An Investigation of the Background Experiences of Socially Accepted and Rejected Adolescent Boys at Three Economic Levels

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LD3907 «G7 Feiriberg, Mortimer R 192219pO An investigation of the background .Flj. experiences of socially accepted and rejected adolescent boys at three economic levels0 New York, 1950. 9I4. t y p e w r i t t e n l e a v e s , c h a r t s , f o r m s , t a b l e s . 29cm« The 3 i3 (Ph.D.) - New York Univer­ sity, Graduate School, 1950• Bibliography: p 091"93® C57570

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Xerox University Microfilms,

- Shelf L i s y

A nn A rb o r, M ic h ig a n 48106

T H IS D IS S E R T A T IO N HAS BEEN M IC R O F IL M E D E X A C T LY A S REC EIV ED .

LIBRARY OP HEW TOM UNIVERSITY DNIV1RSITY HEIGHTS

"V

,

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AN INVESTIGATION OF THE BACKGROUND EXPERIENCES 6F SOCIALLY ACCEPTED AND REJECTED ADOLESCENT BOYS AT THREE ECONOMIC LEVEIS.

Ry Mortimer R. Feinberg

"A d is s e r ta tio n in th e Department of Psychology subm itted in p a r t i a l f u lfillm e n t of th e re q u ire ­ ments f o r th e degree of Doctor of Philosophy a t New York U n iv ersity ."

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The a u t h o r w is h e s t o e x p r e s s h i s g r a t i t u d e t o th e s t a f f o f B ic h a r d s o n , B e llo w s H en ry and Company, e s p e c i a l l y D r. M a rio n R ic h a r d s o n , who have h e lp e d g r e a t l y a s s t a t i s t i c a l a d v i s e r s . A s p e c i a l d e h t o f g r a t i t u d e i s due P r o f e s s o r D o u g la s H. F r y e r u n d e r w hose d i r e c t i o n t h i s t h e s i s w as u n d e r t a k e n and u n d e r w hose c o n s t a n t g u id a n c e and e n c o u ra g e m e n t i t w as c o m p le te d . To my w if e 1 l o v i n g l y d e d i c a t e t h i s t h e s i s , a v e r y s m a ll p a y m e n t,

f o r h e r t i r e l e s s h e l p and

in s p ira tio n .

>

-xoms

3

TABLE OP CONTENTS C h a p te r

p ag e

I HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION ............................................

4

I I PRCBD3M...................................................................................

24

I I I VARIABIS3, P QPULATICN AND PROGBEDURBS

27

A - V a r i a b l e s .........................................

VL

B - P o p u l a t i o n ................................................

31

C - S p e c i f i c P r o c e d u r e ...............................................

34

IV VALIDITY OP CRITERION OP SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY...........................................................

44

V RESULTS AND BI3CUSSICN ...............................................

53

A - R e s u l t o f A n a l y s is w i t h s c o r i n g K eys .

55

B - C o m p a riso n o f P r e d i c t i v e B ack g ro u n d B e h a v io r i n " A r e a s o f A d ju s tm e n t" . . .

65

C - D i f f e r e n c e s B etw een E co n o m ic L e v e ls • •

70

D - Common B ack g ro u n d E x p e r i e n c e s P r e d i c t i n g th e C r i t e r i o n a t a l l E co n o m ic L e v e ls ................................................

82

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..........................................

87

V II BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................

91

V I I I APPENDIX............................................................................

94

VI

4 I . HISTORICAL IHTRODUCTIOH T h is r e s e a r c h r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o d e te r m in e w h a t b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s o c i a l l y a c c e p t ­ ed and r e j e c t e d b o y s a t t h r e e eco n o m ic l e v e l s . S t u d e n t s ' c h o i c e s o f t h e i r f e l l o w s w ere u t i l i z e d a s th e c r i te r i o n o f s o c ia l a c c e p ta b ility .

T h is te c h n iq u e o f c h o ic e

by p e e r s i s m o d ifie d i n d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s and i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s th e n o m in a tio n t e c h n i q u e , " s o c io m e tric s " .

"buddy r a t i n g s " o r

To o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t th e b a c k g ro u n d

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a c c e p te d and r e j e c t e d c h i l d r e n , a n e x t e n ­ s i v e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w as a d m i n i s t e r e d t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i n th e p o p u la tio n . p o s s ib le ,

T h is q u e s t i o n n a i r e in c lu d e d a s f a r a s

th o s e e a p e r i e n c e s to w h ic h a n a d o l e s c e n t i s s u b ­

j e c t e d i n h i s d e v e lo p m e n t.

The r e s u l t s a r e a n a ly z e d to

i n d i c a t e th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a c c e p te d and r e j e c t e d a d o ­ l e s c e n t s a t d i f f e r e n t eco n o m ic l e v e l s . A r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e w h ic h f o l l o w s , w i l l c o n c e r n i t s e l f w i t h th e s t u d i e s w h ic h a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o th e p r o b le m s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .

The r e s u l t s o f s t u d i e s i n

th e f o ll o w i n g a r e a s h a v e b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d . r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e c r i t e r i o n o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y an d l e a d e r s h i p .

I n many s t u d i e s ,

in d iv id u a ls

h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d and l a b e l e d a s l e a d e r s on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r b e in g c h o s e n by p e e r s .

They may h av e b e e n s e l e c t e d

b e c a u s e i n t h e o p in io n o f t h e r a t e r s th e y p o s s e s s e d " l e a d e r ­ s h ip c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s "

o r sim p ly b e c a u s e th e y w ere d e s i r a b l e

i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h whom t o w ork o r e n g a g e i n l e i s u r e a c t i v i ­ tie s .

T h e re a r e many p s y c h o l o g i s t s who a r e h i g h l y c r i t i c a l

o f t h e a t t e m p t t o i n t e r p r e t r a t i n g s by p e e r s a s a v a l i d c r i t e r i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t th e y a r e m ere p o p u la rity c o n te s ts .

I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r ily o u r c o n te n tio n

t h a t s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y i s synonym ous w ith l e a d e r s h i p a s i t h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d by p s y c h o l o g i s t s .

How­

e v e r , s in c e we h a v e em p lo y ed a c c e p ta n c e by p e e r s a s t h e c r i t e r i o n i n th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , i t w i l l be p e r t i n e n t i n t h i s r e v ie w to be c o n c e r n e d w i t h th o s e s t u d i e s w h ic h h av e u tiliz e d a s im ila r c r ite r io n ,

a lth o u g h m o st o f them do n o t

make a d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n l e a d e r s h i p and s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e . B.

The

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y

o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l .

and

Many s t u d i e s hav e

so u g h t to c o r r e l a t e a e c e p ta n c e - r e je c tio n w ith in te llig e n c e and p e r s o n a l i t y .

I t w i l l be r e l e v a n t to sum m arize th e m a jo r

r e s u lts in t h i s a re a of in v e s tig a tio n , fo r

i s t h e r e any b a s i s

a s su m in g t h a t a s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l i s more

lik e ly C.

t o be

more i n t e l l i g e n t and

b e tte r

a d ju s te d ?

The

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n

s o c ia l

a c c e p t a b i l i t y and

b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s .

The e f f e c t s o f th e home b a c k g ro u n d ,

f a t h e r ' s in co m e, p o s i t i o n i n t h e f a m il y , p e r s o n a l i t y o f p a r e n t s , h av e b e e n s t u d i e d .

We w i l l r e v ie w th o s e s t u d i e s

c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e f a c t o r s c o n d i t i o n i n g s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t th e a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l .

The r e s u l t s o f o t h e r s t u d i e s c a n

th e n be com pared w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h .

6

D. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a s p e c t s o f b e h a v io r o t h e r t h a n a d ju s tm e n t t o p e e r s and b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s * Many p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n t h e f i e l d o f human b e h a v i o r p l a c e a g r e a t d e a l o f e m p h a s is on b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r ie n c e s *

The s o a i a l

w o rk e r e m p h a s iz e s t h e c a s e h i s t o r y , t h e c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo ­ g i s t s t r e s s e s e n v ir o n m e n ta l f a c t o r s i n t h e e t i o l o g y o f n e u r o s e s and p s y c h o s e s , an d th e p e r s o n n e l p s y c h o l o g i s t u s e s th e a p p l i c a t i o n b l a n k .

H o w ever, i t i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y t r u e

t h a t some p s y c h o l o g i s t s w i l l s u b j e c t i v e l y i n t e r p r e t c e r t a i n b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s a s b e in g p a r t i c u l a r l y

im p o r ta n t i n

th e c r e a t i o n o f some i l l - d e f i n e d b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s o l e l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r a d h e r e n c e t o a t h e o r e t i c a l s y s te m .

T h e se

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h av e n o t , i n m o st i n s t a n c e s , b e e n v a l i d a t e d by any s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s * q u a n tify

The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h w i l l

b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s and a s c e r t a i n th e r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p b e tw e e n th e m an d s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y .

T h e re fo re ,

it

i s g erm an e i n t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o r e v ie w p e r t i n e n t s t u d i e s w h ic h h av e a tte m p te d t o q u a n t i f y b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s and re la te

them t o b e h a v i o r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s *

E . The c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f M eth o d . th e o r e tic a l is s u e s ,

I n a d d i t i o n t o th e s e

i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o ta k e c o g n iz a n c e

o f t h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s d e a l i n g w ith m e th o d o lo g ic a l p r o b le m s . We s h a l l r e v ie w t h o s e s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e q u a n t i ­ f i c a t i o n o f b io g ra p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n ,

c h o ic e o f ite m s s c o r i n g

an d v a l i d a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s .

1 * S o c i a l A c c e p ta n c e an d L e a d e r s h ip . I n c o n n e c tio n w i t h t h i s p ro b le m o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p

7 b e tw e e n s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e and l e a d e r s h i p , to r e f e r to a n a r t i c l e

I t seem s r e l e v a n t

by W herry and F r y e r ( 3 9 ) .

a n t h o r s w is h e d t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e c r i t i c i s m "baddy r a t in g s " a r e n o t a c r i t e r i o n

T hese th a t

of le a d e rs h ip b u t r a th e r

m ere p o p u l a r i t y c o n t e s t s w as p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y t e n a b l e . s tu d y w as c o n d u c te d a t t h e

s i g n a l C o rp s O f f i c e r C a n d id a te

S c h o o l a t F o r t M onm outh, H. J . tw o c l a s s e s i n th e

T h e ir

The p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f

summer o f 1 9 4 5 .

I n a d d i t i o n t o a h ig h

l e v e l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t ( O f f i c e r C a n d id a te T e s t) and a c a d e m ic g r a d e s , n i n e s e t s o f r a t i n g s w ere c o l l e c t e d by d i f f e r e n t m e th o d s, fro m d i f f e r e n t r a t e r s , a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s .

T hese

c o n s i s t e d o f r a t i n g s by s t u d e n t s o f e a c h o t h e r o n l e a d e r s h i p and by S e n i o r T a c t i c a l O f f i c e r s , J u n i o r T a c t i c a l O f f i c e r s , and ac a d e m ic i n s t r u c t o r s .

The r a t i n g s w ere c o l l e c t e d fro m

t h e f i r s t c l a s s a t t h e end o f th e f i r s t ,

seco n d a n d f o u r t h

m o n th s i n s c h o o l; fro m t h e seco n d c l a s s ,

o n ly a t t h e end o f

th e f i r s t m onth o f t r a i n i n g . s e s w ere c o m p u te d .

Four s e p a ra te f a c t o r i a l a n a ly ­

T h re e o f t h e a n a l y s e s w e re f o r t h e t h r e e

s e t s o f r a t i n g s c o l l e c t e d f o r th e f i r s t c l a s s a n d one f o r d a t a on t h e s e c o n d c l a s s . th e a n a l y s e s .

F o u r f a c t o r s w ere i d e n t i f i e d by

One o f t h e s e w as l a b e l e d th e f a c t o r o f

p e rso n a l le a d e rs h ip .

They fo u n d t h a t h i g h l o a d i n g s on t h i s

f a c t o r o c c u r r e d f o r a l l s t u d e n t n o m in a tio n s .

T hese a u t h o r s

a l s o d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t buddy n o m in a tio n s m e a s u re d a s e a r l y a s th e f i r s t m o n th o f t r a i n i n g t h e same f a c t o r s w h ic h th e y m e a su re d t h r e e m o n th s l a t e r .

