An introduction to classical Sanskrit: an introductory treatise of the history of classical Sanskrit literature [1 ed.]

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UNIVERSA

LIBRARY

OU

214162 > 7J


resent

Presidency

College,

Calcutta,

,

In the preparation

monumental works

of

of the

book

am under a deep acknowledge my indebtedness works have been mentioned

A.

B.

Keith.

to

all

To them,

must also those authorities whose

debt of gratitude.

I

in the “References’".

In preparing the press copy, Bhanja,

have freely consulted the two

M. Winternitz and

therefore, I

nath

I

Sahityasastri,

my

pupil,

Professor

Kavya-Puranatirtha,

Sarojendra-

M.A.,

has

rendered invaluable service. Another pupil of mine, Mr. Taraknath

Ghosal, M.A., has prepared the major part

of

the Index.

My

ex-

Upendranath Ghosal, M.A., Ph.D and Professor Subodhchandra Sengupta, M.A., P.R S., Ph.D,, had the kindness, the former, to find out for me a few references, and the latter, to read a considerable portion of the work while in the My teachers, Mahamahopadhyaya Haranchandra Shastri, press. Professor Sadananda Bhaduri, M.A., Ph.D., and Professor Somnath Maitra, M.A., have helped me much by offering valuable I must also acknowledge the suggestions from time to time. advice given so freely by my friend and colleague. Professor Taraknath Sen, M.A. Lastly, I must mention the deep interest which was taken by my cousin, Pandit Ashokanath Shastri,

colleagues,

Professor

Vedantatirtha, M.A.^, P.R.S., in seeing the

,

work through.

The occasion makes me remember, with deep and reverent

gratitude, those of

my

of studying the subject

teachers at whose feet I had the privilege

—the

late

Eakhaldas

Professor

M.A., of the Benares Hindu University, and

Chakra varty. M.A.,

late Senior Professor

of

Banerjee,

Professor Nilmony

Sanskrit, Presidency

College, Calcutta. I

am

thankful to

my

publishers,

the

Modern Book Agency,

'

I

Calcutta, and to the authorities of the

M.

I.

Press, Calcutta, for

the kind interest they have taken in the printing pf

my

and publication

book.

Calcutta,

Author January, 1943.

—

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS PAGES

1—22

Introductory Origin

Indian writing

of

Indian languages

:

— Vedic

and

their relationship

Classical

— Prakrit

— Was Sanskrit a spoken language Chapter One Ramayana

23—37

The Great Epics

:

Origin and story

:

element

— Character—^Spurious

— Antiquity^— Relation to Buddhism — Allegorical interpretation —

Greek influence

Mythological interpretation.

Mahabharata

General character and story

:

Three

stages^

— Age — Literary — Which of the

— Gita

and inscrix)two Epics is

tional evidence earlier ?

TJhapter

Two

:

Introduction

value

The Puraiias Age and antiquity Character and Name and number of Puranas

—

—

38—43

—

Devimahatmya

—Name

number

and

of

UpapuranaG.

Chapter Three

:

— Relation to — Antiquity — Home—Works.

Meaning, contents and Vedic literature

Chapter Four

of

Nasik inscriptio ns

Max

Muller

48—50

— Girniir

— Works belonging

Hinayana schools phical

;

(iii)

and

— Conclusions.

Early Buddhist works in Sanskrit

:

Introduction

classification

Kilvya in inscriptions

:

Renaissance Theory

Chapter Five

44—47

The Tantras

:

(i)

Avadana.

to

...

Mahayana and

Poetical

;

(ii)

Philoso-

51—74

PAGES

Chapter Six

75—87

Court-epics

:

— Growth and development epics — Lesser epic poems*

Introduction

Chapter Seven

88—118

Drama

:

—

— —

—

drama Characteristics ClassiGrowth and development Less

Origin of Sanskrit fication

of court-

important dramas.

Chapter Eight

119—128

Lyric Poetry

:

Introduction - Growth

and

development

—Lesser

poems and anthologies.

lyric

Chapter Nine

129—133

Historical writings

Introduction

— Growth

and

development

— Minor

historical works.

Chapter Ten

134—145

Prose Literature

.

Introduction — Romance — Fable — Lesser prose

Chapter Eleven

Campu

:

tales.

146—147

literature

— Some important Campus.

Introduction

"Chapter Twelve Introduction

148—159

Grammar

:

— Paiiini school— Other important — Sectarian schools— Some impor-

schools

tant grammatical works.

Chapter Thirteen

Poetics and Dramaturgy

:

160—170

— school— Kasa School— Dhvani School — Works on Poetics

Introduction

— Alankara

school

Eiti

and Dramaturgy.

Chapter Fourteen Metrics Introduction Works on Metrics.

171—172

Chapter Fifteen

173—174

:

—

Introduction

:

Lexicography

—Major lexicon —Minor lexicons.

•Chapter Sixteen

:

Civil

and Ealigious

Growth and development

Law

—Important legal works.

175—179

— PAGES 180—181

Chapter Seventeen Politics Introduction Works on Politics :

—

Chapter Eighteen Erotics Introduction Works on Erotics :

.

.

—

Chapter Nineteen History

of

184—186

Medicine

:

medical

literature

—Earlier

182—183

and

later

Mathematics

and

medical works

Chapter Twenty

Astronomy,

.

187—191

Astrology

—

Works on Astronomy of Astronomy Works on Mathematics Works on Astrology.

History

Chapter Twenty-One Archery

— Sciences

of jewels,

of

—

192-^194

Miscellaneous Sciences

:

elephants and horses— Sciences

stealing,

cooking, music,

dancing

and painting.

Chapter Twenty-Two

:

Philosophy

195—237

...

Nyaya, Vaisesika. Sahkhya, Orthodox systems Yoga. Mimaihsu and Vedanta Heterodox Buddhism, Jainism and Materiasystems lism Miscellaneous works on philosophy. :

—

:

,

—

Appendix

:

History

West

of the

Study

of

Sanskrit

in

the

ABBREVIATIONS KL KS

Kdvydlankdra.

search Institute.

MB

MahdbhdrHya.

A'^i^dhyay}.

Mbh

Mahdbhdrata.

liar

Harmcarita.

Nir

Nirukta.

HOS

Harvard Oriental

Rag

llaghuvafnsa.

Ram

Bdmdyana.

ABORl

Annals

o{

the

BhanRe-

darkar Oriental

Asl

Series

lA

Indian Antiquary

JRAS

Journal

Rgveda,

SBE

Sacred

Books

of

the

East, Oxford.

Kddamhan (M.R.

SD sv

Kale. 2nd edition).

Vds

Asiatic Society.

Kacl

RV Royal

of the

KdmasTitra.

Suhityadarpafja. Sii^U'pdlavadlia,

Vusavadattu.

ERRATA Pp. 119 &G.

Line 1

For ‘Chapter ‘Chapter

emend

Six’

Eight’

all

chapter

read

and

subsequent

numberings

accordingly.

P. 193

Line 13

For Sanmukhakalpa' ^

read Sa7imukhakalpa\ '

AN INTRODUCTION TO

CLASSICAL SANSKRIT INTRODUCTORY A ORIGIN OF INDIAN WRITING The

iinincmoi'ial practice

Sanskrit

of

mit to

has

literature

memory

with

stndeiits

been

to

com-

Introduction

tlu*

various

subjects

of

their study, and this ])racticeof oral tmdition

has preserved the ancicuit Vedic texts.

This

fact has led scholars to surmisii that writiup

was perchance unknown Indian

of

forms of

in the earliest period

and that the later the alphabet were not of pure civilisation

Indian growth.

The

earliest

references

of

writing

in

found in

tlie

Yasistha, which, as

Dr.

Sanskrit literature are to be

DJiarniasutm

to

Bidder thinks, was (‘.omposod about the eighth century n.c. There are, however, some sidiolars

who would

like to assign a

date to the work, B.c,

viz.,

much

later

the fourth century

There we obtain clear evidence

of the

widely spread use of writing during the Vedic

Evidence of Vedic and Sutra

works

2

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT and

period,

made

in Ch.

of written

XVI.

10, 14-15,

documents as

mention

is

legal evidence.

Further, the Adadhyaijl of Panini contains

such compounds as dipihara' and

which evidently mean

‘writer’

The date of Panini, however,

is

[HI.

scholars holds

century

R.c.

n.c.,

ii.

21].

not fixed. Pro-

him

fessor Goldstiicker wants'to place

eighth century

ddhiJcara'

in tlu'

while the general body of

that

his

age

the fourth

is

In addition to the few references

set forth above, it

may

be said that the later

Vedic works contain some technical terms such as

and the

‘'liaijda,'

like,

‘‘palala,'

which some scholars quote as

evidence of the use of writing. are others

^jranilia'

who

like to differ

But there

in their

inter-

pretations of these terms.

The us Evidence of Brahmaipiical works

aforesaid

much

growth

in

references

do

not help

determining the genuine Indian

of writing,

inasmuch as none

of

the

works in which they are found can be safely dated earlier than the period of inscriptions.

In the same way, evidences in the Brahma-

works such as the Epics, the Puranas, the Kavyas and the like, are of little or no nical

help.

Among

them, the Epics are by far the

oldest, but it is difficult to prove that

word

of their text goes

every

back to a high anti-

INTRODUCTOEY qiiity.

One

fact

is,

3

however, undeniable,

viz.

that the Epics contain some archaic expressions,

such

as,

but not

^lehhana,’

scholars think,

This

may

is

HeJcha,'

‘Zz/Ji,’

‘lipi,'

HeJcliaha,'

which, as

many

a

word.

after all

foreign

known

suggest that writing was

in India in the

Epic age.

There are two other suggest the same thing.

which

also

It is believed

that

facts

the Aryans were in an advanced state of civilization

—there was a

Evidence of Indian civilization

high development

and monetary transactions, and that they carried on minute researches in grammar, phonetics and lexicography. Do not the above facts presuppose the knowledge of trade

of

among

the art of writing

Indians

?

Nevertheless,

one

adduce positive evidence,

the ancient will

have to

without

nothing can be taken for granted.

which So we

turn to the Buddhist works.

in

There are quite a large number of passages TipitaJea, which bear the Ceylonese

Evidence of

witness to an acquaintance with writing and Buddhist writings to its extensive use at

the time

when

the

Buddhist canon was composed. ^LeJeha’ and HeWiaka' are mentioned in the Bhihhhu

PaciUiya 49,

ii.

2, ii

and in the Bhikhhunl. Pacittiya

In the former, writing has been highly

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

4

In the Jatakas, constant mention

praised. is

made

of

letters.

We

proclamations.

The Jatakas know of are also told of a game

named ahmrilid in which is

the Buddhist

This game was

forbidden to participate.

in

all

probability one of guessing

In the rules

down

Vinaya,

of

it

that a criminal, whose

the

monastic'

at

letters.

has been

must not be In the

order.

same work, writing has been mentioned

as a

125 and

Jataka No.

lucrative profession.

laid

name has been

written up in the King’s porch, received into

monk

existence of

49 bear witness to the elementary schools where the

manner

teaching was the same as in

Malidvagga,

the

of

indigenous schools of modcirn

the

references

All these of

I.

the

of

art

prove

writing

in

the

India.

existence

pre-Buddhistic

days.

The

PiprawS vase inscription

Piprawa vase inscription which was discovered sometime ago by Colonel Claxton Pcppe. This earliest written record is the

Brahmi character a language which does' not conform

inscription

is

written in

and is in to any of the standard

Prakrits.

Some

the case-endings tend towards Magadhi.

compound consonant They have been either

has been

of

No

written.

simplified or divided

INTRODUCTORY by epentliesis. No long vowel, oxcoptmg two s, have been used. The inscription has been differently interpreted. According to some scholars the relics that were enshrined were the relics of Bnddha, while others maintain that the relics were those of the Sakyas, who were massacred by Virulaka, son of Prasenajit, King of Kosala. In any ,

case the inscription belongs to the early part of the fifth century n.c.

Next in order of antiquity comes the Sohgaura copper-plate which, as Dr. Smith thinks, prior

may

to

be dated about half a (century

The

Asoka.^

characters

of

the

dot'ument according to Dr. Smith are those of the Bralnni of the

statements,

Maury a

period and his

according to Dr.

Biihler,

arc

everyone of them is tra(“eablo in the Edicts. About the proper import

iiK'-ontestable as

^The English translation given below

:

'The order of the great

from

(their

of Dr. Buhler’s version is

'

camp

at)

officials of

Sruvasti

(issued)

— Manavasitikata “These

two

store-houses with three partitions (which are situated)

even in famous Vaihsagrama require the storage of of Black Panicum, parched grain, loads (bharaka)

cummin-seed and Amba

One should not

for

(times of)

urgent (need).

take (anything from the grain stored).”

— lA. Vol. XXV,

pp.

261—66.

Sohgaura Copper plate

6

AN INTKODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKEIT

none is sure. Dr. Smith says that he cannot find out any meaning from it. The value of the inscription rests on the fact that it is an evidence for the assumpof the inscription

tion that in the third century b.c., the use of

writing was

common

and that written characters was

the knowledge of

in royal offices

widely spread aniong the people.

The almost

inscriptions

all

of

Asoka, are found

over India and are written in two

Inscriptions

of Asoka,

Nahapana and Rudra-

Brahmi and Kharosthi.

different scripts, viz.,

Two

of these inscriptions

dSman garhi

and Mansehra,

latter.

The

The language is

not

is

knowm

of

— that

are

written

rest

are written

of

early Indian

but

Sanskrit,

as Prakrit.

of

in

Shahbaziji

the

Brahmi.

inscriptions

vernacular, which

In

the inscriptions

Asoka, local varieties are to be found.

Those in the north-western part of India incline more towards Paisaci, than those found in the eastern part. It is interesting to note that all the Indian inscriptions from the earliest times A.D., are

in

down

Prakrit.

to the second century

The

earliest inscrip-

Cave No. X inscription of Nahapana, which was written, in all probability, in the year 41 of the Saka But there era, corresponding to 119 a.d. tion in Sanskrit

is

the Nasik

INTRODUCTORY are scholars cription

who do not

the

opinion

their

inscription of

heads

the

like to call this ins-

in

earliest

7

well-known

the

and in JunSgadh

Sanskrit,

Rudradaman, dated 150 Sanskrit

of

list

A.D.,

inscriptions.

Sanskrit gradually encroached upon Prakrit in the field of epigraphy

the

fifth

century

appeared from the

and that

a.d.,

it

was

from

Prakrit

dis-

field of inscription.

