1,173 197 18MB
English Pages 128 Year September 2012
Table of contents :
1. The DOHNS Syllabus in relation to Part 2 1
SECTION ONE: Common Topics for the DOHNS Part 2
2. The Ear 7
3. The Nose 17
4. The Mouth and Oropharynx 21
5. The Larynx 25
6. Other common DOHNS Head and Neck pathology 31
7. The Thyroid 37
8. Cranial Nerves 41
9. Hearing and Balance 47
10. Imaging 55
SECTION TWO: Communication Skills for the DOHNS Part 2
11. Consent 69
12. Information giving 77
13. Operation note 81
14. Discharge summary 83
15. History taking 85
16. Breaking bad news 87
SECTION THREE: Appendicies
17. Procedures / Examination 91
18. Instrument gallery 93
19. Acknowledgements 109
DOHNS
Diploma in Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery Part 2 Revision Guide
Editor Mr. Benjamin Stew, MBBCh, MRCS, DOHNS
Authors and Contributors Mr. Tobias Moorhouse, MBBCh, BSc, MRCS, DOHNS Dr. Rhian Rhys, MBBS, FRCR Ms. Lucy Satherley, MBBCh, BSc, MRCS Ms. Ellie De Rosa
Foreword Mr. Stuart Quine, BMedSc, BM BS, M Phil, FRCS (ORL‐HNS)
Doctors Academy Publications
Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications i
DOHNS
Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications
DOHNS
Diploma in Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery Part 2 Revision Guide
Editor Mr. Benjamin Stew, MBBCh, MRCS, DOHNS Specialist Registrar in ENT Surgery All Wales Higher Surgical Training Programme
Authors and Contributors
Mr. Tobias Moorhouse, MBBCh, BSc, MRCS, DOHNS Specialist Registrar in ENT Surgery All Wales Higher Surgical Training Programme Dr. Rhian Rhys, MBBS, FRCR Consultant Radiologist Royal Glamorgan Hospital, Llantrisant Ms. Lucy Satherley, MBBCh, BSc, MRCS Specialist Registrar in General Surgery All Wales Higher Surgical Training Programme Ms. Ellie De Rosa Doctors Academy Illustrators and Artists Year 4 Medical Student University of Cardiff
Foreword Mr. Stuart Quine, BMedSc, BM BS, M Phil, FRCS (ORL‐HNS) Program Director for ENT ‐ All Wales Training Programme Consultant ENT & Head and Neck Surgeon University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff
Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications ii
DOHNS
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 1st Edition, September 2012, Doctors Academy Publications Electronic version published at
Doctors Academy, PO Box 4283 :
Print version printed
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and published at
:
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ISBN
:
978‐93‐80573‐21‐2
Cover page Design
:
Sreekanth S.S
Type Setting
:
Lakshmi Sreekanth
Contact
:
[email protected]
Copyright: This educational material is copyrighted to Doctors Academy publications. Users are not allowed to modify, edit or amend any contents of this book. No part of this book should be copied or reproduced, electronically or in hard version, or be used for electronic presentation or publication without the explicit written permission of Doctors Academy publications. You may contact us at: [email protected] Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications iii
DOHNS Preface
The Diploma of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck surgery (DOHNS) is a qualification sought by most trainees with an interest in Ear, Nose and Throat surgery. The part 2 OSCE examination takes place at the Royal College of Surgeons and follows on from the part 1 written examination. The original revision guide was written to accompany the Doctors Academy DOHNS course started in 2009. The course was developed with an aim to provide details of the exam set‐up, improve background knowledge and give candidates the opportunity to hone the skills required to pass the exam. This guide has been progressively assembled over the years as the course has gained popularity. The intention was, and is, to provide a framework around which to base your revision for the part 2 exam. Although we have attempted to cover most of the syllabus for the DOHNS part 2 exam, due to the wide range of conditions and disorders covered by this speciality, it needs to be acknowledged that covering every topic in depth is beyond the scope of this guide. It is hence suggested that this guide is used as a complementary resource in conjunction with time honoured ENT textbooks . It is our hope that this revision guide proves to be an invaluable tool for passing the DOHNS OSCE examination. Good luck!
With very best wishes, Mr Benjamin Stew
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Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications
DOHNS Foreword The DOHNS Part B exam not only tests the clinical application of knowledge but also places emphasis on ‘soft skills’ such as information gathering and information giving. The candidate sitting the exam can also be expected to be tested on relevant radiology and common instruments used in managing patients presenting to the speciality. A successful candidate has to demonstrate a logical and precise approach to the OSCE stations in the examination. The overall structure of the exam, however, is such that individual components (domains) of the candidate’s ability to practice the speciality effectively are tested in addition to the global approach to patient management. I encourage you to enjoy and benefit from the hard and thoroughly structured frameworks offered by these authors. They have to be congratulated on producing this excellent aide memoir for the process of tackling the knowledge levels by providing a succinct description of all important topics pertinent to the exam. The extremely impressive and vivid illustrations, coupled with pertinent radiological images and a detailed instrument gallery, complements the text very nicely. The uninitiated will learn, the widely‐read should pass and the broadly but selectively experienced reader will derive a perspective from the subject matter. One of the challenges faced by junior surgeons is the ability to focus and integrate the information gathered to reach a diagnosis while at the same time developing the thought process to plan the management. The history taking and communication sections in this book are laid out nicely. With time and practice, surgeons develop their own internal patterns for recognising and diagnosing conditions. This expertise can only be acquired by personally interviewing as many patients as possible whilst being a trainee surgeon and thereafter on completion of training. This book is highly relevant for trainees preparing for the DOHNS Part B exam conducted by the UK Royal Colleges and will provide a framework around which to base the revision. In addition, this book should prepare the candidate for exams of a similar nature in other parts of the world. It must be borne in mind, however, that the DOHNS examination is not an end in itself but rather a beginning. As the trainee progresses through higher surgical training, the importance of clinical examination does not diminish and this book will act as a vade mecum well beyond the period of preparation for the exam. It is clear, practical and beautifully produced. I wish it and its authors well.
Best wishes,
Mr Stuart Quine, BMedSc, BM BS, M Phil, FRCS (ORL‐HNS) Program Director for ENT ‐ All Wales Training Programme Consultant ENT & Head and Neck Surgeon University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff Honorary Lecturer, Cardiff University
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Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications
DOHNS Contents 1. The DOHNS Syllabus in relation to Part 2
1
SECTION ONE: Common Topics for the DOHNS Part 2 2. The Ear
7
3. The Nose
17
4. The Mouth and Oropharynx
21
5. The Larynx
25
6. Other common DOHNS Head and Neck pathology
31
7. The Thyroid
37
8. Cranial Nerves
41
9. Hearing and Balance
47
10. Imaging
55
SECTION TWO: Communication Skills for the DOHNS Part 2 11. Consent
69
12. Information giving
77
13. Operation note
81
14. Discharge summary
83
15. History taking
85
16. Breaking bad news
87
SECTION THREE: Appendicies 17. Procedures / Examination
91
18. Instrument gallery
93
19. Acknowledgements
109
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Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications
DOHNS Abbreviations
AC ACP ARS BCC BC BPPV CI CPD CRS CT CSF DVLA ENT FDG FESS FNAC FOSIT GMC GORD IAM ICP LMN MEN MRI NICE OMU PET PET‐CT PNS SCM SPL SCC TFT TRH URTI USS UVB VZV
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Air Conduction Air Conduction Pressure Acute Rhinosinusitis Basal Cell Carcinoma Bone Conduction Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo Cochlear Implant Continuing Professional Development Chronic Rhinosinusitis Computed Tomography Cerebrospinal Fluid Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency Ear, Nose and Throat Fluoro Deoxy Glucose Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology Feeling Of Something In Throat General Medical Council Gastro‐Oesophageal Reflux Disease Internal Auditory Meatus Intracranial Pressure Lower Motor Neurone Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Magnetic Resonance Imaging National Institute of Clinical Excellence Osteo‐Meatal Unit Positive Emission Tomography Positive Emission Tomography‐Computerised Tomography Post‐Nasal Space Sterno‐Cleido‐Mastoid Sound Pressure Level Squamous Cell Carcinoma Thyroid Function Test Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Ultrasound Scan Ultraviolet B Varicella Zoster Virus
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The DOHNS Syllabus in relation to Part 2
DOHNS
1. THE DOHNS SYLLABUS IN RELATION TO PART 2: The original syllabus document can be found at: http://www.intercollegiatemrcs.org.uk/dohns/pdf/syllabus.pdf The syllabus is split in to three sections, each with subsections:
PART ONE: Good medical practice and care in otolaryngology General principles of clinical care The patient‐doctor relationship, including communication and consulting skills Population, preventive and societal issues Professional, ethical and legal obligations Appraisal, monitoring the quality of performance, clinical governance and audit Risk and resource management Information management and technology Understanding the importance of probity Continuing professional development (CPD), learning and teaching.
PART TWO: Clinical knowledge Applied Anatomy and Embryology Applied Physiology Applied Microbiology Imaging Pharmaco‐therapeutics Acoustics Applied Pathology Applied Psychology Epidemiology and Statistics Medicolegal Issues Clinical Practice.
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The DOHNS Syllabus in relation to Part 2
PART THREE: Clinical competencies Radiology Audiology and Vestibular testing Neurology Otology Rhinology Laryngology Neck Medical Statistics.
PART ONE: The take home message from this part of the syllabus is that they are looking for safe, effective and professional doctors. Themes involving judgement, autonomy, competence and consistency all appear frequently. The patient‐centered holistic approach is praised and practitioners are expected to be excellent communicators to both patients and colleagues. Legal obligations, societal issues and political sensitivities are included in “keeping up‐to‐date” and are given as equal importance as clinical knowledge and understanding. Certainly the doctors they are looking for are aware of their own limitations and deal with criticism and management issues constructively, they aspire self‐improvement and the improvement of the service they provide. Nothing that is in this section is not in the GMC, Good Medical Practice publication. Although structured in general headings it is recommended that delegates spend time reading through this part of the syllabus, but also that they consult the GMC documentation listed. This adds a context that will help improve your communication skills during future practice sessions. Recommended reading referenced in the syllabus: Good Medical Practice (2001), GMC Duties of a Doctor (1995), GMC Seeking Patient Consent: the Ethical Considerations (1998), GMC Research: The Roles and Responsibilities of Doctors (2002), GMC Withholding and Withdrawing Life‐Prolonging Treatments: Good Practice in Decision
Making (2002), GMC . Updated versions of these GMC publications are all available online: www.gmc‐uk.org
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The DOHNS Syllabus in relation to Part 2
DOHNS
PART TWO: Clinical knowledge This section provides a framework that delegates can use to structure their learning. There are no specifics as to the depth of knowledge that is required, however it is helpful in framing the breadth of knowledge that is required.
PART THREE: Clinical competencies This section is considerably more specific. It goes in to detail regarding what competencies are expected and to what level you are expected to perform each of them. This level of competence generally ranges from: “(1) knows about”, through “(2) able to apply knowledge, to “(3) able to perform under supervision” and finally “(4) able to perform independently”. Common questions and scenarios used to assess this section are the operative note and discharge summary questions, the clinical examination stations, radiology interpretation stations and the instrument recognition questions. Topics that have come up in previous DOHNS Part 2 exams are: Initial assessment and management of airway problems Initial management of foreign bodies in ENT Plain films of the neck and chest. CT scans of the sinuses, petrous bone, neck, chest and brain Contrast radiology of swallowing Examination of the ear – auriscope Myringotomy and grommet insertion (operative note) Examination of the nose and sinuses– anterior rhinoscopy Flexible nasendoscopy and examination of the postnasal space Adenoidectomy and tonsillectomy (operative note) Examination of the neck.
For further details regarding the level of competency required please consult the syllabus directly.
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SECTION ONE: Common Topics for DOHNS Part 2
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2. THE EAR
How to draw a normal tympanic membrane? Rules to follow: 1. The tympanic membrane is ovoid. 2. The lateral process of the malleus points in the direction of the side (i.e., it points to the left for the left ear), this denotes anterior. 3. The umbo of the malleus points downward to the opposite side. 4. The long process of the incus is seen on this side. 5. Label left and right.
A. Pars Flaccida B. Posterior Mallear Ligament C. Long process of Incus D. Pars Tensa E.
Annulus
F.
Cone of light
G. Umbo of Malleus H. Handle of Malleus I.
Anterior Mallear Ligament
J.
Lateral process of Malleus
Left tympanic membrane Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 7
DOHNS
The Ear Normal Ear
Fossa triangularis
Antihelix Helix Conchal bowl
Tragus Lobule
PERICHONDRITIS Definition Skin and soft tissue infection of the pinna, commonly due to pseudomonas aeruginosa. Symptoms Painful, red ear. Signs Thickened, swollen, erythematous pinna. Management a) Intravenous antibiotics. b) Analgesics and Antipyretics.