M o re o v e r, w h a t th e y m e a s u re d i n

t h e f i r s t m onth by s t u d e n t s w as t h e same a s t h a t by s u p e r ­ v i s o r s ' r a t i n g a f t e r f o u r m o n th s o f o b s e r v a t i o n ,

i t w as n o t

8 u n t i l th e f o u r t h m o n th t h a t s u p e r v i s o r s * r a t i n g s r e f l e c t e d t h e l e a d e r s h i p f a c t o r w h ic h f e l lo w s t u d e n t s i d e n t i f i e d i n th e f i r s t m o n th ’ s r a t i n g s . In th is re se a rc h ,

i n t e r v i e w s , B i o g r a p h i c a l I n f o r m a ti o n

B la n k s , an d re c o m m e n d a tio n s w e re a l s o u s e d i n a n a t te m p t t o a p p r a is e th e le a d e r s h ip q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f th e a p p lic a n t.

o ffic e r

She e x p e r i m e n t e r s fo u n d t h a t buddy r a t i n g s w ere

b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r s o f th e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e m e a s u r e s t h a n w ere a c a d e m ic g r a d e s .

Prom t h e i r a n a l y s i s t h e a u t h o r s make th e

t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t "Buddy r a t i n g s a p p e a r t o be th e p u r e s t m e a s u re o f l e a d e r s h i p n ( a s d e f i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y ) . W illia m s an d L e a v i t t (4 0 ) i n a f o llo w u p s tu d y o f j u n i o r o f f i c e r s i n th e l l a r i n e C o rp s , m ost o f whom became com bat p l a t o o n l e a d e r s , fo u n d t h a t buddy r a t i n g s w e re a more v a l i d p r e d i c t o r b o th o f s u c c e s s i n O f f i c e r C a n d id a te S c h o o l and o f c o m b a t p e r fo r m a n c e th a n s e v e r a l o b j e c t i v e te s ts . H o w e ll ( 1 7 ) a l s o c o n c lu d e s t h a t th e d e g r e e o f s o c i a l s t a t u s w i t h i n a g ro u p i s a good m e a su re o f l e a d e r s h i p , and t h a t f o r th e p u r p o s e o f i s o l a t i n g a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l l e a d e r s th e s o c i a l s t a t u s s c a le s a re an a c c e p ta b le d e v ic e . R e g a rd in g th e r e l i a b i l i t y

o f s o c i a l a c c e p ta n c e s c o r e s ,

Bonney (4 ) fo u n d t h a t t h e s e m e a s u re s w ere a s r e l i a b l e o v e r a p e r i o d o f f o u r y e a r s a s i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s a n d a c a d e m ic a c h i e v e ­ m e n t.

J e n n in g s (1 9 ) fo u n d a t e s t - r e t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n a f t e r

e i g h t m o n th s o f .6 5 f o r p o s i t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f c h o ic e and .6 6 fo r re je c tio n .

2.

S o c i a l A c c e p t a b i l i t y and o t h e r C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e In d iv id u a l. (1 ) A c c e p ta n c e - B e J e c tlo n and I n t e l l i g e n c e . Many s t u d i e s h av e b e e n c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e tw e e n a c c e p t a b i l i t y , o r l e a d e r s h i p , and I n t e l l i g e n c e . J e n n in g s (1 9 ) a n a ly z e d t h e c h o i c e s o f o v e r f o u r h u n d re d s u b j e c t s I n th e Mew Y o rk T r a i n i n g S c h o o l f o r g i r l s .

She

fo u n d I n t e l l i g e n c e n o t t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n a c c o u n t­ in g f o r s e l e c t i o n an d r e j e c t i o n among th e c i t i z e n s o f t h i s com m unity. O th e r s t u d i e s , h o w e v e r, r e p o r t s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o rre la tio n s .

P a rtrid g e

(SO) h a s made s e v e r a l s t u d i e s o f

" b e s t f r ie n d s " in v a r io u s a d o le s o e n t g ro u p s. m en t w as c o n d u c te d i n a summer camp f o r b o y s .

One e x p e r i ­ The o am p ers

w ere p e r m i t t e d to s e l e c t t h e i r own g r o u p s t o s e r v e t o g e t h e r on a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s t s i n th e cam p. to g e th e r,

T hese g r o u p s a t e

s a t to g e th e r a t th e c o u n c il f i r e

and i n v a r i o u s

w ays w e re made c o n s c i o u s o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e y w ere d e f in ite ly a n a d m in is tra tiv e u n i t .

An a n a l y s i s o f th e

s c o r e s made o n t h e Army A lp h a by t h e s e b o y s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e g r o u p s te n d e d t o s h i f t th e b o y s t o t h e i r own m e n ta l ag e le v e l.

M e n ta l ag e seem ed t o be a m ore im p o r ta n t f a c t o r

t h a n c h r o n o l o g i c a l ag e i n d e t e r m in i n g w h ic h b o y s w i l l a s s o o ia te to g e th e r. F u r f e y ( 1 0 ) , G a r r i s o n ( 1 1 ) , H o w e ll ( 1 7 ) , an d Bonney ( 5 ) , a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e a s m e a s u re d by m e n ta l t e s t s w as a s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e ^ a f f e c t i n g s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y . C a ld w e ll and W ellm an ( 7 ) s t u d i e d th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

p u p i l s c h o s e n by t h e i r p e e r s f o r d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s o f le a d e rs h ip *

They fo u n d t h a t th e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

w ere n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e s e n t i n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f l e a d e r s * F o r e x a m p le , l e a d e r s i n a t h l e t i c s w e re m ore c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p h y s i c a l a c h ie v e m e n t*

H ow ever, s c h o l a r s h i p w as p o s i t i v e ­

l y r e l a t e d t o t h e c r i t e r i o n i n a l l ty p e s* G rossm an an d W r ig h te r ( I S ) fo u n d a n e x p o n e n t i a l r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip b e tw e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e and a c c e p t a n c e - r e J e c t l o n among s i x t h g ra d e c h ild re n *

I n t e l l i g e n c e d id make a d i f f e r e n c e

u p t o th e p o i n t o f n o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

b u t beyond t h a t i t

d i d n o t m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t t h e a e c e p t a n c e - r e j e c t i o n s c o re * (S ) A c o e p ta n o e - R e J e c t l o n and P e r s o n a l i t y . O nly a few s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e im p o r ta n t p ro b le m o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y an d p e r s o n a l i t y .

One s tu d y

(3 ) co m p ared f i v e v e r y p o p u l a r and f i v e v e r y u n p o p u la r e l e m e n ta r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n *

A c c e p ta n c e o r r e j e c t i o n was

d e te r m in e d by s t u d e n t c h o i c e s a t s u c c e s s i v e g r a d e l e v e l s * T h e re w e re a l a r g e r num ber o f d e s i r a b l e t r a i t s w h ic h t h e s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e c h i l d r e n , a s a g r o u p , p o s s e s s e d to a much g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h e r e j e c t e d c h i l d r e n * h e a l t h an d v i g o r , c o n f o r m ity , p o i s e , ty , a ffe c tio n ,

G en eral

in itia tiv e , a d a p ta b ili­

c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r o t h e r s , and o r i g i n a l i t y

w ere a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e p o p u l a r c h ild *

The u n p o p u la r

c h i l d r e n w ere n o t e q u a l t o t h e p o p u l a r o n e s i n any o f t h e ab o v e t r a i t - s y n d r o m e s *

H o rthw ay an d W igdor (2 8 ) showed

t h a t c h i l d r e n f r e q u e n t l y c h o s e n and th o s e r a r e l y c h o s e n h ad s i g n i f i c a n t l y an d m e an in g f u l l y d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s o n th e R o rsc h a c h *

IX The a d o l e s c e n t s , t h e m s e lv e s , h av e d e f i n i t e

Id eas about

t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s whom th e y a c c e p t o r r e j e c t .

As a p a r t o f th e A d o le s c e n t G row th

S tu d y a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f

C a lifo rn ia ,

T ry o n (3 5 ) a n a ly z e d

c h i l d r e n s ' o p in io n o f e a c h o th e r in s e a r c h f o r

th o s e q u a l i t i e s

an d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h b o y s an d g i r l s a d m ire , r e s p e c t o r a p p ro v e i n e a c h o t h e r .

The m ost a d m ire d q u a l i t i e s i n t h e b o y s

a t th e e l e v e n an d tw e lv e y e a r l e v e l w ere co m p eten ce i n g ro u p gam es an d a b i l i t y

to l e a d o r d i r e c t o r k e e p a game g o in g ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h f e a r l e s s n e s s and r e a d i n e s s to t a k e a c h a n c e . A t th e end o f t h e n i n t h g r a d e , w hen th e g ro u p w as f o u r t e e n and f i f t e e n y e a r s o f a g o , t h e v a lu e s y s te m f o r b oys s t i l l p l a c e d g r e a t e m p h a s is on p h y s i o a l s k i l l and d a r i n g . c o n s t e l l a t i o n w as n o l o n g e r o f suprem e I m p o r ta n c e ,

B ut t h i s s o c ia l

e a s e , p o i s e , p e r s o n a b l e n e s s became a t t h i s g e n e t i c l e v e l , e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n th e p r e d i c t i o n o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y . M in e h a n (2 5 ) fo u n d t h a t b o y - tr a m p s whom he s t u d i e d d u r in g t h e d e p r e s s i o n y e a r s a d m ire d p h y s i c a l s i z e , s t r e n g t h , and a g i l i t y boys d id .

i n v e ry much t h e same f a s h i o n a s th e C a l i f o r n i a T h e re a p p e a r s t o be some e v id e n c e w h ich w ould

s u b s t a n t i a t e th e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t a c c e p te d c h i l d r e n p o s s e s s m ore d e s i r a b l e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s ,

b u t th e c h o ic e m easu re

s h o u ld be v a l i d a t e d a g a i n s t o t h e r c r i t e r i a o f a d ju s tm e n t w i t h i n a g iv e n g ro u p o r c u l t u r e t o d e te r m in e how c l o s e th e r e l a t i o n i s b etw ee n a c c e p t a n c e - r e j e c t l o n by oner's p e e r s and p e rs o n a lity .

12 3*

A c c e p ta n o e - R e je o tlo n By P e e r a and B ack g ro u n d E x p e r i e n c e 8 , T h o se f a c t o r s c o n d i t i o n i n g s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t t h e

a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l h a v e b ee n r e l a t i v e l y u n e x p lo r e d * p o s s i b l e to c i t e q u e s tio n .

It

is

some s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d i n d i r e c t l y w ith t h i s

G a r r i s o n (1 1 ) fo u n d a n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n

b e tw e e n s o c i a l a c c e p ta n c e s c o r e s and s i z e o f f a m il y . Bonney (5 ) u s e d a v a r i e t y o f s i t u a t i o n s t o d e te r m in e t h e s o c i a l l y a c c e p t e d i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e se c o n d and t h i r d g r a d e s o f t h r e e s c h o o ls i n T e x a s .

He d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e " o n l y ”

c h i l d w as i n a s u p e r i o r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n an d t h a t t h e c h i l d fro m th e l a r g e r f a m ily u n i t o f f o u r o r m ore r a n k e d co n ­ s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r t h a n d i d t h a t fro m th e medium s i z e f a m ily o f tw o o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n .

ft

M

The o n ly c h i l d ' s f a m ily w as a l s o

i n s u p e r i o r eco n o m io c i r c u m s ta n c e s . a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n th e - r e l a t i v e l y

The a u t h o r made no

in f e r io r s o c ia l p o s itio n

o c c u p ie d by c h i l d r e n fro m m e d iu m -s iz e d f a m i l i e s .

In th is

c o n n e c t i o n , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t B e a ls (2 1 ) fo u n d s t u d e n t l e a d e r s l e s s l i k e l y t o be t h e y o u n g e s t member o f a f a m il y , an d t h a t t h e r e w e re a lm o s t tw ic e a s many l e a d e r s a s n o n ­ l e a d e r s among " o n ly " c h i l d r e n . A n o th e r s tu d y i n a r a p i d l y g ro w in g com m unity (2 6 ) a t t e m p t e d t o d e te r m in e w h a t f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e d th e s o c i a l p a r tic ip a tio n o f c h ild re n .

S o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n w as m e a su re d

by th e s t u d e n t s w r i t i n g down t h e nam es o f t h o s e c h i l d r e n th e y fo u n d f r i e n d l y a n d th o s e th e y c o n s id e r e d u n f r i e n d l y .

L evel

o f f a t h e r s ' incom e an d o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e w ere th e f a c t o r s r e l a t e d to t h e d e g r e e o f s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n .

13 l e v ! (2 2 ) s t u d i e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n l e a d e r s h i p i n e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s and m i s c e l l a n e o u s b a c k g ro u n d e x p e rie n c e s .

One o f h i s s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e d a

n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n p a id w ork o u t s i d e o f s c h o o l an d l e a d e r s h i p i n s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s . R e a l s (3 1 ) a n a ly z e d th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p u p i l s who w ere ju d g e d by t h e i r t e a o h e r s to h a v e b e e n l e a d e r s i n t h e i r h ig h sc h o o l c a r e e r s .

T h i r t y - s e v e n l e a d e r s and t h i r t y - s e v e n

n o n - l e a d e r s w ere s e l e c t e d f o r a n a l y s i s .

I t i s w o r th w h ile

t o su m m arize th e f i n d i n g s i n some d e t a i l : (1 )

A tte n d a n c e and H e a l t h -

Boy l e a d e r s w ere a b s e n t fro m

s c h o o l o n e - h a l f a s f r e q u e n t l y a s boy n o n - l e a d e r s and o n ly 4 6 $ o f th e a b s e n c e s o f boy l e a d e r s w as due t o i l l n e s s , w h e re a s 8 8 $ o f a b s e n c e s o f n o n - l e a d e r s w as due t o i l l n e s s . ( 2 ) B ro a d e n in g B x p e r ie n o e s - More l e a d e r s t h a n n o n - l e a d e r s h ad w o rk ed f o r p a y , b u t i t w as l a r g e l y c o n f in e d t o summer v a c a tio n s .

More n o n - l e a d e r s had a t some tim e r e c e i v e d

p r o f e s s i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n m u sic o r d r a m a t i c s , b u t l e a d e r s r e c e i v e d s u c h i n s t r u c t i o n f o r a lo n g e r p e r i o d . (3 )

P e r s o n a lity o f P a re n ts (a) C o o p e r a tio n - C o p ie s o f c e r t a i n t e s t s w ere l e f t a t

home f o r f a t h e r s and i t w as fo u n d t h a t tw ic e a s many t e s t s w ere r e t u r n e d fro m hom es o f l e a d e r s . (bl

E d u c a t i o n - B o th m o th e rs and f a t h e r s o f l e a d e r s h a d

r e c e i v e d m ore f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n t h a n p a r e n t s o f n o n - l e a d e r s . (o)

I n t e r e s t s and A c t i v i t i e s - I n g e n e r a l , p a r e n t s o f

l e a d e r s w ere more i n t e r e s t e d

i n a c t i v i t i e s o u t s i d e th e home

an d to o k a g r e a t e r p a r t i n th e m .

I n s p o r t s , l e a d e r 's p a r e n t s

took a more a c tiv e p a r t and tended to share these in te r e s ts more w ith t h e i r c h ild re n . (d)

Economic S tatu s

-

More extreme poverty and extreme w ealth

was found in th e non-leader group. (e)

Home Atmosphere

-

There was g re a te r evidence of fix e d home

r e s p o n s ib ilitie s among th e le a d e r group,

lead ers confided more in

p a re n ts, and lead ers spent le s s tim e w ith p a re n ts, b u t t h e i r contacts were more harmonious. I t was in d ic a te d g en erally by R e a l's study t h a t background experiences are r e la te d to an in d iv id u a l's adjustm ent to h is p e e rs. U.

R elationship between q u a n tifie d b io g rap h ical inform ation and

asp ects of behavior o th er than adjustm ent to p e e rs. (1)

B iographical Inform ation a t th e Adult Level There have been s e v e ra l attem pts to use b io g rap h ical informa­

tio n a s a p re d ic to r of occupational success. fin d in g s .

A ll re p o rt p o s itiv e

H. M. Johnson (21) in a review of the l i t e r a t u r e an the

d e te c tio n of accident-prone d riv e rs p o in ts out th a t b io g rap h ical d ata are one of th e most promising p re d ic to rs in t h i s a re a of behavior.

Friend and Haggard, in a recen t monograph (9 ), attem pted

to le a rn more about In d iv id u als who were ra te d high or low on a c r ite r io n o f work adjustm ent.

They found t h a t the fa m ilie s of th e

high c r ite r io n group were c lo se ly k n it and stro n g ly u n ifie d , in sharp c o n tra s t to th e d iso rg an izatio n and la c k of "togetherness" of th e fa m ilie s in th e low c r ite r io n group.

The h igh group

outweighed th e laws in th e degree of a ffe c tio n

15 f o r t h e f a t h e r , an d th e sc h o o l e x p e rie n c e s . school s e ttin g

h i g h s ' a l s o h ad more f a v o r a b l e

T h ese s a t i s f y i n g e x p e r i e n c e s i n th e

in c lu d e d s o c i a l, a t h l e t i c o r s c h o l a s t i c

a c h ie v e m e n ts . An i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t o f v ie w e x p r e s s e d by G u th r ie (1 4 ) c a n be i n t r o d u c e d h e r e t o s u p p o r t t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a ty p e o f a p p r o a c h . "The u s e f u l c a t e g o r i e s i n d e s c r i b i n g w h a t may be e x p e c te d o f a man in c lu d e h i s s h i l l s w h ic h can be o f t e n r e a d i l y m e a s u re d . They in c lu d e h i s t y p e s o f a d ju s tm e n t d e s c r i b e d i n te r m s o f th e s i t u a t i o n s t o w h ic h h e h a s b een e x p o s e d . He i s a h a r d e n e d cam­ p a i g n e r , a n e x p e r i e n c e d b r o k e r , an e x p e r ie n c e d c a r p e n t e r , he h a s b een f o r t e n y e a r s a h e a d w a i t e r . I f we know t h e s e t y p e s o f e x p e r i e n c e s , we may s a f e l y assu m e t h a t he h a s l e a r n e d s k i l l s t h a t m eet th e p r o b le m s o f a t r a d e o r p r o f e s s i o n . " I n s p e a k in g o f a p p l i c a t i o n b l a n k s , th e same a u t h o r p o in ts o u t th a t ~ "We may r e q u i r e th e s ta t e m e n t o f th e s p o n s o r s a s t o h i s ( a p p l i c a n t 's ) i n t r o v e r s i o n o r e x t r a v e r s i o n , h i s g e n e r a l h o n e s ty , h i s l o y a l t y , h i s i n d u s t r y . B ut t h e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h i s b la n k i s m ore l i k e l y t o be h i s p a s t r e c o r d o f o c c u p a t i o n s , h i s s p e c i f i o s k i l l , h i s f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s , h i s m a r i t a l and p o l i c e r e c o r d . H is p a s t a f f i l i a t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s , o f f e r b e t t e r and more s p e c i f i c p r e d i c t i o n s o f h i s f u t u r e t h a n any o f t h e t r a i t s u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d a s p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s . " R u n d q u is t (3 2 ) m akes a s i m i l a r s ta te m e n t i n a n a r t i c l e d e a l i n g w i t h p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t s a s p r e d i c t o r s o f o c c u p a ti o n ­ a l s u c c e s s . He p o i n t s o u t t h a t — "T he im p o rta n c e o f p e r s o n a l b a c k g ro u n d h a s r e c e i v e d so much e m p h a s is a s a d e t e r m in e r o f p e r s o n ­ a l i t y c h a r a c te r is tic s th a t i t i s s u rp ris in g th a t i n t e r e s t i n i t s u s e f o r s p e c i f i c p r e d i c t i o n p ro b le m s h a s b e e n slo w i n g r o w in g . The s o c i a l c a s e h i s t o r y r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o st e x t e n s i v e c o l l e c t i o n o f s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t when c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s fo rm i t s p r im a r y u s e i s t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r o b le m s o f p e r s o n a l a d ju s tm e n t. I n a much more l i m i t e d fo rm , a p p l i c a t i o n b l a n k s and i n t e r v i e w s hav e c o l l e c t e d t h i s in fo rm a tio n , b u t th e s e a re in te r p r e te d in a s u b j e c t i v e m a n n e r.

16 She I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s u s u a l l y I n te r m s o f c l i n i c a l c o n c e p ts o f a d ju s tm e n t. I t Is c o n c e rn e d w i t h I d e n t i f y i n g p e o p le who w i l l h av e d i f f i c u l t y I n a jo h r a t h e r th a n i n p r e ­ d ic tin g p o s itiv e s u c c e s s ." A l l t h e arm ed s e r v i c e s ,

i n W orld War I I , u s e d b io ­

g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r e d i c t some fo rm o f l e a d e r s h i p o r s o c i a l s u c c e s s , an d s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h c r i t e r i a w ere o b t a i n e d .

P e r h a p s t h e m o st e x t e n s i v e r e ­

s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a w as u n d e r t a k e n by th e P e r s o n n e l R e s e a r c h S e c t i o n , AGO ( 1 . 2 ) .

i t d e v e lo p e d a B i o g r a p h i c a l

I n f o r m a t i o n B la n k f o r u s e i n s e l e c t i n g th e b e s t o f f i c e r s f o r r e t e n t i o n i n th e p e a c e tim e arm y .

B i o g r a p h i c a l ite m s

d e s ig n e d t o e l i c i t i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n in g th e p a s t e x p e r i ­ e n c e s and p r e f e r e n c e s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l w ere a r r a n g e d i n a s o o r a b l e m a n n e r.

The q u e s t i o n s c o v e r e d arm y and c i v i l i a n

jo b e x p e r i e n c e s , e d u o a t i o n a l and h e a l t h h i s t o r y , a c tiv itie s ,

home an d f a m ily b a c k g ro u n d .

le is u re

Ih e B i o g r a p h i c a l

B la n k w as j u s t one o f a b a t t e r y w h ic h in c lu d e d ite m s s e l e c t e d fro m th e M in n e s o ta M u l t i p h a s i c , s e l f r a t i n g and a ttitu d e in v e n to rie s .

Ite m s fro m v a r i o u s l i s t s w e re r e t a i n ­

e d a f t e r p r e l i m i n a r y t r i a l i f th e y d i s c r i m i n a t e d b e tw e e n th e h i g h an d low c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s o f o f f i c e r s . o f ite m s t r i e d

The num ber

o u t and th e num ber m e e tin g th e r e q u ir e m e n ts

f o r r e t e n t i o n a r e g i v e n i n th e f o ll o w i n g t a b l e

(3 2 ).

17 P r o p o r t i o n o f I te m s o f E a c h K ind R e ta in e d i n P i n a l Form Type o f I te m

H o. T r ie d

Ho. R e ta in e d

$ R e ta in e d

B io g ra p h ic a l

150

98

6 5 .3

S e lf D e s c rip tio n

150

104

6 9 .3

M u ltip h a s ic

110

18

1 5 .6

O ffic e r E v a lu a tio n

150

20

1 3 .3

I t i s c l e a r t h a t b o th b i o g r a p h i c a l and s e l f - d e s c r i p ­ tiv e

ite m s w e re m o st p r e d i c t i v e o f l e a d e r s h i p

( a s d e fin e d

i n t h e Army s t u d y ) . (2 )

B i o g r a p h i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n a t A d o le s c e n t L e v e l. T h e re h a s n o t b e en an y s y s t e m a t i c a t te m p t t o u s e

b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a t th e a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l , a s a t th e a d u l t l e v e l , f o r m ea su re m e n t p u r p o s e s .

B u t many i n v e s t i ­

g a t o r s h av e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e f a m il y b a c k g ro u n d s o f a d o ­ l e s c e n t s may b e p r e d i c t i v e o f f a v o r a b l e o r u n f a v o r a b l e p e r ­ s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p m e n t.

P a rtrid g e

(2 9 ) h a s su m m arized s t u d i e s

on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p a r e n t s and a d o l e s c e n t b o y s and g i r l s w h ic h l e a d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s :

I n t i m a t e and

c o n f id e n tia l r e l a t io n s h i p s w ith p a r e n ts , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f th e m o th e r , a r e d e f i n i t e l y c o n n e c te d w ith good a d ju s tm e n t d u r in g a d o l e s c e n c e ; m a la d ju s tm e n t i s much g r e a t e r among b o y s and g i r l s who do n o t h av e h a rm o n io u s c o n f i d e n t i a l r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip s w ith p a r e n t s .

S t o t t (3 4 ) fo u n d t h a t s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m s

o f p a r e n t a l b e h a v i o r by a d o l e s c e n t s te n d e d t o c o i n c i d e some­ w h at w i t h low p e r s o n a l i t y s c o r e s o b t a i n e d by a v e r a g i n g t h e r a tin g s o f s e v e ra l p e rs o n a lity t e s t s .

P u n ish m e n t ( s c o l d i n g ,

s l a p p i n g , w h ip p in g , b e in g made t o s t a y a t home) c o r r e l a t e d s l i g h t l y w i t h low s c o r e s on th e p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t s , p a r t i c u l a r '

r- -

18 l y I n Ite m s r e l a t e d t o s e l f - r e l i a n c e . A n o th e r s tu d y ( 6 ) w as fram ed t o d e te r m in e th e e x t e n t t o w h ic h a f f e c t i o n a l f a m ily r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n f l u e n c e c h a r a c t e r an d p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p m e n t. w ere o b t a i n e d on f i v e t r a i t s — frie n d lin e s s ,

C h a ra c te r r a t in g s

h o n e s t y , m o ra l c o u r a g e ,

l o y a l t y , an d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,

v a rio u s in s tru m e n ts .

by th e u s e o f

A f a m ily r e l a t i o n s h i p q u e s t i o n n a i r e

and s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s w e re u s e d a s t h e m e a s u re o f f a m i l i a l e x p e rie n c e s .

A s u b s t a n t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n (.45) w as fo u n d

b e tw e e n a f f e c t i o n a l f a m ily r e l a t i o n s h i p s and th e c h a r a c t ­ e r ra tin g s .

The a r e a o f S h a r in g i n F am ily D e c is io n s seem ed

t o be m o st c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h a r a c t e r d e v e lo p m e n t. Many r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s h a v e d e a l t w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n i n t h e f a m il y , an d p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith th e " o n ly c h i l d " , a s re la te d to p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s .

I t i s q u i t e oommonly assum ed

by t e a c h e r s , p a r e n t s , a n d o t h e r s t h a t th e o n ly c h i l d i s a l ­ m o st c e r t a i n t o be s o c i a l l y m a l a d j u s t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y by b e in g s e l f i s h , d o m in a tin g and a t te n t i o n - d e m a n d i n g .

M aslow

and M ittehnann : i n t h e i r " P r i n c i p l e s o f A bnorm al P s y c h o lo g y " s ta te th a t - "The o n ly c h i l d i s more l i k e l y to be b r o u g h t u p b a d ly . He i s n e v e r d e th r o n e d by any l a t e r c h i l d r e n . He i s so im p o r ta n t to h i s p a r e n t s t h a t t h e y a r e a p t t o g u a rd him w i t h e x tre m e c a r e ; th e y may s p o i l h im c o m p le te ly and make h im s e l f i s h , d o m in a tin g , e g o t i s t i c a l and a t t h e same tim e e s s e n t i a l l y w eak i n c h a r a c t e r . He t e n d s to be m ore d e e p ly h u r t , w hen he i s n o t t h e c e n t e r o f i n t e r e s t and a t t e n t i o n . He i s m ore l i k e l y to have n e rv o u s h a b i t s ( 2 4 ) ." T h is g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n d o e s n o t seem t o be s u p p o r te d by r e s e a r c h .

W itty (4 1 ) com pared a g ro u p o f o n ly

ch ild re n w ith an equal number of ch ild ren who held an interm ediate fam ily p o s itio n , a l l o f wham were sen io rs in high school.

He

u tiliz e d te a c h e rs 1 r a tin g s , a p e rso n a lity inventory and the sub­ j e c t s ’ developmental h i s t o r i e s .

There were no im portant d if f e r ­

ences between th e only ch ild ren and those who stood in the in te r ­ mediate fam ily p o s itio n .

S to tt (3U) compared l£o only ch ild ren

w ith matched nan-only ch ild re n in resp e c t to education, place of resid en ce, I.Q ., and economic le v e l of fam ily .

P e rso n a lity d if f e r ­

ences between only and non-only ch ild ren were g en erally in s ig n i­ f ic a n t .

In f a c t , only ch ild ren ra is e d in a c ity were su p erio r to

those from larg e fam ilie s in personal and s o c ia l adjustm ent. Watteriberg (39) reviewed the l ite r a t u r e on th e r e la tio n ­ ship between delinquency and the category of only c h ild re n . Nothing was discovered in t h i s area which i s n o t d ir e c tly contra­ d ic te d by o th er in v e s tig a tio n s .

The author th in k s t h i s i s because

th e g en eral category of th e only ch ild i s n o t psychologically sig n i­ f ic a n t due to d iffere n ce s in lo c a l customs, n a tio n a l or r a c ia l mores, and v ario u s economic f a c to r s . A comprehensive study (16) which d e a lt w ith socio­ economic d iffe re n c e s and t h e i r e f f e c t on adolescent development was conducted under the auspices of the Committee on Human Develop­ ment of th e U niversity of Chicago.

This research was designed

to t e s t th e hypothesis t h a t th e s o c ia l behavior of adolescents was r e la te d t o th e p o s itio n of t h e i r fa m ilie s in a Middle Western town.

A complete c ro ss-se c tio n of th e "high school generation" was

s tu d ie d . The community's s o c ia l s tru c tu re was found to be

20

s tra tifie d

i n t o f i v e c l a s s e s , and e a c h a d o l e s c e n t w as c l a s s i ­

f i e d on t h i s h a s i s .

The a u t h o r d i s c o v e r e d t h a t c h i l d r e n

l e a r n e a r l y t h e b e h a v i o r fo u n d a c c e p t a b l e i n t h e i r own c l a s s , and t h e s e c o n c e p t i o n s o f r i g h t and w rong a r e c a r r i e d i n t o th e s c h o o l , th e c h u r c h and o t h e r a r e a s o f com m unity l i f e ,

m

th e s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n , t h e b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s o f th e u p p e r t h r e e c l a s s e s a r e a c c e p t a b l e w h ile th o s e o f th e lo w e s t c l a s s a r e ta b o o e d .

"The l i t t l e

c l a s s f i v e boy o r g i r l i s n o t

a c c e p t a b l e s o c i a l l y , n o r a r e t h e t h i n g s he h a s l e a r n e d a c r o s s th e t r a c k s a p p ro v e d i n t h e c la s s r o o m o r on th e p la y g r o u n d . T h u s, fro m h i s e a r l i e s t y e a r s th e u p p e r c l a s s y o u n g s te r knows w h a t i s r i g h t and he a l s o know s t h a t h e i s r i g h t .

On th e

o t h e r h a n d , t h e c l a s s f i v e y o u n g s te r i s w rong s o c i a l l y and h e i s so o n t a u g h t t h a t he i s w ro n g .

F u r t h e r , he i s n e v e r a llo w ­

ed t o f o r g e t t h a t he i s w r o n g .” l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e s e a d o l e s c e n t s w ere c l a s s i ­ f i e d on th e b a s i s o f f a m ily p o s i t i o n .

F or e x a m p le ,

th e boy

s c o u t s r e p r e s e n t e d " t h e b e t t e r ty p e o f p e o p le " and a v e r y s m a ll p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e lo w e s t c l a s s b e lo n g e d t o t h i s o r g a n i ­ z a tio n .

B o w lin g w as fo u n d t o be p o p u l a r among t h e a d o l e s c e n t s

i n t h e h i g h e r s o c io - e c o n o m ic g r o u p s , w h ile f r e q u e n t i n g th e r o l l e r s k a t i n g r i n k w as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e lo w e r g r o u p s and w as sh u n n ed by t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s .

&•

M e th o d o lo g ic a l P ro b le m s i n Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n and V a l i d a t i o n

o f B io g ra p h ic a l In fo rm a tio n . The m o st e x t e n s i v e a t t e m p t a t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f b io ­ g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n w as u n d e r ta k e n by th e P e r s o n n e l R e s e a r c h

21 S e c t i o n , AGO ( 1 ) .

T h is g ro u p d e v e lo p e d , a s w as c i t e d e a r l i e r

i n t h i s r e v i e w , a B i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n B la n k f o r u s e i n s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t o f f i c e r s f o r r e t e n t i o n i n t h e p e a c e tim e Army.

The m e th o d o lo g y u s e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s

i n s t r u m e n t w i l l be o u t l i n e d i n some d e t a i l .

The e s s e n t i a l

p r i n c i p l e s i n i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n w ere a s f o l l o w s : 1.

The t r a d i t i o n a l i te m s w i t h " y e s " o r "n o " r e s p o n s e s w ere

e x c lu d e d a s h a v in g no p ro m is e i n p r e d i c t i n g o f f i c e r s u c c e s s . 2.

As many ite m s o f a s many k i n d s a s w as p r a c t i c a l t o t r y

o u t w ere i n c l u d e d .

H eavy s h r in k a g e w as e x p e c t e d .

The

a p p r o a c h w a s e m p i r i c a l , and n o t h e o r i e s o f t r a i t s r e q u i r e d by a good o f f i c e r l i m i t e d t h e c h o ic e o f a n ite m . 3.

C r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n w as e m p h a s iz e d b o th i n s e l e c t i o n o f

ite m s and i n v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e f i n a l i n s t r u m e n t . i n t h e v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e Army B i o g r a p h i o a l B la n k , o n ly th e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e c r i t e r i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d , i n t e r ­ r e l a t i o n s h i p s among i t e m s b e in g i g n o r e d .

T h re e h ig h and

t h r e e low c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s o f a h u n d re d o f f i c e r s e a c h s e r v e d a s a b a s i s f o r d e t e r m in i n g t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s to s c o r e .

T h ree

p r i n c i p l e s g o v e rn e d t h e s e l e c t i o n o f i t e m s : (1 ) co m b in ed .

The m a g n itu d e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n a l l t h r e e s a m p le s The m a g n itu d e r e q u i r e d v a r i e d I n v e r s e l y w i t h th e

num ber o f c a s e s c h o o s in g t h e a l t e r n a t i v e , in s u rin g th e r e l i a b i l i t y

on t h e g r o u n d s o f

of th e d if f e r e n c e .

Two s e p a r a t e

k e y 8 w ere u s e d — a r i g o r o u s and a more l e n i e n t o n e .

i t w as

fo u n d t h a t c o m b in in g t h e tw o k e y s gav e t h e b e s t r e s u l t s on cro s s - v a lid a tio n .

22 (2 )

The se c o n d p r i n c i p l e - - n o r e v e r s a l i n d i r e c t i o n

o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e in g p e r m i t t e d i n any o f th e s a m p le s , r e g a r d l e s s o f

th re e

th e m a g n itu d e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e

--

am o u n ted t o p a r t i a l c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n . (3 )

A l t e r n a t i v e s w ere s e l e c t e d w h ic h y i e l d e d h i g h e s t

t e t r a c h o r i c c o r r e l a t i o n w ith th e c r i t e r i o n . T h is p r o c e d u r e r e s u l t e d i n an i n s t r u m e n t b a s e d on b a c k ­ g ro u n d d a t a w h ic h o b ta in e d m o d e ra te p r e d i c t i o n i n t h e s e le c tio n of o f f ic e r s .

F u rth e r,

th e t e s t w as c o n s i s t e n t ;

i t d i d th e same j o b i n

sam p le a f t e r s a m p le , and

d ep en d u p o n s u b j e o t i v e

e v a lu a tio n .

i t d id n o t

6 . Summary and C o n c lu s io n s T h is c o n c lu d e s o u r r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e ,

i n w h ic h

we h a v e e n d e a v o re d to a p p r a i s e th e r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h i n th e f i e l d o f b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o b e h a v io r , and w i t h s p e c i a l e m p h a s is on t h o s e s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w ith s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e .

A n a l y s is o f th e r e s e a r c h l e a d s to th e

f o ll o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s :

(l\

S o c ia l a c c e p ta b ility ,

o r le a d e r s h ip a s i t i s o fte n

l a b e l e d by many p s y c h o l o g i s t s , h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d and d i s c u s s e d fro m many a s p e c t s and fro m d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f v ie w .

I t a p p e a r s fro m a re v ie w o f t h e s e

s tu d ie s th a t

n o m in a tio n by p e e r s ca n be u t i l i z e d a s a v a l i d an d r e l i a b l e c r ite r io n o f s o c ia l a c c e p ta b ility . (2)

B ack g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s , o r b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a , h av e

b e e n s t r e s s e d by many p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n th e f i e l d o f hum an b e h a v i o r , an d many e x p e r i m e n t e r s hav e a tte m p te d t o r e l a t e b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n to some a s p e c t o f b e h a v i o r .

The

ip o st s y s t e m a t i c q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f b a c k g ro u n d d a t a and r e l a t i o n t o c r i t e r i a w as a c c o m p lis h e d by th e P e r s o n n e l R e s e a r c h e je c tio n , AGO, i n i t s d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e B io ­ g r a p h i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n B la n k . a tte m p ts w ith la r g e

T h ere h av e n o t b een any

s a m p le s t o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e b a c k ­

g ro u n d d a t a a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l t o s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y , a lt h o u g h r e s u l t s o f s t u d i e s o f s p e c i f i c b a c k g ro u n d h av e y ie ld e d v a lid r e la tio n s h ip s .

24

I I . PROBIEM One f i n d s i t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e u s e o f b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a s p r e d i c t i v e o f s o c i a l a c c e p ta n c e a t t h e a d o l e s ­ c e n t l e v e l re m a in s r e l a t i v e l y u n e x p lo r e d , s in c e r e s u l t s w h ic h hav e b e e n o b t a i n e d a t l a t e r a g e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t en o u g h t o

re v e a l a f r u i t f u l f i e l d f o r fu tu re in v e s tig a tio n s .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y t o l e a d e r s h i p i s U n im p o rta n t fro m o u r p o i n t o f v ie w , a lth o u g h many i n v e s t i ­ g a t o r s o f l e a d e r s h i p h av e e i t h e r u s e d a m e a su re o f s o c i a l a c c e p ta b ility

a s a c r i t e r i o n o f le a d e rs h ip in s p e c if ic

s i t u a t i o n s o r have i n c lu d e d i t a s a f a c t o r o f l e a d e r s h i p . B ack g ro u n d m a t e r i a l t h u s f a r i n v e s t i g a t e d a t t h e a d o l e s ­ c e n t l e v e l i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h i n th e a n a l y s i s o f b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n to p r o v id e a p r e d i c t o r of s o c ia l a c c e p ta b ility i s fe a s ib le .

The s t u d i e s by B onney,

l e v i , and R e a ls ( 4 , 2 2 , 21) c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e t h a t th e a c c e p te d a d o l e s c e n t s , a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h th e r e j e c t e d , have a h a rm o n io u s r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h e i r p a r e n t s , and t h e i r p a r e n t s a r e m ore i n t e r e s t e d i n " o u t o f home" a c t i v i ­ tie s .

F u r t h e r , th e f a t h e r s o f t h e s e a c c e p te d b o y s h av e a

l a r g e r incom e an d p o s s e s s m ore o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e . T h e re a r e a l s o more " o n ly c h i l d r e n " among th e a c c e p te d g r o u p . A lth o u g h t h e s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e v a l i d

s p e c ific r e la tio n ­

s h i p s o f b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s a n d s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y , t h e r e h av e n o t b ee n any a t t e m p t s , w i t h l a r g e s a m p le s , to q u a n t i f y b a c k g ro u n d d a t a a t th e a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l and s y s te m ­ a tic a lly

r e l a t e i t to s o c ia l a c c e p t a b i l i t y .

25 M o re o v e r, t h e r e h a v e b e e n few a t t e m p t s t o com pare b a c k ­ g ro u n d I n f o r m a t i o n among c o n t r a s t i n g eco n o m ic g r o u p s a t th e a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l , and a lm o s t n o a t t e m p t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e commonness. i n p r e d i c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s among t h e d i f f e r e n t ec o n o m ic l e v e l s . A.

S ta te m e n t o f P ro b le m The s p e c i f i c p ro b le m d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s s tu d y i s to

d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e r e a r e b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s w h ic h a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y among a d o l e s c e n t b o y s , and i f s o , t o f u r t h e r a s c e r t a i n w h e th e r th e s e c o n d itio n in g f a c t o r s a re g e n e r a lly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a c c e p t e d - r e j e c t e d b o y s o r w h e th e r t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s d e p e n d in g u p o n t h e i r ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . A ls o , th e a t t e n p t w i l l be made to q u a n t i f y t h e p r e d i c t i v e b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a a t th e a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l to m easu re s o c i a l a c c e p ta b ility . B.

Summary o f P r o c e d u r e (S e e s e c t i o n I I I f o r f u l l s ta te m e n t) The p r o b le m i s i n d i c a t e d by a b r i e f summary o f th e p r o ­

c e d u re .

S tu d e n ts ' c h o i c e s o f s e a t i n g c o m p an io n s w ere a n a ly z e d

a s th e c r i t e r i o n

of s o c ia l a c c e p ta b ility .

T h ese same p u p i l s

t h e n c o m p le te d a P e r s o n a l H i s t o r y Q u e s t io n n a ir e w h ic h w as c o n s t r u c t e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p ro b le m a r e a s t o w h ic h a n a d o l e s ­ c e n t a d j u s t s i n h i 3 d e v e lo p m e n t.

The p o p u l a t i o n t e s t e d c o n ­

s i s t e d o f a d o l e s c e n t b o y s b etw een th e a g e s o f t h i r t e e n and s ix te e n .

S ix s a m p le s w ere t a k e n a t t h r e e c o n t r a s t i n g e c o ­

nom ic l e v e l s i n Hew Y ork C i t y , a n d two o t h e r s w e re d raw n fro m o t h e r g e o g r a p h ic a r e a s f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f r e & u l t s . The C h i

86 S q u a re s t a t i s t i c w as u t i l i z e d

to a s c e r t a i n t h e d e g r e e o f

s i g n i f i c a n c e i n p r e d i c t i n g th e c r i t e r i o n o f e a c h i te m a l t e r n a ­ t iv e in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e .

T h u s ite m s o f v a r y i n g d i s c r i m i n a ­

t i o n w ere i n d i c a t e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r th e s e v e r a l e c o n o m ic g r o u p s .

I t w as t h e n p o s s i b l e t o d e te r m in e

w h at b a c k g ro u n d w as p r e d i c t i v e o f s o o i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y ,

fo r

th e p a r t i c u l a r ec o n o m ic l e v e l and f o r a l l a d o l e s c e n t b o y s . The b ac k g ro u n d i te m s fo u n d to be s i g n i f i c a n t i n p r e d i c t i n g th e c r i t e r i o n w ere t h e n com bined i n t o s c o r i n g k e y s a s a m ea su re o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y w h ic h c o u ld be a v a l u a b l e a d j u n c t f o r g u id a n c e a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t l e v e l .

§7 III.

VARIABIE S , P0PU1ATICH AND PROCEDURES

A. VARIABIBS: '

Hon th e v a r i a b l e s f o r th e s tu d y o f th e p r o b le m n e r e

e s t a b l i s h e d - c o n s i s t i n g o f th e ite m s and b a c k g ro u n d a r e a s o f th e p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y q u e s t i o n n a i r e - th e t h r e e eco n o m ic l e v e l s - an d th e c r i t e r i o n

sc o re s of s o c ia l a c c e p ta b ility -

n i l l be e x p l a i n e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . 1 . P r e d i c t o r s ( I t e m s , I n s t r u m e n t , A re a s o f B a c k g ro u n d ) A P e rs o n a l H is to r y Q u e s tio n n a ire , c o n s is tin g

o f tn o

h u n d re d and f o r t y it e m s , w as d e v e lo p e d f o r th e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s tu d y ( c f . A p p e n d ix ).

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e w as p r i n t e d

f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n tw o p a r t s , w i t h 111 ite m s i n th e f i r s t fo rm and 129 i n th e s e c o n d . The ite m s o f th e P e r s o n a l H i s t o r y Q u e s t io n n a ir e w ere w r i t t e n to r e p r e s e n t f i v e f a c t o r s o f p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y , i n t e r p r e t e d . f r o m f a c t o r a n a l y s e s , m o s tly o f u n p u b li s h e d Army s t u d i e s , a s f o l l o w s : I.

P e r s o n a l R e l a t i o n a f d e a l i n g w i t h p e o p l e , lo n g te r m e v id e n o e o f d e a l i n g w i t h p e o p l e ) .

I I . P e rfo rm a n c e l e a d e r s h i p ( f o r c e f u l n e s s , i n i t i a t i v e ) . I I I . A t t e n t i o n t o J o b (ju d g m e n t i n p e r s o n a l s i t u a t i o n s , In d u s try , g e ttin g c o o p e ra tio n )• IV . S t a b i l i t y i n S o c i a l S i t u a t i o n s ( r e a c t i o n s u n d e r p re ssu re )• V. P r e f e r e n c e s ( l e v e l s o f a s p i r a t i o n s , e t c . ) . T h is w o rk w as done i n c o o p e r a t i o n w ith a g ro u p o f p s y c h o lo ­ g i s t s o f R ic h a r d s o n , B e llo w s , H e n ry , and Company, I n c . i te m s w ere w r i t t e n by D. H. F r y e r , E . H. R u n d q u is t,

The

28 S . S . D an z ig and th e a u t h o r . The I n s t r u m e n t w as t h e n c h e c k e d and a d d i t i o n a l Ite m s I n c lu d e d w h ere n e c e s s a r y t o r e p r e s e n t a r e a s o f p ro b le m s t o w h ic h th e a d o l e s c e n t a d j u s t s i n h i s d e v e lo p m e n t.

The

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f p ro b le m a r e a s , a d a p te d fro m C o le ( 8 ) f o r t h i s p u r p o s e , w as a s f o l l o w s : I.

F a m ily and Home E x p e r i e n c e s : Time and a c t i v i t i e s e n g a g e d i n w i t h m o th e r; tim e and a c t i v i t i e s e n g a g e d i n w i t h f a t h e r ; tim e an d a c t i v i t i e s e n g a g e d i n w i t h b o th ; e c o n o m ic , e d u c a t i o n a l and s o c i a l s t a t u s o f p a r e n t s ; tim e and a c t i v i t i e s e n g a g e d i n w i t h s i b l i n g s ; a c t i v i t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s e n g a g e d i n a t hom e; k i n d s an d n u m b ers o f a c t i v i t i e s a d o l e s c e n t s engaged in w ith o u t p a r e n t a l c o n tr o l.

II.

I n t e l i e c t u a l A c t i v 1 t l e s and S c h o o lJ B x p e r ie n e e s ; S e lf-m o tiv a te d I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s , e . g . , re a d in g f o r p le a s u r e ; s u b je c ts lik e d , d i s ­ lik e d , b e s t g ra d e s , w o rst g ra d e s, s a t i s f a t i o n w ith s c h o o l g r a d e s , s t a n d i n g i n c l a s s ; s c h o o ls a t t e n d e d ; a t t i t u d e to w a r d s t e a c h e r s , lik e d -d is lik e d .

I I I . S o c ia l A c t i v i t i e s : A c t i v i t i e s engaged in le is u r e t im e , e . g . , h o b b i e s ; p o s i t i o n s assu m ed among p e e r s ’ i n v a r i o u s g ro u p a c t i v i t i e s , e . g , s p o r t s , c l u b s ; n u m b e rs a n d k i n d s o f g ro u p a c t i v i t i e s ; a d o l e s c e n t 's r e a c t i o n s t o p e e r s r e s p o n s e to w a r d s h im . 17.

B e g in n in g s o f E c o n o m ic I n d e p e n d e n c e ; A c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v i n g m anagem ent o f o u r f i n a n c e s ; v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e a c t i v i t i e s , e . g . c l u b s r e l a t e d t o c h o i c e , d i s c u s s i o n s w it h f a m ily , e t c . ; v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s ; jo b s h e l d , money e a r n e d .

V.

A d ju s tm e n t to C o n c e p t o f S e l f : P h y s i c a l S e l f , e . g . , s i z e , a p p e a r a n c e , ch an g e i n s i z e ; s o c i a l , e . g . , a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l among p e e r s i n and o u t o f s c h o o l; r e a c t i o n s t o g ro u p a c t i v i t i e s .

E a c h s u b j e c t i n t h e sam p le c o u p le t e d b o th fo rm s o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire .

To a c h ie v e t r u t h f u l n e s s o f r e s p o n s e , th e

29 s t u d e n t s w ere t o l d t h a t t h e i r a n s w e rs w ere c o n f i d e n t i a l a n d w ould n o t be r e v e a l e d t o t h e i r f r i e n d s , p a r e n t s , or school a u th o r itie s .

te a c h e rs

T h is p le d g e w as r e s p e c t e d .

In th e a n a ly s is o f d a ta , th e P e r s o n a l

H is to ry

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a s a w h o le , w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d a s a p r e d i c ­ t o r o f th e c r i t e r i o n . fie d

The I n d i v i d u a l ite m s and th e c l a s s i ­

ite m s o f t h e s e v e r a l b a c k g ro u n d a r e a s w i l l a l s o be

s tu d ie d a s p o s s ib le p r e d i c t o r s , 2,

The E co n o m ic l e v e l

The te r m eco n o m ic l e v e l i s u s e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h t o r e f e r to r e l a t i v e f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s o f f a m ily b a c k g ro u n d . T h e re a r e many r e s e a r c h e s ( 3 6 ,3 7 ) w h ic h h a v e a tte m p te d t o c l a s s i f y p o p u l a t i o n s on a s o c io - e c o n o m ic v a r i a b l e i n a much m ore e l a b o r a t e f a s h i o n t h a n h a s b e e n done i n t h i s s tu d y .

M o st s c a l e s u s e d f o r t h i s p u r p o s e r e q u i r e in fo r m a ­

t i o n fro m e a c h i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n in g in co m e, p a r t i c i p a t i o n in ch u rch a f f a i r s , p o l i t i c s , p r e s t i g e , e t c . ,

and some h av e

th em c l a s s i f i e d by o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e com m unity.

To

o b t a i n t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w o uld h av e r e s u l t e d i n c o n s id e r a b l e c u r t a i l m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o be t e s t e d .

As a l a r g e

sam ple w as r e q u i r e d f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , a n eco n o m ic v a r i a b l e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y to o b t a i n w as s e l e c t e d t o com pare p o p u l a t i o n s s u b j e c t e d to d i v e r g e n t eco n o m ic i n f l u e n c e s . The s a m p le s s e l e c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o eco n o m ic s t a t u s a r e d e s c rib e d a s fo llo w s : H ig h E c o n o m ic l e v e l :

Boys i n s c h o o ls whose e s ti m a t e d

f a m ily incom e i s ab o v e $ 9 ,0 0 0 . a y e a r .

Middle Economic Level:

Boys in schools whose estim ated

fam ily income i s approxim ately $$,000 to $7,000 a y e a r. Low Economic Level:

Boys in schools whose estim ated

fam ily income i s below $3,000 a y e a r. Great care was taken in drawing the samples of economic le v e l so as to make c e rta in t h a t th ere would be almost no overlap among th e groups.

The middle and low economic le v e ls were taken

in th e p u b lic schools o f Hew York C ity by f i r s t consulting an o f f i c i a l of th e Board o f Education who assigned an economic le v e l to th e d iff e r e n t

schools on th e b a s is of neighborhood, re p o rts

from census f ig u re s , e t c .

Secondly, th e p rin c ip a ls of th e p a rtic u ­

l a r schools c la s s if ie d t h e i r own students as belonging in th e main to a p a r tic u la r economic le v e l.

There was complete agreement

between the o ffic ia ls * and the p r in c ip a ls ' e stim ates.

"While th e re

may be a few stu d en ts in th ese schools who do n o t belong to the economic le v e l of th e m ajo rity of t h e i r classm ates, t h e i r number i s probably in s ig n if ic a n t.

I f any contamination of s p e c ific

economic le v e ls has occurred, i t i s more lik e ly to be a t the middle and low economic le v e ls .

The samples of the high economic

le v e l were drawn e x c lu siv e ly from p riv a te schools w ith h igh tu i t i o n r a t e s , 3.

The C rite rio n V ariable

A m odified nom ination, "buddy r a tin g ," or sociom etric, technique was used as a c r ite r io n of s o c ia l acceptance. I t i s very d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t im possible, to u t i l i z e th e method o f d ir e c t observation t o secure a c r ite r io n of s o c ia l

31 a c c e p t a b i l i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y w here l a r g e s a m p le s a r e n e c e s s a r y a s i n t h i s s tu d y .

As J e n n in g s p o i n t s o u t , "The e v id e n c e i s

t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l 's o b s e rv e d b e h a v io r i s n o t a r e l i a b l e in d e x to w h at a s s o c i a t e s h e w a n ts ;

to o many f a c t o r s beyond

h i s c o n t r o l may a f f e c t w h at b e h a v io r he show s ( e . g . h i s own t i m i d i t y to w a r d s a p p r o a c h in g someone who i s a l r e a d y s u rr o u n d e d by o t h e r s , d e s i r e t o make o t h e r s t h i n k he d o e s n 't o a r e to be w i t h th o s e who do n o t i n v i t e h im ).

She s e c u r i t y

o f a n o n y m ity g i v e n t o s o c i o m e t r i c c h o i c e s may a l s o be a n im p o r t a n t f a c t o r r e l e a s i n g him t o e x p r e s s h i s in n e r m o s t f e e lin g . (1 8 )" I n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y , p u p i l s n o m in a te t h e f o u r b o y s i n t h e i r c l a s s whom th e y w ould l i k e

to have s i t t i n g n e x t to

th em th e f o l l o w i n g t e r m — who, i n t h e i r o p in io n , make th e m ost d e s i r a b l e f r i e n d s , an d a l s o th e f o u r b o y s w i t h whom th e y w ould f e e l u n c o m f o r ta b le - - who g iv e them a f e e l i n g o f u n e a s i n e s s o r a n n o y a n c e i n th e c la s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n ,

in

a d d i t i o n , th e y w e re r e q u e s t e d to l i s t th e a d j e c t i v e s d e s c r i b ­ in g th e b e h a v i o r o f th e b o y s whom th e y fo u n d a c c e p t a b l e and t h o s e whom th e y f o u n d u n a c c e p t a b l e .

B a c h c l a s s g ro u p

a c c o m p lis h in g t h i s and t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t o t a l l e d a b o u t th ir ty p u p ils . B.

POPULATION

The p o p u l a t i o n t e s t e d c o n s i s t e d o f o v e r 2500 a d o l e s c e n t b o y s b e tw e e n t h e a g e s o f t h i r t e e n an d s i x t e e n , r e s i d i n g i n Hew f o r k C i t y , i n U e s t c h e 3 t e r C o u n ty , Hew Y o rk , and i n a s m a ll c o u n ty i n I n d i a n a .

T a b le I . p r e s e n t s t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s .

E m p h a s is w as p l a c e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h u p o n a d e q u a te r e p r e s e n -

t a t l o n f o r one a r e a o f t h e c o u n tr y i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s a m p le s , a lt h o u g h i t w as r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h e r e m ig h t he d if f e r e n c e s in p r e d ic tiv e

b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r ie n c e f o r

i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f th e c o u n tr y . S ix s a m p le s o f o v e r 300 s u b j e c t s e a c h w ere s e c u r e d i n New Y ork C i t y ,

two a t e a c h e co n o m ic l e v e l ,

re p re s e n ta tio n d e s ire d .

t o a t t a i n th e

One s a u p le a t e a c h l e v e l w as o b t a i n ­

ed i n May 1948 and a n o t h e r i n November 1 9 4 8 .

TABES 1 .

F a c in g p ag e 33

POPULATIONS 3 AMPIB P I.

New Y o rk C i t y and V i c i n i t y F i r s t Sam ple

(May 1948) (A) low eco n o m ic

(1 ) P u b l i c S c h o o l 37 (M a n h a tta n ,!? . Y .)

N 120

(2 ) J u n i o r H ig h S c h o o l 45 ( M a n h a tta n .N .Y .)

150

(3 ) P u b l i c S c h o o l 64 (M a n h a tta n , N .Y .)

100

T o ta l

350

(B) M id d le eco n o m ic (1 ) J u n i o r H ig h S c h o o l 79 ( B r o n x ,N .Y .)

N 325

(2 ) P u b l i c 3 c h o o l 6 ( B r o n x ,N . Y .)

100 T o ta l

425

(C) H ig h eco n o m ic (1 ) H o ra c e Mann H .3 . f o r B oys ( R i v e r d a l e , N .Y .)

120

(2 ) B a rn a rd S c h o o l f o r Boys (R iv e r d a l e ,N . Y .)

100

N

(3 ) R i v e r d a l e C o u n try S c h o o l ( R iv e r d a le , N .Y .)

100 T o ta l

New Y o rk C ity II.

300

T o t a l 1075

O th e r A re a a (A) W e s t c h e s t e r 1 . H e n d r ic k H udson H ig h S c h o o l (M o n tro se, N .Y .)

N 220

2.

150

P e e k s k i l l H ig h S c h o o l ( P e e k s k i l l , N .Y .)

T o ta l 350 (B) M id d le W est 1 . R u r a l H ig h S c h o o l ( ^ u t s i d e o f N 1*5 o o m in g to n , I n d . ) GRAND TOTAL ( I n i t i a l and S econd S am p les 2^50

I.

Sew Y o rk C ity an d V i c i n i t y S econd Sam ple (N ov. 1948) (A )lo w econom ic

(1 ) P u b l i c S c h o o l 37 ( M a n h a tta n .N .Y .) /

(2 ) J u n i o r H ig h S c h o o l 45 ( M a n h a tta n .N .Y .)

T o ta l

N iB b 150

300

(B) M id d le eco n o m ic (1 )

J u n i o r H ig h S c h o o l 79 (B ro n x ,N .Y )

T o ta l

N 3F0

357

(C) H igh eco n o m ic (1 )

H o ra c e Mann H .3 .

N 170

(2 )

R i v e r d a l e H .S .

175

(3 )

C o l l e g i a t e (M a n h a tta n .N .Y .)

125

T o t a l 1050

34 T h e se a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s th e f i r s t and s e c o n d s a m p le s o f t h e New Y ork C ity p o p u l a t i o n *

The same s c h o o ls , b u t d i f f e r e n t

s u b j e c t s , w e re u s e d i n s e c u r i n g th e f i r s t and s e c o n d sam ples* Two c o m p a ris o n s a m p le s f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f r e s u l t s i n a r e a s o u t s i d e o f New Y o rk C ity w ere s e c u r e d i n W e s tc h e s t e r C o u n ty , New Y o rk , l a t e I n d ia n a e a r ly C.

in 1949.

S p e c if ic P ro c e d u re

1. b ility

i n 1948 and i n a r u r a l h i g h s c h o o l i n

D e te r m in in g th e C r i t e r i o n S co re o f S o c i a l A c c e p ta ­ -

The s tu d e n t s * n o m in a tio n s o r c h o i c e s w ere s c o r e d i n c l a s s g ro u p s by m eans o f a s im p le s c o r i n g c h a r t . The n am es o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t s w ere l i s t e d

i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r a lo n g t h e to p

o f th e c h a r t a n d i n th e same o r d e r down th e s i d e . E a c h tim e a boy w as c h o s e n , a r e d m ark w as r e c o r d e d and e a c h tim e he was r e j e c t e d , a b lu e m ark w as r e c o r d e d i n th e a p p r o p r i a t e

colum n

below h i s n am e. S u b t r a c t i n g t h e num ber o f r e j e c t i o n s fro m th e num ber o f a c c e p t a n c e s f o r a boy and d i v i d i n g t h e r e m a in d e r by th e c l a s s t o t a l , p r o v id e d t h e c r i t e r i o n s c o r e . The f o l l o w i n g f o r m u la was u t i l i z e d : X - Y N £ =

No. o f a c c e p t a n c e s r e c e i v e d

Y N

No. o f r e j e c t i o n s r e c e i v e d No. o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n c l a s s

-

The s u b j e c t s

on w

C r i t e r i o n S c o re

w e re s e p a r a t e d w i t h i n econom ic l e v e l s i n t o

t o p , m id d le an d lo w e r c r i t e r i o n

g ro u p s a c c o r d in g t o s c o r e .

I f a n i n d i v i d u a l * s s c o r e w as 15 o r h i g h e r , he w as p l a c e d i n t h e h ig h c r i t e r i o n g r o u p ; i f he r e c e i v e d n e i t h e r a c c e p t a n c e s n o r r e j e c t i o n s he w as p l a c e d i n th e m id d le g r o u p ; and i f he

35

h a d more r e j e c t i o n s t h a n a c c e p t a n c e s , h e w as p la c e d I n th e low g r o u p . T hose w hose s c o r e s d id n o t f a l l I n t o th e ahove c a t e g o r i e s w e re n o t I n c lu d e d I n t h e c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s u s e d I n d e t e r m in i n g th e d i f f e r e n c e s I n p r e d i c t i v e b a c k g ro u n d e x p e rie n c e s .

T h is w as done to p u r i f y th e c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s

f o r p u rp o se s o f c o n s tr u c tio n of s c o rin g k e y s .

O nly a b o u t

250 i n d i v i d u a l s w e re e l i m i n a t e d fro m b o th s a m p le s o f t h e Hew Y o rk C i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x im a te ly -2100 b o y s f o r t h i s re a so n . 2.

D e te r m in in g t h e V a l i d i t y o f C r i t e r i o n P r o c e d u re

th r o u g h .A nalysis' . o f A d j e c t i v e s C h a r a c t e r i z i n g C r i t e r i o n C ro u p s A p p ro x im a te ly 9000 a d j e c t i v e s l i s t e d

by t h e s t u d e n t s

o f th e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d s a m p le s o f t h e Hew Y o rk C ity p o p u la ­ t i o n a3 d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s th e y c h o s e o r r e j e c t ­ ed w e re c l a s s i f i e d

to d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e a t t i t u d e s o f

s o o l a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y w e re r e a l i s t i c eco n o m ic l e v e l .

and c o n s i s t e n t f o r e a c h

T h is s h o u ld i n d i c a t e i f th e r e a s o n s t h e

a d o l e s c e n t s g av e f o r t h e i r c h o i c e s w ere c o n s i s t e n t f o r a c c e p te d and f o r r e j e c t e d p e e r s an d w h e th e r t h e s e r e a s o n s d iffe re d 3.

s i g n i f i c a n t l y a t e a c h eco n o m ic l e v e l . M ethod o f A n a ly z in g R e s p o n s e s t o Q u e s t io n n a ir e -

H o l l e r i t h c a r d s w e re p u n c h e d w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l o f th e f i r s t and sec o n d s a m p le s o f t h e Hew Y ork C ity p o p u la tio n .

T h e se c a r d s co d e d a l l th e n e c e s s a r y in fo r m a ­

t i o n — t h e s t u d e n t 1 s n u m b er, c l a s s , and h i s a n s w e rs t o t h e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

s c h o o l, c r i t e r i o n s c o r e , E a c h v e r t i c a l colum n

36 o f t h e c a r d w as u s e d f o r a d i f f e r e n t item *

She f i r s t t e n

co lu m n s w ere u s e d f o r o r i t e r i o n s c o r e , c l a s s , e t c .

it e m 81,

t h e r e w i t h t h r e e a l t e r n a t e s w as c o d e d o n l i n e 3 1 .

I f th e

p u p i l c h o s e a l t e r n a t i v e s A and B, n u m b ers one a n d .tw o w ere p u n c h ed i n on h i s c a r d , o r , i f C w ere o h o s e n , num ber th r e e w as p u n c h e d .

A p p ro x im a te ly e i g h t th o u s a n d c a r d s w e re co d ed

i n t h i s m a n n e r, f o u r f o r e a c h s u b j e c t .

T h ese c a r d s w ere

s o r t e d f o r f r e q u e n c y o f r e s p o n s e to e a c h o f th e a l t e r n a t i v e s a c c o r d in g t o th e v a r i o u s s a m p le s u s e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire . 4,

M ethod o f C om puting S i g n i f i c a n c e o f D i f f e r e n c e s -

H av in g s e l e c t e d th e c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s and h a v in g o b t a i n ­ ed ite m f r e q u e n c i e s f o r th e c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s on e a c h a l t e r n a t i v e , th e s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e r e s p o n s e s o f a c c e p te d and r e j e c t e d b o y s w as d e te r m in e d by th e f o l l o w i n g m o d i f i c a t i o n o f th e C h i s q u a r e s ta tis tic

f o r s c re e n in g ite m s : 2*

=

" a x _

*

t ( * a fffaa '+ g a f b ) 2

Ha

*

N i n c r i t e r i o n g ro u p A (A c d e p te d )

Hb

s

H i n c r i t e r i o n g ro u p B ( B e je e te d )

“

F re q u e n c y o f r e s p o n s e t o a l t e r n a t i v e by C r i t e r i o n g ro u p A

f |j

8

F re q u e n c y o f r e s p o n s e t o a l t e r n a t i v e o f C r i t e r i o n g ro u p B

f*

~

E x p e c te d f re q u e n c y o f r e s p o n s e by C r i t e r i o n g ro u p A o r B

T h is f o rm u la i s th e e x a c t e q u i v a l e n t o f th e u s u a l fo rm o f t h e f o r m u la - 2 * = Z U o

“ ft )2 Tt

37 P v a l u e s w e re com p u ted o n ly w hen t h e f r e q u e n c y f o r e a c h a lt e r n a tiv e exceeded te n .

O b ta in e d f r e q u e n c i e s o f l e s s th a n

t e n mayf a s Ie w i3 and B urke (2 3 ) p o i n t o u t , C h i S q u a re s t a t i s t i c .

i n v a l i d a t e th e

A ls o , on s i g n i f i c a n t i t e m s ,

a g e o f r e s p o n s e to e a c h a l t e r n a t i v e

th e p e r c e n t ­

i n th e h i g h , m id d le and

low c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s w as c o m p u ted . The f i r s t t e s t u s e d f o r a c c e p ta n c e o f a n a l t e r n a t e f o r c o m p a ris o n o f eco n o m ic l e v e l s o r i n c l u s i o n i n a s c o r i n g key w as t h a t th e r e s p o n s e p e r c e n t a g e in th e m id d le c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s h o u ld f a l l b e tw e e n t h o s e o f th e h i g h and low c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s.

T h is w as done t o e s t a b l i s h s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r n a t e s i n

l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s on t h e c r i t e r i o n o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y . I t a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e l e c t e d a l t e r n a t i v e s a s n o t due to random f l u c t u a t i o n s o r c h a n c e f a c t o r s b e tw e e n t h e h ig h and low c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s u s e d i n t h e C hi s q u a r e c o m p u ta tio n . The se c o n d t e s t f o r th e a c c e p ta n c e o f an a l t e r n a t e w as t h a t t h e C h i S q u a re b e tw e e n t h e h i g h and low c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s y i e l d e d a p r o b a b i l i t y (P ) v a lu e a t th e .2 0 l e v e l ,

th u s

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i n n o m ore t h a n 20 o u t o f 100 s a m p le s o f cong> arable s u b j e c t s w ould t h i s

d i f f e r e n c e be due t o c h a n c e .

T h is c r i t i c a l l e v e l i s u s e d g e n e r a l l y by e x p e r t s c o n s tru c tio n .

in t e s t

The c o m p u ta tio n s i n d e te r m in in g t h e s i g n i f i c a n t

a l t e r n a t e s f o r t h e v a r i o u s e c o n o m ic l e v e l s o f t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d s a m p le s i n c l u d e d o v e r 2 1 ,0 0 0 p e r c e n t a g e s a n d o v e r 7 ,0 0 0 P v a l u e s . 6 . M ethod o f C o n s t r u c t i n g S c o r in g K eys S c o r in g k e y s f o r e c o n o m ic

l e v e l s , w hen u s e d t o s c o r e

th e

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s o f e c o n o m ic g r o u p s , p e r m it a q u a n t i f i e d m e a su re

38 Of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n b a c k g ro u n d e x p e r i e n c e s an d t h e c rite rio n .

S ix s e p a r a t e k e y 8 w e re c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h i s

p u r p o s e , one f o r e a c h eco n o m ic i # v O ! e o f i t h i f l f r s t a A d 1 s e c o n d s a m p le s , a c c o r d i n g t o th e t e s t s i n d i c a t e d above f o r s e l e c t i o n o f p r e d ic tiv e ite m s ,

la te r,

t h o s e ite m s w h ic h w ere n o t

s i m i l a r l y p r e d i c t i v e o f th e c r i t e r i o n f o r b o th s a m p le s a t t h e same eco n o m ic l e v e l , w ere e l i m i n a t e d , e s t a b l i s h i n g one f i n a l k e y f o r e a c h e c o n o m ic l e v e l .

An o v e r a l l k e y , a p p l i c a b l e to

a l l e co n o m ic l e v e l s , w as c o n s t r u c t e d by r e t a i n i n g o n ly th o s e i t e m s w h ic h w e re s t a t i s t i c a l l y th e s i x o f th e eco n o m ic

s ig n i f ic a n t in th re e o u t o f

s a m p le s .

T a b le I I l i s t s t h e p o p u l a t i o n s u p o n w h ic h t h e s e s c o r i n g k e y s w ere d e v e lo p e d . TABES I I

E c o n o m ic L e v e l

SCORIHG KEYS HERB DEVELOPED Sauqole F irs t S econd Combined

Low E co n o m ic

300

250

550

M id d le E co n o m ic

350

300

650

H ig h Eoonom io

300

325

625

T o ta l 6.

1825

S c o r in g M ethod -

The r e s p o n s e s t o th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w ere s c o r e d i n th e f o l l o w i n g w ay:

I f a n i t e m a l t e r n a t e w as a r e j e c t e d

d is c rim in a to r,

i t w as g iv e n a w e ig h t o f z e r o ;

d is c rim in a to r,

i t w as s c o r e d 1 . ,

i f no

i f a n a c c e p ta n c e d i s c r i m i ­

n a t o r , i t w as s c o r e d 2 . The s c o r i n g w as a c c o m p lis h e d m a n u a lly w i t h t h e u s e o f

39 9 c o l o r e d H o l l e r i t h c a r d , u p o n w h ich were p u n c h e d th e a p p r o ­ p r i a t e w e ig h ts a s s ig n e d , a s in d ic a te d ab o v e, a lte rn a tiv e s .

to e a c h o f t h e

One k ey o a r d w as p u n c h e d o u t f o r th e s i n g l e

w e i g h t s , an d a n a d d i t i o n a l one f o r th o s e a l t e r n a t i v e s a s s i g n e d d o u b le w e i g h t s .

The key c a r d s w e re e a c h p la c e d

a g a i n s t t h e c a r d s to be s c o r e d and h e l d t o th e l i g h t , and t h e num ber o f l i g h t d o t s ( s c o r a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s ) s c o r e r w as r e c o r d e d f o r e a c h o a r d . e a c h i n d i v i d u a l w e re s c o r e d ,

s e e n by th e

A f te r th e fo u r c a rd s f o r

t a b u l a t e d an d summed, a f i n a l

s c o r e w as r e c o r d e d f o r th e t o t a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 7.

M ethod o f D e te rm in in g V a l i d i t y o f P r e d i c t i o n -

The s c o r e s o f th e s e v e r a l eco n o m ic s a m p le s on w h ich e a c h o f th e s i x s c o r i n g k e y s w as

c o n s t r u c t e d w ere c o r r e l a ­

t e d w i t h th e c r i t e r i o n s c o r e s by m eans o f P e a r s o n p r o d u e t moment c o e f f i c i e n t s .

To d e te r m in e th e d ro p i n c o r r e l a t i o n

due t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e d i c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s o f d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s , e a c h o f th e e c o n o m ic l e v e l s o f th e f i r s t sam ple w as s c o r e d w ith t h e k e y s o f th e tw o o t h e r eco n o m ic l e v e l s .

The

s c o r e s o f e a c h eco n o m ic g ro u p o f th e f i r s t and sec o n d s a m p le s , and f o r th e co m bined s a m p le s , w h ere th e f i n a l eco n o m ic s c o r ­ in g k e y s w ere u s e d , w e re c o r r e l a t e d w i t h c r i t e r i o n s c o r e s f o r th e g ro u p a s a f u r t h e r i n d i c a t o r o f v a l i d i t y o f s c o r i n g p ro c e d u re .

A f i n a l o v e r a l l k e y , c o n s t r u c t e d fro m a l t e r n a t e s

s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h r e e o u t o f s i x eco n o m ic s a m p le s , w as u s e d i n s c o r i n g com bined s a m p le s o f e a c h eco n o m ic l e v e l and s a m p le s com bined w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o eco n o m ic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n an d c o e f f i c i e n t s com puted w i t h c r i t e r i a , o f g e n e r a l i t y o r commonness o f p r e d i c t i v e

a s an in d ic a tio n b a c k g ro u n d among

40 eco n o m ic g r o u p s . T h is f i n a l o v e r a l l k e y w as a p p l i e d t o th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s e c u r e d fro m a p o p u l a t i o n l i v i n g i n a s u b u rb a n a r e a o f W e s t c h e s t e r C o u n ty , New Y o rk , and one fro m a m id-w e s t e r n fa rm a r e a o f I n d i a n a , fro m w h ic h a t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s io n c a n be d raw n a s t o commonness o f p r e d i c t i v e b a c k g ro u n d o f a d o l e s c e n t s and th e e x t e n t to w h ic h i t

i s p o s s i b l e to

p r e d i c t t h e c r i t e r i o n w ith t h e s c o r in g o f b a c k g ro u n d d e te r m in e d e l s e w h e r e .

T h e re w as n o a t t e m p t made i n t h e s e

s a m p le s , o u t s i d e o f New Y o rk C i t y , t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e eco n o m ic le v e ls . 8.

T a b le I I I i l l u s t r a t e s th e p r o c e d u r e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . R e lia b ility

of S c o re s -

A b io g r a p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n q u e s tio n n a ir e p r e s e n ts a s p e c i a l p r o b le m o f r e l i a b i l i t y .

C o m p u ta tio n by th e o d d -e v e n

m ethod c a n be v e r y m i s l e a d i n g b e c a u s e o f th e w ide d i f f e r e n c e s i n ite m a l t e r n a t e s .

R e l i a b i l i t y an d v a l i d i t y

a r e h i g h l y r e l a t i v e p r o b le m s , a s The k in d o f r e l i a b i l i t y

in t h i s in s ta n c e

G u i lf o r d (13) h a s e m p h a s iz e d .

t h a t i s more im p o r ta n t th a n any co­

e f f i c i e n t d e p e n d e n t on i n t e r n a l c o n s is t e n c y i s w h e th e r a n i n s t r u m e n t d o e s c o n s i s t e n t l y w it h d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s w h a t i t p u rp o rts to do.

T h is w as t e s t e d by t h e c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n

p r o c e d u r e s o u t l i n e d e a r l i e r . H ow ever, a n a p p r o x im a tio n o f re lia b ility

i n th e t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e h a s b e e n o b ta in e d w ith

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46 TABIB V TOTAL AND AVERAGE NUMBER OP ADJECTIVE EE SCRIPT IONS OP ACCEPTED AND REJECTED PEERS USED BY ADOLESCENTS AT TEE THREE ECCNQMIC LEVELS A d j e c t i v e s u s e d t o D e s c r ib e A c c e p te d A d o le s c e n ts E co n o m ic L e v e l low M id d le H ig h g ra n d T o t a l T o t a l n um ber o f a d je c tiv e s used Num ber o f S u b j e c t s L is tin g A d j e c t i v e s ______ A v era g e num ber o f A d je c tiv e s u sed p e r s u b je c t

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608

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5754

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858

1697

3870

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462

608

1654

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1 .8 1

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47 a d o l e s c e n t s , w hen g i v e n a n o p p o r tu n i t y t o e x p r e s s th em ­ s e l v e s w i t h o u t f e a r o f e e n s o r e , c a n and do v e r b a l i z e d e f i ­ n ite

re a so n s f o r d e s ir in g g r e a te r o r l e s s c o n ta c t w ith

in d iv id u a ls in t h e i r sch o o l c la s s .

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e x te n d th r o u g h o u t t h e c l a s s e s g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e r e d r e p r e s e n ­ t a t i v e o f p e r s o n a l re a so n s f o r p e o p le s c h o ic e s o f a s s o c ia te s an d t h e i r f r e q u e n c i e s by c l a s s e s i s w h a t m ig h t be e x p e c te d , b a s e d on s t u d i e s o f su c h d a t a a s s e m b le d fro m a d o l e s c e n t s . The c r i t e r i o n o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y , a s d e f in e d i n t h i s s t u d y , i s n o t a n am b ig u o u s o r a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t, b u t r a t h e r one t h a t r e f l e c t s a t t i t u d e s o f a d o le s c e n ts a s t o w h a t t r a i t s th e y f i n d d e s i r a b l e o r u n d e r s i r a b l e i n a s s o c i a t e s . T h is e v id e n c e may be r e g a r d e d a s v a l i d a t i n g th e m eth o d o f s e c u r i n g nam es o f a c c e p t e d - r e j e c t e d p e e r s , a s i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e a c c e p t a n c e s an d r e j e c t i o n s u s e d a s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y a r e s u p p o r te d by r e a l i s t i c a p p r a i s ­ a l s o f th e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f a s s o c ia te s . B.

G o m p arlso n B etw een E c o n o m ic l e v e l s

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•74.

74-A)

What is the most money you have earned in a week? (Do not count money earned from your parents or guardians.) 75-A) Less than 50* 75-B) 50* to *1 75-C) $1 to 13 75-D) $3 to $5 75-B ) More than $5

They have picked on ms because I was young.

7

82.

Since yon have been in high school, how many times have yon been elected by your claesaates to some school office or committee? 82-A) Never 82-B) Once 82-C) Twice 82-D) Three times 82-E) Four or more times

83-85. Which of the following things have you done. (Hark as many as apply.) 83-A) Taken dancing lessons 83-B) Learned to dance from friends 83-C) Attended a school dance 83-D) Learned to play card games like rummy, hearts, bridge, etc. 83-E) Belonged to a social club 84-A) 84-B) 84-C) 84-D) 84-E) 85-A) 85-B) 85-C) 85-D) 85-E) 86.

87.

88.

Learned to introduce people without being embarrassed Learned to play ping-pong Learned to paint or to play a musical instrument Attended a dance not given by the school Had dinner at a hotel Had a meal by myself in a restaurant or hotel Bought lunch or dinner for a girl Given a party for my friends Taken a girl to a football gams or other sports event None of these

89-90. In which school activities have you participated? (lfark as many answers as apply.) 89-A) Working on the school paper 89-B) Working on the yearbook 89-C) Acting in a school play 89-D) Helping with school play in some way other than acting 89-E) Glee club 90-A) 90-B) 90-C) 90-D) 91.

86-A)

1 2, 5, 8, 12

3, 6, 9, or

or 4 or 7 10, or 11 more

How old were you when you first learned ballroom dancing? 87-A) lounger than 10 87-B) 10 to 14 87-C) 15 to 18 87-D) Over 18 67-E) I never learned to dance. What position do you play on a football team? 88-A) Center 88-B) Fullback, halfback, or end 88-C) Guard or tackle 88-D) Quarterback 88-E) I do not play football.

In the last question, how many answers did you mark? 91-A) 1 91-B) 2 91-C) 3 or 4 91-D) 5 or 6 91-E) 7 or more

92-93. In which sports have you been on a first- or second-string team in high school? (Mark as many answers as apply.) 92-A) Baseball 92-B) Softball 92-C) Regular football 92-D) Touch football 92-13) Basketball 93-A) 93-B) 93-C) 93-D) 93-E)

In the last question, how many answers did you mark? 86-B) 86-C) 86-D) 86-E)

Member o f school athletic team Member of debating team Member of school band None of these

Hockey Volley ball Tennis Swimming None of these

94.

In the last question, how many answers did you mark? 94-A) 1 94-B) 2 94-C) 3 or 4 94-D) 5 or 6 94-E) 7 or more

95.

What activities do you take part in fairly regularly? (Mark as many answers as apply.) 95-A) Listen to the radio 95-B) Attend Church or Sunday School 95-C) Work on a hobby 95-D) Attend school sports events 95-E) None of these

8

In the last question, how many a n s w e rs did you m ark? 103-A) 1 103-B) 2 or 3 IO3-C) 4, 5, 6, or 7 103-D) 8, 9, 10, or 11 1Q3-E) 12 or more

96.

How old were you when you first began to smoke? 96-A) lounger than 12 96-B) 12 to 14 96-C) 15 to 17 96-D) 18 or older 96-E) I never smoked.

103.

97.

How old were you when you had your first evening date? 97-A) 13 or younger 97-B) 14 years old 97-C) 15 years old 97-D) 16 or older 97-E) I never had an evening date.

98.

How often do you go to parties where both boys and girls are present? 98-A) Once a week or more 98-B) Once every two weeks 98-C) Once a month 98-D) Once every two or three months 96-E) I seldom or never go to such parties.

104-107. Which of the following have you been unable to achieve, even though you wanted it very much? (Mark as many answers as apply.) 104-A Go to a summer camp 104-B Own a pet Get the marks I wanted in school 104-C 104-D Uake the school honor roll 104-E Be permitted to drive the family car 105-A 105-B 105-C 105-D

99.

How do you feel about parties? (Uark as many answers as apply.) 99-A) I like parties if only boys are there. 99-B) I like parties if both boys and girls are there. 99-C) I dislike parties. 99-D) I don’t go to parties.

105-E 106-A 106-B 106-C 106-D 106-E

100-102. Which of the following things have you seriously wanted to do or be since you have been in high school? (Uark as many answers as apply; it does not matter whether you have actually done any of these things.) 100-A) Class or school president 100-B) Editor of the year book 100-C) Editor of the school or literary paper 100-D) Reporter on the school or literary paper 100-E) Captain of an athletic team 101-A) 101-B) 101-C) 101-D) 101-E)

Member of an athletic team Act in a school play Cheer leader Play in a school band Member of a fraternity

102-A) 102-B) 102-C) 102-D) 102-E)

Valedictorian Member of a debating team Member of the glee club Be on the honor roll None of these

107-A 107-B 107-C 107-D

108.

Make friends with certain boys or girls Go to some special dance or party (such as a formal, etc.) Have a regular ("steady") girl­ friend Have enough money to do what my friends do Own a tennis racket Get certain clothes I wanted very badly Be able to stay out as late as m/ friends Be elected to a class or school office Get into the class play Get on the school paper or yearbook staff Get into a club or fraternity Make one of the school athletic teams Go on a school vacation trip I have not been especially disappointed by not achieving any of these things.

In the last question, how many answers did you mark? 108-A) 1 or 2 108-B) 3, 4, or 5 108-C) 6, 7, 3 or 9 108-D) 10, 11, 12, or 13 108-E) 14 or more

109.

Have you ever lived with anyone but your parents for more than a year? 109-A) No 109-B) Yes, with my stepfather or stepmother 109-C) Yes, with my guardian 109-D) Yes, with a relative of mine ______ 109-5) Yes, in a Home_________ _______

9

110-111. Which do you enjoy most? (Uark two answers .) 110-A) Dances 110-B) Parties 110-C) Movies 110-D) Games like ping-pong 110-E) Reading 111-A) 111-B) 111-C) 111-D)

116.

Listening to the radio My hobbies Single "dating" Double "dating"

Who or what Influenced you most in deciding the work you are planning to take up? 116-a) My parents or guardian 116-B) A teacher or counselor Il6-C) I had a chance to try it and found I liked it. 116-D) A friend of the family 116-E) I have not yet decided what work I will take up.

Mary i s always making s a r c a s ti c rem arks about o th e r g i r l s ' c lo th e s . What i s th e most l i k e l y reason? 117-A) Mary i s je a lo u s o f th e o th e r g irls . 117-B) Mary d o e s n 't care much what she w ears, 117-C) Mary has p o o r t a s t e in c lo th e s . 117-D) Mary wants t o show how sm art she i s . 117-E) Mary i s n o t su re o f h er own c lo th in g ch o ice s.

117-118. 112.

113.

There is a boy in one of your classes who is always creating a disturbance. What is the most likely reason? 112-A) He wants to draw attention to himself. U2-B) He doesn't like the teacher. 112-C) He wants to show his independence. 112-D) He is restless because he doesn't understand what is going on. 112-E) None of these is a likely ______ reason. David gets good marks. What is the most likely reason? 113-A) He studies more because his parents make him. 113-B) He studies more because he has fewer other things to do 113-C) He learns more easily than most people. 113-D) He makes a special effort to please the teachers. 113-B) None of these is a likely reason.

114-115. Jerry is a popular boy who does his school work and is on the football team. He will never come to a party where there are girls. What is the most likely reason? 114-A) He istoo busy. 114-B) He thinks girlsare uninteresting. 114-C) He isvery shy. 114-D) He is afraid of being called a sissy. 114-E) He is embarrassed when he is with girls. 115-A)

None of these is a likely reason.

118-A)

M ary's p a r e n ts cannot a f f o r d t o buy h e r c lo th e s l i k e th e o th e r g i r l s wear.

116-B)

None pf these is a likely reason.

119.

How many close friends do you have? 119-A) None 119-B) 1 or 2 119-C) Several U9-D) Many 119-E) Almost everyone in my class is a close friend.

120.

Who "picked on" you most when you were younger? 120-A) Brothers and/or sisters 120-B) Friends or others of my own age 120-C) My parents 120-D) Teachers 120-E) None of these

121.

Which part of your life do you remember as the happiest? 121-A) Before I started school 121-B) When I was in the first four grades 121-C) When I was in the fifth through the eighth grade 121-D) The present time 121-E) All parts of my life seem about the same.

10

122.

Who in flu e n c e s you m ost when you make d e c is io n s a s to what i s r i g h t f o r you to do? 122-A) One p a r t i c u l a r fr ie n d 122-B) My o ld e r b ro th e rs and s i s t e r s 122-C) My f r ie n d s and schoolm ates g e n e ra lly 122-0) My p a re n ts o r g u ard ian 122-E) Some o th e r a d u lt

123.

_In which o f th ese ways do you co n sid e r y o u r s e lf o u tsta n d in g ? (Mark a s many answ ers as a p p ly .) 123-A) G iving c l e a r r e c i t a t i o n s i n c l a s s 123-B) U nderstanding th e o th e r fe llo w (why he does what he does) 123-C) Being a b le to ta k e care o f m yself 123-D) Being a b le to g e t what I want from most people 123-E) None o f th e s e

124.

125.

When you a re l a t e f o r an appointm ent, what do you u s u a lly do about i t ? 124-A) A pologize f o r th e tro u b le caused by my la te n e s s 124-B) Don’t m ention i t 124-C) Give no e x p la n a tio n u n le s s asked 124-D) S ta te b r i e f l y why I was l a t e 124-E) Something e ls e

When you need an excuse f o r n o t doing som ething, which do you l i k e t o g iv e? 125-A) Another engagement 125-B) A re a so n a b le i l l n e s s 125-C) Someone d o e s n 't want me to do i t (p a re n t, f r ie n d ) 125-D) Work to be done 125-E) Something e l3 e

126.

When scolded by a p a r e n t o r te a c h e r f o r doing som ething wrong, what do you u su a lly do? 126- a ) A ccept th e s c o ld in g , b u t in d ic a te t h a t what was done may n o t have been my f a u l t 126-B) Accept th e sc o ld in g w ith no comment 126-C) A pologize f a r « tiat was done 126-D) E x p lain why I d id i t 126-®) None r f th e s e

127-123. What do you c o n s id e r m ost im p o rta n t in l i f e ? 127-A) Making a l o t o f money 127-B) Having my name " in l i g h ts " 127-C) Having p eople l i k e me 127-D) Being a b le to h e lp people who a re in tro u b le 127-E) Being a b le t o g e t alo n g e n t i r e l y on my own 123-A) 128-B) 128-C)

129.

Learning a g r e a t number o f f a c t s Being an a c tiv e member o f a group Having a fa m ily

How do you compare i n d re s s w ith your classm ates? 129-A) I am u s u a lly th e b e s t-d r e s s e d . 129-B) Sometimes o th e rs d re s s b e t t e r th a n I do. 129-C) Most o f th e o th e rs d re ss b e t t e r th a n I do. 129-D) I don’t c a re ab o u t the way I d re s s .

LIBRARY OP HEW YORI UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY HEIGHT?

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