As for the history of the two scripts, Brahmi and Kharosthi, mentioned above. Dr. Biihler thinks that the latter was derived from the Aramaic or Pluenician (‘character used by the clerks of the Persian Empire. The north-western parts of India came under the Achaunenian or Persian rule about the sixth century n.c. of

And

it is

India that inscriptions

in those parts

and coins

in

Kharosthi character have been discovered. Dr.

Biililer

taken sufficient pains to

has

show how from some borrowed full

into

letters the

alphabet of the Sanskrit language being.

have gone so of the word that the

There are some scholars who far

as to suggest a

Kharosthi.

Thus

meaning it is

name Kharosthi has been

from the shape resemble the

came

of

lip of

letters

an

ass.

held

derived

which generally Professor Levi

Kharo^tb

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

8

thinks that the word

name

is

derived from

of the inventor, Kharostha,

the

an inhabi-

tant of Central Asia.

There are origin of the

Brahmi

;

South and North Semitic origin

regarding

seA^eral theories

Brahmi

the

According

cluiracter.

and otliers, the BiTdimi character vas borrowed from a Sonthciii Arab This tinaa’y lias not gamed any tribe. popularity. The theory startl'd by Dr. to Dr. Ta}'lor

Weber and

illustrated by Dr.

Dr. Welx'i-

nerally accepted.

man

Buhler

to discover that

some

was the

inscriptions of the

centuries

with certain

ninth and the

Semitic alphatx't of that jieriod

seventh

is

identical

forms of the corresponding

with the oldest

Another one-third

letters.

some

About oneof the North

third of the tiventy -three letters

Indian

in

si'veral h'tters

found in Ass_yria.

jlc.,

first

Indian

of the old

letters are practically identical

Assyrian letters and

ge-

is

similar, while the rest

is

somewhat

can with great

diffi-

culty be said to correspond to letters of the

Indian alphabet. Dr. Biihler took advantage of this theory of

proceeded

to

Dr. Weber,

show that

as

and he next a

result

of

the prolonged contact between Indian merchants, mostly, Dravidans, and Babylonians in the eighth

and the seventh centuries

B.C.,

INTRODUCTORY

9

the former availed themselves of the opportunity to hrin^ the Assyrian art of writing over to India, which later on was enlarged to suit the requirements of the Indian

Nearly a thousand years

later, this

people.

form of

writing {tame to bo styled as NrShmi. It has

been said

that

originally the

written from right to

left,

has been discovered in a

letters

as a

i)lace

were

single coin

named

Iran,

on which the legend runs from right to

But hand

the Bivilnuanas

as

direction

heli(‘V(‘d

to bo sacnal, they

the right-

changed

the direi'tion and began to writer from to-

left.

left

right.

According Indian

letters

to Professor

Rhys Davids, the

were di'veloiied neither from

Northern nor from the Southern Semitic form alphabet, but from the pre-Semitu'

Pre-Scmitic origin

th('

Euphrates valley. But this theory is not accepted on the ground that this supposed pre-S('mitic form of writing cairrent in the

has yet to be explored. Sir Alexander to derive each

hieroglyphic,

Cunningham had wanted

letter

from the indigenous

but his theory was discarded

on the ground that no such hieroglyphic could be found in India. But the recent excavations at Mahen-jo-daro and Harappa

Hieroglyphic origin

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

10

have brought to

light,

an original

Indian

and a further examination of the theory once started by Sir A. Cunningham hieroglyphic,

may

be undertaken.

REFERENCES Buhler, G.

Indian Paleography.

(i)

:

The The

(ii) (iii)

Origin of Brahrai Alphabet. origin

of

Kharosthi

the

Alphabet (lA. Vol. XXIV). Indian Studies III.

(iv)

Cunningham, A. Cust, R. N.

On

:

The Coins

:

the origin of the Indian alphabet.

JRAS. L6vi, S.

Vol.

XVI (New

Indian Writing (lA. Vol. XXXIII).

(ii)

Kharostra and the Kharostri writing (lA. Vol.

New

:

Shamasastry, R.

:

XXXV).

Light from Pre-historic (lA. Vol.

A

I.

theory of the origin of the Deva(I A.

Vol.

XXXV).

The Alphabet.

:

Thomas, E.

India

XLVIII).

nagari alphabet. Taylor,

series).

(i)

;

Mitra, P.

of Ancient India.

;

Princep’s Essays, Vol. II.

B ' ""

Introduction

VEDIC AND CLASSICAL INDIAN LANGUAGES—THEIR RELATIONSHIP Indian tradition knows Sanskrit as the

language of the gods, which has been the

INTRODUCTOEY

11

dominant

language of India for a period covering over four thousand years. Viewed from its rich heritage of literature, its fascinating

charm

of words, its flexibility

expression in relation to thouglit,

of

Sanskrit

occupies a singular place in the literature of the world.

The Sanskrit language

is

generally divi-

ded into Vedic and Classical. In the Vedii; language was written the entire sacred literature of the Aryan Indians. Within this Vedic language several stages may be carefully distinguished, and in course of its transition from the one to the other it gradually grew modern till it ultimately merged in But when we pass on Classical Sanskrit. from the Vedic lyrics Sanskrit,

we seem

Not only

are the

to the lyrics of Classical

to

enter a ‘new world’.

grammar, vocabulary, metre and style different, but there is also a marked distinction in respect of matter and spirit. Thus the Classical Sanskrit period is marked by a change of religious outlook and social conditions. Vedic literature religious

;

is

almost entirely

but Classical Sanskrit has a ‘pro-

fane’ aspect as well

which

is

not in any

inferior to the religious aspect.

in the Epic period has

become

The

way

religion

different

from

Vedic andT Classical difference in mattei^ and spirit .

12 AN INTEODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKEIT

what

was in the Vedic

it

The Vedic

age.

Nature-worship has been superseded by the eult of

Brahma, Visnu and

we

the Epic period that

Siva,

and

find

for the first

time the incarnations of Visnu

it is

in

who has come

upon as the Siipreme Deity. New gods and goddesses unknown to the Vedas liave arisen, and Vedici gods have either been to be looked

forgotten or reduced to a subordinate position.

Indra

is,

indeed,

tin;

only god

who

still

main-

tains high status as the lord of heaven. Vedic literature

by a cal

in

its earlier

spirit of nibust

Sanskrit

pha^e was marked

optimism

;

but Classi-

literature has a note of pessi-

mism owing probably

to the influence of the

karrnan

doctrine

of

of soul.

The naive

literature

is

strikingly

and

transnygration

simplicity

of

absent in

Classical

Sanskrit where the introduction of pernatural

and

the

wonderful

Vedic

is

the sufull

of

So kings are described as visiting Indra in heaven and a sage creating exaggeration.

new world by means of his great spiritual powers. The tribal organization of the state

a

much in importance in the Epic where we find the rise of many terri-

has lessened period torial '

kingdoms.

In respect of form also Classical Sanskrit

INTBODUCTORY

Thus the Vedas and the Brahmanas are marked

differs'

four

13

considerably from

Vedic,

with accents {udatta, aniidatta

ajid.

svarita)

Difference in

form

(i)

accent

:

which only can help us in finding out the meaning of different words. Thus, for instance, the word ‘'Indrakitrn'’ with one kind of accent

will

mean

‘Indra as eiK'niy’,

and the same word with a different kind accent will imply ‘enemy of Indra.’ But

in

ac(;ent lias

no

Classical Sanskrit

litei-ature,

of

part to play.

Phonetically

Vedic

and Classical lanbut grammatically

guages are

identical,

they

The change

differ.

generally due to the

grammar is not introduction of new for-

mations or

inflections,

fonns.^

respect

Ill

of

in

but to the

mood, the

loss

ol

diff(‘rence

between Classical and Vedic Sanskrit is specially very great. In the Vedas the present tense

has besides

indicative infiection,

its

Certain grammatical forms which occur in Vedic language disappear in Classical. Thus in declension ^

(i) the nomiforms has been dropped a stems endnative and accusative dual forms of plural form of nominative ing in— a, e.g., nafu, (ii) the

a

number

of

‘—a' stems ending in— trumental plural form of e.g.,

devebhih, etc.

.

(iii)

the ins-

stems ending in

ebhilj.

e.g.,

—

ci

devUsalj,

(ii)

grammar

AN INTEODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

14

a subjunctive

(requisition), optative

The same

and an imperative (command).

moods

three

are found,

(wish)

though with much

belonging to the perfect

loss frequency, as

and they are also made from the aorists '{luh) and the future has no moods. In Classical Sanskrit, the to

its

tense

an optative and an

iudicjdiive

perative.

present

But the subjunctive

Classical Sanskrit.'

{let) is

adds im-

lost in

In the Vedic period no

than fifteen forms of infinitive were used^ of which only one {turn) survives in the less

Vedic Sanskrit

•Classical period.

differs froAi

Classical Sanskrit in respect of the use of pre-

Thus must

fixes {npasainjas).

the

iipasarga

in Classical Sanskrit

invariably

the root and should form a part of the

use

of

precede it..

But

upasargan was unrestricted in

was used before the root and after it and was also sometimes separated from the root itself.^ Compounds of more than two words, which are rare in the Vedas and the Brahmanas, are frequent in ClassiVedic Sanskrit.

It

cal Sanskrit. ^

adya jivana,

satafn jivdti saradaf},

in the Veda. 4,si. III. iv. 9. *

d hf^iiena rajasd vartamdno,

etc.

etc.;,

as found

INTEODUCTORY

The

15

aforesaid changes in respect of forms

were mainly due to the efPorts of grammarians who exercised considerable influence on the development of the language.

bulary also underwent

many

(iii)

Voca-

bulary

The voca-

changes.

It

was largely extended by derivation, composiMany old words that tion and compilation. . 130 to A 1). 150. Under the circumstances, it is almost impossible to reconcile the suzerainty of the Kusana King withthe independence of this poweiful satrap (cf. Svayamafar

as

the

;

inscription of

dhigatafn maliak^att apanuvia)* 3

—

23, Vasiska’s dates 24

— 28,

Prom, Ivaniska’s dates Huviska’s dates 31

and Vasudeva’s dates 74 — 98 it is almost evident that Kaniska was the originator of an era. But according to our evidence, no new era was in vogue about the beginning of the second century A D. Dr. R. G. Mazumdar is of opinion that tlie ora started by Kaniska was the Kalachuri era of 248-49 A. I) But 60,

Professor Jouveau Dubreuil

contends that

is

it

not

Vasudeva’s reign terminated after 100 years from Kaniska’s date of accession for Mathura where Vasudeva reigned, came under the Nngas about 350 A.D likely that

;

be further mentioned that for the reason stated above we can hardly accept the theory of Sir R. G It

may

Bhandarkar who accepts

A.D.

278,

as

the

date

of

Kaniska’s accession. According to Professors Ferguson, Oldenberg, Thomas, R, D. Banerjee, Rapson and

otliers,

Kaniska started the Saka era commencing from 78 A.D.

62

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

the ninth

century a.d. added these four

Even

cantos.

the manuscript discovered by

MM.

Haraprasada Sastrin, reaches down to the middle of the fourteenth canto. Professor Dubreuil does not

accept the view as

on the following grounds.

First,

well

the view that

if

Kujula-kara-Kadphises and Hermaios reigned about 50 A.D.

and that Kaniska founded the era

in 78

A.D.

is

accepted^ there remain only tioenty- eight years for the

end

Kadphises

of the reign of

I

and the entire reign

of

But Kadphises II succeeded an octogenot impossible that his reign was one of

Kadphises

II.

nerian and

it is

Professor Marshall says that Professor

short duration.

Dubreuil has discovered at Taxila a document which

can be placed certainly

not

in

79 A.D. and the king,

But

Kaniska.

it

mentions, v/as

Professor

Chaudhuri has shown that the

title

H. C.

Ray

Devaputra was

applicable to the Kaniska group and not to the earlier

group.

The

omission of a personal

prove that the

name

does not

Kusana king was meant. Secondly,

first

Professor Dubreuil says that

Professor Sten

Konow

has shown that Tibetan and Chinese documents prove that Kaniska lived in it is

second century A.D.

the

not improbable that this Kanij^ka

the Ara inscription of the year 41

is

the Kaniska of

which,

if

to the Saka era, would give a date that would

second century A.D. Po4hao cessors of Vasudeva

I.

referred

fall in

the

be one of the suc-

Professors Banerjee and Smith

recognize the existence of Finally, Professor

may

But

more than one Vasudeva.

Konow has shown

that inscriptions

/

of the Kaniska era

and the Saka era are not dated

in

EARLY BUDDHIST WORKS

The Buddhacarita

is

IN*

SANBKRIT

really a

work

63

of art.

Unlike the 3fahdvastu find the Lalitavistara, it shows a systematic treatment of the subject-matter.

come

Nowhere

will

the reader

across a confused or incoherent des-

Throughout the work, the poet

cription.

very cautious about

is

the use of figures of

speech, and this abstinence from the super-

abundant^mploymcnt of figures of speech has lent special charm to the merit of the work. Over and above this, the presentment of the miraculous in the Buddha legend has been

done

with

short,

the

work

Thus,

moderation.

equal is

an

in

creation.

artistic

An

account of the assemblage of fair and young ladies watching from gabled windows of high mansions, the exit of the royal prince

from the

capital, is followed

like description of

by a vivid

how he came

with the hateful spectacle

of

iii

life-

contact

senility.

The

the same manner. The learned scholar shows that the inscriptions of Kaniska are dated in different fashions.

In

the

method

Kharosthi inscriptions, Kaniska follows the of his

Saka-Pallava predecessors.

On

the other

hand, in the Brahmi inscriptions he follows the ancient Indian method. Is it then impossible that he adopted a third method to suit the local conditions in Western India

?

A

critical

appreciation

64

In Introduction to ciassigal Sanskrit

ladies,

when they came

to

know

that the

prince was going out of the city, rushed

to

the window, careless of girdles falling off

from their bodies and the poet speaks of their faces

so

as

many

full-blown

lotuses

with which the palace was decorated. poet shows high

how

The

craftsmanship in

artistic

overcame the lures of sweet ladies who made an attempt to divert his mind from the desire to bid depicting

good-bye to

prince

the

the joys and comforts of

all

the world and also in the

description

of

the famous scene in which the prince, gazing

on the undecked bodies of the ladies, locked embrace of sleep, resolved in the sweet to

No

abandon the palace.

pathetic

is

less

artistically

the scene in which

the prince

takes leave of his charioteer and the conversation between the two spirit

of

absolute

is

remarkable for the

disinterestedness

wards worldly happiness, which

by the prince.

The poet

is

is

also

to-

displayed

an adopt in

the description of battles, and no one will forget the spirited picture of the contest

Buddha

against the

monstrous hosts. cernible in the

demon Mara and

Evidences are also

work

to

of his dis-

show that the poet

was familiar with the doctrine

of statecraft.

EARLY BUDDHIST WORKS Asvaghosa

IN SANSKRIT

65

the

author of another epic, the Haundara-nanda, which has been Saundara* discovered and edited by MM. Haraprasada nanda Sastrin. This work also turns round the history of Buddha’s life, but the central theme is the history of the recijirocal love of is

and Nanda,

Sundarl

Buddha, who

initiated

is

against his will by the

The

the half-brother of the order

into

latter.

third work of the poet

a

is

lyrical

poem, the Gaudintotrayathd, ro(;onstructed in the Sanskrit original from the Chinese by A. von Stael-Holstein. Another work of the poet is the STitrdlaiihdm,^ which undoubtedly is a later production than the liiiddhacarita, inasmuch the latter.

as the former quotes

Sanskrit

regretted that the

yet available

;

SiUrdlanl-aTa after

the

work,

with

a

^

clue

of

the

not

is

only the

is

work.

This

a collection of pious legends

is

Jatakas and Avadanas. however, has furnished us

model

This

original

what we have

Chinese translation

It is to bo

of

to the

Dr. Winternifcz

is

existence of dramatic

of opinion that this

work was

written by Kumaralata, a junior contemporary

Asvaghosa.

The work

bears the

nclitiku or Ealpanalankrtikl,.

5

title

of

Kalpandma-

Gand^stotragSth^

Sutralankara

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

66

literature

Asvaghosa.

In

Mara we have the

re-

at the time

even

the piece relating to

capitulation of a drama.

There

that Asvaghosa was a dramatist as Sariputraprakarai^a

show well and

a positive evidence to

is

may

in this connection reference

he

made

to

momentous discovery of the concluding portion of a nine-act drama entitled the the

SdriputrapraJcamija conversion of

Sariputra

Maudgalyayana.

Among

cript treasures in

Turfan there

is

which

treats

and

the

of

friend

his

the valuable manus-

palm-leaf recovered from

a fragmentary manuscript in

which Professor Liiders found this drama which hore tin* name of Asvaghosa as its author.

One more work MahayiSnasraddhot-

attributed to the poet

is

the Malua/dnaKraddltotpadai^ntra, a philosophical treatise on the basis of the Mahayaiia

padasiitra

doctrine.^ Herein, as Professor Levi remarks,

the author shows himself as a profound metaphysician, as an intrepid

reviver of

a

doc-

which was intended to regenerate Buddhism. It is believed that the author came of a Brahmana family and that ho was trine

later initiated into the doctrine of

Buddhism.

According to Dr. Winternitz this work has been

wrongly ascribed to Asvaghosa.

EARLY BUDDHIST WORKS IN SANSKRIT

At first, he joined the Sarvastivadi a and then prepared for the Mahayana.

67

school

was Asvaghosa was a pioneer in the field of Mahayaiiism but it is better to suppose that ho was not the first to write a treatise on that subject, but was a It

at one time believed that

;

strong exponent of that the

it.

Mahayana

For,

it

is

undeniable

school developed long-

before Asvaghosa.

Another work attributed to Asvaghosa, is the Vaj raHUcl. Here the author takes up the Brahmanic staudpoiut aud disputes the authority of sacred texts and the claims of caste, and advocates the doctrine of equality. In the Chinese Tipif/ilu Catalogue the

work has been ascribed Matreeta

is

the

the Tibetan

to Dharmakirti.*

inystic.al

Ihiddhist-Sanskrit poet historian

name

of

a

who, according to Taranatha, is none

other than Asvagbosa. According to I-tsing, Matreeta is the author of the Catu.isafaknstotra and the HafapancciJidtikandniastotra, in four hundred and one two poems hundred aird fifty verses respectively. Fragments of the Sanskrit original of the former have been discovered in Central Asia. ^

Vide,

Bunyiu Nanjio, Catalogue

Translation of

Vajrasuci

of the

Chinese

the Buddhist Tipitaka, No. 1303.

Matreeta works

his

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

68

The poems show some

him

is

the

Aryacandra belonging probably

to

the

Another work attributed Mahdraja-Kanihalekha}

same period Aryacandra Maitreyavyakarana :

as that of

Matrceta,

the Maitreyasamiti which

is

known

is

in the

form

of

Gotama Buddha and

dialogue between

Sariputra.

to

MaUreyavydlinrana or

as the author of the

a

excellence.

artistic

The work,

translated into various

languages, seems to have been very popular.

Very well-known

is

the

name

of the poet

Aryasura, the author of the popular JdtakaAryasura JatakamalS :

mdld, written after the model of the Hiitrd-

Among

lahkdra.

the frescoes in the caves

of Ajanta, there are scenes

from the Jdtaka-

mdld with inscribed strophes from Aryasura. The inscriptions belong to the sixth century

Saddhar> niapun

of

teenth century A.D. Ilarivanisa

by Sakalakirti and his pupil Jinadiisa

:

of the fifteenth

Basikunjana

century A.D. of love

century A.D.

Ramacandra

by

:

— describing

by fSubhacandra

:

century A.D.

— also

called

sixteenth

the two sentiments

and asceticism through

Pdiidavapuruna

the

of

dotible entejidre,

of

the sixteenth

the

Jaina-Mahd-

bhdrata.

Bughavanai^adhlya

by Haradattasuri

:

of

unknown

date.

Bdghavapuiidavlyayddaviya

known

:

by Cidambara

of

un-

date.

REFERENCES Keith, A. B.

A

:

Macdonell, A. A.

History of Sanskrit Literature.

A

:

History of Sanskit

Litera-

ture.

Winternitz, M.

:

A

History of Indian Literature,

Vol. II.

CHAPTER SEVEN DRAMA A ORIGIN OF SANSKRIT The

origin

Sanskrit

of

DRAMA

drama

interesting study in the history Orthodox view

of

is

a most

Sanskrit

and divergent views are found amongst scholars which can hardly be reliterature

conciled.

It

is

an

undeniable fact that

Bharata’s NdUja^dstra

is

the earliest

known

book on Sanskrit dramaturgy. The third century A.D.

is

the generally accepted date of the

Ndlyai^dstm, and some scholars hold that the

book

is

work

original to

on the basis of an the Sutra-type. According

a compilation

a legend

of

found in this book, Brahma

drama by taking passages

created

for recita-

tion from the Jigveda, songs from the

Sdma-

veda, gestures from the Yajurveda tions from the

known

as

Atharvaveda.

the fifth

Yeda.

and emoThus a drama is

From

Siva

am

Tandava and Lasya dances were obtained and Visnu gave the Riti. The same book also informs us that the dramas were enacted during the Indradhvaja festival where the sons and disciples of the sage Bharata together with Gandharvas and Apsarases took Parvati,

DRAMA

89

The first two plays enacted were the Amrtamanthana and the Tripn-

part in the play.

raddha both written by Brabina himself There was a time when the theory of the Greek-origin of Indian drama found its adherents amongst scholars.’ The chief exponent was Professor Windiscb (1882) who found many striking similarities between Greek and Sanskrit plays and basial bis theory on the ground that ludiaus were in touch with Greeks

for a considerable pt'riod

after the invasion

of

none

the

of

Alexander and that

extant Sanskrit plays belongs

to a pre-Christian date. classification

Thus

into acts, the

way

to

bim the very

prologues

and

which the actors make their entrance and exit, the term yavaniJcd, the theme and its manipulation, the epilogues,

the

in

the variety of stage-direction^,, the typical

characters like the Vidusaka, Pratinayaka, etc.,

—

all

smell of Greek origin. This theory

was further corroborated by the discovery the Sitabenga cave, of the its

in

Greek theatre in

Indian imitation.^ But this theory has ^

The

suggestion

came from Professor Weber, bub

Professor Pischel vehemently repudiated ®

On

the antiquities of

Sarguja— lA.

Vol. II.

Ramgarh

it.

Hill,

District

of

Theory Greek Origin

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

90

been rejected as the points of contrast are far

many. The absence of the three unities of Time, Space and Action in a Sanskrit drama brings it nearer to an Elizabethan drama than to a Greek drama where the three too

The

unities are essential.

difference in time

between two acts in a Sanskrit drama

g the Uftarardmacarita Bhavabhiiti where twelve years intervene

be several years of

may

(e.

,

between the incidents Moreover,

it

a .Sanskrit

acts).

only in a particular act of

drama that the actions which

happen in a sented.

is

two

of the first

single place are usually repre-

Thus while the

sixth act of the

Sahun-

King Dusyanta’s the seventh act shows the scene at

tala represents the scene at palace,

sage Marica’s hermitage on the

Himalayas and the

first

part of

top of the it

represents

the king’s aerial journey. As for the term

yavanihd, most scholars think that later introduction

and

it

refers

to

it

is

of

Persian

and not to anything Greek. On the other hand, there are some scholars who want to determine the origin of Sanskrit dramas in the same manner in which Western scholars seek to explain the origin of European plays. So it has been argued tapestries

Origin of Sanskrit

drama connected with vernal festivities

that

as

the

first

Sanskrit play

is

stated

DRAMA

91

have been produced at the Indradbvaja festival (which has a parallel in the May-pole to

Sanskrit

dance in Europe), the origin of dramas is to be connected with the of the spring after the passing

winter.

But

festivities

away

this theory is rejected

of

the

MM.

as

Haraprasada Sastrin has pointed out that the aforesaid Indradbvaja festival comes off at the end of the rains. Professor Kidgeway has connected origin

of

drama

Indian

is

inapplicable

But the theory case

the

to

scholars to be the

is

of

the

thought by some

origin of Sanskrit plays. Kr§na-cult

which the Sauraseui Prakrit plays in a Sanskrit drama is easily explained.

Thus the

role

But

theory involves anachronism, as

this

Ridgeway’s theory

Indian

of

Aryans whose ritual of the disposing dead has the minimum ostentation.

The Krsna-worship

wor-

with the

shipping of dead ancestors.

the

origin

it

remains to be proved that Krsna dramas are the earliest Sanskrit dramas.'

Professor Pischel has set forth the theory

Sanskrit drama in

that

puppet-play. ^ It

theories

may be of

origin

proved

in

the

was

a Fischers

The stage-manager

the Vi^uu-cult,

origin of Indian

its

in a Sans-

same way that the

Siva-cult

drama cannot be

or

accepted.

Rama-cult

thcfOTy

92 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

drama

krit

is

called Siitradhara (the holder of

the string) and his assistant Sthapaka

to

is

enter immediately after the stage-manager

and

is

expected to place in proper position,

the plot, the hero or the germ of the play.

The puppets

also

are

in Sanskrit literature

;

frequently mentioned

they could be

made

to

dance or move about and they could even

made

Such a talking puppet, impersonating Sita, is found in one of Rajasekhara’s plays. The episode of the Shadowbe

to talk.

Sita in Bhavabhuti’s

Uttarardmacarita

is

reminiscent of the old shadow-play in ancient India. sufficient

But

theory cannot

this

explanation of

in all its bearings,

such

the mixture of

as,

the varieties of languages and the

as

also

like.’

this subject states that

the origin of Sanskrit Origin to be traced to the Vedic period

drama

Sanskrit

prose and verse in a Sanskrit play,

Another theory on

furnish

drama

should be

sought in the Saiiivada-hymns of the Jigveda.

These ballad hymns which are nearly twenty in number, are ^

marked by a dramatic

Professor HillebralMt'hlfe argued that

Pischel’s theory cannot

spirit.^

professor

be accepted as the puppet-

play assumes the pre-existence of the drama. *

BV.l.

165. 170 and

33, VIII. 100, X. 11, 28,

179, III.

51—53,

33,

86, 95

IV. 18,

and 108,

VII. etc.

DRAMA

9a

There are no specific ritualistic applications accompanying those Sainvada-hymns and they seem to have been recited between the intervals

of

long sacrificial

plava) for the satisfaction sacrifices.

sessions (pari-

the patrons of

of

But whether the hymns were

treated as ballads (as Professors Pischcl and

Geldncr thought) or as regular ritualistic dramas with actual sta^ie-directions and action including singing and dancing (as held by Professor von Schroeder) or, finally as narrative stories with an admixture of prose to connect the poems into one whole, with a preponderance of dialogue (as maintained ;

;

by

Professor

Oldenbcrg)

—

is

still

keenly

disputed amongst scholars.^

been universally found that the growth of drama is intimately connected with royal patronage. And India is no exIt has

Bearing in our mind the existence of the ritualistic drama which marks the early beginnings of Indian plays we can ception.

boldly

assert

that

Sanskrit

drama

is

a

product of the Indian mind which viewed life in all its various aspects and passed through many stages of development, being ^

Professor Hertel has found a

Supariiadhyaya.

full

drama

in

the

Conclusion

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

94

influenced by Jainism and allegorical sphere or

rity.

No one theory,

explain

foreign

own

peculia-

its

therefore, can adequately

and as such one from making a choice of any

should refrain

one

its

features

its

all

in

by any other

and yet maintaining

factor

Buddhism

them.

of

B CHARACTERISTICS OF SANSKRIT

DRAMA According

^sentiment

Indian

to

poets

host of Predominance of

a

is

drama evolved

in

with

its

Sanskrit

aspects

atmosphere.

their

the

thinkers,

dramatist. all

particularly Indian

dramatists

-

in

a

Sanskrit

inherent aesthetic

sense gave more importance to the portrayal

sentiment than to the character or

of the

Sanskrit dramas were,

the plot.

highly

idealistic

character.

and

Though the

dramas

glow

realism,

still

with the

romantic best

of

therefore,

in

their

Sanskrit

occasional touches of

fact

cannot be denied

that the poetic value has never been sacrificed

for

character.

direct

delineation of action

Nevertheless

we cannot say

or

that

DRAMA

95

Sanskrit dramatists were totally indifferent action

to the said

clearly

drama, and

of a

that

a

it

has been

drama must have

five

critical junctures of plot {mndhi), viz., imil'lia

{opening or protasis), pratininlia (progression or epitasis), garhlia (development or cafasta-

vimar^a (pause ox peripeteia) and nirra-

sis),

Jiaya (conclusion

or

catastrophe).

been the usual convention

It

has

with Sanskrit

poets that they select the Erotic, the Hi'roie

or the Quietistic as the principal sentniK'nt in a Nataka (the type, of major dramas)

which

by every other sentiment ])roprioty. It needs to be added

assisted

is

a(‘{‘ording to

here that in the opinion

of

some

thinkius,

aforesaid convention should not

the

mand any

A

may

in a Nataka.

charge

is

Sanskrit

drama

tragedy

but

that

and any one of the nine be the predominant senti-

respec^t

sentiments

ment

com-

;

what

is

often levelled by critics that

it

is

marked by an absence

may

of

be answered by saying

known as VipralamhJia-h'ngdra

(love-in-separation)

more than

comjiensates

comparatively rare Pathetic which class is the prominent sentiment in only one But it is a fact that of minor dramas. Sanskrit dramas have never a tragic oatasfor the

Absence of tragedy

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

96

and the reason is to bo found in the conception that it mars the sentiment. Hence the representation of death, murder, war, revolution and anything indecorous which is a hiatus in aesthetic pleasure, has been prohibited on the stage. As the main Sanskrit interest in drama lies in the creation of the sentiment, trophe,

Hero it

is

plot

convenient for a dramatist to take a with a popular theme. The hero of the

drama must be an accomplished person of high lineage and should belong to the I)hirodatta type. He must be a hero either of the earth or of heaven, and sometimes even we find in Sanskrit drama gods side by side with mortal men, and thus is given ample scope

to the dramatist’s imagination

tO'

create the appropriate romantic atmosphere.

Like every other branch

Indian

litera-

ture,

Sanskrit

basis

and nothing violating the moral and

Morality

and drama

drama has

of

religious

code

Sanskrit drama.

has

been

also

a religious

represented in

c CLASSIFICATION OF SANSKRIT

DRAMAS must be said at the outset that the Sanskrit synonym for drama is Kupaka and It

not Nataka, the latter being a variety of the former which has a more comprehensive

Authors on Sanskrit dramaturgy have classified Sanskrit dramas into iwo types (1) the major (Rupaka) and (-2) the minor (UparQpaka). The varieties of eacdi import.

:

type differ according to different authoi'ities. The following is the list given by Visvanatha in his Bahityadarpana of the varieties of the

two types

of Sanskrit

The major type

1,

AhhijTiaiia^ahiDitala

of

:

BhS.na

:

(i)

Nataka

Kalidasa)

(e.g., 3Idd(itl uiadJuiva

karana (iii)

dramas

of

(ii)

(e.g.,

Pra-

Bhavabhuti)

(e.g., Kary)itr(icarita of

Vatsaraja)

Vyayoga (e.g., Madliycivia-vya/yoyci of Bhasa) (v) Samavakara (e.g., Saniiidrafua-

(iv)

thana of Vatsaraja) (vi) Pima (e.g., Tripuradaha of Vatsaraja) (vii) Ihamrga (e.g., TtuJcmiyT'hdTdyci of Vatsaraja) (viii) Afika or

UtsrstikS.hka

{e.g.,

JIalavikd)

SaTmidhayayati) {ix) Vithi and (x) Prahasana (e.g.,

Mattavildsa of Mahendravikramavarman). 7

uparapaka

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

98

The minor type

Natika

(e.g.,

Ratnavall of Sri-Harsa) (ii) Trotaka Yikramorva^l of Kalidasa) (iii) Gosthi

(e.g.,

HaivatawadaiiiJca)

Kar-

2.

(iv)

:

(i)

Sattaka

pUramahjarl. of Rajasekhara) saka

(e.g.,

Vildsavatl)

(vi)

(e.g.,

(v)

(e.g.,

Natyara-

Prasthana

(e.g.,

/

Devlmahadeva) (viii) Kavya(e.g., Yadavodaya) (ix) Prehkhana (e.g., Vdlivadha) (x) Rasaka (e.g., 3Ienahdhita) (xi) Samlapaka (e.g., IfdyuJcdSrhgaratilalca)

pdli/ca).

(xii)

(vii)

Ullapya

Srigadita

(e.g.,

(e.g.,

Krlddrasdtala)

Kanakavatlmddhaoa) (xiv) Vilasika (no work mentioned in HD.) (xv) Purinallika (e.g., Hindu mail) (xvi) Prakaranika (no work mentioned in HD.) (xvii) and (xviii) Hallisa (e.g., Kcliraloataka) Bhanika (e.g., KdmadatUi).^ (xiii)

^

Silpaka

(e.g.,

The works, against which authors are mentioned,

have now been published and are all available. The other works are only mentioned by the author of the Sahityadarpana and are not actually known to at present.

exist

D

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SANSKRIT DRAMA The Indian drama can be fifth

or the fourtli century

traced to

tlie

Panini refers

u.c.

and the Artliakaatra of Kautilya, which is a book of the fourth c'ontury n.c., contains referen(‘-e to the term Kn.^l/dra, which may have an allusion to to dramatic aphorisms'

the twin sons of

bad

characitcr of

beside

its

Eama

or to the proverbially

actors.

reference

The Mahablumja, to

the

dramas,

Kaimavadlia and Balihandlia, speaks of the painting of actors and of the three kinds of In the Bdtnayana we find the artists. mention of Nataka and the lA^cilidhlifircitci In figure.^ refers to a wooden feminine the Harivath.^CL, however, we find unmistakable reference to a full-fledged drama acted by Krsna’s descendants. But Dr. Keith looks •

•

•

upon all these evidences as mere references to pantomimes and not to pure dramas. He, however, admits that the dramas of Asvaghosa and Bhasa, the

^

A^t IV.

iii.

110.

first

extant dramas.

Mbh.

III. XXX. 23.

,

,

100 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT are not plays,

the

earliest

specimens of

Indian

inasmuch as they show much polish

and exquisite finish.^ The Sanskrit drama according scholars

is

earliest

extant

European

to

SariputrapralmTava

the

of

Asvaghosa which was discovered sometime ago in Turfan in Central Asia. The Bhasa-problem has in recent years Bh§sa

been a most interesting topic for discaission :

age and

authorship

in the history of

drawn the attention

of

many

differing in their opinions

and authorship goes to

MM.

drama.

Sanskrit

his

for

scliolars

has

widely

on the authenticity

of the plays of

Bbasa. Credit

Gfanapati Sastrin

who first pub-

lished the thirteen plays of

But

It

Bhasa

in 1912.

editorship, the plays of

Bhasa

would have remained mere fictitious names. Bhasa is mentioned by Kalidasa, Bana, Bajasekhara and others. MM. G. Sastrin, the editor,

as

fixed the third century b.c. or earlier

date

the

for

Bhasa

;

scholars would not agree on the Prakrit.

They would

of these plays in

Bhasa’s

;

evidence of

like to place the

author

the third century a.d.

myriad-mindedness

^Asvaghosa has followed the rules

dramaturgy

European

but

is

of

well Sanskrit

the higher characters use Sanskrit, while

others speak Prakrit.

DEAMA reflected in the

number

101 plays and

his

of

The style of Bhasa is simple, at the same time forceful, and conforms to what is known as the Vaidarbha style. The initial cliaracteristic the variety of their themes.

of

the dramas of Bhasa.

has

never

been

Apprccia^ tion

action which

is

sacrificed

poetry

for

and poetic charm. Tn fact, the plays of Bhasa are really of dramatic value and quaa

lities of

hand,

very high

there

are

On who

order.

scholars

the other hold

that

the dramas in their present forms are not the composition of one and the same poet,

but they are the composite product of the plagiarism of

have gone so

many far

scribes.

even

as

Some to

scholars

surmise the

existence of a genuine Bhasa of whose works

the extant plays are mere abridgement by the traditional players of Southern India (especially Kerala).

The

thirteen

plays of

Bhasa may be

arranged under three heads according to the sources from which the plots have been taken

:

—

(a) plots

taken from the Bamayana,

taken from the Mahahharata, the Harivam,^a and the Puranas, and (c) plots (b) plots

taken

probably

from the BrhatTcatha

Gunadhya and other popular

sources.

of

Classifica-

tion of

BhSsa's

dramas

102 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

The Pratima (Nataka) which RSmSyaQaplays

popular of the jBa/?iayaya-plays, seven acts.

The

the most

is

is

written in

story starts from the death

King Dasaratha and ends with Rama’s return to Ayodhya from Lanka. The of

second play, based on the Pdmayarja, the

Ahhiselia (Nataka) in

subject-matter

six

The Rama.

acts.

the coronation of

is

is

The Madhyama-vydijaga deserves mention amongst the Jiu7m&7iaraj^a-plays. This drama (Vyayoga) in one act amply testifies

first

MahSbhSrata-plays

to the

skill of

characters.

the dramatist in depicting

The

play

is

based on the tale

Bhima. The DUtaghatotkaca is also a drama (Vyayoga) in 07ie describes Ghatotkaca appearact which ing before the Kauravas immediately after the death of Abhimanyu, with the news that Arjuna is preparing for their punishment. The Karnabhdra (Vyayoga) also

of

Hidimba’s love

for

contains one act, the

story

being

how

the

armour and ear-rings of Karna are stolen by Indra. The story of Uruhhaiiga (probably in o)ie act depicts of the Ahka type) the fight between Bhima and Duryodhana ending in the breaking of the

The DutavdJcya in

o\ie

act

is

where

also a

latter’s thigh.

drama (Vy&goga)

Krsna appears

as

an

DEAMA ambassador

to

103

bring about

reconciliation

between the contending parties, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, and is ill-ti’cated by

Duryodhana who tries to entrap hhn without success. The Fancardtm is a play (Saniavakara)

in

three

acts.

There the

story

how

Drona undertakes sacrifice a for Duryodhana and sec^ks as foe the grant of half the kingdom to the Pandavas and Duryodhana promises on the condition that the Pandavas who were living should be found out within five nights. The is

Balacarita

is

a

drama (Nataka)

acts

in

depicting the various incidents in the early life of

plot

Krsna up

seems

to the death of Kaihsa.

to be derived

and the Puranas Indian

critics

to be the best of

Its

from the IlarivatMa

descjribing Krsna’s

life.

claim Hvapnavdsavaclatta

Bhasa’s dramas where the

poet has displayed his

skill of

characteriza-

and the fine manipulation of the plot which has made the drama interesting up tion

The play (Nataka) contains The theme of the play is the six acts. marriage between Vatsaraja Udayana and Padmavati, the sister of King Darsaka, to

the

last.

which was Udayana’ s

effected

minister,

by to

Yaugandharayana, serve

a

political

Brhatkathli* plays

104 AN INTBODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

To gain the end

purpose.

in view,

Yaugan-

dharayana spread the rumour that Vasavadattathe former queen of Udayana, had been burnt in

a conflagration

;

but he actually

kept her as a deposit to Padmavati.

The

Pratijuayaugandliarayana (Nataka) in fovr acts

is

which

the

prelude

to

Srapnavdsavadatta

Yaugaudharayana

depicts

coming

and causing Vasavadatta to Udayana who was taken escape with captive by Pradyota Mahasena while the former was out a-hunting. The Cdrudatta to

Ujjayini

an incomplete drama (Prakarana) in four seems ,to have acts on which Sudraka is

The theme is Brahmana Carudatta the love-story of and courtezan Vasantasena. The material for this drama was taken from popular The AvirndraJea is a play (Nataka) stories.

based

in

six

his

MrcchahafiTca.

acts,

having

union of Princess Visnusena of

all

alias

for

theme the

its

Kurahgi

with

The

Avimaraka.

the four dramas are

Prince

said

plots

to

have

been taken from the BrJiatkathd. and they

can be traced to the Katlidsariisdgara.

The Sudraka age and

:

authorship

hatika

date and authorship of the Mrccha-

(Prakarana)

in

ten acts

disputed point in the history

is

of

still

a

Sanskrit

a

DEAMA

105

According to some

literature.’

scholars,

the drama was written by the poet Dandin

who

quotes a verse of the Ilrcchalcatika in

KavyadciHa? But the recent discovery of the dramas of Bliasa shows that the verse is found in the Garndatta and the Bdlacm'ita also, and it is highly ])robahle that the drama was written just after the Gdru-

his

datta, nearly about the is

first

century a.d.

It

a point to be noted that though Kalidasa

mentions

Bhasa,

Saumilla and Kaviputra,

he does not say a

word

about

Sudraka.

In the prologue of the 31 rcch aJcal.il'

the

royal author has been described as master of

He

various Sastras. sacrifice

and

year of his

made over this

it is

performed

a

horse-

one hundred and tenth entered into fire having

in the

life

the kingdom

to his

son.

From

evident that cither this portion

an interpolation or that the The name real author was some one else. of the

^

text

Vamana

is

is

from the drama ®

of

the earliest

known

writer to quote

Sudraka.

Professor Pischel

first

aScrihes

this

play to

Bhasa and next to Dandin. According to the orthodox tradition, Dandin is the author of three works, the •other two being, the Karvyadarsa ayd the Da&akumdracarita.

106 AN INTEODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT” of

King Sudralia

is

found in the Bajatarah-

giUh the Eathdsaritsagara and the SkandapurdJia. In

some

of the manuscripts,

Sudraka

has been described as a minister of Saliva-

hana who subsequently became the ruler of Pratisthana. According to Professor Konow, Sudraka is to be identified with the Abhira

prince,. Sivadatta.

Fleet, Sudraka’s son

According to Dr.

Kvarasena defeated the

Andhras and established the 248-40 A.D. The play

is

Cedi era of

a Prakarana in

acts having the love-story of Carudatta

Vasantasena

for its

theme.

It

a

is

ten

and

social

drama with magnificient touches of realism. The characterization is of a high standard. The drama is highly suggestive on account of its simple and dignified style. Kalidasa

is

acclaimed to be the best of

whom

Indian

dramatists,

praised

in

Superb

characterization,

Goethe

has

Kslidasa

nature Sanskrit

and

fascinating

terms.

study

human

of

wonderful mastery over the

language have placed him in the

forefront of is

the most

Indian

dramatists.

Kalidasa

not verbose like later Sanskrit dramatists,

economy being the most remarkable' Though Kalidasa of his technique. eminently a poet of love, he- can

feature is

rise

pre-

occa-

DRAMA

107

sionally to a tragic elevation. Everj^ character of Kalidasa’s

dramas has a core

lity

which

it is

said that the

is

persona-

of

sharply individualized.

dramas

of

Though

Kalidasa lacks

some extent, yet they have a moral purity and a peculiar charm unsurpassed by any other Indian dramatist. action

to

The

Malavlliagnimiira (Nataka),

un-

doubtedly an earlier writing of the dramatist, is

written in five acts. It describes the love-

story of Malavika and Agnimitra,

King

MslnvikSgnimitra

of

Vidisa and founder of the Suhga dynasty.

This drama, unlike the two others, terized by

The more

quick action.

veritable rogue

and

far

is

is

charac-

jester is

a

intelligent

/

than the

jester in the Sdkimtala.

The female

characters and the dancing masters are

all

productions of really great merit.

The second drama,

the

V ikmmorva^lya

shows remarkable development over the former in the mani pulation of the plot, characterization and language, and there are scholars

who

think that

it

is

the last

of

the three dramatic compositions of the poet. T^he materials for this drama, preserved in

two recensions, northern and southern, have been taken from a Saiiivada-hynin of the This drama (Trotaka) which is Bgveda.

Vikramorvasiya

108 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

theme the the earthly king Pururavas and

written in five acts, has for

union the

of

nymph

celestial

its

The

Urvasi.

fourth

drama which is a soliloquy of the love-stricken and frenzied Pururavas, is a act of this

novel conception of the dramatist.

The Ahliijhana^ahintala

or SdJcuntala

is

the production of Kalidasa’s maturer hand, Sskuntala

which has gained world-wide recognition and the play has been translated into many European languages. The drama (Nataka) which is in seveii acts, describes the union of Dusyanta and Sakuntala. The plot of this drama has been taken from the Malidbut

bhdrata,

duced

many

is also to

the

has

dramatist

intro-

The story Padmapurdva

noble iimoyations.

bo found

in

and the Pali Jataka

the

There are

collections.

four different recensions of this drama, Bengal, North-western, Kashmirian

South Pischel,

According

Indian.

the Bengal recension

to

viz.,

and

Professor

fully

repre-

sents the original.

Three dramas are .ascribed to Harsa, King Kanyakubja, who reigned fropi 606 a.d. to 647 A.D.* He was the reputed patron of of Har^a

^

It is believed

by some scholars that the author

DRAMA Banabhatta who has Harsacarita. classical,

109

him

glorified

in his

Harsa’s style

is not strictly but his arrangement of plot is fairly

satisfactory.

The Matndvall

is

a

drama

(Natika)

in

four acts which deals with the story of the union of King Udayana and Ratnavali, daughter of the King

The

of Ceylon.

PriyaclavHkd

also

is

having

(Natika) in four acts

for

a its

drama theme

Udayana and Priyadarsika, daughter of King Drclhavarman. In both these dramas we have not only a similarity the union of

of

subject-matter

Ratnavali

and

form

but

also

Priyadarsika

a

reminiscence of Kalidasa’s J/a/ftrfAar/nmwY'm.

The Nagdnauda

is

a

drama (Nataka)

which describes the self-sacrifice of Jimutavahana, Prince of Vidyadharas. Mahendravikraina flourished in the first quarter of the seventh century a.d. His Mattaoildsa is a farce (Prahasana) which in five a(;ts

describes

the

moral degradations of

the

dramatist’s contemporary society.

Bhavabhuti of these plays

fessor

Weber

is

the

next

great

was Bana and not Harsa. attributes

Batndvalt

to

name

Thus ProBanabhatta

while Professors Konow, Wintemitz, L6vi and others accept Har^a’s authorship.

Nagananda

Mahendravikrama MattavilSsa

110 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT after Kalidasa

who

is

mentioned by Kalhana

in his Hajataraiigim as a poet Bhavabhuti

of

Yasovarman, King

probable date

is

of

in the

court

Kanyakubja whose

736 a.d. Vakpati also refers

Bhavabhuti in his Gaudavaha. As is evident from the prologue of the Malatlmadlbava, Bhavabhuti could not enjoy any poto

pularity in his life-time. Nevertheless,

vabhuti displays a masterly

skill in

and his language is pre-emimently a poet

characteri-

z;ation,

forceful.

he

of the

is

Bha-

Though Pathetic

sentiment, he has excelled his great predecessor in the delineation of

the Wonderful. the

Cxauda

the

Bhavabhuti

stylo,

while

is

Heroic and a follower of

Kalidasa

is

an

advocate of the Vaidarbha. Bhavabhuti amplifies his

of MahSvIracarita

theme, while Kalidasa suggests

it.

Three dramas are ascribed to Bhavabhuti which the 3IahdvJracarita is the earliest.

The drama (Nataka) acts, depicting the

is

written in seven

heroic achievements of

Rama’s early life. The plot is based on the Bdmdyaria, but the dramatist has introduced several significant innovations. The MdlatlmddJiava is a Prakarana in MSlati-

mSdhava

which deals with the love-story Malati and Madhava. According to some

ten acts of

scholars,

it is

the latest of

all

his dramas.

DRAMA

111

The Uttararamacarita best

is

regarded as the

product of Bhavabhuti’s

where the dramatist has shown

virile

pen,

wonderful skill in delineating genuine pathos and describing the sublime and awful aspects of nature.

The

which

written in

later

is life

of

plot

drama

seven acts,

Uttararfi-

macarita

(Nfilaka),

c.overs

the

Hama, beginning

banishment of happy re-union.

The

of this

his

from the Sita and ending in their

date of Visakhadatta

may

be placed

somewhere about HbO a.D., as the lunar eclipse mentioned in his drama Mudravaksasa refers to the phenomenon of that date. The drama (Nataka) is written in seve?i acts. The theme is a political intrigue between Haksasa, the minister of tlie Nandas and Canakya,

Visakhadatta

.

MudrSrSk^asa

who succeeded in overthrowing the Nandas and winning Haksasa to the side of Candragupta. The style of

the great politician,

Visakhadatta

marks a

distinct

falling off

from the lucid diction of Kalidasa and the grandeur of Bhavabhuti. In fact, the style of Visakhadatta is highly artificial. Vamana and Anandavardhana quote from the work of Bhattanarayana who probably flourished in the eighth century a.d. His only drama (Nataka) Venisamhara,

rSyai^a Vci^isa-

inhSra

:

112 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT written in six acts,

is

Bhima

the Mahdbkdrata.

and

based on the story of

ties the braid of

Dahsasana

kills

Draiipadi with his blood.

Ultimately ho succeeds in

killing Diiryo-

dhana

is

Bhattanarayana

also.

a remarkable craftsman dramatists

;

he

is

among later The

first

of the Venlsanihdra are full

and the predominant emotion (utsdha).

The

illustrated

Sanskrit

particularly adept in des-

cribing the Heroic sentiment. acts

undoubtedly

is

three

of action,

enthusiasm

poet has also very successfully

the manifold technicalities

of

Sanskrit dramaturgy in his drama.

No MurSri Anargha-

dramatist was able to

other later

dramatize successfully

the

Bama-episode,

;

rSghava

Bhavabhuti had written his masterMurari who is not an exception to pieces. this rule, wrote his A?iarghardgJiava someafter

time about the beginning of the ninth tury A.D.

The drama (Nataka)

seven acts, and the style

is

cen-

written

in

is clear.

Kajasekhara was the reputed teacher

King Mahendrapala of Kanauj (893-907 RSjase-

khara

:

his plays

Among

his

many

works, Kajasekhara

written four dramas.

of

a.d.)

has

The Bdlardmdyava

is

a drama (Nataka) in ten acts, dealing with

Rama. The Bdlabhdrata is an incomplete drama (Nataka) of which tivo

the life-history of

DRAMA

113

The

Ka'i'puranianjarl,

acts only are available.

a play (Sattaka) in four

The

Prakrit.

drama style

Vid(lha,^dlah/iaTij ikd

(Natika) is

acts, is written

highly

in

four

acts.

artiticial,

is

in

also

a

Kajasekhara’s

hnt the dramatist

himself claims to he a great poet.

The CaudakattUlka of Ksemisvara is a drama (Nataka) hi five acts. The author wrote this play for King Alahipala of Kananj whose accession to the throne

took

914 the famous

plac.e

in

vara

:

kausika

The iilot of this drama is story of King Hariseandra and sage Visvamitra. The style of this drama also is highly A.D.

artificial.

Damodaramisra wrote his Malumdiaha or Hamimaiindtaka in the eleventh century A.D. The drama is found in three recensions separately containing nine, ten and fourteeyi acts. The plot is based on the Bdmdyaua, and the dramatist shows considerable skill

DSmodaramisra

:

Mahd> nS^aka

in versification.

The

date of the

P rahodliacayidrodaya,

an

drama, written by Krsnamisra is the fourteenth century a.d. The characters of this drama are represented by such characThis ters as Viveka, Manas, Buddhi, etc. allegorical

drama

is

a

solitary

instance where

the

Quietistic sentiment has been represented on

8

Kr$Qamisra Prabodhacandrodaya :

— 114 AN INTKODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT the stage. acts,

The drama (Nataka) contains

and the

six

style is simple.

E LESS

IMPORTANT DRAMAS

Bhagavadajjuklya

:

Bodhayanakavi

by

— sometime

between the

first

century A.D.

— written

purpose against

of

and the fourth with the

throwing

Buddhism

a

fling

— a Prahasana

in two acts.

Tdpasavatsara.jacarita

:

by Anafigaharsa Matraraja

‘Dr. Keith

the age of the

fixes

Batndvali as the upper limit of the work of

the

—based

theme

on a variation of

Vatsaraja,

Padmavati and Vasavadatta. Jjohananda

ascribed to Candra or Candraka(?)

:

who

is

identified

with Candra-

gomin, the grammarian,

the

of

seventh century A.D.

Vdattamghava

:

by

Mayuraja

who

appears to

have known Bhavabhuti and

is

referred to by Rajasekhara.

—mentioned by

Svapnada^anana

:

by Bhimata

DhaTTYiabhyudaya

:

by Meghaprabhacarya

Raja-

sekhara.

— a shadow

-drama of unknown date.

Karnasundarl

:

by Bilhana tury A.D.

of

the eleventh cen-

— a Natika.

DRAMA Citrabhdrata

115

by Ksemendra

:

century A.D.

Prabuddharanhineya

the eleventh

of

—a

twelfth century A.D.

Kaumudlmitrananda

:

drama.

lost

by Eamabhadra Muni

:

by Ramacandra

century A.D.

the

of

—in six

of the

acts.

twelfth

— a Prakarana

in

te^i

acts.

Latakamelaka

:

by Sahkhadhara Kaviraja twelfth

century A.D.

—a

of the

Praha-

sana.

Mudritakumudacandra

by Yasascandra

:

century A.D.^

Nirbhayabhlmavydyoga

:

—a

the twelfth

of

Jinistic

drama.

by Ramacandra, a

prolific

Jaina dramatist, belonging to the twelfth century A.D.

Kirdtdrjicnlya,

Bukminlharaiia, Tripuradaha

by

\

1

'

Samtidramathana

—

;

Karpuracarita &

Hdsyacuiidmani

.

Vatsarlija of the twelfth century A.D. the first, a Vyliyoga; the second, an Ihamvga in/ow acts the third, a T)ima in four the fourth, a Sarnavaacts kara in three acts, the fifth, a Bhana and the sixth, a farce (Prahasana) one act. ;

/

Pdrthapardkrama

:

by Prahladanadeva century A.D.

Prasannardghava

by

:

—a

Jayadeva

Vyayoga.

(of

Berar)

twelfth century A.D.

the

the twelfth

of

Rdmdyana — a

the

of

—based

on

Nataka

in

seven acts.

Harakelindtaka

:

by Visaladeva Vigraharaja twelfth

century

A.D.

—

of the

partiallj

preserved in stone.

Kiindamdla

:

ascribed to ing

to

Dignaga— but accord-

some, written

by

Dhi-

ll(i

AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

— quoted the Sahtiyadarpaiia — not later than the ranaga

in

thir-

teenth century A.D. DTitdfigacla

by Subhata

:

tury A.D.

Ilammlramadamardana

:

of the thirteenth cen-

— a shadow-play.

by Jayasiihha

teenth century A.D.

Moh araj aparaj ay a

by Yasalipala century

of

the thir-

—in

five acts.

of the

A.D.

thirteenth

—an

allegorical

drama in five acts. by Hastimalla of the thirteenth

Vtkrantakaurava

:

& Maithil'ikalyana

i

]

Pdrvatiparinaya

century A.D.

—

in six acts respectively.

and

five

attributed to Baiia, but alloted to to

Vamana Bhatta

Baiia of the

fourteenth century A.D.

Saugandhikaharana

by Visvanatha

:

century A.D

D hiirtasamagama

by

Kavisekhara

century A.D.

Caitanyacandrodaya

:

of the fourteenth

—a Vyayoga. of

the fifteenth

—a Prahasana.

Kavikaraapura

by

of

the six-

teenth century A.D.

Rupagosvamin

by \ Vzdagdiaw^dhava\.^^

Tr*7

a

t

ama lava

J

of

the six-

A.D.-dealing

century

attractive Kr^na legend ten acts respec-

—in seven and tively.

Kafnsavadha

:

by Sesakr^na century A.D.

of the

— in

by Rlimabhadra

Janaktparinaya

seventeenth

seven acts, Dikfjita

of the

seventeenth century A.D.

MalhkamariUa

:

by Uddandin century A.D.

of the

seventeenth

— a Prakarana.

— DRAMA Adbhutadarpana

J17

by Mahadeva, con temporal y

:

Eamabhadra

Hdmarnava Kau tiika sarvasva

— in ten

by

Jagadisvara

date

— a Prahasana.

by OopinJltha

:

of

acts,

of

unknown

unknown date

of

— a Prahasana. Unmattardghava

by P)haskara

:

of

unknown

date

an Alika.

Madhavasadhana

]

(and other plays)

,

' )

Amaramangala

by Nrtyagopala Kaviratna the ninteenth century A 1).

by Pancanana Tarkaratna latter half of the

tury A.D. and

ninteenth

tlie first

twentieth century A.D.

of

the

of

cen-

half of tlie

—

in

eKflii

acts.

REFERENCES Ayyar, A.

S. P.

Barooah, A.

Two

:

plays of Bhasa.

Bhavabhuti

:

— his

place

Sanskrit

in

Literature. f

Basu, Chandranath

Sakuntalatattva.

:

/

Basu, Devendranath Belvalkar, S. K.

Sakuntalay Natyakalil.

:

Origin of Indian

(i)

:

Drama (The

Calcutta Review, May, 1922). (ii)

Bhandarkar, E. G. Biihler, G.

:

On

Uttarariimacarita (HOS).

Malatimadhava.

:

the

authorship

of

the

Ratnavali.

(lA. Vol. II)

Chatterjee,

Bankim Chandra

Chatter]ee, N.

Mrcchakatika

:

Devadhar, 0. E.

:

:

Vividhaprabandha. :

a study.

Plays ascribed to Bhasa authenticity and merits.

:

their

118 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT Gajendragadkar, A. B.

:

The Venisaihhara

—a

critical

study.

Kale,

M. R.

Abhijnanasakuntala.

(i)

:

Uttararlimacarita.

(ii)

Keith, A. B.

(i)

:

(ii)

Kulkarni, K. P.

Konow, Konow, L6vi, S.

S.

Sanskrit Drarha and Dramatist.

:

VoL XLIIT

lA.

:

The Sanskrit Drama. JRAS. 1909. (on Visakhlidatta).

Karpuramahjari (HOS). & Lanmann, Le Theatre Indien. C. R.

S. :

Macdonell, A. A.

A

:

:

History

of Sankrit Literature.

Nariman, G. K., & Jackson A. V. Pishraoti, A. K.

Ridgeway

Bhasa's works— a

:

Priyadarsika.

:

criticism.

Bhasa a study. JRAS. 1900, (on Visakhadatta). The Origin of Tragedy. (i) and Dramatic Dances (ii) Dramas

Pusalker, A. D.

Rapson, E.

W.

:

:

:

:

of

Non-European Races. Sastrin,

Ashokanath

Pracinbharate

(i)

;

Dvsya-

kavyotpattir Itihasa (Bharatavar^a, B.S. 1333-34).

Bharatiyanatyer Vedamulakata.

(ii)

(iii)

Bharatiyanatyer Pracinata (Masik Vasumati, B.S. 1345-46).

(iv)

Abhinayadarpana

of

Nandikesvara.

—

Bhasa’s works a critical study. Tagore, Rabindranath Pracin Sahitya. Date of Ratnavali. Vidyabhiisana, S. C. Sastrin T. G.

;

:

:

Weber, A.

The History

;

Wilson, H. H. Winternitz,

M

Yajnik, R. K.

;

of

Indian Literature.

of the

;

Theatre

:

Some Problems

Hindus. of Indian Literature.

The Indian Theatre.

CHAPTER

SIX

LYRIC POETRY

A INTRODUCTION Classical

Sanskrit literature

Though

rich in lyrical poetry.

it

is

highly

is

a fact

that Classical lyric poetry has not produced

Extent of

many works

lyrics

and

of respectable length

yet none would deny that of a high order.

its

merit

is

size,

Sanskrit

usually

poets have often

Lyrical

been successful in depicting the amorous

and their compositions can very well stand comparison feeling with a few artistic strokes,

with those of foreign poets. lyrical literature in

Sanskrit

It is not confined to the

amorous

feeling only.

The range is

theme It

of

very wide. of love

includes

and

secular,

gnomic and didactic poems and thus offers a variety which is sufficient to remove monotony. In all lyrical poems dealing with love. Nature plays a very important part. The intimate relation between Nature and Man has not in all probability found a more charming expression in any other branch of religious,

Nature in Sanskrit lyrics

120 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

The

literature.

lot us

and

tiK lily, the ;

Cakora

the Cakravaka and the Cataka,

all

are inse-

human

life

and Jove

parably connected with in its different phases.

noted that Prakrit

It is further to be

rature Prakrit lyrics

is

also highly

The Hattasai

or

Satavahana

to

this type.

lite-

rich in lyrical poetry.

G aihdaaptakitl

attributed

an outstanding work

is

The book

of

a collection of seven

is

huiulred verses in Prakrit dealing with vari-

ous phases of the sentiment of love. fers to this

work

in his

Bana

re-

Harmcarita. Professor

Macdonell wants to place

it

before 1000 a.d.

on the other hand, Hala or Satavahana, to whom the workTs attributed, is taken as a If,

king of that the

work

name must

the

of

be

Andhra dynasty,

placed early in the

Christian era.

B

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT OF LYRIC POETRY The name

of

Kalidasa stands high in

the realm of Sanskrit lyrical poetry. Meghadata

is

no gainsaying the

which

has been

fact that his

There

MeghaMta

unsuccessfully

imitated

LYRIC POETRY

121

times without number by later poets, ^ finest

The

flower

lyric

of

Classical

is

the

poetry.

lyric

has inspired poets like Goethe and

Rabindranath who have lavishly bestowed their praise upon this magic personality in literature.

Fancifully the poet makes a cloud

the messenger of the message

of

admiration to the beloved of a Yaksa,

who

had

been

love

and

banished

him

pining for

The work is divided into two sections known as the Parva7}iegha and the Uttara7negha. The poem is written in Mandakranta metre of gorgeous rhythm like the roar of a July cloud

during the rainy season at Alaka.

weary under the burden

of its water.

also (|uite in keeping with

ception of love

This

is

the sublime con-

which, tinged with the burn-

ing colour of separation, resembles a black

cloud with a silver lining.

The stanzas con-

taining the words of message

are

the most

poignant and beautiful in literature and the lyric will ever like a ^

rainbow springing from the

Vedantadesika’s Hai‘nsasande§a

century A.D.) fifteenth (of

the

iinore

stand impressed on our memory'

{of

the thirteenth

EiTpagosvamin’s Hafnsaduta

century A.D.)

seventeenth century A.D.)

(of

the

Paddnkaduta are some of the

Kr^nananda’s

well-known Dutakavyas.

earth.

122 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

The book has been

translated

European languages Stuart owes

its

origin to

The Rtnsamhara Kalidasa. It

is

and

Schiller’s

Maria

second lyric of

poem

a short

various

it.

the

is

into

in six

cantos

l^tusamhSra

describing is

all

the six seasons of the year. It

undoubtedly an earlier production of the

poet and though Kalidasa’s this

poem

is

we can find

doubted by in

it

authorship of

many

scholars/

still

the aspirations of a budding

poet.^

Tradition makes

(Ihatakarpara

one

of

the nine gems in the court of King VikraGha^akarpara Gha^akar-

maditya. The Ghatakarpara-kavya after the

:

name

para-kavya

of

the poet

is

stanzas. It describes

written

how

a

twenty-two

in

young wife

in

the beginning of the rains sends a cloud-

messenger to her absent husband. The poem

abounds in Yamakas (figure which the author feels proud.

of speech) for

Bhartrhari has to his credit the three Bhartthari three patakas

:

Satakas (collection of a hundred viz., (a) the, ^

Sriigara^ataha

the

(b)

verses),

NHUataka

Professors Kielhorn, Biihler, Macdonell, Schroeder

and others accept the authorship

Kalidasa while^

of

other scholars entertain a different view. ^ See,

Aurobinda Ghosh, Kalidasa

Rtusaiiihara.

;

Gajendragadkar

LYRIC POETRY

and

(c)

the

The

Vairagya^aiaka.

authorship of these

by some

123

three

poems

is

single

doubted

scholars, but Indian tradition accepts

Bhartrhari to bo their author. Bhartrhari said to have died in 651 A.n.h

poems

is

All the three

are written in a very lucid

style,

and

they have the greatest interest to them for

whom

they are intended.

Mayura was

a contemporary

of

Bana-

bhatta of the seventh century a.d., and reported to be his father-in-law. His Slirya^ataka^ is

a religious

in

lyric

Mayura

:

Suryasataka

one hundred verses

honour of the Sun. Tradition says that the poet was cured of leprosy by composing this eulogy of the Sun.^ writteju in

It is

impossible to ascertain the date of

Vamana (800 a.d.) is the earliest writer who quotes three verses from the Amaru,Pataka, a lyrical poem in one hundred Amaru.

^

It is yet to

Satakas of that ®

is

be decided whether the author of the

the same person as the famous grammarian

name who wrote

the Vakyapadxya.

There are other Surya§atakas by different poets

which do not deserve any ®

A.D.

special mention.

Vajradatta, a Buddhist poet of the ninth century

composed his Loke§varaiataka and was cured

leprosy.

of

Amaru Amarusataka

:

— 124 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT stanzas* describing the (ionditions of

and

at different stages of life is

really gifted

and

ments and emotions,

tin'

especially of

His

thinkers

on

and ho

by more than

a

writers

casika

stanzas.

Bilhana^

of

the

lover’s recollections of

his

including

a.d.).

The CaurapahcaHlia of

by

((noted

commented on

bec'ii

dozen

Arjunavarman (1215

:

is

poetry like Anandavar-

dhana. The poem has

Bilhana Caurapafi-

difficult,

is

gracafful.

of Sanskrit rhetoricians

great

style

love, is

Amaru’s poem has widest I'ecogmtion in the hands

but C('rtainly

found

The poet

love.

delineation of senti-

his

superb in character.

women

a

is

sweet company

beloved.

The poem contains

The date

of the poet

fifty

is 107(5 a.d.

1127 A.D. Bharatacandra, a Bengali poet of the ('ighteenth century a.d., drew the inspiration of his

popular poem ^Vidydsnndara'

from this work of Bilhana.

The

Kr.sna-leg(md found a poetical inter-

preter in Jayadeva, the Jayadeva

:

carita

was more a poet than a historian and his work abounds in numerous imaginary and fanciful

carlta in eighteen cantos. Bilhana

descriptions.

Kalhana rians.

is

the best of

He wrote

Indian histo-

hi^IidjatarangiM in 1100

Kalhana has derived materials for his book from older sources including the NUaA.D.

The Hdjatarahginl is the only reliable book on the history of Kashmir after the death of King Harsa when the coun-

matapnrdija.

try

passed through stormy

Though

bloody days.

a historian, Kalhana has the rare

Kalhapa

.

Rajataran
arupaka

:

by Dhananjaya A.D.

containing

a

also

on dramaturgy besides Rasa and

century

tenth

the

of

allied topics

section

sections

on

— commented

on by Dhanika, a contemporary of of

Dhananjaya

in his Avaloka,

by K^emendra 1

Aucityavicara and Kaiikanthdbharaiia

[ (

J

century A.D.

of the eleventh

— the

firsts

dis-

cussing propriety as essential to sentiment and the second, discussing such topics as the possibility of becoming a poet, the issue of borrowing, etc., etc.

by Bhoja

of the first half eleventh century the A.D. first, an enclyclopaedic work containing information about Sarasvatikanthabharana r' different schools uf poetics and ^fiigarapiUkasa and the second, a supplement to the first and con-

of the

—

taining a section on

Vyaktiviveka

dra-

maturgy. by Mahimabhatta of the second half of the eleventh century

A.D.

who

belonged to the reactionary school

POETICS AND to

DRAMATUBGY

Dhvani

on the

— containing

Kavyaprakasa

by

:

Mammata A.D.

discussions

including

of

possibility

Dhvani under

167

inference.

of the eleventh century

— highly

by the

influenced

and

writings of Anandavardliana

Abhinavagupta as the soul of

— discussing Rasa poetry — commented

on by Rucaka

(

Ruyyaka, author

of the

sarvasva),

with

identified

Alahkara-

Miinikyacandra,

Sri-

dhara, Candidasa, Visvanatha and

Govinda, besides a number

of

minor

commentators. /

Bhavap/aka4ana

by Saradatanaya who flourished

:

in

the first half of the twelfth century

and was one

A.D.

writers on

Rasa

the

of

later

— highly influenced

by the works of

Bhoja-- dealing

with topics of drama.

Alankarasarvasva

:

by Ruyyaka

of

the latter half of

A

the twelfth century

D.

— written

in the line of XJdbhat a— discussing

the importance of Dhvani in so far as

it

embellishes

meaning

the

— commented on by

ratha, Vidyacakravartin

Kavydnu§asana

:

expressed

by Hemacandra, belonging twelfth

century A.D.

Jaya-

and others. to

who

the

has

borrowed from

the

Abhinavagupta,

Mammata, Kun-

tala

and others.

writings

of

a

168 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT by Vagbhata of the twelfth century A.D. — a work in verses. by Jayadeva who was not earlier than

Vagbhatalaiikara

Candraloka

:

:

the

century

twelfth

convenient manual

A.D.

of

—

figures

of

speech with happy illustrations.

Bhanudatta who was not than the twelfth century the two works treating of A.D. Rasa and allied topics. I by Eamacandra and Gunacandra of Natyadarpana

by

earlier

—

:

century A.D.

the twelfth

on dramaturgy

— a work

differing widely

from

the Natya^dstra of Bharata.

Kdvydnu^dsana

by Vagbhata

:

of

A.D

century

the

who

thirteenth

has followed

Hemacandra. Kavi tar ahasy a or Kdvyakalpalaid

:

;

Kavikalpalaid

:

by Arisiihha and his pupil Amaracandra, two Svetambara Jainas, belonging to the thirteenth tury A.D.

by Devesvara, a Jaina

writer,

bably belonging to the

cen-

pro-

thirteenth

century A.D.

Ndtakalaksanaratnakosa

:

by

thirteenth

Sagaranandin of the century A.D.

on dramaturgy

— strictly

—a

work

following

the Ndtyasdstra.

Ekdvali

:

by Vidyadhara

of

the fourteenth century

— written for King Narasimha — belonging to the Dhvani school — commented on by MalliA.D.

of Orissa

natha

in his Taiald.

DEAMATUKGY

POETICS AND Prataparndraya^obhusatia

by

:

Vidyaniitlia

fourteenth century for

169

— a voluminous

— written

A.D.

King Prataparudra

the

of

Warangal

of

treatise containing

various informations

about poetics

and dramaturgy.

Sdhityadarpaya

by Visvanatha

:

century

manner soul

A.D. of

knowledging

Dhvani both

Ujjvalamlamani

the ac-

importance

of

— containing discussions on

x>oetics

and dramaturgy

—

cri-

ticizing

Mammata and

cized by

Govinda and Jagannatha.

by Rupagosvamin

:

as

fully

though

the

the

in

Mammata, Rasa

poetry,

of

the fourteenth

of

— treating

of the sixteenth

who

century A.D.

in turn criti-

regards

Erotic as only a different the Devotional (Bhakti) ted

on

by

name

him

of

— commenwho

Jivagosvamin

flourislied after

the

same

the

in

century, in his Locanarocanl.

Alankara^ekhara

by Kesavamisra

:

century

A.D.

—a

of the

sixteenth

short

on poetics, the Karikas according

to

the

treatise of

which

author are the

/

composition of Sauddhodani.

by Appayyadiksita

of the seven-

teenth century A.D., VitramimMfiisa and

f

Kuvalayananda ^

:

who is noted

for his critical insight

and

nality of appreciation

-

the

origifirst

has been criticized by Jagannatha and the second is based on the Candrdloka of Jayadeva.

170 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT Basagaiigadhara

:

by Jagannatha century A.D.

of the

who

seventeenth the last

is

of

the Titans in Indian poetics and

evinces a superb power of criticism

and

presentation

work on the

— an

important

dialectics of

Indian

poetics in particular.

REFERENCES De,

S.

K.

:

Sanskrit Poetics, Vols. I

Kane, P. V. Keith, A. B.

&

II.

Sahityadarpana (Introduction).

:

:

A History

of Sanskrit Literature.

CHAPTER TWELVE METRICS A INTRODUCTION In the Brahmanas we find discussions on metrical matters and it may be ^ presumed that at that time the study of metrics was deemed essential as one of six Vedahgas. Pihgala is, however, the earliest known In his work which is of author on prosody. ^ the

Sutra-type,

the

use

of

we

.

find for the

algebraic

symbols.

first

time

The book

and Classical metres. Scholars opine that Pihgala’s work is surely (chs. earlier than the chapters on metre XIV, XV) in the NaiyaMstra and the metrical section of the Aynipurdya. The text attributed to this author on Prakrit metres {Prdhrta- Pain gala) is undoubtedly a discusses both Vedic

later w^ork.

B

WORKS ON METRICS Srutabodha

:

ascribed to Kalidasa and often attributed to Vararuci

cal metres.

—a

manual

of Classi-

Metrics

:

a Ved5iig»

Pinuaia his

Sutra

172 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT Suvfttatilaha

by Ksemendra

:

A.D.

of the eleventh

— containing

century

a

variety

of

the

of

Classical metres.

Chando mi^asana

Hemacandra

by

;

century A.D.

—a

twelfth

and

compilation

not an original work.

Vfttarainakara

Kedarabhatta

by

:

(

earlier

century A.D.

fifteenth

)

than the

—a

bulky

book dealing with one hundred and thirty-six metres.

Vrtlaratnakara

by Narayana

:

of the sixteenth

century

A.D.

^handomanjaii

by Gaiigadasa

:

lar

—a

late

and yet popu-

work on prosody.

REFERENCES Keith, A. B.

A

:

Macdonell, A. A.

Weber, A.

:

:

History of Sanskrit Literature.

A History

The History

of

of Sanskrit Literature.

Indian Literature.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN LEXICOCIRAPHY A

INTRODUCTION Yaska’s Nirulda lexicographic

wo^

which contains a

tion of Yedic terms. cal

the oldest extant

is

The

lexicons of

Sanskrit literature are in

different

from the

Nirulda.

many One

collec-

Classi-

Yaska Nirukta .

respects of

the

salient points of differen(;e is that the Classical dictionaries treat of

nables while

nouns and

indecli-

Nighantus contain both

the

nominal and verbal forms. Almost all the lexicographical works of Classical Sanskrit are written in verse.

The Ndmalihganiddsaua lio^a is

one

of

the

earliest

works in Classical Sanskrit.

or the Aniara-

lexicographical

Amarasiiiiha,

the author, probably flourished in the seventh centur>^ a.d.

He

is,

however, believed to

have been one of the ‘nine gems’ in the court of the famous Vikramaditya. Of the many commentators of this work, Ksirasvamin, Sarvananda, Bhanuji and Mahesvara are well-known.

Amarasiiiiha

:

Amaiakosa^

174 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

B IMPORTANT LEXICONS

LESS

by Puruftottama

Tnkandase'ja &

I

r

Haravail

many

)

Anekarthasavmccaya

—both

containing a rare words.

cons,

:

early lexi-

collection

of

by Hasvata, a contemporary

:

of

Amarasiihha.

Abhidhimaratnamalu

by Halayudha

:

the tenth

of

century A.D. Vaiiayantl

by Yadava

:

of the eleventh century A.D.

by Hemacandra of the twelfth

Abhtdhanacin tama u i Anekarthasafngraha

—

century A.D. both containing a rich variety of words.

Visvaprakasa by Mehesvara :

,

Anekartha^abdako^a

by

:

of the twelfth

Medinikara

century A.D.

of

the

four-

teenth century A.D.

Vacaspatya

by Taranatha

:

Tarkavacaspati of the

nineteenth century

work

cyclopaedic

A.D.

of

— an

en-

outstanding

merit. '

•

Sahdakalpadruma

an

:

encyclopaedic

made by

batch

a

•

•

compilation of

Sanskrit

Pandits in the nineteenth century A.D.,

Sir

under the patronage

of

Raja

Eadhakanta Deva.

REFERENCES Keith, A. B.

:

A

Macdonell, A. A.

Weber, A.

:

:

History of Sanskrit Literature.

A History

The History

of

Sanskrit Literature.

of Indian Literature.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LAW A

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LEGAL WORKS Besides

tlie

Srautasutras and the Grliya-

sutras there were in ancient times a

number

Dharmasutras whi(ih may he viewed as Early Dharmarudimentary texts on civil and religious law. sutras Among these Dharmasutras mention must be made of the DharmasTitras of Gautama, Harita, Vasistha, Bodhayana, Apastamba, Hiranyakesin and others. It is not definitely known when these Sutras were composed of

but

it is

generally

believed that

their

age

approximately be the fifth or the fourth century n.c. Two other Dharmasutras,

would

the

Vaw avadharmasUtra

and the VaiJchd-

nasadharmaslitra were written at a later period, the former being assigned to the third century a.d.

The most outstanding and popular work on Brahmanical laws is the MdnavadharmoAdstra or the Manusmrti. Though the author of this work is generally known to be

170 AN INTllOlWCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

Mann,

the present text

still

said to have

is

been the work of Bhrgii. Again, from certain authorship

reiereiices

becomes

it

evident

the

that

present version of the Manusmrti was narrated by one

student of

Bhrgu and not by

Bhrgn himself even. J)r. Biihler suggests MdnavadharmaMistra or the that the Manusmrti is a recast and versification of one original work of the type of Sutra works known as the MdnavasUtraJcarara, a subdivision

of the

Maitrayaniya school which

adheres to a redaction of the

Krsua-Yajur-

oeda. It

Manusmrti contains various facts about the supremacy of the Brahmanas over The presumption, therefore, other castes. is that the work was written at a time when the Brahmanas were kijigs of India and had History tells great power in their hands. us that there were Brahmana kings in India of

Age

has been argued that the present text

the

after the fall of the Suhgas. It is

known

that

the Kanvas ruled in ancient India for fortythe

five years

in

suggested

that

first

century

the ^present

b.c.

text

It of

is

the

Manusmrti was prepared during the reign

of

the Kanvas.

The Manusmrti

is

written

in

lucid

CIVIL

AND RELIGIOUS LAW

177

Sanskrit verse which comprises 2684 couplets

The work has been commented on hy numerous scholars arranged in twelve chapters.

including Medhatithi, G-ovindaraja,Narayana,

Kulluka, Raghavananda and Nandana.

B IMPORTANT WORKS ON LAW Naradasmrti

Presumably a

:

late

work which has

its

individual merits but cannot stand

comparison

regarded

A supplementary work

:

of

the

as

supplement to the ManusmrU.

legal

BirliaspaUsmrti

the work

with

Manu — usually

smrti

—telonging

to the

the

to

Mami-

sixth

or

the seventh century A.D.

YajTiavalkyasmrti

:

An important work of

the

Maniismrti

in

the

style

— containing

a

methodical and highly satisfactory

treatment with dividuality

— not

century

third

stamps earlier

A.D.

on by Vijnanesvara

of

in-

than the

— commented

of the eleventh

century A.D. in his Mitdkf^ara. Tautdtifamatatilaka, Safnskdrapaddhnti h & Prdyascittaprakarana) I

.

by Bhavadevabhatta (eleventh century AD.), the famous minister of King Harivarraan of south Bengal.

Smrtikalpataru

:

minister Laksmidhara, of by Govindacandra of Kanauj (twelfth

century A.D.)

12

Contents

commentators

&

178 AN INTEODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKBIT ParasarasmYti

The author of this work is not the same person quoted as an authocommented rity by Yajhavalkya

:

—

on by Madhava, century A.D.,

of the fourteenth

in

Para§ara-

his

madhava.

Brahmanasarvasva

by Halayudha,

:

century

A.D.

of

the twelfth

—written

for

King

Laksmanasena of Bengal. Dasakarmapaddhati by Pasupati of the twelfth :

century A.D.

by Aniruddha of the twelfth century A.D. Caturvargacintdmani by Hemadri of the thirteenth

Pttrdayita

:

:

century A.D.

Dharmaratna

— a voluminous work.

Jimutavahana

by

:

century A.D.

of

the fourteenth

— an important

containing the famous

which dominates

work Ddyabhdga views

the

of

Bengal on inheritance. /•

DipakaUhd

:

by Sulapani A.D.

of the

—a

fourteenth

commentary

century

on

the

Ydjnavalkyasmfti.

Madanaparijata

:

by Visvesvara century

A.D.

of

the fourteenth

— a work on

religious

laws.

Vivddaratndkara, Smftiratndkara

and other Batndkaras

by

\

r

:

^

Baghunandanasmptis

:

Candesvara, grand-uncle of Vidyapati, minister of Harisirnha of the fourteenth century A.D. very important law books.

—

by Kaghunandana

teenth century in

number

—

all

of

the

six-

A.D. — twenty-eight

bearing the appella-

— CIVIL

AND RELIGIOUS LAW tion of 'Tattva\

Udvdhatattva^

e.g.,

etc.

179

Tithitattva,

—highly

autho-

ritative, specially in Bengal.

by Vacaspati who wrote

\

Yivddacintdmam, Vyavaharacintamani

Bhairavasiiiiha | 1

,

and other

‘

Gintdmanis

yana) and Ramabhadra (Eupanarayana) of Mithila century A.D.) highly important law books.

(fifteenth /

Viramitrodaya

by

:

Mitramisra of the seventeenth

century A.D.

Nirnayasindhu

:

— a voluminous work.

by Kamalakarabhatta

of the seven-

teenth century A.D.

REFERENCES Biihler, G.

:

Kane, P. V. Keith, A. B.

Weber, A.

for

(Harinara-

:

SBB.

Vol.

XXV.

History of Dharmaslistra.

:

:

A

History of Sanskrit Literature.

The History

of

Indian Literature.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN POLITICS

A INTRODUCTION

Kau^ilya ArthasSstra

Of the four objects of life the science of politics deals with the aim and achievement of the second (artJia) and Kautilya’s Artlia-

amply proves the existence of the study of political science and practical life

.^astra

in

ancient

India.

The

Artha,^dstra

is

an

work in the field of Indian politics and is claimed by some modern scholars to have been composed sometime in the third century! A. D., though traditionally have been the author is believed to none other than Canakya or Visnugupta, the able minister of Maurya Candragupta (fourth century n.c,), who has been unanimously reoutstanding

cognized of India.

scholars as

the Machiavelli

Arthafidstra,

however, men-

all

The

tions Brhaspati, Bdhudaritipntra, Vii^dlaJcm

and Unanas as authorities. The book is a perfect manual for the conduct of kings in Later works on their political existence. science are this mainly based on the Artha^dstra.

— POLITICS

181

B

MINOR WORKS ON POLITICS Nltisara

by Kamandaka

:

—written

character of a

with

in verso

Kavya

— not

tlie

later

than the eighth century A.D.

Nuivakyamrta

by Somadeva, the author

:

the

tilaka

details

kindred topics are

of

of

Yasas-

war and

meagrely dealt

with and the author appears to be a great

Laghu Arnanniti

moral teacher.

by the great Jaina writer Hema1172 A.D.)

:

candra (1088 A.D. written in verse of

another

—

—an

bigger

abbreviation

work

of the

author writen in Prakrit.

Yuktikalpataru Nitiratnakara

:

ascribed to Bhoja.

by

:

Candesvara,

a

jurist

— grand-

uncle of Vidyapati.

Sukranlti

:

of

unknown authorship

—a

work

of

a

very late date, mentioning the use

gunpowder.

of

REFERENCES Keith, A. B.

:

A

Macdonelb A. A.

History :

A

of Sanskrit Literature.

History of Sanskrit Litera-

ture.

Weber, A.

:

The History

of

Indian Literature.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN EROTICS

A INTRODUCTION Erotics or the studied

specially VstsySyana;

KSmasutra

science in

of

ancient

prose interspersed with

in

verses.

The work does not claim

been the

first

The work

is

to

tnaiigalS

:

to

stray

have

be written on that subject.

a mine

of

informations

matters relating to the social

Ya^odhara

India.

most outstanding work on the subject is the KamasUtra of Vatsyayana who is placed sometime in the third century a.d. The work is divided into seven parts and is written

Jaya-

was The

love

order

on and

customs of the day. Yasodhara of the thirteenth century a.d., wrote a commentary, the Jayaman gala, on the Kamasfdra of Vatsyayana. Credit is due explained to this commentator who has

many

technical terms used by Vatsyayana.

B MINOR WORKS ON EROTICS Paflcasdyaka by Jyotirisvara — later than Kgemendra. :

Batirahasya

:

by Kokkoka

—prior to 1200 A.D.

— EKOTICS SatimaVijari

:

Anahgaraiiga

:

18 a

by one Jayadeva of unknown date sometimes identified with the poet of the Gitagovinda.

by

Kalyaiiamalla

of

the sixteenth

century A.D.

BahSdstra

*

by Nagarjuna

of

unknown

date

— often

wrongly identified with the great Buddhist thinker.

REFERENCE Keith, A. B.

:

A History

of Sanskrit Literature.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN MEDICINE A HISTORY OF MEDICAL WORKS

A

study of Vedic literature

will

reveal

Anatomy, Embryology and Hygiene were known to Vedic Indians. The science of Ayurveda was also looked upon as one of that

Introduction

There

the auxiliary sciences to the Vedas. are references in early

sages

who

delivered

science of medicine.

sages

who

is

literature

to ancient

instruction

Atreya

is

on

the

one of these

usually held to be the founder

of the science while

Canakya

is

written on medicine. According to tradition, Jivaka,

a

have Buddhist

said to

student of Atreya, was

a specialist in the diseases of children.

The is

Caraka

earliest extant literature

on medicine

the Carakasarhhita. Caraka, according to

Professor Levi, was a contemporary of

Kaniska.

‘ .

It

is,

King

however, known that the

present text of Caraka was revised by one

Drdhabala, a Kashmirian, who lived as late as the eighth or the ninth century a.d. Susruta is another great teacher of Indian

medicine whose name occurs in the famous

MEDICINE

185

Bower Manuscript and who

is

mentioned as

the son of Visvamitra in the Mahdhhdrata.

As

and the tenth centuries his reputation travelled far beyond India. Among his commentators, mention must be early as the ninth

made A.D

of

Cakrapanidatta (eleventh

besides

),

Jaiyyata,

Susruta

century

Gayadasa

and

Dallana.

Bhcla is another authority who is said to have written a Smhliitd which, in the opinion of some scholars, is earlier than the work of Caraka.

B LATER MEDICAL WORKS A^tuhqasafngraha and Aslangah rdayasafnhz td

Basarainahara

:

by Yagbhata, the next after authority great often identified Susriita with the medical authority referred to by I-tsing.

—

probably

Nagarjuna,

by

of

the

seventh or the eighth century A.D.

— containing

a

on

section

the

practical application of mercury.

Nidcina

:

by Madhavakara

of

the eighth

ninth century A.D. treatise '{JikitscLSiXvciSCLfiigTCihcb

:

by

— an

or

the

important

on Pathology. Cakrapanidatta

on Therapeutics.

:

a

work

&

commentators

his

Bhela

180 AX IXTliODUCTION TO CLASHICAL SAXSKUI? CikitsalcaldM

V

.

Tvi^ata

of

tlio

fourteenth c'nturv

A.P.

BJuivaprah'^a

Bhavamisra

by

.

century Vatdyafivana

the

sixteentli

A. I).

by Lolimbaraja

:

of

of

the

seventeenth

century A.D.

REFERENCES Keith, A. B.

:

A

Macdonell, A. A.

Weber, A.

:

History of Sanskrit Literature. :

A

History of Sanskrit Literature.

The History

of Indian Literature.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS AND ASTROLOGY A HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY It is not definitely

nomy was

systematically

science in Vedic sixth

known whether

times.

century a.d.

when

studied

about

the

a

as

It is as late as the

in

siddhantiha^jol Varahamihira

information

Astro-

the

we

Pancaget

contents of

the five

however, a fact that the lunar mansions were known to Yedic Indians. Dr. Weber says that the names of some asterisms occur in the ilgveda, the Sata'pathahrahmana, the Taittirlyasamhita and the Atliarvaveda. It is presumed that with the discovery of Siddhantas of an earlier date.

planets,

the science of Astronomy

significant advance.

in

the

It

is,

made

a

Planets are mentioned

Taittirlyaranyaha the

two Great

Law-books of Manu. It question, however, still remains an open whether the ancient Indians discovered the planets independently of others or whether Epios^ and

the

Astronomy: an early science

188 AN INTKODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT the knowledge

that Indian

them from a

to

Nevertheless,

source.

Greek

came

foreign

cannot be denied

it

Astronomy thrived

well under

influence.

B

WORKS ON ASTRONOMY Before the discovery

Aryabhata

siddhanWiCi, Aryabha|;a his

the

of

was

FaTica-

regarded

:

as

works

the only

authority

Aryabhata

nomy.

close of the fifth

on Indian

wrote

Astro-

towards

the

Three

of his

century a.D.

works now available to us are the ^ryabhapya, in ten stanzas, the Da^ayltihdsUtra

and the Aryada,^ata in which there is a section on Mathematics. Aryabhata is to be carefully distinguished from another author of the same Aryabhata AryasiddhSnta

:

name

who

wrote the Aryasiddhanta

in

known

to

the tenth (jcntury a.d. and was Alberuni.

in Brahmagupta

works

:

his

Brahmagupta is another great name Indian Astronomy who in the seventh

century a.d. wrote two

important works,

Brahmasphutasiddhanta Klia da Ti hddyaJca. the

}j

and

the

.

ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS

who

Lalla

has to his

later

is

ASTKOLOOY 189

than Brahmagupta,

one work the Suyadhfvr-

(iredit

Lalla

.

Si^yadhlvrddhitantra

ddhitantra.

To

the

writers

eleventh

Bhoja

century

and

belong

two

whose Bajamrcjanla

Satananda

works are respective!

the

and the Bhasvail.

is

1159

ot

A.n.

wrote Ins

8iddhdnta>iiroma)ji,

divided into /owr sections.

of his is the

;

their works-

Bhaskaracarya masterpiece, the

Bhoja & SatSnanda

A

which

second work

BhSskara his

:

works

Karan altiitUliala

C

WORKS ON MATHEMATICS In the

field of

are only a few

Indian Mathematics, there

names.

Aryabhata was the

his

work a section on

Aryabhata, first

to include

Mathematics.

in

Brahmagupta has discussed

the principles of ordinary brief

manner.

Arithmetic in a

In the ninth century

A.n.

Mahaviracarya wrote an elementary but comprehensive work on Indian Mathematics. In the tenth century

A.n.

he

wrote his

which discusses quadratic equations. Bhaskaracarya who in the two It was sections viz., Ltldvatl and Bljaganita of Tri^at^

his

work,

the

Hiddhanta-^iromani,

made

Brahmagupta,

Mahdvira Bhaskara

&

190 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

some

lasting

contributions

to

Indian

Mathematics.

D WORKS ON ASTROLOGY In India Astrology has been studied as a science from very ancient times.

Early

works

The works

:

of

Varahamihira, of course, eclipsed the fame

whose writings are now Fragments of one Yrddliagarga-

of earlier authorities lost to us.

sarhhita are

still

available.

Varahamihira

classified

Astrology into the three branches

of Ta7itra

—the

matical

astronomical

— that and Sathhitd—that

foundations,

with horoscope

and

ing natural Astrology.

Hard

mathedealing discuss-

The most outstanding

contribution of Varahamihira

is

the Brhat-

commented on by Bhattotpala. On the Hard section Varaha-

samhitd

which

was

mihira wrote two works, the BrhajjdtaTca

and the Laghujdtaha. of

Besides the works

Varahamihira, we find a reference to one

YavanajdtaJca of dubious authorship.

Eater works

Among later works on Astrology, mention may be made of the Hord,^atapancd,Hkd by Prthuyasas, son of Varahamihira, the Bhattotpala, the VidydHordAdstra by

ASTKONOMY, MA^EMATICS

madhavlya

(before

vdJfidJiasarhhita of

1350

& ASTROLOGY

a.d.) the

unknown

JyotisasdroddJiara

Vrddha-

authorship, the

Harsakirti,

of

191

the

Jyotirvidyabharana of unknown authorship (not later than the sixteenth century a.d.)

and the Tdjihd in two parts (the Sarhjndta?itra and the Varmtantra) of Nilakantha (sixteenth century a.d.)^

REFERENCES Keith,

A

B.

A History

;

Macdonell, A. A.

:

of Sanskrit Literature.

A History

of

Sanskrit

Litera-

ture.

Weber,

:

The History

of

Indian Literature.

Astrology are Closely associated with works on Among such treatises on omens and prognostications. ^

Adblmtasdgara (twelfth century A.D.) century A.D.) by and the Sarmidratilalca (twelfth Bamalarahasya DurlabharSja and Jagaddeva. The and Bhayabhanjanasarman is a work on geomancy treatises are the

of

under the style

of

the Pdsakakevali, preserved in the

Bower Manuscript, cubomancy.

are

the

two

treatises

on

CHAPTER NINETEEN MISCELLANEOUS SCIENCES It

a

is

specialized Archery

pity that

though the Indians

almost

in

Sanskrit literature, the

good number

known

to

of

us.

Sadasiva

reached

us.

Sciences of elephants horses

&

and

is

little

no extant

are

the authoritative

Archery the names

ditya,

On

sciences

Among

of

on quite a

literature

Thus there

works on Archery. writers on

minor

branch

every

VikramaSarahgadatta have of

the sciences of elephants and horses

which are associated with the names of two y ancient sages Palakapya and Salihotra respectively, a few works are available. The Hasty ayiirveda of uncertain date and the MataiigaUld of Narayana are the two known works on the science Afivdyurveda of Oana, of

of

elephants.

the

The

Ativavaidyaka

Jayadatta and of Dipahkara, the Yoga-

mahjari of Vardhamana and the Ahiacikitsd of

Nakula are extant works on the science

of horses.

The

literature

on Architecture

is

repre-

sented by the Vastuvidya, the ManusydlayaArchitec ture

candrikd

in seveti

chapters,

the

Mayamata

MISCEt,LANEOUS sciences

193

in thirty -four chapters, the Yuhtikalpataru in twenty-three chapters, the Samar ah gaya-

slitradhara 2>rakd.^a

Bhoja,

of

and some sections

the Matsyajpurana,

hita,

the Garudapurd/ja,

the

tlie

VUvakarina-

of the Brhatsarii-

the Ag7tvpuraija,

the Yii.Nudhai'mottara,

KdAyapasahihitd,

the

Silpaj’atna

of

Srikumara and such other works.

The in

science of jewels has been discussed

such works

as

the

Agasthnata, the

Batnaparlkm of Buddhabhatta and Navaratnaparlkm of Narayanapandita.

the

Mention ma,y be made of the Safimukhakalpa, a treatise on the science of stealing. Mention should also be made of the Nalapdka which treats of the art of cooking.

Science of Jewels

Science of Stealing

Science of Cooking

On

music there have been many important works besides the NdtyaMstra. Science Among the more important works on this Music subject, mention may be made of the Sahgitaniakara7ida, of

Sudarsana,

the

Sarangadeva, the

the

of

8a7'igltasndar,^ana

Sahgita7’at7idka7'a

Sa7'ig7tada/paija of

of

Damo-

dara and the Bagacihodha of Somanatha.

On

dancing the literature is not very Besides the Ndt7ya,4dst7'a, we extensive.

have the AhhinayadarpaTia 13

of

Nandikesvara,

Science of Dancing

194 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT the Srlliastamuktavall^ the

Nartanamrnaya

and a few other works. Science of Painting

On

painting the Vimudliarmottara, of

uncertain date, contains a chapter.

REFERENCES Keith, A. B.

Weber, A.

:

:

A

History

The History

of Sanskrit Literature. of

Indian Literature.

CHAPTER TWENTY PHILOSOPHY A

ORTHODOX SYSTEMS The Nyaya system which analytic type of philosophy

represents the like

sika system, has a long history

the Vaisethat extends I

over the vast period of twenty centuries.

Indian tradition has status to this system

and

it

versally held in high esteem

There are

a unique has been uni-

assigned

the

Ny^'a system and they are the old and the new. The earliest known literature of the old school are the Nimi/asiitras^ Gautama lieved

the

as ^

Dr.

the

that

S.

0.

wrote only the

contemporary

It is be-

n.c.^

as

old

V5.tsyayana’s

Vidyubhusjana believes that Gautama

first

of

books.

NT/dyasTitras are

century

third

chapter of the work, and

Buddha.

He

was a

further thinks that this

Gautama is the same as the author of the Dharmasutras, who lived in Mithila in the sixth century B.O.

He

suggests that Gautama’s original views are con-

tained in the

Carakasafnhita

the Carakasafnhita

itself

Introduction

and reverence.

two^ .well-known solrools of

which are divided into

Nyfiya

{Vimanasthdna).

has suffered considerable

But re-

Works on NySya : (a) Old school

a

196 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

Nydyabhdsya is the most important commentary on the NydyasTitras of Gautama and it is presumed that the work was written

400

before

were

vdews

veliemently

whose probable date fifth

logician,

not later than the

is

Uddyotakara wrote

century a.d.

Nydyavdrttiha

by

.criticized

Buddhist

famous

Dignaga, the

Vatsyayana’s

a.d.

the

in

«

sixth

his

century a.d.

with the sole object of defcaiding Vatsyayana against the (triticisms of DignSga.

Dharmakirti, another noted Buddhist cian,

who

logi-

took up the (;ause of Dignaga and

wrote his Nydyahiiidu the sixth century

in

fashioning and

its

date

is

the latter part of

Uddyota-

Probably

.\.d.

kara and Dharmakirti

believes

was

It

were contemporaries Professor Jacobi

uncertain.

that the Nyayasutras and the

Nydyabhany

belong to about the same time perhaps separated by

He

generation.

places

a

them between the second cenSunya developed, and /

tury A.D. the

fifth

when

the doctrine of

century A.D.

when

Professor Suali also supports Pro>

’Was systematized.

lessor Jacobi and refers the

ing to Professor

the doctrine of Vijuana

work

to 300 A.D.

Garbe the date

is

100

AccordA.D.

MM.

Haraprasada Hastrin believes that the work has undergone several places

it

redactions.

Professor

Eadhakrishnan

(though not in the ])resent form)

fourth century B.C.

in

the

PHILOSOPHY

who mutually

referred

to

197

each other.

A

commentary on the Nyayabmdu was written in the ninth century

cian Dharmottara.

by the Buddhist logiIt was in the first half

of the ninth century

a.j>.

genius and most prolific writer,

versatile

came

that Vacaspati, a

write his

to

Nydyavdrttikatai'parya-

super-commentary on the Nydyavdrttika of llddyotakara and gave a sufficia

flkd,

ent stimulus to the ortliodox line of thought

by writing his NydyasUclnihandha (841 a.i>.) and NyayasUtroddhara. Udayana who is noted for his trenchant logic*, and convincing presentation of facts, wrote a commentary

on

V§,caspati’s

known

the

as

Nydyai’drttihatdtparyapkd,

NydyavdrtUkatdtparyapari-

^uddhi in the

last part of

(984

The

A.D.).

the tenth

century

Nydyahusuimmjaliy

the

^tmatattcaviveka, the Kimndvali and the

NydyaparUida works

of

other well-known

Jayanta is the next Udayana and he wrote

Udayana.

name

great

four

are

after

the Nydyarnanjarl in the tenth century a.d.

He

is

admitted to have been a Bengali by

origin.

Bhasarvajha’s Nydyasdra

vey

Indian

of

Kashmir

logic.

Saivite of

Gahgesa

is

tlie

is

a sur-

The author was

a

tenth century a.d.

the father of the

new

school

198 AN INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL SANSKRIT of the

Works on NySya

: