An Introduction to the Composition and Analysis of Greek Prose [Bilingual ed.] 0521184258, 9780521184250

Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Useful reference texts
Accentuation
I Articles
II Modifiers
III Tenses, voices, and agreement
IV Cases
V Participles
VI The structure of a Greek sentence: word order and connection
Review exercises 1
VII Conditional, concessive, and potential clauses
VIII Relative clauses
IX Pronouns
X Indirect statement
XI Questions
Review exercises 2
XII Purpose, fear, and effort
XIII Cause, result, and “on condition that"
XIV Comparison and negatives
XV Commands, wishes, and prevention
XVI Temporal clauses
Review exercises 3
XVII Impersonal constructions and verbal adjectives
XVIII Oratio obliqua
XIX Summary
XX Consolidation
Appendix A Errors in Smyth’s Grammar
Appendix B English tenses and their Greek equivalents (indicative only)
Appendix C Hints for analyzing Greek sentences
Appendix D English conditional clauses
Appendix E A selection of terminologies for describing Greek conditional sentences
Appendix F Short, easily confused words
Appendix G Partial answer key
Appendix H The next step: prose composition as an art form
Principal parts
Vocabulary
Index to vocabulary

Citation preview

An Introduction to the

Composition and Analysis of Greek Prose ELEANOR DICKEY

An Introduction to the Composition and Analysis of Greek Prose E LE A N O R D IC K EY

EJSC a m b r id g e UNIVERSITY PRESS

Ca m b r

id g e

UNIVERSITY PRESS

University Printing House. Cambridge c s i 8ss, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press is part o f the University o f Cambridge. It furthers the University's mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels o f excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/97805a1184150 © Eleanor Dickey 1016 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions o f relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction o f any part may take place without the written permission o f Cambridge University Press. First published 1016 Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library o f Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Dickey, Eleanor, author. An introduction to the composition and analysis o f Greek prose / Eleanor Dickey, pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 978-0-511-76141-0 (hardback) 1. Greek language - Composition and exercises.

is b n

PA258.D54 2015 488.2'421 - dc2j

I. Title.

2015012662

ISBN 978-0-521-76141-0 Hardback ISBN 978-0-521-18415-0 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy o f URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or w ill remain, accurate or appropriate.

Dedicated to all my former students, with profound gratitude for what I have learnedfrom them.

Contents

Preface Useful reference texts

I

page ix xiii

Accentuation

i

Articles

8

Π

Modifiers

16

ΠI

Tenses, voices, and agreement

27

IV

Cases

35

V

Participles

44

VI

The structure of a Greek sentence: word order and connection

59

Review exercises 1

71

VII

Conditional, concessive, and potential clauses

73

VIII

Relative clauses

83

IX

Pronouns

97

X

Indirect statement

XI “young”; δοϋλοι, -ou, 6 "slave”; ay o p i, -cc$, η "marketplace." Which of these phrases cannot be translated in this way, and why? a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q.

a good slave (acc., a ways) the good slave (nom., 2 ways) the slave in the marketplace (acc., 2 ways) the good man’s slave (dat,, 2 ways) the young man’s slave (nom., 2 ways) the young men's slaves (gen.) a young slave (dat., 2 ways) the good woman’s young slave (dat., 2 ways) the good woman’s slave (gen., 2 ways) the young women in the marketplace (dat,, 2 ways) slaves of the young men (nom.) the slave of the woman in the marketplace (acc., 2 ways) si aves of the you ng worn a n (ge n .) the young woman’s good slave (nom., 2 ways) the young m ans slave (gen.) the young men in the marketplace (gen., 2 ways) the good young slave (gen., 3 ways)

C) Predicate position 1) Adjectives, but not other modifiers, become predicates when they stand outside the article-noun unit; in most cases this means that the verb “be” must be understood. In such sentences, as in most situations where there is a predicate nominative in Greek, the nominative with the article is usually the subject and the one without the article is usually the predicate.1 rd βιβλΙον αγαθδυ. ayafiov τδ βιβλιον

The book is good. The book is good.

2) Predicate position can also be used with a pair of nouns to indicate that the verb “be" is understood; again the one with the article is usually the subject, δ πολπτβ ποιητηϊ. ττολϊτη;δ ποιητης. 3

The citizen is a poet. The poet is a citizen.

When the predicate of such sentences comes before the subject, it is often emphatic.

Modifiers

3) Insuch circumstances the rule that the predicate does not take an article may conflict with the rule that certain types of noun prefer to take an article. This conflict usually (but not always) results in the dropping of the article. το σοφδν ου σοφια.

Cleverness is not wisdom.

4) Demonstrative pronouns do not follow these rules. Demonstratives functioning as adjectives always require the article and stand in what would for another adjective be predicate position, but they do not have predicate meaning. t out o

το βιβλϊον

this book (not “the book is this one" nor “this is the book")

But demonstratives functioning as pronouns stand alone and never take the article. εδεσθε

t out o;

Are you going to eat that?

5) Certain adjectives do not have the normal attributive/predicate distinction but rather a different one. They have one meaning in attributive position and a different one in predicate position; in neither position do they require the reader to supply the verb “be." /v Tf| μεση δδω εν μεση ττ) δδω / εν τη δδω μεση το ακρον δροζ ακρον t o opos / t o opo$ ακρον δ μδνο; τταϊς μδνο; 6 ira ij ηλθεν μδνος ηλθεν

in the middle road (e.g. of three roads) in the middle of the road the high mountain the top of the mountain the only child only the child came / the child alone came / the child came alone he alone came I he came alone

Preliminary exercise 2 (on C). Translate into Greek using only the follow­ ing vocabulary: δδεΛφδ;, -ου, δ “brother"; λιθο;. -ου, δ “stone"; δοϋλοζ, -ou, δ “slave”; δγαθδς, -η, -ov “good”; μδνος, -η, -ov “alone, only”; μεσοι, -η, -ov "middle”; o u t o s , αϋτη, τοϋτο “this, that”; tv (+ dat.) “in, on.” _ a. b. c. d. e.

The slave is good. (2 ways) The brother is good. (2 ways) The brother is a slave. (2 ways) The slave is a brother. (2 ways) this slave (nom.)

19

io

Chapter II

f.

• those things (nom.)

g.

these stones (acc.)

h.

those women (dat.)

i.

this man (gen.)

j.

these brothers (acc.)

k.

the middle brother (nom.)

l. m.

on the middle stone in the middle o f the stone (2 ways)

n.

the brother alone (nom.)

0. p. q.

the only brother (acc.) only the brother (gen.) the only staves (dat.)

r. s.

only the slaves (gen.) the stones alone remained (2 ways, do not translate “remained” )

t.

the only stone (nom.)

D) Genitives and prepositional phrases do not have the same attributive/predicate distinction as adjectives. 1) Genitives and prepositional phrases may appear in predicate position without a major difference in meaning from attributive position. το βιβλϊον τοϋ δΕσττδτου

the master’s book

2) Predicate position without predicate meaning is standard for genitivesjhat are not possessive. των πολιτων oi κακοϊ

the bad ones o f the citizens / the bad men among the citizens

E) Modifiers o f articular infinitives observe the attributive/predicate distinction, but with some complications. 1) Articular infinitives may be directly modified by adverbs or prepositional phrases (but not by adjectives or possessive genitives), and they may take objects (in the accusative or whatever case the verb in question normally takes; verbs meaning “ be" o r “become” take predicate accusatives). Such dependent words may come between the article and the infinitive, or after the infinitive, but not before the article.

M odifiers

αντι τοϋ τους δουλους εϋ παιδεϋειν τω αρχειν rfis ττδλεως

instead o f educating the slaves well by ruling the city

δια το αγαθοϋς εϊναι

on account o f being good (said o f a group o f men)

i ) Articular infinitives may take neuter singular adjectives in predicate position; because o f the cumbersome nature o f many articular infinitives, such predicate adjec­ tives often precede the article rather than following the infinitive. αϊσχρδν to fv τω νεω εσβιειν. ου πονηρδν το τταιδεϋειν δοϋλους.

Eating in the temple is shameful, Educating slaves is not bad.

3) They may take subjects; such subjects are always accusative and come between the article and the infinitive. αϊσχρδν τδ vfous μη μανθδνειν.

For young men not to learn is shameful. / It is shameful for young men not to learn. / Young men's not

οϋκ δγαθδν τδ ϊτπτους ^σθιειν λϊθους.

learning is shameful.’ It is not good for horses to eat stones.

4) If negative, they take μη between the article and the infinitive. τδ μη βυειν ουκ αγαθδν. ■

Not sacrificing is not good.

(The second negative in this example is ou because it goes not with the infinitive but with the understood εστι.)

I Preliminary exercise 3 (on E). Translate into Greek using only the follow­ ing vocabulary: Μθος, -ου, 0 "stone"; δοϋλος, -ου, 0 “slave"; αγαθδς, -η, -δν “good"; outo;,αϋτη, toOto "this, that"; βϋειν “ to sacrifice’’; εσβιειν "to eat"; μανθανειν “ to learn"; δια (+ acc.) “on account o f ; μη “ not”; οϋ "not." a. b.

byiearning on account o f learning

c. d.

by eating stones (a ways) on account o f eating stones (1 ways)

e. f.

Eating stones is not good. Not eating stones is good. (2 ways)

Watch out (or ihis type of English possessive with a gerund; it cannot be Iranslated with a Greek genitive.

zi

21

Chapter Π

g. h. i. j. k. l.

It is good for slaves to learn. For slaves not to learn is not good. by sacrificing these things (2 ways) on account of these men’s sacrificing It is not good not to sacrifice those things. It is good for those men to sacrifice.

F) Substantivized adjectives, adverbs, etc. have a slightly different use of modifiers.

