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An investigation of the effect of experimentally induced anxiety on retention as measured by two methods of recall

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AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF EXPERIMENTALLY INDUCED ANXIETY ON RETENTION AS MEASURED BY TWO METHODS OF RECALL

A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Psychology The University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

hy

Herbert Elston Hooper June 1950

UMI Number: DP30392

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

UMI DP30392 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code

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T h is d is s e rta tio n , w r it t e n by ............. u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f /t.Jja.. F a c u l t y C o m m itte e on S tu d ie s, a n d a p p r o v e d by a l l its m em b e rs, has been p re s e n te d to a n d a cce p te d by the C o u n c i l on G ra d u a te S tu d y a n d R e se a rch , in p a r t i a l f u l ­ f i l l m e n t o f re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e degree o f DOCTOR

OF

P H IL O S O P H Y

Dean

C om m ittee on Studies

TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER I*

PAGE

INTRODUCTION . . . ............................ The problem

...

. . . . . . . . .

1 3

Statement of the p r o b l e m..................

3

Definition of t e r m s ........................

10

A n x i e t y ..................................

10

Recall

13

...................

Description of experimental Variables and their relationship to previous experimental studies

. . ...................

The affect studies . . . . . . .

1^ ..........

15

The subjects u s e d ...............

16

The method of inducing anxiety . . . . . . .

1?

The neutral material . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

Selection of material with which to test r e c a l l ...............

20

The problem of equating the Anxiety and Neutral material . . The retention intervals

..................

21

.

23

..............

The method for determining the effect of reduction in anxiety .

...........

* .

23

The physiological measures............. . . The measure of reaction t i m e ..............

25

The “control” factors

25

..............

iv CHAPTER

PAGE The experimental design

.

26

*

28

The organization of the remainder of the dissertation II.

REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE

. . . . . . . . . . .

30

Studies using methods that are similar to the present experiment . . . . • • • • •

31

Studies using measures of GSR . . . . . . .

31

Studies using measures of reaction time . .

35

Studies involving the induction of anxiety under controlled laboratory conditions

. .

Studies using unacceptable word lists . . .

36 36

Studies using electric shock to influence recall

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Studies involving hypnosis

37

. . . . . . . .

39

Studies inducing feelings of failure at competitive activities III.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The subjects

kl

. . . . . . . . . . .

k6

...........................

Selective procedures

4*6 .

4'6

Description of the subjects . • • • • • . .

46

Diagnostic description

53

..........

....

Description of the experimental apparatus and materials ........ The laboratory

. . . . . . . . . . ............

55 55

V

CHAPTER

PAGE Apparatus for measuring the Galvanic. Skin Response Pneumograph

57

.....................

5

Apparatus for measuring Reaction Time

,♦ *

59

Photographic projection apparatus * .

.* .

60

Memory apparatus

.. •

61



.......... .. ,

Description of stimulus materials * . * • • • • .®

The stimulus pictures • • , *

62

*

The word association lists

62 6k

Experimental procedures * • .................. Introductory phase

. * * , , * * • • • • •

Registration p h a s e ........., Learning phase

♦ .

First recall phase

69 *

• .

First retention interval



• . •

67

69 72 7k

................

Second retention interval

.

7^ 76

Anxiety reduction phase , * , * * • * • • •

77

Anxiety reduction interview - Subject Ho, 19 •

78

Second recall phase , .

.......... . . ♦

79

Measures employed in the quantification of the experimental data Controlled recall Free recall

, « , • • • • • «

,. • . . . . . . . . .

81 •

81

............................

Galvanic skin response

.



81 81

vi CHAPTER

PAOE Respiratory changes . . . . . . . . . . . .

8^

Reaction time

8^

. . . . . . . .

..........

Learning IV.

85

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

........

86

Methods of statistical analysis . . . . . . .

86

Results of the Meutral-Anxiety differ­ entiation ..................

. . . . . . .

89

Controlled recall results . . . • • • . • •

89

Free Recall results

93

...........

The difference between Controlled and Free Recall Results indicating the effect of the "reduction in anxiety” on the recall scores . . . . . . . .

..........

97

Log Conductance Change results

. . . . . .

102

. • • • . • •

106

G-SR Base Conductance results Respiration rate results Reaction time results

.............

109

..................

112

Results of the learning phase . . . . . . .

119

Qualitative material obtained in the interview

122

Comments indicating awareness of a "homo­ sexual” content in the stimulus materials.

123

vii CHAPTER

PAGE'" Comments indicating nervousness in the experimental situation • •

*

12k

Comments indicating a denial of nervousness



125

Comments concerning the effect of the a p p a r a t u s .......... . . . ............ 125 Comments reflecting hostility reactions to the experimenter

• . . * .............

126

Miscellaneous comments relating to the experiment

* ....................... . . 126

S u m m a r y ................. ............ .

. 127

Results of the “disturbed” and “defensive” group differentiation

128

Controlled Recall results: - differences between Neutral and Anxiety for the Disturbed and Defensive groups . . • • • • Controlled Recall results:

differences -

between Disturbed and Defensive groups . . Free Recall results:

132

134-

differences between

Neutral and Anxiety for Disturbed and Defensive groups Free Recall results:

13A differences between

Disturbed and Defensive groups . . . . . .

IkO

viii PAGE

CHAPTER GSR results:

Log Conductance Change

differences between Neutral and Anxiety for Disturbed and Defensive groups . . • * GSR results:

l4o

Log Conductance Change

differences between the Disturbed and .144

Defensive groups GSR results:

Base Conductance differences

between Neutral and Anxiety for Disturbed and Defensive groups • GSR results:

145

Base Conductance differences

between Disturbed and Defensive groups . .

145

ReBults of the 11Affected.11 and MUnaff ected11 group differentiation

149

Controlled Recall results:

differences

between Neutral and Anxiety for Affected and Unaffected groups

. . . . . ........

Controlled Recall results:

differences

between Affected and Unaffected groups . * Free Recall results:

151

153

differences between

Neutral and Anxiety for Affected and Unaffected groups Free Recall results:

........... . . . . . .

153

differences between

Affected and Unaffected groups ..........

159

ix CHAPTER

PAGE GSR results:

Log Conductance Change data:

differences between Neutral and Anxiety for Affected and Unaffected groups • * « GSR results:

l6o

Log Conductance Change data:

differences between Affected and Unaffected groups GSR results:

« . . « * . . • » * *

164

Base Conductance data:

differences between Neutral and Anxiety for the Affected andUnaffected groups . GSR results:

164

Base Conductance data;

differences between the Affected and . * . . . ........... *

Unaffected groups

Reaction time results:

168

differences

between Neutral and Anxiety for the Affected and Unaffectedgroups . • Reaction time results:

• **

169

differences

between the Affected and Unaffected groups

171

Summary of the results . . ................

.

174

Summary of the Neutral-Anxiety differentiation

.

. . . . . . . . . . .

174

Summary of the Disturbed-Anxiety group differentiation......... ............

177

X

CHAPTER

PA&E Summary of the Affected-Unaffected group differentiation * . . .........• Discussion

178

............

180

Introduction to the discussion of the results . . . . . . . .

....

Validation of the anxiety assumption

..

180 *

181

The relationship between the recall results and the hypotheses

. . . . . .



187

Contributions of the Disturbed-Defensive .................

differentiation

195

Contributions of the Affected-Unaffected

V*

group differentiation . . . . . . . . . .

197

A theory of adaptive recall . . . . . . . .

198

Suggestions for further experimentation ...

20k

Implications for clinical psychology

205

SUMMARY AID CONCLUSIONS

♦.

. . .........

The problem

.

20? 207

The experimental procedures . Summary of the results

............

. . . . . . . . . . .

208 209

A proposed theoretical interpretation of the results Conclusions Bibliography Appendix

. . ...........



213 21^f

.........

................

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

218 22k

LIST OF TABLES TABLE I.

page

Schematic Representation of the Experimental Design ............

II.

Means and Ranges for Shipley-Hartford Testing on Twenty-Two Subjects

III.

27

. . . . . .

49

Mean T Scores with K Added for Three Groups on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory . . . . . . . . . . .

IV.

51

Summary of Diagnoses Given the Subjects by the Psychological and Psychiatric Staff of the Hospital....................

V. VI. VII.

Word Lists Used as Stimulus Material

54

....

65

Abstract of the Experimental Procedures . . .

68

Controlled Recall Data:

Means, Varia­

bilities, and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and I I I ....................... VIII.

Free Recall Data*

90

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and III . . IX.

94

Difference between Controlled and Free Recall.

Descriptive Data and t-Ratios

for Sessions II and III

.............

.

98

xii TABLE X*

PAGE Controlled Recall and Free Recall Bata: Means, Variabilities, and t-Ratios for Differences Between Session II and Session III means for Neutral and Anxiety * ..............

XI#

101

GSR Log Conductance Change Data:

Means,

Variabilities a n d .t-Ratios for Differ­ ences Between Anxiety and Neutral

XII.

Sessions I and II . . .

. ................

GRS Base Conductance Data*

Means, Varia­

104

bilities and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and I I .................... 107 XIII.

Respiration Rate Data:

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and II . . . XIV.

Reaction Time Data:

110

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and II . . ♦ XV.

113

Reaction Time Data for Differences Between Words Recalled and Words not Recalled in Session II:

Means, Variabilities and t-

Ratios for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and II

......................

117

xiii TABLE XVI.

PACE Learning Data:

Recall on First Trial,

Trial on Which Criterion is Reached, and Total Errors XVII.

........................

121

Controlled Recall Data for Disturbed and Defensive Croups?

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and III . . XVIII.

133

Controlled Recall Data for Disturbed and Defensive Croups?

Means, Variabilities

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Disturbed and Defensive Croups for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and III . . XIX.

135

Free Recall Data for Disturbed and Defen­ sive Croups?

Means, Variabilities and

t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral 137

and Anxiety Sessions II and III . . . . . . XX.

Free Recall Data for Disturbed and Defen­ sive Croups?

Means, Variabilities, and

t-Ratios for Differences Between Dis­ turbed and Defensive Croups for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and III . . . . . XXI.

.

CSR Log Conductance Change Data for Disturbed and Defensive Croups:

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for differences Between Neutral

xiv TABLE

PAGE and Anxiety Sessions I and II . . . . . .

XXII.

.

141

GSR Log Conductance Change Data for Dis­ turbed and Defensive Groups*

Means,

Variabilities, and t-Ratios for Differ­ ences Between Disturbed and Defensive Groups for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and I I ................ ...............

142

XXIII. GSH Base Conductance Data for Disturbed and Defensive Groups*

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and II . . . XXIV.

146

GSR Base Conductance Data for Disturbed and Defensive Groups:

Means, Variabili­

ties, and t-Ratios for Differences Between Disturbed and Defensive Groups for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and II . XXV.

147

Controlled Recall Data for Affected and Un­ affected Groups:

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and III . ♦ XXVI.

Controlled Recall Data for Affected and Unaffected Groups:

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Affected and Unaffected Groups for Neutral

152

XV

TABLE

PAGE and Anxiety Sessions II and I I I .............

XXVII.

154

Free Recall Data for Affected and Unaffected Groups?

Means, Variabili­

ties, and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and III XXVIII.

...........

156

Free Recall Data for Affected and Un­ affected Groups?

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Affected and Unaffected Groups for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions II and III . . . XXIX.

..................

157

GSR Log Conductance Change Data for Affected and Unaffected Groups:

Means,

Variabilities, and t-Ratios for Differ­ ences Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and I I ...................... XXX.

161

GSR Log Conductance Change Data for Affected and Unaffected Groups?

Means,

Variabilities, and t-Ratios for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and I I ......... XXXI.

GSR Base Conductance, Data for Affected and Unaffected Groups:

Means, Varia­

bilities, and t-Ratios for Differences

162

xvi

fABLE

PAGE Between Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and X I .............................

XXXII.

165

GSR Base Conductance Bata for Affected and Unaffected Groups:

Means, Varia­

bilities, and t-Ratios for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and II. . . . . XXXIII.

.

166

II ..

170

Reaction Time Data Affected and Un­ affected Groups:

Means, Variabilities,

and t-Ratios for Differences Between Neutral and AnxietySessionsI and XXXIV.

Reaction Time Data for Affected and Unaffected Groups:

Means, Variabilities

and t-Ratios for Neutral and Anxiety Sessions I and I I .....................

172

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE

PAGE

1*

Graph of Mean T Scores for Three Groups . . . .

52

2*

Diagram of Main Experimental Laboratory . . . .

56

3.

Simplified Diagram of R.C.A. Junior VoltOhyst Circuit (Type 165-A) as Modified by Aaggard and Gerbrands..........

4.

Photographic Reproduction of 35mm Slides Used as Stimulus Materials

..............

5.

Mean Scores forControlled Recall Data

6.

Mean Scores for

7.

58

....

Free Recall D a t a .........

63 91 95

Means of Differences Between Controlled Recall and Free Recall Scores . . . . . . . .

99

8.

Means for Log Conductance ChangeData . . . . .

105

9*

Means for Base Conductance D a t a ...............

108

10.

Means for Respiration Rate Data * ............

Ill

11.

Means for Reaction Time Data

............

114

12.

Reaction Time Mean Values for Words That

.

are Recalled and Words that are Not Recalled in Session I I ........... 13*

Controlled Recall Means for Disturbed and Defensive Groups

14.

118

• . .................

136

Free Recall Means for Disturbed and Defensive Groups

. . . . . . . .

..........

139

xviii FIGURE 15.

PAGE

Log Conductance Change Means for Disturbed and Defensive Groups

16.

* ..........................

.....................

167

Reaction Time Means for Affected and Unaffected G r o u p s .............. ...........

22.

163

Base Conductance Means for Affected and Unaffected G r o u p s .............. ...........

21.

158

Log Conductance Change Mean Scores for Affected and Unaffected Groups. . . . . . .

20.

155

Free Recall Mean Scores for Affected and Unaffected Groups ♦

19.

148

Controlled Recall Means for Affected and Unaffected G r o u p s ............................

18.

143

Base Conductance Means for Disturbed and Defensive Groups

17.

* * .....................

173

Schematic Representation of Predictions of Amount of Recall Based on the Theory of Adaptive Recall

. . . . . . .

............

203

CHAPTER X INTRODUCTION One of the important trends In psychological research in the last decade is an increasing awareness of the impor­ tance of the influence of affective factors on behavior* A considerable body of research has been sufficient to establish the broad outlines of the adaptive nature of the processes of behavior.

The mechanics of the inter­

relationships between affective values and specific para­ meters of behavior, however, are largely ■undefined and unexplored. The present investigation concerns certain aspects of the relationship between affect and memory. affect —

anxiety —

A specific

was selected for experimental study*

The problem concerns the effect of anxiety on retention

^

processes as demonstrated by the measurement of the recall of verbal materials. Historically the experiment has its roots in the psychiatric literature on memory processes.

One of Freud1s

earliest theoretical investigations led to his formulation of a theory of forgetting.

The process of repression became,

from the outset, one of the more important elements in the explanation of neurotic behavior.

The theory underwent

several revisions and is nowhere stated in precise terms

that will allow the deduction of hypotheses for experimental verification without a considerable contribution in terms of the experimenter's own thinking*

In essence, however, it

seems clear that the concept of repression refers to a process by which the ego excludes from consciousness an idea, which, having formerly been associated with conditions arousing anxiety, would reinstate an experience of anxiety were it to reach conscious expression* The Freudian theory of repression has been productive of a considerable body of research*

The majority of the

studies have been designed to provide an experimental demonstration of the validity of repression*

As a result

of serious misunderstanding of the theory, of the use of irrelevant or Inadequate experimental materials and methods, and of the general illuslvenss of the concept itself, several authors, (**'6,47,37) in reviewing the literature covering several decades, have concluded that there has been no adequate test of the theory, nor have techniques been developed that give promise of being able to clarify the mechanics Involved in the relationship between affective states and memory.

A review of the literature which will

be presented in the following chapter will lend support to these statement s. Several trends in psychological experimentation should be mentioned because of the Influence they have had on the

3 present investigation#

The first is reflected in the grow­

ing conoern of the "academic psychologist" for the study of the dynamic factors of needs, attitudes, and values as they relate to the segments of behavior which have been isolated for Investigation in the psychological laboratory*

The

result has been an introduction of "life-like" situations into the experimental designs whenever this has proved to be feasible* The second trend has tended to operate in a similar direction*

The Glinical practioners have been increasingly

inclined to use techniques of quantification and laboratory control in their research programs.

There is growing aware­

ness that the use of such research methods will make possible a determination of the basic structures which underly the theoretical constructs on which clinical techniques have been based*

The relationship of the present Investigation

to these trends will be obvious as the problem and experi­ mental techniques are described* I*

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the problem.

The present Investigation

approached the general problem of the relationship between affective states and memory by selecting a particular emotional condition, i*e*, anxiety, for study*

Anxiety

reactions were Induced in a laboratory setting with neurotic

male humans as subjects*

During the course of the experi­

ment, the anxiety was related to specific verbal material. The retention of this material over a period of ninety-six hours was measured by several recall techniques*

Compar­

ison is provided by testing the retention for material designed to be anxiety-free, or neutral, under experimental circumstances that are essentially similar to that used for the anxiety connected-material. The experimental problem resolves itself Into several questions:

(1) Is there a differential in the amount of

recall when anxiety conditions are compared with neutral? (2) Do different methods of measuring recall affect the quantitative relationship between anxiety and neutral recall? The selection of "anxiety* as the Important variable in the experiment was suggested by its particular relevance to the Freudian theory of forgetting.

The process of re­

pression is conceived by Freud to be initiated by the experiencing of anxiety.

According to Freud, "it is the

attitude of anxiety on the part of the ego which is the motive of and the incitement to repression" (11,pp. 39-40) • It seems possible, therefore, to derive an hypothesis from the theory concerning the effect of anxiety on recall.

If -

repression operates to prevent the coming into conscious­ ness of ideas associated with anxiety, it should follow that

5 verbal material which is closely related to an anxiety situation should tend to be excluded from recall and in this way be prevented from reinstating the anxiety.

Com­

parison with material which does not have anxiety value and against which the subject does not have to protect himself should reveal the inhibition of response in the anxiety situation by its relatively lower recall scores. The Freudian theory of repression, therefore, affords an hypothesis which can be tested by the results of the experiment.

The use of the hypothesis does not imply that

the investigation is designed to demonstrate or refute the theory of repression itself*

The question is, rather, can

the theory yield an hypothesis which will allow the pre­ diction of results to be obtained in a specific experimental situation.

Verification or refutation of this hypothesis

will only relate to the validity of the theory in its application to conditions which are similar to those involved in the present study. A second hypothesis can be derived from theoretical sources other than Freud.

This is of considerable interest

because the results that would be predicted by this hypo­ thesis are not the same as those expected from the Freudian hypothesis.

Basic to this second hypothesis is the concept

of anxiety as a drive state.

Mowrer, in his discussion of

anxiety in stimulus-response terms, states,

Anxiety is thus to "be regarded as a motivating and reinforcing (fixating) agent, similar to hunger, thirst, sex, temperature deviations, and the many other forms of discomfort that harass living organisms, which is, how­ ever, presumably distinctive in that it is derived from (based upon anticipation of) these other more basic forms of discomfort (3^,p. 558) . The mechanism of the drive is further explained by Farber in his statement that Intense stimuli such as shook evoke in the organism certain responses, mediated largely by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, which produce an internal drive state * . * The drive thus elicited is termed anxiety (7»p.ll5)* The validity of the concept of anxiety as a motivating state has been clearly demonstrated In experiments using animals as subjects (7,35)*

It has further been shown that reduction

in anxiety can serve as a powerful reinforcing agent.

Re­

sponses which occur in association with anxiety reduction will be rewarded, and the strength by Which they are fixated In behavior will be increased. The conception of anxiety as a motivating state and of anxiety-reduction as a reward has implications for the present investigation.

In accordance with basic learning

concepts, this should mean that material which is Implanted in the behavior under anxiety conditions should be more firmly established than that which has been concomitant with neutral conditions.

It would also follow that responses

which occur under conditions of anxiety and result in some

7 reduction in anxiety will have greater habit strength than responses which occur under neutral conditions*

Experiments

on the effects of muscular tension on learning and on the effect of shock on learning have shown the facilitating influence of tension states*

These experiments are reviewed

by McGeoch (29). The second hypothesis may be stated therefore, in the following terms:

Other things being equal, responses

which have relevance to an anxiety state and which afford the possibility of anxiety reduction should be more easily learned and better retained than responses made in situations that have a neutral degree of motivation* In summary, the experimental problem resolves into a test of two seemingly alternative hypotheses concerning the effect of anxiety conditions on retention*

If the Freudian

hypothesis is valid, verbal materials which have been asso­ ciated with anxiety should be "repressed" and have less tendency to appear in consciousness than materials which are related to neutral conditions*

If, on the other hand,

the hypothesis derived from stimulus-response concepts of the role of anxiety as a motivating and reinforcing agent is to be substantiated, verbal materials which have been produced under anxiety motivation should be better retained and result in higher recall scores*

The present investiga­

tion was, therefore, a study of the relationships between

8 these two hypotheses by means of an experimental test of the recall of verbal materials*

It attempted to test the ap­

parently contradictory predictions that would be made from the theories in an effort to relate them through the use of mutually acceptable theoretical postulates* The experimental design made it possible to intro­ duce a second dependent variable Into the study*

Research

workers in the field of learning have long recognized that the method by which retention is measured will influence the amounts retained and the form of the retention curve. It seemed desirable, therefore, to include more than one method of measuring recall in the design* Recall which is instigated by instructing the subJects to verbalize the content of his retention, i.e., by giving all of the words that he can remember, has been termed “Free Recall * for the purpose of this investigation. The term "free" has been used to indicate the relative absence of specific stimulus cues in the recall situation. The second method of recall which was used in the experiment may be termed "Controlled Recall. *

It consisted

in a duplication of the stimulating conditions In which the original response had been elicited.

The subject is re­

quested to repeat the response originally made in this stimulus context.

— -

9 The essential differenee between the two methods of recall consists In the degree to which they alter the stimulus context In which the original response had been made*

Free Recall presents a minimum of the stimuli that

have been adequate for the elicitation of the response* Controlled Recall, on the other hand, presents a maximum of stimulus cues*

The effect that this difference in

stimulus cues will have on retention Is stated by McGeoch as follows: It Is to be expected that, other things being equal, retention will be higher the more numerous and complete are the stimuli earlier associated with the activity and now present again at the time of measurement of retention (29*p*501)* The majority of the experiments which bear on the relationship between affective states and recall have utilized methods of recall similar to the Free Recall of the present experiment*

It might be assumed that these

experimenters have felt that the Influence of affective factors on recall would be more pronounced as the conditions of retention are altered so as to reproduce a minimum of the stimulus conditions under which the materials have been learned*

Inasmuch as recall has been tested with both

Free Recall and Controlled Recall methods, the present investigation proposes to compare the methods for the measurement of recall for both anxiety and neutral material*

II. Anxiety. experiment.

DEFINITION OF TERES

A definition of anxiety is basic to the

Many of the studies of anxiety have defined

It In terms of the nature of the stimulus material that Is presented to the subject.

Ego-threat has, for example,

been postulated to be anxiety inducing.

The present

investigation will attempt, however, to define anxiety in terms of a response pattern for the subject that can be subjected to experimental investigation* Because of the relationship between the study and Freudian theory, it seems pertinent to refer to that theory for a frameworJc for the definitions of terms. been previously termed an "affect. *

Anxiety has

In contrast to the

usual psychological definition of affect as referring to feeling quality, Freud has equated affect with a physical discharge process.

Be says,

Affectlvlty manifests itself essentially in motor (i.e., secretory and circulatory) discharge resulting in an (internal) alteration of the subject* s own body without reference to the outer world (10,p.111). In reference to the specific nature of the concept of anxiety, Freud, after devoting a considerable portion of the booh The Problem of Anxiety to an analysis of anxiety, concludes, Anxiety, then, is in the first place something felt. We call it an affective state, although we are equally

u ignorant of what an affect is* As a feeling it is of most obviously' unpleasurable character, hut this is not by any means a complete description of its quality; not every state of unpleasure (Unlust) may we call anxiety ♦ . . In addition to this special characteristic so difficult to define, we perceive more definite physical sensations, which we refer to specific organs, as accompanying anxiety. Since the physiology of anxiety does not interest us here, it will suffice to draw attention to specific examples of these sensations, such as those referable to the respiratory organs and the heart, which are the most common and the most def­ inite of them. They are evidence that motor innervations, efferent processes, take part in the total phenomenon of anxiety. The analysis of the anxiety state gives us, then, as its attributes: (1) a specific unpleasurable quality, (2) efferent or discharge phenomena, and (3) the perception of these (ll,pp-.-$9~70). This is essentially the approach to anxiety that has been adopted for the present investigation.

An anxiety state

will be presumed to exist when there is evidence in the first place, that the subject is experiencing an unpleasant or disturbing feeling.

This may be determined by a study

of the qualitative and quantitave records obtained in an analysis of the nature of the associative processes connected to the experimental situation. The second criterion concerns the physiological phenomena that play a prominant role in the experiencing of anxiety.

It is commonly assumed that the sympathetic

division of the autonomic nervous system mediates the primary physiological expressions that are the eoncommltants of anxiety.

This suggests the experimental use of an index

of activity of the autonomic nervous system as an indicator

12 of the presence ©f a state of anxiety.

The galvanic skin

response or, more briefly, the GSR, has been widely used in psychological research to measure responsiveness in the autonomic nervous system.

The GSR and measures of general

palmar resistance level have been used in the present experiment as a second criterion for the definition of a state of anxiety.

Anxiety should reflect itself in the

GSR data by the presence of relatively greater deflections and a lower general level of resistance. A third criterion appears at the outset to be less reliable and significant than the others.

A reliable sub-

Jective report by the experimental subject as to his perception of psychological and physiological disturbance is difficult to obtain.

This was attempted, however, by

means of an interview with the subject in which he was asked whether he perceived nervous or disturbed feelings during the course of the experiment. Anxiety is defined, therefore, for the purposes of the experiment, as a state that exists when there is a disturbed or unpleasant reaction to stimulus material, when there is evidence of heightened GSR responsiveness and lowered resistance levels, and when the subject perceives an experience of disturbed physiological and psychological reactions in the experimental situation.

'—

13 Recall,

Recall may "be defined as a method of

measuring retention in which the subject is presented with elements of the original eliciting situation and asked to reproduce the reaction which constituted the attainment of the criterion of learning.

In the present investigation

the two methods of recall which have been described pre­ viously were used.

Controlled Recall consists of a recall

under stimulus conditions that duplicate, insofar as this is possible, the original stimulating conditions.

Free

Recall, on the other hand, affords the subject a minimum of the original stimulus cues.

The experimental condition

is duplicated, only in that recall is conducted in the same room, by the same experimenter, and in the presence of the now nonfunctlonlng apparatus. The use of these relatively static cross-sectional methods for the measurement of retention is necessary to the attainment of the quantification which is a primary goal of the present investigation.

They do not indicate an unaware­

ness of the more dynamic qualities of the learning and memory processes.

Rappaport has summarised the present day orien­

tation to these phenomena with the following comments: Learning was found to be a complex process in which materials, method, personal motivation, individual psychic make-up, and momentary state all interact. Retention can no longer be thought of as a wax-plate, loyal and reliable. We have learned that nautonomous * changes occur In retention* we have learned too that

the retained material is organized, or brought into relation with other retained material, without our conscious contribution. Recall, we know, depends on the actual state of the subject as well as on the context in which reproduction is called for; we have seen also that reproduction does not necessarily occur when called for and that its non-occurrence does not mean it cannot occur. It has recently been emphasized that recall is not simply a revival of traces imprinted in us somewhere, nor is forgetting simply a fading of that imprint. Reproduction is rather an active pro­ duction, and forgetting also fundamentally implies an active principle (37,p.5-6). The clarification of the active organization processes in memory functioning would seem to await further systematic experimental analysis —

such as the present investigation

attempts to provide for the specific .variables of Intensity of anxiety and method of recall. III.

DESCRIPTION OP EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES In this section an introduction to the experimental

variables and to the literature on previous experimental studies will be presented.

Both will be considered more

completely in succeeding chapters.

Chapter II will review

in some detail the studies which have a direct relationship to the present investigation.

Chapter III will present a

complete description of the apparatus, stimulus materials, and experimental procedures that were employed.

It will

suffice at this point to briefly present the techniques which were used and to Indicate at what point the methods

15 differ from those that have been previously used*

Rationale

for considering these techniques as representing more ade»

quate methodology will also be given* The affect studied*

The majority of the studies***

have investigated the recall of materials having a differ­ ential in hedonic tone.

Recall of materials that were

judged to be “pleasant" was compared with that of materials that were “unpleasant* and “indifferent* “

This line of

experimentation seems to have resulted from a misinterpre­ tation of the Freudian formulation of the theory of repression*

Freud did at times refer to a tendency to

forget the disagreeable, but this was secondary to the dynamics of repression in excluding from consciousness material that had been related to anxiety.

The results

from these experiments generally indicated that pleasant material was best recalled with unpleasant and Indifferent materials following in that order* More recent experimenters have turned to the study of other “affects," the majority of which, were experimentally induced in relatively controlled laboratory situations. Feelings of failure at competitive activities — “ego threats" in comparison with others —

so called

have been induced

*** Description of specific studies and reference to the sources of the reports on the studies will be found in Chapter II.

and their effect on retention of associated stimuli has heen studied* Studies more closely related to the present experi­ ment have concerned the effect of having to respond to material, that has "unacceptable* sexual context* of response in continuity with electric shock* and of conflicts that are hypnotically induced* The present study seems* therefore* to be one of a relatively small number that have attempted to study the relationship between anxiety and recall. 'The subjects used*

Neurotic and pre-psychotie

subjects form the population used in the present investi­ gation*

The selection of this classification of subjects

was based on the rationale that the study of anxiety would be facilitated by the use of a population in which there was a demonstrated potential for the experiencing of anxiety and in which a lowered threshold for anxiety expression might be postulated*

Almost all of the studies that have been

reported in the literature have used "normal” college students as subjects*

The differences between the present

neurotic population and a college student population on the Minnesota Multiphaeio Personality Inventory will be pre­ sented in Chapter XXX *^

17 The method of Inducing anxiety.

The experimental

design was formulated and stimulus material© selected In an attempt to ereate anxiety In the subject by requiring that he respond to materials that he found unacceptable and threatening.

There were several requirements that it seemed

important to meet in the selection of the material.

In the

first place, it seemed to be preferable that a sexual threat be utilized.

The threat should be as universal in its

applicability as possible.

Finally, the limitation in the

degree and quality of the threat that can be presented to hospital patients without severe traumatization was taken, into consideration. The sexual threat in the male most frequently mentioned in psychiatric literature as the instigator of an anxiety condition was found to be a 0castration anxiety, * One manifestation of castration anxiety is seen in the development of femininity in the male and tendencies in the direction of the homosexual outlet,

Fenichel has

categorically stated, 0femininity in men is always connected with castration anxiety11 (8,p. 335) •

These considerations

suggested the efficacy of using a homosexual threat to produce anxiety.

The fact that in our culture homo­

sexuality is almost universally considered to be a problem of undesirable and unacceptable behavior adds the concept of social anxiety to the more personal anxiety that

18 castration threat may imply. A series of three pictures^ were selected to consti­ tute the primary "anxiety9 material.

Each picture shows

two men idio are posed without clothes with the exception of covering for the genitals.

The men are highly developed

physically, reflecting an extreme concern over bodily structure.

In the first picture they are posed on an

elaborate couch and their hands are touching.

In the

second picture, the relationship between aggressive and submissive males is symbolized by a pose in which one of the men is on his knees and chained while the other stands over him brandishing a sword.

The final picture is also

symbolic of an erotic relationship with one of the men lying on his back on the floor while the other stands over him with a weapon in his hand. The experimental use of the pictures consisted in their projection on a screen a short distance from the subject during a word-assoclation period in which the Instructions defined the stimulus words as having a relationship to the pictures.

A list of eight words

was presented to the subject for his associations during each of the periods in which a picture was projected.

3 Reproduced on page 53*

These

stimulus words were designed to Increase the anxiety value of the situation by forcing the subject to respond to erotic homosexual, aggressive, etc*, aspects of the total stimulus constellation.

The subject had been previously instructed

that the situation did not represent a normal relationship between men and that he might become tense and nervous.

In

addition to this, the GSR apparatus and the respiratory apparatus had been described as being similar to a "lie detector" in that it could measure his impulses even though he should wish to hide them*

Evidence will be presented to

indicate that the .majority of the subjects felt that the experiment was designed to reveal homosexual traits and tendencies* The neutral material.

It seemed deslreable to select

as neutral material pictures that differed essentially from the experimental pictures only in that they did not repre­ sent social or personal threat.

For this reason pictures

of two men were again selected.

The men were fully clothed

and engaged in activities that are socially acceptable for men.

The first picture shows the two men seated at a table

engaged in repairing a radio chassis.

In the second picture

the two men are reading a radio script into a microphone. The final picture shows the men playing a card game.

The

words which are presented to the subject for association

during the viewing of these pictures were selected so as to preserve the neutral character of the situation. Selection of material with which to teat recall.

In

a complex experimental situation, the content of the material with which to test the recall may he selected from several alternatives.

Most experimenters have chosen to test recall

against selected stimulus conditions rather than response conditions.

Rosenzwelg (39), for example, in his experiment

on recall under conditions of successful completion of Jig­ saw puzzles as compared with Interruption of the task, selected an incidental stimulus variable -- the name of the puzzle —

with which to compare recall.

It was the

experimenter1s contribution of a name as part of the stimulating condition and not the subject* s response or response tendency that was to be recalled. A second method in which the recall is not directly connected to the anxiety Inducing situation has been ex­ tensively reported in the literature.

An example of this

method is found in the experimental design in which a list of nonsense syllables is learned and an anxiety task Is interpolated before the first recall.

It is the task and

not the material for retention that is subjected to direct anxiety, and the design must rely on generalization phenom­ ena to produce its effect on recall.

21 In the present experiment it was the subject' a response word rather than the experimenter' s stimulus word which was selected as the material by means of which the retention processes were measured*

This selection has the

disadvantage of sacrificing the standardizing condition of having each subject recall the same set of words*

It makes

possible, however, a measure of the recall of the subject's own verbal response and thereby gains greater relevance to the Freudian theory which is, In essence, based on exclusion of verbal response tendencies from consciousness* The problem of equating the Anxiety^ and Neutral material* The problem of assuring the equal strength of the conditions upon which the differential in recall is to be based has been occasionally mentioned In the literature* Most experimenters have, however, made no attempt to establish the equation between the conditions other than to have equal trials In each*

This would seem to represent

a limitation to the accuracy of the results of the studies* If there were a differential in the habit strength of either the experimental or the control material at the outset,

^ For the remainder of the paper, the terms "Neutral" and "Anxiety® will be used to refer to the specific conditions that were used In the administration of the experiment* The terms are meant to have descriptive significance only in that they afford convenient distinguishing lables* This use may be noted by the capital letter for the first letter of each word*

22 later differences in retention would not “be correctly interpreted as having their inception in the retention interval* The present Investigation has attempted to control the factor of any differential in strength of the Neutral and Anxiety materials by subjecting them to a learning phase in which both types of material are practiced until they reach the same criterion, i.e., one trial without error.

For this purpose the experimenter* s stimulus word

and the subject* s response word were considered a word pair, and the method of anticipation was used with the memory drum method of presenting the words* toward the response words.

learning was directed

The subjects were instructed

to anticipate that word when the paired stimulus word appeared in the opening of the apparatus. It is not contended that learning of the word lists to a criterion of one perfect trial resulted in exact equation of the lists.

The problems of overlearning of

correct responses and similar phenomena peculiar to this method of learning should be considered.

It would seem

reasonable to conclude, however, that the learning of the lists to the same criterion was to some extent corrective for the differential in response strength before the first retention interval.

There is, in addition, considerable

23 precedent in the literature of research on learning phenom­ ena for the use of these techniques* The retention intervals*

Few of the studies that

have been reported have measured other than immediate recall, I.e., recall within a few minutes after the completion of the experimental tasks*

The criticism has been

made by Sharp (49,p. 396) that the use of immediate recall does not allow for a sufficient passage of time to permit the maximum operation of the repression process*

Her

experiment Indicated that the maximum "repression* was present after forty-eight hours and did not materially change for two weeks* Retention intervals of forty-eight hours have been used in this experiment*

In addition, a rough approximation

of immediate recall is obtained in the results ©f the first trial of the learning phase. The method for determining the effect of reduction in anxiety.

A recent publication by Zeller (56) has listed

three requirements for a test of the concept of repression* These bear some relevance to the present investigation. state s, First, it must demonstrate that the material in question has been learned by the individual. Second, it must demonstrate that the introduction of an in­ hibiting factor causes inability to recall or a

He

significant decrease In the recall of the material* Third, it must show that the removal of the Inhibiting factor results in the reinstatement of the ability to recall the material (56 ,p*4o)* An attempt to provide a removal of the anxiety factors in the present experiment was included in the experimental design at a point preceding the second recall period*

The

experimenter at that time Involved the subject in an inter­ view*

The subject was permitted to ventilate his feelings

about the experimental situation*

He was then given infor­

mation about the research and reassurance as to the innoc­ uous nature of the data that had been gained*

The apparatus

was explained to the subject and as an additional reassur­ ance it was not used during the subsequent part of the session*

The effectiveness with which the interview was

able to reduce the anxiety factors which had been experi­ mentally Induced can only be determined by changes in the quantitative recall measures.

Inasmuch as the apparatus

Itself was an Important factor in the anxiety, it was not used after the interview and &SR records are, therefore, not available for testing the differences produced by the interview* The physiological measures*

Physiological measures

have accompanied studies of the effect of affect on retention in but a few instances*

Early use of the G-SR to determine

the materials that were used in the experiments will be

25 reviewed in the next chapter*

More recent studies by Dlven

(6) and Haggard (15) have used the G-SR in connection with studies of the effect of electric shock on recall*

The

present experiment has the advantage of the most recent advances in the selection of an appropriate unit of measure for small sample statistics*

The Log Conductance Change

unit recommended by Haggard (16) has been employed for the GSR data* Measurement of respiratory rate was included as a second physiological variable* The measure of reaction time,

A measure of the

reaction time between the stimulus word and the subject1s response was made for the word associations of Sessions X and II of the experiment.

The literature concerning effec­

tive disturbance and reaction time indicates that disturbed responses can be distinguished by a study of the length of the reaction times.

The longer the delay In the response,

the more significant it becomes in indicating that the associative process is blocked by disturbing affective factors. The ^control* factors*

The experimental design

provides that each subject participate In response to both Neutral and Anxiety conditions.

The experiment Is, there­

fore, intra-subject controlled with each subject contributing

to scores for both conditions.

This presents an advantage

in that the neurotic subjects that constitute the population are diversified on so many factors that matching would be extremely difficult. IV.

THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A detailed analysis of the experimental design and procedures will be presented in Chapter III.

In this

section, therefore, it will suffice to sketch the broad outlines of the design of the experiment in order that the variables described in the previous sections may take their place in the total structure of the study. may be divided into five sections.

The experiment

There were three experi­

mental sessions and two forty-eight hours retention inter­ vals.

A schematic description of the experimental design is

presented in Table I.

Each phase of the experiment will be

described separately. 1.

. Session I (Monday) may be termed the ^registration**

and #learningn session*

During the first part of this

session, the subject was introduced to the experimental procedures and the registration of the Neutral and Anxiety materials was accomplished by means of the picture-word association methods.

Each subject responded to both

Neutral and Anxiety materials.

At the conclusion of the

TABLE I SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Session Number

Description of the phase*

Description of the methodology.

Registration

Picture-word association to Neutral and Anxiety materials*

Learning

Anticipation learning to one trial without error.

Retention Interval

48 hour interval

Recall

Recall of response words by Free and Controlled methods.

Retention Interval

48 hour interval

Anxiety Reducing Interview

Catharsis* information* and reassurance given the subject.

Recall

Recall ©f response words by Free and Controlled methods.

Session X (Monday)

Session II (Wednesday)

Session III (Friday)

28 registration period, the subject was taken to another room, and the learning phase m s administered in an effort to equate the response potential of the two types of material* A criterion of one trial without error was used. 2.

A forty-eight-hour retention interval separated

Sessions I and II. 3# session,

Session II (Wednesday) was the first recall The retention of the response words that had been

registered and learned to the criterion level was measured first by the Free Recall method and following that by the Controlled Recall method. 4#

Session III (Friday) was devoted to the “anxiety

reduction interview, ■ and to a second recall phase which served to test the effect of the attempted reduction in anxiety on the retention process.

Again Free Recall pre­

ceded the Controlled Recall. V*

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE DISSERTATION

The remainder of the dissertation will be organised into chapters as follows: Chapter II will review the literature that is directly relevant to the present investigation. Chapter III will be devoted to a detailed description of the experimental procedures.

It will Include the

29 selection process by wlilch the subjects were obtained, a description of the subject population, a description of the apparatus that was used in the experiment, a presentation of the stimulus materials, and a complete statement of the procedures by which the experiment was conducted*

A final

section of the chapter will describe the various measures by which the experimental data was quantified* Chapter IV concerns the results obtained in the experiment*

The statistical methods that were employed in

the analysis of the data will be discussed as preliminary to the presentation of the data.

Three methods of dividing

the experimental population will be described, and the results obtained in each approach to the data will be separately analysed.

A summary of the results and dis­

cussion of their significance in regard to the hypotheses of the study will be presented.

Theoretical and clinical

implications will conclude the chapter. Chapter V will present a summary of the experiment and of the results Which were obtained.

Conclusions that

are forthcoming from the experiment will be Included in this final chapter.

REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE There are many excellent sources wherein much of the literature on the relationship between emotions and memory has been adequately reviewed*

It will be necessary to

refer to these sources for the complete bibliography* This chapter will concern Itself with only those studies that are directly pertinent to the present investigation. A first group of studies will Include those that have employed similar methodological approaches with especial reference to the measure of galvanic shin response and reaction time.

The second group will consist of studies

which have attempted to induce emotional conditions In the controlled laboratory environment and to study by quanti­ tative techniques their effects on memory. Several general methods of investigation will hot be considered in this review.

The questionnaire method was

used in an early series of studies. Rapaport (37).

These are reviewed by

A more extensive series of experiments used

pleasantf unpleasant, and indifferent subject matter to establish different affective tone.

The stimulus materials

for the studies was at various times selected from the life history of the subjects, by a-prlori Judgement of the experimenter, and later by ratings of Judges or by the subjects

31 themselves*

Review articles covering this area of experi­

mentation have been presented by Meltzer (32), Sears (*fr6,47) , McGeoch (29) , Moore (33), Gilbert (12), and Rapaport (37) • It will be noted, further, that much of the experimentation making use of the method of interruption of activities will not be reviewed.

These studies have been most recently

discussed by Glixman (13) who has methodological criticisms to make of the results* I*

STUDIES USING METHODS THAT ARE SIMILAR f© THE PRESENT EXPERIMENT

Studies using measures of GSR*3* One of the earliest uses of the galvanic skin response in a recall experiment was reported by Jung (21) in 1907*

His use of the equipment

was essentially the same as that of most succeeding inves­ tigators, i.e., he wished to establish the existence of emotional complex factors by the use of a measure that was independent of the subjective rating of either experimenter or subject*

The association method was also to become the

principal method for the eliciting of verbal material for recall experiments.

The abbreviation GSR for 11galvanic skin response* will be employed in place of the term Hp aychogalvanie reflex* or PGR in reporting the studies.

32 W. W* Smith (50) used the Jung reproduction test in conjunetion with GSR measurements*

He observed that

The words best remembered have, on the average, a very much higher mean galvanometer deflection . . . than those which are soon forgotten; and that the latter have on the average an appreciably higher affect value than words which are moderately well remembered (50,p.2^4). The following conclusions were drawn from the experiments in association and recall: First, that memory for words is influenced by af­ fective tone; secondly, that so far as the affective tone detected by the psychogalvanic reflex is concerned, its Influence may be exerted into dlamterleally opposite direction; the fact that a given word evokes well-marked affective tone may lead to its being better remembered than a less intensely toned word, or may lead to its being forgotten more quickly. Affective tone as shown by the galvanometer deflection should, therefore, be regarded as of two kinds, one of which facilitates, while the other impedes, the remembering of words which it accompanies (50,p. 25©)* These results were summarised in a theory of a bi-directional effect of emotional tone* H. E. Jones (20) repeated Smith1s experiment with certain procedural modifications and found again that the words which had the highest memory values were also the words with the highest GSR values.

The three highest words in each

instance were the "sex" words, "kiss, love, and woman."

The

problem of assigning Introspective labels of "pleasant" or "unpleasant" was avoided only by assigning the poorly de­ fined polarity concepts of "positive affective value" and "negative affective value."

Lynch (2?) also used the word

33 values that had heen experimentally established by Smith and tested their memory value with recognition tests*

Although

he considered that his results did not lend support to the theory of the bi-directional effect of emotions on recall, he concludes that the results “lend strong support to Smith1s results and contention that words having a high PGR value will also have a high memory value?1 (2?,p.314)*

A further

experimental extension of Smith1s study was taken by Stagner (51) •

At this point, the terms •pleasant“ and “unpleasant®

were uncritically applied to this type of material*

He used

a method of immediate recall and found a significant differ­ ence favoring the recall of words judged pleasant over those judged unpleasant.

He noted, however, that when he had his

subjects rate the words, Only ten of the thirty words are remembered more frequently when rated pleasant than when rated un­ pleasant* On the other hand, sixteen words have a higher score when rated unpleasant than pleasant

(51,p*134).

He concludes that when individual words are considered “there are no significant differences in memory value in accordance with the subjectively reported feeling tone® (51»P*13^)* Balken (2) used GSR and reaction time measures in studying the Immediate recall of paired associates which had been presented once*

The pairs had been selected by Judges

so as to have pleasant, unpleasant, and indifferent affect values*

She concluded that there were small and insignificant

differences in the number of recall and in the average reaction times to the three types of items.

She stated

that “the affective value of the materials did not influence either the amount or the speed of recall** (2,p.l2?) •

The

GSR data showed “no effect of the affective value of the material upon either the frequency or maximum magnitude of the defejlctions elicited* (2,p.l20). The GSR was used by Bunch and Wientge (3) to assist in the selection of words for a study of the effect of retroactive inhibition on pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral word lists.

The pleasant and unpleasant words were those

having the highest GSR among the words that were judged by the subject to be respectively pleasant or unpleasant.

Their

results indicated that efficiency of retention varies with the affective quality of the material*

Pleasant and in­

different materials were betted retained than unpleasant. They also present learning data to show that The difficulty encountered in learning varies with the affective nature of the material being learned. The difficulty of learning increases as the affective tone varies from pleasantness, through neutrality to un­ pleasantness (3fP*l?6)• Carter, Jones, and Shock (5) selected their stimulus words by means of ratings of judges and made physiological measures of the reactions of the subject during the asso­ ciation process.

GSR, reaction time, and respiration

records were among the data which they collected.

They

concluded that "words which are pleasant or unpleasant tend to elicit larger deflections than words which are indiffer­ ent" (5,p.215)•

Analysis of the learning data indicated

that the highest scores were obtained for pleasant words with unpleasant and indifferent words following in that order* A study by McGinnles (30) did not directly concern itself with recall but measured the GSR to lists of neutral and anxiety words (e*g*, raped, whore, bitch).

Using a

tachlstoscoplc presentation and measuring the threshold of recognition of the words, he found a significantly greater threshold for the anxiety words.

GSR measures in the period

before recognition were Significantly higher for the anxiety words*

He interprets these results as indicating that "the

stimulus word serves as a cue to deeply imbedded anxiety which is revealed in autonomic activity as measured by the G-SR" (30,p.251)♦

A conditioned avoidance reaction is there­

fore initiated to the unpleasant meanings of the stimulus word. Studies using measures of reaction time.

Measures

of reaction time have played an important role in most studies in which the association method of eliciting material is used.

Several of these studies are relevant

to the present experiment*

Tolman and Johnson (52) obtained

reaction times as the subjects responded to pleasant, un­ pleasant, and Indifferent stimulus words*

They found that

there were "decided evidences'1 of differences between the times for unpleasant and indifferent words, but no evidence of differences between pleasant and indifferent words. Similar findings were also obtained in Carter1s (4) analysis of the reaction time data of the study previously reported by Carter, Jones, and Shock. (5) • II*

STUDIES INVOLVING THE INDUCTION OP ANXIETY UNDER CONTROLLED LABORATORY CONDITIONS Although widely varied types of studies will be

discussed in this section, they have in common the attempt on the part of the experimenter to bring into the psycho­ logical laboratory materials and situations which will create emotional conditions similar to anxiety or that will re­ instate existing anxiety feelings. Studies using unacceptable word lists.

Sharp (48) and

her co-workers at the University of Chicago devised a tech­ nique for inducing anxiety which consisted in having the subject learn paired nonsense words that together had religious, profane, or sexual connotations, e.g*, Jeh-sus, piy-nis*

They compared the recall of such word combinations

with a series having innocuous connotations*

The results

37 indicated significant differences in the recall of the two types of material in favor of the innocuous or socially acceptable pairs.

They noted that the differences were

present after forty-eight hours and did not change mate­ rially through the sixteen day testing period.

In 1933

Sharp (**9) used neurotic patients in a further study of the recall of acceptable and unacceptable word lists.

She

selected from the case histories of neurotics a series of noun-adjective word pairs which were related to anxietyladen emotional problems.

She matched this list with a

series of word pairs that seemed to be associated with emotional gratification.

The results verified her hypo­

thesis that words related to gratifications would be better recalled.

An attempt to repeat this experiment is reported

by Sears (^7) •

The differences in recall between the two

lists were not found at this time. Studies using electric shock to influence recall. McSranahan (31) > in a study designed to test the Freudian theory of repression, asked his subjects to respond to a list of fine-hundred words — color associations.

one fifth of which suggested

The experimental subjects were instructed

that color associations would be followed by electric shock. Comparison with a control group that were not given these instructions showed that fewer color associations were made

38 when the shock penalty was Involved.

He used these results

to support his theory that repression Is a matter of Mdirect action and constraint upon the activity of consciousness9 (31, p. 22^).

A preliminary experiment using the same tech­

nique had revealed that subjects responding to the stimulus words in the shock situation may either give a large number of color associations or may give few associations.

It was

McGranahan1s impression that the former subjects were dis­ turbed and overwhelmed by fear.

The subjects who gave few

associations seemed to be we11-organ!zed and confident. Ah application of conditioning methods to association experimentation was made by Biven (6).

He gave his subjects

a series of stimulus words which included several presenta­ tions of a word pair. electric shook. tested.

Each time this pair was followed by

Recall for the stimulus words was then

After an extinction session in which the shock

was omitted, the subject was again asked to recall the stimulus words.

In addition to recall and reaction time,

the methods used in the experiment Included a modified Luria technique and G-SR.

Biven reported that his subjects showed

subjective signs of fear and tension.

In his summary of the

re stilts of the experiment, he notes that •traumatic terms,tt. i.e., those followed by shook, constitute a significant majority of the words recalled before the deconditioning phase.

The effect of a twenty-four to forty-eight hour

39 interval between the conditioning and the recall was to increase the neutral character of the recall.

After de-

conditioning, he found a reliable increase in the number of words recalled, the greatest increase being for traumatic words.

He divided his subjects according to their awareness

of the significance of the stimuli in the shock sequence. The greatest increase in both neutral and traumatic words was found in subjects who were unaware of the relationship. Haggard (15) used an experimental design similar to that of Diven.

Shock was administered following a two-word

sequence which appeared five times among forty-two stimulus words,

GSR, reaction time, and recall measures were taken,

A second session was devoted to one of three therapies — Best, Experimental Extinction, and Catharsis-Information. Tests of the relative effectiveness of the therapies were made during a third session.

The results having the most

significance for the present study are those indicating that the subjects who showed the greatest GSR level at the end of the first session were able to recall fewer of the stimulus words.

Analysis of the therapies indicated a

marked superiority of Oatharsi s-Information therapy in the alleviation of the autonomic reactions Induced by the electric shock* Studies Involving hypnosis.

The Luria technique of

measurement of the Involuntary motor processes underlying behavior was used by Huston, Shakow, and Erickson (19) In a series of hypnotic experiments*

Their subjects were

hypnotized and an anxiety-provoking conflict induced by the suggestion that they had performed acts which were socially unacceptable*

The subjects were awakened after

post-hypnotic amnesia for the incident had been suggested. The association method was then used to elicit responses to words relating to the conflict and to unrelated words.

The

results showed a significant difference between the two types of responses with the conflictual associations showing considerable disturbance. Rosenthal (43) conducted a series of seven experi­ ments investigating the efficiency of hypnotic recall as compared with recall in the waking state.

He used profane-

innocuous words and success-failure tasks among his stimulus materials.

He found no hypnotic hypermnesia for either

profane or innocuous words but noted that profane words were recalled better under both conditions.

When he Induced

success-failure tension, he found hypnotic hypermnesia for failing items only.

He accountsfor these differences by

theorizing that the freedom from anxiety induced by the hypnotic relaxation overcomes the tension and emotional blocks that would otherwise arise to inhibit the recall.

41 Studies inducing reelings of failure at competitive activities.

The effects of failure in the classroom have /

been investigated by Koch (23)*

He gave a group of college

students a series of short quizzes. returned to the students.

These were graded and

They then rated their grades on

a scale of one to five to indicate their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with it.

After an interval of five weeks

after the last quiz, they were asked to recall the grades. The results indicated that the subjects remembered best those grades they were most satisfied with and next best those most dissatisfied with, provided that this grade constituted a real threat of failure of the course. -—

A study by Sears (44) attempted to demonstrate the

initiation of a repression sequence through the development of mutually incompatible tasks.

The subjects were given a

learning task using nonsense syllables.

A card sorting task

involving speed of performance was then introduced, and one group was made to succeed while another group experienced failure at the task.

It was shown that failure on one task

impaired the performance on the other task.

McClelland and

Apicello (28) repeated this study and again demonstrated the result of disorganization on subsequent learning. -—

Zeller (55) used similar experimental methods.

His

subjects learned fifteen paired semi-nonsense syllables*

kz Failure at an interpolated test involving the imitation of tapping patterns using Knox cubes constituted the emotional trauma*

Later success at the tapping was Induced in an

attempt to remove the emotional effect s.

Relearning and

recall were used to test memory in separate experiments* He concludes that "induced failure at a task, when not in­ dicated as specific to that task, serves to reduce the ability to recall previously known material which has become associated with the failure task" (55,P*^3)*

He found,

further, that "induced success at the same associated task serves to Increase the ability to recall the original material" (55,P*^3)•

Zeller attempted to demonstrate the

same phenomena using failure and success on classroom tests and found no statistical difference between the two groups* -—

A series of studies by Rosenzweig and his associates

r r (39,39,^09k\ 9kZ) has utilized failure in competitive tasks to induce anxiety and bring about ego-defensive behavior* Their procedures consisted of giving Jigsaw puzzles to groups of children and adults and inducing half to fail and the other half to succeed*

The results have indicated

that the mental set of the subject, l*e*, whether the task is one in which failure is ego-threatening or can be casual­ ly accepted, will determine the relative memory values of the tasks.

Zeigarnik (5^) bad previously established better

retention for uncompleted tasks when the experimental

if3 situation was not a personal threat, e*g*, when the task was structured in terms of gaining knowledge about puzzles* The Rosenzweig experiments showed that when the subject interprets interruption at the task as failure, the names of unsuccessful puzzles are more poorly retained*

A method

of immediate recall (within fifteen minutes of the experi­ mental session) was used to test the memory differences* Several other workers have repeated the experiments by Rosenzweig*

Alper (1) proceeded from an hypothesis that

when subjects were randomly selected for personality factors there would be no significant differences between the recall of completed and incompleted tasks*

The results which she

reports tend to confirm her hypothesis*

Glixman (13) has

presented a further experiment using groups and involving the interruption of paper-and-pencil tasks*

In the same

article he has reanalyzed the data of Rosenzweig and Alper and compared them with his own results*

When recall of

incompleted and completed activities is considered separate­ ly, he finds, as stress Increases, that a decrease in the recall of Incompleted activities is found in all three studies but attains statistical significance only in his own experiment.

A corresponding increase in the recall of

completed activities with the Increase in stress Is found only in Rosenzweig* s data*

Alper* s results, on the other

hand, show a significant decrease in the recall of completed

44 activities, and this is also the trend in, Glixman1s findings. He concludes that Hthere still remains a surprising lack of correspondence among the results of the different experi­ ments, even when the methods of analyzing the data are similar11 (13*P*504) • ^

Threat to the subject1s self esteem was used to

Induce anxiety in an experiment conducted by Gould (14) • Her subjects were Informed that they were taking a new type of personality test.

They were given a pair of tasks

and told that the choice would reveal good or bad person­ ality characteristics.

After making the choice and learning

what it had “revealed** (according to predetermined patterns selected by the experimenter) the subject completed the task.

After six such trials immediate recall of the names

of the tasks was tested.

Control groups performed the

tasks under non-emotional conditions.

The primary reporting

of the results was in qualitative rather than quantitative terms.

She states, “The major differences between the con­

trol and the experimental series lie in the 1random1 charac­ ter of the forgetting in the control series, in contrast to the 1selective* character in the experimental series* (14*, p.266). ' Gould.also made Judgments of the level of emotional tension on a three-point scale.

In correlating these

ratings with the forgetting, she concluded that an increase

In the level of emotional tension Is related to an increase in the amount of forgetting*

Extensive theoretical treat­

ment of these results leads to a postulation that High tension alters the way in which we perceive an event and also the way in which the trace representa­ tives are organized* The alteration effected by high tension is in the direction of destructuring or de­ differentiation. The dedifferentiation may be at the time of perception or at the time of recall (14,p. 280).

CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Description of the experimental conditions and pro­ cedures may be divided into several sections.

In the first,

the subjects which constitute the population of the study will be described*

The selection procedures by which sub­

jects were chosen; psychological test data that is available; and the diagnoses given these patients by the psychological and psychiatric staff will be presented and analyzed.

In the

second section, detailed information will be found con­ cerning apparatus and stimulus materials which were used in the study*

In the next section, the procedures by which

the experiment was conducted will he presented.

The final

section will be devoted to the description of the measures which were used to quantify the data forthcoming from the experiment.

This section will be preliminary to the next

chapter which will concern the results themselves. I.

THE SUBJECTS

Selective procedures*

The subject population of the

experiment consisted of thirty male patients in a neuro1 psychiatric hospital. Twenty-two of the thirty subjects 1

The study was conducted with the approval of the Research Committee of the Brentwood Neuropsychiatric Hospital, a Veterans Administration facility.

hi were selected for the study soon after their admission to the hospital and were tested during the second week of their hospitalization#

During this week, they were confined to a

"closed ward," i#e#, did not have free access to the hospital grounds, and were engaged in completing preliminary medical, psychiatric, and psychological examinations. The subjects were selected from the hospital admis­ sions on the basis of preliminary psychological and psychiat­ ric examinations#

Some evidence for the existence of a

potential capacity for the experiencing of anxiety along with good reality contact were the two subjective criteria by which the experimenter selected potential subjects.

The

results on the Minnesota Multlphasic Personality Inventory were available for most of these patients#

In order to

elllmlnate subjects who had little potential for anxiety, only those subjects whose profiles showed the "neurotic side" to contain the predominant high scores, whose Pd score was not above the critical 70 T-score level, and where the psychotic scales were not above a critical level were selected#

3c scores were considered to be an exception and

T-scores up to 80 were allowed where the other two criteria were fulfilled. The remaining eight subjects were selected from the open ward of the hospital.

These patients were in a more

advanced stage of their treatment, and the majority had

46 experienced some remission of their active neurotic or psychotic states.

The criteria described above also

governed the selection of these patients. Be script Ion of the subjects.

Although no routine

testing or diagnosis of the subjects was made as part of the experiment, in the majority of the cases the files of the patients contain data of this nature.

Admission psycho­

logical testing and preliminary diagnoses were available for twenty-four of the thirty subjects.

The diagnosis made by

the psychiatrist in charge of the patient was obtained for all but one patient.

The files on this patient had been

transferred from the hospital.

The complete diagnoses are

given in Appendix A. The ages of the subjects range from nineteen to forty-nine years with the mean at thirty-one years.

Shipley-

Hartford data are available for twenty-two of the subjects. The means and ranges for these subjects are presented in Table II.

The mean I. Q. for these subjects IS 106.

On

three subjects not Included in this group Wechsler-Bellevue scores of 97* 128, and 112 were obtained. scores is 109*

The mean of these

It may be concluded, therefore, that as a

group, the subjects fall within the range of average in­ telligence. Scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory for

49

TABLE XI MEANS AND RANGES FOR SHIPLEY-HARTFORD TESTING ON TWENTY-TWO SUBJECTS

Range

Mean

Verbal Age

16.7

12*2 to

19.8

Abstraction Age

13-7

7.8 to

18.9

Mental Age

15*1

to

18.6

0

SO«s

78.0 to

*

Conceptual Quotient

105.9

H

Intelligence Quotient

H H •

Statistic

47.0 to 108.0

twenty-four subjects are given in Table III*

For compara­

tive purposes, T-scores for two additional groups are also given#

Group IX consists of tests on patients from the

same hospital#

This group was tinselected and includes all

patients tested over a period of several years*

The experi­

mental group may be partially Included in this larger group. Group III is a ^normal11 group consisting of 112 male college students*

Figure 1, page 52, is a graphic representation of

the mean T-scores for the three groups*

It will be noted

that the two hospital groups differ appreciably from the Mnormala group on all scales.

The experimental group

differs from the total hospital group most on the D and So scales#

The experimental group is seven T-scale units

higher than the hospital group on the D scale and five units lower on the Be scale#

Analysis of the two hospital

group profiles suggests that the selective procedures of the experiment have excluded many of the psychotics that would be part of an unselected hospital group#

This would

be expected Inasmuch as an active psychotic would not be able to fulfill the criteria of anxiety potential and good reality contact which were used in the selection of the subjects* described —

The present population would seem to be properly as a group -- as more neurotic than the average

hospital patient group*

51 TABLE III H E M T SCORES WITH K ADDED FOR THREE GROUPS ON THE MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY

Scale

Experimental Group N=23

Hospital Population N-110

College Students N=112

L

5k

53

50

K

52

55

57

P

59

6k

55

Hs

69

67

52

D

80

72

58

Hy

69

67

58

Pd

66

69

57

Mf

57

59

65

Pa

59

62

53

Pt

68

66

56

Sc

65

71

59

Ma

61

63

58

P R O F IL E C H A R T 120

110

Experinental N>«30

100

T Score

College N»:il2

?

L

K

F

Hs + .5 K

D

Hy

Pd

Mf

+ .4 K

Pa

Pt +1K

Sc +1K

M a + .2 K

FIGURE 1 GRAPH OF MEAN T SCORES FOR THREE GROUPS

Diagnostic description*

A comparison of the diagnoses

made hy the psychological and psychiatric staff of the hos­ pital for the subjects Included in the experiment reveals that in only eight instances does the wording of the diag­ noses concur in both instances.

This may be attributed to

the unreliability inherent in diagnostic procedures.

The

two diagnoses were made on different types of data and at different times.

The psychologist based his diagnosis 2 primarily on a test battery. The psychiatrist had avail­ able the psychological materials and, in addition, the results of various hospital laboratory testing devices such as the EEGr.

He had usually Interviewed the patient

for several hours and had the opportunity to observe his behavior on the ward. A summary of the diagnoses given the subjects is found in Table IV.

In spite of the many differences

between the psychologist and the psychiatrist in diagnostic formulation, there Is agreement to the extent that about 55 per cent of the subjects were diagnosed as non-psychotie , and about 19 per cent were thought to be in a psychotic state.

Of the active psychotic cases, the only definite

diagnosis given was that of Schizophrenic reaction, Paranoid 2

Includes the MMPI, Shipley-Hartford, Draw A Person, and Sentence Completion Tests.

5k

TABLE IV SUMMARY OF DIAGNOSES GIVEN THE SUBJECTS BY THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC STAFF OF THE HOSPITAL

Psychologi st s * diagnoses

Psychlatrlfit s • diagnoses

Non-Psychotic

56.1%

53«*$

Pre-Psychotic and Active Psychoses

16.7

20.0

Psychotic in Remission

3-3

23-3

No Diagnosis

23.3

3.3

100.0

100.0

Total

55 Type.

In the remaining eases, either unclassified Schizo­

phrenic Reaction or Schizophrenic reaction, mixed, was the diagnosis*

Of the neurotic diagnoses that were given, that

of Anxiety Reaction appears in 75 per cent of the psycho­ logical diagnoses and in 83 per cent of the psychiatric diagnoses. It may he concluded, therefore, that the patients who were selected for the study have heen given diagnoses which for the most part are consistent with the two criteria of selection, i«e,f that there he capacity for the experi­ encing of anxiety and that reality contact he intact.

The

inclusion of early active and remissed paranoid schizo­ phrenics may he Justified hy the clinical picture of relatively good contact and anxiety which these cases are known to exhibit. II.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

The laboratory.

The experiment was conducted in two

rooms located on the third floor of a building used for wards for the hospital patients.

Inasmuch as this floor

of the building was not in active use, the laboratory was not subjected to disturbance nor was any appreciable noise to be heard.

A diagram showing the main experimental room

is to be found in Figure 2.

An adjoining room of similar

5e

3 E Pn GP

subject experimenter OSR apparatus projector

Sc B W I) T

» screen a reaction » darkened a door a table

FIGURE Z DIAGRAM OF MAIN EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORY

timebulb windows

57 dimensions was used to administer the learning phase of the experiment. . In Figure 2 the pieces of apparatus _which were used in the experiment have "been lettered individually. The diagram shows, in addition, the placement of the sub­ ject and the experimenter in regard to the apparatus. Apparatus for measuring the Galvanic Skin Response. The GSR apparatus used in the experiment was the R. G. A. VoltOhmyst circuit as modified by Haggard and Gerbrands (1?) • Reference to this article should be made for a detailed de­ scription of the apparatus and complete circuit diagram.

A

simplified diagram of the circuit will be found in Figure 3. It will be noted that it consists essentially of a bridge amplifier.

Voltage to operate the amplifier was taken from

a voltage-regulated power supply (Constant Voltage Trans­ former SOLA Ho. 30807).

The output was indicated on a

100-0-1G0 microampmeter (Weston Model 301).

Recording was

accomplished by visual reading of the magnitude of the ♦

deflection.

Instead of the cup type electrodes suggested

by Haggard and Gerbrands, solid zinc plates — in position of the palm —

were used.

adjustable

These were commer­

cially constructed and obtained through 0. H. Stoeltlng Company.

The subject’s palm was prepared for the electrodes

by cleaning with a rubbing alcohol compound.

The transition

between the metal electrodes and the skin was made by a

variable resistance

continuously variable shunt

METER

electrodes

FIGURE 3 SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM OF R.G.A. JUNIOR VOLTOHYST CIRCUIT (TYPE 165-A) AS MODIFIED BY ffiSAGGARD AND GERBRANDS (17)

59 sodium chloride base electrode paste.

The electrodes were

secured to the hand by

means of a leather strap. The sub­

ject was Instructed to

hold his hand in a comfortable

relaxed position. The apparatus allows for tivity of the meter by variable shunt.

adjustment of the

sensi­

changing the resistance in the

The full sensitivity was used unless meter

readings could not be made.

In this case, the sensitivity

was reduced by a constant amount which proved to be approxi­ mately one-half.

The apparatus was separately calibrated

for each of the sensitivity levels by the substitution in the circuit of a controlled resistance source for the subject. Pneumograph.

Measurement of respiratory changes was

accomplished by the use of the pneumograph unit of the Cardlo-pneumo Polygraph. 3

An elastic belt consisting of

a rubber tube with a weak spiral spring inside was fitted around the subject's chest.

Ohanges in the volume of the

air within the tube were transmitted to the recording apparatus and appear on a paper chart through the use of an ink-writing pen.

The recording was made on Chart No.

1700-X, produced by the Esterllne-Angus Company. Apparatus for measuring Reaction Time.

Inasmuch as

all apparatus was to be operated by a single experimenter, SG. R. St0elting Co.

deviation from the usual timing methods for obtaining the reaction time interval was made*

The cardiograph part of

the Cardio-pneumo Polygraph, described in the previous section, was used for this purpose,

A rubber bulb which

was a closed body of air was connected to the recording pen by a rubber tube.

The application of pressure by the hand

of the experimenter could, in this way, be recorded on the paper*

In measuring reaction- time, the experimenter gave

two slight applications of pressure as the stimulus word for association was given verbally and a single pressure at the moment of the subject* s verbalization of the response word.

Fairly accurate records could be obtained in this way*

The records were first measured,and the millimeter score was entered for each reaction time*

The data was later converted

to seconds* Photographic pro .lection apparatus*

Part of the ex­

perimental procedures consists of the projection of 35mm black and white slides. Model AAA,

The projector used was the S. V* E*

The illumination power of this model is rated

at 120 volts and 300 watts.

Reference to Figure 2 will show

that the pictures were projected to the back of a translu­ cent screen over a distance of nine feet#

The subject sat

at a distance of six feet in front of the screen.

The

screen was constructed of Bolled silk11 and measured thirty-six

61 "by thirty-six inches*

It was placed on the table which

separated the subject from the experimenter.

The projected

picture appeared to the subject from the dull side of the screen and measured approximately .twenty inches high and thirty inches wide.

The picture was centered approximately

twelve inches above the subjects eye level.

The photo­

graphic materials consisted of 35mm slides made from Eastman Direct Positive Film.

The materials had been rephotographed

to this film medium from their original eight by ten inch print size.

The laboratory had been darkened by covering

the windows with dark green shades.

This provided ample

darkness for the projection yet left sufficient light for the inspection of the functioning of the apparatus.

The

recording forms and the GSR dial were illuminated by the use of a shaded low watt bulb. Memory apparatus.

During that part of the experiment

which will be designated as the learning phase, a memory drum was used.

The particular apparatus used in this ex­

periment was manufactured by the Lafayette Instrument Company.

The word lists were typed on white paper and

fastened to the drum*

The constant speed motor rotated

the drum so as to expose each typewritten line for a period of two seconds.

The wide opening of the apparatus was

divided in half by a card so that two lists were able to

62 be presented on each sheet of paper; the transfer from one to the other was mad© by replacement of the card over the appropriate section of the opening. III.

DESCRIPTION OF STIMULUS MATERIALS

The stimulus picture s.

Six 35mm black and white

slides were used In the experimental sessions.

Three of

the slides (Slides A, B, and 0 in Figure k) are designated as BNeutral slides,* and the remaining slides (Slides X, Y, and Z in Figure 4) are designated as *Anxiety slides. Examination of the photographic reproductions of the pictures given in Figure k will indicate the essential differences between the two types of slides.

It will be

noted that the Neutral slides show two clothed men engaged in various types of activities.

In Slide A the two men are

seated at a table working on a radio chassis.

Slide B shows

the same men speaking into a microphone as though they were making some sort of broadcast. playing a card game.

Slide C shows the two men

Each of these activities was intended

to portray the type of function in which two men could en­ gage with complete social approval.

^ The names given to the groups of materials are meant as differentiating labels which are roughly descrip­ tive of the types of materials involved.

The Anxiety slides, on the other hand, show two men who are unclothed and who are posed together in ways that may he interpreted as expressing a symbolic erotic re­ lationship between two men.

In slides Y and Z there is,

in addition, an expression of aggressive and receptive roles*

The rationale behind the choice of this material

as a source of anxiety feelings is based on the concept that male intimacy as shown in the pictures would be suggestive of homosexuality*

It was assumed, further, that

the social and cultural forces that are directed at the suppression and control of such practices would operate through the individual subject to make the necessity of reaction in such a stimulus situation conflictual enough to arouse emotional disturbance which could be termed anxiety* The Word Association Lists*

Each of the six pictures

described in the preceding section has corresponding to It a word association list consisting of eight stimulus words* The word lists have a direct relationship to the pictures, and each list is presented to the subject while he is view­ ing the corresponding picture* In their entirety*

Table V presents the lists

The first three lists are designated as

"Neutral" and lettered A, B, and 0*

The remaining three

lists are part of the "Anxiety" conditions and are lettered

65 TABLE V WORD LISTS USED AS STIMULUS MATERIAL

NEUTRAL LISTS List A

List B

List 0

!• 2. 3. km 5• 6m 7# 8.

1* Zm 3* km 5m 6* 7. 8*

1* 2m 3m km 5. 6. 7, 8•

help shill interest Job radio steadiness chair nan

clear talk hobby newe microphone ability paper success

winner game trust player table friend cards Intelligence

ANXIETY LISTS List X

List Y

List Z

1« 2* 3. 4* 5* 6m 7m 8.

!• blonde Zm daisy 3m stiff k m helpless 5* hair 6. sweet 7* chain 8* nude

1. Zm 3m km

tenderness fruit temptation attachment sofa devotion hands embrace

attractive queer lay touch 5 m mouth 6. smoothness ?• knife 8. sucker

66 X, Y, and Z. Several considerations determined the selection of the words*

While it was the intention to make the situa­

tions differ in their neutrality or anxiety characteristics, the stimulus words themselves were not made to differ marked­ ly in these directions*

It was hoped, rather, that the com­

bination of the picture and the word would constitute the the Neutral or Anxiety conditions*

Host of the words chosen

for the Anxiety lists, therefore, while not in themselves anxiety provoking, gained an anxiety factor through their association with the pictures and by virtue of the inter­ pretation that the subject made of the experimental sit­ uation* The Neutral words were chosen because they did not possess marked emotional characteristics, e*g., pleasantness, unpleasantness, and because of their relevance to the pictured activities* In order to take into consideration the effect of quality and type of words used in the two situations, a rough method of word differentiation was devised and used in the word selection process*

Possible word selections

were classified as belonging to one of four groups.

The

first group consisted of nouns which apply to concrete objects, e*g., radio, cards, sofa, chain, knife.

A second

group was made up of nouns which have a more abstract

quality and cannot be referred simply to a concrete object in the stimulus situation, e.g., job, game, fruit.

The

third group of words consisted of those which describe fairly concrete qualitative aspects of the situations, e.g., interest, ability, trust*

The fourth group included

more abstract qualitative words and those with action char­ acteristics, e.g., embrace, help, attractive.

The six word

lists were constructed by the method of placing two words of each type in each list.

Inasmuch as these word lists

were to play a stimulus role in eliciting the more crucial response words, it was felt that complete equalization of the lists would not be essential, and the selection pro­ ceeded so as to fulfill as many of the above considerations as possible. IV.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

In describing the experimental procedures, the experi­ ment will be divided into several parts:

(1) The intro­

ductory phase, (2) The registration phase, (3) The learning phase, (k) The first retention interval (5) The first recall phase, (6) The second retention interval, (?) The anxiety reduction phase, and (8) The second recall phase.

A

schematic representation of these various parts will be found in Table VI.

TABLE VI ABSTRACT OP THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Session

Phase

Procedure

1* Introductory

Selection of subjects

Zm Registration

Instruction Adjustment of apparatus Free Association I Slide and list a, b, c Slide and list x, y, z

I 3. Learning

List a, x, b, y, 0 , z, or x f a, y, b, z, c km First Retention Interval 5* First Recall II

III

48 hours Free Recall II Adjustment of apparatus Controlled Recall II Slide and list a, b, c Slide and list x, y, z

6m Second Retention Interval

48 hours

7# Anxiety Reduction

Interview with subject

3 . Second Recall

Free Recall III Controlled Recall III Slide and list a, b, c Slide and list x, y, z

Introductory phase.

In an earlier section the means

by which potential subjects were selected have been described* On Priday of each week prospective subjects were seen by the experimenter In their hospital ward, and a brief intro­ ductory statement of the experiment was given.

This state­

ment was somewhat as follows: You have been selected to take part in a hospital research into the reactions of typical patients. All you will have to do is look at some pictures and give some words. We would appreciate your willingness to help us in this research* The subject1s questions were answered without giving further information about the experiment.

In the great majority of

cases the subject then gave his consent to participation In the study, and an appointment was made with him for the following Monday.

When a patient showed reluctance to

becoming a subject he was removed from consideration*

In

a few Instances the brief contact with the patient convinced the experimenter that the selection had been unwise and the patient was not further considered*

This was the case

wherever there were obvious bizzare elements in his verbali­ zation or behavior. Registration phase.

The subject was brought to the

experimental room on Monday for Session I of the experiment* After he was seated, the following Instructions were read by the experimenter:

You have been selected to take part in a hospital study of* the reactions of patients* As part of this study you will be shown pictures and given words to which you are to respond. First, we will connect some apparatus which will give us measures of your breathing and skin reaction while you are in here. Just relax and forget that these instruments are here. The electrodes for-the GSR apparatus were then fastened to the left palm and the elastic belt of the pneumograph was adjusted around the chest of the subject.

The experimenter

seated himself at the apparatus table and proceeded to balance the GSR apparatus to the resistance of the subject and to record the obtained dial reading.

He then read the

following instructions: Here is what you are to do. When the picture comes on the screen just look at it. After a short time I will say a word that has some relationship to the picture. After you hear each word, 1 want you to call out one other word. It does not matter what the word you say is, but it must be the first word that comes into your mind after you hear my word. I should like you to call out your words as fast as you can because I will be timing you; The room lights were turned off and Slide A of the Neutral series was then projected, and the GSR apparatus again balanced.

The experimenter then spoke the first of the

stimulus words of List A, and the subject gave his response word.

The following data were recorded for each word-

association unit:

(1) the response word was written on

the record form; (2) the peak of deflection of the GSR meter was read and recorded along with the setting of the

71 "balance dial; (3) the reaction time bulb was pressed so as to record the moment of presentation of the stimulus word and of the subjects response word*

After these measures

had been taken, the GBR apparatus was again adjusted so as to bring the meter needle to a relatively stable resistance level*

The experimenter then gave the second word on the

list and the above procedures were repeated* all eight words of List A were given*

In this manner,

The experimenter then

moved to the projector and Slide B was presented to the subject.

List B was then spoken and responses recorded in

the same manner as was used for List A*

Slide 0 and List C

followed the presentation of the words of List B* Having completed the Neutral condition part of the registration phase, the experimenter then projected the first of the Anxiety pictures and read the following in­ structions to the subject: In a minute another group of pictures will be shown and more words will be spoken* At this point I can tell you more about the purpose of this study. We are measuring the reaction of men to two different types of pictures and words. The one type — which you have Just seen — does not cause men to become tense and nervous* The other type — which you see on the screen - may cause you to become disturbed, tense, and nervous* In order for us to measure your reactions, we have connected you to some apparatus which Is able to reveal your impulses and tendencies — even though you may want to hide them. This apparatus is sometimes called a Lie Detector*

Remember! When I give a word, you are to call out the first word that comes into your mind# Listen care­ fully and work quickly. The three Anxiety pictures and word lists (Slides and Lists X, Y, and Z) were presented with exactly the same procedures as were used during the Neutral condition. The examiner at this point turned on the room lights and proceeded to remove the apparatus that had been adjusted to the subject#

While doing this he said, "That completes

this part of the study.

In a few minutes you will do

another,task in the next room. H Learning phase.

The learning phase was a part of

Session X and followed the registration phase by a time interval of about ten minutes.

During this time the subject

had been taken to the room in which the learning was to be administered and allowed to smoke a cigarette if he desired. The experimenter was occupied during this interval with the typing of the word lists that were to be used on the memory drum.

The learning session was in all Instances administered

by a psychologist other than the experimenter#

Five assist­

ants were used throughout the course of the experiment. Each worked with about six subjects#

Each of the assistants

had been given a thorough indoctrination in the operation of the apparatus and in the standard conditions of administra­ tion, and it is believed that the results obtained by all

are comparable*

When It is noted, further, that for each

individual subject the learning of both Neutral and Anxiety word lists were administered by the same person, it will be seen that the use of different experimenters should not be reflected in the results, at least Insofar as any differ­ ences between the two conditions was concerned* The subject was seated in front of the memory drum, and the administrator read the following instructions? You are now to learn the words which you have given* In this opening you will see — one at a time — the word which Mr. Hooper gave and also the word which you gave* First, the word Mr. Hooper gave will appear in the opening on the left side. As soon as It appears you are to say it out loud and then quickly say the word that you gave in response to it* If you don*t know, you may guess. After a second the right word will appear on the right side of the opening. If you have not already given this word say the correct word out loud. The machine will then turn to the next word combination. It will only count if you say the word before it appears, so you must work quickly. The task for the subject, therefore, was to learn by the anticipation method the word combinations (experimenter1s stimulus word —

subject1s response word)*

The criterion

for each list of eight word pairs was the attainment of one perfect trial.

At this point the learning trials were dis­

continued* The word pairs from each word list were learned separately.

In order to control the factor of presentation

order, half of the subjects learned the lists In an order in which the Neutral word lists preceded the Anxiety words

74(A, X, B, X, G, Z), and the other half learned the lists with the Anxiety preceding the Neutral (X, A, Y, B, Z, G). As soon as the criterion had been reached on all lists, the subject was dismissed with the statement: That completes our work for today. We will appre­ ciate it if you do not discuss what we are doing here with anyone in the ward. The test administrator kept the following records during this phase of the experiment:

A notation of the

number of trials which were required for the subject to reach the criterion and a record of the individual errors on word combinations during each trial. First retention interval.

The subject was returned

to hie ward and participated in routine ward activities until he returned to the laboratory on Wednesday of the same week.

For all subjects a period of approximately

forty-eight hours elapsed between the start of Session I and the start of Session II. First recall phase.

Two methods of measuring the

recall of the subject1s response words were employed in each of the recall phases.

The first is termed BFree

Recall,11 and the second ^Controlled Recall.11 These methods will be best described by the procedures used in their administration.

75 At the start of Session II (Wednesday), the subject was again brought to the laboratory and seated in the chair in front of the screen*

The experimenter then read the

following instructions: Today we want to find out how many of the words that you learned on Monday you are able to remember. We are only Interested in the words that you gave. Try not to give words that I gave. When I say start, give as many of the words as you can remember* If you aren*t sure, you may guess* Go ahead and give all the words you can remember. The subject then proceeded to give verbally as many words as he could, and each was recorded by the experimenter. If the subject reached a point at which he could recall no more words, he was encouraged to “continue trying“ until at least five minutes had elapsed since the recall of the first word and until two minutes had elapsed after the recall of the last spoken word.

No subject required more

than ten minutes for this recall process.

The term “Free

Recall“ is given to this method of eliciting recall because there are no direct stimulus cues given to the subject.

No

apparatus was mseddmilng the administration of this recall. At the conclusion of the Free Recall, the experi­ menter said:

“Now we will repeat fdiat we did on Monday.

First, I will adjust the apparatus* “

He proceeded to attach

the G-SR electrodes and the belt of the pneumograph. following instructions were then read:

The

First you will see the normal pictures. When the picutre comes on the screen Just look at it. After a minute or two I will say a word that has some relation­ ship to the picture. After you hear each word, X want you to call out the same word that you gave on Monday. If you can11 remember, guess or give some other word. Gall out your words as fast as you can, because I will be timing you. This method is termed HGontrolled Recall,11 because the stimulus conditions were again presented, and the subject was specifically instructed to respond with the recall word. The procedures used in the administration of this method of recall are similar to those described under the registration phase of Session I. were presented first.

Again the Neutral pictures and words The following instructions preceded

the administration of the Anxiety pictures and words: Now you will see the other type of pictures. You may again feel nervous and disturbed. Listen care­ fully and give your word quickly. After the Anxiety materials had been responded to, the apparatus was removed from the subject, and he was dismissed with the statement:

HThJLs completes our work for today.

Remember that you are not to discuss the study with anyone on the ward." Second retention interval. I —

Again —

the subject was returned to his ward.

as after Session Again a period

of forty-eight hours elapsed between sessions with Session III being conducted on Friday.

77 Anxiety reduction phase.

At the start of Session XXI

the subject was seated in his usual place*

The experimenter,

however, was now seated Just to hie right.

The interview

with the subject that followed was intended to serve a dual purpose.

In the first place, it was designed to elicit the

attitudes and reactions which the subject had towards the experiment, i.e., the stimulus materials, the purpose of the study, the physiological equipment used, the recall tasks.

The second purpose of the interview was to attempt

to induce a reduction in the anxiety produced by the experi­ mental situation through giving the subjeot an opportunity to verbalize his feelings about it and by providing clari­ fying information and support which would serve as reassur­ ance* The Interview proceeded with each subject according to certain standard conditions*

Certain standard areas of

inquiry were established, but the interview was conducted so as to preserve the spontanaeity and freedom of expression that would provide the maximum cathartic value in the re­ duction of anxiety*

The best description of the techniques

used in the interview can be obtained in the presentation of the interview notes from the records of one of the sub­ jects.

Experimenter comments in this interview are similar

to those made In all other interviews.

78 ANXIETY REDUCTION INTERVIEW - SUBJECT No. 19 Experimenter: Before we start today I wonder If you would mind giving me your reactions to what I have asked you to do this week. I would like to know what you think the purpose of the study has been, why I showed you the pictures I did, and how they made you feel* Subject: I didn11 have any particular reaction. You showed the picture, gave the word and got reactions to the pictures. It was to show how much that is part of me — those nude boys. I wasn*t impressed. It gave me the impression that you thought I had that sort of a tendency. Experimenter:

How did that make you feel?

Subject: I didnft like it. insinuation.

I thought it was a dirty

Experimenter: What were your reactions to the nude pictures? (If the subject denied knowledge of the purpose of the study, this question was worded as follows: Why do you think the nude pictures were shown to you? This was followed by a question concerning the reactions to the pictures.) Subject: Sort of disgust. I never did care for that type of male body. I thought these fellows were queers. Their bulging muscles and greasiness. Experimenter:

How did they make you feel?

Subject: Not nervous in that I had any attachment to them. I felt complete repulsion. I don*t even think it1a good looking. Experimenter: What reaction did you have to the appara­ tus that was used. Subject: No reaction — klnda nerve wracking.

submitting to the test was

Experimenter: Did you have any idea when you left after the first session on Monday what you would be asked to do when you came back? Subject:

I thought there wouldn*t be the same pictures.

Experimenter: I appreciate your giving me your reactions so frankly. Perhaps you would like to know more about what we have been doing here, I have tried to make you nervous in regard to one set of pictures. Everything we did was designed to make you feel nervous. Take the instruments. They were used simply to make you more tense. I told you they were like a lie detector and that it could measure your Impulses. Actually no in­ strument can do that. What we got was a measure of your breathing and your skin reaction. In your case the instruments didn't seem to work very well because the records show that you were less tense than the average person. Subject:

I didn't feel very nervous.

Experimenter: Take the pictures. Those showing the nude men were deliberately chosen because we know that to have to respond to such pictures will make any man a little bit tnese. They affect everyone that way. You may wonder, "Why did he want to make me nervous? u Subject:

Yes, I would like to know.

Experimenter: We wanted to find out what effect being nervous has on the memory. That Is why we asked you to learn words and then wanted to see If you remembered them. These results will be important in helping patients in a hospital like this. We certainly appre­ ciate your helping us out. Have you any other questions? Subject: No, I guess I see what you were driving at. (Questions were answered in the same manner as the preceding explanations.) Experimenter: Perhaps you now would like to go briefly over the things we have done before and see if you can improve your scores. We won't have to use the apparatus this time because now that you know that it was to make you nervous it wouldn't work. Second recall phase.

The procedures employed during

this phase of the experiment were, for the most part, iden­ tical with those used in the first recall period in Session

II.

Again, two methods of measuring recall of the words

which were given in the registration phase and learned in the learning phase provide the primary quantification of the results. The Free Recall technique was repeated with the same instructions that had been used in Session II.

Again the

subject'was ashed to give all of the words that he could remember. The Gontrolled Recall method was then administered. To eliminate as many of the “anxiety0 factors as would allow a valid measure of the recall, the apparatus for obtaining GSR, the pneumograph, and the reaction time was not employed in this session.

All other procedures -- as outlined in

the description of Session II —

for obtaining this recall

were followed with the exception of the instructions which preceded the presentation of the anxiety pictures.

The

sentence referring to feeling nervous and disturbed was omitted and the instructions read: other type of pictures.

“Now you will wee the

Listen carefully, and give your

word quickly. “ At the conclusion of the session, the subject was informally thanked for his participation in the study and again asked not to discuss the experiment in the wards.

81 V,

MEASURES EMPLOYED IN THE QUANTIFICATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The selection of measures which would he appropriate for an adequate description of the results obtained in the study was an important process*

This section will be de­

voted to a presentation of the various measures that were chosen* Controlled Recall*

The most appropriate unit for a

description of the results obtained under the Controlled Recall conditions of Sessions II and III Is the number of words correctly recalled.

The data for each session has

been divided Into the Neutral and Anxiety conditions, and words obtained from the recall of the three pictures and lists used in each condition have been grouped into a dingle measure* Free Recall *

The words which were given by the sub­

ject were divided into those which were correctly recalled from the Neutral lists and those correctly recalled from the Anxiety lists.

The total number recalled from the

combined three Neutral lists and the combined Anxiety lists constituted score units for this method of recall. Galvanic skin response*

There have been several

articles which discuss the problem of the unit of

measurement appropriate to the type of data which the present study has obtained.

Lacey and Siegel (24) analyzed

the characteristics of several possible G-SE 'units as to their capacity to provide scores that satisfy the criterion of independence of the basal level and the criterion of normality of distribution.

They conclude, “It seems clear

that in terms of our two criteria, only change in con­ ductance and log change in conductance are appropriate for specification of the (rSR11 (24,p. 125).

A later paper by

Haggard (16) approached the problem of selection of an appropriate measure for analysis of variance and smallsample statistical tests.

Pour measures (resistance change,

conductance change, log resistance change, and log con­ ductance change) were applied to the same data, and the results were studied as to their respective fulfillment of the following criteria:

additivity, normality, homogeneity

of variances, independence of variances, and randomness. Perhaps the most important of these criteria for the present study is that of additivity, i.e., the scale of measurement should possess equal intervals over its total range*

Haggard

showed that although none of the four measures is completely satisfactory, log resistance and log conductance change do not show a systematic shift in the range of levels included in his data.

He goes on to conclude that “the log con­

ductance change best satisfied the assumption of additivity,

83 normality, homogeneity of the variance, independence of the means and variances, and maximal precision11 (16,p.392)* Log Conductance Change was, therefore, the unit of measurement that was adopted for the expression of the GSR data of the present experiment. the following manner:

The unit was computed in

(1) The resistance level of the

subject at the time of presentation of the stimulus word and the resistance at the maximal deflection were computed from tables derived in the calibration of the GSR apparatus. (2) Each of these resistance measures was then converted to conductance.

The conductance unit —

the micromho —

found by use of the formula, (1/R) X (10^) •

is

The conductance

at a resistance level of 50,000 ohms would be twenty mlcromhos, and at 40,000 ohms would be twenty-five micromhos. (3) She absolute difference between the conductance at the point of presentation of the stimulus and that at the maxi­ mal deflection was then obtained.

The final step in deter­

mining the log conductance change unit consisted of taking the log of the change between the two conductances.

For

ease of computation a constant of 3.00 was added to each of the log values. A second measure of the GSR data may be termed ttbase conductance.B

This was computed by determining the recip­

rocal of the resistance, (i.e., the conductance), at the

Qk moment of presentation of the stimulus word.

The resistance

of the subject may be noted to show significant trends during the course of the response to the word lists.

These trends

are partially independent of the momentary deflections which are the basis of the Log Conductance Change measure.

A

large deflection represents a change in the resistance level and may be followed by a gradual return to the pre-deflection resistance value or may be followed by a partial raise in the resistance and a stabilizing on a lower level than that previously held.

The Base Conductance, therefore, indicates

the conductance level upon which the GBR deflection is super­ imposed.

By finding the mean of the Base Conductance values,

a measure of the accumulative effect of the deflections may be obtained for the Neutral and Anxiety conditions. Respiratory changes.

A measure of the rate of breath­

ing was selected to represent the pneumograph data.

The

respiratory cycles during each two minute period of Sessions X and II were counted, and the mean number of cycles per two minutes was used as the unit.

Again the Neutral and Anxiety

records were given separate scores* Reaction time*

Quantification of the reaction time

records was accomplished by obtaining a measure of the dis­ tance In millimeters between the marfcs on the chart which

85 represented the time of presentation of the stimulus word and the giving of the response word by the subject#

This

millimeter unit was later converted to seconds by deter­ mining the rate at which the chart paper passed the pen* Reaction time scores are available for Sessions I and II. The mean reaction time for the twenty-four words in each condition constitutes the unit by which the data has been analyzed* Learning*

Inasmuch as the Neutral and Anxiety lists

of response words were learned in separate units, analysis of the learning data seemed to be valuable*

The first

measure is the number of trials that were required for attainment of the criterion of one perfect trial, i.e., the trial ©n which the perfect anticipation of the response words occurred*

The second unit consists of a total of the

number of errors or incorrect anticipations during the learning sequence.

The third measure concerns only the

score obtained on the first trial on the learning drum. The number of words correctly recalled on the first trial gives an indication of the relative strength of recall at the start of the learning phase.

This is important as an

indication of the registration strength of the Neutral and Anxiety material.

CHAPTER IV RESULTS The re 0\xXts obtained from the experiment will be presented in three sections*

In the first section, the

results of testing the differences between the Neutral and Anxiety conditions will be discussed.

The physiological data

and reaction time measures will be Included in this section. The succeeding sections will be devoted to the results ob­ tained by two methods of dividing the total population into groups on the basis of their verbal responses in the testing situation* A final section will be used for a summary of the results and a discussion of the total results of the experi­ ment. I.

METHODS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The principal statistical procedures used in the analysis of the data consist In the determination of scores for each subject for each of the available measures.

The

mean values for the entire population of thirty subjects were determined, and the standard deviation and standard error of the means were derived*

The dataware grouped as

part of the method of obtaining these measures of variability.

87 The t-Ratio test of the significance of the deviation between the mean scores of related measures from an hypo­ thesis that both were taken from the same population was used throughout the study.

Inasmuch as several methods of

differentiation were used, different formulas for obtaining the t-ratio were employed. data —

In the primary analysis of the

wherein each subject*s score on the Neutral condi­

tion was compared with that on the related Anxiety condi­ tion —

the factor of correlation between the scores intro­

duced by the fact that they are taken from the same individual necessitated use of a formula by which the correlation is accounted for#’** The remaining methods of statistical analysis were applied to differences between scores of two groups which do not consist of the same subjects and wherein no cor­ relation would be anticipated.

Mean scores for the groups

based on the mean scores for each subject were first ob­ tained.

Analysis of the variability of each distribution

allows computation of the standard error of the means and the standard error of the difference between the means. The ratio of the obtained difference was then derived* The level of significance of the t-ratios was de­ termined by comparison with a table giving the fiducial

1

±

.

Md

V x:dr

limits for the degrees of freedom which were obtained in the population tested.

For the t-ratios derived from analysis

of the differences between pairs of scores for each subject, the degrees of freedom are N-l.

The degrees of freedom for

testing the significance of t-ratios obtained by comparing the mean differences with the standard error of the differ­ ences in unrelated populations are Ni-1 added to Ng-l*

With

twenty-eight degrees of freedom, a t-ratio of 2*05 is re­ quired for a significance at the §. per cent level, 2*4? for significance at the 2 per cent level, and 2*76 for signifi­ cance at the 1 per cent level of confidence.

In the tables

that follow, the level of significance which the t-ratio exceeds will be presented under the heading f,Signif . M The mean has been used as the measure of central tendency in all instances except in the analysis of the GSR data where Log Conductance Change units were considered. Inasmuch as it is not possible to assign a logarithm to a zero value such as is obtained when no noticeable deflection is seen, the mean could not be used for this data.

Median

values, therefore, have been determined and employed to represent the central tendency of the Log Conductance Change measures for each individual.

In summarizing the group data,

however, mean values are again possible, i.e., the mean of the individual medians.

II,

RESULTS OF THE NEUTRAL-ANXIETY DIFFERENTIATION In formulating the experimental design, the princi­

pal differentiation was made into a Neutral and an Anxiety condition with each subject participating in each of the conditions.

The most Important question to he asked in

considering the results, therefore, becomes —

are there

significant differences between the Neutral and the Anxiety scores on each of the several measures?

In interpreting

these measures it will be remembered that the recall measures are the important dependent variables in terms of the hypotheses concerning retention.

The physiological

and reactive measures are important in that they relate to a-priori assumptions concerning the capacity for anxiety production of the stimulus conditions, and because they pro­ vide objective data for the more precise formulation of re­ lationships between the retention and physiological data. Controlled Recall results.

The first of the two

measures of recall which was employed in the experiment has been termed Controlled Recall,” because it Involved a repetition of the stimulus conditions and the use of precise instructions for recall, i.e., the subject either recalled the proper word or gave another response.

The data obtained

are presented in Table VII and by graphs in Figure 5> page 91*

The mean numbers of words recalled out of the total

TABLE VII CONTROLLED RECALL DATA: MEANS, VARIABILITIES, AND t-RATIOS FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEUTRAL AND ANXIETY SESSIONS II AND III

Session II Neutral AnxietyM S* D. s. e .k ,

t-ratio signif.

Session III Neutral Anxiety

16.73*

17.97

15.90

18.37

3.50

4. 20

3.41

3.94

.65

.78

•63

•73

2.15

5%

* Number of* words recalled.

4. 08 2.% Highest possible score is 2^.0.

20

Neutral

19

fStllj Anxiety

Number

of words

recalled

18

IT

.16

15

14 / 1.0

Session II FIGURE 5 MKAN SCORES FOR OQN'CROLLED RECALL. LAtA

92 possible score of twenty-four words have been computed for both the Neutral and the Anxiety conditions of Sessions II and III*

It will be remembered that Session II was the

first recall session and followed the registration session by an interval of forty-eight hours.

Session III was pre­

ceded by the second forty-eight hour retention interval and by the Manxlety reduction interview.w

Scores obtained there­

in reflect the influence of this reduction in anxiety, the effect of a second forty-eight hour retention interval, and whatever practice effect the repetition of the experimental conditions had induced. Anxiety words have higher recall scores in both sessions*

The difference is significant at the $ .per cent

level of confidence at Session II and at the 1 per cent level at Session III.

This represents, therefore, an

entirely significant difference between recall under the two conditions. interest.

The trend of the scores is of considerable

Neutral recall is significantly lower than

Anxiety recall at Session II and becomes even lower after the Anxiety reduction in Session III.

This is suggestive

of a normal curve of forgetting with the passage of a time interval.

The Anxiety score, on the other hand, improves

in Session III.

Recall of the Anxiety words was apparently

facilitated by the combined effect of a further retention Interval, the reduction in anxiety which had been accomplished

93 In the interview, and the repetition of the experimental conditions. Inasmuch as the recall under the two conditions proved to function in reverse directions, I.e., Neutral decreasing and Anxiety increasing, the significance of the difference "between the means became highly significant in Session III as expressed in the t-ratio of 4.08. Free Recall results.

The second recall measure con­

sisted in the subject1s "freely11 recalling the words that had been given in the registration session by naming the words in whatever order they occurred to him and without any stimulus clues other than the general laboratory situation provided.

The differences obtained under these recall con­

ditions do not approach the significances that were found in analysis of the Controlled Recall data.

The trends as seen

in Table VIII and Figure 6, page 95* may, however, be noted. It Is of interest to observe that the results obtained reverse the relative positions that were true In the Con­ trolled Recall.

The higher mean scores are found in the

Neutral recall.

Both Neutral and Anxiety recall improve

in Session III with a slightly greater relative Increase in the number of Anxiety words.

This is reflected in a less

significant difference between the mean values.

9k

TABLE VIII FREE RECALL BATA: MEANS, VARIABILITIES, ANB t-RATIOS FOR BIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEUTRAL ANB ANXIETY SESSIONS II ANB III

Session III

Session II Neutral

Anxiety

Neutral

Anxiety

M

7.87*

7.00

9*23

8.77

S.D*

3.4-9

3.39

3.39

3.58

.65

.63

.63

.67

S. E«

t-ratio signif.

1.29 30#

* Number of words recalled.

.88 40#



]Neutral

10

Number

of words

recalled

Anxiety

Session II

Session III

FlGUm 6 MEAN SCORES FOE FREE RECALL DATA

In considering the increase in Free Recall scores in Session III over those obtained in Session II, it should be noted that an administration of the Controlled Recall had occurred in Session II following the Free Recall and had thus been interposed between the two Free Recall Adminis­ trations.

A second experience in the structured stimulus

situation and repetition of the response words that in this way became available to recall should be reflected in some­ what increased scores in Session III#

Inasmuch as Controlled

Recall means were higher for Anxiety than for Neutral words, this ‘■practice trial” may have slightly favored Anxiety Free Recall# The difference between Controlled and Free Recall# In presenting the recall data for the controlled and free methods, it was noted that the trend showed a reversal of relative position of the Neutral and Anxiety scores. Anxiety words are better recalled when the Controlled Recall method is used, whereas Neutral words receive a higher mean value with use of the Free Recall method#

Different results

would, therefore, be obtained depending on the method that is selected by which to measure the recall.

A statistical

analysis of this difference can be made by testing the sig­ nificance of the difference between Controlled Recall and Free Recall scores under the Neutral and Anxiety conditions#

97 The numerical difference between the Controlled Recall score and the Free Recall score ^constituted the unit that was considered,

A t-ratio was computed to t&st the mean differ­

ence between these difference scores.

It might be postulated

that were there no real difference between the two types of recall, the obtained differences would be approximately equal or insignificantly deviating,

A significant t-ratio

would afford statistical confirmation of real differences in results depending on the method used, i,e., would indicate that the measures are not equivalent. Table IX and Figure 7» page 99$ present the statisti­ cal data obtained in this analysis of the data.

The t-ratios

of 3*42 for Session II and 4,35 for Session III are both significant at the 1 per cent level.

In both sessions the

mean of the differences between Controlled Recall and Free Recall that are obtained under the Anxiety condition is sig­ nificantly different from the mean of similar measures ob­ tained under Neutral conditions.

It would seem, therefore,

that the two measures are not equivalent and that recall results must be interpreted in terms of a particular recall measure and cannot be generalized to include the results obtained by other recall methods. Results indicating the effect of the lfreduction in anxiety11 on the recall scores,

A test of the effect of the

98

TABLE IX DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONTROLLED AND FREE RECALL, DESCRIPTIVE DATA AND t-RATIOS FOR SESSIONS II AND III

Session III

Session II Neutral

Anxiety

Neutral

M

+9*13*

♦11.57

*7.33

+10.00

S.D.

4.2 3

4.08

3.83

3-97

*79

.76

.71

.74

S.E.

M

t-ratlo signif.

3 .42

Anxle ty

4.35 1%

* Indicates Controlled Recall is on the average 9*3-3 words higher than Free Recall.

99

i

jNeutral

Number

of words

f

Session II

Session III

FIGURE 7 MEANS OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONTROLLED RECALL AND FREE RECALL SCORES

attempt to reduce the anxiety factors In the experimental situation on the recall of the Neutral and Anxiety material can he made by computing t-ratios for the differences be­ tween Session II and Session III scores.

Session II scores

are those given at the time of the first recall.

Session

III scores, on the other hand, follow the interview In which the reduction in anxiety was attempted.

The relevant sta­

tistics are presented in Table X for both the Controlled Recall and the Free Recall data. It has been previously noted that the Neutral and Anxiety Controlled Recall data deviate to the extent that the Neutral mean decreases while the Anxiety mean increases. This has been shown to produce reliable differences between the scores obtained on the two measures.

The data in Table

X reveals that the Neutral mean decreases sufficiently in Session III to result in a significant t-ratio (the ob­ tained t of 2.kk is close to the t value of 2.^7 which is required for significance at the 2 per cent level).

It may

be concluded, therefore, that the result of the interview on Neutral Controlled Recall scores is a significant lower­ ing of the scores. The Anxiety scores, in contrast to the trend of the Neutral scores. Increase after the interview.

The differ­

ence is, however, significant at only the 20 per cent level. This would seem to have significance beyond that revealed by

TABLE! X CONTROLLED RECALL AID FREE RECALL DATA: MEANS, VARIABILITIES, AID t-RATIOS FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SESSION II AND SESSION III MEANS FOR NEUTRAL AND ANXIETY

Free Recall

Controlled Recall Neutral

M S.D. S«E. . t-ratio Signif.

Anxiety

Neutral

Session II

Session III

9.23

7.00

8.77

3.49

3-39

3.39

3.58

.65

.63

Session II

Session III

16.73

15.90

17.97

18.37

7.87

3-50

3.41

4.20

3.97

.65

.63

.78

.73

2.44 5#

Session' Session II III

1.44 20#

Anxiety

Session II

Session III

2.83 1#

.67

•63. 3.20 1#

101

102 the statistical teste, however, when it is noted that the increase in scores contradicts the normal forgetting pro­ cess as illustrated by the Neutral scores*

The effect of

the attempted reduction of anxiety is, therefore, to in­ crease the Anxiety scores* The data in Table X indicate that there were sub­ stantial increases in both Neutral and Anxiety means for the Free Recall data.

The obtained t-ratios are both signifi­

cant at the 1 per cent level.

Greater significance between

the differences is found for the Anxiety scores.

In inter­

preting these t-ratios, it should be noted that between the two sessions the subject was subjected to a Controlled Re­ call of the materials.

Inasmuch as this consisted in a

repetition of the stimulus conditions, it would contribute a further practice session and tend to increase the later scores in the Free Recall of Session III.

With this limita­

tion in mind, it may be tentatively stated that the results reveal the efficacy of the interview in contributing to an increase in recall as measured under conditions which give the subject a minimum of stimulus cues. Log Conductance Change results.

GSR deflections were

measured coincident with the giving of the subject*s response words during the registration phase and during the first re­ call by the Controlled Recall method.

The deflections have

been expressed asthe logarithm of the

absolute change in

103 conductance, i.e., the conductance while the subject is in a relatively stabilized period prior to presentation of the stimulus word compared to the conductance at the peak of the defelction which accompanies the verbal response*

Table XI

and Figure 8, page 105, present the means, variabilities, and t-ratios for the Neutral and Anxiety scores for Sessions I and II.

The t-ratios that were obtained do not reflect

any significant difference between the means for the Neutral and Anxiety conditions of either session.

The obtained

means, however, deviate in directions which are consistent with the a-prlorl expectiations.

The greater deflections

in both instances are found in the Anxiety data.

This fact

is of greater importance when it is noted that it reverses the process of adaptation: which is a usual GSR phenomenon. The Anxiety condition in each session was administered following the Neutral part of the session.

If the two con­

ditions were of equal emotional intensity, the GSR values of the first should reflect the effect of the anxiety connected with the necessity of functioning in an unknown threatening situation, and the values should decrease as adaptation to the situation reduces the level of autonomic activity.

The results which have been obtained, while

showing no significant differences, reveal that the means of the Anxiety deflections overcome the adaptation effect and are higher than the Neutral means.

The adaptation

104

TABLE XI GSR LOG CONDUCTANCE CHANGE DATA: MEANS, VARIABILITIES AND t-RATIOS FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANXIETY AND . NEUTRAL SESSIONS I AND II

Session I Neutral Anxiety M

3,160*

3.197

Session XI Neutral Anxiety

2.841

2.894

S«D«

.1*76

.488 -

.571

.568

M

.093

.096

.112

.111

t-ratio Signif•

.7? 50%

* Log of the Change in Conductance,

.67 50%

106

Logs of tha change

in conductance

Neutral

2.5

2.0 Session -I

Session II

'FIGURE 8 KEANS FOR LOG CONDUCTANCE CHANGE DATA

106 phenomenon is seen in the data in the lowered deflections in Session II as compared to Session I. G-SR Base Conductance results#

A second unit of

measure of the G-SR data consists in determining the con­ ductance prior to the presentation of the stimulus word. This is a measure of the level of conductance that is main­ tained throughout the experimental sessions.

The results

obtained in this analysis are given in Table XII and Figure 9, page 108.

Again the data for Sessions I and II are

presented. Significant t-ratios are obtained in testing the differences between Neutral and Anxiety means of both sessions.

The Anxiety mean is higher than the Neutral

mean in each instance.

Again It may be noted that this

measure is in contradiction to the normal adaptation that may be expected. Comparison of the means of Session I with those of Session II indicates that the Anxiety words show adaptation in Session II.

There is, however, little change in the

Base Conductance for the Neutral words.

This may reflect

the increase in anxiety value which, the Neutral material undergoes as a result of having been associated with the Anxiety materials. A comparison of these results with those obtained

10?

TABLE XII GrSR BASE CONDUCTANCE DATA: MEANS, VARIABILITIES AND t-EATIOS FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEUTRAL AND ANXIETY SESSIONS I AND II

Session I Neutral

Session II

Anxiety

Neutral

Anxiety

M

39.19*

52.26

39.58

44.79

S.D.

22.79

47.51

39.73

26.73

4,36

8.98

7.65

5.14-

s *e *m

t-ratio Signif*. . * Micromhos

4.34

2.44 5%

108

60

Neutral

50 p:

Base

conductance

in micromhos

Anxiety

ko

- -h i

30 Session I

Session II

FIGURE 9 MEANS FOR BASE CONDUCTANCE DATA

109 with use of the Log Conductance Change units reveals that the general level of conductance is the more sensitive to differences that exist in the present experimentation.

The

differences in both instances are consistent with the a-priori assumptions that the experimental conditions would create an anxiety situation.

The fact that the changes in

level are not accompanied by equally significant deflection changes suggests that under anxiety a state of vigilance may be instituted which, in itself, functions as a long term deflection and “dampens“ the effects of deflections that are superimposed on it.

This explanation should be

subjected to further experimentation. The GSR data seems, therefore, to support the assump­ tion that a true anxiety condition had been established by the use of the anxiety picture-word association method. Respiration rate results.

Respiratory changes have

been recorded for both Anxiety and Neutral conditions of Sessions I and II.

The results have been analyzed by

counting the number of complete cycles for each two-minute period.

The mean number of cycles has been computed

separately for the Neutral and Anxiety parts of the sessions. These mean values and the corresponding t-ratios are pre­ sented in Table XIII and Figure 10, page 111,

The data

suggest that the Anxiety condition in Session I is

110

TABLE XIII RESPIRATION RATE DATA:

. ,

MEANS, VARIABILITIES, AND t-RATIOS FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEUTRAL AND ANXIETY SESSIONS I AND II

Session II

Session I Anxiety

Neutral

Anxiety

38.19*

37.09

36.14

36,42

S.D*

7.61

8.50

4,80

4.59

S.E.m

1.41

1.58

.89

.85

Neutral M

t-ratio Signif.

1.65 20#

* Cycles per two-mlnute period.

.53 60%

Cycles per two,minute period

OJ O

U)

Jr* O

FOR

C aO 03



RESPIRATION

H* § H

RATE DATA

C eQ o 03 H* o

fcj H

t-i

•-

s

Is!

Q &

IH

112 accompanied by somewhat slower rate of breathing , but the t-ratio difference between the means is only 1*65 where 1*70 would be required for significance at the 10 per cent level.

The difference between the means in Session II is

probably due to chance factors. The relationship between respiratory changes and anxiety has not been definitely established, although Woodworth (53>PP*260-261) presents data that tend to show a faster rate of breathing under tension states# not been found in the present experiment.

This has

It may be sug­

gested that gross musculature changes of this nature are not sufficiently sensitive to the degree of tension that is produced in a laboratory setting.

A previous study by

Carter, Jones, and Shock (5) also kept records of respira­ tory activity, but they have not included this data in the reports of their results.

It might be assumed that equally

inconclusive differences were obtained. Reaction time results*

The results obtained from

analysis of the reaction time data are presented in Table XIV and Figure 11, page 11^.

The data consists of the mean

of the individual mean values for the groups of twenty-four •

word associations.

As such, the data expresses the mean

values for individual word associations; for example, the mean reaction time between the presentation of the stimulus

1X3

TABLE XIV REACTION TIME DATA: MEANS, VARIABILITIES, AND t-RATIOS FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEUTRAL AND ANXIETY SESSIONS I AND II

Session I Neutral

Session II

Anxiety

Neutral

Anxiety

M

6 .36*

6.51

6*12

6 m62

S.D.

2,91

3.39

2.91

2.32

S.E.m

•54

.62

.54

.4-3

t-ratio Signify * Seconds

80^

1 .24 30^

114

Neutral

Reaction

time in seconds

8

Anxiety

7

i

$^'*4 w&'i'‘ *U\

0

nYiffiw]

Session I

Session II

FIGURE 11 MEANS FOR REACTION TIME DATA

115 word and the giving of the response word for neutral words in Session I is 6.36 seconds* Although in both sessions the reaction-times for Anxiety words are higher than for Neutral words, the differ­ ences are not significant*

The differences become more

significant in the second session (t-ratio of 1*24 where 1*31 is required for the 20 per cent level), as the mean for Ne&tral words is lower than in Session X, while the mean for Anxiety words increases slightly.

The group data

for the reaction times, therefore, do not show sufficiently significant differences to verify the a-priorl hypotheses that the anxiety stimuli would result in longer reaction times* It should be noted that all of the mean reaction times are over six seconds.

In a study of over 10,000

associations, Hull and Lugoff (18,p#114) found that “long reaction time” is a reliable diagnostic indicator.

A “long

reaction time11 is defined as one that is over 2.6 seconds. Bapaport (37>P*48) reports average reaction time for 151 combined psychotic neurotic and control cases of 2.6 seconds for "non-traumatic” stimuli and 3*^ seconds for “traumatic" stimuli.

The reaction times found in the present study

seem, therefore, to represent considerable disturbance in the associative process.

116 A further analysis of the reaction time data was made in an attempt to explain the lack of reliable differ­ ences between the means*

The reaction time data for Session

I were divided into two groups:

(1) reaction times for

association words that were recalled in Session II, and (2) reaction times for association words that were not recalled in Session II*

The results obtained in this

.approach to the data are presented in Table XV and Figure 12, page 118. With the exception of the Neutral condition of Session I, all of the t-ratios that are obtained in this analysis are significant at the 1 per cent level*

The

words which are not recalled in Session II have the higher mean values in all of the differences. Session II are easily explained.

The differences in

It would be expected that

words which were not recalled would occasion a longer re­ action time than those that were recalled.

The results do,

however, indicate longer reaction time for Anxiety words that are not recalled than for corresponding Neutral words. It is more difficult to interpret the results.

Session I

The higher means for Not He called words would seem

to suggest the generalization that words which had higher reaction times, i.e., caused longer blocking, tend to be not recalled.

If reaction time Is used as a measure of

disturbance, this would contradict the general results

TABLE XV REACTION TIME DATA FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WORDS RECALLED AND WORDS NOT RECALLED IN SESSION II: MEANS, VARIABILITIES AND T-RATIOS FOR NEUTRAL AND ANXIETY SESSIONS I AND II

Session II

Seesion I Neutral

j

Neutral

Anxiety

Anxiety

Recalled

Not Recalled

Recalled

Not Recalled

Recalled

Not Recalled

Recalled

Not Recalled

M

5.65

7.76

6.12

9*^5

4.38

10.44

5.12

13.04

S*B«

2,56

5.82

3.32

6,30

2.32

7.28

1.52

6.84

.48

1.10

.62

1,17

.44

1.38

.28

1.27

M

t-ratio Signif.

1.79 10#

3.59

2.90

1#

1$

3.99 1#

Alt

S.E.

118

15

Recalled

Not recalled

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