a l e , P e r s o n n e l M anagement a n d I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s . New Y ork : P r e n tic e -H a ll, I n c ., 1948. 894 pp. B.

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

B e n ja m in , H a r o ld , " D e v e lo p in g and M a in t a in in g t h e M o ra le o f T e a c h e r s ," E d u c a t i o n a l O u t lo o k , 2 1 : 1 4 9 - 5 2 , N ovem ber, 1946. B r o t e m a r k le , R. A .‘, " D ev e lo p m en t o f M i l i t a r y M o ra le i n a D em o cra cy ," A n n a ls o f t h e A m erica n Academ y o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , 2 l 6 : 7 9 - 8 7 , J u l y , 1 9 4 1 . B u r to n , W illia m , "The T e a c h e r ’ s M o ra le a s an I m p o r ta n t F a c t o r i n T e a c h in g S u c c e s s ," C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f E le m e n ta r y E d u c a t i o n , 6 : 2 1 8 - 2 6 , May, 1 9 3 8 .

67 C h a m p lin , C a r r o l l D. , “ The E d u c a t io n a l M eaning o f M o r a le ," A m erica n A s s o c i a t i o n o f U n i v e r s i t y P r o f e s s o r s B u l l e t i n . 2 8 : 4 7 3 - 7 9 ,' O cto b er , 1 9 4 2 . C r a l l e , R o b e r t E * , and W illia m H. B u r to n , "An E x a m in a tio n o f F a c t o r s S t i m u l a t i n g o r D e p r e s s in g T e a c h e r M o r a le ," C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f E le m e n ta r y E d u c a t i o n , 7 : 7 - 1 4 , A u g u s t, 1 9 3 8 . E s t i l l , . M ary S . , "M orale i n t h e T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e F a c u lt y : P r i n c i p l e s and D a n g e r - P o i n t s , " E d u c a t io n a l A d m in is t r a ­ t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 3 1 : 1 0 5 - 1 3 , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 5 • H o c k e t t , J oh n A . , "The P r i n c i p a l an E x p e r t in Human R e la ­ t i o n s , " The N a t i o n a l E le m e n ta r y P r i n c i p a l , 2 6 : 1 - 4 , A p r i l ,

1947. L e i p o l d , L . E . , and J o s e p h W. Y a r b r o u g h , "What 1 ,6 0 0 S c h o o l P e o p le T h in k a b o u t T e a c h e r M o r a le ," The A m erica n S c h o o l B oard J o u r n a l , 1 1 9 : 2 9 - 3 0 * D ece m b e r, 1949* L i n d e l , A l b e r t L . , " S o u r c e s o f M o r a le i n t h e S c h o o l," P h i D e l t a K appan, 3 1 : 1 5 5 - 5 7 , N ovem b er, 1949* M a x w e ll, G-. L . , " S c h o o l M o r a le and C i t i z e n s h i p , " E x e c u tiv e , 5 9 :1 8 -1 9 , A p r il, 1 9 4 0 .

The

The S c h o o l

M i c h a e l i s , J o h n U . , " T e a c h e r s S p ea k Out on T e a c h e r M o r a le ," N a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c i a t i o n J o u r n a l , 3 5 : 5 9 2 - 9 3 , D ecem b er, 1 9 4 6 . M ock, J a m e s, an d C e d r ic L a r s o n , " M orale— t h e S o u l o f th e Army," F r o n t i e r s o f D e m o c r a c y , 7 : 2 3 7 - 3 9 , May, 1 9 4 1 . P e r r y , R a lp h B a r t o n , ' "The M eaning o f M o r a le ," E d u c a t io n a l R ecord, 2 2 :4 4 6 -6 0 , J u ly , 1941. T h o r p e , L o u is P . , a n d K e i t h K r a f t , " P r o f e s s i o n a l M o r a le ," S i e r r a E d u c a t i o n , 3 8 : 3 3 - 3 4 , May, 1 9 4 2 . W eim er, B e r n a l R . , " M a in ta in in g F a c u l t y M o r a le ," A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica n C o l l e g e s B u l l e t i n , 2 5 : 2 6 8 - 7 6 , May, 1939* W ieman, R e g in a W e s c o t t , "M odern M o r a le ," R e l i g i o u s E d u c a t io n , 3 3 :2 0 2 -0 9 , O cto b er , 1 9 3 8 . U l i o , G e n e r a l J a m e s , " M i l i t a r y M o r a le ," A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , 4 7 : 3 2 1 - 3 0 , N ovem b er, 1 9 4 1 .

68 C.

PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS

A m erica n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , M o ra le i n a F r e e W o rld . T w e n ty -s e c o n d Y e a r b o o k . W a s h in g to n , D .C . : A m erica n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , 1 9 ^ * pp. H a n le y , Jam es L . , “L e a d e r s h ip o r A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ," O f f i c i a l R e p o r t . W a s h in g to n , D . C . : The A m erica n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m in is tr a to r s , 19^6. P p . 9 8 -1 0 5 * N u t t a l l , L . J o h n , " M orale i n E d u c a tio n i n 1 9 ^ , ” O f f i c i a l R e p o r t . W a s h in g to n , D . C . : The A m erica n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S ch o o l A d m in is tr a to r s , 1 9 ^ * Pp* 7 2 -7 5 *