Figure 2.1: Perichondritis of right pinna
OTITIS EXTERNA Definition Inflammatory and infective process of the external auditory canal, commonly with pseudomonas aeruginosa and/or staphylococcus aureus. Symptoms Otalgia, otorrhoea, aural fullness, pruritis, hearing loss. Signs Pain on distraction of the pinna, external auditory canal erythema and oedema, otorrhoea, lymphadenopathy, cellulitis. Figure 2.2: Note ‐ inflamed EAM commonly found in otitis externa Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 8
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Management a) Aural toilet. b) Otic drops – antiseptic, acidifying or antibiotic with or without steroid. c) ± Aural packing. d) Analgesics.
HERPES ZOSTER OTICUS / RAMSEY HUNT SYNDROME Definition A syndrome of acute peripheral facial nerve palsy associated with otalgia and varicella‐like cutaneous lesions. Involvement may extend to cranial nerves V, IX and X, and cervical branches that have anastamotic communications with the facial nerve. Symptoms Facial weakness, facial pain, otalgia, hearing loss, vertigo. Signs Vesicular rash involving skin of the external ear, ear canal ± soft palate (can also include the face). Management a) Oral glucocorticoids. b) Oral antivirals. c) Analgesics. d) Eye care. e) Topical emollients.
Figure 2.3: Vesicular rash typical of VZV infection
OTITIS MEDIA WITH EFFUSION/GLUE EAR Definition Persistence of a serous or mucoid middle ear effusion for three months or more due to overproduction of mucus or impaired clearance. Symptoms Asymptomatic, hearing loss, recurrent infections, delayed speech and language development, behavioural problems, otalgia, tinnitus and balance impairment.
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The Ear
Signs Dull, grey/yellow tympanic membrane with reduced mobility, an air‐fluid level or small bubbles within the middle ear effusion may be seen. ‐ Tympanometry; flat, type‐B tympanogram. ‐ Pure tone audiometry; of >25dB conductive hearing loss. Management a) Conservative – “Watch and wait”. b) Hearing aid. c) Grommet insertion with/without adenoidectomy.
Figure 2.4: Middle ear effusion, note air bubble superiorly
Reference: NICE guidelines ‘Surgical management of glue ear in children 2008’
ACUTE OTITIS MEDIA a) Nonsuppurative acute otitis media – inflammation of the middle ear cleft mucosa without the formation of an effusion or with a sterile effusion. b) Suppurative acute otitis media – inflammation of the middle ear cleft with suppuration. In most cases it presents following a viral upper respiratory tract infection, which leads to disruption of eustachian tube function and a middle ear effusion. Subsequent bacterial colonisation with Streptococcus pneumoniae (40%), Haemophilus influenzae (25‐30%) and Moraxella catarrhalis (10‐20%) occurs. Symptoms Otalgia, pyrexia, hearing loss, otorrhoea. Signs Thickened hyperaemic tympanic membrane with or without spontaneous rupture. Management a) Conservative – “Watch and wait”. b) Oral antibiotics such as amoxicillin or co‐amoxiclav. c) Adjuvant therapy such as analgesics and antipyretics. d) Myringotomy if medical measures fail. Reference: NICE guidelines ‘Antibiotic prescribing for respiratory tract infections’
Figure 2.5: Otitis Media
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MASTOIDITIS Definition Infection of the mastoid air cells as a complication of an acute otitis media. Symptoms Pain and tenderness over the mastoid process, fever. Signs Oedema and erythema of the postauricular soft tissues with antero‐inferior displacement of the pinna. Thickened, hyperaemic tympanic membrane and posterior sagging of the canal wall. Figure 2.6: Mastoiditis; pinna is distracted anteroinferiorly
Management a) Intravenous antibiotics such as co‐amoxiclav or cefuroxime and metronidazole. b) CT scan.
c) Cortical mastoidectomy with myringotomy and grommet insertion if evidence of subperiosteal abscess or if symptoms do not improve with 24‐48hours of intravenous antibiotics. d) Adjuvant therapy such as analgesics and antipyretics.
CHRONIC SUPPURATIVE OTITIS MEDIA Definition Persistent or intermittent infected discharge through a non‐intact tympanic membrane (perforation or tympanostomy tube). Symptoms Otorrhoea (mucopurulent or blood‐stained), hearing loss. Signs Discharge within external auditory canal, which on microsuction may reveal oedematous middle ear mucosa visualised through tympanic membrane perforation. Management a) Aural toilet.
Figure 2.7: Large, discharging Pars Tensa perforation
b) Topical +/‐ oral antibiotics. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 11
DOHNS
The Ear CHOLESTEATOMA
Definition Destructive and expanding keratinising squamous cell cyst. Acquired a) Primary acquired cholesteatoma – forms as a result of tympanic membrane retraction. b) Secondary acquired cholesteatoma – forms as a result of either disordered squamous epithelium migration or implantation of squamous epithelium into the middle ear cavity during surgery. Congenital
Figure 2.8: Attic cholesteatoma
Results from an abnormal focus of squamous epithelium in the middle ear cavity without tympanic membrane perforation and without a history of ear infection. Symptoms Recurrent or persistent purulent and foul‐smelling otorrhoea, hearing loss, rarely pain, vertigo or dysequilibrium. Signs a) Primary acquired ‐ tympanic membrane retraction containing a matrix of squamous. epithelium, polyps, granulation tissue, ossicular erosion. b) Secondary acquired – keratin is usually visible through the perforation or through the tympanic membrane if of sufficient size. c) Congenital – occasionally visible behind an intact and normal‐looking tympanic membrane. Management a) Imaging – High resolution CT or Diffusion weighted MRI. b) Audiometry – usually showing a conductive hearing loss. c) Nonsurgical measures include regular aural toilet, keeping the ear dry and preventing further contamination through use of ototopical agents. d) Surgical measures aiming to create a dry and safe ear including mastoidectomy or combined approach tympanoplasty.
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OSTEOMAS & EXOSTOSES OF THE EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL Definition Benign osseous neoplasms formed by reactive bone formation secondary to cold water exposure. Symptoms Usually asymptomatic but may cause cerumen impaction or otitis externa. Signs May lead to a conductive hearing loss. Management a) Most require no surgical intervention. b) Treat any infection.
Figure 2.9: Exostoses of external auditory canal
c) ± Meatoplasty.
OTOSCLEROSIS Definition Is a primary localised disease of the bony otic capsule. It is characterised by abnormal removal of mature bone of the otic capsule by osteoclasts, and replacement with woven bone of greater thickness, cellularity and vascularity. There is often a positive family history. Symptoms Slowly progressive unilateral or bilateral hearing impairment, with onset in early adult life. Hearing classically worsens during pregnancy or oestrogen therapy. Signs Normal otoscopic examination or positive Schwartze sign. ‐ Pure tone audiometry; conductive hearing loss. ‐ Tympanometry; type‐As tympanogram. Management a) High resolution CT scan. b) Conservative. c) Medical treatments – sodium fluoride or bisphosphonates. d) Surgical – Stapedotomy or Stapedectomy. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 13
DOHNS ABNORMALITIES OF THE PINNA Congenital a)
– auricular
requiring auricular reconstruc on.
b) Protruding ears/Bat ears – increased distance from the helical rim to the mastoid is thought to be due to a lack fold or prominent conchal bowl. The deformity commonly requires otoplasty. c) External auditory canal atresia – failure of canalisa on of the epithelial plug por n of the first branchial cle . This deformity results in a hearing loss and may be associated with concomitant ossicular Acquired a) Auricular haematoma – accumula n of blood in the subperichondral space secondary to ge and the perichondrium, leads to blunt trauma. This barrier for diffusion, between the necrosis and predisposes to infec Treatment involves evacua on of the haematoma and to prevent reacculmula .
Figure 2.10a: Large pinna haematoma
b) Auricular lacer s – expedi without debridement.
Figure 2.10b: Post-opera ve image er evacua on of haematoma and sialas c splin ng
repair and preven on of infe
n are essen al with or
NEOPLASMS OF THE EXTERNAL EAR a) Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) – represent 45% of auricular carcinomas. UVB radia n has been iden fied as a major carcinogen. Lesion appears nodular and ulcerated and typically occurs on the posterior surface of the pinna and preauricular areas. May be treated with topical 5fluorouracil or surgical excision.
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b) Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) – represent 20% of auricular carcinomas. Lesions appear as plaques or ulcerations typically over the helix and preauricular areas. Treatment is with surgical excision but radiatiotherapy may be indicated for unresectable lesions. c) Melanoma – 1% of all melanomas will occur on the auricle. Present as painless lesions over the helix which change in size, ulcerate and bleed. Metastatic evaluation is paramount. Treatment is with surgical excision but may include adjuvant radiotherapy. Figure 2.11: SCC of helix of right pinna
TEMPORAL BONE FRACTURES General considerations Temporal bone fractures represent roughly 20% of all skull fractures. Blunt trauma to the lateral surface of the skull often results in longitudinal fractures (80%). A blow to the occipital skull may result in a transverse fracture pattern (20%). The otic capsule is spared in longitudinal fractures but damaged in transverse fractures. Symptoms Hearing loss, nausea, vomiting, vertigo. Signs Battle sign (postauricular ecchymosis), “Racoon” sign (periorbital ecchymosis), external auditory canal laceration, haemotympanum and bloody otorrhoea. Facial nerve paralysis occurs in 50% of transverse fractures and 25% of longitudinal fractures. Management a) Conductive hearing loss – largely conservative (Haemotympanum resolves) ± myringoplasty if persistent perforation. b) Facial nerve paralysis – largely conservative ± facial nerve exploration and decompression. c) CSF leak – consultation with neurosurgeon.
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3. THE NOSE
Superior concha Orbit Ethmoidal air cells
Superior meatus Middle concha
Nasal septum
Middle meatus
Inferior concha Inferior meatus
RHINOSINUSITIS & NASAL POLYPOSIS Definition/Diagnosis Inflammation of the nose and the paranasal sinuses characterised by two or more symptoms; ‐ one of which should be either nasal congestion or nasal discharge (anterior/posterior nasal drip) ‐ with/without facial pain/pressure ‐ with/without reduction or loss of smell and/either ‐ Endoscopic signs of polyps or mucopurulent discharge and/either ‐ CT scan showing mucosal changes within the Figure 3.1: Nasal polyp in left middle meatus osteomeatal unit and/or sinuses (Lund‐Mackay score) Acute (ARS) 12 weeks without complete resolution of symptoms.
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The Nose
Management a) Consider endoscopy. b) Consider imaging. c) Consider cultures. d) Consider Oral/Intravenous antibiotics (long‐term macrolides for CRS). e) Topical steroids. f) Nasal douches. g) Consider FESS. Reference: European Position Paper on Rhinosinusitis and Nasal Polyps (2007)
ANTROCHOANAL NASAL POLYPS Definition/Diagnosis Benign lesions arising from the mucosa of the maxillary sinus that grow into the nasal cavity and reach the choana. ACPs are usually unilateral and appear in younger patients.
Signs and symptoms Nasal obstruction. Management a) Nasal endoscopy. b) CT and/or MRI. c) Surgery is the indicated treatment for ACP, with endoscopic resection the most recommended.
Figure 3.2: Antrochoanal nasal polyp
NASAL TRAUMA Background Nasal fracture is considered the most common of head and neck fractures. Significant functional and aesthetic impairment may result if these injuries are not accurately diagnosed and addressed in a timely fashion. Complications Epistaxis: The initial oedema and epistaxis of nasal trauma usually resolve without intervention, however, persistent epistaxis may require tamponade with nasal packing or rarely identification and coagulation or ligation of the bleeding vessels. CSF leak: Usually caused by a significant mechanism of injury and requires consideration with Neurosurgeon. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 18
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Septal haematoma: Results from bleeding within the subperichondrial plane of the septum. This collection of blood leaves the cartilage devoid of its blood supply, which is followed by necrosis and perforation. Treatment involves urgent incision and drainage of the haematoma and splinting. Antibiotic prophylaxis is required. Saddle deformity: Loss of structural support following a septal haematoma leads to septal collapse and a characteristic saddle nose deformity of the nasal dorsum and retraction of the collumella. Cosmetic deformity: External physical deformities include the creation of a dorsal hump, lateral deviation of the dorsum and tip, a widened nasal base and depression and splaying of the nasal tip. Complex septal deformities may also result including septal spurs, angular deflections, and complex alterations on nasal symmetry.
NASOPHARYNGEAL CARCINOMA Background There two distinct types – a) Undifferentiated non‐keratinising squamous cell carcinoma, which is more common in people from Southern China and Hong Kong, and is associated with Epstein‐Barr virus infection. b) Differentiated keratinising squamous cell carcinoma, which has similar at risk groups as other head and neck cancers. Signs & Symptoms Epistaxis, nasal obstruction, middle ear effusion, cranial nerve palsies. Investigations a) Cytology – biopsy. b) Imaging – CT and/or MRI. Management Radiotherapy or Chemoradiotherapy ± Neck dissection.
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4. THE MOUTH AND OROPHARYNX
Uvula
Palate
Palatopharyngeus Palatine tonsil Palatoglossus
TONSILLITIS Definition Infection of the tonsils commonly with β haemolytic streptococcus, pneumococcus and haemophilus influenzae. Symptoms Sore throat, difficulty swallowing, fever, malaise, halitosis. Signs Erythematous, swollen tonsils with exudates. Management a) Analgesia. b) Antipyretics. c) Oral/intravenous antibiotics.
Figure 4.1: Exudate on tonsil
d) Intravenous fluids. e) Antiseptic mouthwash.
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The Mouth and Oropharynx QUINSY
Definition Peritonsillar abscess lying in the potential space between the tonsillar capsule and the surrounding pharyngeal muscle bed. Symptoms Sore throat, difficulty swallowing, ‘hot potato’ voice, fever, malaise, otalgia. Signs Trismus, deviated uvula, peritonsillar collection. Management a) Abscess drainage. b) Intravenous antibiotics. c) Intravenous steroids. d) Analgesia. e) Antipyretics. f) Intravenous fluids. g) Antiseptic mouthwash.
Figure 4.2 Right sided quinsy
GLANDULAR FEVER (INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS) Definition Epstein‐Barr virus infection. Symptoms Sore throat, fevers, malaise, lethargy. Signs Cervical lymphadenopathy, dull/grey tonsils, white slough on tonsils, petechial haemorrhages on the palate, hepatosplenomegaly. Management a) Analgesia. b) Steroids. c) Intravenous fluids. d) ± Oral antibiotics. E) Advice regarding contact sports. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 22
The Mouth and Oropharynx
DOHNS
ORAL CAVITY MALIGNANCY Background The most common malignancy found in the mouth is squamous cell carcinoma. Risk factors include smoking, drinking alcohol and betel nut chewing. Signs & Symptoms Persistent, non‐healing ulcer on the lateral border of the tongue, floor of mouth or gum, leukoplakia, erythroplakia. Investigations a) Cytology – biopsy. b) Imaging – CT ± MRI ± USS. Management Surgery and/or chemoradiotherapy.
Figure 4.3: Lesion on Left ventral aspect of tongue
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DOHNS
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The Larynx
DOHNS
5. THE LARYNX
Pre‐epiglottic space
Tongue Vallecula Median glosso‐epiglottic fold Supraglottis Epiglottis
Ventricle
Aryepiglottic fold Pyriform sinus
False cord
Subglottis
True cord
Cricoid cartilage Arytenoid cartilages
Epiglottis
False vocal cord Aryepiglottic fold Glottis (tracheal wall visible)
True vocal cord Cuneiform cartilage Corniculate cartilage
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The Larynx How to draw the superior view of the larynx as seen on Flexible Nasendoscopy
Rules to follow: 1.
Always label left and right.
2.
Start with the vocal folds and work outwards.
3.
Keep it as simple as possible.
Left
Right
Figure 5.1: Line diagram of normal larynx and surrounding structures
A. Epiglottis B. Anterior Commisure C. Ventricle D. Vestibular fold (false cord) E.
Vocal fold (true cord)
F.
Piriform fossa
G. Arytenoid cartilage H. Rima glottidis I.
Aryepiglottic fold
J.
Vallecula
K.
Tongue base.
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The Larynx
DOHNS
INNERVATION OF THE VOCAL CORDS Arises from Vagus nerve (CNX)
Superior Laryngeal Nerve Two terminal branches: Internal Laryngeal Nerve (sensory/autonomic): Supplies mucous membrane of
supraglottis and superior aspect of vocal folds External Laryngeal (Motor): Supplies Cricothyroid muscle.
Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Sensory function: Supplies mucous membrane of inferior aspect of vocal folds and
subglottis Motor function: All intrinsic muscles of the larynx except for Cricothyroid.
Figure 5.2: Function of muscles supplied by Recurrent Laryngeal nerves
Light Blue: Thyroid cartilage
Dark Blue: Aretynoid cartilage
Yellow: Cricoid cartilage
Orange: Vocal ligament
Red: Muscle
NB: Cricothyroid function: stretches and tenses vocal fold by rocking thyroid cartilage back and forth on cricoid cartilage Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 27
DOHNS
The Larynx VOCAL CORD DISEASE
Background The larynx plays a pivotal role in airway protection, respiration and phonation. Laryngeal disease usually presents with dysphonia and a thorough head and neck examination is required to exclude malignancy. Onset, duration and progression of any voice changes are key parts of the history.
BENIGN Vocal cord nodules (Figure 5.3) Usually affect children or individuals who use their voices professionally. Bilateral pale lesions are seen at the junction of the anterior one‐third and posterior two thirds of the vocal cords.
Vocal cord polyps Associated with smoking and vocal cord abuse. Commonly seen as unilateral pedunculated lesions at the junction of the anterior and middle thirds of the vocal cords.
Figure 5.3
Vocal cord granulomas Are commonly associated with endotracheal intubation and gastroesophageal reflux. Lesions are usually unilateral and are related to perichondritis of the underlying arytenoid cartilage.
Reinkes oedema (Figure 5.4) Strongly associated with smoking and heavy voice use. Patients present with diffuse oedematous changes of both vocal cords.
Figure 5.4
Intracordal cyst May be simple mucus retention cysts or epidermoid cysts containing keratin. Usually seen as unilateral lesions within the middle third of the cord, associated with an area of hyperkeratosis on the opposite cord.
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The Larynx
DOHNS
Saccular cysts May be congenital or acquired. They occur as a result of obstruction to the mucus secreting glands within the laryngeal saccule. Examination reveals expansion of the aryepiglottic fold by the cyst within it, which may extend into the neck through the thyrohyoid membrane.
Laryngocele Is an abnormal expansion of the laryngeal ventricle, which may be confined by the thyroid cartilage or extend through the cricothyroid membrane into the neck. They are associated with raised intralaryngeal pressure such as trumpet playing but may also occur secondary to a malignancy.
Laryngeal papillomatosis Exophytic warty lesions of the true and false cords. Benign condition but associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Caused by human papilloma virus, subtypes 6 and 11. The aim of treatment is remove symptomatic lesions as HPV cannot be eradicated from the larynx.
MALIGNANT Background The vast majority of laryngeal malignancy is squamous cell carcinoma and is associated with smoking and drinking alcohol. Male to female ratio is 4:1 but the relative percentage of women is on the rise. Signs & Symptoms Hoarseness, dysphagia, haemoptysis, neck lump, pain, aspiration and airway compromise.
Figure 5.5
Investigations a) Cytology – biopsy. b) Imaging – CT ± MRI ± PET ± USS. Management Surgery and/or Radiotherapy with or without Chemotherapy Treatment planning is best delivered through a multidisciplinary tumour team format because of the complex and multifaceted nature of the disease. Figure 5.6 Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 29
DOHNS
The Larynx VOCAL CORD PALSY
Definition Loss of active movement of the “true” vocal cord, or vocal fold, secondary to disruption of the motor innervation of the larynx. Disruption can occur along any length of the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the vagi and may include damage to the motor nuclei of the vagus. This should be differentiated from fixation of the vocal cord secondary to direct infiltration of the vocal fold, larynx or laryngeal muscles. Aetiology Neoplastic, iatrogenic, idiopathic, traumatic, neurological. Signs & Symptoms Dysphonia, cough, haemoptysis, dyspnoea. Management a) Conservative. b) Injection laryngoplasty. c) Sialastic implants. d) Tracheostomy.
LARYNGOMALACIA Definition It is a common condition of infancy where the soft immature cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing airway obstruction. Signs and symptoms ‘Squeaking’ stridor on inspiration, feeding difficulties. Management a) Conservative in the majority. b) Surgery – aryepiglottopexy/ aryepiglottoplasty. Figure 5.7
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Other common DOHNS Head and Neck pathology
DOHNS
6. OTHER COMMON DOHNS HEAD AND NECK PATHOLOGY EPIGLOTTITIS Definition Potentially life‐threatening inflammation of the epiglottis and/or supraglottic tissues that affects adults and children. It is now rare in children as a result of the haemophilus influenza B vaccination. Symptoms Difficulty swallowing, drooling, dysphonia, fever. Signs
Pooling of saliva, gross supraglottic swelling. Management a) Stay calm & call for senior help. b) Do not attempt to examine the patient. c) Oxygen/Heliox. d) Adrenaline nebulisers. e) Steroids. f) Antibiotics. g) May require intubation or tracheostomy.
BRANCHIAL CYST Definition Arise from the failure of the pharyngobranchial ducts to obliterate during fetal development. Another possibility is that they arise from elements of squamous epithelium within lymphoid tissue (ectopic epithelial cells). They most frequently present in late childhood or early adulthood, when the cysts become infected – usually after an URTI. Signs & Symptoms Usually asymptomatic and found on the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle at the junction of the upper third and lower two‐thirds. They may become painful and tender when infected. Management a) Control any infection. b) Incision and drainage avoided as a general rule. c) Definitive surgical excision. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 31
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Other common DOHNS Head and Neck pathology THYROGLOSSAL CYST
Definition Midline cyst that occurs as a result of failure of the thyroglossal duct to obliterate during development. Signs & Symptoms Midline or para‐median swelling that rises with tongue protrusion. Management a) Control any infection. b) Ensure normal thyroid function. c) Sistrunk procedure.
SALIVARY GLAND DISEASE Background Most clinically significant diseases of the salivary glands involve the parotid and submandibular glands. Eighty percent of primary salivary gland tumours occur in the parotid gland and 80% of these are benign.
BENIGN Acute viral inflammatory disease Occurs most commonly in children aged 4‐6 with an incubation period of 14‐21 days where it is most contagious. Patients’ present with acute bilateral swelling of the parotid glands accompanied by pain, erythema, tenderness, malaise, fever and occasional trismus. Acute suppurative sialadenitis Occurs in the elderly with chronic medical conditions and postoperative patients. Risk factors include dehydration and immunosuppresion. Patients present with acute swelling of the salivary glands and fever. Chronic granulomatous siladenitis Chronic unilateral or bilateral salivary gland swelling with minimal pain. Differential diagnoses should include Cat‐scratch disease, Sarcoidosis, Actinomycosis and Wegener’s granulomatosis. Sialolithiasis Patients present with acute, painful swelling of the salivary gland, which is aggravated by eating. A stone may be palpated in the floor of the mouth. Treatment options include a ‘watch and wait’ policy, intra‐oral radiological extraction or salivary gland excision.
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Other common DOHNS Head and Neck pathology
DOHNS
Sjogren syndrome Salivary gland swelling with dryness of the mouth and eyes. More commonly seen in postmenopausal women and often associated with other connective tissue disease. Diagnosis is confirmed by detection of autoantibodies SS‐A and SS‐B and salivary gland biopsy. It is a slowly progressive disease with a high risk for development of malignant lymphoma. Pleomorphic adenoma Present as isolated swellings with little associated pain and no known aetiological factors. They are benign mixed tumours histologically and treatment is complete surgical excision. Warthin’s tumour Also known as papillary cystadenoma lymphomatosum and are almost exclusively found in the parotid gland. Histologically characterised by papillary structures composed of double layers of granular eosinophilic cells, cystic changes and mature lymphocytic infiltration. Treatment is complete surgical excision.
MALIGNANT Malignant salivary gland disease has not been attributed to any specific carcinogenic factors. Twenty percent of parotid neoplasms, 50% of submandibular neopplasms and 70% of sublingual neoplasms are malignant. Patients usually present with an incidentally noted mass, however, pain, facial palsy and cervical adenopathy may be present. Histological types include mucoepidermoid carcinoma, adenoid cystic carcinoma, acinic cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, lymphoma and malignant mixed tumours. Treatment options include surgical excision with or without neck dissection, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Optimal management of these patients is discussed at a multidisciplinary team meeting.
PHARYNGEAL POUCH Definition Posteromedial pulsion diverticulum through Killian’s dehiscence. The herniation is between thyropharyngeus and cricopharyngeus muscles, both part of the inferior constrictor muscle of the pharynx. Symptoms Dysphagia, regurgitation, cough, weight loss. Signs Halitosis, gurgling on palpation of the neck.
Figure 6.1
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Other common DOHNS Head and Neck pathology
Management a) Conservative. b) Endoscopic stapling (Dohlmans procedure). c) Cricopharyngeal myotomy. d) Diverticulectomy.
BELL’S PALSY Definition Idiopathic lower‐motor neurone facial palsy. Symptoms Unilateral facial weakness affecting all five divisions of the facial nerve, hypoaesthesia, occasional fever, malaise and rhinorrhoea and rarely facial or retroauricular pain. Signs Facial weakness, inability to close eye in severe cases.
Figure 6.2: Right‐sided facial palsy. Obvious asymmetry at rest and inability to close the affected right eye
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Other common DOHNS Head and Neck pathology
DOHNS
Management a) Ensure other causes of a LMN facial palsy have been excluded. b) Oral glucocorticoids. c) Eye care with ointment and artificial tears. c) Watch and wait with follow up as required.
Grade and Description
Characteristics
I Normal
Symmetrical facial function normal in all areas.
II Mild dysfunction
Gross: Slight weakness noticeable. Normal symmetry at rest. Dynamic: Forehead: moderate to good function. Eye: complete closure with minimal effort. Mouth: slight asymmetry.
III Moderate dysfunction
Gross: Obvious but not disfiguring difference between the two sides. Noticeable but not severe synkinesis and spasms. Normal symmetry and tone at rest. Dynamic: Forehead: slight to moderate movement. Eye: complete closure with effort. Mouth: slightly weak during maximum effort.
IV Moderately severe dysfunction
Gross: Obvious weakness and severe asymmetry. Normal symmetry and tone at rest. Dynamic: Forehead – no movement. Eye – Incomplete closure. Mouth – asymmetric during maximum effort.
V Severe Paralysis
Gross: barely perceptible motion. Asymmetry at rest. Dynamic: Forehead – no movement. Eye – incomplete closure. Mouth ‐ slight movement.
VI Total Paralysis
No movement. Table.6.1: House‐Brackmann scale
*Reference: House JW and Brackmann DE. Facial nerve grading system. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 1985: 93, 146–147.
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DOHNS
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The Thyroid
DOHNS
7. THE THYROID
HISTOLOGY
Colloid
Follicular cells
Follicle
Follicles The thyroid gland is made up of follicles which selectively absorb iodide ions from the blood for the production of thyroid hormones. Twenty five percent of all the body’s iodide ions are in the thyroid gland. Within the follicles, colloid acts as a reservoir of materials for thyroid hormone production. Colloid is rich in thyroglobulin. Follicular cells (thyroid epithelial cells) Thyroid follicles are surrounded by follicular cells, which secrete T3 and T4. Parafollicular (C) cells Dispersed among follicular cells and between the follicles are the parafollicular cells which secrete calcitonin.
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DOHNS
The Thyroid
Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism
Irritability
Mental slowness
Heat intolerance
Cold intolerance
Insomnia
Hypersomnolence
Sweatiness
Dry skin
Weight loss
Weight gain
Diarrhoea
Constipation
Palpitations / Atrial Fibrillation
Bradycardia
Hyper‐reflexia, tremor
Slow‐relaxing reflexes
Amenorrhoea
Menorrhagia Table 7.1: Classic symptoms and signs of thyroid dysfunction
T3/T4
TSH
Primary Hyperthyroidism
Raised
Reduced
Secondary Hyperthyroidism
Raised
Raised
Subclinical Hypothyroidism
Normal
Raised
Primary Hypothyroidism
Reduced
Raised
Secondary Hypothyroidism
Reduced
Reduced
Tertiary Hypothyroidism
Reduced*
Reduced*
Table 7.2: Blood results (* check TRH; dysfunction at level of hypothalamus)
HYPERTHYROIDISM Graves disease Autoimmune hyperthyroid condition, where antibodies mimic the effect of TSH. Particular eye signs include lid lag, exophthalmos, ophthalmoplegia, lid retraction, proptosis and chemosis. Treatment options include hormonal manipulation with carbimazole or surgery. Toxic thyroid adenoma Benign tumour of the thyroid gland classified according to its cellular architecture. Thyroid adenomas may be clinically silent or in this case produce excessive thyroid hormone. Most patients are managed by watchful waiting but some may undergo surgical excision.
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The Thyroid
DOHNS
Toxic multinodular goitre A form of hyperthyroidism characterised by functionally autonomous nodules that emerges insidiously from non‐toxic multinodular goitre.
HYPOTHYROIDISM Hypothyroidism tends to be classified according to the indicated organ dysfunction. Primary Automimmune disease (Hashimoto’s thyroiditis) and radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism are commonest forms of primary hypothyroidism, where the thyroid gland itself is responsible for the inadequate production of thyroid hormones. Secondary A dysfunctional pituitary gland and subsequent lack of thyroid‐stimulating hormone is usually a consequence of tumour, radiation or surgery. Tertiary Insufficient thyrotropin‐releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus.
THYROID NEOPLASIA Background Thyroid tumours may arise from either the follicular cells or the supporting cells found in the normal gland. Papillary adenocarcinoma Usually affects adults aged 40‐50 years old with multiple tumours within the gland. Ninety percent of patients will survive 10 years if the disease is limited to the gland. Treatment involves near‐total thyroidectomy with or without post‐operative radio‐iodine ablation. After surgery patients require lifelong thyroid replacement. Follicular adenocarcinoma Usually affects adults aged 50‐60 years old with a well defined capsule enclosing the tumour. Hence, tumour spread is via the bloodstream and up to 30% of patients will have distant metastases at presentation. Treatment is as for papillary adenocarcinoma. Anaplastic adenocarcinoma Usually affects adults over 70 years of age and is more common in women. Patients present with rapid painful enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly with airway, voice or swallowing problems. The prognosis is very poor with over 90% of patients dying within one year even with treatment. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 39
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The Thyroid SUPPORTING CELL TUMOURS
Medullary carcinoma Arises from parafollicular C cells, which secrete calcitonin. Neck metastases are present in 30% patients. Treatment involves near‐total thyroidectomy and radiotherapy. When it coexists with tumours of the parathyroid gland and medullary component of the adrenal glands it is called Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 2 (MEN2).
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Cranial Nerves
DOHNS
8. CRANIAL NERVES CN:
Name
Sensory/Motor
Foramina
I
Olfactory
Sensory
Cribriform plate
II
Optic
Sensory
Optic canal
III
Oculomotor
Motor
Superior orbital fissure
IV
Trochlear
Motor
Superior orbital fissure
V1: Sensory
V1: Superior orbital fissure
V2: Sensory
V2: Foramen rotundum
V3: Both
V3: Foramen ovale
V
Trigeminal
VI
Abducens
Motor
Superior orbital fissure
VII
Facial
Both
Internal acoustic meatus
VIII
Vestibulocochlear
Sensory
Internal acoustic meatus
IX
Glossopharyngeal
Both
Jugular foramen
X
Vagus
Both
XI
Accessory
Motor
Jugular foramen (sp)
XII
Hypoglossal
Motor
Hypoglossal canal
Jugular foramen
Table 8.1
CNI: OLFACTORY Olfactory receptor neurons with fibres extending to olfactory bulb through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone. Stimulation of olfactory receptors allows us to smell. Be sure to test each nostril with an odorous substance (not ammonia!). Signs of CNI lesion:
Lesions may be due to blunt head trauma, meningitis or frontal lobe lesions Lesion to CNI causes reduced sense of smell but does not affect ability to sense pain from nasal epithelium (since this is carried in CNV).
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Cranial Nerves CNII: OPTIC
The optic nerve is part of the central nervous system. It travels via optic canal to the chiasm where there is partial decussation of fibres from nasal visual fields. Most axons terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus and information is relayed to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Signs of CNII lesion: The site of nerve injury determines the visual field defect Injury to the optic nerve causes ipsilateral field loss Injury at the level of the chiasma causes a bitemporal hemianopia Injury at the level of the visual cortex causes homonymous hemianopia Lesions may be due to glaucoma, optic neuritis, trauma, compression by pituitary
tumour or CVA.
CNIII: OCULOMOTOR The occulomotor nerve arises from the midbrain and runs along the cavernous sinus where it divides into two branches which enter the orbit through superior orbital fissure. It controls eye movement, pupil constriction and opening of the eyelid. Signs of CNIII lesion: Fixed dilated pupil which does not accommodate Ptosis Deviation of eye down and out. Causes of injury include trauma, demyelinating disease, increased ICP (causes
herniation and compression), microvascular disease and cavernous sinus disease
CNIV: TROCHLEAR
The trochlear nerve emerges from the dorsal brainstem, passes through the cavernous sinus and superior orbital fissure and innervates the superior oblique muscle (causes depression and intorsion of eye). Lesions of nucleus affect the contralateral eye. Symptoms of injury: Vertical diplopia due to eye drifting up – difficulty reading/going down stairs, patient
may tilt head down Torsional diplopia – patient may tilt the head to the opposite side Causes of lesions include head injury, increased ICP, infection, demyelination,
neuropathy, congenital defect, infarction and haemorrhage.
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CNV: TRIGEMINAL
Supplies sensation of face and mouth as well as the motor supply to the muscles of mastication. Three branches: Ophthalmic (sensory), maxillary (sensory) and mandibular (mixed). Branches of V1 (passes through superior orbital fissure): Frontal nerve Nasociliary nerve Lacrimal nerve Branches of V2 (passes through foramen rotundum): Superior alveolar nerves Facial branches Nasal branches Branches of V3 (passes through foramen ovale): Meningeal branches Buccal nerve Auriculotemporal nerve Lingual nerve Inferior alveolar nerve Motor branches of CNV Distributed in V3: Supplies muscles of mastication, tensor veli palatini, mylohyoid, anterior belly of digastric and tensor tympani. Signs of injury: Reduced sensation over affected area Weakness of jaw clenching and side‐to‐side movement Injury to peripheral part of V3 causes deviation of jaw to the paralysed side.
CNVI: ABDUCENS The abducens nerve controls the lateral rectus muscle, which abducts the eye. The nerve runs from brainstem through cavernous sinus into orbit through superior orbital fissure and is vulnerable to injury due to its length.
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Cranial Nerves
Signs of injury: Diplopia, worse in lateral gaze Inability to abduct the eye Causes of injury include compression, infarction, demyelination, infection and
diabetic neuropathy.
CNVII: FACIAL The facial nerve controls the muscles of facial expression, stapedius, stylohyoid, posterior belly of digastric and taste to anterior 2/3 of tongue. Parasympathetic fibres supply submandibular and sublingual glands, lacrimal glands and secretory glands of nasal and palatine mucosa. The motor portion originates in facial nerve nucleus in pons, whereas the sensory portion arises from nervus intermedius. The facial nerve enters petrous temporal bone into IAM, runs through facial canal (gives off the chorda tympani), emerges though stylomastoid foramen, passes through the parotid gland (but does NOT supply it). Divides into five major branches: Temporal Zygomatic Buccal Marginal mandibular Cervical.
Other branches include: Branches of CNVII in IAM Greater petrosal nerve Parasympathetic supply to lacrimal gland, sinuses and nasal cavity Sensory fibres to palate Nerve to stapedius Chorda tympani Parasympathetic supply to submandibular gland and sublingual gland Special sensory taste fibres to anterior 2/3 tongue.
CNVIII: VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR The vestibulocochlear nerve transmits sound and balance information. Signs of damage: Unilateral sensorineural deafness Tinnitus Vertigo. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 44
Cranial Nerves
DOHNS
Causes of injury include loud noise, Pagets disease, Menieres disease, Herpes zoster,
neurofibroma, acoustic neuroma, brainstem CVA, aminoglycosides. Acoustic neuroma (Vestibular schwannoma) Benign primary intracranial tumour of myelin forming cells of CNVIII. It may occur sporadically or as part of von Recklinhausen neurofibromatosis. Symptoms occur due to compression of surrounding structures such as CN V, VII, IX and X. Patients present with ipsilateral sensorineural hearing loss, disturbed balance, vertigo and tinnitus. Investigations: MRI with contrast, audiology and vestibular tests Treatment: Conservative, surgical, radiotherapy
CNIX: GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL The glossopharyngeal nerve supplies motor innervation to stylopharyngeus alone (elevates pharynx), parasympathetic innervation to otic ganglion and thus parotid and sensory innervation to upper pharynx, tonsils, posterior 1/3 tongue, external ear and internal part of TM. Special sensory supply (for taste) to posterior 1/3 tongue Visceral sensory supply to carotid body and sinus Major branches Tympanic Carotid Phayngeal Muscular Tonsillar Lingual.
CNX: VAGUS Most notably the vagus nerve supplies the larynx via the recurrent and superior laryngeal nerves. It also gives off an auricular branch (Alderman’s nerve) which may cause a cough reflex when examining the external auditory canal.
CNXI: ACCESSORY Motor supply to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius. Courses through posterior triangle of neck – may be damaged in neck surgery. Signs of injury: Wasting and weakness of SCM and trapezius.
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Cranial Nerves
CNXII: Hypoglossal Supplies motor fibres to all muscles of the tongue expect palatoglossus. Tested by asking the patient to protrude their tongue – tongue points towards affected side Signs of injury: Signs of LMN disease include as atrophy and fasciculation.
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Hearing and balance
DOHNS
9. HEARING AND BALANCE AUDIOMETRY The audiogram is a graph of a person’s hearing ability and is a standard way of representing a person’s hearing. The typical range of frequencies tested does not cover the entire range of human hearing (20‐20,000Hz), instead it includes frequencies considered to be essential in understanding speech (250‐8,000Hz). The assessment involves pure tones being presented to the ‘test‐ear’ at a specific frequency (pitch) and intensity (loudness). Thresholds can be obtained using air conduction (AC) or bone conduction (BC). The comparison of AC thresholds and BC thresholds provides an initial differentiation between conductive, mixed and sensorineural involvement. Sensorineural hearing loss is characterised by equivalent air and bone conduction ie air‐bone gaps of less than 10dB. Conductive hearing loss is characterised by BC thresholds within normal limits, with a concurrent gap between the poorer AC and better BC thresholds of at least 10dB. A mixed hearing loss contains air‐bone gaps with the bone conduction thresholds outside of the normal range.
MASKING To ensure the auditory function of each ear is measured independently, masking is used. Rules of masking: 1. Air conduction audiometry – mask if the difference between the right and left air conduction thresholds is 40dB or more. 2. Bone conduction audiometry – mask where bone conduction threshold is better than air conduction by 10dB or more. 3. Air conduction audiometry – mask where bone conduction of the better ear is 40dB or more better than air conduction threshold of the worse ear. Masking is required for BC testing whenever there is any difference in the AC and BC thresholds, since there is essentially no interaural attenuation by bone conduction.
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Hearing and balance
Figure 9.1: Definitions of hearing loss
Example audiograms
Figure 9.2: Sensorineural hearing loss (mild to moderate)
Figure 9.3: Conductive hearing loss Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 48
Hearing and balance
DOHNS
Figure 9.4: Mixed hearing loss
Pure tone average = average over 0.5, 1, 2, 4kHz
SYMBOLS Air conduction
Right O
Left X
‐ with masking
∆
□
Bone conduction
]
HEARING AIDS A hearing aid is Ear mould electroacoustic apparatus, which typically fits in or behind the ear, and is designed to modulate sound for the wearer. There Battery are many types of hearing aid and On/Off they vary in power, size and circuitry.
Connecting tube
Microphone Volume control
Figure 9.5: Hearing aids
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Hearing and balance
Scala vestibuli Reissners membrane Scala Media Organ of Corti
Scala tympani Basillar membrane
Figure 9.6: Histology of the cochlea
Figure 9.7: BAHA abutment seen 2 weeks post‐op
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Hearing and balance
DOHNS
COCHLEAR IMPLANTS
A cochlear implant (CI) is a surgically implanted electronic device that provides a sense of sound to a person who is profoundly deaf or severely hard of hearing. An absence or disturbance of cochlear hair cells causes most cases of deafness. This defect in normal cochlear function represents a broken link in the delicate chain that constitutes the human sense of hearing. CI provide an artificial means to bypass this disrupted link and thereby allow the transmission of acoustic information through the central auditory pathway via direct electrical stimulation of auditory nerve fibres. Most deaf individuals maintain an adequate surplus of viable auditory nerve fibres to Figure 9.8: Cochlear implant probe permit this intervention. Candidacy for cochlear implantation relies heavily upon the audiologic evaluation but other considerations and strict criteria exist including lack of medical contraindication.
TYMPANOMETRY This examination is used to measure the transmission of energy through the middle ear (acoustic impedence). It is based on the amount of sound reflected back from the tympanic membrane when an 85‐B sound pressure level (SPL), low frequency (226Hz) probe tone is introduced into the sealed ear canal and pressure in the ear canal is varied. When the pressure in the ear canal corresponds with the pressure in the middle ear cavity, the tympanic membrane is at its most compliant point and thus absorbs, rather than reflects, the most sound. Classification of tympanograms Type A – normal tympanic membrane mobility and normal middle ear pressure. Type As – Reduced tympanic membrane mobility and normal middle ear pressure, consistent with stiff middle ear system eg; otosclerosis. Type Ad – Hypermobile tympanic membrane with normal middle ear pressure, consistent with flaccid tympanic membrane or disarticulation of ossicular chain. Type B – Reduced tympanic membrane mobility, consistent with presence of fluid in middle ear space. Type C – Normal tympanic membrane mobility and negative middle ear pressure, consistent with Eustachian tube dysfunction. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 51
Hearing and balance
Compliance (ml)
Compliance (ml)
Compliance (ml)
Compliance (ml)
Compliance (ml)
DOHNS
Figure 9.9: The various types of tympanogram
Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 52
Hearing and balance
DOHNS
BALANCE Balance requires the integration of several body systems working together, including the eyes, ears and limbs. Balance disorders can occur whenever there is a disruption in any of the vestibular, visual, proprioceptive or cognitive systems. Symptoms may be due to a wide range of pathologies such as hypotension and brain tumours. There are many terms often used to describe dizziness including vertigo, dysequilibrium and pre‐syncope. Otolaryngologists are primarily interested vestibular disorders such as benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), labyrinthitis and Menieres disease. BPPV Vertigo usually lasts only for seconds. Brief and intense sensation of spinning that occurs because of a specific change in the head position. The cause of BPPV is the presence of nor‐ mal but misplaced otoconia within the inner ear. Treatment involves moving these otoconia through various exercises such as the Epley manoeuvre. Figure 9.10: The various stages of the Epley manoeuvre
MENIERE’S DISEASE Vertigo lasts minutes to hours. Inner ear fluid balance disorder that causes lasting episodes of vertigo, fluctuating hearing loss, tinnitus and the sensation of fullness in the ear. Dietary changes may be helpful including reducing salt, alcohol and caffeine intake. Stress has been shown to exacerbate symptoms. Medications such as Betahistine and Furosemide have been shown to reduce the frequency of symptoms. Surgical treatment options include grommet insertion, vestibular neuronectomy and labyrinthectomy.
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Hearing and balance
LABYRINTHITIS Vertigo lasts days. Inner ear infection or inflammation causing vertigo and hearing loss. Treatment involves vestibular rehabilitation. VESTIBULAR NEURONITIS Vertigo usually lasts for days. Viral vestibular nerve infection causing vertigo but no deafness. Treatment involves vestibular rehabilitation.
Superior Cochlea
Semicircular canals Ampulla
Posterior Ampulla Lateral Ampulla
Scala tympani
Figure 9.11: Labyrinth
Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 54
Imaging
DOHNS
10. IMAGING The DOHNS candidate will not be expected to discuss images in detail during the OSCE examination or comment on the pros and cons of certain imaging modalities. They will, however, be required to identify common conditions based on a selection of images and to describe the key diagnostic points. The role of radiology in ENT has developed greatly over the past few decades. It must be appreciated that the radiologist has a key role at multidisciplinary team meetings. High quality imaging allows the extent and stage of disease to be demonstrated to all team members and this has contributed significantly to confident management advice and appropriate consenting of the patient. IMAGING MODALITIES
I. X‐ray X–rays are indicated in selected circumstances. Please see illustrations below.
Q: Identify and label the parts Answers: 1 Mandible. 2 Hyoid. 3 Thyroid cartilage. 4 Cricoid cartilage. 5 Epiglottis. 6. Valeculla.
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Imaging Larynx
Identify the chicken bone
This 43–year‐old lady presents with a mass in the left side of her neck. Q: What is the investigation? A: Cervical Spine X‐ray AP
Q: What is the abnormality seen? A: Left Cervical rib
II. Computerised tomography (CT): CT images are essentially density maps of the human body utilising fairly high diagnostic radiation doses. CT is good at demonstrating bone detail and this remains its major strength. Modern CT technology means scanners are incredibly fast requiring just a few seconds of exposure to acquire a Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 56
Imaging
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volume of data from which high spatial resolution images in all planes can be reconstructed. Examples of where CT is used in ENT 1. Rhinosinusitis. 2. Head and Neck malignancy. 3. Temporal bone. 4. Abscesses. Q: What is this investigation? A: CT sinuses demonstrating the OMU Q: Name the arrowed air passages Answers: 1. Ostium. 2. Infundibulum. 3. Middle meatus. 4. Hiatus semilunaris. Q: What is the name of this unit? A: Osteomeatal unit Q: Which sinuses drain into this unit? A: Maxillary, Anterior Ethmoids, Frontal sinuses Q: What is the investigation? A: CT neck at the level of the thyroid cartilage Q: What does it demonstrate (blue arrows)? A: Large supraglottic tumour, crossing the midline. Bilateral cervical lymphadenopathy (asterisk) Q: Where do the yellow arrows point to? Answers: 1. Sternomastoid. 2. Thyroid cartilage. 3. Internal jugular vein. 4. Cervical vertebra. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 57
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Imaging
Q: What is the investigation? A: CT Sinuses, coronal and axial slices Q: What is the abnormality shown in asterisks? A: Antrochonal polyp – seen filling the maxillary sinus and the nostril on the coronal image, and filling the post nasal space on the axial image Q: Where do the arrows point to? 1 Cribriform plate. 2 Optic nerve. 3 Unerupted molar tooth. Q: What is the investigation? A: CT neck Q: What is the abnormality? (blue arrows and asterisks) A: Tumour base of tongue crossing the midline, bilateral necrotic cervical lymphadenopathy 1. Sternomastoid. 2. Mandible (ramus). 3. Spinal cord. 4. Internal jugular vein.
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Q: What is the investigation? A: CT petrous temporal bones Q: What do the numbers and circle correspond to? Answers: 1. Internal acoustic meatus. 2. Cerebellum. Circle ‐ cochlea.
Q: What is the investigation? A: CT petrous temporal bone Q: What do the numbers and circle correspond to? Answers: 1. Handle of the malleus. 2. Round window. 3. Mastoid air cells. Circle ‐ cochlea.
Q: What is the investigation? A: CT petrous bones Q: What do the numbers and circle correspond to? Answers: 1. Bodies of malleus and incus. 2. Internal acoustic meatus. 3. Sphenoid sinus. Circle – lateral semicircular canal and vestibule. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 59
DOHNS
Imaging Q: What is this investigation? A: CT petrous temporal bones Q: What do the numbers and circle correspond to? 1. Bodies of malleus and incus. 2. Internal acoustic meatus. 3. Mastoid air cells. Circle – lateral semicircular canal and vestibule.
Q: What is this investigation? A: CT brain and orbits, with contrast Q: What abnormalities are demonstrated? Right proptosis, Right periorbital cellulitis Right ethmoid sinusitis Right subperiosteal abscess Q: Name 2 intracranial complications: 1.Subdural empyema. 2.Venous thrombosis. 3.Osteomyelitis. CT orbits and brain pre and post contrast report. Clinical details: Fits, confusion. Right proptosis. “There is a severe right proptosis with extensive preseptal cellulitis extending up to the forehead and across the nasal bridge. In addition there is a large subperiosteal abscess extending along the medial wall of the right orbit to the orbital apex. There is no radiological evidence of extension through the superior orbital fissure into the cavernous sinus, the cavernous sinus es are patent bilaterally. Soft tissue fills the frontal sinuses bilaterally and the right ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses. The post contrast scans demonstrate increased gyral enhancement with slight effacement of the sulci in keeping with an evolving cerebritis, there is no convincing evidence of a subdural collection, however a small shallow isodense subdural collection is difficult to exclude. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 60
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The deep venous sinuses are patent, the petrous bones are normally aerated. There is a lipoma of the splenium of the corpus callosum.” Conclusion Right orbital cellulitis with large subperiosteal abscess Right cerebritis with raised intracranial pressure Urgent neurosurgical opinion advised Results discussed directly with paediatric team.
Q: What is this investigation? A: CT neck sagittal image Q: Blue asterisk demonstrates a tumour – where is it located? A: Base of tongue and valeculla Q: What do the numbers correspond to? Answers: 1.Hyoid. 2.Thyroid cartilage. 3.Cricoid cartilage. 4. Hard palate.
Q; What is this investigation? A: CT petrous bones Q: Where is the abnormality (blue asterisk) A: Middle ear Q: Name some differential diagnoses? Answers: Glomus tympanicum. Small cholesteotoma. Q: What do numbers correspond to? 1. Cochlea (basal turn). 2. Mastoid air cells.
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Imaging
III. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) MR images reflect tissue biochemistry and are particularly influenced by the presence of protons within the tissues. T1 weighted images carry a great deal of spatial resolution with excellent depiction of detailed anatomy. T2 weighted images are better at highlighting abnormal tissues. The STIR sequence retains this positive attribute of a T2 weighted image and suppresses all fat signal leaving all abnormal tissue and tissue with a high water content as high signal. Scan times compared to CT are much longer varying from around 2 to 5 minutes per sequence with scans sometimes taking 40 minutes in total during which the patient must be kept still. Examples of where MRI is used in ENT: 1. Acoustic neuroma. 2. Head and Neck malignancy. 3. Vertigo. Q: What is this investigation? A: MRI Internal Auditory Meati Q: What is the abnormality? (blue arrows) A very large vestibular schwannoma bulging into the cerebellum, compressing the fourth ventricle. Q: Where do the yellow arrows point to? Answers: 1. Cerebellum. 2. Pons. 3. Temporal lobe.
Q: What is this investigation? A: MRI IAMs T1 with contrast axial. Q: What is the abnormality? (asterisk) A: An enhancing intracanicular vestibular schwannoma. Q: What do the numbers corresponds to? 1. Pons. 2. Cerebellum. 3. Fourth ventricle. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 62
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Q: What is this investigation? A: MRI IAMs T1 with contrast coronal Q: What is the abnormality? (blue asterisk) A: An enhancing intracanicular vestibular schwannoma Q: What do the numbers corresponds to? 1. Pons. 2. Temporal lobe. 3. Odontoid peg. 4. Lateral ventricle.
What is this investigation? MRI neck (coronal T1 image) What is the abnormality? (Blue asterisk) Tumour left lateral tongue, not crossing the midline. Q: What do the numbers corresponds to? 1. Mylohyoid muscle. 2. Inferior turbinate. 3. Maxillary sinus.
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Imaging
IV. Ultrasound (USS) USS in experienced hands provides useful and rapid imaging assessment of patients with an undiagnosed neck lump. As well as providing imaging information on neck masses USS can be used to guide fine needle aspiration (FNA). USS is particularly useful in delineation of thyroid pathology, cervical lymphadenopathy and evaluating salivary gland tumours. Examples of where USS is used in ENT 1. Metastatic cervical lymphadenopathy. 2. Paediatric neck lumps. 3. Thyroid pathology. 4. Salivary gland disease Q: What is this investigation? A: Ultrasound of the parotid gland Q: What is the measured lesion most likely to be? A: Pleomorphic adenoma
V. Positive Emission Tomography‐Computerised Tomography fusion scan (PET‐CT) PET images are maps reflecting levels of glucose metabolism within tissues. A short half‐life isotope 16 fluoro deoxy glucose (FDG) is injected intravenously. The PET scanner detects gamma rays caused by interaction of positrons emitted by the isotope with electrons within the tissues. Modern scanners incorporate a CT scanner which co registers the activity with its exact anatomical location. PET‐CT will detect the clinically occult primary in approximately one third of cases. It is also valuable in the assessment of suspected recurrence of head and neck cancer. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 64
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VI. Contrast swallow Routine barium swallows can be useful in demonstrating oesophageal function and pathology including reflux, pharyngeal pouches, malignant and benign strictures. Water‐soluble contrast swallow are useful when there is a perceived risk of aspiration.
Q: What is this investigation? A: Barium swallow Q: What does it show? A: Pharyngeal pouch Q: What symptoms might the patient have? A: Regurgitation of food, nocturnal cough Q: Where does the arrow point to? A: Oesophagus
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DOHNS
SECTION TWO: Communication skills for DOHNS Part 2
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DOHNS
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Consent
DOHNS
11. CONSENT
TOP TIP Spend some time asking about the patient’s knowledge of the procedure, as this may well be the key point of the station. Maybe ask if he knows anyone who has had the procedure.
This station assesses your ability to obtain an informed consent for an invasive procedure. It requires you to have a clear and structured approach, and have some understanding of the procedure. You are the ST2 trainee with an ENT firm. You have been asked to consent Mr Campbell for a submandibular gland excision. Station set up: Mr. Campbell will be a simulated patient What you need to cover Recap clinical history Establish reason for procedure Explore patient’s ideas, concerns and expectations Explain procedure, benefits and complications Check patient understanding of information Give an estimate of duration of hospital stay Allow patient the opportunity to ask questions.
Hidden Agendas Patients who are due to have an interventional procedure tend to be nervous for a number of reasons, including misconceptions about the procedure. It is therefore essential that the doctor obtaining consent from a patient establishes their ideas, concerns and expectations before the procedure. It is during the consenting process that any problems or issues should be identified and addressed. Mr. Campbell will probably have a few issues...
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Consent
How to approach this station: Introduce yourself, confirm the patient’s identity and obtain consent for the consultation. Recap the clinical history. Focus on: Does the patient know why they are in hospital? What has happened in the lead up to procedure (what symptoms the patient has
experienced, etc.)? What does the patisent know about the procedure already?
Provide appropriate information regarding the procedure i.e. what will occur (talk Mr. Campbell through step‐by‐step from arriving on the ward to going home afterwards). Explain the risks and the benefits of the procedure.
TOP TIP This station is not about demonstrating your knowledge of the fine details of how to perform the procedure. Instead the station is focused on determining whether the patient has any reservations and adverse ideas, which would disrupt the success or the outcome of the procedure. However, in a station like this it is beneficial to know and provide some pertinent statistics regarding the procedure. You must also remember that a patient with capacity has the right to refuse treatment!
Explore his main concerns. What does the patient expect? Does the patient understand/retain the information about the procedure?
If the patient is happy to proceed: Complete the consent form ‐ providing patient has capacity.
If the patient refuses: Explore the reasons behind this Does the patient have capacity? Respect patient’s autonomy.
The facts: GMC guidelines on obtaining consent are summarised below. You must demonstrate your knowledge of these guidelines throughout this station, and structure the station around them.
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Consent
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Key points to tell a patient undergoing key ENT procedures are considered below. (Adapted from GMC guidelines: Seeking patients’ consent: the ethical considerations). Obtaining informed consent: ‐ Who can obtain consent? Ideally the doctor discussing a procedure and obtaining consent from a patient should be the person who will perform the procedure. This is because they will best know how and why the procedure is performed and any risks. It may not always be possible for this to take place, however, so a suitably trained and qualified delegate may be appointed with the task. This person (often a junior doctor) must understand and relay information about the proposed procedure or treatment, and risks involved. ‐ When should consent be obtained? It is good practice to give the patient time to consider their procedure and therefore, except in emergency situations, obtaining consent should be done well in advance of the operation date. This allows the patient time to reflect on their options, weigh up the risks and benefits and ask for further questions if they wish. It is generally considered undesirable to consent on the day of the procedure, although this is common practice. It is felt this places undue pressure on the patient to consent. An ideal scenario for elective procedures would be to discuss the operation in clinic a week or more prior to admission, providing the patient with written information to take home, and contact details if they have further questions. On the day of the procedure a formal written consent should be obtained, if the patient is prepared to proceed. ‐What information to provide? “Patients have a right to information about their condition and the treatment options available to them”. GMC guidelines highlight that the amount of information given to each patient will vary, according to factors including: The nature of the condition and its severity. The complexity of the treatment/procedure. The risks of the treatment. The patient’s wishes (how much they want to know). The information the patient ought to know (and which therefore the practitioner obtaining consent should provide) includes: Details of diagnosis and prognosis (including what will happen if the condition goes
untreated) Treatment options (including the option of not treating) The purpose of the proposed treatment (i.e., the benefits of treating) Details of the proposed treatment, including: Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 71
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Consent
Preparation for the procedure What the patient may experience during and after treatment Subsidiary treatments, such as pain relief, that may be necessary How the procedure might affect their lifestyle Risks of the procedure, including common and serious side effects Who will perform the procedure (and if trainees will be involved).
Other considerations: It is also necessary to remind patients that they have the right to change their mind and withdraw consent at any time if they wish. If the patient has questions about the procedure, you must answer them fully and honestly. If you don’t know the answer you should find out for them. You cannot withhold information about the treatment because you feel it may upset the patient, or cause them to refuse treatment. You must provide information to the patient in a sensitive manner, and in ways in which they can understand. If the information is very complex, you should consider breaking the information into more accessible sections. Benefits/risks of key ENT procedures: Below are listed the main benefits/risks of ENT procedures commonly examined in communication stations. It is a good idea to read about these procedures prior to your DOHNS examination to gain further information about the indications for the procedure, the technical aspects, the pre‐operative tests and post‐operative issues that may be encountered as well as the important things the patient needs to know about the recovery phase.
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Consent
Benefits
DOHNS
Risks
Tonsillectomy
– Relief from rec. tonsillitis – Improve snoring – Diagnostic
– Pain – Earache – Bleeding – Injury to teeth – Jaw pain – Infections/sore throats
Grommet insertion
– Improve hearing – Improve earache, tinnitus, dizziness
– Earache – Bleeding – Infection – Scarring of TM – Residual perforation – Early extrusion – Loss of grommet behind the ear drum – Hearing loss
Myringoplasty
– Closure of perforation – Relief of discharge
– Bleeding – Dizziness – Infection – Altered taste – Numbness of ear – Painful scar – Facial nerve injury – Worsening of hearing – Risk of failure (20%) – Protruding ears
Septoplasty
‐ Attempt to improve nasal ob‐ struction
– Pain – Nasal bleeding – Woody feel of the nose – Septal perforation – Septal haematoma – Nasal adhesions – Risk of failure – Altered sensation of upper teeth
FESS (Functional endoscopic sinus surgery)
– Improve nasal or sinus symp‐ toms – Clear sinus disease
– Pain – Nasal bleeding – Nasal crusting/adhesions – Damage to the eye – CSF leak – Periorbital swelling – Periorbital bleeding – Failure of procedure
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Consent
Excision of neck mass
– Diagnostic – Removal of mass
– Pain – Bleeding/haematoma – Drain insertion – Infection – Weak shoulder – Weak angle of mouth – Skin/earlobe numbness – Thickened/painful scar
Nasal polypectomy
– Removal of nasal polyps – Improve nasal obstruction
– Pain – Bleeding – Adhesions/crusting – Infection – Recurrence – Damage to the eye – CSF leak
Mastoid exploration ‐ Clear ear disease
– Bleeding/haematoma – Dizziness – Hearing loss / Dead ear – Facial nerve injury – Infection/discharge – Thickened/painful scar – Altered taste sensation – Tinnitus – Protruding ears – Meningitis/brain abscess – Recurrence
Submandibular gland excision
– Pain – Bleeding/haematoma – Infection – Weakness of angle of mouth – Altered tongue sensation – Weakness of tongue – Thickened/painful scar
– Diagnostic – Relief of pain/swelling
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Stapedectomy
‐ Improve hearing
– Earache – Bleeding – Dizziness – Tinnitus – Perforation – Dead ear – Deafness – Facial nerve injury – Altered taste sensation – Intolerance to loud noise – Failed procedure
Septorhinoplasty
– Improve nasal obstruction – Improve external shape of nose
– Pain – Nasal bleeding – Woody feel to nose – Septal perforation – Septal haematoma – Nasal adhesions – Failure – Recurrence – Altered sensation upper teeth
Ossiculoplasty
‐ Improve hearing
– Bleeding – Dizziness – Tinnitus – Altered taste – Residual perforation – Facial nerve injury – Deafness – Failure – Painful scar – Protruding ears – Numbness of ear
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Consent
Previous DOHNS Part 2 scenarios: ‐ Consent for Superficial Parotidectomy in young female model / actress with a pleomorphic adenoma (she doesn’t elude to her career straight away). ‐ Consent for Myringoplasty for chronically discharging ear in a ten‐year‐old with concerned parent. Extra scenarios for practice: ‐ Consent for Septoplasty in 35 year‐old gentleman for which the indication is nasal obstruc‐ tion, but he believes it will cure his snoring. ‐ Consent for nasal polypectomy in a 45 year‐old, the patient is a professional wine‐taster and has lost work but is hoping to get back to work soon following the operation.
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Oral – Information giving
DOHNS
12. Oral – Information giving This station assesses your ability to give information to patients, or parents, in a way that they understand and that allays their fears. These stations are not about taking a clinical history.
TOP TIP There is always a “hidden agenda” of some sort. Actors are not as good as patients at hiding these, it can be easily brought to the surface by asking: “Is there anything else you are particularly worried about?” or “Have we missed anything you would like to talk about?”
Always begin by introducing yourself, stating your position. Most scenarios involve explaining a relatively complicated concept to a patient or parent and will require you to break the information up in to manageable “chunks”. A good way of ensuring that you are not either patronising the patient or pitching the information at too high a level is to check what they know first. A good tool to use is the “Check – Chunk” method of relaying information that is commonly taught on Communication Skills courses. Check – Chunk: Begin by establishing what the patient means when they say certain words or refer to certain symptoms or diagnoses (“Check”) and then give a small bit of information relative to that (“Chunk”) then repeat the process. A common pitfall is to assume you know exactly what the patient is talking about and give them a lot of information that is entirely irrelevant to what the scenario is geared towards. Patient: “My GP says that I suffer with BPPV, this means nothing to me all I know is that I get dizzy when I look left. Can you tell me what is wrong with me?” Doctor: “What do you understand about BPPV?” [CHECK] Patient: “To be honest, it could mean anything” Doctor: “It stands for Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo; it’s a long name which is why we shorten it. The most important thing you can take from that is it is a benign condition and does not represent anything life threatening [CHUNK]. Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 77
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Oral – Information giving
Patient: “It doesn’t stop me from feeling dizzy! The GP said something about crystals in my ear, I think he’s making it up!” Doctor: “I know it sounds a bit far‐fetched, but what do you understand about these crystals?” [CHECK] Patient: “The GP gave me a big explanation about the inside ear but he rushed through it so fast it sounded like a lot of complex words to me.” Doctor: “Your dizziness is certainly caused by crystals in the inner ear these are generally a loose fragment of a larger organ in the ear that spins around inside the ear and causing you to feel dizzy.” [CHUNK] Etc. etc. It is very tempting to dive in with the answer without checking, the process does feel unnatural to most people; particularly surgeons who want to give answers straight away. It is a long process, but you can be sure you are addressing all of the concerns that the patient has. If at any stage you are feeling lost a quick recap will not only help you get back on track but it will score you marks as this is something that helps your patient appreciate that you were listening to them and is accommodated for on the mark sheet. Draw the conversation to a close with a quick summary and always ask: “Is there anything else you are particularly worried about?” or “Have we missed anything you would like to talk about?”. It is good practice to ask if the patient has any questions or whether they want anything explaining again in more detail. This will almost always flag up the “Hidden Agenda” in an actor, if there is one. An important factor to accommodate is that the information is generally emotionally loaded for the individual, so be very careful how you word your explanation. A good way of ensuring you don’t put your foot in it is to make sure that you don’t end up doing all the talking. This is when you can veer off on a tangent and either lose the patient or not address the concerns that the examiner has marks for.
TOP TIP If you are the only one doing the talking, you are doing it wrong!
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Oral – Information giving
DOHNS
Summary: ‐ Environmental considerations ‐ Introduce yourself ‐ Establish rapport ‐ Check – Chunk ‐ Recapitulate when required ‐ Address hidden agenda ‐ Draw consultation to a close ‐ Summarise the information ‐ Allow time for further clarification and questions Previous DOHNS Part 2 scenarios: ‐ Gentleman had diagnosis of BPPV given by GP. Has come to ENT for treatment, has questions about condition and treatment. (Hidden Agenda: Is a van driver by occupation, need to give information re: DVLA) ‐ Mother has a 3 year‐old child who is deaf in one ear, she has not noticed this but the school has referred to audiology. Play audiometry shows a dead ear on the right hand side (Hidden Agenda: Mother has questions about cochlear implantation) Extra Scenarios for practice: ‐ Reassure a patient with globus that their Barium swallow is normal and that they do not require an examination under anaesthetic. The most likely cause for their symptoms is reflux (Hidden Agenda: The patient believes that they have cancer).
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DOHNS
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Written – Operation note
DOHNS
13. Written – Operation note This station assesses your ability to provide written information in an operation note. It requires you to have a clear and structured approach, and provide concise information about what was done during the procedure as well as provide post‐operative instructions You are the ST2 trainee with an ENT firm. You have been asked to write the operation note for a microlaryngoscopy and biopsy. Station set up: ‐ Blank operation note provided What you need to cover: ‐ Name of operation ‐ Indication for procedure ‐ Incision ‐ Findings ‐ Procedure ‐ Post‐operative plan. How to approach this station: ‐ Document clearly and concisely the steps of the operation ‐ If the operation was particularly difficult document this ‐ Record any intra‐operative complications and what was done to deal with these ‐ Document that haemostasis was checked prior to closure ‐ Document any biopsies or tissue sent for histology or swabs for microscopy ‐ Post operative instructions should include any relevant information regarding frequency of observations, diet and fluids, antibiotic use, whether the patient needs to stay in overnight, anticipated time for review/discharge and follow up plan. Example: Microlaryngoscopy and biopsy Indication:
Hoarse voice
Incision:
N/A
Findings:
Reinkes oedema
Procedure:
Laryngoscopy performed using Lindholm laryngoscope
Microscope used to assess vocal cords
Microinstruments used to take multiple biopsies
1:1000 adrenaline patty used for haemostasis
Teeth/TMJ/PNS clear
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Written – Operation note
Post‐op: Close airway observations
Can eat and drink as able
To stay in overnight, home tomorrow if well
Follow up in OPD in 2 weeks with results of histology
Previous DOHNS Part 2 questions: ‐ Operation note for grommet insertion and adenoidectomy, for enlarged adenoids in recurrent glue ear. The anaesthetist is happy for the patient to go home later today. Additional questions for practice: ‐ Operation note for oesophagoscopy and removal of impacted meat bolus (no bone) at level of cricopharyngeus. ‐ Operation note for excision of lymph node for confirmation of lymphoma in level one lymph node, submental region.
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Written – Discharge summary
DOHNS
14. Written – Discharge summary This station assesses your ability to provide written information in a discharge summary. It requires you to have a clear and structured approach and to provide concise information about investigations/interventions performed during the patients admission as well as provide post‐discharge instructions/ follow up information to the patients GP. Station set up: You are the ST2 trainee with an ENT firm. You have been asked to write the discharge summary for a patient who was admitted for total thyroidectomy. Blank discharge summary provided What you need to cover: ‐ Patient details ‐ Consultant responsible for care ‐ Methods of admission (elective/emergency) ‐ Dates of admission ‐ Diagnosis ‐ Operation/procedure ‐ Clinical narrative (reason for admission, presenting complaint, relevant clinical findings, investigations and results, progress during admission, any complications) ‐ Outstanding investigations/results ‐ Medications at discharge and any changes/additions made ‐ Discharge destination ‐Follow up plan. Example: Elective admission for total thyroidectomy
July 1st 2012
Dear Doctor Jones, Re:
Mrs Brown, 123 Any Street, Anytown
DOB: 24/5/1975
Admitted:
June 10‐11th 2010 (Elective admission)
Consultant:
Mr. Smith (Consultant ENT Surgeon)
Diagnosis:
Multinodular goitre
Procedure:
Total thyroidectomy on June 10th 2011
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DOHNS
Written – Discharge summary
This lady was admitted on June 10th for an elective total thyroidectomy of a multinodular goitre, which was causing compressive symptoms. Clinically she was euthyroid and ultrasound, performed prior to admission, confirmed a multinodular goitre with the FNA inconclusive. Based on her ongoing unpleasant symptoms, Mrs Brown was keen to proceed with a total thyroidectomy. Bloods, including her thyroid function tests (TFTs) were normal on admission and pre‐operative flexible nasendoscopy performed at the bedside revealed normally functioning vocal cords. There were no intra‐operative complications. Post‐operatively she complained of tingling in her fingers but calcium was within the normal range and her symptoms resolved spontaneously. She was commenced on thyroxine 100mcg daily on day one post‐operatively and has been advised that she will require life‐long thyroxine replacement. She was discharged home on 11th June. We would be most grateful if you could arrange for her to attend the surgery for her TFTs and calcium level to be checked next week and we have arranged to see her in clinic in 2 weeks time with the results of the histology. Her sutures are absorbable and therefore do not require removal. We have advised her to contact you immediately if she gets any further symptoms of hypocalcaemia. Yours sincerely, Mr Green ST2 to Mr Smith Additional cases for practice: ‐ Emergency admission for quinsy (second episode), aspirated once successfully. Discharged following 48 hours of IV antibiotics with 10 day course to complete on discharge (no drug allergies). Bacterial swab not available on discharge. ‐ Elective admission for septorhinoplasty for post‐traumatic nasal obstruction and cosmetic deformity, uneventful recovery. ‐ Elective admission for diagnositic laryngoscopy and biopsy. Lesion highly suspicious for laryngeal cancer. Appropriate investigations have been organised and the patient will be reviewed in outpatients as a matter of urgency.
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Oral – Taking a history
DOHNS
15. Oral – Taking a history This station assesses your ability to take a focused history. It requires you to have a clear and structured approach, and to use both open and closed questioning to gain the information required to reach a diagnosis and determine appropriate investigations. You are working in an ENT outpatients clinic. You have been asked to take a history from Mr Davies who has been referred to the clinic by his GP with a hoarse voice. Station set up: Mr Davies is a simulated patient. The examiner may ask you questions about your working diagnosis and what investigations you may arrange. What you need to cover: ‐ Duration of presenting complaint ‐ Progression of symptoms ‐ Any associated symptoms ‐ Past medical history and fitness for investigation/surgery ‐ Medication use including anticoagulants ‐ Social history especially smoking and alcohol intake ‐ Family/occupational history ‐ Patients ideas and concerns and expectations (hidden agendas) ‐ Summarise history to patient to check understanding How to approach this station: ‐ Prepare the environment appropriately i.e. at 45 degree to the patient, no barriers between you ‐ Introduce yourself ‐ Check the patients name ‐ Ascertain the presenting complaint through open questioning ‐ Use closed questions to clarify the symptoms and determine if there are any other associated symptoms or red flags ‐ Determine any relevant past medical history and ask about relevant social history without being judgemental about smoking/alcohol intake ‐ Summarise the pertinent points from the history ‐ Discuss the patient’s ideas about what the problem might be and their concerns ‐ Determine a management plan and inform the patient Example: History taking of hoarse voice “How long have you had a hoarse voice?” “Is the hoarseness constant or intermittent?” “Have you had any other symptoms?”
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DOHNS
Oral – Taking a history
‐ Pyrexia ‐ Sore throat ‐ URTI symptoms ‐ Dysphagia and/or weight loss ‐ Pain ‐ Otalgia ‐ Neck lump and/or FOSIT ‐ GORD symptoms “Is it getting worse?” “Do you use your voice at lot (i.e., voice abuse) “Are you a smoker?” “Do you drink alcohol?” Previous DOHNS Part 2 scenarios: ‐ Take a history off this 40‐year‐old non‐smoker with anosmia (Hidden agenda: the patient is a chef) ‐ Take a history off this 21‐year‐old patient with facial pain (Hidden agenda: the patient thinks they have a brain tumour) Extra scenarios for practice: ‐ Take a history off this 50‐year‐old patient with BPPV (Hidden agenda: he operates a crane in a steel works and gets dizzy when looking down and to the left)
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Oral ‐ Breaking bad news
DOHNS
16. Oral ‐ Breaking bad news
This station assesses your ability to deal with difficult situations and break bad news to patients with empathy. You are an ST2 trainee working in ENT. Two weeks ago you saw a 55‐year‐old lady with a hoarse voice. On flexible nasendoscopy she had a lesion on her vocal cord so you arranged a laryngoscopy which she had last week. At operation she was found to have a T3 laryngeal cancer. Station set up: Mrs. Jones will be a simulated patient. The examiner may ask you questions at the end of the station. What you must cover: ‐ Prepare the environment appropriately for breaking bad news ‐ Make sure patient is expecting test results. ‐ Briefly recap history and investigations so far ‐ Break the bad news using lay person terms ‐ Give the patient a plan of what will happen next ‐ Ascertain if she has any questions and deal with these appropriately ‐ Offer to speak to her family ‐ Arrange follow up Hidden Agendas This station is not about knowing all about laryngeal cancer. The focus of the consultation is likely to be about breaking bad news and dealing with the patient’s reaction. Patients may deal with bad news in a number of different ways – they may become very upset, angry or may be in denial. They may already have fears about cancer due to family history or personal experience or may have been doing their own internet research. How to approach this station: ‐ Prepare the environment appropriately i.e., no barriers between yourself and the patient, tissues on hand, give your bleep to someone else ‐ Take a nurse with you and ask the patient if they would like their partner or a family member to be present ‐ Introduce yourself and the nurse ‐ Check the patients name Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 87
DOHNS
Oral ‐ Breaking bad news
‐ Briefly recap the history‐ what symptoms she’s had, when they started etc and recap the investigations performed so far ‐ Discuss the patient’s ideas about what the problem might be and her concerns (she may volunteer that she is worried about cancer) ‐ Give a warning shot that you have bad news ‐ Empathically break the news of her cancer using lay person terms ‐ Give her time for the diagnosis to sink in and to react ‐ Give the patient time to ask questions Advise her on: ‐ Treatment options ‐ Support available for her and her family ‐ Establish if the patient wishes to inform her family or if she would like you to do so ‐ It may be helpful to offer written information or contact with a specialist support service e.g., Head and Neck Specialist nurse ‐ Ensure the patient goes away with a clear plan of what will happen next ‐ Ensure the patient has a follow up appointment and knows whom to contact if they have any questions/concerns. Previous DOHNS Part 2 scenarios:
FNAC of this elderly gentleman’s thyroid nodule has come back as Anaplastic carcinoma. Explain the diagnosis and address any concerns he may have
Extra scenarios for practice:
Following pharyngoscopy and oesophagoscopy for odynophagia and aspiration, explain to the patient that the biopsy from their hypertrophied right piriform fossa has come back as poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma.
Explain to this patient with a neck lump that FNAC contains poorly differentiated carcinoma. Explain the diagnosis and further management, address any concerns they may have.
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OSCE Examinations
DOHNS
SECTION Three: Appendices
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DOHNS
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OSCE Examinations
DOHNS
17. OSCE Examinations Listed below are recommended structures for the commonly occurring examination stations. It is recommended that candidates practice summarising their findings, though it has not been a required step in recent DOHNS OSCEs. Ear 1. Introduction 2. Consent 3. Test otoscope (ensure speculum is clean) 4. Inspection: external ear, canal and tympanic membrane 5. Tuning fork testing (512Hz) 6. Free field testing 7. Fistula sign 8. Facial nerve assessment (check if required) 9. Special tests for vertigo (check if required) Neck 1. Introduction 2. Consent and exposure to level of clavicles 3. Inspection (swallowing and tongue protrusion for obvious midline lesions) 4. Palpation (systematic, recommended starting‐point: tail of parotid, commonly forgotten) Flexible Nasendoscopy 1. Introduction 2. Consent 3. Local anaesthetic 4. Systematic endoscopic examination, whilst talking to actor (i) Nasal cavity (ii) Post‐nasal space (including fossae of Rosenmüller) (iii) Oropharynx (tongue base and vallecula)
‐“Stick your tongue out” (iv) Epiglottis and supraglottis (v) Vocal cords, appearance and mobility ‐“Say Eeeee” (two pitches) or “Count to 5” (vi) Piriform fossae ‐ Puff cheeks with nose held (warn patient first)
Observe for lesions and obvious asymmetry. Comment on any abnormality seen, stating its anatomical location. Also note quality of mucosa and secretions.
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DOHNS
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Instrument gallery
DOHNS
18. Instrument gallery Head and Neck
Oesophagoscope and handle assembly showing fibre light inserted along internal groove and connection to fibre optic lead from light source
Assorted Adult Oesophagoscopes (top to bottom: 50cm, 30cm, 20cm)
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery
Bronchoscope assembly and description of ports (a) ventilation connection (b) fibre‐optic connection (light source) (c) suction connection (using fine plastic tubing via perforated rubber tip) (d) viewing window and instrumentation port (sliding interchangeable port mounted). Note rubber adaptor for Hopkin’s rod, instrumentation is via open aperture
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Instrument gallery
DOHNS
Hopkin’s rod attachment to optical bronchoscopy forceps (a) suction connection (b) fibre optic connection (light source) (c) sleeve in downward position locking Hopkin’s rod in place
Assorted Adult Bronchoscopes (top to bottom): Size 6.5, 7.5, 8.5); side vents distinguish these from oesophagoscopes
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery
Laryngoscopes; LEFT, Lindholm laryngoscope; RIGHT, anterior commissure laryngoscope
(C)
Other laryngoscopy items: a) suspension and laryngoscope attachment
(b) wet gauze or blue gum‐shield (gum/teeth protection) (c) laryngeal suction
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Instrument gallery
Close‐up of tip
Close‐up of tip
DOHNS
Close‐up of tip
Laryngeal instruments (a) laryngeal grasping forceps; angled to the left (b) laryngeal scissors; angled upwards (c) laryngeal cupped biopsy forceps; straight
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery
Commonly used retractors
(a) Volkmann retractor (large) (b) Volkmann retractor (small) (c) Kilner retractor (d) Langenback retractor (small) (e) Langenback retractor (large)
MaGills forceps Exam Revision Guide to DOHNS OSCE. Stew B (Editor). September 2012. 1st Edition. Doctors Academy Publications 98
Instrument gallery
Tracheal dilator
DOHNS
Cuffless, non‐fenestrated tracheostomy tube with introducer and inner tube
Otology
Auroscope
Assorted aural specula
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery
Seigle’s pneumatic speculum
Barani box; effective for masking up to 100dBHL
Graft press forceps
512Hz Tuning fork; longer decay than higher frequencies, less vibratory stimulus than lower frequencies
Myringotome, ends can be straight or angled
Screw‐type vein press. Both used to prepare graft tissue in otological procedures
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Instrument gallery
DOHNS
Jobson Horne probe
Wax hook
Crocodile forceps, small and large
Aural suction catheters
Rhinology
(a) (a) Thudicum’s speculum
(C)
(b) (b) Alar retractor
(c) Killians speculum
Selection nasal speculae
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery
Selection of FESS instruments:
(a) Large straight Blakesley forceps (b) 90 degree Blakesley forceps (c) 45 degree Blakesley forceps (d) Backward punch (e) Small straight Blakesley forceps (f) Downward biter (g) Round‐ended suction (h) Antral probe
Rapid Rhino nasal pack Merocel nasal pack
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Instrument gallery
DOHNS
Items required for posterior packing in epistaxis (a) Urinary catheter (female) (b) 20ml syringe (inflate balloon of catheter with air) (c) Vaseline gauze (d) Tilley’s nasal packing forceps (e) Gauze pads (protect alar cartilage) (f) Umbilical clamp
Tilley’s nasal packing forceps
Walshingham’s forceps; for manipulating nasal bone fractures. Different forceps for left and right side (note “L” and “R” markings), plastic covered end applied to skin surface of respective nasal bone
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery Tonsillectomy
Draffin rods
Boyle‐Davis gag with Daughty tongue depressor
Burkitts straight forceps
Mollisons pillar retractor Curved negus forceps
Luc’ holding forceps
Mollisons pillar retractor
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Instrument gallery
DOHNS
Negus ligature pusher
Gwyn‐Evans dissector
Eve tonsil snare
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery
Miscellaneous
Commonly used preparations: (a) Otological creams and drops (b) Proflavine cream: topical bacteriostatic disinfectant commonly used for packing post‐drainage of pinna haematoma (c) Ichthammol glycerin: used in aural packing in severe otitis externa. Ichthammol exhibits anti‐ inflammatory and mild antimicrobial effects, the hyperosmolar glycerin draws out oedema (d) Naseptin cream: Peanut oil is a base, check allergy to peanuts and soya before use. Also contains chlorhexidine (bactericidal) and neomycin (bacteriocidal) (e) Bismuth Iodoform Paraffin Paste (BIPP) pack; Bismuth (bacteriostactic and bacteriocidal) Iodine (Bacteriocidal). Commonly used as a pack after otological procedures and can be used as a nasal pack for epistaxis.
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Instrument gallery
DOHNS
Co‐phenylcaine: 5% Lidocaine Hydrochloride & 0.5% Phenyephidrine Hydrochloride. Used topically to prepare nasal mucosa
Silver nitrate cautery sticks. Nitric acid is produced on contact with water, creating a chemical burn
Dental syringe, commonly used with “Lignospan” cartridges (2% Lignocaine and 1:80,000 Adrenaline)
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DOHNS
Instrument gallery
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DOHNS 19. Acknowledgements Clinical Images from:
Otolaryngology Houston: www.ghorayeb.com Current diagnosis and treatment in Otolaryngology‐Head and Neck Surgery. Lalwani A; et al Hand drawn vector images based on:
Grays Anatomy. 40th Edition, 2008. Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier Publications.
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DOHNS Index THE DOHNS SYLLABUS IN RELATION TO PART 2 Part one: ‐ Medical Practice publication
1‐3 1 1
Part two: Clinical knowledge Part three: Clinical competencies
1 2
SECTION ONE: Common Topics for DOHNS Part 2
5‐66
THE EAR Abnormalities of the pinna
7‐16 14
‐Microtia ‐Protruding ears/Bat ears ‐External auditory canal atresia ‐Auricular haematoma ‐Auricular lacerations
Acute otitis media ‐ Non‐suppurative acute otitis media ‐ Suppurative acute otitis media
Acoustic neuroma Cholesteatoma ‐Acquired Primary acquired cholesteatoma ‐Secondary acquired cholesteatoma
14 14 14 14 14
10 10 10
45 12 12 12 12
‐ Congenital
12, 29, 42
Chronic suppurative otitis media Herpes zoster oticus / Ramsey Hunt syndrome
11 9
‐ Oral glucocorticoids
9
Mastoiditis Neoplasms of the external ear
11 14
‐Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) ‐Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) ‐Melanoma
Otitis externa Otitis media with effusion/glue ear Osteomas & exostoses of the externa auditory canal Otosclerosis Perichondritis ‐ Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Temporal bone fractures ‐Conductive hearing loss ‐Facial nerve paralysis ‐CSF leak
14 15
16 8, 13,106 9 13 13, 51 8, 28 8
15 15 15 1, 73
Tympanic membrane
7, 10, 11, 30, 91
THE NOSE
17‐20
Antrochoanal nasal polyps Nasopharyngeal carcinoma
18 19
‐Undifferentiated non‐keratinising squamous cell carcinoma ‐Differentiated keratinising squamous cell carcinoma
19 19
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DOHNS Nasal trauma ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
18
Epistaxis CSF leak Septal haematoma Saddle deformity Cosmetic deformity
18, 4, 103, 106 18 19 19 19
THE MOUTH AND OROPHARYNX Glandular fever (infectious mononucleosis) Oral cavity malignancy Quinsy Tonsillitis THE LARYNX Benign ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
21‐24 22 22 22, 84 21, 73 25‐30 28, 32,45, 53
Vocal cord nodules Vocal cord polyps Vocal cord granulomas Reinkes oedema Intracordal cyst Saccular cysts Laryngocele Laryngeal papillomatosis
28 28 28 28 28 29 29 29
Flexible Nasendoscopy Innervation of the vocal cords
26 27
‐ Superior Laryngeal Nerve ‐ Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve
27 27
Laryngomalacia Malignant Vocal cord disease Vocal cord palsy OTHER COMMON DOHNS HEAD AND NECK PATHOLOGIES Bell’s palsy ‐ House‐Brackmann scale
34
Benign ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
30 29 28 30 31‐35 34 32
Acute viral inflammatory disease Acute suppurative sialadenitis Chronic granulomatous siladenitis Sialolithiasis Sjogren syndrome Pleomorphic adenoma Warthin’s tumour
32 32 32 32 33 33
33 31 31 33 33 32 32 36‐40 37
Branchial cyst Epiglottitis Malignant Pharyngeal pouch Salivary gland disease Thyroglossal cyst THE THYROID Histology ‐ Classic symptoms and signs of thyroid dysfunction ‐ Blood results
38 38
Hyperthyroidism
38 st
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DOHNS ‐Graves disease ‐Toxic thyroid adenoma ‐Toxic multinodular goitre
38 38 38
Hypothyroidism
39
‐Primary ‐Secondary ‐Tertiary
39 39 39
Supporting cell tumours ‐Medullary carcinoma
Thyroid neoplasia ‐Papillary adenocarcinoma ‐Follicular adenocarcinoma ‐Anaplastic adenocarcinoma
40 40
39 39 39 39
CRANIAL NERVES CNI: Olfactory CNII: Optic CNIII: Oculomotor CNIV: Trochlear CNV: Trigeminal CNVI: Abducens CNVII: Facial CNVIII: Vestibulocochlear CNIX: Glossopharyngeal CNX: Vagus CNXI: Accessory CNXII: Hypoglossal HEARING AND BALANCE Audiometry Balance
41‐46 41 42 42 42 43 43 44 44 45 45 45 46 47‐54 47 53
‐ Disease ‐Labyrinthitis ‐Vestibular Neuronitis ‐Labyrinth
53 54 54 45, 54
Cochlear Implants Hearing Aids ‐Histology of the cochlea ‐BAHA abutment seen 2 weeks post‐op
51 49 50 50
Masking Air conduction audiometry Bone conduction audiometry
47 47 47
‐ Air conduction audiometry ‐ Example audiograms
47 48
Symbols Tympanometry IMAGING Computerised tomography (CT) Examples of where CT is used in ENT Imaging Modalities Larynx
49 51 55‐65 55 57 55 26‐31, 45, 56
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DOHNS SECTION TWO: Communication skills for DOHNS Part 2
67‐88
Consent Oral ‐ Breaking bad news Oral – Information giving Oral – Taking a history Written – Operation note Written – Discharge summary
69‐76 87‐89 77‐79 85‐86 81‐82 83‐84
SECTION Three: Appendices
89‐109
OSCE Examinations Flexible Nasendoscopy Instrument gallery Head and Neck Miscellaneous Otology Rhinology
91 3, 26, 84, 91 93‐107 93‐105 106‐107 2, 99 2, 101
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