1) They may take as negatives, in attributive position, either οϋ or μη, with a difference in meaning; co indicates specificity and μη indicates generality. (Substantivized forms that are not negative can be either general or specific.) oi aya&oi θϋουσιν. oi οϋκ αγαθοι οϋ θϋουσιν. oi μη ayaSoi οϋ θυουσιν.

Good men sacrifice, (general) / The good men are sacrificing, (specific) The men who are not good are not sacrificing, (specific) Men who are not good do not sacrifice, (general)

2) They may take adverbs or prepositional phrases in attributive position, when those words fundamentally modify the substantivized word itself rather than something else in the sentence; such constructions are usually equivalent to an English relative clause. oi ετι καλο'ι φεϋγουσιυ. versus oi καλοϊ ετι φεϋγουσιν.

The men who are still beautiful are fleeing. The beautiful men are still fleeing.

3) They may take adjectives in predicate position; these often come before the article (see G for why). a y a 0oi oi vt/v.

Men of the present day are good.

G) Principles o f article usage. An article is assumed to go with the first noun after it that it could agree with; if there is no such noun, it goes with the first adjective that it could agree with; if there is none, it goes with the first other word to which it could be attached. Therefore “The good women are sisters’’ cannot be expressed with ai αγαθαϊ ΑΕελφαϊ, because that would mean "the good sisters." Everything between the article and the word it ultimately goes with is viewed as a unit and can be broken up only by postpositive particles. If a word that cannot occur in attributive position, such as a finite verb, is encountered, it usually signals that the attributive position is at an end and forces the article to be taken with something before

Modifiers

it. Therefore "The good women are sisters” could also be expressed with cd Αγαθαϊ εισιν αδελφαϊ. Even a negative can function in this manner under certain circumstances; cd αγαθαϊ o Cik αδελφαϊ means “The good women are not sisters," because the negative cannot be taken with the noun (nouns do not take negatives), nor with the adjective (οϋ cannot normally go with a preceding word), and therefore signals the presence of the understood verb that it has to go with. Preliminary exercise 4 (on F and G). Translate into Greek using only the following vocabulary: kc Ao j , -η, ~wv. τυχχδνε; y p ay o y ετυχε ypotpwv. ετυχε y poyo;.

He happens to be writing. He happens to have written. He happened to be writing. He happened tow rite. / He happened to have written. (i.e. this one can be either aspectual or temporal)

5) Λανβδνω and φθδνω take participles that have no good equivalents in English. The participle is present with a primary tense of the verb, or aorist with a secondary tense of the verb. These verbs can also use a reverse construction whereby they become par­ ticiples and the supplementary participles become finite verbs; there is no difference in meaning between the normal and reverse constructions.

Ιλαθεν

out ouj

y pdyoj.

λαθων αϋτου; εγραψεν. ΡιαθΕν tauTOV γρδψας. φθανΕϊ αυτοϋς γρδφων. φθανων αϋτοϋ; γραφει.

He wrote without their notice. / He escaped their notice w riting./T hey did not notice him writing. He wrote without their notice. / He escaped their notice writing. / They did not notice him writing. He wrote unawares.! He wrote without knowing it. He beats them to writing. / He writes before they do. He beats them to writing. / He writes before they do.

Preliminary exercise 5 (on C). Translate into Greek using participles and the following vocabulary: δεσιτΑτη;, -ου, δ “master"; δοϋλο;, -ου, δ “slave"; ϊϋχομαι, Ευξομαι, ηυξαμημ, quypoi, - “pray”; θϋω, Βυσω, Εθυσα, τΖθυκα, τ^θυμαι, Ετϋθην "sacrifice."

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k l. m.

The master enjoys sacrificing. (2 ways) The master continues to sacrifice. The master ceases to sacrifice. (2 ways) We stopped the master from sacrificing. The master is clearly sacrificing. The master seems to be sacrificing. The master is not ashamed to have sacrificed. The master is ashamed to sacrifice. The master happens to be sacrificing. The master happens to have sacrificed. The master happened to be sacrificing. The master happened to sacrifice. The master sacrificed without the slaves noticing. (2 ways)

51

$2

Chapter V

n.

The master sacrificed w ithout know ing it.

o

The master beats the slaves to sacrificing, (2 ways)

p.

The slaves pray before their masters do. (2 ways)

q.

The master did not notice the slaves praying. (2 ways)

r.

The slaves prayed w ith ou t know ing it.

s.

The slaves are clearly praying.

t.

The slaves continue to pray.

u.

The master w ill stop the slaves from praying.

v.

The slaves seem to be praying,

w.

The slaves do not like to pray. (2 ways)

x.

The slaves cease praying. (2 ways)

y.

The slaves are ashamed to have prayed,

z.

The slaves happened to be praying.

D ) Participles are also used in in d ire c t statem ent after verbs o f know ing and perceiv­ ing; see chapter x. E) Additional complications i) The tenses o f attributive and circum stantial participles usually express tim e, though sometimes, particularly in the aorist, a participle's tense indicates aspect only.6 The tim e indicated by a participle is always time relative to the main verb; since English has a system o f sequence o f tenses after main verbs in the past, the tense o f a participle accompanying a verb in a past tense is often different from the tense o f its proper English equivalent.7 ηνρον τον ypdtpovTa δοϋλον.

I found the slave who was w riting,

ηϋρον τον γρ α ψ α μ τα δοϋλον.

1 found the slave w ho had w ritten.

(present participle = English im perfect) (aorist participle = English pluperfect. Notice that Greek does not use the perfect here.) ηϋρον τον γ ρ α ψ οντα δοϋλον,

1 found the slave w ho was going to w rite, (future participle)

but ΕϋρΙσκω τον γ ρ α ψ ο ν τα δοϋλον.

I find the slave w ho wrote. (No change because main verb is not past)

W hen the fin he-verb equivalent o f a participle would be a subjunctive or optative, for example in the protases of future more vivid and future less vivid conditions, the tense of the participle normally indicates aspect. In other situations aspect is sometimes, but Jess predictably, a factor See chapter x for more information on English sequence of tenses and how it relates to G re ek

Participles

Often English uses a simple past tense in a subordinate clause; when translating such sentences into Greek one must consider exactly how the action of the subordinate clause relates to that of the main clause in order to decide what tense of participle to use. Thus “When they fled, they carried the money" requires a present participle (φευγοντες to dpyupiov ηνεγκον), because the carrying and the fleeing must have been simulta­ neous, but "When they escaped to Athens, they sacrificed” requires an aorist partici­ ple ('Αθηναζε φυγοντΕ; Εδυσαν), because the subjects must have escaped before they sacrificed. Preliminary exercise 6 (on E 1). For each underlined verb in preliminary exercise 3, give the tense of the resulting participle in Greek.

2) When a subordinate clause begins a sentence and contains words that are also used in the main clause, English tends to give those words in full in the subordinate clause and replace them by pronouns in the main clause. In Greek the shared words will nor­ mally be found in the main clause and can be understood without any pronoun in the participial phrase, even if the participle begins the sentence. Thus “When the slaves were released they fled” becomes Xu Oev t ss Εφυγον oi δοϋλοι, and "When he pursued the slaves they fled" becomes Βιωκοντο; αϋτοϋ εφυγον oi δοϋλοϊ. j) The adverb ως has a special use with causal participles. It indicates that the cause is in the mind of the subject of J he sentence (or of some other person in the sentence, if the context makes that clear), and that the speaker of the sentence assumes no respon­ sibility for it. Sometimes there is an implication that the attribution of cause is false, but often there is no such implication; the ως construction is much weaker than English “allegedly" and is often used in situations where the author Cannot actually be intend­ ing to cast doubt on the assertion? Λπηλδον ως νικησαυτΕς.

αττηλθον νικησσντες.

8

They departed as if victorious / on the grounds that they had been victorious. (The writer of the sentence does not indicate whether or not they were actually victorious but tells us that they thought or said that they were victorious.) They departed victorious. (The writer of the sentence positively asserts that they were victorious.)

It is debated whether ως can have this meaning with final participles as well. W hat is certain is that the doubting force is far less Common when 3 participle indicates purpose; normally future participles lake ως without casting any doubt On the genuineness of the purpose,

53

54

Chapter V

4) Participles retain the characteristics of a verb w hile assum ing those o f an adjective, so they can take objects in the case appropriate to that verb, as well as adverbs, preposi­ tional phrases, and even dependent clauses. The use o f such material w ith participles is v e ry com m on in G reek and allows participles to be used instead of subordinate clauses ever) for long and complex expressions. γραψ αμενη το ν νε a victv

t ov

σφδδρα αδικον της (κ το υ vsw κλοττης και

βοολομενη ζημιοϋν α δτδν, εξαιφνης ϋττδ τω ν θεΟν Αττεθανεν. "W hen she had indicted th e very unjust young m an for th e theft from the tem ple and was w anting to punish him , she was suddenly killed by the gods." 5) Participles connect themselves to verbs, so conjunctions can never be used to attach a participle to a finite verb. The only tim e conjunctions are used w ith participles is when a co-ordinating conjunction joins two parallel participles to each other. (W hen used with concessive participles καϊ is an adverb, not a conjunction; the sam e is tru e of ως with participles.) Preliminary exercise 7 (on A , B, C, and E). Translate into Greek using participles for ail subordinate clauses and the following vocabulary: φιλδσοφος, -ou, 6 "philosopher”; αττοπτμττω, αττοττεμψω, αττεπεμψα, δϊΓΟττετομφα, dtrotrstrE μμαι, Α'Π'εττεμφΗην “send away” ; αφικνεομαι, αφϊξομαι, Αφικδμην, - , Δφϊγμαι, - “arrive”; διδασκω , διδαξω, ^δ'ιδαξα, δεδιδα χα , δεδϊδαγμ αι, εδιδαχθην “teach.” a. b.

Philosophers enjoy teaching. (2 ways) T h e philosophers stopped teaching.

c.

T he philosophers were sent away because they arrived while we were teaching.

d.

T he philosophers were sent away o n th e grounds that they arrived while we were teaching.

'

e.

W hoever does no t teach will be sent away.

f. g.

T he philosophers w ho do not teach will be sent away. If th e philosophers do n o t stop teaching, we shall sen d them away.

h. i.

If th e philosophers do not teach, we shall be sent away. If th e philosophers do not teach, they will be sent away.

j. k.

We did n o t notice the philosophers teaching. (2 ways) T he philosophers happened to be teaching while we were arriving.

!.

T h e philosophers arrived in order to teach.

m.

The philosophers arrived before we did. (2 ways)

Participies

n. o. p. q. r. s.

Philosophers do not like to be taught. (2 ways) The philosophers continued to teach while we were arriving. When we arrive, we shall stop the philosophers from teaching. The philosophers are clearly teaching. rhe philosophers stopped teaching as soon as we arrived. The philosophers were not ashamed to be teaching while we were being sent away. t. Philosophers teach without knowing it. (2 ways) u. We were sent away on the grounds that we had not taught. v. The philosophers who taught were sent away w. We arrived while the philosophers were teaching. x. The philosophers happen to be teaching. y. The philosophers will not be sent away although they arrived while we were teaching. z. If the philosophers do not stop teaching, they will be sent away. aa. The philosophers sent us away as if we had not taught. bb. When we arrived, he stopped the philosophers from teaching. cc. When he arrived, he stopped the philosophers from teaching. dd. When the philosophers arrived, he stopped them from teaching. ee. The philosophers seem to be teaching although they are being sent away. ff. The philosophers are not ashamed to have taught us.

Sentences

Translate into Greek using only words and constructions so far covered and using par­ ticiples for all subordinate clauses. 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

When mortals sacrifice, the immortals rejoice. When these citizens arrived at the assembly, they began to sacrifice to the gods. The people who were fleeing turned away from the road without their pursuers seeing them.’ The philosopher happens to have found the young men (as they were) in the mid­ dle of seizing the thief. People who have not been educated do not enjoy writing. Although we arrived at die forest, we did not find wild animals. This prostitute was too ashamed to send her lover into the forest to carry wood.

* Le. escaped the notice of the men who were pursuing them as they turned away from the road.

55

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Chapter V

8.

When the noble philosopher had fallen into the river, a clever sophist saved him,

9.

The strong man is obviously beating his little slaves.

10.

That sophist indicted the beautiful prostitute for theft because (he said) she had

11.

If the courageous sailor does not find weapons, he will not save his cowardly com­

received money from the unjust thieves. rades. 12.

When the young man who had been nourished by wild animals turned the terrible bandits away from the mainland, the citizens rejoiced.

13.

The men who had been released stopped seizing the things that had been left and

14.

began eating. The assembly accepted the young man's advice as if he had already become a

15.

hoplite. This cowardly bandit left his comrades on the island so that he might (himself)

16.

escape to the mainland. Although the little thief had seized the silver, nevertheless the philosopher did not

17.

beat him. Such men as did not take pleasure in money ransomed the hoplites who were

18.

suffering bad things. The man who rules the island indicted his sister for theft because he had found in his house the crown that had been taken from the shrine.

19.

The terrible bandits seized the offerings when they (i.e. the offerings) had just

20.

been saved from the shrine that was burning. When the sophist showed the crown that had been sent by those wishing to find wisdom, the spectators were ashamed o f not having been educated.

21.

People who seem to be praying in the white temple often take the offerings.

22.

If these wild animals do not escape to the forest, the men who throw stones will continue to harm them.

23.

In order to find money, bandits burned the beautiful little shrine.

24.

He (i.e. the general) happened to escape to Athens with a few hoplites after the battle.

25.

While the young man burned the tree sacred to the immortals, his comrades threw the offerings into a river. In (the) beginning, the council prayed to the gods as if it (i.e. the council) had killed the spectators justly.

26. 27.

The slaves who were stopped by the spectator were obviously fleeing.

28.

While he was teaching young men, the good philosopher fell in a river without noticing.10

10

I.e. escaped lhe notice of him self (tauTov).

Participles

29.

The woman who stopped the council from accepting the silver is capable of

30.

Mortals, even i f they become wise, are not equal to the immortals.

increasing the citizens’ rule.

Analysis Translate into English as literally as is possible without being incomprehensible and explain what the construction o f each participle is, what it agrees with, and why it has the tense and modifiers it does.

t.

αλλ', ω μακαριε, αμεινον σκδττει, μη σε λανθδνω οϋδεν ων. (Plato, Symposium 219a; σκοττ^ω "consider")

2.

. . . t o T$ yap μη εχουσι χρηματα διδδναι ονκ ηθελον SiaXf γεσβαι.

3.

και ϋσα apa t o rrav ττληθος κρατοϋν των τα χρηματα ;χδντων χραφει μη

(Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.60-1) ττεϊσαν, βϊα μδλλον η νομοϊ αν εϊη; (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.45, Alcibiades questioning Pericles on the difference between legitimately passed laws and lawless force; ττληθος "populace," κρατ^ω + gen, “ have power over," γραφω “pass as law,” the understood object o f πειθω is rich men) 4.

φημι ya p δη δμοιδτατον αϋτδν ειναι t o Ts σιληνοΤ; t o u t o i $ το ϊ; fv τοϊς ερμογλνφειοι; καθημενοϊϊ, oOaTiva$ εργαζονται oi δημιουρχοϊ a u p iy y a j f) αϋλους εχονταζ, of Ειχαδε διοιχθεντες φαϊνονται Ενδοθεν αχαλματα εχοντες θεων. (Plato, Symposium 2i5a-b, Alcibiades speaking about Socrates; σιληνο; “figure o f Silenus,” ερμογλυφεΓον “statue shop," 6qpioupy6;’ craftsman) "o u p iy 5 ‘'Panpipe," διχαδε “apart,” διοιχνυμι "open, split,’’ αγαλμα "image” )

5.

ταϋτα διανοηθει; ϊφευχον, εκεινων εττϊ τη αϋλεϊω flupg την φυλακην ποιουμενων τριων δε θυρων Ονσωυ, a$ εδει με διελθεϊν, δπασαι δνεωχμεναι ετυχον. αφικομενος δε εϊς Αρχενεω τοϋ ναυκΛηρου ikelvov ττ^μπω tl$ δστο, πευσδμενον ττερι τοϋ αδελφοϋ' fixcjv δε ελεχεν δ τι 'Ερατοσθενης αϋτδν (v Tfj δδω λαβων si$ το δεσμωτηριον a ira yd yo i. (Lysias, Oration 12.16, the tale of.the speakers escape from the th irty tyrants and the loss o f his brother; ϊφευχον “ I began to flee," αολειος “o f the court­ yard" (here a two-termination adjective), Αρχενεω is genitive, ναυκληρος “ship­ master," δεσμωτηριον “prison")

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Chapter V

6.

ττρδς δε αυ τας τοϋ χειμωνος καρτερησεις - Βειvol γα ρ αδτδθι χειμωνες θαυμδσια ηργαζετο τα τε αλλα, και ττοτε 3ντο; τταγου οϊου Βεινοτατου, κα'ι τταντων η οϋκ ^ξιδντων ενδοθεν, r( εϊ τι; ^ξϊοι, ημφιεσμενων τε θαυμαστα Bi] οσα καϊ ϋττοδεδεμΙνων και ενειλιγμενων τους ττδδας εΙς ττιλους καϊ δρνακιδας, οϋτο; 8’ εν τουτοις εξ^ει εχων Ιμδτιον μ^ν τοιοϋτον οϊδνττερ και ττρδτερον εϊωθει φορεϊν, δνυττδδητο; Be δια τοϋ κρυσταλλου ρδον επορευετο η ol αλλοι ϋποΒεδεμ^νοι, ol Βε στρατιω ται υττϊβλεττον αϋτδν co; καταφρονοϋντα σψων. (Plato, Symposium 220 a-b, Alcibiades on Socrates’ tolerance of the cold; καρτερησις “endurance," iray o ; “frost,” οϊου “so,” δμφιεννυμι “put around,” ϋποδ^ω “put shoes on,” ανελισσω “wrap up,” τπλος "felt,” δρνακι; “sheepskin,” φορεω “wear," ανυπδδητος "barefoot,” κρυσταλλος “ice," (ιττοβλεττω “regard with suspicion,” καταφρονϊω “look down on”)

7.

Bi’ 0 κα'ι τους uisT$ ol πατ^ρες, καν ωσι σωφρονες, δμως αττδ των ττονηρων δνθρωττων εϊργουσιν, ως την piv των χρηστω ν δριλϊαν ασκησιν οϋσαν Tfj; dpETfls, Tf]V δε των ττονηρων καταλυσιν. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2,20; ασκησις “exercise," κατδλυσις “destruction”; how does this sentence violate the rules given in this chapter, and why do you think Xenophon wanted to break the rules here?)

8.

και πρω τον μεν δσοι εξ αστεως εστε, σκεψασθε δτι Οττδ τουτω ν οϋτω σφδΒρα ηρχεσθε, ωστε δδελφοϊς καϊ ϋεσι κα'ι πολιταις ηναΥκδζεσθε πολεμεΤν τοιοϋτον πδλεμον, Jv φ ηττηθεντε; piv τοϊς νικησασι το ϊσον εχετε, νικησαντε; 5’ &v t o o τοις εΒουλευετε, (Lysias, Oration 12.92; αστυ refers to Athens here, σκετττομαι “consider," τουτων i,e, the thirty tyrants (same is true of τουτοις), σφδδρα “harshly,” δρχομαι “be ruled,” αναγκαζω “force," ^τταομαι “be defeated," τδ ϊσον εχω “be on equal terms with”)

VI

The structure of a Greek sentence: word order and connection Material to learn before using this chapter: third declension, psyaj and πολϋϊ (Smyth §256-9,311); Vocabulary 6 and associated principal parts Recommended grammar reading: Smyth §240-61, 311-12 Recommended syntax reading: Smyth §2769-3003

A) A Greek sentence has a skeleton com posed o f verbs and connectives; most sen­ tences, and indeed paragraphs, can be analyzed solely on the basis of such words.

1) The relationship of one verb to another is normally specified in Greek by conjunc­ tions and/or by the form of the verb: if the verbs are co-ordinated (either two main verbs or two parallel subordinates), a co-ordinating conjunction is essential, but if one is subordinated, connection may be made by a subordinating conjunction, by a relative pronoun, or by a participle or infinitive. St s t o iv u v τοϋθ' οϋτ ως εχει, προσηκει ττροθϋμως εθελειν ακοϋειν τω ν βουλομενων συμβουλεϋειν οϋ γαρ μδνον εϊ τι χρι^σιμον Ζσκεμμενος ηχει t i $, t o u t ’ δν ακοϋσαντες λαβοιτε, αλλα Koi Tf)s ϋμετερας τυχης ϋττολαμβανω ττολλα των δεδντων / k τοϋ τταραχρημ' ενΙοις &v Ζττελθεϊν^ϊττεϊν, ftcrr’ ι·ξ αττδντων paBigv τ^ν τοϋ συμφΖροντος υμϊν αϊρεσιν γενεσθαι. (Demosthenes, Olynthiae 1.1)

This sentence can be analyzed as follows into units with one verb form in each; all infini­ tives and participles, except attributive participles, count for this purpose as verb forms. The numeration and indentation indicate the structure; notice the roles of the under­ lined words. 1.1 St e Toivuv τοϋθ' οϋτως Εχει “Since moreover this is so” 1 προσηκει “it befits (you)” 1.2 ττροθυμως εθελειν “eagerly to wish” 1,2.1 δκοϋειν των βουλομενων “to hear those who wish" 1.2.1.1 συμβουλεϋειν “to advise (you)" 2 ou ygp μ δ ν ο ν ... τοϋτ' αν λδβοιτε “for not only would you accept this"

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Chapter VI

2.1 ακοϋσαντε; “when you heard (it)" 2.2 si. .. f|KSi τ ι; “ ifsomeonecomes’’ 2.2.1 τ ι χρησιμον f oKeppf vo; “with a useful idea” 3 Αλλα και Tfj; ϋμετϊ ρ α; τϋχη; ϋττολαμβανω “ bu t aIso I cou nt (as pa rt) o f you r (go od) fortune” 3.1

εκ

τοϋ irapaxpfjp’ tvio i; αν επελθεϊν "(that) it may come to several (speak­

ers), from the on-the-spot” 3.1.1 ττολλΑ τω ν Βεοντων si-rrslv “to say many of the things that are neces­ sary" 3.2 ω στ' (ξ Απαντων pptSiav t i ) v τοϋ συμφ^ροντο; ϋμϊν αϊρεσιν ysvea&ai “so as for the choice out o f all o f them of the one that is expedient for you to become easy.” 2) Finite verbs are usually joined together by conjunctions or connective particles. Greeks o f the Classical period had no punctuation, so neither conjunction usage nor any other feature o f Greek structure is linked to punctuation. Notice the different levels o f acceptability o f these Greek sentences and their English equivalents, as the punctua­ tion makes a difference in English but not in Greek: Comma:

f] βουλη Εβουλεϋετο, V] δ' εκκλησϊα οϋ. (good) The council deliberated, and the assembly did not. (good) f] βουλτ) ^βουλεϋετο, η Εκκλησϊα οϋ. (poor) The council deliberated, the assembly did not. (poor)

Semicolon:

η βουλτ) εβουλεϋετο' f| δ' εκκλησϊα οϋ. (good) The council deliberated; and the assembly did not. (poor) η βουλη εβουλεϋετο' η Εκκλησϊα οϋ. (poor) The council deliberated; the assembly did not. (good)

Period/full stop:

η βουλη εβουλεϋετο.

δ' εκκλησϊα οϋ. (good)

The council deliberated. And the assembly did not. (poor) η βουλη εβουλεϋετο. f) Εκκλησϊα οϋ. (poor) The council deliberated. The assembly did not. (acceptable) (The best way to express this sentence in Greek would be to use μεν as well as δε, with any type of punctuation: f] μεν βουλη ϊβουλεϋετο' f) 5’ {κκλησϊα οϋ.) 3) Even the intervention o f a period (full stop) makes no difference to the need for con­ nection: almost every sentence in a work o f Greek prose is connected to the preceding sentence by a conjunction or other connecting word, just as each clause w ithin a sen­ tence is connected. Words commonly used this way include 6i, και, αλλα, ydp.andouv; when translating into Greek it is a good idea to use one o f these near the start o f every

Word order and connection

sentence in a connected passage, except the first. (Note that μεν cannot he used to con­ nect a sentence to its predecessor, since it looks forward: a sentence that opens with μεν needs another connective too.) Notice how Plato often connects sentences even over a change of speaker: ΣΩΚΡΑΤΗΣ:

. . . ταϋτα ουχι καλως λεγεται; " . . . aren’t these things well

said?” ΚΡΙΤΩΝ: καλως. “ (Theyare) well (said).” ΣΩΚΡΑΤΗΣ. ουκοϋν τα ; piv χρηστσ; τιμδν, τ α ;

ϊτονηρα; pf]; “ There­

fore (is it necessary) to honor the best (opinions) and not the bad ones?” ΚΡΙΤΩΝ: vai/'Yes." ΣΩΚΡΑΤΗΣ: χρησταϊ δε ouy pl των φρονιμων, ηονηραϊ Si a i των αφρονων; “And are not the best (opinions) those o f prudent men, and the bad (opinions) those of foolish men?" ΚΡΙΤΩΝ: ττω; δ' οϋ: “And how not?”

(Plato, Crito 47a)

Therefore when translating into Greek one often needs to add conjunctions not present in the English; if translating a passage containing more than one sentence one usually needs to add conjunctions. 4) Although the conjunctions join the verbs, they are not normally placed next to the verbs; conjunctions normally come as the first or second word of the unit to which their verb belongs. Preliminary exercise 1 (on A). Indicate where in the passage below addi­ tional conjunctions (beyond those already present in English) would be needed if it were to be translated fairly literally into Greek, and suggest which conjunction(s) would be most appropriate in each place. Take into account the probable translations o f the conjunctions already present, to avoid repeating the same one too many times in a row. Alcibiades was not a mode] citizen. He got drunk at parties, smashed up other people’s property, and seduced their wives. Eventually things came to a head when he mutilated'a group o f sacred statues: this was thought to have annoyed the gods and thus to have jeopardized the success ofa m ilitary expedition. The citizens decided to put Alcibiades in jail, but he ran o ff to Sparta. The Spartanking was delighted to welcome him, and Alcibiades had a wonderful time, particularly as he found the king’s wife very charming. Unfortunately, when the king found out what Alcibiades was up to with his wife, Alcibiades had to leave very suddenly.

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Prelim inary exercise 2 (on A). Find the verbs (including infinitives

and participles except attributive participles) and conjunctions in this sentence. Ο ϋ μδνο v 8 e δεϊ τα ϋτα y ty νωσκε tv, ο ϋδ ε T0I5 fpyoi$ Ικεϊνο v αμ ϋνεσθα i Tcitj τοϋ πολ^μου, δλλδ καϊ τω λσχισμω και Tfj διανοια τοϋς trap ’ ϋμϊν ϋπερ αϋτοϋ λ^γοντα; μισ^σαι, ενθυμουμενουϊ δ τι οϋκ Ινεστι των t t ]$ ττδλεω^ εχθρων κρατησαι, trplv av t o u s εν αϋττϊ τη ττολει κολασηβ ϋττηρετοϋντας ΕκεΙνοις. (Demosthenes, Philippics 3.53) It is necessary not only to know these things and not (only) to resist him with the deeds of war, but also with both reasoning and purpose to hate those who speak among youon his behalf, considering that it is not possible to overcome the enemies of the city before you punish those in the city itself who serve them. B) O n the skeleton com posed of the verbs and connectives hangs the muscle struc­ ture o f the nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, etc. These tend to be grouped

around their verbs, and when there are many verbs in a sentence, it is important to be able to tell which verb each other word is attached to. This is usually facilitated by open­ ing each clause or phrase with a distinctive opening word; such a word is one that (a) cannot, at least in context, belong to the preceding phrase or clause, and (b) indicates that a particular sort of word is following. Any words that occur between the open­ ing word and the word to which it points can be assumed to be part of the same unit, unless another opening word intervenes, in which case the reader is alerted to nesting units. Conjunctions are opening words, usually pointing to a verb, and so are relative pronouns and relative adjectives. Smaller units may be opened by prepositions, which point to objects in a particular case, or by articles (see ch.apter 11 G). Περϊ ττολλοο αν ποιησαϊμην, ω ανδρες, τδ τοιουτους ϋμαϊ εμοϊ δικαστας irepl TouTou τοϋ ττρανματος yevfaSai, δϊοπτερ αν ϋμϊν αϋτοϊς εϊητε τοιαϋτα πετΓονβδτεϊ' ευ yap oI5’ οτι, εϊ την αϋτην χνωμην περ'ι τω ναλλω ν εχοιτε, fjvrrep ττερϊ υμων αϋτων, οϋκ αν εϊη δστις οϋκ εττϊ τοϊς γεγε νημενοι; ayavaKTofo, αλλα τταντεϊ av irEpi τω ν τα τοιαϋτα Ιτπτηδευδντων τα ; ζημιας μικρας TiyoTafic. (Lysias 1.1) This sentence can be analyzed into units with one verb (or, in the case of 2.1.1.1, under­ stood verb) in each; notice the roles of the underlined words in the analysis below. Most units open with a clear opening word and close with the word pointed to by that opener; those that lack a marker at one end or the other come next to other units that mark those boundaries clearly. Note that unit 2.1.1 comes before the unit on which it

Word order and connection

depends, 2.1; this is possible because the δτι just before the start o f 2.1.1 makes it clear that a new main verb is expected, while the st at the start o f 2.1.1 makes it clear that the main verb is postponed until after the subordinate clause. 1

ΠερΙ ττολλοϋ αν ττοιησαϊμημ, ω avSpe;, "I would count it of great importance, gentlemen," 1.1

2

Totocrrovs νμαξ εμοι δικαστδς ττερϊ τουτου τοϋ irpdyparos yevefffiai “for you to become such judges for me about this affair” 1.1.1 oiolrrep αν ϋμϊν αϋτοΤ; εϊητε “as you would be for yourselves” 1.1.1.1 ταιαϋτα iretrovΒδτε;' “if you had suffered such things;"

to

e u ydp

οιδ' οτι, “for I know well that,” 2.1.1 el την αϋτην χνωμην ττερϊ των αλλων εχοιτε “if you should have the same opinion about the others" 2.1.1.1 ηνττερ uepi ϋμων αΟτων, “as (you have) about yourselves” 2.1 οϋκ αν εϊη “there would not be” 2.1.2 otrns ου κ £irl t o ij yeye νημ evo 15d y q να κτοιη, “anyone who would not be indignant at the things that have happened," 2.2 αλλα ττδντες αν rrepi τω ν τα τοιαϋτα εττιτηδενοντων Td$ ζημιας μικρδς ηγοϊσθε. “btit you would all consider the punishments (to be) small for those who practice such things.”

Preliminary exercise 3 (on B). Take the sentence of Demosthenes given in Preliminary exercise 2 and analyze it according to the model given above. That is, break up the sentence into one-verb units (counting as verbs both infinitives and participles, except attributive participles) and indicate the relationship between units with indentation and numberingas above. There is one unit that nests inside another unit. If you have difficulty, consult Appendix C.

C) Word order within units is more flexible, but by no means random. The position before the verb tends to be given to the word on which the unit is focused. Adverbs and negatives normally go directly in front of the words to which they apply; an adverb or negative that applies to the sentence as a whole tends to be put in front of the verb. (Thus “He has come home again” becomes σϊκαδε παλιν ηκΕϊ, not “ηκει οικαδε παλιν.) The particle αν changes its position according to the type of clause in which it occurs: αν in a subordinate clause tends to follow the opening word very closely (hence the fused forms idv, οταν, etc.), but av in a main clause tends to be near the verb; if the main clause contains οϋ, the 6v normally follows the οϋ.

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D) Additional complications 1) M any opening words are postpositive particles. These n o rm a lly come second in their clauses, b ut because they are always postpositive they are still effective markers o f a clause boundary and signal that the clause began w ith the word preceding the post­ positive particle. To make their p osition consistent and therefore the clause boundaries clear, postpositive particles may be inserted in to otherwise inviolable groupings that w ould not n o rm ally tolerate extraneous material (e.g. η δε βουλη). 2) A l! e nclitics are postpositive; they tend to come im m ediately after the word to w hich they relate and should never begin a sentence, clause, o r other unit. Thus “ Some man has come" can be ηκει ανδρωττδς τις o r ανθρωπδς τις ηκει, but not "τις ανθρωπος ηκει. 3) The use o f μ t v . . . Ei is harder than it looks. These words are com m on, for Greek writers use them frequently to connect and stress the balance o f parallel clauses, phrases, or sentences. However, μ εν. . . δε can only be used when the tw o things to be connected are exactly parallel gram m atically, not when one element is in any way subordinated to the other. Thus “ The first slave fled, but the second one stayed" can be well translated w ith δ μεν ττρωτος δοϋλος εφυγεν, δ δε δεϋτερος εμενεν, but "W hen the first slave fled, the second one stayed" requires a subordinate construction (e.g. φεϋγοντος το υ πρωτο u, ϋμενεν δ δεϋτερος δοϋλος). T his lim ita tio n does not mean that μ ε ν .. δε cannot be used w ith participles; it is often so used, but o n ly to connect one participle to another, not to connect either to the m ain verb. Thus εμενεν δ νεανϊας τω ν μεν δοϋλων φευγδντω ν, τω ν δε λησ τω ν αφικνονμενων “ The young man stayed when the slaves fled and when the bandits arrived.” In addition to being parallel gram m atically, units to which μεν and δε are attached must- be balanced in sense. Thus “ The slave was afraid, and he fled" w ould not be a good candidate for μ ε ν . . . δε, as there is a causal relationship between the clauses that w ould be better expressed by a conjunction like ouv (e.g. εφοβεϊτο δ δοϋλος· εφυγεν ouv) o r better still by subordination (e.g. φοβοϋμενος δ δοϋλος εφυγεν). Lastly, μεν and

(w hich are both postpositive and therefore n o rm a lly appear as the

second words o f their clauses) must im m ediately follow the words o r phrases that p ro ­ vide the specific points o f contrast between the clauses; if there are no specific words o r phrases in w hich the contrast can be embodied, it is not no rm ally practical to use μεν, . , Ef. Thus “ The philosopher often arrives late, but today he’s early" could use μ ε ν ... δε, but only if the words are arranged so that each clause begins w ith one o f the key words that are contrasted; ττολλδκις μϊν δψε δφ ικνεϊται δ φιλδσοφος, τημερον δε ττρω.

Word order and connection

P rei i m in a ry exerc ise 4 (on D 3). For each o f the folio wi n g s ente nces, indi - * cate w hether it could be translated with p iv . .. Si in Greek, and if so, w hich w ords the μεν and the δε should follow and how the English should be reordered to make that possible. a.

In appearance he was fair, and in his heart he was foul.

b.

This poor Spartan returned from battle w ithout his shield and was

c.

W hen D em osthenes was young, he was incapable of public speaking, but after lots o f practice he becam e one o f the greatest orators o f all

d. e.

My father is not a citizen; my m other is. Philosophers love to talk, but there’s no point in listening to them.

f. g.

The husband looked under the bed and found Alcibiades hiding there. The husband looked under the bed, a n d Alcibiades slipped ou t the

h.

window. T he husband looked u n d er the bed, bu t he did not see Alcibiades, who

1.

had rolled him self up in a rug. Socrates was ugly, but people loved him anyway.

beaten by his mother.

time.

j. k.

Socrates was ugly in body but beautiful in soul. Socrates was ugly and wildly irritating, but that didn't justify executing

l.

him. H um ans dom esticated dogs, and cats dom esticated hum ans.

4) T e is a complex particle with many different uses. In Attic prose it is most often found with καΙ: tw o w ords o r phrases are connected by placing τε after th e first word (or the first w ord of the first phrase) and και before the start o f the second. The result­ ing connective cannot be translated in English in a way that distinguishes it from και w ithout t e ; English “b o th , . . and" is really κ α ι . . . καΙ rather than t e . , . και, T hus δ τε ττρω το; δοϋλος καΙ δ δευτερος Εφυγον m eans “The first slave and the second one fled.’’1 P relim in ary exercise 5 (on A -D ). T he following passage m ight be tra n s­ lated into Greek gram matically b u t in felicitously using the words below. Improve this translation, w ithout changing any o f th e words in it, by adding conjunctions (including a μ ε ν . . . δε pair) and rearranging the words. Perhaps it m ight seem strange that I indeed, going around, give this advice in private and poke my nose into other people’s business, but I d o n ’t dare 1

The u se o fy f alone, without καΙ. Io mean “and” (ανβρωττοι ϊππαι t e "men and horses” ) is common in poetry but not in prose.

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to advise the state publicly, coming before the assembly. The cause of this is that which you yourselves have often heard me saying in many places, that there exists for me something divine and supernatural, which indeed Meletos made fun of in his indictment o f me. (Plato, Apology 31c) ϊσως ctv δϋξειεν εϊναι ατοπον, δ η δη tyd> συμβουλευω τα ϋτα IEla irepi;ων και πολυπραγμο^ω, ον τολμω σνμβονλευειν τη πδλει δημοσϊα, δναβαϊνων els τδ ττληθος τδ ϋμετερον, αϊτιον τουτου Ιστιν δ ϋμεϊ; ακηκδατε πολλακγ Ιμοϋ Xeyoatos πολλαχοϋ, 6τι yiyveTa! μοϊ m θεϊον Kat δαιμοιοου, δ δη καϊ ΜΜητος επικωμωδωυ ^γρΛψατο fw τη ypaipij.

Sentences Translate into Greek using only words and constructions so far covered, adding con­ nectives as appropriate and paying particular attention to word order. t-2. 3-4.

5-6.

7-8.

9-10.

11-12.

13-15.

1

The famine killed the children, and the plague killed the women. The few men who were left have gone, weeping, away from Greece. The assembly voted to send an expedition against the inhabitants of the high mountain immediately. The shepherds there were treating the citizens’ wives with violence often. During the day many m en guard the harbor, but at night, when the guards have gone to the camp, savage bandits exist there. Today the guards are camping around the harbor, in order to be roused by the bandits when they go beyond the boundary. Since the birds arrived in the sacred forest again together with the spring, the Greeks there rejoiced and sang immediately. Spring is dear to women, and birds are dear to children. The orator’s speeches are beautiful, and the soldiers' deeds are noble. We do not take pleasure in these things (i.e. the speeches and the deeds): the enemy caught many miserable prisoners yesterday while an unjust herald was gathering the citizens. We have gratitude when we have received gifts, and hope when we have not yet received gifts. This miserable old man no longer has comrades;1 he has neither much hope nor much gratitude. Hollow trees are not often empty; many wild animals exist in trees. TYees do not grow hollow; old trees often become hollow. If we do not wish to harm wild animals, we shall not burn the forest that has many old trees.

Use dative of possession here (“are" = elcri).

Word order and connection

When the assembly was deliberating, some men were lying, and others were not; because the orator showed (i.e, revealed) this, the citizens stopped delib­ erating and have now gone home. *17-21. The general who had obtained the expedition by lot marched to theharbor with a thousand soldiers. There he found an ancient temple; instead of burning this (i.e. the temple), the army made camp there in order to receive their allies. But they (Le. the allies) arrived at the harbor without the soldiers' noticing them, for the harbor (is) big, and made camp beyond the river. They wished to make camp immediately, on the grounds that the enemy was not far away.} On the second day the general accepted hostages from the allies and killed the traitor who was found in the army. 22-3. When the old man dies, his body will become a corpse. If it is not burned, birds and wild animals will eat the corpse. 24-5. If the army marches through this forest during the night, wild animals will wound many soldiers. The land here produces big and savage wild animals. 26-7. Such things as are not common are often new. This man, because he takes plea­ sure tn things chat are not common, wishes to find new things.1 28-30. Treating women with violence is not funny. The noble guard will wound such men as do not stop harming women. This man (i.e. the guard) wishes to teach the soldiers excellence. 16.

Analysts Analyze according to the models given above. That is, break up the sentence into oneverb units, put each on a new line so that there is only one-verb form per line (infini­ tives and participles, except attributive participles, count as verb form sj/and indicate the relationship between units (sub ordinat ton or co-ordination) by the system ofindentation and numbering used above. (Therefore, only a main verb can receive a number like i, 2, or 3; a finite verb governed by a subordinating conjunction such as εϊ or 6 t i , and any participle or infinitive, must receive a number indicating what it is subordinate to, such as 1.2 or, if it is subordinate to a clause that is itself subordinate, such as 1.1.2.) Remember that subordinate units may come before those on which theydepend, and that units may nest within one another. Translate each unit into English as literally as is possible without being incomprehensible, explain the use of connectives, and indi­ cate each unit-opening word and the word it points to. If you have difficulty, consult Appendix C. * I.e. was not much (neuter) away.

* This last adjective would be better without an article.

67

68

Chapter VI

1.

κατα γαρ τους νδμους, Εαν t i $ φανερδς γΕνηται (ΑΕτττων η λωττοδυτων fi βαλαντιοτομων η τοιχωρυχων η αυδραποδιζομΕνσςη Ιεροσυλων, τοϋτοις θανατδς Ισ τιν η ζημϊα' ων Ek ew o j παντων αμβρωπωμ πλεϊστον απεϊχεν. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.62, on Socrates’ innocence o f capital crimes; λωττοδυτεω

"steal

clothes,"

β α λ α ν τιο το μ εω "cut

purses,"

τοιχωρυχ^ω

"burgle," Αμδραττοδιζομαι "enslave people," ϊεροσυλεω "rob temples," ζημϊα "punishment") 2.

i> τοϊυυν Φιλιττττος εξ apyfjs, αρτι της εΙρηνης χεχονυϊας, οϋπω Διοπειδους στρατηχοϋμτο; ouEi τω ιι δντωμ £v Χερρονησω νυν αττεσταλμενων, Σερριον και ΔορΙσκομ Ελαμβαμε και τους εκ Σερρειου τειχους και 'Ιεροϋ δρους στρατιωτας ΕξΕβαλλεμ, οϋςδ ϋμετερος στρατηχο; κατεστησεμ. (Demosthenes, Philippics 3.15; ΔττοστΕλλω "send off” )

3.

δλλα ΚρΙτων τε Σωκρδτους fjv δμιλητης, και Χαιρεφων, και Χαιρεκρατης, και 'Ερμοχενης, καϊ ΣιμΙας, και ΚΕβης, καϊΦαιδωνδας, και δλλοι, οϊ εκεινω σκυησαμ, οϋχϊνα δημηχορικοϊ f] δικανικοϊ y Ευοιντο, αλλ" ϊνα, καλο! τε καχαθοϊ χενομενοι, και οϊκω και οϊκεταις και οϊκειοις καϊ φιλοις και ττδλει καϊ ττολιταις δϋμαιντο καλως χρησθαι' καϊ τοϋτω ν οϋδεϊς, οϋτε νεωτερος οϋτε ττρεσβϋτερος ων, o u t ’ ΕττοΙησε κακον οϋδεν, οϋτ' ahrav εσχεν. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.1.48; δμιλητη; "disciple," δημηχορικδς "qualified to speak in public," δικανικος "skilled in pleading lawsuits")

4.

αλλδ Σωκρατης γε τδναντια τοϋτωυ φαμερο; fp καϊ δημοτικδς καϊ φιλανθρωt t os ω ν εκεϊνος γαρ ττολλοϋ; Ετπθυμητας και αστοϋς καϊ ξενου; λαβων ουδενα ττωποτε μισβδν της συμουσια; εττραξατο, αλλα ττασιμ αφθουως επηρκει των εαυτοϋ· ων τινες μικρα μερη trap’ ^κεινου προϊκα λαβδντες ττολλοϋ τοΤς αλλοις ^πωλουν, καϊ οϋκ ησαμ ωσττερ εκεϊνος δημοτικοϊ' τοϊς yap μη εχουσι χρηματα διδδναι οϋκ ηθελομ διαλεχεσθαι. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1,2.60; ταναντϊα “the opposite,” δημοτικδς "kind to the people," επιθυμητης "disciple," αστδς “citizen," πραττομαι "charge,” ^τταρκεω “ help,” the antecedent of cbv is ττασιυ, μερη i.e. parts of his knowledge, ττροϊκα "freely," πωλεω "sell,” Εχω + infinitive "be able to” )

5.

ϋμεΤς 8£ δεϊξατε ηντιμα χμωμην εχετε ττερϊ t ’ ωτε Εκαστη ϊξει (εκαστην Εχειν) του; εαυτη; νδμου; κα'ι Ιβη. 8. των ϊϊο λ φ ι ω μτ α μσκρα τε ιχη aipo νμτων, oi ε v τη ττδλε ι οϋχ ϋττε με ιναν, σ π εvδε εϊ; εϊεν (s ενδεεϊ; 6 ντε 5) ϋδατο; κα'ι ουχ uyiei;. 9. οϋτως εϊ'ρεΤα η βαλαττα Sxrrt ναϋς sir’ αδτη ττλεϊμ (ωστε μηε; Eir’ aurrj ττλεουσιμ) ανευ t o C του; ναυτα; την ηττειρον opSv. 10. δρμιμ μελανα εττι τοϋτοι; ευρησω σοι, Εφ' ωτε αΟτδμ μη βλαψει; / εφ' ωτε σε μη βλαψαι αϋτδν. Analysis i, 1 κα'ι εϊ; τοσοϋτδν εισι τδλμης δφιγμενοι "And they have arrived at such a point of daring" 1.1 ωζτθ' ηκοοσιν "that they have come” (actual result clause) 1.1.1 αττολογησδμενοι, “to defend themselves,” 1.2 και λΕγουσιν “and that they say” (actual result clause) 1.1.1 ω;οϋδΕν κακδν ouB' αϊσχρδν εϊρχασμενοι εϊσιν. “that they have done nothing bad or shameful.”

Chapter XIV Preliminary exercise 1 a. ( o w t o s ) y fνυαιδτερδ; f a n ταϋτη;. / (oirros) χενναιδνερδ; εστιν f| αυτη. b. yEvvaiivEpd; εστιν. c. τοοτω icrriv γενμαιδτεροϊ-ΤΓατϊϊρ i) ταδτη. d. γενναιδτερδ; εστιν i) ωστε αττοδραμεϊυ.. Preliminary exercise 2 a. o wt o s α ρχαιδτατδ; εστιν των οϊκων. _ b. δ οΙκο; ω;Ζδτι αρχαιδτατδς ϊστιν. c. oUTo; 6 oiKos τταλλωΖττολϋ αρχαιδτερδ; εστιν fxsivcu / f) εκεϊνο;. d. o o t o $ 6 o».os μακρω αρχαιδτερδ; ^στιν iKtivou / f| ^κεϊνο;. Preliminary exercise 3 a. οϋδεϊ; οϋδεν εκλεψεν. b. οϋδεν εκλεψα. / οϋκ εκλεψα οϋδεν. c. ουδεϊ; οϋ χλ^τττει. d. οϋδ^ττοτε κλεπτουσιν. 106 κλετττουσιν οϋδεττοτε. e. οϋδε'ι; εϊττεν δτι οϋδεττοτε κλεπτοιενΖκλεϊΓτουσιν.

139

240 Appendix G

Sentences i 1. ouSels o u Bet t o t e αμΕλεϊτης εαοτοϋ δργης.

2. ouBiva οϋκ Μ νησ εν 3. οϋκ αναγνωσονται oOBtv ττοιημα. 4. ou&ei; ουκ εχει Βυναμεις. 5. oiiK ^ττεβοολευσα ουΒενι μοχθηρω. Sentences 2 1. apct το σαφως αναγιγνωσκειν βαον τοϋ δρβως γραφειν, 2. αϋτη η μηχανη πολλω φανερωτερα f|v f) ωστε μη ταχεως δφβ^μαι. 3« μακρω δξϋτατος των ^πιθυμιων 6 ερως. 4. oi πανουργοτατοι παϊδες πολϋ ττλεϊονας κινοϋσιν η σφαλλουσιν. 5. πειρασομαι cb$ σαφεστατα αναγιγνωσκειν. Analysis i. 1 fpoi μεν yap οϋΒεν f μϊν οϋν ol καϊ την των επιχωριων iropirt]v δδξαι εϊναι, οϋ μεντοι ηττον φαϊνεσθαι πρ^πειν f^v oi Ορακες επεμπον. εφη σφας προσεοξαμ^νοος καϊ Βεωρησαντα; δπι^ναι irpos το αστυ. κατιδδντα οϋν πδρρωθεν σφα; οϊκαδε ωρμημ^νους Πολεμαρχον τδν Κεφαλου κελεϋσαι δραμδντα τον παϊδα περιμεΤναι ε κελεϋσαι. Kai οϋ δπισβεν τον παϊδα λαβδμενον του ΙματΙου ipdvai Πολεμαρχον κελεοειν σφας περιμεϊναι (εϊττεν δτι Πολεραρχο; κελεϋοι (κελευΕι) σφας ττεριρεϊναι). καϊ ε'φη αϋτος ρεταστραφηυαϊ τε Kai ^ρεσδαι δπου α ν το ϊ εϊη. τον δε τταϊδα φδναι ΕκεΤνον δπισθεν τεροαιε ναι (τον δε Τταϊδα εϊττΕΪν δτι ^κεϊνο; δπτσθεν ττροσϊοι (ττροσερχεται)), και κελεϋειν σφας ττεριμευΕϊν. φδναι (ωμολογεϊν) δΕ τδν Γλανκωνα ayas ττεριμενεϊυ (ειττεϊν (αποκρ'ινασδαι) δε τον Γλαϋκωνα οτι περιρενδϊεν^εριμενοϋσι))- και οΜγω ρστερον τδν τε Πολεραρχον ηκειν κα'ι ASfiipaVTov τον τοϋ Γλαυκωνος Αδελφδν και Νικηρατον τδν NiKiou Kai dAAous Tivas, d>s απδ τ η ϊ ττομττη;. τδν ouv Πολεμαρχον εφη φδναι σφα; δοκΕΪν ( ε Ιτγε Ϊ υ δτι δοκουσιΖδοκοΪΕν) ττρδϊ αστυ ωρρ^σθαι u$ αττιδντας. ου δε δρολογησαντος, (Εφη δε φδναι αϋτδν ου κακως δοξδζειν, και) Εκεϊνον ερεσδαι εϊ opg (δρφη) σφα;, δσοι εισϊ ( eI ev ). c u t o s 64 δμολογησαι, κα'ι (α ϋτδ; 5 e ερεσθαι δττω; ουχ opg (δρωη), και) (ου δΕ δμολογησαντο;,) ^κεϊνον κελεϋειν σφδς f) τοινυν κρεΙττου^ εκεϊνων γενεσθαι f] pEVElv Εκεϊ. Εφη EE 4p4aflai ε! et i fAAeiTTETai (ελλε iiroiTo) τδ ην ττεϊσωσιν ek e Ivo us , χρη (χρε Ιη) σφδ; δφεϊναι, αλλ' ekeTvo v ερεσδαι ε ϊ κα'ι δϋναιντο &v πεϊσαι pf] aKOPOVTaj. του 54 Γλαϋκωνο; ou φασκοντο;, (τδν 64 Γλαϋκωνα εΙττεϊν δτι οϋδαμως, καϊ) Πολεμαρχον κελεϋειν σφδ; ως τοινυν μη ακουσομενων, οϋτω διανοεϊσθαι. Kai τον Αδειμαντον 4p4a6ai εϊϊσασι (εϊδεϊεν) δτι λαμπας εσται (Ααμτταδα εσομ^νην) ττρδς εσπ^ραν αφ'ϊττττων τη θεω. εφη54 Ερεσθαι ειαληθως αφ'ϊππων κ α ιφαναι καινδν γε εκεϊνο, ερδμενο; εϊ λαμπδδια εχοντες διαδωσουσιν (διαδωαοιεν) δλληλοι; αμιλλωμενοι τοϊς ϊτπτοις, fj πως

24g

2 50

Appendix G

(δττως) AEyei (λεγοι). δμολοχησαντα Se ΠοΑΕμαρχον φδναι καϊ ττρδς ye troif|g£iv αϋτοϋς τταννυχιΒα, ?jv δξιον θεασασβαι. Εξαναστ^σεσΟαι yap σφας μετα τδ δεϊττvov καϊ την τταννυχϊδα θεασεσΟαι καϊ ξυνεσεσΟαι t e ττοΑλοϊς τω ν νΕων αϋτδθι και διαλεξεσβαι. κελεϋειν BE μΕνειν και μη δλλως rroiriv. και τον Γλαϋκωνα φαναι εδικεναι μενετεον εϊναι. εφη Se αϋτδς φαναι ei δοκεϊ (δοκονη) οϋτω χρηυαι ποιεϊν. 3. (The range of possibilities here is so large that this is just an illustration of one thing that could be done to answer this question.) "Ηρετοδ Διονυσδδωροςτδν Κτησιττιτον ττως (δπως) λεγει (λεχοι), εϊ εϊσϊν (ei εΠν) τινες οϊ AEyouai (ΑΕχοιεν) τ α ττραχματα ως Εχει (εχοι)* δ δε εφη eivai τους καλοϋς τε κδχαβοϋς και τους ταληθη λεγοντας. ΕρομΕνου οϋν Εκεινου e ! ταχαθα eu εχει (εχοι), τα δε κακα κακως, και ei δμολοχεϊ (δμολοχοϊη) τους καλοϋς τε καϊ δχαθοϋς λεχειν ως Εχει (εχοι) τα πραχματα, συνεχωρει. εττεϊ δε Εφη δ Διονυσδδωρος τους a p a δχαβοϋς κακως ΑΕχειν τα κακα, εϊττερ dis ^Xe l (εχοι) λεχουσιν (A£yoiev),d Κτησιππος δμολογων τταρηνεσεν αϋτω εϋλαβεϊσθαι, εαν ol ττεΙΟηται (εϊ ol ιτειθοιτο), τω ν dyaSdov εΤναι, tva μη αϋτδν oi ayaftoi κακως λεχωσιν (λεχοιεν)· του; yap αχαθοϋς Εφη σφδδρα χε κακως ΑΕχειν τους χοϋν κακοϋς ανθρωπους. ηρετο Βε δ Εϋθυδημος ei oi δχαθοϊ καϊ τους μεχαλους μεγαλως ΑΕχουσι (ΑΕχοιεν) καϊ τους βερμοϋς θερμως, καϊ δττοκρινομΕvou τοϋ Κτησππτου δ π μαλιστα, τους χοϋν ψυχροδς ψυχρως Aeyouoi (ΑεχοιΕν) τε καϊ φασ'ιν (φαϊεν) διαλεχεσθαι, εφη δ Διονυσδδωρος τοϋτον λοιδορεϊσβαι. δ δ ϊ οϋκ Εφη, φασκων εττει φιλεϊ (φιλοιη) αϋτδν, νουθετεϊν ως Εταϊρον, καϊ πειρασθαι πειθειν μηδΕττοτε Εναντϊον οϋ οϋτωςδχροΙκωςλΕχεινδτι τοϋτους βοϋλεται (βοϋλοιτο) Εξολωλεναι, οϋς περϊ πλειστου ποιεϊται (ττοιοιη). B) 1. The original is Plato, Republic J37a-c 2. The original is Plato, Republic 337 c-d. 3. The original is Plato, Laws 7i3d-7i4b. Appendix D a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

If Jim was in charge, everything went (was going) well. If Jim had been in charge, everything would have gone well. If Jim is in charge, everything is going well. If Jim were in charge, everything would be going well. If Jim is in charge, everything will go well. If Jim should be (if Jim were to be, if Jim were) in charge, everything would go well If Jane went to the shop she bought a paper. If Jane had gone to the shop she would have bought a paper. If Jane goes to the shop she buys a paper.

Partial answer key

j. k l. m. n. o. p. q. r. s. t. u. v. w. x. y.

If fane were going to the shop she would be buying a paper, If Jane goes to the shop she will buy a paper, If Jane should go (if Jane were to go, if Jane went) to the shop she would buy a paper. If Fido sawa cat, he chased it. If Fido had seen a cat, he would have chased it. If Fido sees a cat, he chases it. If Fido saw (if Fido were seeing) that cat, he would be chasing it. If Fido sees that cat, he will chase it. If Fido should see (if Fido were to see, if Fido saw) a cat, he would chase it. If Fido sees a cat, he will chase it. No doubt Mark got a job if he applied for one. No doubt Mark would have gotten a job if he had applied for one. No doubt Mark is getting a job if he is applying for one. No doubt Mark would be getting a job if he were applying for one. No doubt Mark will get a job if he applies for one. No doubt Mark would get a job if he should apply (if he were to apply, if he applied) for one.

251

APPENDIX Η

The next step: prose composition as an art form A ll the exercises in this book were written to be translated into Greek; someone who has learned the grammar and syntax w ill know immediately which constructions to use in translating them. English that was not written with translation into Greek in mind, however, is far more difficult to handle. Often it needs to be restructured considerably in order to produce idiomatic Greek, and that restructuring is a different skill from those practiced in the rest of this book. The exclusion o f this skill from the earlier exercises is deliberate, for it is incompatible with this book’s main goal ofdeveloping fluent reading skills by providing practice in active use o f all the grammar and syntax; i f the exercises had not made it obvious which constructions needed to be used, it would have been impossible to ensure that all were practiced. The translation into Greek o f English that was not written for that purpose is, how­ ever, also a valuable exercise, because it allows one to think more creatively about Greek idiom, to create a piece o f writing that is aesthetically beautiful, and thereby to under­ stand more fully what an author like Plato was doing when he created a beautiful piece o f prose. This appendix is designed to help readers move on to this type o f prose com­ position if they wish to. Here are some points to keep in mind. idiom When translating a piece o f English that was not originally written for that purpose, the first thing to remember is that one needs to translate not the words, but the thoughts that those words express. English is full o f idiomatic expressions whose whole is not the same as the sum o f their parts.' For example, we use "look up” not only to mean raising the eyes to an elevated object, but also to refer to finding a word in a dictionary. In the first meaning “ look up" could be translated literally into Greek, but in the second it could not: it would need to be replaced by a phrase such as “find in the lexicon." Similarly the English idiom "the king ascended the throne" means that the king began to rule; to translate this properly into Greek one would need to translate this underlying meaning, not the words that convey it, which in Greek would have no such implied meaning. Greek, o f course, has idioms too, and a really good w riter o f Greek prose w ill use these wherever they are appropriate. Vocabulary choice Most English words have more than one meaning, and so do most Greek words, so there are almost never one-to-one vocabulary equivalences. When choosing

The next step: prose composition as assart form

vocabulary, especially from a large dictionary, it is important to make sure that the Greek word one plans to use is the appropriate one for the context in which one plans to use it; simply verifying that the Greek word can overlap in meaning with the English word in the passage is rarely enough once one steps beyond the world of the prose com­ position textbook with its specially designed vocabulary and exercises. A good rule of thumb is never to use an unfamiliar word simply on the basis o f what an English-toGreek dictionary tells you: always look it up first in LSJ (the big version o f LSI!) and check the fine print about its usage, to make sure it has the necessary meaning to fit the passage. In order to produce Greek at all similar to what Plato or one of his contempo­ raries would have written, one must also restrict oneself to words attested in classical prose: many poetic and post-classical words exist, and their inclusion in a prose com­ position is normally considered a serious flaw. Abstractions Prose composition students are usually advised to avoid abstract nouns, because most English abstract nouns are really idioms that should in Greek be replaced by the con­ crete ideas they represent. For example, the sentence ‘Alcibiades’ plot was discovered" would be best rephrased in Greek to “Alcibiades was discovered plotting.” Greek does, however, contain a fair number o f abstract ions o f its own, so it is not really a good idea to eliminate them all. Rather one should avoid abstractions except for those that are common in Greek in the particular meaning desired; perusal o f a good dictionary can usually help to identify these. If the acceptability o f a particular abstraction cannot be verified, it is normally a good idea to use a concrete word instead. Sentence structure Greek writers liked long sentences, and in many types o f prose they particularly liked sentences with extensive subordination. In turning idiomatic English into idiomatic Greek it is often necessary to combine several sentences into one, not simply by adding conjunctions but also by turning some main clauses into subordinate constructions. Since Greek prose makes far more use o f participles than does English, a good trans­ lation usually introduces quite a few participles not present or even hinted at in the original. Non-Greek names and modern concepts Some English passages contain material that has no good Greek equivalent, and these can be tackled in two ways. One possibility is to replace the non-Greek words and ideas with their closest Greek equivalents; so for example a passage about Hitler's submarines m ight be turned into a passage about Darius’ triremes. This type o f replacement is only

253

2j4

Appendix Η

successful if the ancient equivalent fits the context reasonably well, in the example just given the suggested replacement would work in a stirring patriotic speech exhorting lis­ teners not to fear the vessels in question, but it would be disastrous in a battle narrative where the submarines’ ability to submerge was a crucial part of the story, or in a passage where specific features of Hitler’s character not shared with Darius (e.g. anti-Semitism) were relevant. In order to make sure the equivalents are good ones, therefore, it is nec­ essary to have a d ea r understanding both of the modern context and of the ancient one used to replace it. The other possibility is to transliterate non-Greek names into the Greek alphabet and use periphrases or explanations for any concepts unknown to the ancients. This is in fact what most ancient writers did; the New Testament is full of names like Αβρααμ and Δαυιδ, and transliterations like Οϋαλ (ριος are frequent in discussions of Romans. So although using "ΙτλΕρ for Hitter looks dreadful, it has excellent ancient precedents. Likewise a submarine can be described as a ship that sails under the water (with a par­ ticiple: ϋφ' οδατι ιτλεοοσα), and this is in feet what a classical Greek writer would have done if faced with the need to discuss one. An example The English passage below is taken from W. S. Landor’s Imaginary Conversations of Literary Men and Statesmen (London 1829; vol. 11 p. 90), where it is part of a larger dialogue between Newton and Barrow. (English from the nineteenth century is often used as a basis for Greek prose composition, because its structure is often very similar to that of Greek: education at that period involved substantial training in Latin and Greek, with the result that the English produced by educated people was often directly influenced by those languages. More recent English is often harder to translate into Greek.) : I had something more, sir, to say - or rather - I had something more, sir, to ask - about Friendship. r o w : All men, but the studious above all, must beware in the forma­ tion of it. Advice or caution on this subject comes immaturely and ungracefully from the young, exhibiting a proof either of temerity or suspicion; but when you hear it from a man of m y age, who has been singularly fortunate in the past, and foresees the same felicity in those springing up before him, you may accept it as the direction of a calm observer, telling you all he has remarked on the greater part of a road which he has nearly gone through, and which you have but just entered. Never take into your confidence, or admit often into your company, any man who does not know, on some important subject,

n ew t o n

ba r

The next step: prose composition as an art form

. ■more than you do. Be his rank, be his virtues, what they may, he will ■be a hindrance to your pursuits, and an obstruction to your greatness. If indeed the greatness were such as courts canbestow, and such as can 'be laid on the shoulders of a groom and make him look like the rest of the company, my advice would be misplaced; but since all transcen­ dent, all true and genuine greatness must be of a m ans own raising, and only on the foundation that the hand of God has laid, do not let any touch it: keep them off civilly, but keep them off. Affect no Sto­ icism; display no indifference: let their coin pass current; but do not you exchange for it the purer ore you carry, nor think the milling pays for the alloy W hen translated into Greek this passage can easily be recast as a Platonic dialogue, a change that allows the non-Greek names Newton and Barrow to be replaced with the Platonic characters Glaucon and Thrasymachus. (Of course the first Platonic character one thinks of is Socrates, but neither of these characters is at all like Plato’s Socrates, so Glaucon and Thrasymachus are more plausible.) The use of Plato as a model also results in a change of the dialogue format from one with speaker designations outside the syntax of the text to one in which it is made clear in the text itself who is speaking and to whom. The comparison of an older person to a traveller who has preceded one along a road is even specifically used in Plato (Republic 328 e); it would therefore have been legitimate to borrow a quotation from Plato there, though that has not been done in this translation. The Greek version below was made by the Oxford Classicist M. L. West, to whom I am very grateful for permission to use it here. Kai os, ηθελον δε, εφη, ωθρασϋμαχε,δΓλαυκων, και αλλοτιλεχειν, r) μαλλον αλλο τ ι Ηθελαν σε JpiaBai ττερι t t )$ φιλϊας Kai δ θρασυμαχος, παν τα ; μϊν, εφη, Set φυλαττεσθαι αϋτην τινα τροπον ποιησονται, τους 51 φιλομαθεϊϊ παντων μδλιστα. oi μεν yap νεωτεροι εαν τ ι παραινωσιν f| vouθετωσι ττερ'ι t o u t o u τοϋ πραχματος, is; προ καιροΟ teal ου πρεπδντως λεχομενον av t is ακοδοϊ' φανερδς 5’ αν εϊη 6 νουθετων f| θρδσους μεστο; ων f| υποψιας. αλλ' οταν παρα τηλικοΟδε δνδρος ακουσης, ϋπερφυως τε αϋτοϋ ηϋτυχηκοτος Kai ομοϊαν προορωντος r f p εϋδαιμονιαν εν τοϊς εγχυς αϋξανομ^νοις, αποδεκτεον ω; θεωροϋ σωφρονος ποδηχοΟντο; Kai παντα διδασκοντο; δσα εϊδε κατα rf]v δδδν, ατε πολλ^ν ?)5q πεπορευμ^νος και εχχϋς ων t o w τελου;, σϋ δ' αρτι ωρμησαι. μηδεποτε ouv μηδενα ποιου φϊλον μηδε φοιταν εα παρδ σοι, δ στις μ·^ πλεονα σοϋ εϊδη σπουδαιου τινδς πραχματος περι. ou5£v yap διαφϊρει οϋτε yivous o u t ’ δρετων π δ ; εχει, ^πιτηδευοντδ σε δτιοϋν κωλϋσει Kai των μεχαλων ^φιεμενω

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Appendix Η

εμποδων γενησεται. καϊ μην ei ττερϊ τοιοϋτου μεγεθους σπουβαζοι; οϊον βασιλεϋ; αν δωροϊτο, η οΓον δν και δουλω ττεριβαλλομενον ^ξισοΤαν αϋτδν τω δλλω δμιλω ττροσοραν, οϋκ αν εϊς καιρδν ταϋτα παρηνουν δλλ' i ττε! τδ δληθω; και iTupwj ϋττερβοελλοντα μεγεθη οϋκ εστιν ei μη αϋτδν £v Ιαυτω τρεφειν, μηδε f i f δλλων τινων η των ϋττδ του 08οϋ τεθειμ^νων βδβρων, ουδενα δλλον ι·ατεον μετασχεϊν του π ρδγματογ αλλα παντως δτταμυντεον, μη φορτικωϊ αλλ' ομωγ καϊ μη ττροσποιοϋ αϋταρκη^ t i -ou, 0 pdppapoj, -ου, 6 6pAo$, -ου, δ; δχλοξ, -ου, δ ay