An examination of five elements in the religions of China

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AN EXAMINATION OF FIYE ELEMENTS IN THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the School of Religion University of southern Califomia

In P a rtia l Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts

hy Myra Laura Snow June 1942

UMI Number: EP65124

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This thesisf w ri tt en by

..... My.r.a..La.uxa...Sn.aw............ under the direction of h e x . F ac u lty C o m m i t t e e , a n d a p p r o v e d b y a l l its m e m b e r s , has be e n pres ent ed to an d ac ce p te d by the C ou nc il on Grad ua te S t u d y and Resea rch in par tia l ful fil l­ m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r th e d e g r e e o f

MASTER OF ARTS

Dean

Secretary D a te

J i m e . _ 1 9 .4 2

F aculty Com m ittee

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

chapter

I. II.. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII.

THE PROBLEM AM D DEFINITIONS OF TERM S USED . . IDEAS OF GOD

X.

9

IDEAS OF SIR AND SALVATION............................................

32

IDEAS OF BMORTALITY

55

.

.................................................

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN TAOISM

. . . . . . . .

6?

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN CONFUCIANISM . . . . .

79

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN BUDDHISM

99

A. B.

IX.

..........................................

1

. . . . . . .

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN CHRISTIANITY

. . .

107

PRINCIPLES...................................................................

113

CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING ETHICAL

W OM AN:

IN TEES RELIGIONSOF CHINA AND

IN CHRISTIANITY...................................................................

117

SUMMARY..............................................................................................

143

.............................................................................................

148

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED When a now missionary teacher enters her fie ld of work, she faces a bewildering panorama of hitherto unexper­ ienced aspects of human l i f e .

Her great desire is to re ­

la te these to her special task in such a way that she may he efficien t in meeting her daily problems.

One of the serious

problems facing her is understanding the background from which her students come, with the influences that have de­ termined th e ir thinking and especially th eir religious life* She may have studied Oriental religions but perhaps has not trie d to narrow down her general understanding of these to meet the specific need that confronts her when she comes face to face with a young person desiring to study the Christian religion, more especially that young person who is eonseious of an unsatisfied longing for a deeper experience of l i f e 1s r e a litie s and for sp iritu a l adjustment and inte­ gration*

I t was for such a new missionary that th is thesis

was w ritten. I.

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the problem.

I t was the purpose of th is

study to take a few elements in the religions of China and compare them with each other and with corresponding elements

2 in Christianity in such a way that one could discover any common ground among them.

The religions considered are

Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.

Moism, a beautiful

philosophy of universal love, has been omitted in th is dis­ cussion because i t has been practically eliminated h is to ri­ cally from any continuing influence on Chinese culture and social development.

I t i s recommended, however, that every

missionary teacher acquaint herself with Mo Tzuf & teaching. I t seems the wisest course always to try to understand the best in the culture of any people, and i t is good for a Westerner to know that long before the time of Christ a Chinese philosopher advocated that one should . . . fe el towards a l l people under heaven exactly as one feels toward one1s own people, regard other States exactly as one regards one’ s own s ta te *1 The religious elements brought together here for con­ sideration are five in number:

(1) ideas of Cod; (2) ideas

of sin and salvation; (3) ideas of immortality; (4) ethical principles; and (5) attitu des toward women. These five were chosen because of th eir fundamental significance in the structure and cultural value of any re­ lig io n .

Concepts of God determine to a large extent the way

in which an individual re la te s himself to the universe and to h is immediate social environment.

Power

All other aspects of

1. M © Tzu, cited by Arthur Waley, The Way and I ts (London: George Allen and Unwin, ltc£77 T^4T“p'. W

3 religion king© on the idea of God which a person holds; th is remains true whether the individual conceives of God as Per­ sonality characterized by love and goodness, or whether he conceives of God as impersonal law by which and through which the universe functions#

Ideas of sin and salvation largely

determine social attitu d es and a c tiv itie s of the person, i f those a c tiv itie s ris e above mere conformity to custom*

Ideas

of immortality are closely associated with ideas of salvation and in teract with the ethical principles on which a person bases h is life#

Ethical principles, in any great religion,

make up a large p art of the religious structure*

In this

paper a considerable space has been devoted to them.

Since

these principles largely depend on the other basic ideas and are closely interwoven with them, and since, because of their social implications, they are so important in the l i f e of a people, they must occupy a measurable place in a stuay of th is kind, which aims; to afford some basis for better under­ standing of a civ iliz atio n and the youth who are the product of th at civ ilizatio n; Jpor these reasons i t was necessary to devote separate chapters to th eir consideration for each re­ lig io n .

While treatment of women, with their resulting place

in society, involves an ethical principle, i t is of so much importance in any adequate understanding of the Orient, that a separate chapter was devoted to it* There is always a d ifficu lty of interpretation when

4 a person of one fa ith tr ie s to expound the content of another faith# Unlike a mere system of speculation, i t requires a believer in a particular religion to give us a f a ir ac­ count of it* * • #2 Mi other d iffic u lty is that of attempting to express b rie fly any adequate understanding of the points involved. Volumes can he w ritten, and have been written, on any one of the above topics#

The attempt here was to bring together in

more or le s s outline form a few fundamentals which could open avenues of thought for further Investigation, and which might suggest a more understanding way of approach to the teaching of Christianity. A man deeply learned in Oriental culture recently said that western missionaries have done untold ham in east­ ern countries through a failure to grasp the sp iritu a l sig­ nificance of idol worship.

This great scholar underestimates

the mental equipment and in tellig en t sympathy of many mis­ sionaries, but the point is s t i l l good.

I f the idol means to

the worshipper more than a material body of wood or bronze or 3ade, i f i t means more, even, than the dwelling place of some good or evil s p ir it , then i t were well for the teacher to try to grasp that meaning.

A crude condemnation of idol worship

2» F. W. S. OfU eill, The Quest for God in China (London; George Allen and Unwin, 1925) p.“132

5 with no such understanding can forever set up a harrier between herself and the one with whom she earnestly desires to establish open highways of sp iritu a l fellowship.

The

sane thing is true of any phase of religious consideration* II.

DEFINITIONS OF TEEMS USED

Adequate definition is a third d iffic u lty which faces one who tr ie s to compare or evaluate elements of different b eliefs. hiving thought and living religion never stand s t i l l . The dialectic is incessant and everywhere.3 Greeds are not fin al c rite ria ; they are always chang­ ing, always differently interpreted in theory and in l i f e by th eir adherents.

The best that one can do is try to place

lim its around present fie ld s of consideration. The religion of the future which w ill satisfy a l l nations and a l l races w ill not be bom of any party cry, but . . . from the habit of locling a t the highest ele­ ments in a ll religions, and gladly recognizing Qas Divine] a l l that helps to save men, body, soul, and s p i r it, individually or collectively. . . A The term Christianity in this paper was limited to that which is generally understood as lib e ra l Protestant Theistic Christianity.

I t has been confined to that in te r­

pretation of lib e ra l Christianity represented by men like

3* W. E. Hocking, living Religions and a World Faith (New York: The MacMillanCo., 1946) p. lOS 4. p. 149

Dr. Timothy Richards, cited by O’N eill, op. c i t . »

6 A. C. KmL&SQEL and HU F. Rail* Christianity is the ongoing l i f e of that fellowship which has i t s origin and i t s abiding inspiration and guidance in Jesus. Christianity i s Christ as the revelation of what God is and what man is to he *5 The term Taoism has been considered as applying to that noble philosophy which i t was originally, and also to the system of magic and superstition into which i t has largely degenerated* Taoism was thus a mystical creed, of which the appeal was necessarily limited to men of philosophical temperament free from the pressing cares of the world. . . . i t s roots were in one of the outstanding qualities of the Chinese character, the capacity for patient endur­ ance.^ The term Confucianism was applied to that evolving system of philosophy, ethics, and religion which went far bach of Confucius1 time, was preserved and expounded by him, and has been continually developed and altered by his in te r­ preters and successors to the present time. Confucianism is a minimal theism, leaving in i t s wake the hunger of unanswered questioning; i t s agnostic ism was a standing c a ll for a supplement. . . . while Con­ fucianism in i t s modem form cannot suffice for the l i f e of a modem China, something of i t remains necessary: no other system can supply to modern China the indispen­ sable continuity with i t s own p a s t.7

.................5. H. F. Rail, Christianity, An Inquiry into I ts nature and Truth (New York: Charles Scribner1!* Sons, 1940) p. 6. C. P* Fitzgerald, China: A Short Cultural History (New York: D. Apple ton-Century 66*, X9TBTJ p. 85 7.

Hocking, op. c i t *. p. 77

7 33ae tern Buddhism has “ been limited to present-day Chinese Mahayana Buddhism, with such reference to e a rlie r forms as seemed necessary to make clear the present con­ sideration* A religion which has transformed savage nations, given a form of civ ilizatio n to some which had none, humanized nations already partly cultivated, and given a hope of salvation to millions for the l i f e to come* . •

•

III.

GENERAL RELIGIOUS RACKGROUTO

Because religious ideas in a l l three religions of China have th eir "beginnings far hack in the ancient days, i t was necessary to include here a b rief mention of that back­ ground*

All inherit from the original Chinese naturalism

which has survived to the present day in the fa ith of the common people who s t i l l have th eir temples to the gods of the so il and streams. 3*he country people are religious; their many gods rep­ resent to them powers in which they place th e ir fa ith by worship* Much of th e ir polytheistic worship has grown out of the economic need, and inasmuch as agriculture has largely provided the basis for th e ir economic l i f e many of th e ir gods and superstitions are related to agricul­ tu ra l production and ru ral l i f e *9

8. W * E. Sooth i l l , 33xe OJhree Religions of China (London: Oxford University tr e s s , l9l££] p. Is 9* J* H* Reisner, cited by J. R. Mott, Present Pay Summons to World Mission of Christianity (HashvUle: Colces Trnry Press,' 1$3I) p. 72

8 All three religions use the concept of the fao as the Supreme Ultimate or Great F irst Cause*

fao ism has drawn

from the Buddhist sacred hooks, while Buddhism has in turn adopted whole hierarchies of gods from ancient China*

Even

Confueianists who may look down on Buddhist and fao ist p rie sts c a ll them for funerals or for divining* Out of these "background religions has come that one which a l l authorities agree is the universal religion of China — the cult of the dead, ancestor worship* Ancestor worship, the cult of the dead, remained the one creed to which a l l Chinese paid reverence, which was so firmly established that i t was accepted without ques­ tion by a l l classes, and in consequence had no need of state-maintained temples or p r i e s t s *10 Soothi l l speaks of i t as grounded in antiquity and nourished by f i l i a l piety*

Because of i t s universality and

with i t s roots deep down in the soil which supports the an­ cient family l i f e of the land, i t presents almost insuper­ able b arriers to the introduction of any religion whose ten­ e ts are incompatible with doing reverence to the ancestors in a way which involves an act of worship,

fhat Christian­

i t y has crossed those barriers In thousands of cases is evi­ dence to i t s drawing and compelling power.

But " i t is not

the foreigner who w ill se ttle the matter".

Whatever change

comes w ill be inaugurated and carried out by the Chinese.31

10.

C. P* Fitzgerald, op. c i t . , p. 565

11*

W. E* Sooth i l l , op. c i t . , p. S14

IDEAS OF GOD As has 'been said, both Taoism and Confucianism “ began with the conception of a Great F irs t Cause, called the Tao, which concept had come down from the dim past.

Even Bud­

dhism, when i t arrived In China, took over th is name and idea, and Buddhists frequently use i t in referring to God. Taoism. There i s a “ being that is all-inclu siv e, existing “ be­ fore heaven and earth. Calm indeed, and incorporeal, i t i s alone and changeless. Everywhere i t functions unhin­ dered and may he considered the mother of a l l creation. I do not know i t s name, hut I characterize i t as ^Tao*1. ! Reading th is definition thoughtfully one is impressed with the fact that the person who promulgated i t was himself a thinker of high order and that he must have had behind him an extended period of religious and philosophical speculation and experience.

Such is the case.

I t appears in the Taoist

c la ssic , the Tao Teh Ching, and is believed by many to have been spoken by Lao Tzu during the sixth century before Christ. Liang Chi Chao points out that Lao Tzu developed his philosophy in an age when the old fa ith in a God who person­ a lly supervised the sta te , rewarding the virtuous and punish­ ing the evil-doers, had given way before the obvious facts

1. Tao Teh ChJng, quoted by Liang Chi Chao, History of Chinese Pdl iUic alT Wought (Hew York: Hare ourt, Brace &

US.”

1930>

~ p T T 3

of the phenomenal world with i t s social and p o litic a l rami­ fications.

Iel a disturbed society the facts of life insist that happiness is not due to good or disaster to evil.2 TJp to the period of the f i r s t Taoist philosophers, China had existed as a more or less naive Theocracy, similar to that which prevailed in early Isra e l.

Out of an early

polytheistic naturalism the God idea developed.

This

God

was a metaphysical personalistic being, who conferred author ity on righteous ru le rs and appointed his agents to over­ throw the unrighteous. 3

He was the 1 1supreme ancestorft who

ruled in heaven over the lesser ancestors who peopled i t . 4 The founder of Taoism and his successors largely eliminated the personal as a characteristic of ultimate Reality.

For

these men Tao was "the unity underlying p lu rality ” • I t i s that by losing of which men die; by getting of which men liv e . Whatever is done without i t , f a ils ; whatever is done by means of i t , succeeds. I t has neither root nor stall:, leaf nor flower. Tet upon i t depends the generation and the growth of the ten thou­ sand things, each a fte r i t s hind.5 God had become the operation of natural law. is not benevolent.

"God

To him a l l creation i s but insignificant

2.

liang, op. c i t . , p. 148

S.

Ibid, pp. 144-5

4.

Waley, The Way and I t s Power, p. 21

5.

Kuan Tzu, quoted by Waley, op. c i t . , p. 51

11 creatures* "6 JTow the non-personalistic supreme Reality or great F irst Cause, called "Tao®, or "the Way", is sometimes spoken of as having existed before God; God is an emanation from Tao.

Chuang Tzu, whom Sooth i l l calls the "St. Paul of Tao­

ism" , says: I t i s Tao whieh makes the s p ir its s p ir its , and which makes God a s p ir it; i t produced heaven and produced earth. . . . independent of the relations of time and space. . . . Tao makes things what they are, hut is not i t s e l f a thing, nothing can produce Tao; yet every­ thing has Tao within i t , and continues to produce i t without end. 7 For the Taoist conception of a being comparable to that which we name God, we must then go back and examine th eir ideas of Tao, for Tao is evidently the Being who has the fu ality of absoluteness, which most Christians associate with God.

The idea of a created, dependent God could easily

re su lt from the ancient Chinese polytheism, hut for purposes of comparison, one is interested in those qualities whieh pertained to a self-existent Being, the up-holder of the universe; and in th is connection The careful student of pure Taoism w in find . . . that the distinction between Tao and God is sometimes so subtle as altogether to elude his intelligence.8

6.

Liang, op. c i t . , p. 148

7.

Boothill, op. c i t . , p. 55

8. Km A. Giles, Chuang Tzu (London: Bernard Quaritch, Ltd., 1926) p. 74 r

12 Reading the Tao Teh Ching, one is convinced that Tao i s equivalent to natural law. Tao is hidden and nameless. Yet Tao alone supports a l l things and brings them to fulfilment. ( Chapter XII) 9 Si eh the scope of the All-pervading Power That i t alone can act through the Way. por the Way i s a thing impalpable, incommensurable. • • Yet la te n t in i t are forms . . . Yet within i t are e n titie s . Shadowy i t i s and dim; Yet within i t there is a force, A force that though rarefied Is none the le ss efficacious. ( Chapter XXI) From the foregoing one could denominate the Tao as blind force; but i t exhibits a transforming power, and i t is possible for man to appropriate th is power in such a way that i t affects himself and his relations to other men.

All

that i t does, however, is accomplished through an in fin ite ly elusive gentleness, which is in fin ite ly out-poured for men. I f one looks for Tao, there is nothing solid to see; I f one lis te n s to i t , there is nothing loud enough to hear. Yet, i f one uses i t , i t i s inexhaustible. ( Chapter XXXV) Tao never does; Yet through i t a l l things are done. I f the barons and kings would but possess themselves of i t , The ten-thousand creatures would at once be transformed. ( Chapter XXXVII) . . . wherein I most am different from men I s that I prize no sustenance that comes not from the Mother’s breast. The Tao is definitely creative; and th is creative

^aQ %®h Chimg translations from Waley, j>p. c i t .

13 power may be worked out through hustan beings who conform to i t s laws* Who is i t that makes wind and rain? I t is Beavemand-Earth. {gature! • • • i f one uses the Way as one’ s instrument, the resu lts w ill b© like the lay* . * to those who have conformed themselves to the Way, theWay readily bends i t s power* (Chapter XXIII) Tao i s eternal, t a t has no fame (name) • • • I f kings and barons would t a t possess themselves of i t , The ten-thou sand creatures would flock to do them homage; To Tao (the possessor of Tao) a ll under heaven w ill come As streams and torrents flow into a great riv er or sea* ( Chapter XXXII) One there is and one only, so rich that he can afford to make offerings to a l l under heaven* Whois this? It i s the possessor of Tao. ( Chapter XXXVII) Yet by seizing on the way that was You can ride the things that are now.

( Chapter XIV)

The in fin ite gentleness of the Tao, together with i t s irresistab le power are stressed over and over*

A common

figure for expressing the gentleness of the Tao is that of water adapting i t s e l f to the curves and contours into and over which i t flows*

The Tao i s water-like in the sense of

non-resistance to what stands in i t s path, as water flows around the rock.

The Tao Teh Ching contains passages which

state exp licitly that he who possesses Tao w ill oppose war and violence. This violence is against Tao, And what is against Tao w ill soon perish. ( Chapter XXX) The Tao Teh Ching makes clear the continuity of Tao

014 with the ancient God belief of the people, and also i t s everlastingae s s • For what did the Ancients say of Tao? . . . They thought i t , indeed, most precious of a l l things under heaven. ( Chapter 1XII) heaven is eternal.

(Chapter Til)

The great philosopher of Taoism, Chuang Tzu, empha­ sized the immanent Tao and the great virtue of a state of nature as "bringing one into direct knowledge of the U lti­ mate • l i f e and heath belong to Destiny. Their sequence, lik e day and night is of Cod, beyond the interference of man, an inevitable law. A man looks upon God as upon h is father, and loves him in lik e measure. Shall he then not love that which i s greater than God?10 We are embraced in the obliterating unity of God. . . Take no heed of time, nor of right and wrong. But pass­ ing into the realm of the In fin ite , take your final re s t there in .11 I f man gets Tao to live in, he may live his l i f e in peace.12 Sadly enough the beauty and value of th is great con­ ception of Tao, inclusive of the God concept, was lo s t to the vast majority of Chinese people when a false prophet of Taoism took over the philosophy and converted what contained the gems of a great religion into a system of magic and superstition.

China

10.

Giles, jop. c i t . , p. 74

11.

Ibid, p. 31

IS.

Ibid, p. 85

15 turned away from i t s most gifted speculative in te lle c t; and the cult of Taoism, though enriched by the marvellous work of Chuang Tzu, tended to an unrestrained and form­ less supernaturalism.13 But these early great beliefs have l e f t th eir im­ press: There are s t i l l some purer souls who seek in Taoism those truths which inspired i t s founders, and the w rit­ ings of laocius and Chuang-Tzu are read hy thoughtful men outside the Taoist c u lt. Indeed, more or le s s uncon­ sciously, many of those truths find a permanent home In the thoughts of the people, and thus prepare the way for the Greater Tao .14 Hocking brings out the relation of God ideas in Tao­ ism and Confucianism, and the fact that both were antecedent to that necessity which resulted in the acceptance of Bud­ dhism by millions of Chinese men and women. For both Confucianist and Taoist the human scene was related to an abiding, unknowable One. To the true Tao­ i s t , th is One was an inner presence, an ever-present guide-\Tithout-rule, the principle of absolute n atural­ ness. 1The great man is he who does not lose his child’ s h e a rt.1. * • For the average Taoist as for the average Confucianist, the One was intangible. The metaphysical bleakness of i t s image l e f t i t powerless to curb the superstitiousness of the popular mind. The springs of imagination and feeling were not reached by the highest elements of these reticen t f a ith s .15 This *superstitiousness of the popular mind1 1 v ita lly concerns a study of the God concept of Taoism so far as i t re la te s to the student problem.

Popular Taoism has become

13.

Hocking, op♦ c i t ., p. 73

14.

Soothill, op. c i t . , p. 84

15.

Hocking, op. c i t .,p . 73

16 a system of magic, of exorcising devils, and of p ro p itia t­ ing evil s p ir its , "based on an inherited polytheism and poly­ demonism.

Students who come from lit e r a t e homes and envir­

onments of culture, where superstition is despised and de­ cried, often suffer from a sense of shame that so many of their countrymen are involved in superstitious r i t e s ,

il

teacher can do good service here in remembering that simi­ la r superstitions, to a greater or less degree, prevail among unlettered people everywhere. Superstition is not a Peculiarity of any religion: I t is a function of the stage of enlightenment, and especially of the degree of training in scientific thought. • • . 1 6 Christian peasantries in Europe and elsewhere are fa r from free of i t , while a large amount ean s t i l l he found among so-called enlightened and educated people. Uhern, too, many students in China, often even in the un iv ersities, s t i l l cherish, perhaps unwillingly, some of these old beliefs.

!2hey w ill not discuss them easily.

!Ehey

are ashamed of them, but a residue of fear is there; a fear that was grounded in consciousness long before the child . hnew the meaning of religion.

Here is a definite human

problem, one sometimes d iffic u lt to handle, which confronts the teacher who wishes to dispel these deep-seated sub­ conscious memories with fa ith in a God of law and love.

16.

Hoehing, jog. c i t . , p. 90

I t must be remembered that Confucianism has been a developing philosophy, out of whieh a religion has grown, and which has been a far-reaching, almost a constant influ­ ence in Chinese l i f e since about the f i r s t century before Christ*

Per* Wieger says of Confucius:

The doctrine attributed to him in our time, is no longer h is, ini many points* I f he fcnew a ll that h is modem admirers cause to pass under cover of his name he would doubtless be astonished and perhaps offended. Xiang Chi Chao says: The fundamental belief of Confucianism is ’Men can develop Tao; Tao does not develop men* . Therefore both the way of heaven and the way of earth are considered secondary; that by whieh man liv es i s of primary import­ ance* In a word, the Confueian school has only i t s philosophy of l i f e to offer; and in the philosophy of l i f e there is no postulate save the development of human personality.18 I t is clear, then, that one may e ^ e e t to find a welldeveloped system of ethics set forth by Confucius and the philosophers of his school, but l i t t l e God idea*

elaboration of the

As the various Confueian schools developed, the

concept of God became more and more that of an impersonal natural law.19

In the quotation from Liang given above, i t

1 7 . 1 * W ieg er, A. H is t o r y o f R e lig io u s R e l i e f s and P h i lo s o p h i c a l O p in io n s I n China r China: I f s ie h Sfeien T r e s s ,

T5WT]— p.' T 2 7 ------------------------18.

Liang, op. c i t . , p. 41

19.

Wieger, op. c i t . , pp. 129, 224, 270, 668

28 is clear that the Confueian is t had none of that fa ith in the p o ssib ility of receiving direct help from the Tao through immanence or "possession", which the Taoist believed in. Confucius, himself, did not deny the ancient gods, nor the supreme Being,, whether the Impersonal Shang Ti or the more personal TTien.

He assumed a "negative and

cautious attitude toward the sp iritu al world" .20

But there

is a certain positive personalism in his conception of T1ien as that which guides and protects him in his vocation. Hocking points out that Confucius conceived of righteousness and i t s spread as a cosmic demand, and that he considered himself to have a personal commission from TTien to carry on his teaching.

At one time when he was attached by the

people of Kwang, he is represented as saying: T*ien has appointed me to teach th is doctrine, and u n til I have done so, what can the people of Kwang do to me?21 Confucius could not do less than accept the old gods, at le a s t, formally. practices.

He exalted the past and i t s religious

But his practical intelligence seems to have

revolted a t the rampant superstition of his day, and while he never openly denied the old fa ith , he re a lly appeared as a "reformer of popular superstitions by urging people

20. A* H. Smith, The U plift of China (Cincinnati: Jennings and! CrahamV l9iT7) p. 94 21.

Hocking, op. c i t . , p. 70

19 to avoid s p ir its 1 1 Soothill has summarized positive ideas of Shamg 3?i and T*ien as expressed in the History and Odes which, were preserved by Confucius.

As th eir preservation was due to

the activ ity of Confucius we may safely say that he approved of th e ir ideas*

Combining the Shang Q?i and !£*ien conceptions,

- fo r i t i s d iffic u lt to distinguish them as separate beings, i t appears that the Confueian God sees and hears, envoys offerings; is aided by men and deputes his work, especially to kings and ministers; can be honored and served; is awe­ inspiring, of dread majesty, to be feared; confers moral sense on man, and makes retention of his favor dependent on moral character; may be known and complied with; w ill have no regard for the evil doer; rewards the virtuous king with ease and dignity; appoints to kingly office and can reverse such appointments; warns, corrects, and punishes the evil king, even a f f lic ts , ruins, and destroys him;

ordains the

social order, religious and social ceremonies and human virtues; is gracious to men and helps them; sends down rain; is not bound by tie s of biased human affections; commands men to re ctify th e ir character; compassionates man; is moved by virtue only but w ill hear the cries and supplica­ tions of men*^3

22m

Soothill,

0 £*

c i t *, p* 149

23.

Ibid, pp* 123-4

20 Three things stand out in th is aggregation of divine a t tr ilu te s .

(1)

The Confueian God was considered as having

some a ttrib u te s of personality; (2) acter was a t t r i t e ted to God; (3>

a d istin c t moral char­

divine commumica t ions

with the world were largely carried on through the channels of royalty#

This l a s t was especially true of th at phase of

the divine Being denominated as Shang Ti#

Shang Ti was wor­

shipped only ly the Emperor a t stated seasons and with great pomp and ceremony#

This ceremony of worship involved a deep

consciousness of a moral cosmic order#

The Emperor himself

must fa st and purify himself before making the sacrifice. Unless there were pious thoughts in h is mind the s p irits of the unseen would not come to the sacrifice#

A scepter of

blue Jade was offered to Shang Ti a t this time as a symbol th at a l l power belongs to him.

Some quotations from the

prayers offered a t th is imperial worship w ill indicate better than anything else the really exalted nature of the worship and the character ascribed to Divinity: Of old, in the beginning, there was the great chaos, without form and dark# The five elements had not begun to revolve, nor the sun and moon to shine# In the midst thereof there presented i t s e l f neither form nor sound# Thou, 0 Spiritual Sovereign, earnest forth in Thy presi­ dency , and f i r s t did divide the gross from the pure ( i . e . the ethereal from the material) • Thou madest heaven; Thou madest earth; Thou madest man. All things got th e ir being, with their reproducing power. . • Thou didst produce, 0 S p irit, the sun and moon and 1 five planets; and pure and beautiful was th e ir light# The vault of heaven was spread out like a curtain, and the

square earth supported a ll on i t , and a l l creatures were happy. X, Thy servant, presume reverently to thank Thee, and, while I worship, present the notice to Thee, 0 Ti, calling Thee Sovereign* • . • honorable is Thy great name* With reverence we spread out these precious stones and s ilk , and as swallows re­ joicing in the spring, praise Thy abundant love. . . . The service of song is completed, hut our poor sincer­ ity cannot he fu lly expressed. Thy sovereign goodness i s infinite* As a potter hast Thou made a l l living things. Great and small are curtained round ( by Thee from harm) • S p irits and men rejoice together, praising Ti, the lord* What lim it, what measure can there he, while we celebrate Mis great name? Forever he se tteth fa st the high heavens and establisheth the solid earth* h is gov­ ernment is everlasting, h is poor servant, I bow my head and lay i t in the dust, bathed in h is grace.and glory. All the ends of the earth look up to him; a ll human beings a ll things on earth rejoice together in the great n a m e . 2d As the various Confueian schools developed more and more into philosophical materialism, the God idea f e l l more and more into the background.

According to Mencius,

heaven does not speak, hut acts, and causes i t s w ill to be fu lf ille d . That whieh happens spontaneously in the physical world and in the moral world, is i t s work. That which has come without anybody having made i t , is the work of heaven. • « • All evil i s contrary to nature. . . . Each kind of being has received from heaven i t s ru le, i t s law. From that comes the uniformity of nature, of in stin c t, in the k in d .^ hs&n-tzu does without the sovereign on high, whom he never names. As to Heaven and the Manes, he denies them im p licitly .26

24.

Quoted by Soothill, op. c i t . , pp. 281-285

25.

Wieger, op. c i t . , pp. 224-5

26.

Ibid, p. 270

Here is a summary of Chuhsi-ism, Heo~Confucianism. • • Ho God, no Sovereign, no Judge, no Providence, whatever the men of old may have said. *7 In concluding th is examination of the Confucian idea of God* the apotheosis of Confucius himself must he mentioned. Me was canonised in the f i r s t century before Christ,

through

ensuing centuries h is posthumous t i t l e s were multiplied, t i l l in the year 1907, the Empress Dowager, T z a Hsi, raised his sacrifices to f i r s t grade, thus o ffic ia lly rahfcing him with Shang Ti*

This means that in every large town and city there

is a Confucian temple containing a s p ir it tab let of the sage. Images are not used in h is worship.

Ho image is ever made

to represent Shang Ti# Buddhism. Chronologically, Buddhism was the l a s t of the three religions to touch the l i f e of the Chinese people; i t f i r s t appeared on Chinese soil in the Fifth Century A. D.

It,

therefore, i s a "foreign religion", though the ordinary Chinese Buddhist has almost forgotten that fact; too, the religion has undergone so many changes since i t s arrival in China that the Buddhism which is followed there today can he considered almost as indigenous in i t s nature as is Tao­ ism or Confucianism, i t s e l f . ¥fhat are the Buddhist ideas of God which one needs to

27.

Wieger, op. c i t . t p. 668

23 understand as having helped to form that religious back­ ground out of which a Chinese youth has emerged?

To begin

with, Chinese Mahayana Buddhism has lo s t the non-the is tic character of early Indian Buddhism — non-theistic rather than atheistic* gods.

Gautama, lik e Confucius, did not deny the

But Gautama ignored them more completely than did

Confucius.

Also, more completely than the Chinese sage, the

great Indian teacher insisted that salvation for each man depended upon his own e ffo rts — on no cosmic support from without. Therefore, 0 Ananda, liv e as having the Self as lamp, liv e as having the Self as refuge, and no other.^8 With h is negative view of the phenomenal universe as a thing compounded of evil and illusion , Gautama1s early followers had none of that happy sense which inspired the disciples of Confucius — the belief that the Universe was on the side of the righteous man.

But before Buddhism

reached China, Gautama himself had been deified, and a whole hierarchy of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas already popu­ lated the Buddhist heavens.

To get a f a ir understanding

of the idea of God as held by Chinese Buddhists, one must know something of the inner meaning of th is hierarchy. Reiehelt says that

28. The Buddhist Scriptures, quoted by R. 0. Ballou, The Bible of the World (Few York: The Yiking Press, 1939)

p. ZZI

24 . • • i t is polytheism which has in various ways, drawn th is doctrinal system, otherwise on so high a plane, into the sombre shadows of animism.29 All these hundreds of gods, from the highest to the lowest, are represented by images.

These images are looked

upon . . . principally as visible symbols of invisible s p iritu a l power. . . . I t would • . . be a great injus­ tice to the enlightened and sp iritu a l Buddhists to say that they believe the image is the god.' Again and again well-educated Buddhists state that the images are only thought to be a help for beginners in religion; for the advanced worshipper, no image, yes, no temple, is needed, because he has the sanctuary in his own heart. But On the other hand, i t happens among them, as so often elsewhere in the world, that the image, l i t t l e by l i t t l e , becomes identified with the sp iritu a l power in question.30 One must f i r s t understand the rationalizing process that has gone on in developing the Buddhist pantheon, as well as i t s great ethical significance. i t is th is .

Stated very briefly

When the h isto ric G-autama Buddha received his

Enlightenment under the celebrated Bo Tree, he himself ex­ perienced Hirvana, became free from a l l fe tte rs of sense, desire^ and illusion .

He then passed through a stage of

questioning and temptation.

Should he remain in th is blessed

state, withdrawn from the world and i t s ev ils, or should he

29 • K. 1. Reichelt, Buddhism (Shanghai: c ia l Press, 1928J p. 171 30.

Ibid, P* 174

The Commer

25 return to save h is brethren by pointing them to the way of salvation which he had. found?

To his eternal credit, he

decided in favor of the l a t t e r course.

After h is death he

entered Hirvana, was subsequently deified, and became head of the heavenly Buddhas.

A tr in it y of these are always

found in the Buddhist temples.

They can be explained as

varying manifestations of the Divine Being.

Three who are

often seen together are Gautama Buddha, representative of perfect Wisdom; Amitabha, Compassion, more powerful than Gautama because he enfolds in h is being the essence of a l l the Buddhas who have existed through the ages; and YaoShib Fu, the god of healing. Next to the Buddhas in the heavenly hierarchy who are supposed once to have lived on earth, come the Bodhi­ sattvas.

These are beings who have attained perfect saint­

hood and could, i f they so desired, enter everlasting b lis s , but they d esist, because as Bodhisattvas they can s t i l l have access to suffering humanity and help them in their need. Chief among the Bodhisattvas is Kuan Yin, the beloved God­ dess of Mercy; another loved figure in China is Maitreya, or Mi Do Fu, the coming Buddha, who w ill .one day appear on earth to establish a w m illenial Kingdom”. Below the Bodhisattvas are the saints, who, in the course of ages, w ill have acquired necessary credit to be­ come Bodhisattvas; below the saints are the tutelary d e itie s,

in w h ic h group the Buddhist a include Confucius and the god of lite ra tu re along with the ancient gate gods,

This group

also includes the guardian angels,31 As one w ill notice, the quality of mercy is the one which is all-dominating in a Buddha# Quite true, he is holy, wise, thoughtful, and Just, hut the most important thing ahout him i s that he is f u ll of mercy# Me is not concerned with vindicating the authority of the law, the punishment of sinners, etc# These functions are l e f t to the great objective powers of the universe# • • • The laws of l i f e work: entirely impersonally# They go th eir way and there is no encouragement to attempt to disturb them# Bit i t is necessary that people on l i f e 1s Journey meet the good powers as they reveal themselves in the great and merciful Buddha spirits#3£ There are several different tr in ity ideas in Buddhism, in which various manifestations of Buddha power are grouped together, being represented by various Buddhas or Bodhisatt­ vas #33 C hristianity# lib e ra l Theistie Christians are f a ir ly well agreed in th e ir conceptions of qualities which can be assigned to the character of G-od#

A few illu s tra tio n s are sufficient to

demonstrate th is point# I t has been a growing thought of God, variable with the variableness of the Christian people and th eir l i f e , influenced by the temporary p ecu liaritie s of th eir men­ t a l practice, changing with the extent of th e ir knowledge,

31#

Reichelt, op# c i t ## pp# 171-20E

32.

Ib id , p# 196

33#

Ib id # pp. 197-20S

27 impoverished is th eir times of sp iritu a l decline, and progressively enriched hy th eir long experience. . . . The revelation of God that has heen made in Jesus Christ is ' the heart of the Christian doctrine of God* in th is age as in every other.34 The a ttrib u te s of God as enlarged up cm by Clarke are personality; perfect goodness, which includes love, holiness, wisdom; and unity in character. 1S T * T. Davidson says that Jesus assumed the fundament­ a l conceptions of God as held by the Jews.

God is

. . . personal, s p iritu a l, transcendent yet draws near to men in revelation and communion, unique in h o li­ ness, goodness, and the lo f t ie s t moral a ttrib u te s. Jesus re -sta te s the emphasis on certain moral a t t r i ­ butes, making holiness and righteousness fundamental, but stressing God1s goodness beyond a l l the goodness of man, Bis mercy, and His justice combined with long-suffering grace; fin ally love is the 1 1climactic word that describes the in­ most nature of God”.35 John R. Mott says: Our message is Jesus Christ. Be i s the revelation of what God is and of what man through Him may become. In Kim we come face to face with the Ultimate Reality of the universe. Me makes known to us God as our Father, perfect and in fin ite in love and righteousness; for in

34. W. K. Clarke, The Christian Doctrine of God (Hew York: Charles Scribner* s Sons, 1909) pp. 4,15"" 35. W. T. Davidson in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics- (Mew York: Charles Scribner f s Sons,~l9l7) Yoi. ~S, pp. 256-257

£8 Him we find Sod incarnate, the fin a l yet ever-unfolding revelation of tlie Sod in whom we live and move and Have cur being# We bold that through a l l that happens in lig h t and in darkness, Sod is working, ruling and over­ ruling# Jesus Christ, in His l i f e and through His death and resurrection, has disclosed to us the Father, the Supreme Reality, as ahaighty love, reconciling the world to Himself by the cross, suffering with men in th e ir struggle against sin and e v il, bearing with them and for them the burden of sin, forgiving them as they, with forgiveness in th e ir own hearts, turn to Him in repentance and fa ith , and creating humanity amew~for an ever-growing, ever-enlarging, everlasting l i f e . 36 Bishop F# J • McConnell finds the a ttrib u te s of Sod to

be (1) personality; (£)

(3}unchangeableness; (4)

unity — metaphysical and moral; power; (5|

knowledge: wisdom,

insight, sympathetic understanding; (6)

omnipresence —

divine nearness of action and of feeling; (7) all-pervading law; (8)

transcendence; (9)

kingship, involving responsibility; (11) tic e , patience; (1£)

immanence —

creativ ity ; (10) fatherhood: Jus­

co-operation: co-worker with man for

redemption of society; (13)

friendship#^?

Khudson says that ideas of Cod as analyzed by Chris­ tian scholars present much nunity in diversity*1. gives what he calls the

He f i r s t

Vphilosophical presuppositions” of

the Christian doctrine of Cod#

T h e s e include absoluteness,

which is the quality that • • # d ifferentiates the divine from the human and

36#

John R# Mott, op# c it# , p# £01

37# F# J. McConnell, The Christlike Cod The Abingdon Press, 19£7)

(Hew York:

29 from a l l f in ite beings, and gives to i t i t s u n i q u e n e s s . 38 God is absolute in the sense th at he is regarded

”as

the independent and self-ex isten t source or ground of the universe” *39

Ihree elements of metaphysical absoluteness

are omnipotence, omnipresence, and e te rn ity . fo deny omnipotence to God is to deny to him also moral perfection. Absolute goodness presupposes abso­ lu te power. 40 Omnipresence "means that space constitutes no barrier or lim itation to the divine p o w e r ".41 By the eternity of God we mean not only that he grasps im the sweep of h is consciousness the entire temporal order, but that he sees the informing principle of the whole, that he keeps before h is mind* a eye the eternal goal of creation. I t i s in th is unifying plan and pur­ pose of the universe that the tru ly eternal element in the divine consciousness is to be found. 42

. . . implies unity, identity, self-consciousness, and self-control • . • the la s t three . . . may perhaps b e tte r be designated as immutability, omniscience, and freedom.43

38. A. G. Knudson, Bte Doctrine of God ng&on Press, 19305 p. 242 39.

Ibid. p. 263

40.

Ibid, p. 274

41.

Ibid, p. 275

42.

Ibid, p. 283

43.

Ibid, p. 325

(Ifew York:

30 Knu&son defines the ethical character of God by his divine goodness, his Fatherhood, his love, righteousness, ju stic e , tru th, holiness, and mercy. I t w ill he noticed that in the shove analyses of q u a litie s attribu ted to God by various Christian scholars;, there is practical unanimity on qualities which pertain to the ethical character of God; the differences l i e mainly in fie ld s of philosophical speculation.

When trying to bring th is Christian conception of God to a Chinese student, where, then, can one sta rt?

Mere

are a few points of departure whose relevance is obvious when referred to the above compilation of several analyses of the character of God. (1)

I»ao Tzu* s conception of the absoluteness of the

(2)

His b elief that the power of the Tao could trans­

Tao.

form and re-create men. (3)

His b e lie f that Tao operated through eternal un­

changing law, and that the universe is grounded in th is law. (4)

His b e lie f in the creative power of Tao.

(5)

Chuang TzuTs concept of the Tao as imminent and

revealed in nature. (6)

The conviction of Confucius that the universe is

a moral order, with purpose relativ e to man.

31 (7)

Confucius* teaching, implied a t le a s t, that God

hears and answers prayer. (8)

She Mahayana Buddhist conception of God as per­

sonal, loving, seeking. (9)

She. idea, as evidenced in the cult of the Bodhi­

sattvas, of a redemptive sa c rific ia l love as an a ttrib u te of God.

IDE&S OF SIM AHB SAXVATIOH The idea of salvation as such is mot found in Taoism or Confucianism. Christian idea*

The Buddhist concept comes closer to the But both the Taoist and the Confucianist

sought the Highest Cood:

the Taoist through mystic experience,

the Confucianist through self-control, virtuous liv in g , and rig h t social relationships.

I t is in th is sense that ideas

of salvation have heen looked for in these religions. Taoism. In philosophical Taoism, ”sin 1 1 was that condition which resulted when one f e l l from a state of innocence, or nature•

in any highly organized civilized society, prac­

tic a lly everyone would he thus 1 1sin fu lly ” involved, unless he had made a definite and conscious attempt to get hack to th is original sta te .

The Tao in I t s nature

. . . i s calm, void, so litary , and unchanging. . . . I t . . . i s the model or rule for a l l creatures, hut chiefly for man. I t represents . . . that ideal state of p ris tin e perfection in which a l l things acted harmonious­ ly and spontaneously, and when good and evil were un­ known; the return to that condition constitutes the summum bonum of the philosophy of laocius.^* Taoism, though more philosophy than religion, offered th is means of salvation:

1.

S cothill, The Three Religions of China, p. 48

i s • • • the source and support of a l l things, Calmly, without e ffo rt, and unceasingly i t works for good; and man by yielding himself to i t , unresisting, un striving, may reach: h is highest well-“ being* Suffering i s the re su lt of man* s departure fr o m the Tao state of p ristin e innocence and simplicity. I t would he well to give up sail study and the pursuit of knowledge, and re ­ turn to the absolutely simple l i f e of Tao. War, s tr iv ­ ing, suffering would then a l l cease, and, floating along the placid riv e r of time, the individual in due course would he absorbed in the ocean of Tao.2 In the days of old those who practiced Tao with suc­ cess did not, by means of i t , enlighten the people, but on the contrary sought to make them ignorant. The more knowledge people have, the harder they are to rule. Those who seek to rule by giving knowledge Are lik e bandits preying on the land. Those who rule without giving knowledge Bring a stock of good fortune to the land. To have understood the difference between these two things is to have a te s t and standard. To be always able to apply th is te s t and standard Is called the mysterious 1 1power”, The mysterious "power", so deep-penetrating, So far-reaching, That can follow things back — All the way back to the Great Concordance.3 While the fore-going is largely expressive of p o l i t i ­ cal philosophy, s t i l l the point is clear.

I t is non-action

and ignorance of the world which gives virtue •

The emphasis,

however,, i s on that far-reaching, deep-penetrating, mysteri­ ous "power", which somehow takes one back to r e s t in Tao. And through a l i t e r a l return to a natural s ta te , ruled and r u le r find the height of good.

2.

As Yfaley says, "Through Tao

Soothi l l , op. c i t . . p. 49 Tao Teh Ching, translated by Waley, p. 223

34 lie reaches h is ends without the use of means”. 4

This i s the

evident meaning of the following lin es: But though few know i t , there is a bourn where there i s neither rig h t nor wrong; In a realm where every straig h t is doubled by a crooked and every good by an i l l , surely mankind has gone long enough astray? Therefore the Sage Squares without cutting, Shapes the comers without lopping, Straightens without stretching, Gives fo rth lig h t without shini n g . 5 learning consists in adding to one1s stock day by day; The practice of Tao consists in subtracting day by day, Subtracting and yet again subtracting T ill one has reached in activ ity . But by th is very inactivity Everything can be activated. Those who of old won the adherence of a l l who live under heaven All did so by not interfering. Had they interfered, They would never have won th is adherence.” These examples illu s tr a te the method of Taoist salva­ tion so fa r as i t involved non-action in achieving a condi­ tio n in th isn life which made i t possible for a person to appropriate Tao and use i t in daily liv ing .

Chuang Tzu

sta te s i t thus: Heaven cannot but be high. Earth cannot but be broad. The sun and moon cannot but revolve* All creation can­ not but flourish* To do so i s th eir Tao.

Waley, The Way and I t s Bower, Bote, p. 212 5. 6 .

Tao Teh Ching, Tr» by Waley, op. c i t . , p. 212 Ibid. p. 201

35 Bit i t is not from extensive study that this may he known, nor by dialectic sk ill that th is may be made clear. The true Sage w ill have none of these. I t is in addition without gain, in diminution without lo ss, that the true Sage finds salvation.7 I t was possible by "emptiness and quiescence" for a man to reach "through the universe" and communicate with a ll creation. . . . th is is the joy of Heaven. And th is Joy of Heaven is the heart . . . of the Sage, by which he nourishes . . . a l l under heaven. . . .8 To be in harmony with, not in rebellion against the fundamental laws of the universe is the f i r s t step, then, on the way to Tao.9 Waley states that the early Taoists definitely prac­ ticed a self-induced trance in order to become one with the Ultimate Being.

Slackening limbs and frame, blotting out

hearing and sight, one was absorbed into the All-pervading.I° He c ite s in support of this conviction passages from Chuang Tzu, one of which describes the philosopher Ch1i in such a state of trance, when a disciple said to him:

"Tou

seem able to make your body for tee time being lik e a log of wood, your mind lik e dead emtors."!!

7.

Chuang Tzu, Tr. by Giles, p. 283 Chuang Tzu, quoted by Sooth i l l , _op. c i t . , p. 72

9.

Waley, op. c i t . , p. 55

10.

Ibid. p. 117

11.

Ibid, p. 116

36 The practice of these trances and the development of yoga contributed to the transformation of Taoism from the pure philosophy of i t s early history to the system of magic into which i t has degenerated*

These early ways of salva­

tion were mentioned here because they are s t i l l practiced by the few remaining adherents to the real philosophy of lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu. I t was Chang Tao lin g in the f i r s t century A.

who

started the debacle of Taoism, which has gone steadily on, u n til today i t s p rie sts are chiefly interested in wonder­ working.

They s t i l l search for an e lix ir of immortality

and for the philosopher1s stone, and • • • are in demand for a l l the magic and sorcery in which the ignorant people put th eir tru s t .12 There i s a certain amount of f a ith in “salvation by works”, the operation of which involves amassing merit through good deeds.

These have been mentioned more fu lly in

the chapter on ethical principles.

Popular superstitions

involve a never-ending fear of devils and demon possession. Salvation from these is effected through incantations and devil worship by the p rie s ts .

I t would be d iffic u lt to find

a stronger contrast between two systems of religious proced­ ure than th is between the "aseetico-mystical” of lao Tzu and the s p iritu a lis tic animism to which modem Taoism is

12.

Sooth i l l , _op, c i t . « p. 81

g iv e n over* Confucianism. Confucianism has l i t t l e vation” •

to say about individual ns a l­

Confucius himself , and h is followers a fte r him, em­

phasized social salvation through virtuous liv in g , good exam­ ple, and rig h t relationships*

Xiang says:

The manifestation of personality is dependent upon the existence of a common purpose between two or more persons. That being so, the perfection of personality is dependent upon the relationship between two or more persons. 13 Sooth i l l says that Confucius and his disciples were occupied with the inculcation of virtue for i t s own sake as well as for the happiness and good fortune i t brings in th is l i f e , rather than with the character and consequences of sin. The way of salvation is in living a virtuous life* Heaven blesses and accepts such a man. I f he does wrong and liv e s an evil l i f e l e t him reform, and Cod w ill ac­ cept him. I f he dies in his sins, w ell, Heaven has caused him to perish as-he deserved. What of the a fte r­ wards i s not discussed.-*^ Sin i s definitely acknowledged, though punishment is looked for in th is l i f e rather than in the future. Reformation from wrong-doing is required, rather than penitence and appeal for rem issio n.^ Confucius' famous saying that lfMe who has sinned

13.

Xiang, History of Chinese P o litic a l Thought, p. 39

14.

Soothill, op. c i t . , p. £64

against Heaven Has mo place to pray11, "brings oat the fact that elm i s committed against God.

THis would seem a logical

corollary to the proposition that mam1s mature was given him by God, and i s , therefore, good. For Confucius,as did Mencius la te r to am even greater degree, believed that mam by mature i s innocent and good.

He

needed, and received, no grace of God to save him fro® h is sins, i f he were properly trained; and i f he had fa lle n into ev il ways he needed no assistance fro® without, for he had power within himself to reform himself.

In such a moral

reformation he could bring about the perfection which be­ longed to the "superior Man11. Heaven might commission men to perform certain tasks, and protect the® whilst in the execution of them, but, for the carrying out of those commissions, man must de­ pend upon h is own unaided a b ilitie s , upon th at "nature" predisposed toward goodness, which Heaven had conferred on him, and to which he himself must allow i t s f u ll de­ velopment, in harmony with the observed course of nature and the examples of the great sages of the p a s t.16 Ih is saving power of example played a large part in the Confucian system.

I t has been dealt with more fu lly in

the chapter on eth ics. Mencius, the most important of Confucius1 disciples, believed that salvation for the individual and for society depended upon education and right training of the person

lo 16. G. Walshe, in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, a r tic le China, Vol. 4, p. T7

39 in order to maintain and develop th is innate goodness of man’ s mature*

Chu Msi, the great commentator of the twelfth

century, maintained and supported the teachings of Confucius and Mencius, ‘While establishing that system which has become the orthodox Confucianism of today*

There i s , in th is p h il­

osophic system, firm dependence on the great F irs t Cause, which i s equivalent to moral law, "the supreme controlling force in the universe" *17

The salvation offered in th is

system i s that of virtuous adherence to the true "Mean". In Chu Hsi’ s system man gets no assistance from super­ natural agencies in h is endeavour to keep the Mean. There i s no redemption of sin through divine interven­ tion, nor any Judgment or future reward. Prayer, accord­ ingly, plays no part in h is system, for the moral law, to which heaven i s reduced, though benevolent, does not intervene in the imdivi dual problems of mankind. . . . Chu Msi believed that man* s m aterial destiny . • • was , ordered by the Decree of Heaven, but that th is Decree did mot prevent the cultivation of the moral nature, which was the f i r s t duty of man, however he might be circum­ stanced. He offered no answer to the problem why men were born with such varying fortunes. . . . This omis­ sion l e f t Buddhism with an unchallenged answer to the great problem. 18 Buddhism. Bo i t is in Buddhism that one expects to find a highly developed plan of salvation accompanying definite theories regarding sin and i t s consequences. Man, said the Buddhists, suffers in th is incarnation

17.

Fitzgerald, China, p. 410

18.

Ibid, p. 412

for the ©ins Me committed in the l a s t , or is rewarded by happiness mow for his virtuous l i f e in past ages. 19 nothing i s more important than to he prepared for l i f e and for death*20 » * * the most important thing is that under the strain of your daily duties you can reach the higher wisdom and the compassionate state of mind* • • • You w ill he ahle to conquer the sins which are devastating your earthly l i f e . 21 Saved to save* !2his is the great thing, containing boundless merit. 22 Sin, then, was a thing of consequence — to he taken into account very definitely; and because of the ideology which grew up about these consequences, with whole systems of h e lls where the sinner would be punished and prepared for h is next existence, methods of salvation were of prime im­ portance.

In the early days of Buddhism, Gautama had taught

th at e v il inhered in matter as such, and that sin related to the senses and th e ir g ra tific a tio n .23

Salvation was a matter

of losing a l l desire or " th irs t" , of whatever kind, and of attaining the supreme blessing of Mirvsna, or nothingness. So long as Hirvana was not yet attained one remained subject

v

19*

Fitzgerald, pp. c i t . , p. 412

20* From Catechism of Bure land School of Buddhism, quoted by Beichelt, Buddhism, p# 166 2^*

Ibid. p. 168

22*

Ibid, p. 170

23. Khys-Bsvids, quoted by Bateson in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Yol. I I , p. 759 A rtic le , Body

41 to tine law of Karma, which entailed continued re -b irth and consequent

s u ffe r in g

*24

Mahayama Buddhism, in i t s philosophy

retained th is concept of the tramsitorimess and ev il Inatore of the phenomenal creation, bat for the great majority of the people sin consisted in unlawful sensual g ratificatio n s and se lfish vices, in conduct which, according to established custom, was immoral and contrary to the good of society* Mahayama also retained the concept of the “law of the Wheel” — Kama*

Heither h e ll nor heaven was of eternal duration.

Eventually a l l mankind would be saved by attaining nirvana, but meanwhile uncounted ages might be passed in a place of indescribable to rtu re.

Hence the growth of well-defined

theories of salvation*25 Carpenter has defined Hirvana, the ultimate aim of a l l Buddhist salvation, regardless of sect, as the condition of holiness, * • • the attainment of complete self-control and the knowledge and insight which were inseparably united with i t . 26 The search fo r salvation consists of . . . a great resolve, maintained untiringly from l i f e to l i f e and age a fte r age through the unceasing cosmic

24. York:

J. E. Carpenter, Buddhism and Christianity Geo. Doran Co. , 1^23) pT 107

25.

OfH eill, The Quest for God in China, pp. 150-1

26*

Carpenter, op. c i t . , p. 123

rhythm of origination and dissolution* • . . certain of fulfillm ent. Slothing can fru strate i t provided that i t s tension is neYer relaxed. The mysterious force of Kar­ ma w ill secure i t s aim. tod, secondly, the path to 3mow ledge lay through v irtu e. Insight was the f r u i t of char a c te r. The secret of existence was open to perfect rig h t eonsne ss. Soothill describes th is condition as one where . . . *neither gods nor men w ill see him1, extin­ guished lik e a lamp, and h is Karma no longer capable of individualization.*8 0*Hei l l gives h is interpretation of the idea as fo l­ lows: I f you striv e you also may escape by the narrow gate, leading to where I am. Then you w ill a t l a s t find peace, and a b lis s that ever follows on the death of s e lf . What happens when my body perishes I know not. One thing I know. The cord that bound me to the th ir s t fo r se lfish l i f e i s forever sundered. Mo power can drag me back to separate existence. I want nothing, n either death nor l i f e . B&pty of a l l desire, I have even now gained perfect peace, in the future to be crowned by eternal emancipation, beyond anything that the heart of man can conceive. I f you ask me, Is i t annihilation? — a l l I can say is that th is present l i f e i s a terrifying dream, set free from which, we depart to where suffering and sorrow are no m o r e . 29 The Mahayanist Buddhist does not stress the concept of Eirvana, because intervening between h is present l i f e and the attainment of that desired s ta te , l i e possible eons of existence in various h e lls or in paradises of unspeakable b lis s .

Cousefuently h is plans of salvation have as th e ir

27.

Carpenter, op. c i t . , p. 183

28.

Soothill, op. c i t . , p. 116

29.

O’H eill, op. c i t . , pp. 134-5

m immediate objective, an entrance tote heaven. There are two prominent schools of cfoinese Mah&yana Buddhism; these include thousands of sects, each of which stresses a slig h tly varying interpretation of ICahayana doc­ trine »

One of these schools emphasizes salivation by contem­

plation, the other salvation by fa ith .

Through contempla­

tion a man becomes . « . conscious through personal experience of the ultim ate nature of h is inner being. This insight breaks as i t were the wall of in te lle ctu a l lim itation, and brings ms to a region which has been hitherto concealed from view. The horizon is now so widened as to enable our sp iritu a l vision to survey the to ta lity of existence. . . . I f God exists he must be f e l t . I f hf^is love, he must become the fa ct of cme1s inmost l i f e . SQ Sootfoill says that » • • souls of the liv in g are now saved, more assured­ ly by invocation and ceremonial than by meditation and self-suppression • . Certainly the Pure land School, which emphasizes sa l­ vation by f a ith seems very strong to China today.

Reiche l t

thinks that the Buddhist Scripture, ChTi hsto Inn, or The Awakening of F aith , has been a source of great blessing to educated people. Rot to an external in te lle c tu a l way comes the great tran sition which leads up to a higher kind of l i f e , but

SO. on. c i t . . p. 292 31.

Quoted from a Buddhist preacher by Carpenter,

Soothill, .pp. c i t . , p. 122

44 through the surrender of the heart in f a it h .32 Many men say: fWe are so permeated by sin, and our reason is so obscured, that i t is impossible for us to attain salvation eith er by reading or meditation. There is only one universal road l e f t , that of fa ith and sur­ render.33 The exercise of fa ith centers in the worship of Amitabha, the Buddha of Boundless lig h t or Boundless l i f e .

The story is

that Amitabha, in a former earthly existence, was a devout hermit who attained sainthood and could have entered into* Final Peace; he delayed in order to deliver other sufferers. Clearly th is expresses an ideal of supreme unselfishness in one who abstained . . . from eternal blessedness so long as there re ­ mains in the universe a single being who is s t i l l en­ meshed in pain or misery.34 Being deified, he absorbed into h is own nature, rays projected from the essence of five other Buddhas, one of whom was the h isto ric a l Gautama.

This explains the potency

attributed to prayer in his name, even i f the prayer consists only in repeating that name over and over.

Amitabha, "the

compassionate servant and lover of humanity?!, by his own great sacrifice has accumulated such a wealth of merit with God that some of this virtue w ill be applied to the credit of the one who calls upon him in fa ith .

32.

Reichelt, _op. c i t . , p. 226

33*

Ib id , p. 282

34.

O'Neill, op., c i t . , p. 137

45 Calling on h is name guarantees release from the bond­ age of sin*

Even one act of tru s t in calling on h is name

as death approaches insures entrance to the western Paradise* There selfishness and s tr if e disappeared in love and peace* In the presence of In fin ite lig h t the saints could enjoy God forever.35 When Amitahha refused Firvana he made forty-eight vows stating the conditions under which he would become a Buddha; one of these conditions was that he might f i r s t be able to save a l l living things.

The eighteenth vow reads

as follows: When I become a Buddha, l e t a l l liv ing things of the ten regions of the universe maintain a confident and Joyful fa ith in me; l e t them concentrate th e ir longings on a reb irth in my Paradise; and l e t them c a ll upon my name though i t be only ten times or le s s; then, provided only that they have not been guilty of the five heinous sins, and have not slandered or v i ll i f i e d the true r e ­ lig io n , the desire of such beings to be bom into my Par­ adise w ill surely be f u lf ille d . I f th is be not so, may ~ I never receive the perfect enlightenment of Buddhahood.3® The invocation of the sacred name was in i t s e l f su ffi­ cient to ensure rebirth in Paradise, and the more often the invocation was made, the more certain was salvation.3” Nevertheless, morals and virtues have not been e n tire ­ ly neglected in th is system.

Even in the Pure land School,

value i s attached to good works, and one i s more sure of salvation i f he adds them to h is f a ith .

35.

Carpenter, op* c i t . , p* 294

36.

Reichelt, op. c i t . . p* 142

37*

Fitzgerald, op* c i t . . p. 563

There are sects

46 which strongly stress the value of goad deeds. The Mahayanist moral ideal lays special stress on the realization of the bodhichitta by entering into the com­ munion of the saints through the exercise of a ltr u is tic virtues.®® This gives ris e to dedicat ion of merits and works for the sake of others in order to lead them to the same en­ lightenment, I t makes i t possible for §11 beings to help each other on the way to salvation and”the realizing of the commun­ ion of sp iritu al fellowship.®9 By proper offerings and good deeds the believer laid up cred it and treasure in heaven*

Ethical conduct was re ­

warded when weighed in the heavenly balance. says, 1 1The deed does not perish”. man started making himself.

The old maxim

Far back in the past the

Through innumerable liv es he

was subject to the law that by thought, word, and deed, every moment strengthens or weakens the forces of good or evil within and around him.4Q Some sects attach great value to the reading and study of the scriptures as means of salvation.

Others advo­

cate "methodical rigorous discipline of the body and the soul11. But on the whole the tendency is toward the Middle Path, which was, indeed, extolled by the very early disciples

38. Anesaki, in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. V, p. 452 A rticle Morality and Hthics 39.

Ib id , p. 452

40.

Carpenter, op. c i t . , p. 35

47 of Gautama .41 Beside Amitabha, there is a whole galaxy of bodhisattvas and saints on whom one may ca ll for help.

Very im­

portant among these are Kuan Yin, the "beloved Goddess of Mercy, and Ti-tsang, a being of in fin ite . tenderness who re ­ mains in h ell to preach to the damned.

nTJntil the la s t soul

is saved Ti-tsang w ill remain in h e l l . I?42 For people who cannot read, . . . an embodiment of the Divine mercy in an image made with hands brings some satisfaction to their ach­ ing h e a rts .43 And so the i l l i t e r a t e seek salvation through worship a t the shrine where the idol is placed; but in a moment of emergency they w ill ca ll on Kuan Yin or Amitabha when no image is near.

After a l l ,

i t is only an image, and some

conception, however,dim, of divine mercy and love lives in the heart of the lowly believer,

The learned monk can ex­

pound the Buddhist metaphysics and the philosophical concep­ tion of the T T Three Bodies of Buddha"; but for salvation he, too, calls ooa the divine mercy that he believes once clothed i t s e l f with humanity in order to accommodate i ts e lf to the needs of humanity.

41. 42. (Hew York: 43.

?fhile he lig h ts the incense before the

OfHeill,_op. c i t . , pp. 131-132 A. E. Haydon, Biography of the Gods The MacMillan Co., 1341) p. 152 01Hei l l , pp. c i t . , p. 152

48 great statue of the god, h is s p ir i t may he reaching out in a very real way to the Eternal and the Pi vine. C hristianity. Sin: Iny want of conformity to or transgression of a ru le of rectitude or duty, especially as made Icnown through the conscience or the revealed word of God.44 Sin i s any want of conformity unto, or transgression of, the law of God.45 F o r the Christian,

sin i s any transgression of the law

of God, usually interpreted through one’ s understanding of the principles expressed by Jesus* fhe necessity of freedom “ brings the p o ssib ility and p ra c tic a l inevitableness of sin , and sin seems the one point of unrelieved darkness. . • * I t is the in d iffe r­ ence, the selfishness, the greed, the lu s t for power and love of pleasure — in a word, i t i s the sin of man th at i s the great source of our i l l s and that prevents our working together for their ab o litio n .4® For the person who i s conscious of sin, the f i r s t steps toward salvation are repentance and the seeking of God1s forgiveness through confession and a changed life* For the youth, salvation involves education and training in Christian principles and in the observance of the law of love. Jesus and the early disciples . . . declared confi­ dently th e ir f a ith in an unseen, super-human world — in

44.

Definition from Funk and Wagnall’ s Dictionary

45.

Westminster Shorter Catechism, JLnswer XXV

46.

Rail, C hristianity, p. 330

49 the r e a lity and. power of God, in prayer, in guidance and inspiration from the s p i r it of God, and in the /lif e be­ yond death, They insisted that self-centered, hateful, despondent liv e s could be transformed by God1s power through repentance of sin, into liv e s of Joy, of peace and of service* They iin siste d that the t e s t of the tru ly transformed personality i s to be found in brother­ l y liv in g and in loving service *47 Br* Rail makes i t clear that two factors are involved in salvation - - a desire and a seeking on the part of man, and a response on the p art of God*

Me &lso makes clear the

fa c t th at there i s no re a l salvation except as i t works out through the personality to the betterment of the society involved* There i s a second aspect of th is fellowship with God which i s significant for man1s religious knowledge, and th a t i s the experience of saving help* Man i s burdened with a sense of danger without and conflict within* He knows the wide disparity between h is actual s e lf and h is ideals, the gulf that separates him from the holy God, and the constant tension between himself and the world* The awareness of e v il to be overcome and good to be a t­ tained i s a t the very center of h is being as a man*48 The Christian conviction Is th at the l i f e which .has come to men through Jesus Christ has brought a liv in g / re la tio n with God and a knowledge of Go&*59 As to the salvation that man expects from God: the external and magical disappear; the help is not through r i t e s that have a mysterious efficacy or by a divine

47* Personal Religions liv in g , Published by the Inter national Council of Religious Education, Chicage* Quoted by Kirby Page, liv in g Prayerfully (Mew lark : Farrar & Rine­ h a rt, 1941} p* 215 48*

Rail, op* c i t *, p* £04

49*

Ibid, p* 206

power working from without. The spiritual, world be­ comes one of order, which man must understand* Salta­ tion demands rig h t relation based on insight. God works as indwelling S p irit in and through the l i f e of man, and a l l human l i f e , social and individual, becomes the sub­ je c t of redemption*50 Christianity is a religion of redemption, but i t s conception of salvation is d efin itely determined by i t s concept of God* * * • Because God is good the Christian way i s that of mercy, God1s free g i f t of himself in forgiveness and life* Because he is personal he gives th at l i f e through personal fellowship* Because he is e th ical the l i f e that he gives is one of love and tru th and righteousness, and as such I t can be received only as i t i s lived out in relations with men* Because he i s indwelling, creative, liv ing God, th is salvation is not a violent irruption from without but is achieved in the h isto ric movement and is this-worldly as well as ©ther-worldly * Because i t is h isto ric a l and inclusive, th is salvation is both social and individual, coming in and through a divine-human fellowship and moving toward th at Kingdom of God which is the rule over a l l l i f e by the S p irit of love and truth. 51 The following expressions of b e lie f by different Christian w riters illu s tr a te varying ideas of salvation which form bases of comparison with the ideas held by those who follow Lao Tzu or Confucius or Buddha* The vision of God in Christ brings and deepens the sense of sin and g u ilt. W e are not worthy of Mis love; we have by our own fa u lt opposed Mis holy will* Yet th a t same vision which brings the sense of g u ilt brings also the assurance of pardon, i f only we yield ourselves in f a ith to the s p i r it of Christ so that h is redeeming love may avail to reconcile us to God.52

50.

Rail, op* c i t *, p. 40

51.

Ibid, p* 85

52. Mott, Present Bay Summons to Christiamity, p. 2*02

World Mission of

51 . • • C hristianity, instead of "being a purely specu­ la tiv e , or mythological, or even simply an ethical re­ lig io n , was a religion of redemption, traced to a def­ in ite h isto ric a l person, in whom God had taken up human nature into union with himself, in whom therefore he had come to mem with forgiveness of sins and the promise and power of eternal l i f e . 53 Truth i s given to mam according to h is desire, and desire i s proportionate to h is need. . . . what is threatened today is not ju st an explicit creed. . . . I t i s our humanity that is threatened. Something mon­ strous, something irremediably ev il has arisen on the earth, to wipe out, i f i t can, the existence and memory of what i s human and humane. Bit our humanity is of God; and to save i t , God w ill make us strong.” I t was the intention of Jesus Christ to destroy l i t ­ eralism in religion, and to free in mem1s hearts the fac­ u lty of mew* individual, and personal experi emce of God. . . . 55 Y ital religion may help men toward a sound philosophy or to a satisfactory eth ic, hut i t endeavors to do more. I t ever seeks to bring then to an experience of God th a t touches the deep springs of the emotional l i f e and en­ ables them to say: *1 had heard of thee by the hearing of the ear; but mow mime eye seeth thee1. (Job 42:5)5#

I t i s possible on

th is crucial mat tor of salvation

53. 0. A* Beckwith, The Idea of God T. Kelson Sk Sons, 1934) p. IS" 54. (Kew York:

(Hew York:

M. M iller, Christian Truth in History harper & Brothers, X9^£TJ p. 2'M

55.

Ib id , p.

56.

W. E. Powell, Education for Life with God

York:

The Abingdon Press, 1934)

p. 86

52 to find ideas in tine religions of China which furnish fee Chinese student, i f fam iliar with, the religions background of h is own country, with points of departure in trying to understand the ideas of salvation hr ought to him by a Chris­ tia n teacher# (1} Taoism#

There i s a profound mysticism in philosoph ical

When I»a© Tzu said th at man could lay hold on a

mysterious "power1 1 that could follow things hack " a ll the way to the Great Concordance” , he was touching on the es­ sence of fe at eternal truth which hr# Rail expresses by "divine-human Fellowship" ♦

la© Tzu may have emitted the

personal quality entirely in h is conception of fee Tao, hut he certainly expressed the idea that i t was possiible in some way fo r fee human s p i r i t to apprehend fee Ultimate Be­ ing * in such a way th at man receives fee illumination neces­ sary for rig h t living#

The Christian and the Taoist may not

agree on the essentials of that rig h t liv ing , hut the point i s that hofe believe th at God i s accessible to human need, and th is i s one of the essentials in the Christian idea of salvation# (2)

The Taoist “ believed th at one must put himself in

harmony wife fee fundamental law of the universe in order to liv e the l i f e that led to Tao#

There i s a clear lin k here

wife fee Christian b elief in am "unseen super-human world"! iin a God of law ( "fee s p iritu a l world • • • of order") ,

and in the p o ssib ility of Man1s conforming to that law. (3}

The clearest point of approach to Confucianism

i s on the ethical side.

Salvation, to the Christian, also,

involves a l i f e of righteousness and of rig h t relationships to fellow men.

Ho man is IT saved" u n til h is social relatio n ­

ships are rig h tly adjusted.

Where the Confuteianist makes

"perfection of personality" dependent "upon the relatio n ­ ship "between two or more persons", the Christian includes God as an important factor in the equation. (d)

"Saved to save" — the Buddhist expression of

the r e a l object of salvation, comes very close to the heart of the Christian doctrine.

There can be no salvation for

the Christian which does not involve concern for the salva­ tion of others, in every sense of the word. (5)

The Mahayana school of contemplation opens an­

other avenue of comparison with C hristianity.

The Buddhist

"practicing" contemplation believes he a tta in s salvation by achieving a mystical communion or union with God.

The

Christian believes th at an "experience of God which touches the deep springs of the emotional lif e " is contributive to the to ta l experience which i s understood by "salvation". (6)

The Mahayana idea of salvation by fa ith opens up

s ta r tlin g fie ld s of comparison re lativ e to stages of thought in the history of C hristianity.

Each lib e r a l Protestant

Christian today w ill define h is idea of i t largely in terms

54 ©f h is own experience.

In any case i t carries points of

contact with Buddhist ’background which a Christian teacher w ill be glad t© use*

Faith is essential t© salvation.

It

must be more than calling on the name ©f Cod — i t must be a complex ©f emotional and in te lle c tu a l b e lie f carrying con­ viction ©f su fficien t weight to re s u lt in action*

I t varies

in degree rath er than in kind from the fa ith which the Bud­ dhist is expressing when he c a lls on the name of Amitabha, believing that such an appeal is sufficient for salvation* (?)

Buddhism, lik e Christianity, though not in the

same degree, applies an ethical content to i t s conception of salvation. (8)

fhe Buddhist b e lie f in beings who have voluntar­

ily surrendered liv e s of b lis s in order to help suffering humanity carries with i t connotations of self-sacrificin g love which touch the core of ideal Christian practice. Ihe Christian believes that man can help to save h is fellow man only through such love displayed toward them.

Me be­

liev es that a v i ta l understanding ©f the love ©f God as revealed in Jems i s sufficient to transform l i f e .

Me has

the h isto ric a l Jesus to bring to one who has perhaps ceased to believe in the bodhisattvas as re a l beings.

CHAPTER IT im & S OF MORTALITY Taoism. Mention lias "been made in the preceding chapter of the fa c t th at the Taoist believed th at eventually he might he united with the Tao.

This indicates the b e lie f in immortal­

i t y of the s p i r i t , which b e lie f was a stronghold of the Tao­ i s t doctrine.

Gtaamg Tznx expressed a very beautiful f a ith

and tr u s t in the eventualities of l i f e and death in the fo l­ lowing words: The tee a t Cosmos has sustained me in th is form, given me (useful) t o i l in l i f e , ease in old age, and r e s t in death, and surely what has made my l i f e a good w ill make my death a good.JWhen Chusmg Tzn was approaching h is l a s t hours, one of h is disciples asked him concerning funeral arrangements, to which the Sage replied: With heaven and earth fo r my coffin and catafalque, with the sun, the moon, and a l l the sta rs for my reg alia, and with a l l creation to escort me, is not everything ready to hand? What could you add?2 To Ctaamg Tzu both l i f e and death might be illusions: By and by comes the te e a t Awakening, and then we shall find out th at th is l i f e i s re a lly a great dream.$ 1

*

___________

1.

Quoted by Soothill, The Three Religions of China,

2.

Ibid, p# 79

2.

Ib id . p* 75

P. 7?

Bat there would he nothing in the "great which need frighten the true follower of Tao. we once understand th at the universe i s a great smelting-pot, and the Creator a great founder, where can we go th at w ill not he right?45 Before Buddhism was established in China, Taoism had become largely a cu lt of witchcraft and wizardry, into which entered the search fo r the e li x ir of immortality#

By proper

discipline, too, even the body might be kept from dissolution. There were popular stories of those whose bodies had become etherealized and "wafted away to the abodes of genii" •5

The

so-called "Bight F airies", or "Eight Immortals11, who are very in flu e n tia l in the Taoist mind, had a l l experienced such a translation to the heavenly sphere. From Buddhism Taaisn borrowed the b e lie f in transmi­ gration, and was thus enabled to make the popular ani­ mism of China more vivid and picturesque. 6 Probably the Taoist masses for the dead were also re late d to th e ir acquaintance with Buddhism.

The p rie s ts

were sought fo r r i t e s of magic and incantations which would help the soul across the Styx and alleviate the sufferings in Hell.

Smith mentions the fa c t that every c ity has i t s

temple of Hell depicting the horrible tortures

of

the

4.

Chuang Tzm, quoted by Soothill, op. c i t . » p. 7?

5.

A. H. Smith, The U p lift of China, p. 101

6*

Sydney Cave, liv in g Religions of the East The Cameiot Press, ii'td*,' 1921)' p. 160

future. 7

Soothill says that "The very essence of the Tao­

i s t c u lt • # * is the search a fte r immortality. . . . whieh fact probably explains the great popular demand for the Taoist p rie s ts , in spite of the universal fear f e l t fo r thou “ by the common people#

When considering Confucianism, i t hecomes clear th at there i s no such d efin ite b e lie f in the future l i f e in th is philosophy as th at found in Taoism.

Confucius, himself, was

ra th e r agnostic than unbelieving in th is matter# # # # Confucius himself appears to have believed in the continuing l i f e of the indivi -dual* He himself practiced ancestor worship and considered i t a matter of importance, though without expressing any definite opinion as to why i t should be practiced*9 * * * he observed with scrupulous care the ancestral worship but he would say l i t t l e of the existence of the s p ir its of the dead which th at worship presupposes* * * 1While you do not know l i f e , how can you know death?* His in te re st lay in th is world, not in the next*i° The l a s t statement above probably explains why Con­ fucius adopted such a tentative a ttitu d e toward the future life *

He was intensely interested in emphasizing the b etter

rnent of earthly society#

In th is in te re st he wished to l i f t

7#

Smith*, _og* c i t *, p* 103

8*

SoothiU, op* c it* , p* 207

9* (Chicago: 10#

C* S# Braden, Man* s Quest for Salvation W illett, Clark, & (So*, 194T) p# H>2 Cave, op* c i t *, p# 156

58 the people as fa r as possible out of superst i t iou s- “ beliefs and practices.

Bio doubt be thought th at one way to do th is

was to lighten the emphasis on the s p ir its in the a fte r l i f e . He simply avoided the subject*

When ashed i f the s p ir its of

the dead had cognizance of the liv ing , he replied: I f I were to say th at the dead have such knowledge, I am afraid th at f i l i a l sons and dutiful grandsons would injure th e ir substance in paying the l a s t offices to the departed; and i f I were to say that the dead had no such knowledge, I am afraid l e s t um filial sons should leave th e ir parents unburied. Xou need not wish to brew wheth­ er the dead have knowledge or not. There is no present urgency about the point. Hereafter you w ill brow i t for y a u rs e lf.il Confucius strengthened and stab ilized the religion of the ancients. ship.

The heart of th at religion was ancestor wor­

The b e lie f was th at one soul of the dead man stayed

near the tomb, or the home so long as the body was unburied. The heavenly soul ascended to the palace of Shang Ti.

Sac­

r if ic e s made by the liv in g descendants assured th is soul a safe Journey to the abode where i t might become a deity and could guide and a s s is t the living members of the family.

The

earth soul eould become am ev il s p ir it i f not properly vener­ ated*

The happiness of the soul of the dead and the well­

being of the livin g depended on the worship accorded to the ancestor .1^

11.

Saith, op. c i t . , p. 94

12.

Fitzgerald, China: A Short Cultural History, p. 43

59 The philosophy of the Eeo-Comftieianists effected a "bold compromise between f a ith and materialism1 1* . . » a t death, the breath lea Yes the body and i s scattered and mingled with the universal air* Bat i t i s capable of coming together again a t the time of ancestral worship, on the law that lih e responds to the like* lEhat i s , the descendants who conduct the worship have the same breath in them that once animated th e ir ancestors* When the descendants in sincerity and concentration of s p ir i t hecfcon the ancestral s p ir it to re torn to the house, on such occasions, the scattered s p ir it i s capable of as­ sembling again and returning* However, th is 1re-forma­ tio n T of the scattered s p ir it into a unity is only tem­ porary, being held together only by the intense concentra­ tion of the worshipper1s mind during the worship* And so i t is impossible for the ancestral s p ir it to unite and re-incarnate i t s e l f in a body and thus have a second l i f e , such as the Buddhists teach*i3

I t i s perhaps because Buddhism had such clear-cut and tangible concepts of the a f te r lif e that i t found so ready a welcome in China* . « T he Buddha bade h is disciples avert th e ir gaze from the l i f e to come, but i t is in reference to the l i f e to come th a t Buddhism in China has made i t s chief appeal* The prevalence of ancestor worship , and the b e lie f in s p i r i t s , show how greatly the Chinese were interested in ■the dead, and Buddhism, with i t s doctrine of transmigra­ tio n, i t s vivid presentation of heavens and h e lls , and i t s abundant legends of the departed, was able to give to th is in te re st in the dead a more dramatic and a ttra c ­ tive foraw^5 Although Mahayana Buddhism rejected Gautama.1,s..negative a ttitu d e toward the human soul and i t s personal immortality

15* pp* 90-1 14. 15*

Professor Tsu, quoted by Qt M e i l X 9 op* c i t * , Braden, Man* s Quest fo r Salvation, p* 117 Cave, eg* c i t ** p* 169

60 these la t e r Buddhists retained the early concepts of Karma and of Firvana.

fhese concepts were altered to f i t into the

new ideology, to t they were s t i l l to he found in the Chinese

The Wheel of Karma, with the doctrine of re-incarna­ tion, i s an integral part of the Tory structure of the • • * Buddhist world view. 16 The conception of Karma i s hard to define.

Carpenter

says that . . . out of the years ju st ended and the thoughts ju s t s tille d came unseen potencies which hegot a new person, psychologically, i f not physically continuous with the deceased, ready to suffer or enjoy what h is predecessor had prepared for him hy h is "behaviour.17 Bach individual in the long chain of l i f e in h erits a l l , of good or e v il, which a l l i t s predecessors . . . have done or heen; and ta le s up the straggle towards en­ lightenment precisely there where they have l e f t it.IB I f a person were very wicked in th is l i f e he would he horn into h e ll in h is next existence, and th is h e ll, in Ma­ hayana Buddhism, was a place of very personal punishment. Hell i s one of the grades in the wheel of Kama, re­ b irth into which is a necessary consequence of iniquity beyond a certain degree; whereas a le sse r degree would merely entail re b irth as an animal or as a woman. In so fa r as the sojourn of the soul in Kell has a duration which, though extending to ten thousand years or more, is lim ited, the Buddhist Hell i s more nearly equivalent to

16. York:

B. Mm Streeter, The Buddha and-the Christ The MacMillan Co., 19$3; pTTST”

17.

Carpenter, Buddhism and C hristianity, p. 46

18.

Rhys Davids, quoted by Soothill, op. c i t . , p. I l l

61 the Western Purgatory. 19 Their concept of heaven was that of a very real place of reward for good deeds done in th is life>

To the Mahayana

Buddhist, existence there was a continuance of a personal existence, and was dependent, Bas to the form i t takes, upon human conduct in th is l i f e ”.20

The Western Paradise is

. . . a land of everlasting "bliss corresponding to the popular Christian view of Heaven; . . . The descrip­ tion of th is land of B liss, into which the true "believer is reborn s ittin g choss-legged on the calix of a lo tu s, is given with a m ultiplicity of gorgeous detail far more elaborate than that of the Hew Jerusalem in the Revela­ tion of St. John. Other scholars disagree with Dr. Streeter as to the p o ssib ility of heaven becoming a permanent place of residence for any saint*

Soothill says that

There is a state of temporary happiness, possibly ex­ tending to hundreds of thousands of years in a heaven. 22 Bit the ordinary Buddhist laynan did not often look beyond this possible hundred thousand years of b lis s .

The

philosopher who did so conceived of an even more blessed state Into which he might enter i f his conduct in the heaven­ ly sphere warranted such reward.

This was the state of Hir-

vana.

19.

S treeter, op. c i t . , p. 94

20.

Soothill, _op. c i t . , p. 209

21.

S treeter, op. c i t . , pp. 90-91

22.

Soothill, op. c i t . , p. 114

There are schools of Buddhist thought which interpret the word to mean v irtu a lly , i f not actually, extinction. A more prevalent, and I believe a more correct, view con­ ceives i t as a lib eratio n of the re a l and eternal s e lf from the empirical s e lf entangled in the sphere of maya — the real s e lf being thought of as identical with the Ab­ solute* The storm is over; the tossed and troubled wave sinks bach on. the bosom of the unruffled ocean of Eter­ n a l Being. 23 While the Chinese believed that the seal which went into the other world separated from the earthly body, in the temple representations of heaven or h e ll, there is a body with i t s scrul being punished or rewarded. So that we have the o f f ic ia l recognition of personal , and of sin, rig h t-

Whoever has realized, however imperfectly, the over­ whelming significance of such union with God that we can think h is thoughts a fte r him, share h is designs, and do h is w ill, learns in such high moments that he is even now in touch with the Eternal, and believes in consequence th at there i s that in him which cannot die* And i f in himself, why then in a ll* 25 Christian thought concerning the immortality of th is p a rt of man nwhich cannot die1 1 has undergone many changes during the history of C hristianity.

Through a l l these

the Christian has clung to a central core of f a ith in an etern ity of existence, whose state of happiness or

£d«

Soothill, op* c i t . , p. £11

sorrow would be, to a greater or le s s degree, conditioned by tlie earthly l i f e of tlie individual*

Q3ie modem Christian

says l i t t l e of a future h e ll, save as i t refers to that con­ dition of l i f e which an un sp iritu a l man. must experience when thrust into a s p iritu a l world*

Dr* Streeter has endeavored

to express concretely his ideas on personal immortality* His fa ith can perhaps he taken as typical of that of the average lib e ra l Christian today* We have an intense inner l i f e lived in conscious con­ ta c t with the In fin ite l i f e , and therefore, unless such contact he illu sio n , capable of reflectin g to men some­ thing of the qualitative apprehension of th at life* • • • I t i s as hard fo r one whose mind revolts against b elief iin Sod to catch the subjective meaning of the paeans of immortality in st* Paul or St* John as i t is for an un­ cultured Westerner to appreciate a t once the f u ll beauty of a Chinese painting* And I imagine th at to comprehend fu lly the objective value of the intu ition s they thus body forth one would have to be a mystic or a saint* ?And I saw a new heaven and a new earth: for the f i r s t heaven and the f i r s t earth were passed away; and there was no more sea* And I John saw the holy c ity , new Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband* And I heard a great voice out of heaven saying, Behold, the tabernacle of God i s with men, and he w ill dwell with them, and they shall be his people, and God himself shall be with them, and be th e ir God* And God sh all wipe away a l l te a rs from th e ir eyes; and there shall be no more death, neither sorrow, nor crying, neither shall there be any more pain: for the former things are passed away.1 (Rev* 21: 1-4) The man who wrote th is took for granted, lik e a l l the people among whom be lived, the 1three-storey dhiverse1; and th a t conception forms the background of h is poetry. But he knew i t to be poetry; and he knew th a t the vision to ld of a supra-sensible r e a lity , which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, and which hath not entered the heart

64 of mam to conceive, t a t which God hath r e v e le d by Mis Spirit* 26 l i f e a t i t s highest level, can only "be realized iin a society of free persons among whom harmony reigns, That i s why the primacy among the a c tiv itie s of personal l i f e i s assigned to love — above the adoration of beauty or the pursuit of truth* And i f l i f e in the Beyond i s s t i l l in a society of persons, th is primacy must endure. . . . flove never f a ile th . 1 love, i t follows, is the essence of Eternal l i f e ; for here, and here alone, is something which w ill need no change a t a l l to adapt i t to the' con­ ditions of the l i f e of the world to come. . . . Thus of Eternal l i f e we have a foretaste here and now. There awaits us complete realization — t a t not in the ever­ la s tin g calm of Mirvana. . . . On earth the Kingdom of God must be a society; in Mesvem i t w ill s t i l l be sueh — t a t instead of a kingdom i t w ill be named a heme.27

I t i s evident from the foregoing that a teacher pre­ senting the Christian doctrine of personal immortality to a Chinese student is dealing with a matter not a t a l l foreign to the cultural, background of that student1® thinking.

The

educated young person may be disillusioned by a l l the super­ s titio n connected with the temple r i t e s , masses for the dead, e tc .; t a t even i f he comes from an a th e istic free-thinking environment, i t i s almost certain that the s p ir its of the ancestors are venerated in his home, and that p rie sts are called in to conduct the funeral r i t e s in case of death.

It

i s more than probable that he i s under the influence of one o f the older generation, a grandmother or a loved amah of

26.

Streeter, pp. c i t . « pp. 302-303

27.

I b id , pp. 304-305

h is childhood, whose fa ith has to he reckoned with in spite of h is own desire to assume a free and scie n tific a ttitu d e toward a l l religious quest ions*

There is a more or le ss

definite concept of immortality firmly grounded in the understanding, perhaps even more in the emotional make-up of a l l Chinese youth. (!) Buddhism.

Shis concept is very clear in both Taoism and Their systems have so intermingled that i t is

d if f ic u lt to separate some of th eir ideas, especially those held by the masses of the common people. (2)

The Christian w ill he slow to condemn unguard­

edly th e ir ideas of h e ll as a place of hodily torture when she remembers a l i t t l e of the Christian teaching and preach­ ing concerning th is matter even le s s than f i f t y years ago in America.

She w ill he humble in recalling that Christians

taught an endless eternity of horrible punishment, while Buddhists have always l e f t open an opportunity for winning one1s way out of h e ll to a future and more desirable r e ­ incarnation. ( 3 ) Even the Confucianists observe ancestor worship, while most of them assume an agnostic a ttitu d e toward other aspects of a future l i f e . (4)

The Christian f a ith in QodTs love as a basis for

b e lie f in personal immortality makes a powerful appeal, es­ pecially to the woman whose highest hope under Amitabha has

66 often "been that she might he re-hem in her next incarnation as a man*

ETHICAL PRUTC EPEES' Iff TAOISM There is a difference of opinion among interpreters and commentators ©,s to th© amount of ethical content in Tao­ i s t philosophy*

Some c ite the emphasis on non-act ion as. evi­

dence that there is no ethical principle expressed, especial­ l y those passages which ex p lic itly state that npn-aetion is preferable to benevolent a c tiv ity .

Fitzgerald thinks that

Lao Tzu considered human virtues as symptoms, only, of dis­ ease and need in society.!

Hocking says that

Lao Tzu infers that a l l concepts of virtue are a r t i f i c ­ ia l , self-conscious, and dangerous. . . .2 Soothill thinks that Chuang Tzu seems to have an ex­ treme attitu d e of r e la tiv ity concerning morals.

He quotes

the philosopher as spying: In my opinion, the standard of human v irtu e, and of positive and negative, is so obscured that i t is impos­ sible actually to know i t as such.3 Liang Chi Chao believes th at in the Taoist insistence on a return to nature, and in i t s doctrine of passivity, there is no place for developing the virtue of harmonious liv in g .

1.

Fitzgerald, China, p. 85

2.

Hocking, Living Religions and a World F aith , p. 71

3.

Soothill, Three Religions of China, p. 73

63

. . . i t i s said, 1One should mot do anything except in pursuance o f t h e natural order o f tit lag s f • This im­ p lie s a denial of tlie creative powers o f man; the inven­ tions of men are tr i v i a l happenings in the realm of na­ ture# Tet i t is a fact that although man cannot add any­ thing to nature, he can create things in the relationship between man. and man, This fa c t is denied fundamentally by the Taoist Sehool#4 I f one accepts the "natural order of things" as in­ cluding the creative powers of man, then Mr# Liang1s fin a l statement is not necessarily true#

In the Tao Teh Ching,

while i t stresses passive acceptance of the laws of nature, one finds many references to eth ical standards and ideals, a l l of which imply active ethical principles#

Perhaps there

is something self-contradictory here, to t the fa ct remains th at a f a ir ly good case for Lao Tzu1s concept ions of a moral man and moral society can he made fromi h is teachings concern­ ing the tao and i t s nature#

He might seriously advise mem to

retu rn to nature, hut the re s u lt of such return would he a moral l i f e based on high ethical conceptions#

Me included

one idea which showed great independence of thinking, consid­ ering the stormy p o litic a l days in which he lived#

This was

h is teaching of non-violence as a contributing means to p r i­ vate and public welfare# The best charioteers do not rush ahead; The best fig h ters do not make display of wrath. The greatest conqueror wins without Joining issue; The best user of men acts as though he were th e ir inferior#

4.

Liang, History of Chinese P o litic a l Thought, p# 74

69 This is called the power that ccmes of1not contending, I s called the capacity to use men, The power pf being mated to heaven, to what was of old* Chapter IHTIIIS * * * When there i s not Tao in the empire War horses w ill he reared even on the sacred mounds below the c ity walls* Chapter XDTTI * * * The ^ u ie tis t, even when he conquers, does not regard weapons as lovely things* For to thinh them lovely means to delight in them, and to delight in them means to delight in the slaughter of men* And he who delights in the slaughter of men w ill never get what he !o©3t s fo r out of those that dwell under heaven* Slue slaying of multitudes is a matter for g rie f and tears; he that has conquered in t a t t l e is received with r i t e s of mourning* Chapter XSSI . ♦ • when armies are raised and issues joined i t is he who does not delight in war that wins*

Chapter IXIX * • • That the yielding conquers the re sis ta n t and the soft conquers the hard is a fa ct hnown by a l l men, yet u tiliz e d by none* Chapter 1X0*11 He whose He whose gives life * * . * it the le s s to

braveness l i e s in daring, slays. braveness l i e s in not daring ( to sla y ), * * * is the way of Heaven not to striv e but none conquer* * . . Chapter XXXIII

He who by Tao purposes to help a ru le r of men Will oppose a l l conquest by force of anas; For such things are wont to rebound* Where armies are, thorns and brambles grow. The raising of a great host I s followed by a year of dearth* Chapter XXX

5* Teh Ching and Its'Tower

quotations are from Waley, The

Soothill comments on the fa c t that Chuamg Tzu, also, abhors the war s p i r i t , and that he would requite injury with kindness, quoting him as saying that nThe command of armies is the lowest form of v irtu e ” Dae Tzu carries the principles of non-violence into a l l departments of life*

In h is analysis of what consti­

tu te s the highest good, th is point is made clear, while a t the same time definite eth ical principles — gentleness, tru th , order — are specifically mentioned.

The highest

good involves a l l of these and consists in th at goodness which benefits others while choosing the lowest seat fo r i t ­ self* The highest good i s lik e that of Water. The goodness of water i s that i t benefits the tea thousand creatures; yet i t s e l f does not scramble, but i s content with the places th a t a ll mem disdain. I t is th is that makes water so near to the Way. And i f men think the ground the best place for buiIdimg a house upon, I f among thoughts they value those that are profound, I f in friendship they value gentleness, In words, truth; in government, good order; In deeds, effectiveness; in actions, timeliness — In each ease i t is because they prefer what does not lead to s t r i f e , And therefore does not go amiss. Chapter ¥111 Ethical principles are clearly indicated in the above. I t i s the method of attaining a society in which such p rin ci­ ples prevail th at is unusual and unconventional.

6.

Soothill, op. c i t . , p. 65

Ear did

Lao Tzu1& tendency to passivity and non-aggression keep him from having: h is ideals of service to h is fellow men*

One

would think that in the following passage he is refuting criticism of ju st that kind* « • • the Sage Is a l l the time in the most perfect way helping men, He certainly does not turn h is hack on men; Is all, the time in the most perfect way helping crea­ tures, He certainly does not turn his hack on creatures* This i s called resorting to the Light. Truly, Tthe perfect man i s the teacher of the imper­ fect; But the imperfect is the stock-in-trade of the perfect man*1 He who does not respect h is teacher, He who does not take care of his stock-in-trade, Much learning though he may possess, i s fa r astray* Chapter ZXVII Modesty and a non-self-seeking s p i r it seem of the es­ sence of the s p ir it of Taoism*

Liang c r itic is e s Lao Tzu1s

addiction to comparing human beings with inanimate objects* nevertheless, the point he makes In the following is clear. Heaven is eternal, the Earth everlasting. How came they to he so? I t is because they do not foster th e ir own liv e s; That is why they liv e so long. Therefore the Sage Puts himself in the background; but is always to the fore. Remains outside; but i s always there. Is i t not ju s t because he does not strive for any per­ sonal end That a l l h is personal ends are fu lfille d ?

Chapter ¥11 Simplicity, of course, i s one of the virtues th at fo l­ lows a return to a natural way of l i f e , and Lao Tzu exalts sim plicity.

Sometimes he does i t in an obscure way;

sometimes directly#

Both methods of presentation are il lu s ­

tra te d in the following lin e s , which are given as advice to ru le rs .

I t may sound, on f i r s t reading, as i f he is throw-

i ng away e th ical principles, hat close analysis of the meaning shows that he is saying that a return to nature, a following of fao, needs no codes and creeds, hut w ill re su lt in a virtue that i s re a l. Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, And the people w ill he benefited a hundredfold. Banish human Mndness, discard morality, And the people w ill he dutiful and compassionate. Banish s k i l l , discard p ro fit, And thieves and robbers w ill disappear. I f whan these three things are done they find l i f e too plain and unadorned, Them l e t them have accessories; Give them Simplicity to look a t, the Uncarved Bloch to hold, Give them selflessness and fewness of desires. Chapter XIX Lao fzu did not intend the follower of Tao to be sim­ ple in the sense of u n in te llig e n t, nor passive in the sense o f stupid, as witness th is stanza: Of old those that were the best officers of Court Had inner natures subtle, abstruse, mysterious, pen­ etrating , Too deep to be understood. And because such men could not be understood I can but t e l l of them as they appeared to the world: Circumspect they seemed, iilce one who in winter cross es a stream, Watchful, as one who must meet danger on every side. C erem onious as one who pays a v i s i t; Xet yielding, as ice when i t begins to melt. Blank:, as a piece of umcarved wood; Xet receptive as a hollow in the h i l l s . • • • • • • • • Which of you can rnahe yourself in e rt, to become in the end f u l l of l i f e and s tir ?

73 Those who possess th is Tao do not try to f il11 them­ selves to tine ‘brim, And 'because they do not try to f i l l themselves to the "brim They are like a garment that endures a l l wear and- need never "be renewed( ?} • Chapter XV Seeking truth , facing truth', and acknowledging truth are virtues to he sought. TT0 know when one does not know is "best. To think one knows when one does not know i s a dire disease. Gnly lie who recognizes th is disease as a disease Can cure himself of the disease.1 The Sage* s way of curing disease Also consists in making people recognize th e ir dis­ eases as diseases and thus ceasing to he diseased* Chapter 1XXI Contentment is a virtue*

This seems to he content­

ment as opposed to the unrest due to desire for gain and amassing m aterial wealth* To he content with what one: has is to he rich . Chapter XXXIII • • * Ho presage of evil ( is) greater than that men should he wanting to get more. Truly: ’He who has once known the contentment that comes simply through heing content, w ill never again he otherwise than contented.1 Chapter XLVI lao Tzu sums up h is p ractical ethics in the following words: Everyone under heaven says th at our Way is greatly lik e foUy. But i t i s Just because i t is great, that i t seems lik e fo lly . As for things that do not seem lik e fo lly — w ell, there can he no question ahout th eir smallness! Here are my three treasures. Guard and keep them ! The f i r s t i s pity; the second frugality; the third:

refusal to "be 1foremost of a l l tilings under heaven1. For only he that p itie s i s tru ly able to he. brave; Orly he that i s frugal i s tru ly able to he profuse* Only he th at refuses to he foremost of a l l things Is truly ahle to become chief of a l l Ministers. • . . p ity cannot fig ht without conquering or guard without saving, heaven arms with p ity those whom i t would not see destroyed. Chapter LZfll One cannot read and study the foregoing without d is­ covering high ethical principles.

One may not agree th a t

Lao Tzu1s way of applying them in society is the most ef­ fective, hut h is standards are evident. Chuang Tzu followed. Lao Tzu in emphasizing the virtue of passivity in the sense of accepting Tao, or the order of Mature, an d f it t i n g oneself to the great Way without s tr iv ­ ing a f te r superficial or a r t i f i c i a l aids.

He tool for

granted a l l the great eth ical values, hut they were simply and unconsciously appropriated by one who understood Tao. Tao was supreme and indivisible.

One need not s triv e for

other categories of good i f one had attained Tao. True virtue does nothing, yet i t leaves Yao and Shun fa r behind. I t s good influence extends to ten thousand generations, yet no man knoweth i t to ex ist. What boots i t then to sigh a fte r charity and duty to one* s neighbor? F ilia l neighbor, these are velopment

love, fra tern a l love, charity, duty to one1s loyalty, tru th ,c h astity , and honesty, —' a l l studied e ffo rts, designed to aid the de­ of virtue. They are only parts of a whole•

Therefore; i t has been said, 'P erfect honour includes » ll the honour a country c an give. Perfect wealth in­ cludes a l l the wealth a country can give. Perfect am­ bition includes a l l the reputation one can d e sire .1

75 And "by parity of reasoning, Tao does not admit of sub­ division. 7 Chuang ' Tzu emphasizes sincerity and magnanimity in the following: Rewards and punishments are the lowest form of edu­ cation. Ceremonies and laws are the lowest form of government. Music and fine clothes are the lowest form of happiness. Wailing and mourning are the lowest form of g rie f. These five should follow the movement of the mind. Perfect politeness is not a r tific ia l* perfect duty to one1b neighbor is not a matter of calculation* perfect wisdom takes no thought; perfect charity recognizes no t i e s ; perfect tr u s t requires no pledges.8 Chuang Tzu attacked a social system in which the struggle for wealth becomes inhuman.

He saw sons murdering

fathers, ministers murdering princes for personal gain, and he cried out, tlA thousand ages hence man w ill be feeding upon man” .9 Chuang Tzu believed that the nature of man, bestowed by Tao, involved a responsibility by th at very fa c t.

Unless

man sought a f te r and accepted harmony with the Way of l i f e , he could not a tta in the heights of personality.

Being pos­

sessed by Tao he w ill ris e above the fascination of wealth or material possessions. Your l i f e is not your own.

I t is a blended harmony

7.

Chuang Tzu, quoted by Giles, Chuang Tzu, p. 176

8.

Chuang Tzu, quoted by S o o th ill, op. c i t . , p. 65

9.

Chuang Tzu, Ibid, p. 68

entrusted to you by Heaven and Earth. Tour nature, con­ s titu te d as i t i s , i s not yours to hold* I t i s entrust­ ed to you "by Heaven and Earth, to act In accordance with it* 10 * • • he who is not Heaven-enlightened w ill not he pure in character, he who i s not Tao-endued w ill not succeed* • In th is way, in h is intercourse with a l l things, while he i s fa rth e st from having anything, he can yet give to them what they seek; while he Is always hurry­ ing forth , he yet. remains in h is resting-place*^ The la te r philosophers of la©Ism, who preceded i t s transformation into a popular superstition, movedr, perhaps, fa rth er away from the ethical, more toward the impersonal. The following is a-statement of the stand taken b y Huai Han Tzu. The axiom that the Sage ought to keep himself in in­ action, must he understood lik e this* * * * He ought not to act, moved b y external things, to the point of wound­ ing h is own nature; he ought not to act on external beings in such a way as w ill hurt th e ir natures. He ought not to undertake, he ought not to intervene • His heart never faking sid es, he ought to follow the stream of universal evolution. . • .i*5 Liang concedes two virtues to the Taoist philosophy. One was to expose the hypocrisy of the day and nemphasize pure nature to stimulate the reforming of the human heart”.

10.

Sooth i l l ,

op. c i t . , p. 58

11.

Chuang Tzu, quoted by Soothill, op. c i t . , p. 70

12.

Ib id . p* 69

IS* Wieger, A History of the Religious Beliefs and philosophical Opin ions in dhina, pp. 194-5

77 The other was that i t provided ♦ • . am incentive to abandon material civ ilizatio n in pursuit of a higher and more s p iritu a l one. 14 Ethical ideals of modern popular Taoism; are so min­ gled with those of Buddhism and Confucianism that i t is im­ possible to distinguish them.

Bawlinson speaks of the wor­

ship of the Kitchen Cod as having definite ethical content. A tra c t called "The Sacred Book of the Original Vows of the Kitchen: God1 ; l i s t s , among other things certain moral require­ ments in h is worship. e v il of men".

The Kitchen God "weighs the good and

He has "ten great compassionate hearts and

ten great sympathetic hearts".

Here compassion and sympathy

are ascribed to the god, but i t is customary for man to as­ cribe to h is gods those viftues which he admires and seeks for himself.

The Kitchen God can "transform men and lead

them, causing them to change".

This tra c t is "a mixture of

Taoistio and Buddhistic ideas with traces of Confucian ethics". The v irtues inculcated in th is . . . tr a c t are mainly social and include f i l i a l piety. • • • The sins to be avoided • . • are both ethical and so c ia l.15 The morality of the modern Taoist "man of the street" i s the morality of the old trad ition of China.

14.

A study of

Liang, op. c i t . . p. 84

15. Frank Rawlinson, Chinese Ethical Ideals ( Shanghai; 1934) pp. 25-26

Confucianism sliovs hew high a standard t t i s involves.

So

that in accepting the m o r e s of h is people as his "system of ethics" he finds himself facing no mean code, and he knows beyond doubt the dividing lin e between "right" and "wrong".

She Taoists have published a "Diary of Merits

and Demerits", from which a man can figure h is own rating in the moral scale.

Some of the items give an insight into

the standards behind th is interesting measure of values. Stopping a fig h t gives a grade of plus 5; gossiping with evil tongue, a minus 3; returning favors is worth plus 20; keeping a promise, plus 1; sincerity, plus 1 per day; be­ trayal of a neighbor1a secrets, minus 50; abstaining from th e ft, plus 1. So modem Maoism has fallen sadly from the high phil osophy of sp iritu a l sincerity taught by Dao Tzu and Chuang Tzu; but i t s t i l l has something resembling eth ical prin­ cip les.

However, these are so m aterialistic and so far out

weighed by the unethical practice of i t s magic-working p rie s ts that as a religion i t ranks very low when measured by a scale of social values.

( W lETER ¥ 1 Bm iGAX PHOTCIPEES Iff COMUCI&EISM £kere are those who would truest ion the matter of r e lig ­ ion in China and would say that cm the whole

the Chinese are

not a ^religious” people, hat no one questions the fa ct that Chinese l i f e is hased cm ethical principles*

Hor does anyone

dispute that i t was Confucius and h is followers who gave form to and perpetuated the system of ethics which has stamped i t s character upon the morals of the country. fhis preoccupation with moral principles . . . characteristic of a l l Chinese thought.!

is

A conception of moral order . . . is one of the price­ le ss assets of the Chinese which they have received from

a m tifu it^:.2 . . . in China, the man who undertakes to violate cus­ tom runs counter to his family, h is clan, the whole force of public opinion, h is feelings of reverence for h is an­ cestors, and fear of th eir spirits;, the only ethics he has ever been taught, the views of the most learned men he has ever known, and, l a s t but not le a s t, the most in­ grained habits of his l i f e . 3 Since the beginning of authentic Chinese history, mor­ a ls have been conspicuously recognized as the duty of man and the basis of well-being, both in the State, the family, and the individual • The universal value of moral char­ acter is admirably recognized by Confucius when he says th a t the tru ly virtuous man may dwell respected amongst

1.

Fitzgerald, China: A Short Cultural History, p, 73

2.

Smith, T he U plift of China, p. 34

3.

Ibid. p. 67

savage trib e s , and even transform them*4 Gentleness and goodness, respect and attention, gen­ ero sity and large -min&ednes s , humility and courtesy, the rules of ceremony, singing, and music, these are the qualifications and manifestations of h u m a n ity * 5 ©he maxims of Confucius are valuable because they • • • re s t upon the recognition of a real and eternal principle of order, lying fa r deeper than a l l Chinese form alities, or than the form alities in the mind of Con­ fucius himself*6 ©here are two principles that seem to underlie a l l ethical thinking in China.

One is the principle of harmon­

ious relationships, which is so fundamental in Chinese con­ ceptions of moral action that one can say i t has transformed ethical thinking of a l l systems into conformity with i t s e l f . Another is the criterio n of p ra c tic a lity . W e may conclude • • • that the Chinese never forget the practical aspects of any system of thought or human relationships. Much of th eir thinking and much more of th eir planning focuses in the primary and central need of enabling people to liv e together harmoniously.7 Before taking up specific ethical principles of Con­ fucianism, i t is well to remember that the Confucianists were reactionaries; the past contained the model for the present and for the future,

4.

Sooth i l l ,

©hey were

The Three Religions of China, pp. 220-1

5. Maelagen in Encyclopedia of Religion and E thics, Vol* T, p. 183 A rticle, Education 6. F. B. Maurice, Religions of the World and ©heir Relation to C hristianity (London: ¥acMfiXah Co*, XB'61')”“p •' 85 T.

Rawlinson, Chinese Ethical Ideals, p. 10

• ♦ « tra d itio n a lis ts , interpreting ancient tex ts in the li^ h t of th e ir ora views on morality and p o l i t i ­ cal. philosophy. 8 This fa ct p a r tia lly explains tine attitude of Con­ fucianism toward women — one of the greatest defects of the system.

This Isas teen taken up in a separate chapter.

I t is well to “ begin any study of Chinese or Confucian ethics with that well-nigh universal v irtu e, the practice of f i l i a l piety#

Going hack as i t does to the old folk religion,

hased in the family system and product of i t ,

i t is also the

heart of ancestor worship, that age-old and prehistoric religion of China.

I t is a fundamental virtue and part of

that other fundamental virtue already mentioned — harmonious human relationships.

ConfUeius himself defined f i l i a l piety

as follows: The service which a f i l i a l son does to his parents i s as follows: In h is general conduct to thou he manifests the utmost reverence; in h is nourishing of them, h is en­ deavour is to give them the utmost pleasure; when they are i l l , he fe els the greatest anxiety; in mourning for them he exhibits every demonstration of g r ie f ; in sacrificing to them, he displays the utmost solemnity. When a son is complete in these five things, (he may he pronounced) ahle to serve h is parents.9 The fore-going must he interpreted in the lig h t of two things: f i r s t ,

the prominence which the Confucian School gives

to the virtue of sincerity; and second, the fa c t that both

8.

Fitzgerald, op. c i t . , p. 75

9•

01Hei l l ,

The Quest fo r God in China, pp. 89-90

82 Confucius and Mencius taught that a son bad the rig h t and the duty to disobey h is parents i f h is parents would oblige him to do what was morally wrong.

Bawl in son says that the

eth ical significance of f i l i a l piety lay in the fact that the principle involved w/as to he applied and practiced in national r el at i onship s .

Confucian ethics seem to assume

th at the "emotional in te re st and attitu d e s towards the mem­ bers of ore’ s own family" can he extended to a l l men.10

^he

observance of the ancestral r it e s are an important element in f i l i a l conduct.

Q2hese r i te s also had th e ir ethical sig­

nificance. TEhink of • • • ancestors; reproduce th e ir v irtu e s .1 lo be a good descendant would, therefore, mean for many Chinese and from ancient time, following the virtues of th e ir ancestors. Thus an ethical requiremenf would be involved in observing the r i t e s . F i li a l piety i s , more­ over, often spoken of as a motive to virtuous conduct; and f i l i a l p iety , however defined, i s a v irtu e . • • . love is . . . often held up as the only f ittin g motive of f i l i a l piety. • • Virtuous conduct on the part of the descendant may • • • have a bearing on both the happiness of the ancestors and the proper honoring of them. 1A f i l i a l son’ , says Faber, 1about to offer sacrifice must have his heart p u rifie d .1 Certainly many of the interpreters of the ancestral r i t e s think of them as requiring good conduct on the part of the observing descendants. When th is is so, eth ical values? and demands are related th e r e to .il A prominent educator of China has c ritic iz e d the ten­ dency of interpreters of Chinese l i f e to put f i l i a l piety as

10.

Rawlinson, _op. c i t . , p. 67

11*

Ib id . pp. £1-22

the central theme of Confucianism#

He says that Confucius1

aim was to encourage the growth of personality — • # • in other words, the Sage’ s purpose was not to produce an ideal son, hut rather an ideal man in a l l departments of life .1 2 On the other hand, i t was also a Chinese man speak­ ing of h is hoyhood, who said, • # . ©y tongue was hr idled and my feet clogged hy f ear of my elders #13 Another general a ttitu d e of Chinese l i f e , and one which has contributed largely to the character of the society today is that of reverence fo r the scholar and teacher#

Part

of th is reverence was due to the fact that the scholar was often the counsellor of the ru le r, and always a person of importance in the community#

3*he l i

Chi gives an ideal pic­

ture of the scholar in the days of the Sages; incidentally we are told that he guards against death that he may he in wait­ ing for whatever he may he called upon to perform, and that he attends well to his person that he action#

may he ready for

He was not in any sense a recluse, hut one who was

expected to render real service# fhe scholar considers leai-heartedness and good f a ith to he h is coat-of-mail and helmet; propriety and rig h t­ eousness to he h is shield and huekler; he walks along hearing a lo ft over h is head benevolence; he dwells, hold­ ing righteousness in h is arms before him; the government

12#

Z# K* Zia, quoted hy O’K e ill, _op.

13#

Quoted hy Smith, op# c i t #. p. 70

c i t , , p# 91

84 may “ be violently oppressive, t a t lie toes mot change h is course# • . • I f the ru le r respond to him, he does mot dare to have any h esitatio n ( in accepting o ffic e ); i f he does mot respond, he toes mot have recourse to f la tte r y . » • • The scholar liv e s and has h is associations with mem of the present day, t a t the men of antiquity are the sub­ je c ts of h is study# * # • The scholar learns extensively, t a t never allows h is researches to come to an end; he does what he does with a l l h is might, t a t he is never weary/ • • « The scholar, when he hears what is good, t e l l s i t to (h is frien d s); and when he sees what is good, shows i t to them. . . . She scholar possesses a l l these q u alities in union. . . • and s t i l l he w ill mot venture to claim a perfect humanity on account of them « — such is the honour (he fe e ls for i t s id e a l), and the humility (with which) he declines i t (for himself). The scholar is not cast down, or cut from h is root, by poverty and mean condi­ tio n . . . . Hence he i s styled a scholar.14 Confucius emphasized th is reverence for the scholar, for education, and for the teacher.

Be did not hope to re­

form

Bis remedies were edu­

society through legal checks.

cation and the power of example.

Only a few could acquire

education, t a t i f these are the o ffic ia ls , they w ill govern well and set the good example necessary for the common peo­ ple.

One notes the p a te rn a listic s p ir it In Confucian doc­

trin e ; there i s l i t t l e of the s p ir it of democracy.

This

fa ith in the value of good example i s nowhere b e tte r i ll u s ­ trated than in the introductory sentences of The Great Learn­ ing, a Confucian tex t. What the Great Learning teaches is to illu s tr a te i l ­ lu strio u s v irtu e; to removate the people; and to re s t in

^4* Li Chi, quoted by Maelagen, in Bicyclopedia of Religion and EthTcs, Vol. V, p. 183 JLrt icle , Educ at ion

the highest excellence. . . . The ancients who wished to Illu s tra te illu s trio u s virtue throughout the kingdom, f i r s t ordered well th eir own s ta te s . Wishing to order well th e ir s ta te s , they f i r s t regulated well th eir fam­ i l i e s . Wishing to regulate th e ir fam ilies, they f i r s t cultivated th e ir persona. Wishing to cultivate th e ir persons, they f i r s t re c tifie d th e ir h earts. Wishing to re c tify th e ir hearts, they f i r s t sought to he sincere in th eir thoughts. Wishing to he sincere in th e ir thoughts, they f i r s t extended to the utmost th e ir knowledge • Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. . . . Things being investigated, knowledge be­ came complete. Their knowledge being complete, th e ir thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, th e ir hearts were thus re c tifie d . Their hearts being re c tifie d , th e ir persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, th e ir families were regulated. Their families being regulated, th e ir sta te s were rig h tly gov­ erned. Their sta te s being rig h tly governed, the whole Empire was made tranquil and happy. Erora the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, a ll must con­ sider the cultivation of the person the root of every­ thing besides. This brings us to another of the ruling principles of Confucianism, Hsiu Shen, the cultivation of the person, some­ times defined as “the science of moral conduct”.

This study

is s t i l l included in the curriculum of any Chinese school. I t is based upon the b elief that Heaven has bestowed upon man his nature, fundamentally good, and that th is nature is capable of growth under rig h t instruction. . . . the wise man is watchful over himself when in secret. • • • I t is only he who possesses perfect sin­ cerity who can fu lly develop h is . . . nature. . . . Able fu lly to develop the natures of other creatures, he can a s s is t in Heaven’ s transforming and nourishing work. Able to do th is , he is able to form a tr in ity with

15. The dr eat learning, quoted by Walshe, in the Encyciopedia"*of Religion and e th ic s , Yol. IY, p. IS A rtic le , Confucius

86 Heaven and

E a r th .

16

Self-perfec tion demands v irtu e s ; to perfect others de­ mands wisdom*

Virtue and wisdom are moral q u a litie s embody­

ing the rig h t Way internally and externally. I t is sincerity whereby self-completion is effected. • . • Sincerity is the beginning and end of things, and without sincerity there would be nothing; therefore the wise man puts high value on sin c e rity .17 I t is clear that Confucius ranked sincerity and tru th high among a ll the v irtues. Me who heard the Truth in the morning might die con­ tent in the evening* . . . A man who is without good f a ith — I do not know how he i s to get on. Jtaalects IY:VIIlM On Tsu Kung asking about the nobler types of man, the master said: ’He f i r s t practices what he preaches and afterwards preaches according to h is practice’ . Analects II:XIV He who knows the Truth is not equal to him who loves i t , and he who loves i t is not equal to him who delights in it* Analects VIrXVIII The Master took four subjects for h is teaching, — culture, conduct, conscientiousness, and good fa ith . Analects VII:XXIV Probably the Doctrine of the Mean has done much to in­ duce the s p ir i t of tolerance, which has been prominent in Chinese thinking a l l through i t s history.

This doctrine is

also involved in the emphasis plaeed on the five relatio n-

16and 17. 18. of Confucius

Soothill, _op. c i t . , p. 98 Analect quotations are from Soothill1s Analects

a? skips: ru ler and subject; father and son; elder "brother and* younger; husband and wife; friend and friend.

F ilia l con­

duct and fra tern a l subordination were the comer stones of the whole Confuteian system*

Upon them depended se lf culture

as well as the regulation of the family and of society. I t may have keen for th is reason that Confucius was w illing to overlook the extravagant attention paid to an­ cestor worship, . . . ‘because i t served to emphasize h is own doctrines of divine rig h t gnd the paramount importance of acquies­ cence in the prevailing order. There must he no contrariety in the home or in the s ta te ; no trespass heyond the appointed lim its, no dis­ ruption of the social harmonies. This is the Doctrine of the Mean, i . e. the avoidance of a l l eccentricity, or departure from the normal course as exemplified in iTature • Equilibrium and harmony are the two essentials to happy social relatio n s and a contented empire .Equilibrium being the negative side when the mind is hot aroused by feeling or ©notion, and Harmony the positive side when feeling is excited but acts in due accord with i t s environment. ly Soothill c a lls the Doctrine of the Mean "the radical Cosmic principle”. l e t the sta te s of the Mean and of Harmony exist per­ fectly , and universal order w ill re su lt and a l l things he nourished.20 The wise man seeks nothing from others; he does not murmur against Heaven nor grumble against men.

Quietly and

calmly, in sistin g on sincerity, he seeks re c tific a tio n

19. Walshe, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. IY, p. 18 A rtic le , Confucius 20.

Soothill, .pp. c i t . . p. 240

within. Liang Ghi Chao says that The root of a l l Confucian ethical and p o litic a l thought i s 1Jen1* Without comprehending the meaning of th is word, no understanding of Confucian philosophy is possible* In the simplest terms fJen* means fellowfeeling for one1s kind. 21 In discussions of Confucian ethics, f^enf is some­ times translated "benevolence11, sometimes "virtue".

I t is a

necessary quality for a developed personality; i t is also a necessary quality of a harmonious social organization.

In

the following paragraph from the in alects i t is interesting to see the p ractical way in which love of the people is linked with a provision for th eir economic welfare. The Master said: fTo conduct the government of a State of a thousand chariots there must be religious attention to business and good fa ith , economy in expenditure and love of the people, and th e ir employment of public works in proper seasons.1 in a le ets I:V In th is connection i t must be noted that Mencius, the great disciple of Confucius, developed the doctrine of econ­ omic provision for the people before making any attempt a t u p l i f t of personality,

he attacked the idea of working for

personal glory and gain, and opposed the idea of "rights" of man as something to be struggled for.

Develop the natural

good (Qualities of man, h is innate moral sense, and he w ill not seek "rights" •

21.

Liang, History of Chinese P o litic a l Thought, p. 38

89 Liang quotes from the Book of Hites a description of a Confuteian Utopia — the Great Commonwealth.

This is

very significant when i t comes to comparing with the ideals of the Kingdom of God* When the Great Doctrine prevails, a l l under heaven w ill work for the common good# Ihe virtuous w ill be *..■ " .elected to o ffic e , and the able be given responsibility. Faithfulness w ill be in constant practice and harmony w ill rule# Consequently mankind w ill not only love th e ir own parents and give care to th e ir own children, i l l the aged w ill be provided fo r, and a l l the young em­ ployed in work# Infants w ill be fathered; widows and widowers, the fatherless and the unmarried, the disabled and the sick, w ill a l l be eared for# The men w ill have th e ir rig h ts, and the women th e ir home. Fo goods w ill go to waste, nor need they be stored for private possession. Fo energy should be retained in one1s own body, nor used fo r personal gain. S elf-in terest ceases, and thieving and disorders are not known# therefore the gates of the house are never closed. Ihis state is called the Great Commonwealth# Liang analyzes th is passage to show that i t indicates three things: (1) and democratic; (2)

Ihe Great Commonwealth w ill be universal ©le family is the u n it of organization,

but an ideal family s p i r it l i

to transcend society; (3) nat­

u ra l wealth is to be used for the good of a l l .

I t can be

further analyzed to serve as an index of the ethical values of Confucianism. (1)

Brotherly love: " a ll under heaven w ill work for

the common good”; members of a family w ill love and care for not only th e ir own, but fo r a l l who are weak or dependent.

22.

Liang, op# c it# , p# 44

(2)

A s p i r i t of service, w h ic h i s the natural out­

growth of love* (3)

Yirtue; i s recognized as that which elevates and

enables a man* (4)

Honest^ i s a natural and desirable adjunct of

good society. (5)

TJhselfishness or selflessness is stressed.

(6)

A s e n s e of responsibility for one’s own and also

for one1s neighbor, as well as a responsibility to the cor­ porate society* (?)

Democracy w ill prevail •

nfhe virtuous w ill be

elected to o ffice1 1• (8)

loyalty of "faithfulness” w ill be general.

(9)

Harmony or peace w ill be the rule*

(10)

Selfish waste i s decried and likewise covetous

hoarding* Shu, or reciprocity, is another Confucian principle, which was a foundation stone of private and public morals. I t interacted with benevolence, love toward one’s fellows;, to produce excellence of character and rig h t social, re latio n ­ ships, which were the whole foundation of state: and society. Hotice that i t was in enlarging upon th is idea that Confucius stated the nChinese G-olden Rule”. ’ Is there any one word’ , asked fzu Kung, ’which could be adopted as a lifelong rule of conduct?’ 0!he Master replied:

’ Is not sympathy (reciprocity)

the

word:? Do not do to others: what yon would not lik e your­ s e lf. ’ ■

Analects XV: XXI11 When Tzu Dm asked what should he the character of a man of the nobler order the Master replied: ’He should cultivate himself to he unfailingly respectful1• fWill i t suffice to he like th is ? 1 asked Tzu Dm. ’He should cultiv ate himself so as to ease the lo t of others’ , was the reply. ’And is th is su fficient?’ asked Tzu Du. ’He should cultivate himself so as to ease the lo t of the people. He should cultivate himself so as to ease the lo t of the people; even Tao and Shun s t i l l remained anxious about t h i s . ’ Analects XIViXDVI One should not leave the subject of morality as set forth by Confucius himself without a formal li s t in g of the so-called "Five Constant Virtues1 1 of the Sage.

These in­

clude benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sin cerity .

The f i r s t four of these are known a s "the

four principles”, and are said to belong to a man as natur­ a lly as do h is four limbs.

Smith defines these virtues as

follows: (1)

Benevolence: an unselfish and active in te rest

in public a ffa irs ; a charitable and forgiving s p i r i t toward others: g ra tific a tio n of the wishes of parents; merciful treatment of the fatherless and widows. (2)

Righteousness: manly courage; fra te rn a l feeling

toward elders and younger persons; Justice; in teg rity ; mod­ esty in all- things.

92 (3)

Propriety:

respectful a ttitu d e toward a l l persons;

conjugal harmony; that which declines much and accepts l i t t l e . (4)

Wisdom;

A thorough investigation of the past;

knowledge of men and nature; constant practice of virtue* (5)

Sincerity;,

simple and uniform l i f e ; such abso­

lute p urity in the inner l i f e that the words of the inner chamber would bear repeating in the

p a l a c e . 23

Rawlinson has made another c la ssificatio n of what he c a lls ^personality values” to be found in China* s lite r a r y heritage. (1) Tao — the way (of the universe) which i s , or should be, an inherent and in trin sic characteristic of mans* *

(2) Teh — the root of rectitude or rig h t living within man. (3) Ch*eng — agreement between what man is by nature (good, or course) and what he does or says. . . . (4) Jen — the fundamental a ltr u is tic tendency of man* s l i f e . (5) Al — the affectionate feeling of regard for others. (6)

Shu — the a ttitu d e of reciprocal sympathy.

(?) Chung — loyalty to that which is within your­ s e lf and others. (8)

Hsin — faithfulness and trustworthiness.24

23.

anith, op. c i t ., p* 91

24.

Rawlinson, _op. c i t . pp. 39-40

93 Q2iis l i s t leads (me to think tliat i t would "be pos­ sib le fo r many students to delve t o r an unlimited time into the rich mine of Confucian ethical teachings, and continue to find new facets of meaning shining from the gems of truth, hidden there. (Che greatest interp reter of Confucianism, Mencius, pro­ fessed only to expound what h is Master had already expressed. In re a lity he humanized what sometimes seems lik e tiresome moralizing, and gave fresh l i f e to the old conservatisms. Mencius said, ’I like fis h and I also lik e bear’s paws. I f I cannot have the two together, I w ill l e t the fish go and take the bear’ s paws, so, I lik e l i f e , end I also lik e righteousness. I f I cannot keep the two to­ gether, I w ill l e t l i f e go and choose righteousness.25 As a means of allev iatin g the condition of the people, Mencius advocated a system of land and tax reform — a put­ ting into practice of the ethical principles which he taught. He said, ll05ie business of the people may not be remissly a t ­ tended to 11. 26

At the same time, he excoriated the govern­

ment in no uncertain terms. When the parent of the people causes the people to wear looks of d istre ss, and, a fte r the whole year’s t o i l yet not to be able to nourish th e ir parents, so that they proceed to borrowing to increase th e ir means, t i l l the old people and children are found lying in the ditches and water-ehannels: — where, in such a case, is h is parental

25.

Mencius, Ballou. Bible of the World, p. 454

26.

Ibid, p. 441

94 relatio n to the people?27 Mencius advocated a policy of neighborlIness and co­ operation1 in order to insure peace within the Kingdom* When one hy force subdues men, they do not submit to him in heart* They submit because th e ir strength i s not adequate to r e s is t. When one subdues m en by v irtu e , in th e ir hearts* core they are pleased, and sincerely sub­ m it*^ Mencius deprecated self-seeking and the p ro fit motive in "business1 1 and in p o litic s .

On a v i s i t to a King whom he

was advising, Mencius was asked by the King what counsels he had to o ffer which would "p ro fit” the Kingdom.

He replied:

Why must your Majesty use that word profit? What I am * . ♦ provided with, are counsels to benevolence and righteousness, and these are my only topics. . . . lEhere never has been a man trained to benevolence who neglected h is parents. There never has been a man trained to righteousness who made h is sovereign an a fte r consideration. l e t your Majesty also say, *Benevolence and rig h t­ eousness, and these sh all be the only themes*. Why must you use that word — p r o f it?29 Mencius reinforced Confucius* teaching of perfect sincerity as the basis for a l l rig h t liv in g as well as good government,

likewise the power of good example and the

value of education were strongly stressed in h is teaching. never has there been one possessed of complete sin­ cerity , who did not move others. Eever has there been one

27. 28.

Mencius, in Ballou* s Bible of the World, p* 442 Ibid, p. 438

29.

Ibid, p. 429

95 who had not sin cerity who was ahle to move others*30 I f the sovereign he benevolent, a l l w ill be benevolent. I f the sovereign be righteous, a l l w ill be righteous.3^!Ehe great man is he who does not lose his child1s h e a rt« iJhose who keep the Mean* tra in up those who do not* and those who have ab ilities* tra in up those who have not, and hence men rejoice in having fathers and elder brothers who are possessed of virtue and ta le n t.33 fhey are only men of education, who, without a certain livelihood, are able to maintain a fixed h e a rt.34 Mencius1 theory that economic reform was necessary be­ fore one could f ittin g ly expect moral reform among the people did not extend to the point of hoping to educate the mass of the population, in order that they, too, might have that stab ilizin g power which he considered education would give. The utmost he expected was that the government would in s t i ­ tu te such s form of so c ia lis tic control over industry and agriculture that the people, being physically comfortable, might find i t possible to be morally good.

Because of his

advanced views an these subjects, and because these views are so closely bound up with his ethical principles, a few rather lengthy quotations from h is works have been chosen as illu s tra tio n s of these points.

Iheir application is obvious*

30, 31.

Ballou, Bible of the World, p. 448

32, 33.

Ibid, p. 449

34.

Ib id . p. 435

96 As to tlie people, i f they have mot a certain l i v e l i ­ hood, i t follows th at they w ill not have a fixed heart* And i f they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which they w ill not do, in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflexion, of depravity, and of wild license* When they thus have been involved in crime, to follow them up and punish them; -- th is is to entrap the people* how can such a thing as entrapping the people he done under the rule of a benevolent man? (Uherefore an in te llig e n t ru le r w ill regulate the liv e ­ lihood of the people, so as to male sure that * * . in good years they shall always b g abundantly sa tisfie d , and that in bad years they shall escape the danger of per­ ishing* After th is he may urge them, and they w ill pro­ ceed to what is good, for in th is case the people w ill follow a f te r th at with ease *35 I f the seasons of husbandry be not interfered with, the grain w ill be more than can be eaten. I f close nets are not allowed to enter the pools and ponds, the fishes and tu r tle s w ill be more than can be consumed. I f the axes and b i l l s enter the h i l l s and fo rests only a t the proper time, the wood w ill be more than can be used. When the grain and fish and tu rtle s are more than can be eaten, and there i s more wood than can be used, th is enables the peo­ ple to nourish th e ir living and bury th eir dead, without any feeling against any. (Ehis condition, in which the peo­ ple nourish th eir liv ing and bury th e ir dead without any feeling against any, is the f i r s t step of royal govern­ ment. l e t mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with th e ir five mow, and persons of f i f t y years may be clothed with s ilk . ~"T51 keeping fowls, pigs, dogs, andnswifne^ l e t not th eir times of breeding he neglected, and persons of seventy years may eat flesh , l e t there not he taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of the farm with i t s hundred mow, and the family of several mouths that i s supported by i t shall not suffer from hunger, l e t careful attention be paid to education in schools, incul­ cating in i t especially the f i l i a l and fratern al duties, and grey-haired men w ill not he seen upon the roads, car­ rying burdens on th e ir backs or on th e ir h e ad s . 3 & 35.

Mehciusj’ ih/3allOTif*

36.

Ib id . p. 430

s

of the World, p. 435

97 Mencius1 preoccupation, with the economic as a deter­ mining factor in social reform may "be summed up in one fin a l terse remark: Me who seeks to “ be rick w ill not "be "benevolent. who wishes to he benevolent w ill not he r ic h .3?

He

l i t t l e a lte ra tio n or addition to Confucian ethics was effected hy Chu Msi, the next great in terp reter of the Sage, and the founder of the modem Confucian School.

Religiously,

he moved a step farther away from any personality in Divinity, hut e th ic ally he followed much the same patterns.

The Di­

vine law consisted of love, Righteousness, Reverence, and Wisdom.38

In another explanation he includes Music as part

of the substance and operation of the Tao.

The old Confucian

virtues appeared in a new philosophical settin g . love i s simply the flowing forth; Righteousness l i e s in i t s obligation to flow in a p articu lar direction, lik e water, the flowing movement of which is love; i t s flow as riv e rs , or i t s collection in pools and ponds, is Right­ eousness. 39 To serve omeTs parents i s the virtue of f i l i a l piety, to serve one1s elders i s the virtue of fratern al respect. Yirtue is what is received into the heart. Before serv­ ing one1s parents and following one1s elder brother, to already possess a perfectly f i l i a l and fraternal mind; th is i s what we term v irtu e .40

37.

Rawlinson, op. c l t . , p. 47

38. Chu Msi, Philosophy of Human nature, translated by J. P. Bruce (lomdom: ^rbbsthaim & Co. , 1922) p. 303 39.

Ibid. pp. 304-5

40.

Ibid. p. 393

98 .toy discussion a t Confucianism mast close as i t "began, with a conservative trend, a "backward look, and a strong .urge toward decency, tolerance, well-regulated and harmon­ ious living.

CHAPTER VII

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN BNL23HISM I t ie d if f ic u lt to separate the ethics of Buddhism in China from the ethics of the other great religions*

When

Buddhism came into China i t found there a well-established moral order, based on the teachings of the Sages.

Confucian­

ism had already been interacting with the mysticism of Taoism fo r several centuries.

I t s p ra ctic a l, pragmatic, this-worldly

realism had already overcome the idealism of Mo I&u.

Its

insistence on ceremony and propriety had relegated the natural­ ism of Lao Tzn to a definitely in ferio r place.

So fa r as an

ethical system could govern the relationships of human beings, Confucianism was p ra ctic a lly supreme.

Into th is world where

a mamT& position in society and h is behavior to h is neighbor were almost entirely se ttle d according to rule, where the in­ te re s ts and the values of th is present l i f e were paramount issues, came a relig io n which pointed man to another l i f e , and which weighed with a small balance the things of earth. Naturally the old system of values continued to function so fa r as p ra ctic a l a ffa irs were concerned.

In fa c t, many of the

Confttcian ethical principles were reinforced by the moral teachings of the Buddha and his followers, so fa r as social relationships were concerned. The Buddha had taught compassion toward a l l creatures; he had taught brotherhood as wide in i t s embrace as th at of

100 Confucius1 famous injunction: "All men tinder heaven are brothers".

He Had taught purity of family life#

"Thou

shalt not commit adultery1 1 was one of the fir e commandments* He Had taught respect fo r property: "Thou ©halt not s te a l”. He had taught respect for l if e :

"Thou shalt not h i l l ”.

had taught the necessity for trustworthiness.

He

"Thou shalt

not lie " was interpreted to include a l l forms of deceit and hypocritical or evasive words or a c ts.

He had included one

commandment which Confucius had never proposed: "Thou shalt not drink intoxicants". The difference hetween the moral code of the Buddhist layman and that of the Confucianist lay not in the character of the ethical teaching involved; the difference was to he found in the motive stressed and in the shifting of emphasis on ends to he attained.

The Confuc ia n ist was working to a t­

tain an ideal society in th is l i f e ;

the Buddhist hoped hy

following the Eightfold Path to reach a state of b lis s in another world, or a t le a s t to b e tte r h is condition in a future incarnation.

This s h if t of emphasis necessarily involved some

changes in the application of the moral code as already oper­ ative in Chinese society when Buddhism arrived. The family u n it was the center of Chinese l i f e , foundation and i t s superstructure.

its

The ideal nation was one

in which family relationships were extended to embrace the Baperor and a l l his subjects.

Into th is family l i f e the Bud­

dhists brought a certain element of disruption.

101 Higher than the Buddhist five commandments, which were the law for the layaan, stood the law for the orders of monks and nuns*

In th is law celibacy was the highest virtue, and

th is principle cut directly athwart the thinking and prac­ tic e of Confucianism.

Confucianism strongly emphasized pur­

ity of family relationships, and Confucius placed adultery a t the height of h is scale of sins*

But he set fo rth no sta te

of l i f e higher or more virtuous than that of a properly regu­ la te d family.

Mencius had placed the emphasis a b it further

from* the Buddhist ideal, by saying that the greatest sin was to have no sons.

So here was a conflict of ideals which has

continued to the present day and has been largely responsible for what persecution Buddhism has sustained a t the hands of Confuc ia n ist governments.

When such an occasion has arisen,

one of the f i r s t acts of the government has been to destroy the monasteries and nunneries, sometimes forcing the marriage of monks and nuns.

But tolerance is deeply rooted in the

eth ics of a l l Chinese philosophy, and there has been remark­ ably l i t t l e

serious religious persecution.

Ohe Buddhists, lik e the Confucianists and Taoists, place strong emphasis on f i l i a l piety and observe a ll the r i t e s of ancestor worship.

All the eth ical content that pertains

to these observances under any other religion is s t i l l to be found in Buddhism.

Forms of observance may d iffe r, as when

the Buddhist places more tru s t in masses for the dead than does the Confuc ia n i s t ; but the necessity for good conduct in

102order properly to honor one1s parents or th e ir departed ancestors, remains the same# She Buddhist religion, when i t came into China, placed le s s emphasis on ceremony and r i t u a l than did Confucianism. Fo> external action, however punctually performed, could take the place of fig h t affection and understanding in the h e a rt.l In i t s austere vindication of the fundamental Order of the World, In i t s assurance that for every moral wrong there was a moral remedy, in i t s unswerving confidence th at no endeavor a fte r rig h t was without f r u i t , in i t s presentation of purity, love, and knowledge as the only goal worth seeking, i t was . . . ’lovely in i t s origin, lovely in i t s progress, and lovely in i t s consummation*1& Buddhist doctrine placed a strong emphasis on the ra tio n al powers and under standing. not only a misfortune hut a sin.

Ignorance was considered 2he perfect self-control

which le d to salvation was crowned with enlightenment, that blessed sta te where Ultimate Being could he comprehended* Ih is was the course which Getama l e f t marked out for his f o l­ lowers — to overcome desire, the cause of a l l sin and suffer­ ing, by rig h t knowledge. Hever . . . has a religion set out i t s case with so complete an appeal to human ratio n al powers and empiri­ c al Judgment.^ Manjusri appears on earth "as the active personal

1.

Carpenter, Buddhism and C hristianity, p. 116

2#

Ib id. p. 128

3*

Hocking, liv in g Religions and a World l a i t h , p* 94

103 manifestation of wisdom, the Ugliest virtue of & Buddhist s a in t"

#4

Ideal monastic morality set up an extremely high

standard# There i s no doubt that i t represents the highest stage of devotion and piety to which to th is day man in Eastern Asia has been able to raise himself# I t s principle — love and devotion for every creature endowed with l i f e , carried up fa r above the level of practical use, to a height almost fa n ta stic , i f not fanatical — is the woof of 1Brahma1s Het1; the warp of th is net Is compassion, disinterestedness, and altruism in various forms — v irtues without which the realm of Buddha is inaccessible# Ike interdiction to k i l l is absolute# I t is the very f i r s t commandment, including also interdiction to eat flesh, fis h , or insects, or to do anything whatever which might endanger a life# • • # The interdiction to ste a l i s also drawn out to i t s fa rth est consequences# I t pro­ h ib its incorrect weights and measures, and arson# The command against untruthfulness and lying includes al l cheating by word and gesture, a l l backbiting or calumny, even the mention of fau lts and sins of the brethren in the faith# Further the principle of universal love causes the code of TBrahma1s Bet1 to forbid slave-dealing and slave-keeping# The honor of having prohibited slavery more than fifte e n hundred years ago belongs, therefore, to ^Buddhism# Complete forgiveness for any wrong whatsoever is required — a l l revenge, even for the murder of a father or mother, being forbidden#5 There are those who think th at the greatest weakness of Buddhist ethics was that i t id en tified sin and suffering, basing both on the material nature of creation, and consid­ ering the law of Karma ( continued reincarnation) as both the cause and the re s u lt of sin# The iden tification of sins and i l l s , the basis of which l i e s in the theory of Karma, has the effect of

4#

Haydon, Biography of the Cods, p# 144

5# DeGroote, in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Yol. I l l , pp# 554-5 A rticle, China

104 weakening the moral sense of responsihility.6 Buddhism made no formal recognition of the State and i t s claims,

The duties of c itizen s, as such, were ignored.

The social u n it was the family, and the v irtues of right living within the family group were stressed. But over the whole there "broods a s p i r it of gentle­ ness and affection. The picture is that of in teg rity , self-control, mutual respect, tru th , loyalty, consider­ ation, concord.? Carpenter says that the one aim; in l i f e for the good Buddhist was to escape from l i f e I

Conquest of passion, uni­

versal love, clearness of inward vision — a ll were means to th at end.

The Buddhist City of Righteousness

. • • has righteousness for i t s rampart, the fear of sin for i t s moat, knowledge for i t s "battlement over the city gate, and zeal for the watch tower above th at, fa ith for the p illa r s a t i t s base, mindfulness for the watch­ man a t the gate, and wisdom for the terrace above.8 The whole force of Buddhist ethic was thus concentra­ ted on the cultivation of character.9 The Buddhist G-olden Rule is stated as follows: The whole wide world we travel with our thought, Bor come on aught more dear to each than Self, Since aye so dear the Self to other men, l e t the Self-lover harm no other man,10

6>. "Anesaki', In Encyclopedia of Religion^ and Ethic s , Vol. V, p. 450 A rticle, Morality ahcFEthics 7.

Carpenter, pp. c i t . , p. 101

8. Sacred Books of the East, quoted by Carpenter, op, c i t . , p . 136 9. 10.

Carpenter, jDp. c i t . , p. 135 Ibid, p. 138

Perhaps tine following sums up the Buddhist ethical ideal as well as any words one can finds To succor father and mother, To cherish wife and child, To follow a peaceful calling, This i s the great­ e st Messing. To give alms, To liv e religiously, To give help to re la tiv e s, To do "blameless deeds, This is the greatest Messing. To cease and abstain from sin, To eschew strong drink, To be diligent in good deeds, This is the great­ e st Messing. Reverence and lowliness, Contentment and gratitude, To receive religious teaching a t due seasons, This is the greatest blessing. To be long-suffering and meek, to associate with the disciples of Buddha, To hold religious discourses a t due seasons, This is the greatest blessing. Temperance and chastity, Discernment of the Four Great Truths, The prospect of Eirvana, This is the great­ e st Messing. The soul of one unshaken by the changes of th is l i f e , Inaccessible to sorrow, passionless, secure, This is the greatest b le ss in g .ll The eminent humanist scholar, Dr. Hu &hih, believes th at Buddhism on the whole has had a degrading effect on Chinese morals.

Blocking paraphrases him as follows:

The sensible Chinese habit gives way to an assumed pessimism and an emulation in ascetic excess. . . . Self-immolation, forbidding of widows to re-marry, • . . are among the cu ltu ral bequests of th is foreign s p i r i t ­ u al disease • • ♦ I t becomes the ChY an Buddhism . . . whose teaching is th a t there can be no teaching, and whose illumination must he private and s ile n t. • * • Thus, in ffiu jShihfcs interpretation, the Chinese s p ir it wrestles with the invader and renders him impotent. 1^ I t is a western observer who speaks of the

11.

Quoted by Carpenter, op. c i t . , p. 101

IE.

hocking, Living Religions and a World Faith, p. 75

• • . compelling power of the name that lias saMuei so many yearning hearts, age a f te r age* . . • In some sueh way . . . ims the memory of a son of peace, a dealer of discord, b e e n wrought into the fabric of the a r t and the thought of h a lf the continent of A s i a . 13

13.

O’SeilX, fhe Quest for God in China, pp. 124-5

CHAPTER V I I I A.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN CHRISTIAN ITT

At what stage the ethical element came into f r u itf u l union with the religious feeling we shall never know, for i t was not an event hut a process, and i t "belonged to a fa r-o ff time, from which no records have come down. Bit through experience of l i f e i t gradually came to pass that the divine relatio n was f e l t to involve a moral claim, to he f u lf ille d not only in form alities of r e lig ­ ion hut in the conduct of l i f e , acceptable to the powers above in proportion as i t was rig h t. The ethical con­ ception of Cod Is the thought of him as making such a claim on men because of a moral character that he himself possesses#^ Christians believe that the development of th is e th i­ cal element in religion reached i t s highest point in the teaching and example of Jesus*

A Christian missionary teach­

er is fam iliar with the eth ical content of h is teaching.

She

knows p ra ctic a lly "by h e a rt” the Sermon on the Mount and the great parables which carry h is clearly defined conclusions concerning the fatherhood of Cod and the brotherhood of man. I f she has not already related her own ideas of Christian ethics to these two concepts, she w ill of necessity c la rify her thinking when she comes to present Christianity to an enquiring student#

Strahan says that Jesus placed

* # * a ll men in the relation of brothers to each o ther.2 The Saviour* s hope for the world Is to be f u lf ille d

1*

Clarke, Christian Doctrine of Cod, p. 12

2 • S t r a h a n , E n c y c lo p e d ia "o f -R e l i g i o n , and ..E t h i c s , , V o l. V, p . 726 A r t i c l e , F am ily

208 through the expansion of those affections which are n a t­ u ra lly horn and nurtured in the sanctuary of the home.3 Patema2 love is his representation of the love of God, and the family . . . Mis type of that divine society toward which humanity with a Christ within i t must m o v e . 4 Jesus’ etfciual principles center in love as the moti­ vating force, with the welfare and development of individual personality as the aim.

The Christian ethic, in the l a s t

analysis, re sts on love for God and man. And he said unto him, Thou shalt love the lord thy God with a l l thy heart, and with a ll thyy soul, and with a ll thy mind. This is the great and f i r s t commandment. And a second like'unto' i t is th is , Thou shalt love thy neigh­ bor as thyself. On these two commandments the whole law hangeth, and the prophet s. 5 Because of th is fa c t, man does not ex ist for

the sake

of

the

family,

nor for the sake of society, nor for the sake

of

the

s ta te .

Ideally, the s ta te , society, and family a ll

ex ist that manmay develop to the fu ll stature of a child of God.

A society functioning with such an aim w ill he a r e ­

newed, reformed society;

i t w ill be the Kingdom of God

realized. . . . the individual and the community alike must re ­ gard themselves as each having a place in the whole moral organism, and as working towards the Highest Good, or — in terms of religion -- the Kingdom of God. Emancipation,

3. Strahan, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. V, p. 727 A rtic le , Family 4.

S. Matthews, quoted by Strahan, op. c i t . , p. 727

5.

Matthew 22: 37-40

209 taken as an e n d -in -itse lf, and as the repudiation of moral re sp o n sib ility , is worse than useless, and results in moral chaos; hut, i f we regard i t as a means of set­ ting the moral powers free for action, so that they may most e ffic ie n tly contribute th e ir special quota to the realizatio n of the whole ethical process, then emancipa­ tion is seen to be a demand of the moral law i t s e l f . 6 Quite as significant as C hrist’ s conquest of individ­ ual liv es is His ever-widening sway over whole areas of l i f e and of human relationships. There are multiplying signs on every continent of the quickening of the social conscience. Be that as i t may, of one thing we are cer­ tain: that where He is best known and obeyed there we find conscience most sensitive and most r e s p o n s i v e . 7 Jesus lays out no scheme of duties. He is bold enough to summon the men and women whose l i f e he has shared to imitate the perfection of God. . . . He plants himself on universal s p iritu a l fa cts. • • the capacity of man to find out God’s w ill and to do i t . 8 God’s w ill is T rthat none of these l i t t l e perish”.

ones shall

God’s w ill is that man shall be perfect, even as

his heavenly Father is perfect, that i s , perfectly developed to the utmost extent of his natural powers, perfect in love. The Christian ethic is based on an ideal as high as th at. The realizatio n of such an ethic in practice is possible only with an utmost sincerity of thinking and honesty of purpose.

I t demands a psychology which w illingly faces

facts, even disturbing truths about oneself. Jesus • . . shows us that the inward disposition

6. Domer, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Vol. V, p. 279 A rtic le , E m an cip a tio n

7.

Mott, Present Bay Summons, p. 50

8.

Carpenter, Buddhism and C hristianity, p. 131

1XG which renders the sinful act impossible is the one thing of importance in the sight of God. •

•

•

•

•

* *

•

She indulgence in sinful 1thoughts and desires is not a minor offence tending to the injury of others, hut is already the soul-destroying sin . . . committed in the man1a own heart • • . . the object of the gospel was not primarily to develop a system of casuistry, but to c a ll men to new­ ness of l i f e , and to produce a character which should make sin in a l l shapes and forms impossible.9 The sincere Christian today comes more and more to realize that in order to win Christian perfection for him­ s e lf and for h is brother, he must take into account the ec­ onomic and industrial conditions of the world,

lik e Mencius,

he is beginning to understand that no man can be morally reformed so long as he is hungry and cold and out of work. The Christian ethic is beginning to demand an understanding of the forces which make our society what i t is today.

It

demands some action toward changing the basis of society i f th at basis is one on which only a superstructure of inequality of opportunity and injustice can be reared. You cannot a t once preach the religion of Christianity and practice the religion of material success, which is the creed of a great p art of the Western world and is the true competitor of Christianity for the allegiance of mankind. To divorce religion from the matters of social organization and economic a c tiv ity which occupy ninetenths of the l i f e of nine-tenths of mankind, on the ground that they are common and unclean, is to make them unclean, and ultim ately to destroy religion in the individ­ u al soul to which you have attempted to confine i t . . . .

9. F o l e y , E n c y c lo p e d ia I o f , R e l i g i o n , and E t h ic s -,. Vol. I , p. 132 A rticle, Adultery

;;

Ill I t is not a question of allowing economic in te re sts to encroach s p iritu a l in te re sts, "but of dedicating man’s struggle with nature, which is what • • • h is industry is , to the service of God, in order that i t may no long­ e r he a struggle with h is fellow men. . ♦ . The churches are neglecting ah essential part of th eir mission unless they fo ster the zeal for social righteousness, and dis­ seminate the knowledge hy which such zeal may he made effectiv e. I t must he th eir task, hy reaffirming the social application of th e ir own principles, to point the way to a society in which men may enjoy not only material comfort hut s p iritu a l peace, “ because they feel that th eir social in stitu tio n s and individual organizations are the expression not merely of economic expediency or conven­ ience hut of ju s tic e .10 Many students of the teachings of Jesus have tr ie d to state the contents of h is ethic in condensed form.

Follow­

ing is given in "brief the g is t of such an outline made hy Dr. John C* Bennett. (1) The ethic of Jesus is rooted in his relig io n . God is the pattern for the ethical l i f e . We are to he p erfect, merciful, to love our enemies, in order to he lik e God. The worth of persons is the basic assumption of th is ethic — Is known from God’ s love for them. (2) The moral problem is primarily a problem of the inner l i f e . Overt acts are the expression of motives and dispositions of the heart. (3) The central and controlling element in Jesus’ ethic is love —• without h arriers and to the point of s e lf-s a c rific e . The circle must include enemies, sinners, publicans, Samaritans, even the unnamed of society, love i s absolute in inclusiveness and in intensity. I t de­ mands singleness of mind, and forgiveness unto seventy times seven; i t is w illing to pay the price of the Cross. (4) Jesus maintained a balance between love and an aggressive dealing with e v il. (5)

Jesusr scale of values gives f i r s t place to

10.

B. Bt. Tawney, quoted by Mott, op. c i t . , p. 99

112 highest s p iritu a l goods, "but makes rooms for primary needs of health and “ bread. (6) Jesus saw the humility. One should poor* the meek, those are the folk who are

moral and religious importance of “ be as receptive as a child. The who know they are sinners — they most f i t for the Kingdom of God, 11

hr* Douglas Clyde lacintpsh

,_i

the principles of "social religion"*

has set down what he c a lls They are the principles

which many lib e ra l Christians subscribe to today. (1) The Christian, as follower of Christ, is committed to the w ill of God — the God of righteousness and un- ." fs e lfis h love — as h is way of l i f e . (2) The w ill of God i s rig h t, and whatever is rig h t i s the w ill of God. (3J) The w ill of God is the greatest and highest well­ being of humanity, and whatever is most conducive to human well-being i?s and must be the w ill of God. (4) W e can thus know, to a very great extent, what the w ill of God is , since we can find out much about what is rig h t and makes for individual and social wellbeing. God1s w ill is the ra tio n al, social good. (5) I t is rig h t to hate ev il everywhere and always, but never to hate people. : Hather should we in the lig h t of some idea of the highest remaining p o s s ib ilitie s for the individual, for the social group, and for the future of the race, learn to "love our enemies". (6) There is a higher loyalty than loyalty to coun­ try or party, namely, loyalty to the w ill of God and to the greatest ultimate well-being of a l l humanity. Above a l l mere nationalism and patriotism i s internationalism Inspired by love and f a ith . (?) In working toward the end set up by the w ill of God and by unselfish love fo r humanity, i t is highly im­ portant that use be made of sc ie n tific knowledge, espec­ ia lly of social processes and relatio n s, and that the

11. John C. Bennett, Social Salvation (Hew York: Charles Scribner's i^ons, 19351 PF7 ?G-72

furtiier development of such social science “tee promoted.^2 B.

CONCIUSIONS CONCERNING- ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

From the fore-going i t i s easy to make a comparison with the ethical ideals of the religions of China#

There is

a great body of ethical principles which is commonto these relig io n s and to C hristianity.

Outstanding among these

common elements are the following: (1)

All men are brothers and should be treated as

(2)

One should not accord to others treatment which

such.

one would not want applied to oneself. (3)

Sincerity is the only proper attitu d e in which

to approach the consideration of any moral question.

This is

always expressed as an ethical honesty in dealing with one1s own moral problems. (4)

Behind the moral law of the universe there is a

Being ( in Buddhism, Beings) who, or which, personifies a l l the virtues which man strives fo r and is capable of bestow­ ing these v irtu es on a man who seeks them. (5}

An ideal of service to fellow-men is held up in

each relig io n .

Often th is i s a very high ideal.

Buddhism

12. B. C. Macintosh, Social Religion Charles Scribner1s Sons, 19391 pp. I e9-ISo

(Hew York:

114 ©aunts righteous deeds largely as merit toward a happy fu­ ture l i f e ; Christians in the past have heen largely in flu ­ enced to do the same*

The ideal as Jesus expressed i t is

service for love# not reward.

A sp iritu a l understanding

of the beauty and goodness of God and an acquaintance with Christ as a compelling power toward righteousness ideally supply the Christian99 incentive to service.

Modem Confu­

cianism, hy moving farther from any concept of a knowing, loving God reduces i t s ethical ideal to an almost completely humanistic one.

The th e istic Christian s t i l l believes that

when love for God combines with love for man, there is usual­ ly a deeper devotion to the brotherhood# (6)

Mercy and compassion are advocated by a l l the

relig io n s. (7)

Consideration for others i s a basis for a l l rig h t

human relationships.

Confucius reduced th is idea to a r it u a l

and compressed i t in ceremony, but in ideal the re a l heart sympathy was present. (8)

Genuine love and respect for parents is a funda­

mental v irtu e.

This again in some of i t s aspects becomes lip

service and formality, but th is is not of the essence of the relig io n . (9)

Each of the religio n s, except Buddhism, advocates

some social reform and looks forward to a b etter society upon th is earth. b ility .

These relig ion s also emphasize social responsi­

Taoism and Confucianism are a t opposite poles as

125 to the method of th at reform and the re su lts desired#

At

some stages of i t s history Confucianism has advocated econ­ omic reform, as socially sensitive Christians are doing to­ day.

In la te years every religion in China has contributed

to the modem reform movement to remove illite r a c y , to b etter conditions in the villages and among the poor in the c itie s , and to build up an in te llig e n t, informed people as a basis for democracy#

I t is d if f ic u lt to t e l l how much influence

Christianity has had in the origins of th is movement.

There

is no question but th a t, d irectly or in d irectly, i t has con­ tributed largely to i t . (10)

The ideal of a l l these religions is one of peace

This is especially true of Taoism, Buddhism, and Christian­ ity . The foregoing shows that when a teacher approaches matters ethical in China, she is dealing in a fie ld which has rich associations for the student.

But Christianity

has a definite contribution to make in the close re latio n between i t s ethical and religious content, in i t s insistence on love as the motive force In l i f e ,

in the high value which

i t places on individual personality.

This exaltation of the

love motive and of personality value accounts for the fact that C hristianity in essence knows no distinction of sex so far as social rig h ts are concerned.

This l a t t e r not be­

ing true of the religions of China,, women have always occupied

am In ferio r position in the social scale. has heen considered in the next chapter.

This, question

CHAPTER IX W OM AN: H THE RELIGIONS OF CHUA ARE IE CHRISTIANITY The study of the position of woman in the religions of China was reserved for a separate chapter because i t is the one point in which the ethical teaching of lesus r is e s defin­ ite ly and supremely above that Chinese religions,

of a l l the founders of the

m view of th is i t seemed well to include

in th is chapter an attempted explanation as to the reason for th is fa c t.

But l e t i t be remembered th a t, on the whole,

women in China receive far more consideration than one would expect a fte r reading some Buddhist or Confuc ian pronouncement on the subject. Confucius i s credited with having said: Women are as different from men as earth i s from heav­ en. . . . Moment are indeed human beings, but they are of a lower state than men and can never a tta in to f u ll equality with them. The aim of female education there­ fore i s perfect submission, not cultivation and develop­ ment of the mind. 1 In the Buddhist scriptures we read Inscrutable as the way of a fish in water is the nature of woman, those thieves of many devices, with, whom truth is hard to find. 2

1. Quoted by M. E. Burton, The Education of Women in China, (lew York: Fleming H. Revell Co., l9 il ) pT“18 2. Quoted by A. Dorner, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. V, p. 271 A rticle, Emancipation

118 Bit the story is told of an elderly Chinese m ilitary man who questioned an old missionary an to the position oc­ cupied hy women in h is homeland*

Said the old General, "In

your honorable country is the woman the head of the home or i s the man the head of the home?" fhe old missionary replied, "Why, way.I f the man i s a stronger character

General, i t is th is than the woman, he

i s the head of the home, hut i f the woman is stronger, then she rules"* fbe General pushed hack h is chair smile,

and said with a

"In my miserable country i t is exactly the same I"3 And also l e t i t he remembered that women in many lands

of Christendom are s t i l l treated largely as chattels of th e ir men folk, in spite of Jesus1 pronouncements concerning equal­ ity of personality and implications concerning a double standard of morality in his teaching. To the Buddhist, woman is a being of a lower order of creation than man, not inherently e n title d to the f u l l con­ sideration given to a member of the human family.

Perhaps

th is needs no farth er proof than that women are often seen in the temples praying to Xao Shih Fu that he w ill change th e ir sex "because of the misery of th e ir liv e s " .4

3. I . I . Headland, China1a Hew Bay Wood, 1912) p. 52 4.

(Bostem: prank

Haydon, Biography of the Gods, p. 149

119 Searching fo r some underlying "belief in Buddhism which would explain the Buddhist indifference in theory to the personality of women and to her needs, one finds a re ­ latio n hetween th is problem and the different concepts of creation as held by the Christian and the Buddhist.

In the

creation story which is the heritage of Christianity „ God made a l l things and, behold, "they were very good”, universe i s a phenomenon of in trin sic value.

fhe

In the process

of creation God made man in His own image; moreover he cre­ ated woman co-equal with man.

"In the image of God created

He him; male and female created He them."5

from the

beginning of Hebrew h isto ry , even back among the shadows of the e a r lie s t tra d itio n , the woman stood by the side of man, sharing h is t o i l and trouble, sharing his sins and fa ilu res, but also sharing h is Joys and successes.

Often she stood

as a heroic figure — witness Moses* mother, Deborah, Hannah, Esther, Judith, the Shunsmmite woman, friend of Elisha, l a t e r , the women of the Gospels and of the early Church are interesting to contemplate in the natural way whereby they f i t t e d into the community l i f e and accepted the privileges and the duties of th e ir developing freedom. Here, then, in the differing conceptions of the uni­ verse held by the Buddha and h is successors, can be seen one reason for the differing attitu d es toward women held by the

5.

Genesis 1:27

120 Buddhist and the Christian.

To the Christian, the world and

a ll in i t were part of a creation that had 'been pronounced good hy the Creator himself. itiv e ly good creation.

Woman was a part of that pos­

Sex relations within the bonds of

family l i f e had been blessed by religion from the beginning. The family was a sacred u n it of society; children were a value in and for themselves.

And the growing tendency which

culminated in the Hew Testament was the ideal of monogamous marriage

and a l i f e where the s p iritu a l union of man and

wife was

of no less importance than the physical.

On the other hand the Buddha reached enlightenment and Buddhahood through a conviction that the whole creation was evil and illuso ry. the f i r s t stages of

He taught h is disciples that

one of

proper mindfulness was to center contem­

plation on the body "as something enclosed in skin and f u ll of divers impurities” .6

The disciple w.as given a very vivid

and intentionally disgusting picture of the component parts of the body for the sole purpose of inducing reflection on i t s evil nature.

Compare th is with Jesus1 incidental mention

of bodily function in his illu s tra tio n of those things which defile a man; or again with his injunction to take no thought for the body, coupled with the assurance that food and raiment would not lack because Cod is concerned even with our bodily

6. p .

246

Buddhist Scriptures, Ballou, Bible of the World,

1£1 needs*

Here are two differing worlds of thought; two e n tire ­

ly differing planes of value. How woman, in the Buddhist scheme of salvation, par­ took with man of th is evil and illusory human nature.

More;

she was not only hy the very nature of an evil material cre­ ation inherently corrupt, she was also a chief cause of man’s enthrallment and entanglement with a humanity he desired to slough off.

She was a hateful and degrading symbol of bon­

dage to the l i f e of desire; a chain which hound man to the wheel of ICarma and an endless round of l i f e and death. In Robert E. Hume* a Treasure House of the Living Re­ lig io n s , he has collected passages from a l l the great world Scriptures and has grouped them under various categories, so th at one can read representative pronouncements on divers phases of l i f e and livin g .

Under the heading, "Home and

Family Relations’1, are given moral precepts which applied to those who were seeking the good l i f e on a lower plane than that of complete abandonment

of family relatio n s.

was a lower plane, is proved

by the following:

That i t

So long as the desire of man towards women, even the smallest, is not destroyed, so long is his mind in bon­ dage.7 In the Treasure House we find: To support father and mother, to cherish wife and child, to follow a peaceful calling: th is is the greatest

7.

Buddhist Scriptures, Ballou, op. c i t . , p. 301

122 "blessing .8 Bit we also read: l e t the wise man avoid an unchaste l i f e as a heap of burning coals. Hot being able to liv e a l i f e of chas­ t i t y , l e t him not transgress with another man's w i f e . 9 The highest l i f e is complete abstention from sexual relationships; lower is the relatio n of man and wife; and, of course, lowest of a l l is i l l i c i t relationship*

But i f he is

gu ilty of eith er of these l a t t e r f o llie s , there is one who is more reprehensible than he, one whose body of corruption i s even v ile r than his own, and that is the woman in the ease. ilside from th is philosophical basis for b elief in the vileness of womankind, who is? not only inherently e v il, but causes man to lose h is hope of sainthood, there seems to be a deep h is to ric a l foundation for the Buddha1s conviction con­ cerning woman1& low status in the round of creation.

In the

Buddhist Scriptures is found the story, as set down by his devoted disciples, of Gautama's mother, of his own b irth , of the l i f e

in h is fa th e r's palace, the b irth of his child, and

h is renunciation of family life* Incidentally one should note the story of the fate of Maha-Maya, Buddha's mother, and the reason assigned in the

8* R. E. Hume, Treasure House of the Living Religions (Hew York; Charles Scribner1s Sons, 19*33) p. 2 6 2 9.

Ibid, p. 262

Scripture for her death*10 days old.

Why?

She died when her baby was seven

Because i t was not f ittin g that the mother

off a Buddha should ever hear another child.

She was pure

and "beautiful and good, "but nothing inherent in her woman1s personality as such e n title d her to continued l i f e , sure she went to heaven;

fo he

hut i f she ever re ally lived and

gave b irth to Gautama, i t is a p ity th at her historian could not have honored her simple womanhood enough to have l e t her die he cause she was too f r a il to survive the ordeal of childh irth under the sanitary conditions then prevailing, not be­ cause , having been an instrument for bringing the Buddha in­ to the world, she must lose her l i f e as an individual,

hot

so was i t with humble Jewish Mary, a definite personality, who worried over her l i t t l e boy l e f t behind in Jerusalem and wept a t the foot of the cross on which her son was crucified. How much of the story of the Buddha1s early l i f e i s h isto ric a l dact, as recorded, we have no way of knowing. Perhaps none*

But i t may be assumed that the persons w rit­

ing these stories were fa irly well acquainted with social cus­ toms among the upper classes of India in the sixth century B. C.

I f any p a rt of the story concerning Gautama is tru e, he

came from a home which in general resembled the home described in the story of nfhe World About Him11, as related in the

10.

Buddhist Scriptures, Ballou, op. e i t . , p. 185

124 Buddha-Charitn.il

Looking thoughtfully a t the conditions in

this home as pictured here, one must believe that i t was a tragic environment for a sensitive young man to grow up in. I t is easy to see how, when his moral nature revolted a t his whole way of l i f e as i t related to the suffering.world about hirnV he l e f t his home with a great aversion for the women of the harem and a disgust for the sensuality displayed there — an aversion and a disgust which carried over into the period of the Enlightenment and formed a sound psychological basis for h is la te r philosophy.

His early experience had conditioned

him to enjoin, not only purity in sex relatio n s, but celibacy as the highest good.

Out of such a philosophy one would not

expect any prophetic utterances which would tend to change social

practice or raise the status of women.

be l i t t l e

There would

to inspire woman to fa ith in herself or to a desire

for a higher l i f e .

I t is a great trib u te , both to the strength

of character possible to the Indian womanhood of that day, and also to the beauty of the Buddha1s l i f e and teachings that women in siste n tly begged for recognition in the religious orders which he founded, u n til Gautama, very la te in l i f e , grudgingly gave h is consent for th e ir admittance. I t is interesting to note at th is time, Gautama, in reply to a question of his disciple, Ananda, stating h is

11.

Buddhist Scripture, Ballou, op. c i t . , pp. 190 f f .

IBS

b e lie f that "women are capable of realizing the f r u i t of conversion" and of Arahantship .12

since i t was the aunt

who had nursed him when he was a motherless baby, and who had cared for him. in h is childhood, about whom the guest ion was ashed, i t i s gratifying to know that the Enlightened One admitted her as being possessed of religious p o s sib ili­ ties*

I t is also interesting to ponder on the depths of the

Buddha1s conviction concerning woman’ s re la tiv e standing, as exhibited in the following rule among those la id down by him for woman’s entrance into the religious orders: A nun, even i f of a hundred years standing, shall make salutation to, sh all r is e up in the presence of, sh all bow down before, and shall perform a l l proper duties towards a monk, i f only Just in itia te d . • • • A nun is on no pretext to revile or abuse a monk* • . From henceforth o ffic ia l admonition by nuns of monks is forbidden; whereas the o ffic ia l admonition of nuns by monks is not forbidden. 13 fhe fPillowing remark® to Aranda show with what gloomy forebodings the Buddha broke his life-lo n g ru le. I f , Anarda, women had not received permission to go out from the household l i f e and enter the homeless sta te . . . then would the pure religion . . . have lasted long, the good law would have stood f a s t for a thousand years. But since . . . women now have received that permission, . . . the good law w ill now stand fa s t for only five hundred y e a r s . 14 Women were accepted as well as men for lay followers in the home.

I t is not surprising that Gautama guestiened

12.

Buddhist Scriptures, Ballou, op. e i t . , p. 234

13.

Ib id , p. 235

14.

Ibid, p. 236

the wisdom of th e ir going cat as nans*

I t mast have "been a

very great departure from established custom*

His remarks,

none-the-Ie s s , show h is deep disillusionment concerning them*

Speculation is Idle; hut one cannot help hut wonder

what would have been the trend of Buddhism i f Gautama .had been bom into a home of ordinary means, with an in te llig e n t mother who had lived to rear him, and i f he had not been sub­ jected in h is youth to the fla tte ry and temptations of a prince’s harem*

Perhaps the world would not have had to wait

another five hundred years for the word which liberated a s p ir it of magnanimity among the brethren, of hope and courage among the siste rs I Aside from the section of "Home and Family Relations11, there is only one other allusion to women

in the selections

from the Buddhist Scriptures given in Hume’s Treasure-House, and that ibs in a verse deploring the fate of "the man given to women, drink and dice"*15

On the other hand in the corres­

ponding selections from the Christian Scriptures, are men­ tioned "the widow who cast her mite into the treasury" 16, words spoken to the woman at the w ell, ^ of needy widows in four places,18

special recognition

and admonition to the

15*

Hume, Treasure-House, p. 155

16.

Ibid, p. 105

17.

Ibid, p. 23

18.

Ibid, pp. 125, 209, 214, 283

127 women of the church together with the men#19

Moreover, when

erne r e c a lls that M from the beginning of the creation God made them, male and femalen,20 and th at early Christian doc­ trin e taught that in the sight of God there is no distinction of sex, one thinks he sees that most Christian admonitions to lead the good l i f e and acquire salvation are intended for women as well as men*

At le a s t, whether the one who spoke i t

d efin ite ly intended i t so or not, i t was easy for an in te l­ lig e n t woman to go hack to the word and the deed and the sp ir­ i t of Jesus and so appropriate the “ blessing for h e rse lf,

hot

so easy for the Buddhist woman whose greatest hope was that she might he horn as a man in her next incarnation. One of the things which had m ilitated against women most severely in early Buddhian was the Buddha1s insistence upon the celibate s ta te as superior to marriage. I t s highest morality demands entire absence from sexual in terco u rse^ Hator a lly , since woman1s only place in society was that of wife, she must have been considered a t best a nec­ essary e v il by the Buddhist layman. nevertheless, the rules for Buddhist laymen enjoined the husband to tr e a t his wife with reverence; not to b e little 19.

Hume, op. e i t . , p. 278

20 .

Mark 10:6

21. A. Dormer, in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethic s , Vol. V, p. 271 A rticle, Emanc ip at ion

128 her; never to "be false to her; to acknowledge her authority; and to provide her with things of "beauty.£2

To "acknowledge

her authority" indicates that she had a fie ld of authority in-the home;, and that la s t l i t t l e human touch concerning "things of beauty" opens up a v ista o±* natural human relatio n ­ ships which takes the sting out of some of Gautama1s constant warnings against her defects and vices.

Rhys Davids says

th at from the "beginning, the Buddhist Influence mitigated harshness against women and had an ameliorative effect on family l i f e #23

gjhe mother seems placed on a par with the

father in the rules Imid down by Gautama when showing a . . . more excellent way of guarding the six quarters by right conduct toward family, friends, and dependents.24 Am$mg the Buddhists, marriage was considered a purely c iv il r i te ;

there was no religious ceremony to bless a union

which, at best, must have been thought of as a compromise with e v il.

Divorce was allowed; there are instances of a

wife being sent home for incompatibility, but no instance of sim ilar action against a husband.25 Rhys Davids thinks that a remarkably high position was allowed to women in early Buddhism.

The wife a fte r marriage

22. T. W. Rhys Davids, Encyclopedia of Religion and E thics, Vol. V, p. 727 A rtic le , Family 23.

25.

Ibid, Vol. I, p. 126

A rticle, Adultery

rbid, Vol. V, p. 727

A rticle, Family

Ibid, p. 727

129

retains her own name and f u ll control of a ll her property, either dower or inheritance.

Among the common people mar­

riage is monogamous. Women go about unveiled, engage in business, can sign deeds, give evidence, join in social intercourse and £&&ve ju s t such lib e rty as they and th eir men-folk think expedient .26 In spite of th is higher freedom i t was the mien-folk in the l a s t analysis who passed judgment on the amount of freedom granted to the "thieves of many devices". Outside the home, women who joined the religious orders sometimes became famous for th e ir insight into Bud­ dhist

wisdom and for

th e ir perfection in the moral practice

of the "Sole Road of the Bodhisattvas".27

Carpenter mentions

a nun renowned for her wisdom, and says the Sisters had the same experience of mutual love and helpfulness as men. From many a clan and many a countryside, They join the order mutually bound In lo v e.28 S ittin g upon a rocky peak with the mountain breezes blowing, The S ister f e l t the breath of lib e rty sweep over her; TEmancipation dawns: my heart is free1.29 I t is good to leave th is consideration of the women of early Buddhism with th is symbolic picture.

Any great system

26. T. W. Rhys Davids, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Yol. Y, p. 728 A rtic le , family 27. M. Anesaki, Ibid, Yol. Y, p. 453 and Morality 28.

Carpenter, op. c i t . , p. 120

29.

Ib id , p.

122

A rticle, Ethics

130 of thought is always freer in essence than are i t s d e tails of practical application, which are hampered and b e little d by social customs and human selfishness.

The Buddha, by

opening a higher way of l i f e to humanity, could not prevent its lib e ratin g power from breaking the bonds, to a certain extent, even for the women. ?/hen Buddhism came into China i t found a family sys­ tem which had been operative since time immemorial.

The new

religion made no attempt to interfere with the established customs.30 Buddhism, which came as a salvation to a ll sentient beings and which undoubtedly has done much to exalt gen­ tleness and kindness toward a ll creatures has done com­ paratively l i t t l e for women as women.31 Nevertheless i t s appeal to the heart and i t s promise of a future l i f e led women to accept i t by the thousands and to spread i t s doctrines by deeds of mercy and love.

Hara

Shodo says that Buddhism nwas a needful reaction from Confu­ cianism in order to promote the personality of women". 32 That is , Buddhism gave a needed emotional outlet which was lacking in Confucianism. This was also lacking in the teachings of Lao Tzu. One has a feeling that the old teacher who believed so

30. T. W. Rhys Davids, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Yol. Y, p. 727 A rticle, family 31. Hara Shodo, The Influence of Buddhism upon the Social Status of Women in the Far EastHTThesis, 1921)~p. 84 32.

Ibid, p. 76

1331 complete!^ is the goodness that underlies the cosmos, must have had an understanding of the needs of the weak and op­ pressed, and that Chinese women might have profited fromi h is doctrine of gentleness and h is exaltation of the n atu ral. Bat h is elusive ideology could not hold i t s own with the clear-cut, p ractical side of Confucianism,

Injunctions lik e

the following must have made their contrih u t ion, even down to the present time, hut always overshadowed hy the formal pro­ p riety of Confucius, Be fa ith fu l, f i l i a l , friendly, and brotherly, F irs t re c tify thyself; and then convert others. Take p ity on orphans. Assist widows. Kespeet the old. Be kind to children.33 When the magicians took over the cu lt of the Tao, the re a l beauty of Taoism was lo s t to the people so far as any liberating service was concerned. Confucianism, then, before the beginning of the Chris­ tian era, had become the greatest social force in China. But so far as is known, I t made no contribution toward changing the age-old family customs, in the prosecution of which, through the centuries, man had stab ilized & .systemin which h is dominance seemed natural and rig h t, obviously an ordin­ ance of Heaven.

For there existed a fundamental harmony in

nature, continuously changing, acting and interacting to produce a balanced whole.

33.

There was a liv in g , ever-re current

Hume, op. cit., p. 284

232 in teract ion of movement and r e s t, change and balance; and in th is constant ebb and flow, the heavenly principle, lig h t and strength, dominated and determined the ultimate points of rest#

Ehe earthly principle, darkness and weakness, con­

stan tly upset the balance and set in motion the eternal cos­ mic revolution#

!Ehe strong and lig h t force which r,hangs out

the sun and s t a r s ” 34 is the male principle#

2he dark and

weaker force which brings out from earth the h i l l s and streams i s the female principle. his l i t t l e

Why should not man rule in

corner of the universe?

Confucius accepted th is ancient philosophy and per­ petuated i t in the books which he edited and preserved.

He

set h is stamp of unqualified approval on the ancient b eliefs and customs.

In doing so he forged another link in the chain

that bound woman to her subservient position as the chattel and servant of man.

In th is connection one must always re­

member th a t Confucius never posed as a reformer in the modem sense of the word.

He was primarily and a l l the time a eon-

server of values out of the past# When one considers the h isto ric a l setting out of which Confucianism grew, i t i s easy to see th at i t would never occur to i t s founder that there was a social problem involved in the accepted treatment of women — a problem which he might have helped to solve.

He grew to manhood in a sta te where

h i Ki, Bible of the World, p. 379

133 the aid feudal foundations were breaking up and the old lo y alties d is s o lv in g * 35 Interest*

m s prime in te re st was a p o litic a l

His life-lo n g purpose and ambition were to estab­

l i s h in teg rity and s ta b ility in the government of h is coun­ try .

1 stable well-ordered home with relationships d is tin c t­

ly defined and scrupulously observed, formed the basis for such a government.

Woman was nothing in herself;

as a -unit

f it t i n g a p articu lar niche in a scheme of social propriety she was important and valuable. fhere is one other element which needs; to be considered in th is connection.

Stronger than philosophy, stronger than

outside h is to ric a l forces, hs the motivation of personal psy­ chology in determining the attitude of any thinker.

Just as

Gautama1si aversion and disgust toward the sensualities of l i f e which had been an exaggerated feature of his home l i f e , carried over into his mature system o;f philosophy, so Confu­ cius could not escape from an attitud e toward women doubt­ less engendered by his personal domestic experience. unhappily married,

He was

And the marriage had taken place when he

was not yet out of adolescence.

Historians say that he was

nineteen years old a t the time.

According to Chinese custom,

the child adds a year to h is age when he passes h is f i r s t Hew Year, so in the case of Confucius, nineteen years of age would mean, in actual count, not more than eighteen.

35.

Fitzgerald, op. c i t . , p. 87

A

134 serious-minded ‘boy, married to a woman perhaps in no sense his in te lle ctu a l equal, certainly not a sympathetic com­ panion — i t would surely never occur to him that there was anything inherently wrong in the subordinate place which women in general occupied in organized society. As in Buddhism, i t was not that Confucianism actively set i t s e l f against women as such.

As a philosophical system,

i t simply accepted her as society accepted her, a factor to he reckoned with in the social organization, not a personal­ ity to he considered in her own rig h t and for her own good. Again, as with the Buddha, i t remained for another and a la te r teacher to look with understanding and sympathy at this creature, woman, and recognize in her a l l the possibil­ itie s of a human being. In order to understand the situation which was per­ petuated in China because of the in e rtia of an old conven­ tion undisturbed by any influx of new idealisms, i t is nec­ essary to: look at some of the phases of woman’ s l i f e as i t is s t i l l lived, save in lo c a litie s where a Western or a Christian influence has been at work. Polygamy and concubinage are s t i l l the ru le,

fhese

practices are the natural re su lt of the cu lt which is the oldest liv in g religion in China — the cu lt of the dead. Sons are a necessity for the future well-being of the family, both as concerns the continued existence a fter death of the

fa th er’ s s p i r i t , and the happiness of the surviving re la ­ tives#

For economic reasons, monogamy is the rule in poor

homes, though even here, i f there are no sons, a concubine is often taken*

This may "be preceded by the divorce of the

f i r s t wife, as divorce is permissible when no son® are bom to a union.

Lin Ytl T’ang, in h is descriptions of Chinese

family l i f e , condones polygamy; no woman w riter of China seems to have done so.

Chinese law recognizes only one wife,

so the children of a concubine may be taken from her and reared by the f i r s t wife as her own.

The sons of concubines

in h e rit less property than the sons of a w ife.36 Child betrothal is a prevailing custom.

Very often

the g ir l is taken into the home of her future mother-in-law while s t i l l a small child.

There she. is a servant, i f i t is

a poor home, and in any case she is under the older woman’s complete control.

Very early marriage is the rule in such

cases. Even i f child betrothal is not practiced, a go-between is engaged to arrange the match. p a rties have never met t i l l husband’ s home,

Usually the contracting

the bride is carried to her future

love often follows these "arranged” marriages

but often, too, a second wife is brought in la te r as the re s u lt of a romantic love indulged in a fte r the conventional marriage has taken place.

There is a world>of pertinent

36. P. J. Maclagen, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. V, p. 732 A rticle, Family

comment in the fact th at the Chinese ideograph for "peace" is composed of the character for "roof", with one woman •under it* I t is considered a virtue for widows to remain un­ married, though widowers almost never do.

If a widow re ­

marries, her f i r s t husband1s family may keep any of her children they wish, and are pretty sure to keep the sons. Divorce is not nearly so common as in America, hut i t is easy for a man to get a divorce — very d if f ic u ltt for a woman to do so*

She greatest re s tra in t upon the man is pub­

lic opinion, especially fear of h is wife’s relativ es i f they are a powerful family.3? She practice of buying slave g i r l s is a common one. Their lo t is not always a hard one, but their condition is quite dependent on the whim of th e ir mistresses,

They some­

times become concubines in the family where they have been raised, and i f th is is not done, according to law, they must be disposed of as wives or concubines to some other family when of marriageable age*

The point here is that they are

handled simply as so much personal property, with only a slig h t recognition by the law, of th e ir humanity. Infanticide is practiced quite commonly* One may k i l l a g i r l though she might have become a queen; no one k i l l s a boy though he may become only a

137 beggar. 38 In defense of the Chinese who are sometimes; driven to th is extremity, i t must he said that among the poor there is no known method of h irth control.

The k illin g of g irl babies

is the only way of lim iting the size of a family which is already existing a t starvation le v e l.

The parents are not

wanting in natural affection, and even those deepest in poverty love th eir children. lack of education for women has many causes behind i t . With a few notable exceptions there was almost no academic education for g ir ls u n til the Christian missions reached China.

Home l i f e was badly affected by the illite r a c y of

the wife and mother.

Often there was l i t t l e

in te re st between husband and wife.

community of

The i l l i t e r a t e mother,

who had the training of the children, naturally knew nothing of child needs from a psychological point of view.

There

was no adequate medical care for women and no opportunity for hospitalization u n til the Christian missions led the way. There is much of beauty in Chinese l i f e which Western­ ers can well take note of; but the harmony of the home is of­ ten maintained through the suffering of the mother.

When Con­

fucius lived, women occupied th is same subordinate position. He made no attempt to change any part of the old family

38.

Ibid, p. 731

158 system.

On the other hand he perpetuated i t .

John R. Mott

sums up a long l i s t of conditions marking subjection of women in non-Christian lands with I t is a Chinese woman who says: ’The Confucian mes­ sage is not enough for China, because i t touches only o: "ohdlfi'the nation1.39 To summarize: The Buddha spent h is youth in a prince’s palace in close proximity to the sensualities of an Oriental harem; he awakened suddenly to the need of the world about him and experienced an extreme revulsion against h is old l i f e and a l l i t s se lfish and sensual indulgences; in h is Enlight­ enment he decided that a l l creation is e v il and illusory — women, by th e ir very nature, v ile s t of a l l . Confucius was bom into a corrupt and disintegrating s ta te .

A serious-minded boy, evidently with a strong sense

of mission to establish righteousness and Justice in his land, he was married to a woman whom he did not love, — i t would seem from h is attitude and remarks l a t e r , whom he scarcely respected.

He committed h is whole l i f e to an attemot to

establish the old family system as a basis for a stable s ta te . Doing so, he. ignored, woman, save as she was a necessary u n it in the home economy and as a mother of sons. What of Jesus? Giving the Hew Testament stories at le a s t as much.

39.

Mott, Present Day Summons, p. 31

ereeLen.ce as we afford the legends. concerning Buddha and the s to rie s about Confucius, we find that Jesus was horn into a working-man’ s home*

There is every reason to believe that i t

was a home in which love and consideration were the rule* There is no mention of any family dissension u n til Jesus began to preach; he was subject to h is parents as any Jewish boy would have been; the family relationships were to him so high an ideal that he used the term "Father” to carry a l l the connotations of love in addressing God.

I t was a religious

home; he ’went into the synagogue on the Sabbath when tra v e l­ lin g with his disciples as had been his custom a l l h is life * This fa ct meant that he was early acquainted with the law, the Prophets, and the Writings.

His la te r teaching shows

th at he studied these with discrimination, rejecting certain ideas as incompatible with the higher social values as ex­ pressed in the Prophets and in Deuteronomy, and on which he b u ilt his Gospel*

He lived in an age when his country was

a subject sta te and oppressed by a great world power.

After

consideration and apparent sp iritu a l co n flict, he rejected any idea of a p o litic a l or m ilitary revolution and centered his teaching on the supreme concept of the coming of the Kingdom of God.

I t i s interesting here to note in comparison with

Confucius, that both emphasized the highest e th ical ideals for the establishment of a coming age; but Confucius centered il.i§ ideal- state in a family where individuals were of value

MO onjy re la tiv e ly , and each, in his proper sphere as a part of a great organization.

Jeaus centered the Kingdom: of God

in the worth and supreme development of each individual , while at the same time perpetuating the value of the family as the nucleus of the Kingdom, hut composed of p erso nalities each worthful in his own rig h t. Here l i e s one difference between h is message and that of Confucius; and here l ie s the point a t which the Gospel for womanhood begins. Also, creation, to Jesus, was good and purposeful.

A

heavenly Father watched over and loved each member of the human family, thus l i f t i n g individuals to a place of value and significance. tionships.

He blessed the family and a l l i t s re la ­

Woman partook of th is blessing equally with man;

and there lies, a great difference between his message and that of the Buddha. Ihere are three definite ways in which Jesus broke with trad itio n in; re la tio n to womanhood: i (1) Jesus, in his dealing with the subject of di­ vorce, superseded the old Mosaic law of inequalities which made i t easy for the man to put away h is wife.

He l if te d

the marriage relatio n to a higher plane of being, a sacra­ ment based on a sp iritu a l union; and he recognized no divorce unless i t were for unfaithfulness to the marriage relatio n . (2)

In dealing with the case of the woman taken in

adultery, Jesus shattered the old double standard of morality.

141 He forever set up the ideal that sin i s a matter of the individual, and that nothing in the nature of man or woman excuses sin.

He said to the accusing men; " le t him that is

withoiit sin among you cast the f i r s t stone", and he said to the woman, "GO, and sin ho more". (3)

By h is treatment of individual women, and hy his

message of universal inclusiveness, he placed woman’s per­ sonality on a "basis of equality with that of man in i t s de­ mand for human consideration, in i t s right to receive the message of the Kingdom, in i t s p o s s ib ilitie s for salvation. In short, he recognized woman as humanly capable of i n t e l l i ­ gent participation in the Kingdom. I t has been hard for men and women to assimilate a l l the implications of Jesus* teaching.

These involve unlim it­

ed freedom and unlimited responsibility for men and women alik e . inertia*

But ancient social conventions have great weight of Changes have come slowly.

However, a l l down the

centuries, the Christian ethic has been on the side of the one who has not yet attained f u l l recognition for his or her human rights and privileges, and has not yet assumed corres­ ponding duties.

Christian men have more and more joined with

Christian women in the fig h t for genuine emancipation of a l l from any form of human bondage.

There are many inequalities

inherent in the old Confucian social system in China.

The

modem Confucianist who is acquainted with imerican l i f e , points out as many we^tk points in our social l i f e today.

142 Granted*

I t is necessary for the Christian teacher to remind

h erself and ethers that these evils are not the resu lt of Christianity — they are failu res to realize and conform to the principles la id down hy Jesus.

While those things in

Chinese l i f e which are most oppressive of women may he said to he a direct re su lt of Confucianism, corresponding evils in American l i f e are In d irect opposition to the express teachings of the founder of C hristianity.

CHAPTER X SUM M ARY I t was tine purpose of tliis thesis to make a study of common elements in C hristianity and the religions of China which might he of value to a missionary going to China for the f i r s t time*

The method used was th at of making a simple

analysis of the relig ion s with respect to the points studied and summarizing common ground* The religions studied were Taoism, Confucianism, Bud­ dhism, and C hristianity.

The elements analyzed were ideas

of Cod, ideas of sin and salvation, ideas of immortality, eth ical principles, and attitu d es toward women. The re su lts show that there is a great "body of common b elie fs and ideals on which a Christian teacher can begin to build and through which she can establish community of under­ standing in presenting the Christian fa ith .

They also show

th at there is often a beauty of conception and a depth of insight in the Chinese religions which the Christian teacher can profitably study and from which she can draw inspiration and p ractical help.

But they show, too, that there are points

a t which Christianity ris e s definitely to purer sp iritu a l heights and offers clearer solutions to social problems. There has been no lack of philosophical speculation in China; a very high conception of God has formed the back­ ground for th e ir religious thinking.

There i s a b elief in

144 the moral order a-f tfi© universe, and in the purposive re lat ion ship Between man and the j£uthor of th is moral order. Bat in Taoism th is fa ith in a supreme Deity has Been overshadowed By a m ultiplicity of popular gods, idol worship, demonism, and dependence on magic-working p rie s ts .

In Bud­

dhism the God concept has Been diffused through a hierarchy of gods, each with a function of i t s own.

The h is to ric a l

Buddha stands a t the center of the f a ith , But h isto ric a lly he denied the existence of a personal God, denied the worth of creation and the value of human personality, and denied any s p iritu a l help for man outside himself.

In. modem Con­

fucianism there Is no concept of a God who possesses charac­ te r is tic s of personality and consequent s p iritu a l relations with man.

In none of the religions is there a figure lik e

the h isto ric a l Jesus, who reveals in h is own l i f e and person our highest ideals of what God is and what man can hope to Become. Each religion offers a plan of salvation, character­ is tic a lly re late d to i t s ideas of God and to i t s value of th is l i f e and of our humanity.

Philosophic Taoism offers

the p o ssib ility of a,mystic apprehension of the Divine Being and of a harmonious interaction and co-operation with the fundamental law of Mature.

Popular Taoism has only magic

and a lim ited tru s t in the efficacy of ”good works”.

Bud­

dhism offers various plans, including the way of meditation, of faith im JLmitahha, of good works, of vicarious sa c rific e ,

145 and of self-abnega t i on * None? of the religions of China offer f a ith in a h isto ric a l person such as Jesus was, who exempli­ fied the s p i r i t of love and sa c rific e , which, when men have visioned i t , draws them to him and to the God whose s p ir it was incarnate in him, u n til love becomes a saving fa c t in th e ir liv e s . Popular b e lie f in an existence beyond the grave is very wide-spread in China.

In popular Taoism th is is hope­

le s s ly linked with superstition, ideas af purgatory, b elief in evil s p i r i t s , and magic.

In Buddhism i t is involved with

Karma, future re-incarnations, and masses for the dead.

In

Confucianism i t is only existent in a continued observance of the ancestral r i t e s ,

involving a belief in a very lim ited

l i f e of the soul a fte r death.

Ifone of the religions have

fa ith in a s p iritu a l, personal immortality, where the person, freed from a l l physical lim ita tio n s, finds a home, provided by the in fin ite love of a good God, on faith in whose good­ ness the fa ith in immortality depends. /

In none of the faith s of China is there religious sanction for the s p iritu a l development of women and for the establishment of th e ir social rights, and privileges.

Only

Jesus broke down the barriers that separated male and female into categories of superior and in fe rio r.

Only he forever

set up a personalistic standard for judging rig h t and wrong. Modem youth in China knows the weaknesses of the old relig io n s.

Science i s becoming a word to conjure with.

146 Modem psychology and! humanism are leading the minds; of the students as one would esqoect them to lead in* a secularized education where is taking place a great reaction against the old superstitions*

ind when humanism is in the lead, the old

Confucian code of ethics offers much on which to base a hu­ manistic system.

The Chinese may he Justly proud of the

high eth ical standard which has heen held up through the ages by -the Confucian trad itio n , and the n ev er-falter lag faith, in rig h t social relationships as the proper foundation for a good and enduring society.

To th is the th e is tic Christian

would add — as he would add to the humanistic program in America — the b e lie f th at human excellence i s best attained by positing the supreme excellence of God from whom a l l human good i s derived, and through whose s p i r i t renewal of purpose and fa ith is possible. A risin g nationalism in China together with a clear perception of the part which Western business practices, greed, and imperialism have played in China1s h isto ry , have brought suspicion and a r e a lis tic evaluation of so-called Christian c iv iliz a tio n .

Into th is bewildering complex of

the old and the new comes the missionary teacher• She w ill need to dig her own foundations deep — to have a reason for the fa ith that i s hers.

She w ill need

tolerance and understanding; she w ill need a friendly h e a rt, and an appreciative s p i r i t .

She w ill need love and a great

and humble desire to learn and to share a l l that is hers.

14? Ihen, and then only, w ill she begin to see a n d to know the China that has grown to greatness out of all. the forces of the p a st.

Then she w ill understand a l i t t l e of the complex­

ity of the Chinese character — a synthesis of Taoist mys­ ticism and quietism, of philosophy and of superstition, of Buddhist fa ith and piety, of Confucian righteousness and J u s tic e , ceremony and convention, of modem science and humanism, and nationalism. mysterious and aubtle.

China — "beautiful and lovable;

China — who s t i l l needs the message

of the Christ to crown and complete her s p iritu a l building.

General Archer, J * G. Faiths Men Live Bar KewYcrk: T. Kelson & Sons, 1934 Bickford, 1. 1* She Reasons for the Missionaries1 Changing Atttta&e Toward the Kon- ChrIs-1ian Religions Thesis, 19£6 Braden, G* S. Modem Tendencies in World Religions Few York: The MaeMUlan Co*, xy33 Braden, C. S. Man’ s Quiest Tor Salvation Chicago: W illett, Clark £ UdT, 1941 Braden, C« S* The World’ s Religions Hashville: The Cokeshury Press, 1939 Carpenter, J . E. Comparative Religion London: Williams & Forgaie, 1913 “ Carpenter, J, E. Buddhism and C hristianity Few York: Geo. H. Boren Co., 19U3 Gowen, H. H. The Universal Faith Milwaukee: MoreEouse PublishingCo • , 1926 Haydon, A « E. Biography of the Gods Hew York: The lacSTTIXan Co.TTQ^IHaydon A. E* Modem Trends in World Religions Chicago: University of Chicago P ress, 1934 Hocking, W * E* Living Religions and a World Faith Hew York: The MacMillan Co, 194C Maurice, F. B. Religions of the World and Their Relation to Christianity London: IfacIDMEn £ Co . Moore, G. P. History of Religions Few York: Charles ScrYmer! s Sons, 1920 Mott, 1. R. Present Bay Summons to World Mission of Christianity h ashville: Cokeshury Press, 1931 Soper, E. B. Tie Religions of Mankind Few York: The Ahing&on P ress, Y92S

14:9 S treeter, B. M. The Buddha and the Christ Hew York: She MacMillan do., 1953 Tan Bushkirk, W. R. The Saviours of Mankind Hew York: The MacMillan Co., 1929 Widgery, A. £. Living Religions and Modern Thought Hew York: Round Table Press, 193B Religions o f China Ballon, R. C* Hie Bible of the World Hew York: Hie Ylking I r e s s , 19a9 Borton, M. E. Hie Education of stamen in China Hot York: Fleming h Heveil CoT, I9 aa Ota Msi London:

Hie Philosophy of Human Eature Prohstkain & (Jo. , 19## '

Tr. by J . P. Bruce

Confucius .Analects, Edited by W. E. Sootkill Puhlished by the Author, 1910 Camph e ll, L. J . What the Pounders of Some of the living Religions Hiought Ahout Themselves "“Thesis ,“1939“ Cave, Sydney Living Religions of the East London: The Camelo t P ress, Ttd77 X9S1 Lawson, M. M. The Ethics of Confucius Hew York: Carlton House, I91B Liekinson, Lowes Essay on the Civilizations of India, China and Japan Hew York: LouLleday, 1914 Ellinwood, F. F. Oriental Religions and Christianity Hot York: Charies Scribner1s Sons, YE9H F e rris, Helen Changing Social Status of Chinese Women in Urban China Thesis, 19213 Fitzgerald, C. P. China: A Short Cultural History Hew York: L. Apple ton-Century Co. , x93S Giles, H. A. Translation of Chuang Tzu London: Bernard Quaritch ,"“Et&., 1.92*5 Hara Shodo The Influence of Buddhism upon the Social Status of Women in the Far East Thesis, 1921

150 Hartman, 1* 0. Pop-alar Aspects of Oriental Religions Cineinnati: fee Abingdon Press ,“T9T7 Hastings, James Encyclopedla of Religion and Ethics New Xork: Charles Scribner*s sons, 1917 Vol. I Vol. I I

Adultery, T. W. Rhys Davids, p. 126 Adoption, J. J. M. De Groote, p. 107 Body (Buddhist) J. H. Bateson, pp. 758-760 Birth ( Chinese) W. G. WaXshe, pp. 645-646

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W. Rhys Halids, p* £71 J. Maclagen, p. £71 W. Rhys Davids, pp. 381-£

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V. Ethics and Morality (Buddhist)M. Anesaki pp. 447-455 Ethics and Morality ( Chinese) P. L. Bullock pp* 466— 468 Family (Buddhist) T. W. Rhys Davids, pp. 727-8 n (Chinese) P. J. Maclagen, pp. 730-735 Education ( Chinese) P .J . Maclagen, pp. 183-5 Emancipation, A. Pomer, pp. £70-£79

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H ospitality (Chinese) J . Dyer Ball, pp. 803-4

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Headland, I . P. China1s Hew Pay Boston; Frank Wood, 191£ Houghton, R. C. Women of the Orient Hew Xork; Nelson & IhilXlxps, 1877 Hsft, Leonard, S. L. fee P o litic a l Philosophy of Confucianism London; G-. Routledge & Sons, L td., 19 Hume, R. E. Treasure House of the Living Religions New Xork; diaries Seri'tmer'^ Hons, ”1935 Hume, R. E. fee World1s Living Religions New Xork: Charles Scribner* s Hons, 1950 Latourette, K. S. A History of Christian Missions in China New Xork; fee MacMillan co . ,T9'£9 Latourette, K. S. fee Development of China New Xork: Houghtoh'Tflffl'in, 1930

Liang Chi Chao; History of Chinese P o litic a l ©taught Hew York: Marcourt, Brace & Co*, 1930 Mei Yi-Pao The Ethical and P o litic a l Works of Mo Tse London: Arthur Probsthain, TJB9 G’H eill, F. W. S. The Quewt for God in China London: George Allen and Unwin, 19 &5 Rawlinson, Frank Shanghai, 1934

Chinese Ethical Ideals

Reichelt, Karl L. Truth and Tradition in Chinese Buddhism Shanghai; The CoramereiaJLTress, 192B Shryock, 1. K. The Origin and Development of the State Cult of Confucius Hew York: TJentury Co., 19U2 Smith, A* H. The U plift of China Cincinnati: Jennings & Graham, ‘1907 S oothill, W. E. The Three Religions of China London: Oxford University press, X92TT" Yfeley, Arthur The Way and I ts Power YLondoii- ... George. _A.Ilen and Unwin , Ltd•, 1934 ^ . Wieger, L. A History of the Religious Beliefs and Philosoph­ ic a l ©pinions in China Hsien Uslen, China: Hsien Hsien Press, 191V " fr^ d sla te l, 19Y7 C hristianity Beckwith, C. A. The Idea of God Hew York: The MacMillan Co., 1922 Bennett, J. C. Social Salvation Hew York: CharleU Seri oner1s Sons, 1935 Clarke, W. H. The Christian Doctrine of God Hew York: Charles Scribner1s Sons, 19T7 Hastings, James Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Hew York: Charles Scribner1s BUn's',’ lyiV Vol. I Vol. I I

Adultery, Foley, pp. 132-133 Body (Christian)

J. C. Lambert, pp. 760-763

152 Yol. I I I

Charity ( Christian) C. 1* Dimont pp. 382-386

Yol. Y Ethics and Morality ( Christian) Ronald Mackenzie, pp. 468-474 Family ( Christian) J . Strahan, pp. 723727 Vol. YI

God ( Christian) ¥• T# Davison, pp. 256269 H ospitality ( Christian) G. BonetMaury, pp. 804-808

Knmdson, A• C. The Doctrine of God The Ahihgdoh PressT~19^I Hew York; Maeintosh, B. G. Social Religion Hew York: Charles "Soritxner' s Sons, 1939 The Christlike God McConnell, F. J. The Ahing&on Press, Y92? Hew York: M iller, HI. Christian Troth in History Hew York: Harper Bros•, 19417“ Powell, W. E* Education for l i f e With God Hew York: Harper Bros., 1934 Rail, HL F• Christianity Charles Scribner1s Sons, 1940 Hew York: