An Analytical Study of Certain Outcomes of a Course for Orientation in Biological Science at College Level

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■leir.ir.jt, Maurice C a r l . 1 9 1 4 Ar. a n a l y t i c a 1 s t u d y o f c e r t a i n o u t ­ comes o f a c o u r s e f o r c r i e n t a t i o n i n "biological s c i e n c e a t c o l l e g e l e v e l . . . New York, 1 9 4 2 . v i,3 2 4 ty p ew ritten le a v e s . ta b les, form s. 29cm. T h e s i s (P h.D . ) - Kew Yorl: u n i v e r s i t y , School c f e d u ca tio n , 1942. B ibliography: p . 2 4 5 -2 5 4 . AG4393 Shelf List

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T H IS D IS S E R T A T IO N HAS BEEN M IC R O F IL M E D E X A C T L Y A S R E C E IV E D .

S

Y

hi asia aooepto® Date_-

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF CERTAIN OUTCOMES OF A COURSE FOR ORIENTATION IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE AT COLLEGE LEVEL

MAURICE C . FLEMING

S u b m itte d I n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e d eg ree o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y I n th e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n o f New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y 1942

1X

PLEASE NOTE:

Some p a g e s may h a v e indist inct Filmed a s

University Microfilms,

print. received.

A Xe r o x E d u c a t i o n Company

TABLE OF CONTENTS C hapter I.

II.

III.

Page THE PROBLEM AND I T S EDUCATIONAL S I G N I F I C A N C E . . . . *

1

D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms a n d P h r a s e s . ..................................... D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e I n v e s t i g a t i o n . .................... B a s i c A s s u m p t i o n s ............... S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e P r o b l e m * .......................... Need f o r th e S t u d y a s E x p r e s s e d b y O t h e r s . . . . . . S u m m a r y ...............

1 3 5 6 8 SO

SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE REGARDING THE MAJOR AS PECTS OF THE STUDY.......................... ............................................. P u r p o s e o f t h e S u r v e y ................................................................ O b je c tiv e s of Science in G e n e ra l E d u c a t i o n . . . . . S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e s ................................................................... M e t h o d s o f I n s t r u c t i o n .............................................................. E v a l u a t i o n o f O u t c o m e s * ............................ S u m m a r y ....................................................................................................

S2 23 42 47 58 71

RELATED STUDIES.....................................................................................

73

S tatu s

o f G e n e r a l i z e d S c i e n c e C o u r s e s .............................. 73 o f G r o w t h s i n S c i e n c e .................................... . . . . . * 77 E v a lu a tio n of O b je c tiv e s a t C ollege L e v e l . . . . . . 82 Procedure R elated t o T h i s S t u d y .......................................... 88 M e a s u r e m e n t o f A t t i t u d e s ........................................................... * 94 F i n d i n g s P e r t i n e n t t o T h i s P r o b l e m . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 S u m m a r y .............................................................................................. 107

N ature

\i

IV.

SOURCES OF DATA AND PRELIMINARY STUDY............................. 1 0 9 S e l e c t i o n o f I t e m s f o r T e s t ................................................. 1 09 J u r y f o r J u d g i n g V a l i d i t y o f T e s t ..................................... 115 S c a l e f o r M e a s u r i n g S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e ...................... 117 F u rth er V alid atio n of th e A ttitu d e S c a l e . . 130 R e l i a b i l i t y o f M easuring I n s t r u m e n t .........................132 The P r e l i m i n a r y S t u d y ................................................................. 135 S u m m a r y .................................................................................................... 141

II

TABLE OP CONTENTS (C on clu d ed ) C h a p te r V.

P ape PROCEDURE.................................................................1 4 4 S e c t i o n s o f t h e S c i e n c e C o u r s e . . . ............... 145 The E x p e r i m e n t a l G r o u p ......................................................... • • 1 4 7 The C o n t r o l G r o u p 15 1 E q u a t i n g E x p e r i m e n t a l an d C o n t r o l G r o u p s ...................1 5 5 Sum mary................................................................................................... 1 6 0

V I . ORGANIZATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 1 6 2 P e r s o n a l Data R e g a r d in g E x p e r i m e n t a l G r o u p . . . . . 162 G r o w t h s I n O b j e c t i v e s M e a s u r e d .............................................167 G a i n s o f t h e C o n t r o l G r o u p ........................ * ..........................1 71 C o m p a r i s o n o f F i n a l S c o r e s f o r E x p e r i m e n t a l and C o n t r o l G r o u p s ................................................................................ 1 7 4 C o r r e l a t i o n s P e r t i n e n t t o t h e P r o b l e m ...........................177 G r o w t h s A n a l y z e d b y Q u a r t e r s o f G r o u p .......................... 1 92 S p e c i a l G r o u p f o r S u p p l e m e n t a r y S t u d y .......................... 2 0 0 S u m m ary ................................................................................................... 2 0 6 V II.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS............................

210

Summary o f t h e P r o b l e m ................................................................. 2 1 0 Survey of th e L i t e r a t u r e ............................................ 2 1 1 R elated S t u d i e s 212 D evelopm ent and E v a l u a t i o n o f M e a s u r i n g I n ­ s t r u m e n t ............................................................................................... 2 14 P r e l i m i n a r y S t u d y ..............................................................................2 1 5 P r o c e d u r e ..................................................................................................2 1 6 Th e F i n d i n g s .......................................................................................... 2 1 8 C o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e F i n d i n g s ........................................ 221 S u m m a r y . . . .................. ........................................................................ 2 2 8 V I I I . POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................ 2 3 0 I m p l i c a t i o n s Which A p p e a r J u s t i f i e d ............................... 2 3 0 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s B a s e d on t h i s S t u d y ............................... 2 3 6 D i s c u s s i o n o f E a c h R e c o m m e n d a t i o n .................................... 2 3 8 Sum m ary ................................................................................................... 2 4 3 BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................................2 4 5 APPENDIX................................................................................................................ 2 5 5 Hi

LIST OF TABLES T able I. II. III. IV. V. V I. V II. V III. IX.

Page V a l i d i t y o f Two P a r t s o f T e s t a s J u d g e d on a F o u r P o i n t S c a l e b y a J u r y o f F i v e M e m b e r s ............................... 1 16 S c o r e s on A t t i t u d e S c a l e by G r a d u a t e S t u d e n t s i n S c i e n c e .......................................... R eliab ility

161

o f M e a s u r i n g I n s t r u m e n t ......................................133

Means o f P r e l i m i n a r y S t u d y . .......................................................... 140 S ectio n s

o f E x p e r i m e n t a l G r o u p .............................

146

C r i t i c a l R a t i o s o f S c o r e s on V a r i o u s A b i l i t i e s f o r E x p e r i m e n t a l a n d C o n t r o l G r o u p s .............................................*156 S c i e n c e Taken In H igh School b y E x p e r i m e n t a l G ro u p l6 5 G a i n s o f E x p e r i m e n t a l Group S c o r e s on F i r s t and S e c o n d T e s t s .............................. *..............................................

169

G a i n s o f C o n t r o l G r o u p S c o r e s on F i r s t a n d S e c o n d T e s t s ............................................................................................

172

X.

S c o r e s on F i n a l T e s t f o r E x p e r i m e n t a l an d C o n t r o l G r o u p s ............................................................................................................. 175

XI.

G a i n s o f E x p e r i m e n t a l and C o n t r o l G r o u p s ......................... 178

X II.

C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t v / e e n S c o r e s on P r e - T e s t a n d F i n a l T est ...........................................................................................................183

X III.

M ental A b i l i t y Scores C o r r e la te d w ith O b je c tiv e s M e a s u r e d ........................................................................................................1 85

XIV.

S c o r e s on F a c t s o f F i n a l T e s t C o r r e l a t e d w i t h O t h e r A b i l i t i e s . . . . . ..........................................................................187

XV.

F i n a l S c o r e s on E ac h A b i l i t y C o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e G a i n s i n t h a t A b i l i t y ........................................................................189

XVI.

G a in s In A b i l i t i e s C o r r e l a t e d w i t h G ains In O ther A b i l i t i e s ..................................................................................................... 190

Iv

LIST OF TABLES (C oncluded)

T ables X V II. X V III. X IX .

Page In ter-C o rrela tio n s

o f F i n a l T e s t S c o r e s .......................... 191

Mean G a i n s i n O b j e c t i v e s b y G r o u p s o f S t u d e n t s . . . . 1 9 3 G row ths i n Each O b j e c t i v e b y Q u a r t e r s o f

the

G r o u p ................................................................................................................................... 1 9 7

XX.

Means o f S p e c i a l E x p e r i m e n t a l G r o u p ....................................201

X X I.

C o r r e l a t i o n s o f S u p p l e m e n t a r y S t u d y .......................... . . . . 2 0 5

v

AC KN OWXiEDGEMEHT

B ecau se o f th e n a tu r e o f t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n m uch a s ­ s is ta n c e h as been n e c e s s a ry . V a rio u s members o f th e f a c u l t y an d s t u d e n t b o d y o f th e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n , New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y , g av e t h e i r c o ­ o p e ra tio n ,

The D e p a rtm e n t o f S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n made a v a i l a b l e

c e r t a i n c o u r s e s f o r u se a s th e e x p e r im e n ta l g r o u p . so n s

T h o se p e r ­

c o n c e rn e d w ith c l a s s e s i n E n g l i s h , s o c io lo g y a n d s o c i a l

s t u d i e s made i t p o s s i b l e to in c lu d e a n o n - s o ie n c e c o n t r o l g ro u p « P e rm is s io n t o u s e f iv e a t t i t u d e s c a l e s i n t h e d e v e lo p ­ m ent o f th e m e a su rin g in s tr u m e n t w as r e c e i v e d ,

A Jur,;* e x ­

a m in ed an d Ju d g ed th e v a l i d i t y o f tw o p a r t s o f th e t e s t . S p e c i f i c m e n tio n has b e e n made o f th e s e an d o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s a t a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e s in t h e r e p o r t . To a l l who h av e so k in d ly a s s i s t e d , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r e x p r e s s e s h i s g r a t i t u d e w ith th e h o p e t h a t th e v a lu e o f th e s tu d y m ig h t J u s t i f y t h e i r e f f o r t s .

vl

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE

T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n p ro p o se d t o m e a s u re , a n a ly z e an d e v a l u a t e c e r t a i n grow ths o f c o l le g e s t u d e n t s i n (1 ) r e c a l l o f s p e c i f i c I n f o r m a tio n , (2 ) tu a ie r s ta n d in g o f g e n e r a l i z a ­ tio n s ,

(3 ) e le m e n ts o f s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d , an d (4 ) s c i e n t i f i c

a t t i t u d e s w h ich a re

b r o u g h t a b o u t by m eans o f th e a c t i v i t i e s

o f a c o u r s e f o r o r i e n t a t i o n In b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e , as ta u g h t d u r in g one s e m e s te r o f tim e In th e m anner I n w h ich th e c o u rs e I s n o r m a lly c o n d u c te d .

D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms and P h ra s e s I n t h i s Btudy c e r t a i n te rm s I n v o lv e d i n th e s ta te m e n t and s o l u t i o n o f th e p ro b le m a r e t o b e I n t e r p r e t e d a s s t a t e d b e lo w . To m easu re — t h a t m easu rem en t w h ic h ca n be d o n e by a p e n c i l an d

p a p e r o b j e c t i v e - t y p e t e s t , ite m s c o n s t r u c t e d , i n

th e m an n er d e s c r ib e d l a t e r i n t h i s s tu d y , by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r f o r t h e p u rp o s e s t a t e d i n t h i s s tu d y a n d w h ich c a n be a d m in is ­ t e r e d w i t h i n a tim e l i m i t o f one h u n d re d m in u te s . To a n a ly z e - - u s e o f s t a t i s t i c a l and o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e m eth o d s t o o r g a n iz e , I n t e r p r e t an d c o r r e l a t e t h e v a r i o u s ite m s of d a ta .

1

2

To e v a lu a te - - co m p ariso n o f t h e r e s u l t s r e l a t e d t o c e r t a i n g ro w th s o b ta in e d fro m th e t e s t s u s e d i n t h i s s tu d y w ith t h e o b j e c t i v e s o r p ro p o s e d o u tco m es o f t h i s c o u r s e , i n o r d e r t o d e te rm in e how th o r o u g h ly t h e s e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s a r e a c t u a l l y a c c o m p lish e d i n t h i s p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n . C e r t a i n g ro w th s — amount o f im provem ent i n e a c h ty p e o f outcom e c o n s id e r e d , a s m easu red b y t h i s t e s t when t h e t e s t i s a d m in is t e r e d t o th e

s t u d e n t s o f th e c o u r s e s in v o lv e d on

th e f i r s t and l a s t m e e tin g o f th e c l a s s * # S p e c i f i c in f o r m a tio n - - m a t e r i a l o f a f a c t u a l n a t u r e w h ich h a s b een p r e s e n te d t o th e s t u d e n t i n one o r more ways th r o u g h t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e c o u r s e . -» G e n e r a liz a tio n s — s ta te m e n ts o f s c i e n t i f i c r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip s w h ic h a r e a p p l i c a b l e to many I n d i v i d u a l s , k in d s , o r g ro u p s o f liv in g th in g s . E lem en ts o f s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d — w ays o f p r o c e e d in g o r g o in g a b o u t th e s o l u t i o n o f p ro b le m s by m eans o f r e f l e c ­ t i v e t h in k i n g u s e d i n t h e manner o f one who s e e k s to make a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o e x i s t i n g k n o w led g e . S c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e — t h e p o i n t o f view one assu m es to w ard l i f e s i t u a t i o n s w hen he t e n d s t o b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h th e b e s t a v a i l a b l e in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e s i t u a t i o n s a n d w ith e le m e n ts o f s c i e n t i f i c m ethod u s a b l e i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s itu a tio n s . *

The s p e c i f i c ty p e s o f o b j e c t i v e s w h ich a r e c o n s id e r e d p a r t s o f e a c h o f th e s e l a r g e r t y p e s w i l l be fo u n d a s th e u n d e r lin e d h e a d in g s f o r e a c h p a r t o f t h e t e s t . See A ppendix, p . 256-2 61'.

3

One s e m e s te r o f tim e — t h e r e a r e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s i t u a ­ t i o n s a s f o llo w s : (1 ) a p p r o x im a te ly t h i r t y c lo c k h o u rs o f o l a s s I n s t r u c t i o n d i v i d e d i n t o one tw o - h o u r m e e tin g p e r week f o r f i f t e e n w eeks f o r two p o i n t s c r e d i t ,

( 2 ) two tw o -h o u r m e e t­

in g s p e r week f o r s e v e n an d o n e - h a l f w eeks f o r two p o i n t s c r e d i t , an d (3 ) two tw o -h o u r m e e tin g s p e r week f o r t h e se co n d s e v e n a n d o n e - h a l f w eeks f o r tw o a d d i t i o n a l p o in ts c r e d i t . F o r t h e f i r s t s e v e n an d o n e - h a l f w eeks g ro u p (3 ) an d g ro u p (2) a r e i d e n t i c a l , b u t a f t e r th e g r o u p h a s co m p leted two p o i n t s o f c r e d i t th e c o u r s e i s c o n tin u e d f o r s e v e n and o n e - h a l f w eeks, f o r tw o a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s c r e d i t .

T h is makes a t o t a l o f a

f o u r - p o i n t c o u rs e n o r m a lly r e q u i r i n g one y e a r b u t I n t h i s c a s e g iv e n d u r in g one s e m e s te r o f f i f t e e n w ee k s.

D e lim ita tio n s o f th e I n v e s ti g a tio n The l i s t o f s ta te m e n ts p r e s e n t e d h e r e g iv e some o f t h e m a jo r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e p r o b le m .

I t ca n be s e e n from

th e r e p o r t t h a t th e s e l i n e s o f th o u g h t have g u id e d a n d l i m i t e d t h e s t u d y th r o u g h o u t.

By r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s s e c t i o n o n e i s

g iv e n a c l e a r e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w h a t t o e x p e c t as he p r o g r e s s e s th r o u g h th e r e p o r t . Same o f th e m ore im p o r ta n t p h a s e s o f th e p ro b le m a r e g iv e n i n th e a.

f o llo w in g l i s t ; D e c id in g w hat o u tco m es a r e t o be m easu red an d c o n s t r u c t i n g i n s t r u m e n ts t o m easure th em .

4

b.

Making p ro p e r a llo w a n c e f o r f a c t o r s , o th e r th a n a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e c o u r s e , w h ic h m ig h t r e s u l t i n t h e grow ths b e in g m e a su re d .

c.

U sin g an d c a r e f u l l y r e c o r d i n g t h e m ethod o r com­ b i n a t i o n of m ethods f o r t e a c h i n g th e c o u r s e , w h ich seems m ost c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p r e v a i l i n g e d u c a ti o n a l th e o ry .

d.

E v a lu a tin g th e g ro w th s o f s t u d e n t s on th e o b je c ­ t i v e s m easured b y t h i s t e s t by com paring t h e s e g ro w th s w ith t h e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s c o u rs e w h ic h a r e to be e v a lu a t e d by co m p a riso n w i t h th e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s a s fo u n d i n p e r t i n e n t w r i t i n g s in th is f ie ld .

e.

A p p ly in g a p p r o p r ia te s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s f o r t r e a t m e n t , e v a lu a t io n a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s .

f.

D e te rm in in g w h a t, i f a n y , d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e r e ­ s u l t s a r e b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e th r e e a rra n g e m e n ts o f th e co u rse s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y u n d e r th e d e f i n i ­ t i o n o f "one s e m e s te r o f t i m e , " page 3 .

A f t e r r e a d in g w hat a r e some o f th e m a jo r a s p e c t s o f th e p ro b le m o n e may w e ll t h i n k o f s e v e r a l w hich a r e n o t i n ­ c lu d e d .

Of c o u r s e , n o t a l l p o s s i b l e p h a s e s a r e c o n s id e r e d , so

i t becom es I m p o r ta n t to s t a t e w hich ones a r e t o be o m itte d . I t w ould b e im p o s s ib le and u n n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o r d a l l p o i n t s w hich a r e n o t I n c lu d e d .

The r e a l p ro b le m w ould seem t o con­

s i d e r o n ly th o s e p o in ts -of p r o c e d u r e w h ic h a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d

5

and w h ic h m ig h t be I n c lu d e d . The ite m s belo w a r e an e x p r e s s i o n o f some p h a s e s o f p ro b le m s w h ich a r e r a t h e r c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h i s s tu d y , b u t -jy

w h ich a r e n o t in c lu d e d a s a p a r t o f i t .

S ix ite m s w h ic h e x ­

p r e s s some o f t h e t h i n g s t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n d o e s n o t p ro p o s e t o do a r e : a.

C om parison o f one m ethod o f te a c h in g w i t h a n o t h e r .

b.

C o n s id e r a tio n o f o utcom es o t h e r th a n th o s e m e asu red by th e t e s t u s e d I n t h i s s tu d y .

o.

The ca u se o r c a u s e s o f th e v a r io u s outcom es c o n ­ s i d e r e d , beyond d e te r m in in g i f c e r t a i n c h a n g e s , i f a n y , a r e th e r e s u l t o f I n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i s co u rse .

d.

C om parison o f th e outcom es o f t h i s c o u rs e w ith th o s e o f a d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f c o u r s e .

e.

M easurem ent o f th e r a t e o f g ro w th o r r e t e n t i o n .

f.

D ir e c t m easurem ent o f b e h a v io r s o f s t u d e n t s .

B a s ic A ssu m p tio n s I n t h i s s tu d y a s i n m ost e d u o a tio n a l p r o j e c t s t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n b a s i c a s su m p tio n s w h ic h u n d e r l i e th e e n t i r e w o rk . T hese a r e g e n e r a liz e d s ta te m e n ts w hich form t h e f o u n d a tio n f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

By e x p r e s s in g t h e s e fu n d a m e n ta l id e a s i n

s ta te m e n t form th e y becom e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e an d u s a b le t o th o s e who c o n s i d e r th e r e p o r t .

6

Some o f th e m ore im p o r ta n t b a s i c a s s u m p tio n s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e a s f o llo w s : 1.

T h ere a r e w o rth y o b j e c t i v e s o f s c i e n c e f o r g e n e r a l

e d u c a t i o n o th e r th a n a b i l i t y to r e c a l l f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n . 2.

I t I s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t a p e n c i l an d p a p e r

t e a t w h ic h w i l l a t l e a s t

m easu re one o r more I m p o r ta n t a s ­

p e c t s o f e a c h o f th e f o u r ty p e s o f o u tc o m es s t u d i e d . 3.

The I n s t r u c t o r I s c o m p e te n t en o u g h t o p r e v e n t i n ­

v a l i d a t i o n o f th e s tu d y th r o u g h p o o r t e a c h i n g . 4.

I t i s o f Im p o rta n c e t o t r y t o m e a su re th e e x t e n t to

w h ic h s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s a r e a c h i e v e d . 5.

The m a jo r i ty o f s t u d e n t s t a k i n g t h i s c o u r s e o f

o r i e n t a t i o n I n s c ie n c e a r e p r i m a r i l y I n t e r e s t e d i n f i e l d s o th e r th a n s c i e n c e . 6.

The p o s s e s s io n o f c e r t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n I n c lu d in g

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , a d e s i r a b l e m ethod an d d e s i r a b l e a t t i t u d e a r e some o f th e Im p o rta n t f a c t o r s i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e b e ­ h a v io r o f in d iv id u a ls .

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e P ro b lem I t i s assu m ed , i n t h i s s t u d y , a s i t i s

so assu m ed by

th e D e p a rtm e n t o f S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n , New T o rk U n i v e r s i t y , t h a t s c ie n c e f o r g e n e r a l e d u c a ti o n i s more th a n m ere know ledge o f f a c t s an d t h a t i t f o r outcom es o t h e r th a n f a c t s .

Is d e s ir a b le to t e s t

T h is i d e a i s e x p r e s s e d by Powers

i n h i s 1938 summary o f tw e n t y - t h r e e s t u d i e s s e l e c t e d from a b o u t

7

s ix ty .

He s a y s : . . . t h e te c h n i c s u s e d i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s em p lo y in g e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s have b e e n co n ­ s id e r a b ly r e f i n e d . . .th e in s tru m e n ts u se d in e v a l u a t i o n i n th e p a s t have b e e n l i m i t e d i n l a r g e p a r t t o t e s t s o f I n f o r m a tio n a n d o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e re i s u n d o u b te d ly a g ro w in g c o n s c io u s n e s s t h a t e v a l u a t i o n I n v o lv e s much m ore th a n c a n be accom ­ p l i s h e d by th e u s e o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r t e s t s . T h e re i s a r e c o g n iz e d n e e d f o r i n s t r u m e n t s t o e v a l u a t e m e th o d s o f th in k in g a s w e ll a s e f f e c t s o f s c h o o l a n d o t h e r e x p e r ie n c e s on I d e a l s , I n t e r e s t s , a p p r e ­ c i a t i o n s , c o n c e p tio n s o f v a l u e i n l i f e and o t h e r f e a t u r e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e or d e t e r m i n e a n I n d i v i d u a l ^ b e h a v io r .! A c c o rd in g t o t h i s l i n e o f t h i n k i n g , t h e n , t h i s s tu d y

assum es i t s im p o rta n c e by s e e k in g t o g i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v id e n c e i n answ er t o th e so f a r u n s o lv e d p r o b le m s an d s u b -p ro b le m s in v o lv e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . No s tu d y has b e e n fo u n d to a n s w e r th e q u e s tio n s o f t h i s p ro b le m , b u t much m a t e r i a l has b e e n fo u n d w h ich seem s t o s u p p o rt t h e p o s i t i o n s ta k e n I n t h i s s t u d y . F o r s e v e ra l a re a s o f th is in v e s tig a tio n i t has been th o u g h t n e c e s s a r y to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e f i e l d w ith c a r e , I n o r d e r to d e te r m in e w h a t p o s i t i o n h a s b e e n t a k e n i n r e g a r d t o th e s e q u e s t i o n s .

T his s t u d y i s b a s e d on a p a r ­

t i c u l a r c o u r s e w hich i s o f f e r e d i n o r d e r t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o f c o l le g e s t u d e n t s .

W hile e v e ry e f f o r t

h as b een made by th o s e e d u c a to r s who a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e 1.

S .R . P o w ers, P sy ch o lo g y and M eth o d s i n th e H ig h S c h o o l and C o lle g e S c ie n c e . Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h . (1 9 3 8 ), p . 66 .

8

c o u r s e to m ake i t

o u ts ta n d in g in i t s

f i e l d , i t w ould n o t be

d e f e n s i b l e f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r to a s s u m e t h a t t h e c o u r s e i s w e l l fo u n d e d w ith o u t c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f i t s e s s e n t i a l fe a tu re s *

T h is p a r t

o f th e s tu d y c o n s is ts o f

s e l e c t i n g c e r t a i n im p o r ta n t a r e a s i n v o l v e d i n th e c o u r s e a n d a n a ly z in g t h e l i t e r a t u r e to s e e w hat p o s i t i o n i s ta k e n on t h e s e q u e s t i o n s b y th o se p e r s o n s who a r e a c c e p te d by t h e i r f e l l o w w o r k e r s a s b e in g c o m p e te n t i n t h i s f i e l d * Some o f t h e a r e a s f o r w hich t h e v ie w s o f o t h e r s h av e b e e n s o u g h t a r e I n d ic a te d a s f o llo w s : 1.

What a r e u s u a l l y s t a t e d a s th e o b j e c t i v e s o f s c ie n c e in g e n e r a l e d u c a ti o n ?

2.

What p o s i t i o n i s u s u a l l y t a k e n i n r e g a r d t o m eth o d s o f te a c h in g ?

3.

What methods o f e v a l u a t i o n a r e recom m ended?

4.

How a r e a t t i t u d e s u s u a l l y d e f in e d ?

T he d i s c u s s i o n o f w h a t th e l i t e r a t u r e

o ffe rs in r e ­

g a r d to t h e s e m a jo r p h a s e s o f t h i s p r o b le m i s p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r I I .

H eed f o r t h e S tu d y a s E x p re s s e d by O th e r s I n th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of th e p r o b le m an d i t s s i g n i f i ­ c a n c e i t h a s seem ed d e s i r a b l e to c o n s u l t th e w r i t i n g s o f o th e r s I n t h e f i e l d .

I t w as found t h a t many p e r s o n s h a v e

b e e n g r e a t l y co n c e rn e d w i t h s e v e r a l p r o b le m s w h ic h l e n d th em -

9

s e l v e s t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n In t h i s s t u d y .

By r e v ie w in g some

o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f men who have e n c o u n te r e d v a r i o u s p ro b le m s i t u a t i o n s one f i n d s many u n a n s w e re d q u e s t i o n s .

T hrough a

c o m p a ris o n o f some o f t h e q u e s tio n s w h ic h seem p e r t i n e n t to t h i s s tu d y one g a in s some c o n c e p tio n o f t h e v a lu e o f t h e I n ­ v e s tig a tio n . I t was fo u n d t h a t I n many s i t u a t i o n s s c i e n c e e d u c a to r s h a v e e x p r e s s e d t h e i r o p in io n s to t h e e f f e c t t h a t c e r t a i n a s ­ p e c t s o f t h i s p ro b le m s h o u ld b e c a r e f u l l y I n v e s t i g a t e d .

The

d i s c u s s i o n p r e s e n te d h e r e I s b a s e d on t h e e x p r e s s e d v ie w s o f p e rso n s i n th is

f i e l d who a r e c o n s i d e r e d , by t h e i r f e l l o w

w o r k e r s , t o be q u a l i f i e d t o e x p r e s s t h e i r v ie w s on t h i s s u b j e c t . An exam ple o f t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f im p ro v in g e x i s t i n g 1 c o n d i t i o n s i s g iv e n a s F ru tc h e y p o i n t s o u t t h a t th e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e i n t e s t i n g i s s im p ly to g i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t e s t ­ in g th e s u b j e c t m a tte r o f th e c o u r s e .

T h is o n ly r e v e a l s w h at

s u b j e c t m a t t e r h a s b e e n a c q u ir e d a n d r e v e a l s v e r y l i t t l e s u c c e s s i n o th e r o b j e c t i v e s .

about

I t m ig h t b e J u s t i f i a b l e t o do

t h i s i f t h e f o llo w in g s ta te m e n ts w ere t r u e , t h a t i s t o s a y . If

( l ) f a c t s w ere th e o n ly I m p o rta n t o b j e c t i v e s ,

o r (2 ) t h e r e

w as a h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n a c h ie v e m e n t in f a c t s a n d i n o th e r I m p o r ta n t o u tc o m e s, o r (3 ) t e s t s d i d n o t i n f l u e n c e th e t y p e o f c o u r s e , o r (4 ) t e s t s s h o u ld b e u s e d m e re ly t o r a n k

1.

F re d P . F r u tc h e y , A C o o p e ra tiv e P ro g ram f o r D e v e lo p in g T e s ts o f t h e A b i l i t y t o Use t h e S c i e n t i f i c M ethod i n P ro b le m S o lv in g . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 22 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 8 1 -8 5 . .

10

s t u d e n t s f o r g r a d in g .

I t Is p o i n t e d o u t t h a t n o n e o f t h e s e 1 a s s u m p tio n s a r e t e n a b le . The w r i t i n g s o f S m ith i n w h ic h he shows t h a t c h e m is try i s t a u g h t f o r a w id e v a r i e t y o f o h 2

je c tiv e s a re re fe rre d to .

R e fe re n c e I s made to T y l e r 1s

w ork

t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t h ig h a c h ie v e m e n t i n o u r o b j e c t i v e I s n o t i n d i c a t i v e o f h ig h ac h iev e m en t i n o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s an d t o 3 McConn who p r e s e n te d e v id e n c e w hich show s t h a t t h e t e s t i n g p ro g ra m a f f e c t s te a c h i n g .

The a u th o r I s c o n c e rn e d w i t h h e l p ­

in g t e a c h e r s f i r s t to r e a l i z e t h a t t e s t s

c a n m e a su re o u tc o m es

o t h e r t h a n f a c t s , and se c o n d , t o h e lp them d e v e lo p an d u s e such t e s t s . I n t h e l i g h t o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , i t seem s t h a t t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ta k e s on an ad d e d s i g n i f i c a n c e s i n c e i t s m ain p ro b le m in v o lv e s th e m easurem ent o f o u tc o m es o f s c i e n c e t e a c h ­ in g o t h e r th a n f a c t s . F reem an r e c o u n ts th e way s c i e n c e h a s come t o b e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d by so many p e o p le to d a y .

I n f a c t th e lay m en h av e

come t o th e u n d e s ir a b le p o s i t i o n o f a c c e p t i n g t h i n g s b l i n d l y a n d s im p ly i n t h e name o f s c i e n c e .

T he g r e a t u s e o f t h e

l a b o r a t o r y m ethod o f te a c h in g w as p r e s e n t e d a s a s i t u a t i o n I n w h ic h t o o much em phasis was p la c e d on a m ethod w i t h to o l i t t l e

1. 2. 3.

0 . M. S m ith , A ccep ted O b je c tiv e s i n th e T e a c h in g o f C o lle g e G e n e ra l C h e m istry . J o u r n a l o f C h e m ic al E d u c a tio n . 12 (1 9 3 5 ), pp . 1 8 0 -1 8 3 . R a lp h W. T y le r , The R e la t io n b e tw e e n R e c a l l an d H ig h e r Men­ t a l P r o c e s s e s , C h a p te r I I I n E d u c a tio n a s C u l t i v a t i o n o f th e H ig h er P r o c e s s e s . Max HcConn, Tne U ses anti A buses o f E x a m in a tio n s , C h a p te r X i n The C o n s tru c tio n an d Use o f A ch ie v em e n t E x a m ln a tio n s .

XI

r e a l e v id e n c e b e in g a v a i l a b l e to p ro v e i t s

v a lu e .

"W hat a r e th e a c t u a l r e s u l t s o f o u r t e a c h i n g 1? u n i t s o f m easu rem en t h a v e

we?

What

Can we m e asu re t h e d i f f e r e n t

v a lu e s fo r

i n s t a n c e , p l a i n f a c t s on t h e one h an d , and sound 1 judgm en t fro m g i v e n f a c t s on th e o t h e r h an d ?" The a u t h o r r e ­

c a l l s t h a t i f t h e r e i s any one th in g t h e s c i e n t i s t i s su p p o se d to p r i d e h i m s e l f on t h a t m ust be th e r e l i a n c e he p l a c e s upon d e m o n s tr a te d f a c t s and p ro v e d e x p e rim e n ts #

Phenomena a r e su p ­

p o s e d t o b e v iew ed i n t h e i r p ro p e r p r o s p e c t i v e s o a s to b r in g o u t w h a te v e r " c a u s e and e f f e c t " r e l a t i o n s h i p s may b e p r e s e n t . I t i s q u e s tio n e d a s to w h e th e r th e s c ie n c e e d u c a to r s r e a l l y a p p ly th e m ethod o f th e s c i e n t i s t s .

By s e a r c h in g th e l i t e r a ­

t u r e i t i s fo u n d t h a t s c i e n t i f i c e x p e rim e n ts t o d e t e r m in e how w e l l o b j e c t i v e s a r e a c c o m p lish e d a r e q u i t e r a r e # 2

I t I s f e l t by Freem an

t h a t we n e e d to d e v e lo p an d u se

t h e t o o l s f o r m e a su rin g r e s u l t s o r o u tco m es o f o u r te a c h i n g . A lth o u g h n o t u n m in d fu l o f th e f a c t t h a t m easu rem en ts o f t e a c h ­ in g have b een made I n many f i e l d s an d e v e n I n s c i e n c e , t h e a u t h o r f e e l s t h a t th e r e have b e e n to o few a tte m p ts by th o s e b e s t s u i t e d f o r t h i s I n p o r t a n t w ork.

He say as

" I am n o t aw are

o f more t h a n a few a tte m p ts by th o s e s c i e n t i s t s who a r e a c ­ t u a l l y d o in g th e te a c h in g in our u n i v e r s i t i e s an d c o l l e g e s and i n whose c l a s s e s ca n 1. 2.

and l a b o r a t o r i e s th e v a lu e

(o f in s tr u c tio n )

b e s t be s tu d ie d ." Edward N. PTeeman, E f f o r t s t o R e o rg a n is e S c ie n c e I n s t r u c ­ t i o n i n th e U n iv e r s it y o f M in n e e o ta . Peabody J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n # 6 ( J a n u a ry , 1 9 2 9 ) , p . 21 IiOC. c l t .

12

H urd n o te s t h a t p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a to r s have f o r some tim e g iv e n c o n s id e r a ti o n t o th e m a t t e r o f I n c u l c a t i n g a t t i ­ tu d e s th r o u g h s c h o o l i n s t r u c t i o n *

He s t a t e s t h a t , " U n le ss

t h e r e h a s b e e n c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s w h ich p u p i l s h ave

a c q u ire d ,

we have l i t t l e e x c u s e f o r c o m p e llin g s c h o o l a t te n d a n c e on th e p a r t o f a l a r g e f r a c t i o n o f th e s c h o o l p o p u la tio n a f t e r f a i r d e g re e o f s k i l l i n t h e u s e o f th e t o o l s u b j e c t s has b e e n a c 1 q u lr e d ." Among th e d i f f i c u l t i e s I n t h e way o f a d i r e c t a t t a c k on th e p ro b lem o f a t t i t u d e s , seme h av e b e e n d u e to " ( l ) th e i n e r t i a r e s i s t i n g ch an g es i n our c o n v e n tio n a l s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a an d (2 ) a la c k o f a c l e a r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w h at a t t i t u d e s a r e 2

an d how t o d e v e lo p th em ."

I n s p i t e o f th e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s a

d i s t i n c t c o n s e n su s o f o p in io n among s c ie n c e t e a c h e r s i n b o t h c o l l e g e s and higjh s c h o o ls s t r e s s i n g t h e fu n d a m e n ta l im p o rta n c e o f a t t i t u d e i n s c ie n c e I n s t r u c t i o n was n o te d .

Among th e m a jo r

t a s k s a r e (1 ) t o d e f in e some of t h e a t t i t u d e s ,

(2 ) t o p la n d e ­

v i c e s t o m easu re t h e i r a c q u i s i t i o n , a n d (3 ) t o f o rm u la te a c ­ c e p ta b le i n s tr u c tio n a l u n i t s . I t i s h e re n o te d t h a t e v e n th o u g h we know l i t t l e a b o u t th e b a s i c c a u s e s o f th e w o rk in g o f th e human m ind t h a t s h o u ld n o t d e t e r u s fro m " o u r a t te m p ts t o d e v e lo p a t t i t u d e s I n s c h o o l." I t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t we m ig h t a t t a c k t h e p ro b lem s o f a t t i t u d e s i n somewhat t h e same “common s e n s e m an n er a s we do th o s e o f

1. 2.

A. W. H urd, A Common S ense I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A t t i t u d e s I n S c ie n c e I n s t r u c t i o n . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 24 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 0 ), p . 7 . L oo. c l t .

13

1 s p e l l i n g , r e a d i n g and a r i t h m e t i c s k i l l s "

b y m aking c e r t a i n

a s p e c t s o f a t t i t u d e i d e n t i f i a b l e In o u r own m in d s . In c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e n eed o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , B i l l l g s a y s , " A lth o u g h I n v e s t i g a t i o n s have b e e n made i n many p h a s e s 2

o f s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g , c e r t a i n a r e a s re m a in a lm o s t u n to u c h e d ." F iv e a r e a s a r e m e n tio n e d , th e l a s t one b e in g : I n e v a l u a t i n g o u r w ork we a s t e a c h e r s w an t t o know w hat m o d i f i c a t i o n s , i f a n y , r e s u l t fro m s c ie n c e te a c h in g . We b e l i e v e t h a t a b o y o r g i r l who h as s t u d i e d s c ie n c e i s d i f f e r e n t fTam one who h a s n o t s t u d i e d i t . B u t we need i n f o r ­ m a tio n t h a t can be r e l i e d u p o n and t h a t w i l l h e lp te a c h in g p r o c e d u r e s i n s u c h a way t h a t young p e o p le w i l l b e a b l e t o s o lv e th o s e s i t u a ­ t i o n s to w hich ev e n a l i m i t e d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f s c ie n c e and i t s m eth o d s may g iv e a n i n t e l l i g e n t b a s is fo r a c tio n .3 4 E b e h a rd and H u n ter

p o i n t o u t t h a t th e r e i s l i t t l e

e v i­

d en ce a s t o w h at we do in a tte m p tin g t o a t t a i n s c i e n t i f i c a t ­ titu d e s .

F u rth e rm o re , t h e r e i s l i t t l e

e v id e n c e t h a t t h e m eth o d

o f s c i e n c e i s b e in g u sed t o s o lv e o u r p ro b le m s i n c e few c a s e s and fe w e r c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ts g iv e u s t h e s l i g h t k n o w led g e we h av e a t t h e p r e s e n t m om ent. T h a t we s h o u ld l i k e to d e v e lo p th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i 5 tu d e i s r e c o g n iz e d b y Skews b u t he I s I n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

H u rd , oj>. c i t . , p. 7 . F lo r e n c e BTTTlg, R e s e a rc h and t h e S c ie n c e T e a c h e r . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 24 ( A p r il, 1 9 4 0 ), p . 1 9 1 . _ T T ^ e s l e y E b eh ard and G eorge W. H u n te r , T e a c h in g S c i e n ­ t i f i c A t t i t u d e s . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 24 (O c to b e r , 1 9 4 0 ), p p . 2 7 5 -2 8 1 . G eo rg e J . Skews, What I s th e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e ? S c h o o l S c ie n c e an d M a th e m a tlo s, 33 (1 9 3 3 ), p p . 9 6 5 -9 6 7 .

14

t h l a d e s i r e I t s e l f may b e a n " a r c h enem y" o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d .

T h is may be t r u e b e c a u se we a r e l i k e l y t o assu m e

t h a t we a r e d e v e lo p in g th e d e s i r e d a t t i t u d e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t we becom e u n s c i e n t i f i c i n Ju d g in g th e r e s u l t s .

"F o r y e a r s

s c ie n c e t e a c h e r s h ave c la im e d t h a t p u p i l s s h o u ld s tu d y n a t u r a l s c ie n c e i n o r d e r t o d e v e lo p a s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e , y e t t h e r e is

no e v i d e n c e t h a t e n r o llm e n t i n s c i e n c e c l a s s e s im p ro v e s 1 o n e 's s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e * " I n c o n s id e r in g th e p r e c e d in g s t a t e m e n t , i t s h o u ld be k e p t i n m in d t h a t t h a t v e ry p u rp o s e i s o n e o f t h e l a r g e p r o b ­ lem s o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

I t h a s b e e n fo u n d t r u e ,

2

a s Skews

s t a t e s , t h a t th e f i r s t p ro b le m i s t o d e c id e w h a t

ty p e s o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s a re i m p o r t a n t a n d w h ic h o n e s y o u a r e g o in g to b e c o n c e rn e d w ith I n t e a c h i n g o r i n v e s t i g a t ­ in g .

3 E bel

s t a t e s t h a t a c c o r d in g t o m o d ern e d u c a t i o n a l

t h e o r y th e im p a r tin g o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e i s r e g a r d e d a s a fu n d a m e n ta l o b l i g a t i o n , o f th e s c h o o l s .

He s t a t e s t h a t ,

" T h is c o n v i c t i o n i s c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d I n s t a t e m e n t s o f o b j e c ­ t i v e s f o r s c i e n c e te a c h in g and in r e p o r t s o f

in d iv id ia L s and

c o m m itte e s c o n c e rn e d w i t h s c ie n c e e d u c a t i o n . "

I t is q u ite

n e c e s s a r y f o r one t o o b ta in a p r e c i s e i d e a o f w h a t th e s c i e n ­ t i f i c a ttitu d e is

1. 2. 3.

In

o r d e r t o be a b l e t o t e a c h i t .

Skew s, Op . c i t . . 9 6 5 -9 6 7 . L oo. c £ t T ~ f to b e r i X. E b e l, M ental A t t i t u d e s . ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 5 ), p . 1 .

S o le n c e E d u c a tio n , 22

15

The id e a , e x p r e s s e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h a t t e a c h e r s h a v e n o t a p p l i e d th e s c i e n t i f i c method t o t h e p ro b lem o f m e a su rin g 1 th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e i s a l s o s t a t e d b y N o ll. I t is re ­ c a l l e d t h a t C a ld w e ll, Downing and P ow ers have a l l s t a t e d t h a t one o f t h e m o st Im p o rta n t outcom es o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n n a t u r a l s c ie n c e i s t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e . 2

The same a u th o r

i n a se c o n d w ork sa y s t h a t among th e

m ost f r e q u e n t l y m e n tio n e d o b j e c t i v e s o f e d u c a ti o n i s t h a t o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a t t i t u d e s .

T h ere seem ed t o b e s u b s t a n t i a l

e v id e n c e t h a t " a t t i t u d e s a r e b a s e d u p o n h a b i t s o f t h i n k i n g . " A t t i t u d e s a r e d e v e lo p e d a n d n o t i n h e r i t e d so th e y c a n b e d e ­ v e lo p e d an d s o can b e m easured* T h a t t h e s c h o o ls sh o u ld b e "more c o n c e rn e d a b o u t c r e a t ­ in g a c e r t a i n m e n tal a t t i t u d e t h a n th e y a r e a b o u t p u r v e y in g a f i x e d body o f in f o r m a tio n " o r a b o u t p r e p a r i n g s p e c i a l i s t s i s 3 v o ic e d b y Dewey* He f e e l s t h a t m e th o d s w hich o n ly s e e k a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i o n of s p e c i a l i z e d s c i e n c e s h o u ld g iv e way t o th o s e w h ich embody th e a tte m p t to d e v e lo p an d t e s t o t h e r w o rth ­ w h ile and o f t e n e x p re s s e d e d u c a ti o n a l o b je c ti v e s * Downing d is c u s s e s th e n e c e s s i t y o f m easurem ent by s a y ­ in g ,

1* 2. 3.

"The s u c c e s s o f th e te a c h in g p r o c e s s m u st be m e a su re d i n

V ic t o r H. N o ll, M easuring th e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e . The J o u r n a l o f A b n o r m a l P sy c h o lo g y . 30 ( J u l y , 1 9 3 5 ), p p . 145-154* V ic to r H* N o ll, The H a b it o f S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g . T e a c h e rs C o lle g e R e c o rd , 35 ( O c to b e r , 1 9 3 3 ), p* 3 . Jo h n Dewey, The' Supreme i n t e l l e c t u a l O b lig a tio n . S c ie n c e , E d u c a tio n , 18 (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 1 -4 *

16

1 te rm s o f t h e ch an g es p ro d u c e d In t h e p u p i l s * "

S c ie n c e s h o u ld

h e lp t h e I n d iv id u a l s o lv e p ro b le m s n o t o n ly w h ic h m u st be s o lv e d b u t th o s e w hich he d e s i r e s t o h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r io s i ty *

s o lv e i n a c c o r d a n c e w ith

"Consum er s c i e n c e " i s u s e d t o

d e s c r i b e " s c ie n c e f o r g e n e r a l e d u c a ti o n " and " p r o d u c e r s c ie n c e " t o d e n o te th e s c ie n c e o f t h e s p e c i a l i s t * A f t e r th e te a c h e r s e t s up h i s

o b j e c t i v e s , s e l e c t s and

o r g a n i z e s h i s c u rric u lu m m a t e r i a l s i n o r d e r t o " e f f e c t i v e l y a c c o m p lis h h i s aim s h a s t a u g h t by t h e m eth o d s b e s t a d a p te d t o a c h ie v e d e s i r e d o u tco m es, h e s t i l l m u s t u n d e r ta k e t o m easu re t h e r e s u l t s o f h i s te a c h in g t o f i n d o u t how s u c c e s s f u l he h a s 2

b e e n i n a c h ie v in g w hat he s e t o u t t o a c c o m p lis h * " Hurd c o n t r i b u t e s to th e i d e a t h a t we n e e d t o t e s t f o r o u r o b j e c t i v e s by s a y in g t h a t th e i n s t r u c t o r who d e s i r e s to be e f f i c i e n t ,

"w ants t o know w hat h i s e f f o r t s a r e p r o d u c in g 3 i n t h e fo rm o f m easu red a c h ie v e m e n t." The o n ly way t o d i s ­ c o v e r r e s u l t s I s to h av e i n m ind d e f i n i t e o b j e c t i v e s , d e v is e

v a l i d a n d r e l i a b l e t e s t s to m easu re p r o f i c i e n c y i n t h e d i r e c ­ t i o n o f th e o b j e c t i v e s .

S u ch t e s t s h o u ld be g iv e n b e f o r e an d

a f t e r i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d by s u b t r a c t i o n o f co m p a ra b le s c o r e s , f i n d t h e g a in s due to i n s t r u c t i o n .

I t i s , o f c o u rse , not

e a s y t o m easu re a l l th e p h a s e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n an d i t i s p r o b a b ly

1. 2. 3.

E l l i o t t R* Downing, An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e T e a c h in g o f S c ie n c e , p . 1 . I b i d . , p . 194. m r . H u rd , E f f e c t o f S ch o o l I n s t r u c t i o n a s S tu d e n t A chievem ent* S c le n o e E d u c a tio n , XV (May, 1 9 3 1 ) , p , 239.

17

m o st d i f f i c u l t t o m easu re t h e m ost v a l u a b l e p h a s e s b e c a u s e th e y a r e o f t e n i n t a n g i b l e .

He f e e l s t h a t i t i s t o be e x p e c te d

t h a t a l l p h a s e s ir i.ll e v e n t u a l l y y i e l d t o m easu rem en t s i n c e r e ­ s e a r c h w o r k e r s a r e now a tte m p tin g t o i d e n t i f y , d e f i n e an d e v a lu a te th e o b je c tiv e s . 1 I t i s N o l l 's o p in io n t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l p r o g r e s s i s now b e i n g made i n e v a l u a t i o n o f s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g an d t h a t m e a su re m e n t i s a c t u a l l y t h e h an d m aid en " o f a l l e d u c a t i o n a l r e ­ se a rc h , ”

W ith o u t m easu rem en t a t t e m p t s a t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

s c i e n c e a r e g r e a t l y h a n d ic a p p e d .

T hose I n t e r e s t e d i n s c i e n c e

h a v e lo n g c la im e d many r a t h e r I n t a n g i b l e outcom es f o r t h e c o u r s e b u t i n r e a l i t y w h e th e r t h e s e b e n e f i t s h av e a c t u a l l y b e e n a c h ie v e d i s i n th e r e a lm o f s p e c u l a t i o n .

I t i s o n ly

r e c e n t l y t h a t v i s i b l e p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n made i n th e m e a s u re ­ m en t o f c e r t a i n o f th e s e o u tc o m es. 2

D a v is s t a t e s t h a t d u r in g t h e p a s t few y e a r s new and d e te r m in e d e f f o r t s h av e b e e n made t o s u b s t i t u t e c e r t a i n b r o a d a im s o t h e r t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h i n g o f m e m o riz a tio n o f Is o la te d f a c ts .

T h is movement h a s b e e n f o llo w e d by t h e e x ­

p r e s s i o n o f t h e i d e a s o f t h e l e a d e r s I n t h e f i e l d a s t o th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f m e a su rin g t h e new o u tc o m e s . I t i s r e c a l l e d by Dewey t h a t t h e p r o d u c ts o f s c i e n c e h av e r e v o l u t i o n i z e d th e w o rld and h e t h e n s a y s " b u t t h e s c i e n 1. 2.

V i c t o r H, N o ll, S c ie n c e a s an O rg a n iz e d F i e l d o f S tu d y . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 23 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 1 1 9 -1 2 5 . W a rrm ta . D a v is , A 'S c ie n c e T e s t D e s ig n e d t o T each a n d M easure Outcomes O th e r th a n M e m o riz a tio n o f F a c t u a l I n f o r m a tio n . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 23 (D ecem ber, 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 3 7 1 —iy/2,

18

tlfic

a t t i t u d e , th e w i l l to u s e s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d a n d th e

e q u ip m e n t n e c e s s a r y t o p u t t h i s w i l l i n t o e f f e c t i s s t i l l , 1 s p e a k in g f o r t h e m s s o f p e o p le , i n c h o a t e a n d u n in f o r m e d .” He b e l i e v e s t h a t s c ie n c e n e e d s t o he m ore c o n c e rn e d w ith c r e a t i n g a c e r t a i n m e n ta l a t t i t u d e t h a n th e y a r e a b o u t p u r ­ v e y in g a f ix e d body o f i n f o r m a t i o n .

I n d is c u s s in g s c ie n c e in

t h e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l we f i n d t h e s t a t e m e n t ,

" i t i s now g e n e r a l l y

a d m itte d t h a t th e m ost fu n d a m e n ta l a t t i t u d e s a r e fo rm e d i n 2

c h i ld h o o d , many o f them i n th e e a r l y y e a r s . ”

We n e e d t o a p p ly

s c i e n c e f o r i t s b e a r i n g upon o u r a c t i o n s and h e r e l i e s o u r s u ­ prem e o b l i g a t i o n . From t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h i s s tu d y , th e s t a t e m e n t q u o te d ab o v e c o n c e r n in g f o r m a tio n o f a t t i t u d e s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s h a s a sp ecial s i g n i f i c a n c e .

I t te n d s t o r a i s e

th e v e r y

f u n d a m e n ta l q u e s tio n r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h a n g in g th e a t t i t u d e s o f p e r s o n s who a re o l d e n o u g h to b e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s w h ic h i n many c a s e s m eans m a tu re a d u l t s .

T h is q u e s t i o n fo rm s ,

h o w e v e r, one o f th e I m p o rta n t s u b -p ro b le m s o f t h i s s t u d y , Jo h n so n b e l i e v e s t h a t we n e e d t o t e s t f o r o b j e c t i v e s o t h e r t h a n f a c t s b e c a u s e ”l t c a n n o t s a f e l y b e assu m ed t h a t th e p o s s e s s i o n o f in f o r m a tio n a s s u r e s th e a b i l i t y

3

to u s e i t .

F unc-

t l o n a l k n o w led g e n ee d s t o be t e s t e d a s w e l l . ” 1. 2. 3.

Jo h n Dewey, The Supreme I n t e l l e c t u a l O b l i g a t i o n . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 18 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 3 . L oo, o l t . Palm er^ 15. Jo h n so n , A M easurem ent P ro g ram i n J u n i o r C o lle g e S c ie n c e . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n . 17 (O c to b e r, 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 1 7 6 -1 8 2 .

19

1 E d d in g to n

s a y s we m u s t d e f i n e " s a t i s f a c t o r y g ro w th "

an d th e n s c i e n t i f i c a l l y

d e te r m in e how a d e q u a te ly t h e l e a r n e r

i s d e v e lo p in g . P ro g r e s s I s m e asu red b y t h e d e g r e e t h e s t u d e n t s im­ p r o v e i n th e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c o u r s e ,

A la rg e f a u l t of te s ts

h a v e b e e n t h a t th e y t e s t i n s u c h a l i m i t e d num ber o f o b j e c ­ tiv e s ,

I t I s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o assum e t h a t a n e d u c a t i o n a l t e s t

c o v e r s a l l o b j e c t i v e s s in c e we can f o r m u la te a t e s t t o m easure c e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e s o r c e r t a i n c o m b in a tio n s o f o b j e c t i v e s .

These

2

s u g g e s tio n s a r e e x p r e s s e d by T y le r

i n s u c h a way t h a t th e y

s e r v e t o h e lp p o i n t o u t th e n e e d f o r su c h a p ro g ra m o f e v a lu a ­ t i o n o f outcom es a s i s u n d e r ta k e n i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h at e v a l u a t i o n s h o u ld be c o m p re h e n siv e a n d n o t l i m i t e d by a

few i s o l a t e d g o a l s i s s t a t e d a s T y ie r s a y s , " E v id e n c e i s

a v a i l a b l e from a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t a n in d e x fro m o n e or tw o t e s t s o r m e a s u re s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r o v id e a n in d e x o f a c h ie v e m e n t o f o t h e r m a jo r o b j e c t i v e s o f i n s t r u c 3 tio n ." We h ave n o t b ee n a b l e t o c o n s t r u c t i n s t r u m e n ts t o m e a su re a l l o u r o b j e c t i v e s a s y e t .

I t I s s t a t e d t h a t th e w ork

b e in g done o n m e a su rin g th e h a r d to m e a su re o b j e c t i v e s i s v e ry 4

e n c o u ra g in g an d bidB f a i r t o make r e a l h ead w ay . 1. 2. 3. 4.

D a n ie l P . E d d in g to n , T e s t s an d M easurem ents o f S a t i s f a c ­ to r y G row th. E d u c a tlo n a l M ethod. 15 (D ecem b er, 1 9 3 5 ), p p . 1 4 5 -1 4 9 . R.W. T y le r , C o n s tr u c tin g A ch iev em en t T e s ta , p . 6 0 . Ib id ., p » TTW7 W rig h ts to n e . M easurem ent o f th e A tta in m e n t o f Newer E d u c a tio n a l O b j e c t i v e s . N a tio n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f E le ­ m e n tary P r i n c i p a l s , S i x t e e n t h Y earb o o k , J u l y , 19 3 7 , p . 495,

20

Summary The p ro blem o f t h i s s t u d y h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s one t o m e a s u r e , a n a ly z e a n d e v a l u a t e c e r t a i n g r o w th s a s o u tc o m es o f a co u rse fo r o r ie n ta tio n in b i o l o g i c a l sc ie n c e a t c o lle g e le v e l*

The most i m p o r t a n t t e r m s a n d p h r a s e s a r e d e f i n e d as

t h e y a r e b e in g u s e d i n th e s t u d y *

A fte r p r e s e n tin g th e de­

l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e p ro b lem , t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s u p o n w hich t h e s tu d y r e s t s a r e p r e s e n t e d . I t I s p o i n t e d o u t by r e a s o n i n g a s w e l l a s a u t h o r i t a ­ t i v e sta te m e n ts t h a t i t

i s d e s i r a b l e t o m e a su re t h e o b j e c t i v e s

w h ic h we s e t up f o r o u r c o u r s e s i n s c i e n c e .

The c o n c l u s i o n

i s r e a c h e d t h a t i t i s n o t e n o u g h t o t e s t f o r one o b j e c t i v e and t o assu m e t h a t o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s h a v e b e e n r e a c h e d i n p r o p o r ­ t i o n t o t h e o b j e c t i v e m e a su re d .

E x te n siv e e v id e n c e i s p r e ­

s e n t e d w h ich seems t o show t h a t we need t o t e s t f o r o b j e c t i v e s o t h e r th a n f a c t s .

I t i s p o i n t e d o u t tim e and a g a i n t h a t th e

d i f f i c u l t y i n t e s t i n g v a r i o u s o b j e c t i v e s o f s c i e n c e i s no v a l i d reaso n fo r

not a tte m p tin g such e v a lu a tio n .

I t can b e s e e n from t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h e r e t h a t t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n p ro p o se s t o d e t e r m i n e t o w h a t e x t e n t th e o b j e c t i v e s s e t f o r t h e c o u rs e i n v o l v e d I n t h i s s t u d y a r e a c ­ t u a l l y a c h ie v e d .

Then by an a n a l y t i c a l s tu d y o f t h e r e s u l t s

t o d e t e r m i n e i n so f a r a3 p o s s i b l e what a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e g r o u p s o f p e r s o n a who p r o f i t most from t h e i n s t r u c t i o n . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e methods o f t e a c h i n g a r e t h o s e n o r m a lly em p lo y ed i n th e s e c l a s s e s .

T h is I n v e s tig a tio n th e n i s not a

21

c o m p a r is o n o f m ethods b u t a q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y o f w hat g ro w th s a r e d e v e lo p e d by

t h e i n s t r u c t i o n i n th e c o u r s e .

Some c o n s i d e r a t i o n h a s b e e n g i v e n t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f p e r s o n s , a c c e p te d b y o th e r e d u c a to r s as q u a l i f i e d to w rite In re g a rd to th e se m a tte rs.

A g r e a t am ount o f e v i d e n c e o f

t h i s n a t u r e a p p e a r s t o e m p h a s iz e t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f f u r t h e r s t u d y i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s p r o b le m .

CHAPTER I I

SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE REGARDING THE MAJOR ASPECTS OF THE STUDY

P u rp o se o f th e Survey B ecause o f th e r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d n a t u r e o f s e v e r a l o f t h e m ajor a s p e c t s o f t h i s s t u d y a s e p a r a t e c h a p t e r h as b e e n u s e d t o p r e s e n t a c l e a r e r c o n c e p t i o n o f some o f them. T h is I s n o t an a t t e m p t t o r e v i e w th e s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to t h i s p ro b le m s i n c e t h i s i s d o n e I n t h e c h a p t e r w h ic h f o llo w s t h i s one.

The p u r p o s e h e r e I s t o c o n s i d e r some o f th e b e t t e r p o i n t s

o f v iew , as e x p r e s s e d I n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , i n r e g a r d t o f o u r o f th e l a r g e r p h a s e s o f t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n * The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c o u r s e I n v o l v e d I n t h i s s tu d y a r e t h o s e w hich a r e u s e d i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d in t h i s re p o rt.

A d e te rm in a tio n of w hat e x t e n t th e se s ta te d

o b j e c t i v e s a r e a c c e p t e d a s d e s i r a b l e by o t h e r s i n t h e f i e l d h a s b e e n made a n d I s r e p o r t e d h e r e .

C o n s i d e r a t i o n h a s b ee n

g i v e n t o th e n a t u r e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e and w hat forma i t may b e e x p e c t e d t o assu m e i n a n a c t u a l t e a c h i n g s i t u a t i o n . Many s u g g e s t i o n s have b e e n fo u n d a d t o show one s h o u ld p r o c e e d i n h i s a t t e m p t t o d e v e l o p o b j e c t i v e s s u c h a s th e ones I n v o lv e d I n t h i s p r o b le m .

H aving c o n s i d e r e d ways o f d e v e lo p ­

in g c e r t a i n o utcom es i t n e x t becom es d e s i r a b l e t o se e k th e b e s t

22

23

p r o c e d u r e s i n an a t t e m p t t o e v a l u a t e t h e s e out cornea t o d e t e r ­ m ine t h e e x t e n t t o w hich e a c h h a s t a k e n p la c e * The e x t e n t t o w h ic h t h i s

survey o f th e l i t e r a t u r e p r e ­

s e n t s a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f t h e s e m a jo r a s p e c t s o f t h e p ro b le m w i l l d e te r m in e i t s v a lu e t o t h e r e p o r t a s a w h o le .

O b j e c t i v e s o f S c i e n c e in G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s c i e n c e c o u r s e i n v o l v e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e th o s e w h ic h h a v e been d e v e l o p e d a t one i n ­ s t i t u t i o n as p a r t o f a c o u r s e o f s c i e n c e f o r a l l s t u d e n t s .

It

h a s seemed d e s i r a b l e to r e v i e w t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o s e e w hat ob­ j e c t i v e s a re p re s e n te d as d e s i r a b l e ones fo r g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n a t th is le v e l.

A f t e r m a k in g th e s tu d y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e w hich

i s r e p o r t e d h e r e one i s a b l e t o ju d g e t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o u r s e i n t h e l i g h t o f what i s commonly a c c e p t e d a s so u n d e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . What a r e u s u a l l y s t a t e d a s th e o b j e c t i v e s o f s c i e n c e i n g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n ?

Of t h e many e x p r e s s i o n s I n r e g a r d t o

o b j e c t i v e s o f s c i e n c e i n g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n s e v e r a l h a v e b ee n s e l e c t e d and r e p o r t e d i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e r e p o r t . I t would a p p e a r t o be o f g r e a t e s t I m p o rta n c e t o p r e ­ s e n t a c l e a r and d e f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e c o u r s e I n v o lv e d I n t h i s s t u d y .

S uch a s t a t e m e n t h a s b e e n p r e ­

p a r e d and i s a v a i l a b l e t o _ a l l s t u d e n t s who t a k e t h e c o u r s e .

24

1

The o p e n in g p a r a g r a p h s of t h e " P r e f a t o r y S t a t e m e n t ” t h e b a s i c p h i l o s o p h y upon w h ic h t h e c o u r s e r e s t s .

convey S in c e t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t i o n in v o lv e s t h a t p h ilo s o p h y th e p e r t i n e n t p arag ra p h s a re reproduced. The f i r s t page o f t h e m a t e r i a l f u r n i s h e d t o s t u d e n t s a p p e a r s as f o l l o w s : NEW YORK UNIVERSITY - SCHOOL OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION S cie n ce fo r G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n P r e f a to r y S ta te m e n t

The D e p a rtm e n t o f S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f f e r s s e v e r a l c o u r s e s w h ic h a r e d i r e c t e d i n c o n t e n t and m ethod t o c o n trib u te to th e g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n o f u n d erg rad u ate stu d e n ts. The c o u r s e (o r h a l f - c o u r s e ) w h ich you a r e now p u r ­ s u in g i s p l a n n e d and t a u g h t p r i m a r i l y t o c o n t r i b u t e to your g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n . I t I s n o t a s p e c ia l sc ie n c e , s u c h a s c h e m i s t r y , p h y s i c s , b i o l o g y , a s tro n o m y or g eo lo g y . I t i s n o t a s e r i e s o f c h a p te r s , s e c t i o n s , o r u n i t s c h o s e n from t h e s e s p e c i a l s c i e n c e s . It is n o t a c o u rs e I n te n d e d p r i m a r i l y a s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a p a r tic u la r f i e l d of te a c h in g . I t i s a c o u r s e w hich o f f e r s e x p e rie n c e s In s c ie n c e t h a t have h ig h p o t e n t i a l v a lu e s In I n c u lc a tin g I n t e l l i g e n t , w o rth w h ile s h a rin g i n n o n - s p e c i a l i z e d human a c t i v i t i e s I n o u r c h a n g in g c iv iliz a tio n . The b a s i c p o i n t o f v iew i n t h e c o u r s e I s c o n t a i n e d I n th e tw o f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s . Man’s c o n c e p ti o n o f t r u t h ch a n g es a s s c i e n c e , I n t h e b ro ad m eaning o f t h e te r m , m a rc h es f o r w a r d i n i t s s e a rc h . A c i v i l i z a t i o n I s b e in g shaped and th e d e s ­ t i n i e s o f a p e o p le a r e b e i n g d i r e c t e d by s c i e n t i f i c r e ­ s e a r c h and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f I t s d i s c o v e r i e s . S c ie n c e , r e p r e s e n t i n g o ne g r e a t f i e l d o f human e n d e a v o r, h a s c o n t r i b u t e d , an d i s c o n t r i b u t i n g , s i g n i f i c a n t e f ­ f e c t s upon t h e c u l t u r a l i d e a s , modes o f b e h a v i o r , and 1.

P re p a r e d by C h a r le s J . P i e p e r , P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a tio n and C hairm an, D e p a rtm e n t o f S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y .

25

I d e a l s o f men. Our I d e a l s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , h e a l t h , c o m f o r t, c o n s u m e r s h ip , e f f i c i e n c y , c o n s e r v a t i o n , s a f e t y , c h a r a c t e r , and s o c i a l l i f e i n a d e m o cracy a r e b e in g m od i­ f i e d th r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f man*s i m a g i n a t i o n and i n g e n u i t y i n d i s c o v e r y a n d i n v e n t i o n . And w i t h t h e s e ch ang es come ch a n g es i n o u r e n v i r o n m e n t. The p ro b lem s o f i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e e n v i r o n ­ ment a r e , t h e r e f o r e , e v e r new an d c h a l l e n g i n g . The A m erican a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e k n o w le d g e , m ethod, and a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s c i e n c e h a s l e d t o a new demand upon e d u c a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t b o t h t o t h e c u l t u r a l and t o th e p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s . W ith o u t s c i e n ­ t i f i c v i s i o n i n t o t h e p r e s e n t e n v ir o n m e n t an d c i v i l i z a ­ tio n , te a c h e rs o f n o n -sc ie n c e s u b je c ts , a s w e ll as t e a c h e r s o f s c i e n c e , c a n do l i t t l e t o p r o j e c t p u p i l s i n t o t h e ch a n g in g w o r l d . They m u s t, i f t h e i r own ed u c a ­ tio n i s to be l i b e r a l i z i n g and i f t h e i r le a d e r s h ip i s t o be r e a l i z i n g , a c q u a i n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e p l a c e and f u n c t i o n o f s c i e n c e i n t h e w ork a n d p r o g r e s s o f th e w o rld and be a b l e to l e a d p u p i l s to a p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e p o s ­ s i b i l i t i e s o f s c i e n c e i n t h e im p ro v em en t o r t h e i m p a i r ­ ment o f s o c i e t y . 1 F o llo w in g th e s t a t e m e n t o f p h i l o s o p h y t h e r e i s a d e ­ f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s w h ic h a r e b a s i c t o a l l t h e w ork o f t h e c o u r s e .

T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s a s s t a t e d by P i e p e r a r e

q u o te d i n o r d e r t o p r e s e n t a more c o m p le te p i c t u r e o f th e o b ­ j e c t i v e s in v o lv e d i n t h i s p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n . T h is p a r t o f t h e " P r e f a t o r y S t a t e m e n t " r e a d s : T h is c o u r s e r e s t s u p o n c e r t a i n b a s i c a s s u m p tio n s , as fo llo w s: 1.

1.

S c ie n c e , i n i t s b r o a d m eaning f o r l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d e s s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s to w a rd t h e p ro b le m s o f l i v i n g , c o n s c i o u s t e c h n i q u e s o f s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e d u r e s i n s o l v i n g t h e p ro b le m s , a n d c o n t r i b u t o r y know ledge c o n c e r n in g th e s i g ­ n i f i c a n c e t o u s o f f o r c e s a n d m a t e r i a l s w h ich c o n s t i t u t e t h e w o r l d i n w h ic h we l i v e .

C h a r l e s J . P i e p e r , P r e f a t o r y S t a t e m e n t , p p . 1 -2 (unpub lis h e d ).

26

2.

S c ie n c e , a s o n e m a jo r f i e l d o f human e n d e a v o r, I s a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n a n d n o t m e r e ly a n acad em ic f i e l d o f k n o w le d g e , a p a r t from s o c i a l mores and c o n v e n tio n s *

3*

Man, a r a t i o n a l b i o l o g i c a l o r g a n is m , I s con­ s t a n t l y I n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e f o r c e s a n d ma­ t e r i a l s w i t h i n h i m s e l f a n d w i t h t h o s e o f th e e n ­ v iro n m e n t i n w h i c h he l i v e B .

4.

I n t e l l i g e n t a n d p u r p o s e f u l human a d j u s t m e n t d e ­ mands u s e o f c o n s c i o u s s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e d u r e s , s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s , a n d a b r o a d know ledge o f th e f i e l d o f s c i e n c e ,

5.

Our c h a n g in g e n v ir o n m e n t i s , i n l a r g e p a r t , a com­ p o s i t e o f t h e p r i m i t i v e , n a t u r a l e n v iro n m e n t and th e p r o d u c t s o f m an’ s t h i n k i n g , d i s c o v e r i e s , an d in v e n tio n s i n th e f i e l d o f s c ie n c e ,

6.

Human p ro b le m s o f a d j u s t m e n t t h r o u g h s c i e n c e t o l i f e o f to d a y and th e f u t u r e a r e b o th In d iv id u a l and s o c i a l , a n d b o t h i n t e l l e c t u a l an d p r a c t i c a l .

7.

Our f e l t n e e d s f o r d a i l y e x i s t e n c e , c o m fo r t, h e a l t h , s a f e t y , e f f i c i e n c y , c o n s e r v a t i o n , con­ sum p tion o f g o o d s , a n d s u b s t i t u t i o n o f r e a s o n and c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g f o r m i s c o n c e p t i o n s , p r o ­ v id e r e a l p r o b le m s o f a d j u s t m e n t a r o u n d w hich t h i s c o u rs e i s o r g a n iz e d *

8*

These p ro b le m s o f human a d j u s t m e n t th r o u g h s c i e n c e r a r e l y draw u p o n o n ly a s i n g l e , s p e c i a l i z e d s c i e n c e tout r a t h e r dem and t h a t we s e a r c h I n t o a number o f man-made c o m p a rtm e n ts o f t h e s p e c i a l i z e d b r a n c h e s of sc ie n c e .

9.

In t h e s o l u t i o n o f human p ro b le m s o f a d j u s tm e n t th r o u g h s c i e n c e we s e e k p r i m a r i l y t o i n t e r p r e t r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f phenom ena a s t h e y im p in g e upon personal or s o c ia l liv in g .

10.

S c ie n c e I s e s s e n t i a l l y , i n I t s m e th o d , a p ro b le m d o lv ln g a c t i v i t y w h ic h , t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f s c i e n ­ t i f i c a t t i t u d e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s , l e a d t o th e u n d e r ­ sta n d in g o f g e n e r a liz e d t r u t h s and t h e i r a p p lic a ­ t i o n s to human a c t i o n .

11.

The “t r u t h s ” o f s c i e n c e a n d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n s t o l i f e a r e b e i n g m o d i f i e d c o n s t a n t l y by r e s e a r c h ; s c ie n c e i s , t h e r e f o r e , a dynam ic s u b j e c t , e v e r

27

c h a n g in g i n te r m s o f th e m e th o d s and s u b j e c t m a t t e r , a n d n o t c o m p le te d by t h e s t u d y o f one o r more c o u r s e s i n t h e f i e l d o r b y a l i f e - t i m e o f search and d isc o v e ry . 12.

A sin g le course lik e t h i s

ca n p r o v i d e a p e r s ­ p e c t i v e o f t h e n a t u r e a n d m ean in g o f s c ie n c e i n i t s c u ltu r a l Im p lic a tio n s b u t i t cannot search d e e p ly i n t o v a r i o u s s p e c i a l b r a n c h e s o f th e fie ld .1

By h a v i n g th e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y and " b a s i c a s s u m p tio n s " o f th e c o u r s e , one can more a d e q u a t e l y i n t e r p r e t t h e s t a t e m e n t o f th e o b j e c t i v e s t h e m s e l v e s .

T his m a t e r i a l

w h ic h was p r e p a r e d f o r t h e s t u d e n t * s u s e r e m in d s him t h a t : Your e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s c a l l e d t o th e f a c t t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e s I n t h i s c o u r s e i n c l u d e much more t h a n t h e a c c u m u la tio n o f k n o w le d g e o r i n f o r m a t i o n . As i n d i ­ c a t e d i n t h e o p e n in g p a r a g r a p h s o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t , s c i e n c e i s k n o w led g e , m e th o d , a t t i t u d e a n d b e h a v i o r . A c c o r d in g l y , t h e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h i s c o u r s e s h o u ld p r o ­ v id e means f o r g ro w in g I n a l l o f t h e s e a s p e c t s o f s c i e n c e . And th e t e s t s a n d e x a m i n a t i o n s i n t h e c o u r s e , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l c o m p r is e m e a s u r e s o f y o u r g ro w th i n (1 ) th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s c i e n c e f a c t s a n d g e n e r a l i z a ­ t i o n s , (2 ) s c i e n t i f i c m ethods o f s o l v i n g p r o b le m s , ( 3 ) s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s , a n d ( 4 ) ju d g m e n ts o f p e r ­ s o n a l and s o c i a l b e h a v i o r s o r human a d j u s t m e n t s t o th e m a t e r i a l s an d f o r c e s o f t h e p r e s e n t - d a y e n v i r o n m e n t.2 A f t e r h a v in g a n a d e q u a t e s t a t e m e n t o f th e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c o u r s e in v o lv e d i n t h i s s t u d y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o com­ p a r e t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s w i t h o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s w h ic h a r e r e p o r t e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e as b e i n g d e s i r a b l e .

T h ro u g h t h i s com p ari­

s o n seme d e c i s i o n can b e r e a c h e d a s t o th e v a l u e o f th e ob­ j e c t i v e s in v o l v e d i n t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n . 1. 2.

I b id ., p. 2. ilb ld . , p . 3 .

S ev eral re p o rts d e a l

28

f r ith th e q u e s tio n o f o b je c tiv e s #

I n one o f t h e s e

A llis o n

s t a t e s t h a t th e new er s u r v e y c o u r s e s h a v e a s t h e i r e m p h asis t h e Im provem ent o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l by i n c r e a s i n g h i s " a d j u s t 1 m en ts t o t h e world i n w h ic h h e l i v e s # " C a ld w e ll r e f e r s t o t h e i d e a t h a t c o u r s e s th r o u g h s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s h o u l d f o l l o w one a n o t h e r i n r e g u l a r s e ­ quence so a s t o c a u s e t h e c h i l d t o p r o g r e s s #

"F or th o s e who

l a t e r go t o c o l l e g e , a n o r i e n t a t i o n c o l l e g e c o u r s e f o r a l l s t u d e n t s a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l a g a i n g i v e s p r o s p e c t i v e a n d a 2 re v iv e d se n se of th e

s ig n ific a n c e o f s c ie n c e ."

U n le s s p r e v i o u s c o u r s e s h a v e d o n e t h e i r work w e l l , th e s tu d e n t w i l l have l i t t l e

to o r ie n t.

t o Ig n o re t h e p r e v i o u s work.

Some c o u r s e s seem

"Are t h e y r i g h t I n d o in g s o ? "

I n r e g a r d t o t h e w ork t h a t s h o u l d f o l l o w th e o r l e n t a 3 t i o n c o u r s e C a ld w e ll

fe e ls

t a t i o n g iv e n fo r a l l

stu d e n ts

who c h o o s e th e m .

t h a t f o llo w in g th e c o lle g e come t h e

o rie n ­

s p e c i a l co u rses f o r a l l

The g r a d u a te s c h o o l c o n tin u e s s p e c ia l sc ien c e

and f i n a l l y th e s t u d e n t becom es e n g a g e d i n r e s e a r c h o f h i s own w h i c h a g a i n c a l l s

fo r

" a l l h i s k n o w le d g e i n s c i e n c e i n

o rd e r to do w o rth w h ile r e s e a r c h ."

I n c o n s id e rin g th e o b je c tiv e s o f sc ie n c e co u rses i t m ig h t be w e l l to c o n s i d e r o n e w h ic h I s d i f f e r e n t from t h e one

1# 2. 3•

Temple A l l i s o n , W h at o f S u rv e y C o u r s e s ? N a t i o n a l A s s o c ia ­ t i o n o f D eans o f Women, Y e a rb o o k , 1 9 3 5 , p . 1 6 0 . O tis W. C a ld w e ll , A Co h e r en t S c l e n o e Tea c l i n g P ro gram . N a ti o n a l E d u c a t i o n P r o c e e d i n g s , 1935, p . 442. I b i d . , p p . 441-445^«

29

1

I n v o lv e d I n t h i s s t u d y *

Newman

d e s c r ib e s th e o b je c tiv e s o f

a s c i e n c e c o u rs e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o . to ,

They d e s i r e

(1) " s t i m u l a t e t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t o f fresh m en " I n a

way so a s t o i n t e r e s t him i n s c i e n c e a n d p e r h a p s have him d e ­ c i d e t o s p e c i a l i z e I n some s c i e n c e , (2 ) " i n s t i l l i n h i s m in d a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a n d r e s p e c t f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d ", (3) " b r i n g t h e s t u d e n t I n t o c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h a l a r g e g r o u p o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w o r k in g s c i e n t i s t s , a l l men o f s ta n d i n g i n th e U n i v e r s i t y . "

T h i s c o u rse i s g i v e n t o s t u d e n t s , h a l f o f

whom a r e s e l e c t e d a n d th e o t h e r h a l f t a k e i t o f t h e i r own a c ­ c o rd . I t can be s e e n by

c o m p a ris o n t h a t t h i s I s a d i f f e r e n t

a p p r o a c h t o a s c i e n c e c o u rse f o r t h e m a ss o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s th a n t h e one i n v o l v e d i n t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n . 2

Isen b arg er

g i v e s some o f t h e a lm s o f a c o u rs e i n

b io lo g y a t t h e W r ig h t J u n i o r C o l l e g e , C h ic a g o , I l l i n o i s . Among th e o b j e c t i v e s i s t h e im p a r tin g o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t o s t u d e n t s : (1 ) b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d t o human w e l f a r e , p lo r a tio n o f v a rio u s r e l a te d f i e l d s , ment

(2) e x ­

( 3 ) h e l p i n th e d e v e l o p ­

o f c a u s e and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,

(4 ) a b ack g ro u n d

w hich w i l l a s s i s t I n en joy m en t o f l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o s c i e n c e , (5) an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f fu n d am e n tal p r i n c i p l e s common t o a l l th in g s,

1. 2.

( 6 ) k n o w led g e o f t h e i r own b o d i e s and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p

H. H. Newman, An O r i e n t a t i o n C o u r s e . J o u r n a l o f H ig h e r E d u c a t i o n , 2 (March, 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 2 1 - 1 2 6 . J . I s e n b a r g e r , B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e I n th e C hicago J u n i o r C o lle g e s. S c h o o l S c ie n c e and M a th e m a tic s , 35 ( J a n u a r y , 1936), p p . 7 3 -7 7 .

30

t o th e p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a s a means o f c o n ­ s e r v i n g h e a l t h and d e v e l o p i n g p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l e f f i c i e n c y . 1 Powers r e f e r s t o s u r v e y c o u r s e s a s ” o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g ” w h ic h p l a c e t h e e m p h a s is o f s tu d y n o t upon s p e c i a l s u b j e c t s b u t ”upon r e l a t i o n s h i p s m e a n i n g f u l l y a s ­ s o c i a t e d w i t h norm al a c t i v i t i e s . ” are

He f e e l s t h a t t h e s e c o u r s e s

d e s i g n e d f o r " g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n ” a n d i d e a l l y th e y s e r v e "as

a b ac k g ro u n d f o r i n t e l l i g e n t s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n and

a tth e 2

same tim e f o r i n t e l l i g e n t l y d i r e c t e d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . ” C o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e p u r p o s e s o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a n d one s u c h d i s c u s s i o n i s g i v e n by t h e P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a tio n A s s o c i a t i o n .

T h is

o rg a n iz a tio n s ta te s th a t:

The p u rp o se o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n i s t o m e e t th e needs o f in d iv i d u a ls I n th e b a s i c a s p e c ts o f l i v i n g i n s u c h a way a s t o p r o m o te t h e f u l l e s t p o s s ib le r e a l i z a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l po­ t e n t i a l i t i e s a n d t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a ­ tio n in a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y .3 As a f u r t h e r e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c ­ t i v e th e A sso c ia tio n g iv e s ,

"The a b i l i t y t o do r e f l e c t i v e

t h i n k i n g an d t h e d i s p o s i t i o n t o d o s o i n a l l t h e p rob lem s i t u a 4 tlo n s of l i f e . " 1. 2. 3. 4.

S . R . Pow ers, B a c k g ro u n d S c ie n c e f o r t h e E d u c a tio n o f T e a c h e r s . N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y o f C o l l e g e T e a c h e rs o f E d u c a tio n , Y e a r b o o k , 1937, p p . 9 - 2 1 . I b i d . , p . 21. S c i e n c e i n G e n e ra l E d u c a t i o n , R e p o r t o f t h e S c ie n c e Com­ m i t t e e o f t h e C om m ittee on S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l C u r r ic u lu m o f tK e P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , p . 23. hoc. c l t *

31

The p o i n t o f v iew w hich h o ld s t h a t s c i e n c e I n v o lv e s s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e o b j e c t i v e s i s w e ll e x p r e s s e d by P i e p e r .

While

d i s c u s s i n g t h e d e s i r a b l e n a t u r e o f a s c i e n c e c o u rse f o r o r i e n ­ t a t i o n , he sa y s t h a t : . . . t h e f a c t s and g e n e r a liz a ti o n s o f sc ie n c e , th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethods o f d i s c o v e r i n g an d s o l v i n g p ro b le m s , t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s tow ard l i f e ex p e rien ce s a n d th e g e n e ra l s p i r i t o f se arch In t h e p u re a n d a p p l i e d a s p e c t s o f t h e s u b j e c t have a s s i s t e d g r e a t l y i n p r o d u c in g t h e p r e s e n t c i v i ­ l i z a t i o n w i t h i t s i d e a s o f t h o u g h t , c o m fo rt, h e a l t h , e n jo y m e n t, e f f i c i e n c y a n d c h a r a c t e r . . . 1 A f t e r s t a t i n g what h e c o n s i d e r s t o be same o f th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f s c i e n c e , P i e p e r goes on t o s a y " t h a t s c ie n c e i n i t s b r o a d c o n n o t a t i o n I s e s s e n t i a l t o a more com plete and i n t e l l i g e n t a d j u s t m e n t o f an

I n d i v i d u a l and a p e o p le to t h e 2

p r e s e n t an d f u t u r e c i v i l i z a t i o n . " One may c o n c lu d e from t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s t h a t t h e s c i e n c e c o u rs e r e f e r r e d t o w ould be much more t h a n a mere a c c u m u la tio n o f k now ledge, C u r t i s e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a t h a t s c i e n c e i s more t h a n f a c t s b u t s a y s , " i t I s u n f o r t u n a t e l y t r u e t h a t th e c h i e f ob­ j e c t i v e o f many c o u r s e s o f s c i e n c e , w h e th e r acknow ledged or 3 n o t, i s t h e t e a c h i n g o f f a c t u a l I n f o r m a t i o n . " P a c ts s h o u ld be s e l e c t e d and p r e s e n t e d s o a s t o b r i n g a b o u t "more im p o r ta n t 1. 2. 3,.

C h a r l e s J . P i e p e r , O r i e n t i n g t h e Incom ing S tu d e n t i n S c ie n c e . C h a p te r XiX i n i n t e r p r e t s t i o n s o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , V o l. 5 , e d i t e d ' 1by J a y W ash. Loc. c l t . PV !d . f c u r t i s , Some P o i n t s t o Be C o n s id e r e d i n T ea ch in g E le m e n ta ry S c ie n c e * S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , p . 121.

32

a n d e n d u r in g o u tc o m e s t h a n t h e s u b s e q u e n t r e c a l l o f t h e s e f a c t s . tt The m ajor o b j e c t i v e s t h u s f u r t h e r e d w o u ld p r o b a b ly i n c l u d e th e se fo u r:

(1) e f f e c t i n g a f u n c t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f im­

p o rta n t g e n e r a lis a tio n s o r p r i n c i p l e s o f s c ie n c e , (2) in s u rin g a f a c i l i t y I n t h e u s e o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f s c i e n t i f i c m ethods i n s o l v i n g p r o b le m s ,

( 3 ) d e v e lo p m e n t o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s w i t h

s p e c i a l em p h asis o n t h e i r s o c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s and i m p l i c a t i o n s , (4 )

em ploying th e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e s o f a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o

s c ie n c e i n l e i s u r e p u r s u i t s an d h o b b l e s .

I t i s n o te d t h a t t h e

te a c h i n g o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i s a l l t o o o f t e n c a r r i e d on o n l y by th e d e d u c tiv e p r o c e s s a n d a t i t s w o r s t may c o n s i s t o f m em orizing s t a t e m e n t s and g i v i n g them b a c k I n t h a t same f o r m . Here we f i n d th e

i d e a t h a t s c i e n c e I n c l u d e s n o t o n ly f a c t s b u t

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , p r o b le m s o l v i n g an d a t t i t u d e s . I t w i l l be s e e n l a t e r I n t h i s s t u d y t h a t t h e s e a r e i n ­ c lu d e d i n t h e o b j e c t i v e s w h ic h a r e i n v o l v e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a ­ tio n . 1 H urd

s t a t e s t h a t more t h a n t w o - t h i r d s o f a g ro u p o f

1 ,0 0 0 c o l l e g e t e a c h e r s g a v e t e s t i m o n y t o a s p e c i a l c o m m itte e *

o f th e A .A .A .S .

t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e co n v e n tio n a l in tr o d u c ­

t o r y c o l l e g e c o u r s e I n s c i e n c e I s more s u i t e d t o t h o s e who l a t e r s p e c i a l i z e i n t h a t s c i e n c e t h a n f o r t h o s e who d o n ' t .

I t was

t h e g e n e r a l o p i n i o n o f t h e g r o u p t h a t t h e b i g job o f s c i e n c e i s 2

t o te a c h s t u d e n t s t o do c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .

Hurd

p o in ts o u t

1.

A.W. H urd, E f f e c t o f S c h o o l I n s t r u c t i o n a s S tu d e n t A c h ie v e ­ m e n t. S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , XV (May, 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 242.

2. *

hoc. c i t . A m e ric a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A dvancem ent o f S c ie n c e .

33

t h a t o t h e r s u b j e c t s I n c l u d i n g t h e c l a s s i c a l la n g u a g e s have assum ed t h a t p o s i t i o n I n t h e p a s t an d h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o p rove t h e i r p o in t.

T h e r e I s no e v i d e n c e t h a t s c i e n c e h as any

monopoly on t e a c h i n g " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " to d a y a n d we s h o u ld be q u i t e c a u t i o u s i n a s s u m in g s u c h a p o s i t i o n * Downing’ s s h o r t s t a t e m e n t t h a t " s c i e n c e I s b o t h o r ­ g a n i z e d know ledge end m e th o d , a n d th e l a t t e r i s more i m p o r t a n t 1 i n th e l i f e o f t h e a v e r a g e man, ” I s a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f what he t h i n k s one o b j e c t i v e o t h e r t h a n f a c t s s h o u ld b e , R l c k e t t r e c o u n t s t h a t m o st i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u r s e s i n c o l l e g e b i o l o g y a r e n o t c h a l l e n g i n g t o t h e s t u d e n t and t h e y ta k e th e c o u r s e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d t o do s o .

He b e l i e v e s

t h e c o u r s e " s h o u ld p r e s e n t s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d an d b i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d e n l a r g e t h e s t u d e n t s ’ e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e w o rld 2

a b o u t h im ," C o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e i d e a t h a t s c i e n c e i s more t h a n f a c t s i s t h e s t a t e m e n t by N e ls o n t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t e a c h e r s o f b io lo g y s h o u ld make t h e s t u d e n t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t " s c i e n c e 3 i s m ethod a s w e l l a s s u b j e c t m a t t e r , " C o l le g e s c i e n c e sh o u ld be p r e s e n t e d a s a n " e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a n e f f e c t i v e method o f i n ­ q u i r y i n t o an y s u b j e c t m a t t e r , "

1. 2. 3.

S c i e n c e I s n o t o n ly sy ste m a -

E . R, Downing, D o es S c ie n c e T e a c h S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g ? S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 17 ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 97, H.W. i l l eke t t . F u n d a m e n ta l B i o l o g i c a l C o n c e p ts , J o u r n a l o f H ig h er E d u c a t i o n , 4 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 3 ) , p , 6 ^ . George £ . N e l s o n , The I n t r o d u c t o r y B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e in t h e T r a d i t i o n a l L i b e r a l A r t s C o l l e g e , S c ie n c e E duca­ t i o n , XV (May, 1 9 3 1 ), p , 2 2 9 .

54

t i z e d know ledge b u t i s a l s o " t h e p r o c e s s by w hich t h e body o f new know ledge h a s b e e n b r o u g h t i n t o e x i s t e n c e . ” H u n te r p o i n t s t o t h e i m p o r ta n c e o f m ethod i n t e a c h i n g . " S c ie n c e t e a c h i n g s h o d l d r e s u l t n o t o n ly i n th e m a s te r y o f c e r ­ t a i n f a c t s and p r i n c i p l e s b u t a l s o i n s t r a i g h t t h i n k i n g .

Any

work on o b j e c t i v e s i n s c i e n c e r a t e s h i g h t h e a b i l i t y t o use 1

th e m ethod o f s c i e n c e . " 2 A l l e n d e s c r i b e s some o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e phy* s i c a l s c ie n c e s u r v e y c o u rs e a t C o lg a te U n iv e r s ity . Pour s u r ­ vey c o u r s e s i n t h e f r e s h n e n y e a r , n a m e ly , ( 1 ) p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , (2) b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e ,

(3 ) s o c i a l s c i e n c e ,

(4) p h ilo s o p h y a n d

r e l i g i o n w ith a s u rv e y o f f i n e a r t s and l i t e r a t u r e g iv e n in th e sophomore y e a r . The p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e i s r e f e r r e d t o a s one "w hich a t t e m p t s t o g iv e t h e s t u d e n t s a f a i r p an o ram ic view o f th e u n i v e r s e i n w h ic h he l i v e s a n d h i s r e l a t i o n t o i t . "

T his

c o u rs e d o e s n o t a t t e m p t t o s u r v e y a l l t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s . "The a im i s

to g i v e a d e f i n i t e c o n c e p t i o n o f th e p h y s i c a l w o r l d ,

some a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod an d th e p a r t i t h a s i n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o f t h e r a c e a s w e l l a s some o f th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s t o th e s o l u t i o n o f some

1. 2. *

G eorge W. H u n t e r , S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g , p . 20 4. J o h n S . A l l e n , An I n t r o d u c t o r y C o u r s e , th e P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e Survey f o r Freshm en a t C o lg a te U n iv e r s it y . Journal o f Higher E d u c a tio n , 6 (November, 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 4 10-4 1 4 , T h is r e p o r t i s o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t h e r e s in c e t h e t e x t , u s e d in t h e c o u r s e i n v o l v e d i n t h i s s tu d y , was w r i t ­ t e n t o m e e t t h e n e e d s o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l s u r v e y c o u rse a t C o lg a te U n i v e r s i t y .

35

1

c o n te m p o ra ry p ro b le m s * " From t h i s

s t a t e m e n t we c a n s e e t h a t t h e g e n e r a l I d e a

o f t h e c o u r s e a t C o lg a te U n i v e r s i t y seems t o be I n a c c o rd a n c e w i t h t h e aims a n d o b j e c t i v e s p r e s e n t e d by o t h e r s f o r " s c ie n c e in g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n ," The o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a s f o r m u l a t e d a t N o rth e rn M i s s o u r i S t a t e T e a c h e rs C o lle g e a r e 2

r e l a t e d by B ray* c o n c e p ts

They a r e t o (1) d e v e l o p c e r t a i n fu n d a m e n ta l

so a s t o form a b a s i s f o r a r a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

phenom ena, (2 ) a c q u i r e a w o rk in g f a m i l i a r i t y w ith s c i e n c e th e v o c a b u l a r y w h i c h i s u s e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e c itiz e n ,

o f th e a v e r a g e

(3) l e a r n so m eth in g o f s c i e n t i f i c method b y a s t u d y

o f t h e methods w h ic h l e a d i n g s c i e n t i s t s h a v e u se d t o s o lv e v a r i o u s ty p e s o f p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s ,

(4) " l e a r n to a p p re­

c i a t e t h e o r d e r l i n e s s and b e a u t y o f th e w o r ld by a s tu d y o f th e la w s and p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h g o v e r n i t . " The a b o v e o b j e c t i v e s a r e

sta te d

f o r m t o make c l e a r w hat t h e y i m p l y .

In d e fin ite

enough

The l a s t o n e s e e m s t o b e

s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t fro m t h o s e u s u a l l y g i v e n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

U n z ic k e r p r e s e n t s a r a t h e r c l e a r c u t l i s t o f o b je c ­ t i v e s f o r s c i e n c e w hich s h o u ld b e m ore t h a n "knowledge o r g a n iz e d and s y s t e m a t i z e d , "

He s a y s :

We c a n t e a c h s c i e n c e w i t h t h e v e r y d e f i n i t e p u r ­ pose o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t u d e n t s 1 a b i l i t y a n d d i s 1. 2.

I b i d . , p* 4 1 1 . W ilT ls J . B r a y , S c ie n c e I n G e n e r a l E d u c a tio n , E d u c a t i o n , 23 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 9 ) , pp* 59 -62 .

S c ie n c e

36

p o s i t i o n t o t h i n k s t r a i g h t , t o t h i n k im p e r s o n a l l y , t o t h i n k w i t h o u t e m o tio n o r b i a s , t o be t o l e r a n t o f th e I d e a s o f o t h e r s , t o s e l e c t r e l a t e d i d e a s , t o d i s c a r d i r r e l e v a n t i d e a s , t o k e e p a m ind open t o a d d i t i o n a l f a c t s , t o b e w i l l i n g and a b l e t o g i v e up p r e c o n c e i v e d f a c t s , t o s e t up h y p o th e s e s o r s u p p o s i t i o n s , to t e s t , a l t e r , d i s c a r d o r t e n t a ­ t i v e l y a c c e p t them , t o a r r i v e a t c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t a r e i n harm ony w i t h f a c t s . 1 A p o i n t o f t h e n e e d f o r t e s t i n g i s e x p r e s s e d by Unz i c k e r who s a y s t h a t ”i f we w an t t o know how good a jo b we a r e d o in g i n a o h l e v l n g o u r p u r p o s e we s h a l l h a v e t o c o n s t r u c t t e s t s t h a t a r e d e s i g n e d t o m e a su re t h e s e o u tco m es, a n d n o t i n 2

fo rm a tio n a lo n e a s t e s t s s t i l l p re d o m in a te ly d o . ” A s t r o n g c a s e f o r t h e i n c l u s i o n o f th e p ro b le m s o l v ­ in g o b j e c t i v e i s made i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t , "An exam ina­ t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e w i l l r e v e a l t h a t e v e r y m a jo r r e p o r t f o r t h e p a s t q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y h a s em p h asiz ed t h e p ro b le m 3 so lv in g o b j e c t i v e , ” The a u t h o r s s t a t e t h a t t h e s e r e p o r t s show t h a t th e p r o b le m s o l v i n g o b j e c t i v e i s w id e l y a c c e p t e d a s a d e s i r a b l e one i n s c i e n c e I n s t r u c t i o n . B e in e r s t a t e s t h a t m ost e d u c a t o r s a g r e e t h a t i t i s d e s ira b le to I n c u lc a te s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s .

He s u g g e s t s t h a t

same i d e a by h i s q u e s t i o n , ”What a r e t h e d e e p e r v a l u e s t h a t r e m a in a f t e r t h e f a c t u a l k n o w led g e s have f a d e d fro m memory?

1, 2,

3,

Sam uel P. U n z i c k e r , What Kind o f A c t i v i t i e s i n S c i e n c e . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 25 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 1 ) , p . 4 2 , I b i d . , p. 4 5 . E l l s w o r t h S . Obourn a n d G. M ontgom ery, C lassro o m P r o c e d u r e s f o r D ev elo p m en t o f t h e E le m e n ts o f Problem S o l v i n g , S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 25 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 1 ), p . 7 2 .

37

Are t h e y n o t t h e m in d 3 e t s , . . . t h e b e h a v i o r s to w a rd p r o b l e m a t i c 1

situ a tio n s? " I n a r e p o r t o f th e D e p a rtm e n t o f S e c o n d a ry S ch o o l P r i n ­ c i p a l s we f i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g s

"The f i r s t and by f a r t h e m o s t

im p o rta n t s t e p t h a t e d u c a to r a c a n ta k e I s to r e c o g n iz e I n t h e o r y and i n p r a c t i c e t h a t s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o h m u s t p la n a s d e f i n i t e l y f b r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d e s i r a b l e a t t i t u d e s and I d e a s 2

as fo r in s tru c tio n * " 3 Downing b e l i e v e s I t i s q u i t e i m p o r ta n t t h a t t e a c h e r s h a v e a c l e a r I d e a o f w hat s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g c o n s i s t s o f . g i v e s u s th e f o l l o w i n g l i s t

He

o f e le m e n ts *

1.

P u rp o se fu l o b se rv a tio n

2*

A n a l y s i s and s y n t h e s i s

3*

S e le c tiv e r e c a ll

4.

F o rm u la tio n o f a h y p o th e sis

5.

V e r i f i c a t i o n o f h y p o t h e s e s by I n f e r e n c e s an d 0 1 p e rim e n ta tio n

6.

1*

R e a s o n i n g o f m ethods by* a*

A greem ent

b.

Di s a g r e emen t s

c.

R e s id u e s

2.

W illia m B* R e i n e r , The C o r r e l a t i o n b etw een S c i e n t i f i c A t ­ t i t u d e s a n d F a c t u a l Knowledge i n a H igh S c h o o l C hem is­ t r y T o p ic . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n * 23 (November, 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 327* T.H. B r i g g s a n d o t h e r s . I s s u e s o f S e c o n d a ry E d u c a t i o n , B u l l e t i n , V o l. 2 0 , No* 5 9 , D ep a rtm en t o f S e c o n d a ry S ch o o l P r i n c i p a l s o f th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia ­ t i o n , C h ic a g o , 1 9 3 6 , p* 293*

3*

E l l i o t t R . D o w n in g , E l e m e n t s a n d S a f e g u a r d s o f S c i e n t i f i c

T h in k in g . S c i e n t l f l c M o n th ly , 26(M arch, 1 9 2 8 ) ,p p . 2 3 1 - 2 4 3 .

38

d.

C o n c o m ita n t v a r i a t i o n

e.

J o i n t m ethod o f ag re e m e n t and d i s a g r e e m e n t

f*

Jud g m ent

I n l o o k i n g a t t h i s l i s t one sees a way t o b re a k dow n o u r l a r g e r o b j e c t i v e s s o t h a t t h e y a r e c l e a r e r a n d more m e a n ­ in g fu l f o r p r a c tic a l u se . 1 I n 1937 G eer c o m p ile d d a t a in r e g a r d t o o b j e c t i v e s fro m v a r i o u s t y p e s

o f I n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n .

He

fo u n d t h o s e o b j e c t i v e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l a d j u s t m e n t m arked v e r y h i g h .

Among t h e s e "freed o m from s u p e r s t i t i o n ”

was g iv e n h i g h e s t p l a c e by I n s t r u c t o r s i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . Most I n s t r u c t o r s a l s o a g r e e d o n : 1.

U n d e r s ta n d in g o f f u n d a m e n ta l laws a n d p r i n c i p l e s

2.

A c q u i s i t i o n o f g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c knowledge

3.

A b ility to e a p la in

n a t u r a l phenomenon as b e i n g

v ery im p o rta n t A c l e a r s t a t e m e n t t h a t e d u c a ti o n e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e s e c o n d a r y l e v e l s h o u l d c o n s i d e r o b j e c t i v e s o t h e r th a n f a c t s I s t h a t e d u c a t i o n "m ust p l a n a s d e f i n i t e l y f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d e s i r a b l e a t t i t u d e s an d i d e a l s a s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n I n o r 2

g a n i z e d k n o w le d g e ."

1.

2.

W i l l a r d G e e r , Aims and O b j e c t i v e s G overning P h y s ic s S u r ­ v e y an d P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e S urvey C ourses a t th e C o l ­ l e g e L e v e l . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n . 23 ( O c to b e r , 1 9 3 9 ) , p p . 261-263. C om m ittee on t h e O r i e n t a t i o n o f Secondary E d u c a tio n , I s s u e s o f S e c o n d a ry E d u c a t i o n , B u l l e t i n o f th e D e p a r t ­ m e n t o f S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l P r i n c i p a l s ', 20 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ), p . 293.

39

I n t h e p a s t we have b e e n s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h how t o m easure t h a t we h a v e l o s t o u r i d e a o f w hat t o m e asu re, a o c o r d 1 tn g to B ay l e a . Much a t t e n t i o n h a s b ee n g i v e n t o make t e s t s re lia b le ,

o b j e c t i v e a n d e a s y t o a d m i n i s t e r b u t now more a t t e n ­

t i o n n e e d s t o be g i v e n to n a k e th e m v a l i d o r so th e y m e a s u r e more n e a r l y w h a t t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d t o m e a s u r e .

He b e l i e v e s i t

i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e o b j e c t i v e t e s t s t o m easu re c o m p re h e n s io n o f g e n e r a l I d e a s a l t h o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n s now i n u se r a r e l y a c c o m ­ p l i s h t h a t a im . C a l d w e l l r e f e r s t o t h e sum m aries o f o b j e c t i v e s b y 2 3 H unter a n d Knapp and b y D a v i s a s b e in g p r o b a b l y our m o s t c o m p re h e n siv e s y n t h e s i s o f s c i e n c e o b j e c t i v e s .

He g o e s o n to

s a y t h a t I n th e l i s t s more t h a n o n e - t h i r d o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s bear upon th e s u b je c t of a t t i t u d e s . te rm s a s

They a r e s t a t e d i n s u c h

(1 ) to d ev e lo p th e h a b i t o f s c i e n t i f i c th in k in g and

(2) d e v e l o p h a b i t s o f i n q u i r y a n d o f I n t e r e s t i n c o n t i n u e d le a rn in g .

D a v is s t a t e s th e d e f i n i t i o n of e d u c a tio n as a c c e p te d by th e " T e a c h e r d r a i n i n g C o u n c i l i n W i s c o n s i n .”

They r e c o g ­

n iz e d e d u c a t i o n a s " g ro w th t h r o u g h p rob lem s o l v i n g so t h a t th e I n d i v i d u a l w i l l a c t i n s u c h a way t h a t he w i l l make t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o s o c i e t y and a t t h e same tim e r e c e i v e t h e g r e a t e s t 1. 2. 3.

E r n e s t E . B a y l e s , The P ro b le m o f t e s t i n g . S c ie n c e E d u c a ­ t i o n , 20 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ) , pp. 2 0 - 2 4 . G e o rg e W. H u n te r and R. K napp, S c ie n c e O b j e c t i v e s a t th e J u n i o r and S e n i o r H ig h S c h o o l L e v e l , S c ie n c e E d u c a ­ t i o n , 1 6, p p . 4 0 7 - 4 1 6 . I r a tJ. J J a v is , A W is c o n s in J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n , (N ovem ber, 1 9 3 2 ) , p . TlTT -

40

1

p erso n al s a tis f a c tio n * ”

He s e c u r e d th e h e l p o f some 350

s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s a n d a r r i v e d a t s c i e n c e o b j e c t i v e s b a s e d on th e d e f i n i t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n q u o te d ab o v e .

The m ain o b j e c ­

t i v e was " t o d e v e lo p t h e a b i l i t y i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o s o l v e 2

p ro b le m s t h a t c o n f r o n t h im ."

R e a liz in g t h a t t h i s

o b je c tiv e

was q u i t e b r o a d , t h r e e s m a l l e r o b j e c t i v e s , w hich c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s l a r g e r o n e, w e re g i v e n a s t o : a ttitu d e ,

(1) d e v e lo p a s c i e n t i f i c

(2 ) u s e a s c i e n t i f i c method o f p r o c e d u r e , a n d

(3) f i n d i n f o r m a t i o n t o make i t u n n e c e s s a r y f o r him t o r e p e a t what s c i e n t i s t s have done f o r h im . C o n s id e ra tio n of th e s e th re e o b je c tiv e s in d i c a t e s th a t th e y p r e s e n t a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a p p ro a c h t o t h e p r o b le m b u t t h a t t h e y f i t w e l l w i t h o t h e r s found i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e w h ile a t t h e same tim e m aking a c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i r own. 3 D a v is f u r t h e r d e f i n e d h i s o b j e c t i v e s by p r e s e n t i n g th e f o l l o w i n g a s a s p e c t s

o f th e s c ie n ti f i c a t t i t u d e :

1.

Shows w i l l i n g n e s s t o change o p in io n on b a s i s o f new e v i d e n c e

2.

W i l l s e a r c h f o r t h e w hole t r u t h w i t h o u t p r e ­ ju d ic e

3*

Has a c o n c e p t o f c a u se and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s

4.

H a b i t u a l l y b a s e s Judgment on f a c t

5.

W i l l h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n f a c t and t h e o r y

1.

R e p o r t e d i n A W is c o n s in P h ilo so p h y o f S c ie n c e T e a c h in g . The W is c o n s in J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n , (November, 1 9 3 2 ),

2. 3.

I b i d . , p . 113. " f b l d . , p . 11 9.

Frirr.---------------------------

41

The q u e s t i o n h a s t e e n r a i s e d a s t o w h e th e r s t u d e n t s 1 of c o l l e g e age a re s u p e r s t i t i o u s . I n f a c t , D a v is c o n c lu d e d t h a t h i g h s c h o o l p u p i l s o f W isc o n sin "w ere n o t s u p e r s t i t i o u s . ” H ancock s u r v e y e d t h e s t u d i e s o f u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s w h ic h he s a y s h a v e " c a p t u r e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f many i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n th e l a s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s .

A f t e r s t a t i n g t h a t I t h a s b een

r a t h e r g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t o n ly c e r t a i n g r o u p s a r e h a n d i ­ c a p p e d by u n s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g , he s a y s , " b u t r e c e n t e v id e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l a r g e number o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p ­ t i o n s a r e p r e v a l e n t among s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r le a r n in g ."

The c o n c l u s i o n I s t h a t " w ith s u c h f i n d i n g s

a v a i l a b l e , some s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i t i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n t o more e f f e c t i v e l y 2

r e l i e v e t h e p u p 'lls o f t h e s e u n t e n a b l e b e l i e f s . " 3 The P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a tio n A s s o c i a t i o n t a k e s th e p o i n t o f v ie w t h a t a c o n t i n u i n g p rog ram o f e v a l u a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . C a r r y i n g o u t t h e i d e a t h a t t e s t s and e x a m i n a t i o n s w i l l n o t b e s u f f i c i e n t f o r a c o m p le te p ro g ra m o f e v a l u a t i o n , some f u r t h e r s u g g e s t i o n s . be u s e d a r e g i v e n .

t h e y make

S i x ty p e s o f e v a l u a t i o n w h ich m ig h t

T hey s u g g e s t :

(1) a n e c d o t a l r e c o r d s ,

(2) r e c o r d s by t r a i n e d o b s e r v e r s {most u s e f u l I n r e s e a r c h ) , 1. 2. 3.

I r a C. D a v is , The M easurem ent o f S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e s . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 19 (O c to b e r , 1 9 3 5 ), p p . 117-122* C y r i l R. d an c o o k , An E v a l u a t i o n o f C e r t a i n P o p u l a r S c ie n c e M is c o n c e p t i o n s . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 24 ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 0 ), p . 208. P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , V .T . T h a y e r , Chairm an, A P r o g r e s s R e p o r t 1 9 5 7 . Commission on t h e S eco n d ary S c h o o l C u r r ic u lu m oY 'th e P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n A sso ­ c ia tio n .

42

(3 )

in te rv ie w s,

(4 ) q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ,

d u c ts, e .g . w ritin g s,

( 5 ) s tu d y o f s t u d e n t p r o ­

a r t p r o j e c t s and th e l i k e ,

(6) s t u d e n t

d i a r i e s of read in g an d o th e r a c t i v i t i e s . C a r e f u l o b s e r v a t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d as a way o f d e t e r ­ m i n i n g v a r i o u s a t t r i b u t e s w h ich i t i s d e s i r e d t o m e a s u r e .

It

w i l l be n o te d t h a t t h e pro g ram m e n tio n e d h e re r e f e r s t o a com­ p l e t e p ro g ra m o f e v a l u a t i o n , p r o b a b ly i n th e p u b l i c s c h o o l s .

S c ie n tific A ttitu d e s The q u e s t i o n s o f w h a t one means by th e s c i e n t i f i c a t ­ t i t u d e and t h e s t i l l more d i f f i c u l t one c o n c e r n in g w h a t form th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e ta k e s In a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , a re o fte n asked*

One o f t h e p r o b le m s o f t h i s s t u d y i s t h e a t t e m p t t o

Im p ro v e t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a n d t o c a r r y o u t m e a su re m e n t to d e te r m in e i f t h a t o b j e c t i v e h a s b e e n a c c o m p lish e d .

S in c e th iB I s t r u e , I t seems q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e

t o s tu d y t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a c l e a r i d e a o f j u s t w hat t h e te rm s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e s . Many d e f i n i t i o n s o f a t t i t u d e h a v e been fo u n d I n t h e lite ra tu re ,

A d i s c u s s i o n o f many of th e m I s I n c l u d e d h e r e

s i n c e one o f t h e f o u r outcom es I n v o lv e d i n t h i s s t u d y I s c o n ­ c e rn e d w ith th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e . Two r e a s o n s f o r t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of a so u n d d e f i n i t i o n 1 o f t h e a t t i t u d e a r e g i v e n . b y E b e l. They a r e ( l ) b e c a u s e 1.

R o b e r t L . E b e l , What I s t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e ? S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 22 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 9 ), p p. 1 -5 a n d 22 ( F e b r u a r y , 1939V, p p . 7 5 -8 1 . '

43

m o d e rn e d u c a t i o n a l t h o u g h t r e g a r d s th e I m p a r tin g o f t h e s c i e n ­ tific

a t t i t u d e a s a f u n d a m e n ta l o b l i g a t i o n o f s c i e n c e t e a c h ­

i n g a n d (2) o n e p r e r e q u i s i t e to e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g o f th e s c i e n ­ t i f i c a t t i t u d e is a c o n c ise d e f in it io n of I t .

I t is sta te d

t h a t "we can n e i t h e r t e a c h e f f e c t i v e l y n o r m e a s u re t h e r e s u l t s o f o u r t e a c h i n g w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e n o t i o n o f w hat I s t o be ta u g h t." P a r i s b e l i e v e s t h a t an a t t i t u d e I s "a t e n d e n c y o r a 1 p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to a c t i o n . " B o g a rd u s s a y s , "An a t t i t u d e i s a te n d e n c y t o a c t to w a r d o r a g a i n s t s o m e th in g I n t h e e n v iro n m e n t w h ic h becom es 2

th e re b y a p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e v a lu e ." A c c o rd in g t o T h u r s to n e , "The sum t o t a l o f a m a n 's i n ­ c l i n a t i o n s and f e e l i n g s , p r e ju d ic e s or b ia s , p re c o n c e iv e d no­ tio n s ,

id e a s, fe a rs , 3

to p ic ,"

th r e a ts , c o n v ic tio n s about any s p e c if ic

i s o n e 's a t t i t u d e .

A d e f i n i t i o n I n t e r m s o f b e h a v i o r i s p r o v i d e d by P a r k a n d B u r g e s s who w r i t e , "The c l e a r e s t way t o t h i n k o f an a t t i 4 tu d e I s as a b e h a v io r p a t t e r n or u n i t o f b e h a v io r ." " A t t i t u d e s a r e f o r t h e m o st p a r t a c q u i r e d b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s h a v i n g been b u i l t up o u t o f o u r e x p e r i e n c e s I n c h a r a c 5 te ristic

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

s itu a tio n s ,"

a c c o rd in g t o B e rn a rd .

E l l s w o r t h P a r i s , The C o ncep t o f S o c i a l A t t i t u d e s . J o u r n a l of> a p p l i e d . P s y c h o lo g y , 9 (May, 1 9 2 5 ), p . 4 0 4 . E . S. B o g a r d u s ," T ^ d a m e n t a l s o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , C h a p . V. L .L . T h u r s t o n e a n d E . J '. ChaveT^^The M e a s u r e m e n t o f A t t i t u d e , pp. 6 -7 . R .E . P a r k and E.W. B u r g e s s , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e S c ie n c e o f S o c i o l o g y , p p . 4 3 9 -4 4 2 . L .L . B e r n a r d , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , p p . 2 4 7 -2 4 8 .

44

The s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e i s r e f e r r e d t o by Downing a s , " t h a t a t t i t u d e o f mind w h ic h im p e l s one t o a t t e m p t th e s o l u ­ t i o n o f p ro b le m s w h ic h h e f a c e s b y s c i e n t i f i c o r good r e f l e c 1 t i v e t h i n k i n g r a t h e r t h a n th e t r i a l and e r r o r p r o c e s s . " The C om m ittee on S c ie n c e f o r th e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e S tu d y o f E d u c a t i o n s t a t e s t h a t , "The a t t i t u d e s o f s c i e n c e a r e t h o s e o f r e s p e c t f o r t r u t h a n d th e m e th o d s by w h ic h I t i s 2

re v e a le d * " 3 N o ll

w r i t e s o f a c o m p o s ite o f a num ber o f m e n ta l

h a b i t s , o r o f t e n d e n c i e s t o r e a c t c o n s i s t e n t l y i n c e r t a i n ways to a novel o r p ro b le m a tic s it u a t i o n . 4 H urd I n v e s t i g a t e d th e m a t t e r o f d e f i n i n g a t t i t u d e i n s u c h way t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s c o u l d be u s e d f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l p u rposes.

He n o t e s t h a t "an a t t i t u d e h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y d e ­

fin e d " a s fo llo w s: (1) P o s i t i o n or b earin g i n d i c a t i n g a c t i o n , f e e l i n g o r mood (2) A c q u ire d m o tiv a tio n p a t t e r n s (3 ) G e n e r a l i z e d con d u ct 1. 2. 3. 4.

E .R . Downing, The S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e a n d S k i l l i n T h ln k i n g . S c h o o l S c ie n c e and M a th e m a tic s , 34 (M arch, 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 302. N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r th e S tu d y o f E d u c a t i o n , T h i r t y - F i r s t Y e a rb o o k , P a r t I , a P rogram f o r T e a c h in g S c i e n c e , ' pV 27 ( i n C h a p te r I I I , f o r t h e C om m ittee by S .R . P o w e rs ). V.K. N o l l , T e a c h in g t h e H a b it o f S c i e n t i f i c T h i n k i n g . T e a c h e r s C o l le g e R e c o rd , 3 5 (D ecem ber, 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 20 2 , A .W .'"H urd'/A Common Sense I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A t t i t u d e s i n S c i e n c e I n s t r u c t i o n . S c i e n c e I n s t r u c t i o n , 24 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 7 -1 0 .

45

(4 ) N eural s e t o r r e a d in e s s t o a d ju s t (5 ) V erbal a c c e p tin g o r r e j e c t i n g r e s p o n s e s ( 6 ) Tendency t o a c t I t was f e l t t h a t a more e x a c t d e f i n i t i o n was n e e d e d so H urd c a n v a s s e d W e b s te r* s d i c t i o n a r y a n d fo un d 531 common a d ­ j e c t i v e s h e lp in g to d e f in e c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s .

T ho se were

ch e c k e d w h ic h seemed t o be e s p e c i a l l y c o n n e c te d w i t h s c i e n c e . From t h i s

l i s t o f m eanings t h e r e w ere s y n t h e s i z e d s i x

t y p e s o f a t t i t u d e s a s f o l l o w s : t h e (1 ) f a i r - m i n d e d , (3)

a n a ly tic ,

(4 ) p a i n s t a k i n g ,

g ressiv e a t titu d e s .

(2) h o n e s t,

(5 ) c o o p e r a t i v e , a n d (6 ) p r o ­

I t was s t a t e d t h a t t h e f i r s t f o u r may b e

m ore c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h o s e u s u a l l y named by o t h e r w rite rs.

The c o o p e r a t i v e a t t i t u d e i s n o t commonly m e n tio n e d

i n l i s t s o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s b u t seems a d e s i r a b l e one t o s tim u la te a c tio n In group p r o je c ts . 1 Skews r e p o r t s t h a t t h e W is c o n s in S t a t e S c i e n c e Com­ m i t t e e became c o n v in c e d t h a t a r e a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i ­ f i c a t t i t u d e c o n s i s t s I n d e v e lo p in g i t s com ponent e l e m e n t s . 2

Ebel

r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e r e i s a p ro b le m o f p r o v i d i n g

a sound d e f i n i t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

He a d v o c a t e s t h e

f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e a s a way o f o b t a i n i n g a s o u n d d e f i n i t i o n : 1.

O b ta in a l a r g e l i s t o f p o s s i b l e e l e m e n t s o f s c i e n ­ t i f i c a t t i t u d e from t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

1. 2.

G eorge J . Skew s, What I s t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e ? S c h o o l S c ie n c e a n d M a th e m a tic s , 33 ( 1 9 3 3 ), p p . 9 6 5 -9 6 7 . R o b e r t t T E b e l , M e n ta l A t t 'i t u d e s . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 22 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 5 ), p p . 1 - 5 .

46

2.

D ev e lo p a d e f i n i t e s e t o f c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n a n d s o r t o u t t h o s e w h ic h m e et t h e s e c r i t e r i a .

3.

C l a s s i f y a n d p u t v a r i o u s s i m i l a r e l e m e n ts t o ­ g e th e r.

I n t h i s way c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

t h e a t t i t u d e w i l l emerge a n d help p l a c e t h e o t h e r s ; i n t h i s way we o b t a i n t h e f i n a l l i s t . E b e l r e f i n e d h i s l i s t by t h e p r o c e s s e s d e s c r i b e d an d s t a t e d I n h i s d e f i n i t i o n a s “a n a t t i t u d e i s a s t a b i l i z e d m e n ta l s e t w h ic h e x p r e s s e s I t s e l f I n a te n d e n c y t o r e a c t t o a n y mem1 h e r o f a c l a s s o f s t i m u l i I n t h e same g e n e r a l w a y ." U n z ic k e r r e l a t e s h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f th e a t t i t u d e by sa y in g ,

" P s y c h o l o g i s t s t e l l us t h a t a t t i t u d e s a r e e m o t i o n a l i z e d

o u tc o m e s o f e x p e r i e n c e . "

They a r e c a l l e d th e b y - p r o d u c t s o f

l e a r n i n g t h a t " p r e - d i s p o s e o n e t o b eh a v e i n a p a r t i c u l a r way 2

I n a s i t u a t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e ." One o f t h e q u e s t i o n s o f t e n r a i s e d i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e a n d t h e s c i e n 3 t i f l c m e th o d . E b e l g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w h ic h se e m s t o th ro w l i g h t on t h i s v e r y r e a l p ro b le m . The g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e known a s th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod I s u s e d by a l l s c i e n c e s b u t t h e r e i s ,

stric tly

s p e a k i n g , no

o n e s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d s i n c e t h e d i f f e r e n t s c i e n c e s a p p r o a c h

1. 2. 3.

Ib id ., p. 5. Sam uel P . U n z i c k e r , What Kind o f A c t i v i t i e s I n S c ie n c e ? S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 25 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 1 ), p . 4 2 . R o b e r t L . E b e l , What I s t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e ? S c ie n ce E d u c a ti on, 22 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 7 5.

47

i t f ro m s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a n g le s *

W hatever t h e p a r t i c u l a r

a p p r o a c h u s e d , i t i s s t i l l t r u e t h a t each s t e p a r i s e s from "some p h a s e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e . "

I t i s n o t , h o w ev er,

c o n v e rs e ly t r u e th a t "each phase o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e f i n d s e re p re s s i o n i n some s t e p o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod*" "F o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e I s c o n c e r n e d w i t h u s i n g k n ow led ge a s w e l l a s o b t a i n i n g i t , a n d i n v o l v e s t e n d e n c i e s t o r e f r a i n fro m c e r t a i n t y p e s o f a c t i v i t y a s w e l l a s t e n d e n c i e s 1 to p u rsu e o th e r t y p e s ." I t I s h e r e c o n c lu d e d t h a t w h ile t h e " s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e and t h e s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d a r e d e f i n i t e l y r e l a t e d t h e y a r e b y no means I d e n t i c a l , " I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s one i s l i k e l y t o a g r e e t h a t t h e s e tw o o b j e c t i v e s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , b u t t h a t t h e y a r e d i f f e r e n t eno ug h

t o e a c h become a s e p a r a t e o b j e c t i v e f o r

m odern s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g . 2

C a ld w e ll

r e l a t e s a d e f i n i t i o n of a n a t t i t u d e b y t h e

A m e ric a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n a s "a s t a b i l i z e d s e t o r d i s p o s i t i o n " w h ich t h r o u g h c o n t i n u e d use t e n d s t o become emo­ tio n a liz e d .

M ethods o f I n s t r u c t i o n S in c e t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n I s n o t one o f co m p arin g m ethods o f t e a c h i n g t h e r e I s no a t t e m p t t o co n d u c t t h e s tj id y so a s t o

1.

IiOC •

2.

6 't i s W. C a l d w e l l , R e g a rd in g A t t i t u d e s . 20 (D ecem ber, 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 2 0 8 .

c it*

S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n ,

48

f i n d o u t i f one g i v e n m ethod i s b e t t e r t h a n a n o t h e r .

The i n ­

s t r u c t i o n i e s u p p o s e d l y b a s e d on sound e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p ra c tic e .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e su rv ey o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e p o r t e d

h e r e r e p r e s e n t w hat seem s t o be an a d e q u a t e s y n t h e s i s o f o p i n i o n a s t o w hat o u t s t a n d i n g c o l l e g e i n s t r u c t i o n i n s c i e n c e f o r g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n w o u ld i n v o l v e .

By a c o m p a ris o n o f t h i s s u r •it

v ey w i t h t h e

l o g o f p r o c e d u r e s , p r o v i d e d i n t h e A p p e n d ix , o ne

c a n h a v e a so u n d b a s i s f o r Judging t h e q u a l i t y o f f r B t r u e t i o n r e c e i v e d by t h e s t u d e n t s w hich co m prise t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p o f th is in v e stig a tio n . What p o s i t i o n i s u s u a l l y ta k e n i n r e g a r d t o m ethods o f te a c h in g ? I n r e g a r d t o m eth od s o f I n s t r u c t i o n , I t seem s t h a t one f u n d a m e n ta l i d e a t o b e k e p t i n mind i s t h a t e x p r e s s e d by N o l l when he s a y s :

" T h e re i s no b e s t m ethod — m e th o d s o f t e a c h i n g

a r e o f t e n a l l s i m p l y means t o ends a n d t h i n g s i n w h ic h we a r e m o st I n t e r e s t e d I s t o f i n d th e means b y w hich we c a n b e s t a t 1 t a i n th e d e s ire d end. A l l i s o n f e e l s t h a t th e q u e s t i o n o f w h at m e th o d o r m ethods are u sed i s q u ite im p o rta n t.

He s a y s :

“ O b v io u s ly , t h e u l t i m a t e

e d u c a t i o n a l v a l u e o f t h e su rv ey c o u r s e , as o f m o s t o t h e r c o u r s e s , 2

d e p e n d s l a r g e l y on t h e m ethods o f I n s t r u c t i o n . ”

•u1. 2.

See p p . 2 6 7 -3 2 4 . V. H. N o l l , The T e a c h in g o f S c ie n c e i n t h e E le m e n ta r y a n d S e c o n d a ry S c S o o l, pT 2ST. Temple A llis o n " ,' What o f Survey C o u rs e s ? N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a ­ t i o n o f h e a n s o f Women, Y earb o o k , 1 9 3 5 , p p . 1 5 8 -1 6 1 .

49

1

Beauchamp

i n v e s t i g a t e d many s u p p o s e d ly o u t s t a n d i n g

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s i n a l l p a r t s o f th e c o u n t r y .

He f o u n d t h a t

l i t t l e a t t e m p t was b e i n g made t o d i r e c t a t t i t u d e o r t o t e a c h t o t h e a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f s u c h outcomes a s t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i ­ t u d e o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d . M ost t e a c h e r s

who w ere I n t e r v i e w e d e x p r e s s e d t h e

o p i n i o n t h a t s u c h o u tc o m es e i t h e r ( l ) r e s u l t a u t o m a t i c a l l y th ro u g h th e te a c h in g o f f a c t s or p r i n c i p l e s o f s c ie n c e , o r ( 2 ) t h e y a r e t a k e n up i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e c o u r s e , o r (3 ) t h a t t h e

p u p i l s l e a r n t h e s e t h i n g s h y w a tc h in g t h e t e a c h e r . 2 I s e n b a r g e r d e s c r i b e s one m ethod o f t e a c h i n g w i t h a

c o u r s e f o r s t u d e n t s i n a j u n i o r c o l l e g e p ro g ram .

The l e c t u r e

c o n s i s t s o f 296 s t u d e n t s who a r e d i v i d e d i n t o g r o u p s o f 45 s t u d e n t s f o r p u r p o s e s o f m e e ti n g one a d d i t i o n a l h o u r p e r w eek. D e m o n s t r a t i o n m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t s o f d r a w in g s , d i a g r a m s , c h a r t s , l a n t e r n s l i d e s a n d m o ti o n p i c t u r e s .

O p p o r t u n ity f o r s e e i n g

a n d h a n d l i n g r e a l m a t e r i a l s i s g iv e n i n d e m o n s t r a t i o n room and museum, b u t he s a y s t h i s p a r t o f t h e p ro g ra m h as n o t r e a l i z e d its

f u ll p o s s ib ilitie s as y e t.

A t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o , th e c o u r s e a s d e s c r i b e d 3 b y Newman c o n s i s t s o f 2 2 5 s t u d e n t s . The I n s t r u c t i o n i s c o n 1. 2. 3.

W i lb u r L. Beauchamp,^, i n s t r u c t i o n i n S c i e n c e , B u l l e t i n 1 7 , 1 932. W a s h in g to n , D .C .: G overnment P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 933^ PP. 1 —6 2 . J . I s e n b e r g e r , B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e i n t h e C h ic a g o J u n i o r C o l l e g e s . S c h o o l S c ie n c e and M a th e m a tic s , 35 ( J a n u a r y , 1936), pp. 7 3 -7 7 . H .H . Newman, An O r i e n t a t i o n C o u rse . J o u r n a l o f H ig h e r E d u c a t i o n , 12 (M arch, 1 9 3 1 ), p p . l £ l - l f e 6 .

50

d u c t e d by l e c t u r e w i t h t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a t t e m p t e d e v e n t h o u g h t h e y c a n n o t be u s e d v e r y much* o b ta in q u e stio n s,

A tte m p ts a r e made t o

some of* them w r i t t e n , and so m e o r a l .

V a r i o u s s p e c i a l i s t s i n e a c h b r a n c h o f s c i e n c e come i n a n d g i v e a a e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s a f t e r w hich some q u e s t i o n s a r e t a k e n u p . When we c o n s i d e r t h e methods we m ight u s e o r t h e a p ­ p r o a c h we m ig h t make i n o u r e f f o r t s t o t e a c h so a s t o im p ro v e a t t i t u d e s , we a r e l i k e l y t o be f o r c e d t o ad m it t h a t we do n o t know to o much a b o u t o b t a i n i n g t h i s o b j e c t i v e . On t h i s s u b 1 J e c t Pow ers h a s s o m e th in g t o sa y a s h e t e l l s u s t h a t a n ex ­ a m i n a t i o n o f r e p o r t s i n s c i e n c e r e v e a l s a w e a k n e ss i n m o st o f th e m .

In th e in v e s tig a tio n s a ttitu d e s are n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith

a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h a r e a c c e p t e d by t h e lw a r n e r a s s i g n i f i c a n t . I n some c a s e s th e a c t i v i t y i s t r i v i a l w h ile I n o t h e r s I t may be so s p e c ia liz e d t h a t i t in v o lv e s la b o ra to ry m a n ip u la tio n .

In

n e i t h e r c ase I s th e r e s u f f i c i e n t c h a lle n g e to c a u se th e l e a r n e r to

ch an g e hiB o p i n i o n on t h e b a s i s o f new Ju d g m e n t, t o " s e a r c h

f o r t r u t h r e g a r d l e s s o f p r e j u d i c e s , 11 o r t o e x e r c i s e a n y o f t h e o t h e r e l e m e n ts o f t h e

" s c ie n tific a ttitu d e ."

As a g e n e r a l

r u l e f o r c h a n g in g a t t i t u d e s w h ich a r e t o be e f f e c t i v e I n l i f e " I t seem s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e a c t be a c c e p te d b y t h e l e a r n e r a s 2

s ig n ific a n t."

I t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t h a t th e a c t i v i t i e s be

c a r r i e d on i n a s e t t i n g t h a t I s s i m i l a r t o t h e b r o a d r e l a t i o n -

1, 2.

S .R . P o w e rs, P s y c h o lo g y an d Methods i n th e H ig h S c h o o l and C o l l e g e S c i e n c e . Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h ( 1 9 3 8 ), p . 66. L oc. c l t .

51

s h i p s w hich o c c u r i n l i f e * 1 Power f e e l s t h a t o n e who a c c e p t s t h e a im o f d e v e l o p ­ i n g s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e i s f a c e d im m e d ia te l y w i t h th e p ro b le m o f d i r e c t i n g h i s t e a c h i n g m ethods so as t o a t t a i n t h a t a im . Many t e x t b o o k w r i t e r s seem t o n a i v e l y assum e t h a t m a t e r i a l f a c ­ t u a l l y p r e s e n t e d w i l l be ac co m p a n ied by m a s t e r y o f t h e s c i e n ­ t i f i c method and t h e d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y t h i s seem s a n im p o s s i b l e outcome o f more o r l e s s d i r e c t r o te m e m o r iz a tio n .

T e a c h e r s n e e d t o l e a d th e s t u d e n t s

i n p ro b le m s o l v i n g , t a k i n g c a re t o u s e t h e d e s i r e d s c i e n t i f i c a ttitu d e s. 2

R ic k e tt

s t a t e s t h a t th e c o u r s e s h o u l d be t a u g h t w i t h

t h e i d e a in m ind t h a t th e s t u d e n t s a r e n o t s p e c i a l i s t s an d a r e n o t s u i t e d t o u s i n g c o m p lic a te d t e c h n i c a l p h r a s e o l o g y . Some s u g g e s t i o n s f o r t e a c h i n g a r e g i v e n by H u n te r who s a y s , "The e v o l u t i o n o f s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g I n t h i s c o u n t r y h a s e n t e r e d a new e r a .

S c ie n c e t e a c h e r s a r e b e g in n in g t o be s c i e n 3

t i f i c w ith

r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r own t e a c h i n g . "

He f e e l s t h a t

t h e l e c t u r e i s o f t e n p r e s e n t e d i n su c h a way t h a t t h e p u p i l d o e s n o t g r e a t l y b e n e f i t fro m i t .

I t seem s t h a t “t h e l e c t u r e -

d e m o n s t r a t i o n w ith i t s d e f i n i t e e x p l a n a t i o n o f ways o f d o i n g 4 t h i n g s and means o f a r r i v i n g a t a n end, i s o f g r e a t v a l u e . " 1.

3.

C a r l e t o n E. P o w e r, P o s s i b l e T e c h n iq u e s f o r th e D ev elo pm ent o f Some S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e s . S c h o o l S c ie n c e an d M ath e­ m a t i c s , 39 (M arch, 1 9 3 9 ), pp. 2 5 l - § 5 7 . H.W, R i c k e t t , F u n d a m e n ta l B i o l o g i c a l C o n c e p ts . J o u r n a l o f H ig h er E duca11o n , 4 ( F e b ru a ry , 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 6 7 -7 0 . Qeqrge W. H u n te r , S c ie n c e T e a c h in g , p . 3 .

4.

I b i d . , p . 166.

2.

52

1

Punk©

b e l i e v e s t h a t a t t i t u d e s can be Im p ro v ed I f one

g o e s a h e a d i n an i n t e l l i g e n t w ay.

I t i s h is th o u g h t t h a t th e

m ore im m atu re t h e p u p i l th e more a t t i t u d e s m ust b e d e v e l o p e d , i f a t a l l , by d i r e c t e x p e r i m e n t i n g and o b s e r v a t i o n o f r e s u l t s on t h e p a r t o f t h e

c h ild .

At th e s e c o n d a ry and h i g h e r l e v e l s

much c a n b e d o n e v i c a r i o u s l y “ t h r o u g h o r a l and w r i t t e n a c c o u n t s r e f l e c t i n g th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e ,

or l a c k o f i t ,

I n th e l i v e s

2

of p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a ls ," I t i s , h o w e v e r, t r u e t h a t f i r s t h a n d e x p e r i e n c e s a r e n e e d e d s u c h a s p r o b le m s t u d y i n t h e c la s s r o o m and t h e com m unity. T h is m ethod o f e x p e r i e n c e b o t h v i c a r i o u s a n d f i r s t h and may be u s e d t o d e v e lo p an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c a u s e an d e f f e c t r e l a t i o n ­ sh ip . U n z ic k e r b e l i e v e s we s h o u ld be v e r y c l e a r i n o u r t h i n k ­ in g a s t o what outcom es we w is h t o a c h ie v e and v e r y e a r n e s t I n o u r f e e l i n g t h a t t h e s e o u tc o m e s a r e o f v i t a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . "T hen we s h a l l have t o a r r a n g e s i t u a t i o n s — s e t t h e s t a g e , I f y o u l i k e - - s o t h a t s t u d e n t s w i l l have s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s a s 5 w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e o u tc o m es we s e e k . " 4 N o ll p r e s e n t s a d e f i n i t e s u g g e s t i o n f o r t e a c h i n g o u r o b j e c t i v e s when he p o i n t s o u t th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f f i r s t c l e a r l y

1. 2. 3. 4.

H a r o ld H. Punke, S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e a n d th e 3 R ' s . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 25 (iSanuary, 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 2 0 - 2 4 . Ib id . , p. 53. Samuel P . U n z i c k e r , What Kind o f A c t i v i t i e s i n S c i e n c e ? S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 2 5 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 1 ) , p . 4 2 . V i c t o r H. if o i l , S c i e n c e a s an O rg a n iz e d F i e l d o f S tu d y . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 23 ( F e b ru a ry , 1 9 3 5 ), p p . 1 1 9 - 1 2 5 .

53

a n d d e f i n i t e l y d e f i n i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e s w hich we hope t o a c ­ c o m p lish .

I t I s h i s th o u g h t t h a t i f th e o b j e c t i v e s a r e c l e a r l y

f o r m u l a t e d a n d s t a t e d t h e t e a c h i n g I t s e l f w i l l t h e r e b y be som ew hat I n f l u e n c e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a c h i e v i n g t h e d e s i r e d outcom e s • 1 R d ner

r e c a l l s t h a t m ost e d u c a t o r s a g r e e t h a t i t I s

d e s i r a b l e t o t r y t o i n c u l c a t e th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e b u t t h i s a im i s g r e a t l y h am p ered by t h e w id e s p r e a d b e l i e f t h a t t h e s e a t t i t u d e s c a n be d e v e lo p e d I n s t u d e n t s as c o n c o m i t a n t s o f o th e r a c t i v i t i e s .

I t i s a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d b y many t h a t

s c ie n tific a ttitu d e s

can be ’’in d u c e d fro m a d i s t a n c e . "

S ln o e

I t I s w d ll known t h a t r e p e a t e d e x p l a n a t i o n s a n d r e v ie w s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e lo p I n f o r m a t i o n a l ou tco m es, how I s i t t h e n h o p e d t h a t a t t i t u d e s w i l l d e v e lo p o f t h e m s e l v e s ?

He w onders

I f t h i s b e l i e f i s h e ld because of an in c o r r e c t id e a th a t a t t i ­ t u d e s a r e so e a s y t o d e v e lo p ; b e c a u s e w h a te v e r e v id e n c e t h e r e I s i n d i c a t e s th e o p p o s ite . 2

I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n by R e i n e r

one s e e s

c l e a r l y t h a t he f a v o r s some d i r e c t a p p r o a c h f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e sc ie n tific a ttitu d e .

W hile he o f f e r s no s u g g e s t i o n s h e r e , h e

p r e s e n t s p l a i n l y h i s v ie w s o f one way by w h ic h t h e jo b w i l l n o t be a c c o m p lish e d . 3 Downing a g r e e s w i t h Dewey a n d o t h e r s t h a t s c i e n c e i s 1.

2. 3.

W illia m B . R e i n e r , T h e C o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n S c i e n t i f i c A t­ t i t u d e s a n d F a c t u a l Knowledge i n a H ig h S c h o o l Chem­ i s t r y T o p ic . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 23 (N ovem ber, 1 9 3 9 ) , pp . 327-331. Loc. c l t . ElTioTnr"R. D owning, E le m e n ts an d S a f e g u a r d s o f S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g . S c i e n t i f i c M o n th ly , 26 ( M a r c h ,1 9 2 8 ) ,p p . 2 31-243,

54

j u s t a s mdch a m e th o d a s i t i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r •

T e a c h e r s m u st

h a v e a c l e a r c u t n o t i o n o f what s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g c o n s i s t s a n d m ust b e on t h e a l e r t t o d e t e c t e r r o r s .

I n o r d e r t o make

d e f i n i t e s u g g e s t i o n s i n r e g a r d to t h e way o f t e a c h i n g i n r e ­ g ard to s c i e n t i f i c

t h i n k i n g , Downing o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t * o f s a f e g u a r d s o f t h e e le m e n ts I n s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g . The

l i s t s u g g e s t s t h a t we p ay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o : 1.

Id eas o f accuracy

2.

E x te n s iv e o b se rv a tio n

3.

O b s e r v a t i o n tinder v a r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s

4.

S e l e c t i o n o f e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts

5.

R e c o g n iz in g t h e Im p o rta n c e o f d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s

6.

R e a liz in g t h a t e x c e p tio n s are a lw a y s s i g n i f i c a n t

7.

O b t a i n i n g a w ide ra n g e o f e x p e r i e n c e

8.

C o n s id e r in g a l l p o s s i b l e h y p o t h e s e s

9.

T e s t i n g i n f e r e n c e s from h y p o t h e s e s

10.

A llo w in g o n ly one v a r i a b l e

11.

A rran g in g d a ta s k i l l f u l l y

12.

R e c o g n iz in g t h e p e r t i n e n c y or a d e q u a c y o f d a t a

13.

M a i n t a i n i n g an u n p r e ju d ic e d a t t i t u d e and u s i n g I m p e r s o n a l a n d suspen d ed judgm ent

The ab o v e l i s t p r o v id e s an e x t e n s i v e a n d q u i t e i n c l u s i v e l i s t o f s a f e g u a r d s t o be a p p l ie d I n s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g .

The

e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f t h e l i s t a r e g iv e n h e r e b e c a u s e t h e r e i n we h a v e v e r y d e f i n i t e s u g g e s t i o n s o f some o f t h e t h i n g s w h ich *

T hese e l e m e n t s a r e r e p o r t e d on p p .

37

55

may Toe I m p o r t a n t In a t t e m p t i n g t o a t t a i n t h i s

o b je c tiv e .

S in c e

many o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d h a v e b r o u g h t o u t t h e g r e a t Im­ p o rta n c e o f a c l e a r sta te m e n t o f o b je c ti v e s t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t a k e s on ad d ed s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t th e u s e o f p r a c t i c a l i l l u s ­ t r a t i o n s f o r d e v e l o p i n g th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s a r e o f t e n d e 1 slra b le . 2

C a ld w e ll

g i v e s an ex am ple o f how t h i s c a n be d on e b y

d e s c r i b i n g an a p p r o a c h t o th e s u p e r s t i t i o n t h a t th e w e a th e r o n J u l y 1 5 t h , S t . S w i t h l n ’ s Day, i s a s u r e i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e w e a th e r f o r t h e n e x t f o r t y d a y s .

The a p p r o a c h h e r e was t o

r e c o r d t h e w e a t h e r on J u l y 1 5 t h a n d t h e n s e l e c t e i g h t c i t i e s i n w h ic h I t d i d r a i n on t h a t d a y and o b t a i n a r e c o r d o f th e w e a th e r I n e a c h o f t h e s e c i t i e s f o r th e n e x t f o r t y d a y s .

In

t h i s was r e a l e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d on w h ic h t h e s e s t u d e n t s c o u l d b a s e t h e i r Ju d g m e n ts a s to t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h i s s u p e r s t i ­ tio n . N o ll s t a t e s t h a t he d e s i r e s t o e m p h a s iz e more s t r o n g l y some c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s "shown by r e c e n t r e s e a r c h t o b e m o st 3 v a lu a b le I n th e te a c h in g of s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g . " S in o e t o a l a r g e e x t e n t o b j e c t i v e s a re t h e t h i n g s we t e a c h f o r a n d t h e r e ­

1. 2. 3.

H a r o l d H. P u n k e, S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e a n d t h e 3 R ' s . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n . 25 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 2 0 -2 4 * O t i s w. C a l d w e l l , A Summary o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n s R e g a rd in g S u p e r s t i t i o n s a n d o t h e r TTnfounded B e l i e f s . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , 20 ( F e b ru a ry , 1 9 3 6 ), p . 4 . V i c t o r H. N o i l , T each in g S c i e n c e f o r t h e P u rp o se o f I n ­ f l u e n c i n g B e h a v io r . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 20 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 936), p . 17.

56

f o r e a t t a i n t h e n ( 1 ) " t h e d e a i r e d a t t i t u d e s w h ic h a r e t o In flu e n c e b e h a v io r

m u st be t a u g h t d i r e c t l y , "

( 2 ) I f we w is h

t o d e v e l o p t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e th e n p u p i l s m u st be g i v e n an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r a c t i c e i t ,

(3) I f th e d e s i r a b l e a t t i t u d e s

a r e t o f u n c t i o n I n l i f e t h e r e m u st be s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n f o r g e n e r a l i z i n g t h e s e a t t i t u d e s , ( 4 ) I n o r d e r t o become f u n c t i o n a l to t h e l e a r n e r t h e s e a t t i t u d e s m u st seem d e s i r a b l e t o t h e s t u ­ d e n t. N o l l d o e s n o t c la im to h a v e th e f i n a l a n s w e r t o d e ­ v e l o p i n g t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e b u t he f e e l s s u r e t h a t y ou c a n ' t do I t b y

h o l d i n g up s u c h ex am p les a s "A rc h im e d e s,

1

G a l i l e o , K e p l e r , Newton o r o t h e r s who h a v e l o n g c e a s e d t o l i v e . " I f we a r e t o u s e h e r o e s a t a l l we must u s e o n e s w h ic h a p p e a l t o th e s tu d e n t. I n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t o f v ie w we s e e t h e d e ­ f i n i t e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t any im provem ent I n a t t i t u d e m u st be t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t o f c o n s c io u s i n s t r u c t i o n t o w a r d t h a t e n d .

The

i d e a t h a t t h e w e l l known s c i e n t i s t s o f t h e p a s t c a n n o t be u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y I s c l e a r l y v o ic e d .

I t seems t h a t t h e s e i d e a s

com pare r a t h e r c l o s e l y w i t h o t h e r s who h a v e e x p r e s s e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t h e s e m a t t e r s t h r o u g h th e l i t e r a t u r e , 2

T h o rn d ik e

s u p p o r t s t h e I d e a e x p r e s s e d ab o v e t o th e

e f f e c t t h a t i f we w i s h t o d e v e l o p th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e t h e n th e l e a r n e r m u st be g iv e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r a c t i c e t h a t «r

1, 2,

Ib id . , p . 19, Edward L , T h o r n d ik e , The P sy c h o lo g y o f W ants, I n t e r e s t s a n d A ttitu d e s. "

57

a ttitu d e *

He a l s o b r i n g s o u t s t r o n g l y t h a t I f t h e a t t i t u d e i s

t o become f u n c t i o n a l t h e n I t m ust seem a t t r a c t i v e t o th e s t u ­ d e n t s o r p u p i l s I n t h e s c h o o l w hich i s t o s a y you m u st make t h e s t u d e n t s w an t t h e s e t h i n g s * 1

B a y les

e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a t h a t i f a t e a c h e r o n ly

t r i e s f o r " s t r a i g h t t h i n k i n g " th e n t h o u g h t f u l n e s s w i l l come o n ly b y ohance*

However, t h e i n s t r u c t o r s h o u ld s t r i v e t o h av e

t h e s t u d e n t r e a c h c o n c l u s i o n s by r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g . T h i s t h o u g h t seem s t o be one w h ic h s u p p o r t s th e o f t e n ex p ressed id e a th a t come y o u d e s i r e .

you m u st t e a c h d i r e c t l y f o r w h a te v e r o u t ­

B a y le s I s s u g g e s t i n g h e r e t h a t r e f l e c t i v e

t h i n k i n g I s n o t em ployed I n t e a c h i n g a s much a s i t s h o u ld be and t h a t I t i s d e v e lo p e d t h r o u g h p r a c t i c e i f i t I s d e v e l o p e d a t a ll* F u r t h e r s u p p o r t f o r t h e d i r e c t a p p r o a c h I s g iv e n b y C a ld w e ll w hen h e s a y s t h a t i t h a s n o t b ee n p ro v e d t h a t s c i e n ­ t i f i c a t t i t u d e s d e v e lo p c o n c o m i t a n t l y w i t h o n e 's b e i n g en g a g ed I n s c i e n t i f i c w o rk .

I n f a c t he t e l l s u s t h a t th e e v i d e n c e I n ­

d ic a te s t h a t th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s o f g r e a t s c i e n t i s t s

"are

f a i r l y w e ll r e s t r i c t e d to th e s p e c i f i c ty p e s o f s c ie n c e I n 2 w h ic h t h e s e w o rk e rs have l e a r n e d t o do d e p e n d a b le w o rk ." The t h o u g h t t h a t we need d i r e c t t e a c h i n g f o r a t t i t u d e s h a s a l s o b e e n e x p r e s s e d - b y " i f t h e im p o r ta n c e o f a t t i t u d e s an d 1, 2.

E r n e s t E* B a y le s , The Problem o f T e s t i n g . S c ie n c e E d u c a ­ t i o n * 20 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 2 0 - 2 4 . O t i s W. C a l d w e l l , R e g a rd in g A t t i t u d e s . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 20 (December, 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 208*

58

id e a ls i s

r e c o g n i z e d i t I s c l e a r l y i l l o g i c a l t o r e l y on t h e i r

d e v e lo p m e n t m e r e ly th r o u g h th e p r o c e s s o f i n s t r u c t i n g s t u d e n t s 1 i n o r g a n iz e d k n o w le d g e ."

E v a l u a t i o n o f Outcomes The m a in p ro b le m o f t h i 3 s tu d y i n v o l v e s m easu rem en t o f c e r t a i n ty p e s o f o b je c tiv e s .

I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h at im ­

p r o v e m e n t, i f a n y , i n e a c h o f t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s has b e e n b r o u g h t about b y th e in s t r u c t i o n .

I t seems o b v i o u s t h a t i f t h e m e th o d s

o f m e a su re m e n t u s e d a r e n o t s u i t e d t o t h e p u r p o s e , t h e n t h e s tu d y w i l l h av e l i t t l e v a l u e . m e a s u r in g i n s t r u m e n t an d u s e i t

I n o rd e r to d e v e lo p a s u i t a b l e I n a d e f e n s i b l e m an ner, a s u r ­

v e y of t h e l i t e r a t u r e h a s b e e n Trade t o d e t e r m i n e w hat a r e some o f th e b e s t s u g g e s t i o n s f o r m e a su rin g t h e s e o u tc o m e s. I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e ways w h ic h a r e s u g g e s te d f o r t e s t i n g v a r i o u s outcom es one f i n d s much r e f e r e n c e t o m e a s u re ­ m ent o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " i n t a n g i b l e s . "

Many t i m e s we f i n d w o rd s

t o the e f f e c t t h a t s u c h t h i n g s a s th e s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d an d s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e a r e q u ite d i f f i c u l t t o m eaaure.

At no

t i m e , h o w e v e r, h a s t h e s u g g e s t i o n been f o u n d t h a t one s h o u l d n o t t r y t o m e a s u re t h e s e outcom es b e c a u s e i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o do s o or b e c a u s e o f a n y

o th e r re a s o n .

The d i s c u s s i o n w h ich f o l l o w s

in c lu d e s p a r t i a l a c ­

c o u n ts o f v a r i o u s a t t e m p t s a t m easu rem en t made by v a r i o u s 1.

C om m ittee o n O r i e n t a t i o n o f S e c o n d a ry E d u c a t i o n , I s s u e s o f S e c o n d a ry E d u c a tio n , B u l l e t i n , 20 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ) , p. 299.

59

s c ie n c e e d u c a to rs*

These a c c o u n t s a r e s u p p le m e n te d by t h e

s u g g e s t i o n s a n d w a r n in g s o f t h e s e p r a c t i c a l e d u c a t o r s a s t o some t h i n g s w h ic h s h o u ld b e k e p t i n m ind f o r m o re a d e q u a t e e v a lu a tio n .

Some o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s may b e c l a s s i f i e d a s e d u ­

c a tio n a l th e o ry b u t a r e o f co u rse In te n d e d t o f in d t h e i r p la c e in p r a c tic e . 1 N o ll

c o n s i d e r e d d e v e lo p in g t e s t s t o m easu re a s p e c t s

o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

He s t a t e s t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e o f

t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s h o u ld be m e a s u re d i n te r m s o f l i f e s i t u a t i o n s , an d n o t a c c o rd in g to th e s i t u a t i o n s of th e s c ie n c e la b o ra to ry . R e l a t i v e l y few o f t h e s t u d e n t s w i l l h a v e n ee d o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e as a r e s e a r c h w o r k e r , b u t p r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry o n e w i l l h a v e s u c h n e e d i n o r d i n a r y l i f e

situ a tio n s.

In c o n s id e rin g th e p o s s ib le d a n g e rs o f t e s t i n g a t t i ­ t u d e s Skews n o t e s t h a t when t e s t s a r e g i v e n t h e r e i s a r e a l d an g e r t h a t " th e p u p il w i l l resp o n d a s h e b e l i e v e s th e t e a c h e r w a n ts him t o r e s p o n d r a t h e r t h a n i n a m an n er c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 2

h i s own i n c l i n a t i o n s . " 3 N o l l d i s c u s s e s t e s t i n g by s a y i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e made t e s t s o f a t t i t u d e to w a rd w ar, v a r i o u s r a c e s , t h e c h u r c h a n d th e l i k e , b u t i t would t a k e a w h ole s e r i e s of t h e s e t o 1. 2. 3.

V i c t o r H. N o l l , The H a b i t o f S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g . T e a c h e r s C o lle g e R e c o r d , 35 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 1 - 9 . G eorge w* Skew s, What i s t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e ? School S c i e n c e a n d Mathena t i c s , 33 ( 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 9 6 5 - 9 6 7 . V ic t o r ' B!. S o i l , Meas u p i n g t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e . The J o u r n a l o f Abnormal P s y c h o lo g y , 30 ( J u l y , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 145-154.

60

m e a su re a w e l l - r o u n d e d I n d i v i d u a l . a ttitu d e s

T h is m eth o d o f m e a s u r in g

to w a rd s e p a r a t e t h i n g s b y many s p e c i a l s c a l e s may

p e r h a p s n o t be t h e o n ly a p p r o a c h .

He s a y s , " I t m ig h t be b e t t e r

t o t a k e a random sa m p lin g o f h i s a t t i t u d e s to w a r d many s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s o r th in g s s e le c tin g th e s e s i t u a t i o n s in accordance w i t h some c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f w h at t h e d e s i r a b l e a t t i t u d e

(o r

a t t i t u d e s ) m ig h t b e . " I t i s f u r t h e r s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e s e I te m s u s e d f o r t e s t i n g m ig h t d e a l m o s tly w i t h s o c i a l r a t h e r t h a n l a b o r a t o r y situ a tio n s.

Too o f t e n i t i s assu m ed t h a t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s ­

t i c s m u st b e d e v e lo p e d and m e a su re d b y means o f s c i e n t i f i c l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n s and d a t a .

R e l a t i v e l y few o f o u r s t u ­

d e n t s w i l l have need o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e as r e s e a r c h w o rk e rs b u t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f th e m w i l l n e e d t h e s e a t t i t u d e s in o rd in a ry d a ily l i f e .

I f we a c c e p t t h i s i d e a t h e n we sh o u ld

a t t e m p t t o m e asu re s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s n o t i n l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n s b u t I n te rm s o f e v e ry d a y l i f e Power

ex p e rie n c e s.

s a y s t h a t t e s t s m u st be made s u c h t h a t one

c a n n o t j u s t g u e s s t h e an sw e r and a t t h e same tim e n o t know w h at i s c a l l e d f o r .

T ru e -fa ls e and m u ltip le c h o ice q u e s tio n s

can b e u s e d t o t e s t judgm ent and a b i l i t y t o a p p l y t h e s c i e n t i ­ f i c m e th o d .

T hese q u e s t i o n s must b e made s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t e s t

t h e o u tc o m es w h ich we d e s i r e them t o t e s t .

1.

An exam ple o f q u e s­

C a r l e t o n E . Power, P o s s i b l e T e c h n iq u e s f o r t h e D evelopm ent o f Some S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e s . S c h o o l S c ie n c e a n d Mathe­ m a t i c s , 39 (M arch, 1939), p . 25$T,

61

t i o n s t o t e s t f o r an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c a u s e an d e f f e c t r e l a ­ tio n s h ip s fo llo w s: Two s t a t e m e n t s a r e g iv e n a n d t h e s t u d e n t m arks t h e s t a t e m e n t by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e t t e r A. E. £. D. |[ .

from t h e f o l l o w i n g :

The f i r s t I s t h e s o l e c a u s e o f t h e s e c o n d . F i r s t i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n p r o d u c in g t h e se co n d . F i r s t c o n t r i b u t e s s l i g h t l y i n p r o d u c in g t h e se c o n d . T h e re i s no f'casualp r e l a t i o n s h i p s . B o th a r e r e s u l t s o f a common c a u s e .

I t i s s t a t e d t h a t c r i t i c a l r e a d e r s w o u ld f i n d more t h a n one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p o s s i b l e a c c o r d i n g t o co de b u t t h i s w o u ld r e f l e c t 1 th e " c o m p le te n e s s o f know ledge u t i l i s e d i n t h e ju d g m e n t." An exam ple o f q u e s t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o t e s t on e* s a b i l i t y I n v o lv e s a s t a t e m e n t o r s e r i e s f o l l o w e d by s e v e r a l c h o i c e s t o sa y i f th e s t a t e m e n t I s th e o ry ,

(a ) f a c t ,

(b) g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d

(c) t h e o r y n o t a c c e p t e d by a l l a u t h o r i t i e s ,

ment n o t c o n f ir m e d by c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e .

(d) s t a t e ­

In c o n sid e rin g th is

2

exam ple by Power

one m ig h t q u e s t i o n t o w h at e x t e n t one c o u ld

a c t u a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h among th e l a s t t h r e e s i t u a t i o n s g i v e n ab ov e. 5 N o ll

r e c o g n i z e s th e work o f T y l e r , F r u t c h e y , Hen­

d r i c k s , H orton and o t h e r s a s o u t s t a n d i n g i n t h e f i e l d o f m easurem ent f o r o b j e c t i v e s I n s c i e n c e .

He s t a t e s t h a t some

i n f o r m a t i o n i n r e g a r d to a good t e s t i n g p ro g ra m i s g i v e n by

1. 2. 3.

Loc. c l t . hoc* _c_it. V i c t o r ”!!. N o l l , S c ie n c e as a n O r g a n iz e d F i e l d o f S tu d y .

S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 23 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 1 1 9 -1 2 5 .

62

H e n d r ic k s and. T y l e r .

They s a y " a t e s t i n g p ro g ra m f o r any su b ­

j e c t s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y be d i r e c t e d b y t h a t s u b j e c t f s t e a c h i n g a im s .

No program o f t e s t i n g c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a t e w h ic h

d o es n o t a t l e a s t a t t e m p t t o m e a s u re outcom es f o r e a c h o f t h e 1 v a r i o u s aim s o f th e c o u r s e . 2

J o h n so n

n o t e s t h a t to m e a s u r e outcom es o t h e r t h a n

f a c t s i s not easy b u t i s v ery

im p o rta n t.

Is t h e l i s t i n g of th e co u rse o b j e c t i v e s .

A p re lim in a ry a te p A m e a s u r in g i n s t r u ­

m ent c a n b e g r e a t l y im p rov ed by th r o w i n g o u t th o s e q u e s t i o n s w h ic h a r e shown by s t a t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n t o be am b ig u o u s or n o t s u i t a b l e in order o f d i f f i c u l t y *

S in c e i t i s q u i t e

g e n e r a lly h e ld t h a t th e c h a r a c te r o f th e e x a m in a tio n g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e s how th e s t u d e n t s t u d i e s t h e n we n ee d t e s t s w h ic h c o n fo rm t o o u r o b j e c t i v e s . I t i s s ta te d h ere t h a t I f t h e ex a m in a tio n o r t e s t i s t o m e a su re t h e r e s u l t s o f I n s t r u c t i o n , t h e n c a r e s h o u l d b e ta k e n to In s u re th a t th e t e s t i s

c o n s tr u c te d a c c o rd in g to

b e s t p r i n c i p l e s of t e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n .

T h ere seem t o be a t

l e a s t t h r e e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h o s e who w o u ld c o n s t r u c t good m e a s u r in g i n s t r u m e n t s :

1. 2.

1.

Thorough know ledge o f t h e f i e l d

2.

A b i l i t y t o r e s o l v e t h e p r o b le m i n p a r t s p r o p e r

G .B . H e n d ric k s and R a lp h T y l e r , T e s t i n g f o r a M a ste ry o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f C h e m i s t r y . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , 18 (December, 1 9 3 4 ), p p . 2 1 2 - 2 1 5 . P a lm e r 0. J o h n s o n , A M easu rem en t P ro g ram i n J u n i o r C o lle g e S c i e n c e . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 17 ( O c to b e r , 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 1 7 6 -1 8 2 . “

63

fo r te stin g * 3.

A fu n c tio rsL k n o w le d g e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t e s t c o n stru c tio n .

As a d e f i n i t e s u g g e s t i o n f o r m e a s u r in g s a t i s f a c t o r y 1 g r o w th s E d d in g to n o f f e r s a n e x t e n s i v e ch e c k l i s t , p a r t o f w h ic h fo llo w s*

Does th e i n d i v i d u a l show g r o w th to w a rd o r i n :

1.

s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and in d e p e n d e n c e o f a c t i o n

2,

g e n u in e i n t e r e s t i n w h at h e i s d o in g

3* m a s t e r i n g s o c i a l g r a c e s a n d cu sto m s 4* a n a l y s i s , s t i m u l a t i o n , g u i d a n c e , s u g g e s t i o n s and e v a l u a t i o n s on t h e p a r t o f t h e t e a c h e r ? The s u gge s t i o n s h e r e seem t o b e p o i n t i n g to w a rd a r a t ­ in g s c a le .

S in c e t h e r e se e m s t o be s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t

p a r t o f t h e s u c c e s s o f s u c h a s c a l e i s t o have one w h ic h i s s t a t e d i n d e f i n i t e term s t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s a p p e a r t i m e l y and h e lp fu l. T y le r f e e l s t h a t c o l l e g e i n s t r u c t o r s h a v e b e e n J u s t i ­ f i e d i n q u e s t i o n i n g w hether o b j e c t i v e t e s t s m e asu re t h e i r ob­ je c tiv e s.

"Hence a fu n d a m e n ta l t a s k i n c o n s t r u c t i n g a c h i e v e ­

m e n t t e s t s , w hich w i l l be u s e d by c o l l e g e i n s t r u c t o r s ,

i s to

make c e r t a i n t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s u b j e c t and 2

c o u r s e a r e a d e q u a t e l y m e a s u r e d ."

1. 2.

T h is d i s c u s s i o n c o n t i n u e s by

D a n ie l P. E d ln g to n , T e s t s and M easurem ents o f S a t i s f a c ­ t o r y G row th . E d u c a t i o n a l M ethod, 15 (D ecem ber, 1 93 5), p p . 1 4 5 -1 4 9 . R. W. T y le r , A G e n e r a l i z e d T e e h n iq u e f o r C o n s t r u c t i n g A chievem ent T e s t s . E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , (Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ), 10 ( A p r i l Ife, r 9 S l J , p . 4.

64

r e f e r r i n g t o o t h e r w r i t i n g s i n t h e f i e l d w h ic h seemed t o c o n tr ib u te t o th e g en eral te c h n iq u e f o r c o n s tr u c tin g a c h ie v e 1 m en t t e s t s * Ruch i n h i s b oo k on b u i l d i n g o b j e c t i v e ty p e e x ­ a m i n a t i o n s g i v e s two s t e p s f o r t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f t e s t ite m s : (1 ) d ra w in g up a t a b l e o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , and ( 2 ) d r a f t i n g t h e 2

ite m s i n p r e l i m i n a r y form .

I n a book p u b l i s h e d i n 1923 Wood

s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e had been shown a h i g h r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een m e a su re s o f i n f o r m a ti o n i n a f i e l d a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e o r a b i l i t y t o t h i n k i n t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h a t same f i e l d * 3 T y le r s a y s he d i d n o t f i n d t h i s t o b e t r u e i n e l e -

4

h

■ -

m e n ta ry b i o l o g y c o u r s e s a t O hio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y *

P e te rs

a n a l y z e d m ethods o f v a l i d a t i n g s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s and found t h a t few t e s t s w ere v a l i d a t e d a g a i n s t e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s a n d s u g g e s te d t h a t t h i s be d o n e* I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n we m i g h t r e c e i v e some r a t h e r d e f i n i t e s u g g e s tio n s f o r m aking our t e s t e more u s e f u l a n d s u i t a b l e f o r m easuring t h e o b j e c t i v e s we s e t o u t t o accom­ p lis h * A m ethod o f v a l i d a t i n g a t e s t by u s e o f e x p e r t s to

1. 2* 3* 4.

G. M. Ruch* The O b j e c t i v e s o f New Type E x a m i n a t i o n s , pp. 1 4 9 -1 5 9 , Ben D. Wood, Measurement i n H ig h e r E d u c a t i o n , Pp. 163, R.W* T y l e r , C o n s t r u c t i n g A c h ie v e m e n t ’r e s ts " , p p. 4-70* C.C . P e t e r s , Tlhe fee la-bi on o f s t a n d a r d i z e d T e s t s t o E duca­ t i o n a l O b je c tiv e s. S econ d Y ea rb o o k o f t h e N a ti o n a l S o c i e t y f o r th e S tu d y o f E d u c a t i o n a l S o c i o l o g y . New Y ork: T each ers C o l l e g e , C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1929, p p . 148-159* R e p o rte d I n C hapter I I I , R e l a t e d S t u d i e s , o f t h i s i n v e s t ! g a t i o n , p p . 85-86 .

65

1

ju d g e I t was d e s c r i b e d b y Jo h n so n *

The " e x a m i n e t i o n '1 was

u s e d t o m easu re c o n c o m it a n ts i n human b i o l o g y i n t h e G e n e r a l C o l le g e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e s o ta .

I n t h i s case th e

v a l i d i t y o f t h e t e s t u s e d w as d e t e r m i n e d b y a g r o u p o f t h r e e e x p e r t s who c h e c k e d and e v a l u a t e d i t * I n a s e c o n d a r t i c l e we f i n d , "The v a l i d i t y o f a t e s t i s c o n t i n g e n t u p o n th e e x t e n t t o w h ic h i t a r r a n g e s s t u d e n t s c o r r e c t l y on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r t o t a l a c c o m p l is h m e n t.

The

m e a su re o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f a t e s t ite m I s b a s e d u p o n i t s d i f 2

f e r e n t i a t i n g power b etw e en s u p e r i o r a n d i n f e r i o r s t u d e n t s . " By way o f e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e m etho d o f d e t e r m i n i n g v a l i d i t y he s t a t e s , " i n a t e s t s i t u a t i o n w here s e v e r a l c h o i c e s a re p re s e n te d a v a l i d ite m s h o u ld have a c l e a r - c u t s o lu t io n an d a t th e same tim e t h e a l t e r n a t e r e s p o n s e s h o u ld a t t r a c t a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f p e o p l e , more e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n f e r i o r S p e o p le ." T hat th e o r i g i n a l s e l e c t i o n o f t e s t i t e m s i s v e r y im­ p o r t a n t i n making a v a l i d t e s t i s v o i c e d b y Symonds who s a y s t h a t " in th e ca se of ac h ie v e m en t

t e s t s m ost o f th e v a l id a t io n

o f t h e t e s t s b e a c c o m p l is h e d by th e o r i g i n a l c h o i c e o f ma4 t e r i a l fo r th e t e s t . "

1. 2. 3. 4.

P . 0 . J o h n s o n , C o n c o m ita n t L e a r n i n g I n Human B io lo g y . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 2 0 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 1 1 - 1 6 . Palm er O. J o h n s o n , The M easu rem en t o f Outcomes o f I n s t r u c ­ t i o n O th e r th a n I n f o r m a t i o n . S c h o o l S c ie n c e a n d Mathe­ m a t i c s , 39 (November, 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 3 2 . I b id ., p . 33. P e r c i v a l Symonds, M e asu rem e n t i n S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n , p . 2 8 .

66

1

H e n d r ic k s and H a n d o rf

d e s i r e d t o know how t e a c h e r s

made e x a m in a tio n q u e s t i o n s s o t h e y r e f e r r e d t h e q u e s t i o n t o te a c h e rs.

They fo u n d t h a t 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r s who r e ­

p l i e d to h is q u e s tio n s "never u se d o ld e x a m in a tio n q u e s tio n s " i n p re p a rin g t e s t s . o ld q u e stio n s.

Some 65 p e r c e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r s d i d u s e

H a n d o rf and H e n d r ic k s f e e l t h a t hy u s in g q u e s ­

t i o n s o v e r a n d over y o u f i n d o u t i f t h e y a r e good o r b a d an d a r e a b le t o make g r e a t im p ro v em en t by e l i m i n a t i n g u n d e s i r a b l e q u e s tio n s.

I n a d d i t i o n to s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t q u e s t i o n s r e v i ­

s i o n s c a n be made w hen a p p r o p r i a t e s o t h a t e x a m in a tio n q u e s ­ t i o n s c a n be im p rov ed j u s t a s te x t b o o k s a r e im proved b y r e ­ v isio n .

Q u e s tio n s c a n be s e l e c t e d by t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s e l e c t

t h e u p p e r a n d low er g r o u p s o f t h o s e who t a k e th e t e s t . 2

I n d i s c u s s i n g means o f m e a su re m e n t A l l i s o n th e essay ty p e of q u e s tio n i s s u b j e c t i v e an d i s t h e r e f o r e

says th a t

l i k e l y t o r e v e a l m ost b u t i s not e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y .

R e­

p o rts p rep ared o u tsid e o f c la s s a re n o t a s u f f ic ie n t c r i t e r i o n f o r m e a su re m e n t•

" P e r h a p s t h e b e s t m e a su re o f a c o u rs e o r a

g r o u p o f c o u r s e s comes from a c o m b in a t io n o f a l l th e s e m e t h o d s . . . o b j e c t i v e e x a m i n a t i o n s , e s s a y and r e p o r t s a l l c o m b in e d ." 3 B an ker b e l i e v e s one c o u ld a p p r o x im a te th e m easurem ent

1. 2. 3.

B. C l i f f o r d H e n d r ic k s a n d B .E . H a n d o r f , New E x a m in a tio n s flom O ld . J o u r n a l o f C hem loal E d u c a t i o n , 16 ( J u l y , 1 9 3 9 ) , p p . 2J23-3&S. Temple A l l i s o n , What o f S u rv e y C o u r s e s ? N a ti o n a l A s s o c i a ­ t i o n o f B eans o f Women, Y e a rb o o k , 1 9 3 5 , p p . 1 5 8 -1 6 1 . Howard J . B a n k e r, A S t u d e n t 1s AV>ility I n d e x from T e a c h e r s ' M ark s. J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , XVII (May, 1 9 2 8 ) , pp'.' 3 8 7 - 3 5 ? .

67

o f i n t e l l i g e n c e th r o u g h a n y a c h ie v e m e n t t e a t b e c a u s e th e m o st im p o r ta n t f a c t o r s e n t e r i n g i n work on the t e s t a r e m e n ta l . The b e t t e r t e a c h e r s 1 t e s t s an d m arks a r e t h e more n e a r l y t h e r e s u l t s would a p p r o x im a te t h e s c a r e s on i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , Marks a r e u s u a l l y g i v e n on t h e b a s i s o f w hat t h e t e a c h e r t h i n k s a c h i l d o f t h i s age l e v e l s h o u l d d o .

S in c e some c h i l d r e n a r e

o v e r th e age o f t h e c l a s s t h e t e a c h e r i s l i k e l y t o o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e i r i n t e l l i g e n c e by c o m p a r i s o n . u n r e l i a b l e as some t h i n k b u t i t

T e a c h e r s 1 m arks a r e n o t a s

i s o fte n th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

t h e s e marks w h ic h i s n o t g o o d ,

1

The P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n

s t a t e s t h a t an

i d e a l means o f e v a l u a t i o n would be t o o b s e r v e t h e s t u d e n t s 1 b e h a v io r.

R e a liz in g t h a t t h i s i s u s u a lly im p r a c tic a l or a t

l e a s t g re a tly lim ite d ,

th e y s t a t e

t h a t we m u s t a t t e m p t t o

e v a l u a t e h i s p r o g r e s s i n o u r d e s i r e d outcom es i n a s o b j e c t i v e a manner a s p o s s i b l e .

I n e v a l u a t i n g p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g and

s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e one m u s t d e c i d e what a b i l i t i e s a r e t o be m easured so th e f o l l o w i n g s u g g e s t i o n s o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n b e ­ come q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t . Under t h e a b i l i t y t o s o l v e problem s t h e r e a r e s u g g e s ­ t i o n s t o t e s t o n e 1s a b i l i t y t o :

1,

1.

d i s c o v e r a n d d e f i n e p ro b lem s

2.

s e l e c t f a c t s r e l e v a n t t o pro b lem s

3.

o b s e rv e phenom ena a c c u r a t e l y

The P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , S c i e n c e i n G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n , p. 3 9 1 .

68

4.

c o lle c t and o rg a n iz e f a c ts

5.

draw i n f e r e n c e s fro m f a c t s

6.

p la n e x p e rim e n ts and t e s t h y p o th e s is

7.

a p p l y f a c t s a n d p r i n c i p l e s t o new s i t u a t i o n s

In c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e ,

t h e f o llo w in g

a r e g iv e n a s s u g g e s te d e l e m e n t s : 1*

a c tiv e c u r io s i ty

2.

I n te ll e c t u a l c a u tio n

3«

to le ra n c e

4.

f l e x i b i l i t y i n p o i n t s o f view

5.

e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d w i l l be su c ­ cessfu l

6.

te n d e n c y t o s e e a p r o b le m t h r o u g h t o c o m p le tio n 1 D a v is d e v e lo p e d a r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g a t t i t u d e t e s t , w h ic h , h o w ev e r, he u s e d a s a t e a c h i n g d e v i c e r a t h e r th a n a m e a s u rin g I n s t r u m e n t .

I t w i l l be n o t e d h e r e t h a t he f e l t th e

n e e d o f r e l i e v i n g th e p u p i l o f th e p e r s o n a l em b a rra ssm e n t o f h a v in g to c r i t i c i z e h i s own s u p e r s t i t i o n s aid f a l s e b e l i e f s . A p p a r e n tl y i t was f e l t t h a t t h e p u p i l w ould n o t g i v e a t r u e r e a c t i o n when h i s own f e e l i n g s an d f a l s e n o t i o n s w ere b r o u g h t up I n su c h a way a s t o make him shy away f r o m th em . A f o r t y - f i v e m i n u t e t e s t d e a l i n g w i t h "Joh nn y" and t h e p e o p le a ro u n d him t o g e t h e r w i t h w hat t h e y d i d was p r e s e n t e d . 1.

W arren M. D a v is , A S c i e n c e T e s t D e s ig n e d t o T e a c h and Measure Outcomes o t h e r t h a n M e m o riz a tio n o f F a c t u a l I n f o r m a t i o n . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n . 23 (Decem ber, 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 3 7 1 -3 7 2 .

69

Many of t h e d e s c r i b e d a c t i o n s a n d b e l i e f s w ere su p p o sed t o in d ic a te p o sse ssio n o f s u p e r s t i t i o n .

P u p i l s w ere to r e a d t h e

a c c o u n t and a f t e r h a v i n g r e a c t e d t o i t w e re t o p u t a p a r e n ­ t h e s i s a r o u n d a n y or a l l p a r t s o f t h e s t o r y w h ich showed t h a t Jo h n n y , o r t h o s e a ro u n d h im , w ere n o t b e i n g s c i e n t i f i c th in k in g or a c tio n .

in th e ir

C a r e was t a k e n n o t t o u s e t h e word " a t ­

t i t u d e " or " s u p e r s t i t i o n " b u t t h e d i r e c t i o n s r e q u e s t e d t h e p u p i l to d e te r m in e i f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s seem ed to be " p o o r s c i e n t i s t s " i n c e r t a i n c a s e s o r p u t a p a r e n t h e s i s a ro u n d a n y p a r t w hich " d o e s n o t a g r e e w i t h w h at y o u t h i n k good s c i e n c e i s . " I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p a r e n t h e s i s f o u r symbols w ere g iv e n a s c h o i c e s t o b e u s e d on t h e m a r g in o f t h e p a p e r a s f o l l o w s : S means t h a t J o h n n y o r someone e l s e was s u p e r ­ stitio u s . D means t h a t w h a t was b e i n g d o n e o r h a d been done was d a n g e r o u s . 0 means t h a t s t a t e m e n t s a r e b e i n g ta k e n f o r t r u t h w i t h o u t an y p r o o f b e i n g o f f e r e d . J means s o m e th in g u n s c i e n t i f i c f o r r e a s o n s o t h e r t h a n S, D, o r 0 . I f y o u u s e t h e l e t t e r ’J 1 be p r e p a r e d t o t e l l t h e c l a s s w hat was wrong w i t h t h e s t o r y a t t h i s p o i n t w here you u s e d t h i s l e t ­ te r. 1 La Pone

a t t e m p t e d t o m e a s u r e , among o t h e r s , a t t i t u d e s

and a p p r e c i a t i o n s by g i v i n g a s c a l e i n w h ic h t h e p u p i l checked i n one o f f i v e colum ns a s f o l l o w s : (3 ) u n d e c id e d ,

1.

(4) d i s a g r e e ,

( l ) ag ree stro n g ly ,

(2 ) a g r e e ,

(5) d i s a g r e e s t r o n g l y .

0 . J . La P one, E v a l u a t i n g t h e I n t a n g i b l e I n E le m e n ta ry S c i e n c e . S c h o o l S c ie n c e an d M a th e m a tic s , 39 (Novem­ b e r , 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 7 5 4 -7 5 9 .

70

I f th e a b i l i t y t o I n t e r p r e t e x p e r i m e n ta l d a t a I s to be m e a su re d , t h e n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w h ic h h a v e n o t been d e v e lo p e d 1 I n c l a s s must h e u s e d I n o r d e r to a v o i d t e s t i n g m e m o riz a tio n , 8 The same a u t h o r s e x p l a i n t h a t h i g h a c h ie v e m e n t i n one o b je c ­ t i v e o r s e t o f o b j e c t i v e s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean h ig h a c h i e v e ­ ment I n o t h e r s .

T h is b e i n g so , i f we a r e g o in g t o f i n d out how

w e l l a s tu d e n t can a p p ly p r i n c i p l e s ,

f o r I n s t a n c e , t h e n you

m ust " p r e s e n t t h e s t u d e n t w i t h th e s i t u a t i o n t o a p p ly p r i n ­ c ip le s ."

One d e f e c t o f many such a t t e m p t s i s t o u s e s i t u a t i o n s

d is c u s s e d in c l a s s or in t h e te x tb o o k .

T hese r e q u i r e memori­

z a t i o n o f s t a t e m e n t s and g i v i n g t h e s e b a c k on th e t e s t , which i s o f course u n d e s ir a b le f o r th is p u rp o s e , 5 S u g g e s ti o n s f o r a t t i t u d e t e s t i n g a r e g iv e n b y Gray who f e e l s t h a t he h a s s e e n "no s a t i s f a c t o r y s c a l e " f o r m easur­ in g a t t i t u d e s i n b io lo g y .

I n o r d e r t o m easure g r o w th s , t e s t s

s h o u ld b e g i v e n b e f o r e and a f t e r t e a c h i n g .

D uring te a c h in g

s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e s h o u ld n o t be made to t h e item s on th e t e s t . I t is

c a u t i o n e d t h a t c a r e m ust be t a k e n t o I n s u r e t h a t "the

p u p i l g iv e s h i s r e a l f e e l i n g t o t h e q u e s t i o n s . "

P e rh a p s th e

p a p e r s m ight be r e t u r n e d w i t h o u t n am es b u t you c o u ld have s e c r e t numbers on t h e p a p e r so as t o know whose th e y were a n y w a y . 1. 2. 3.

P.

P . F r u t o h e y , R.W. T y l e r and B .C . H e n d r ic k s , M easuring th e A b i l i t y t o I n t e r p r e t E x p e r i m e n t a l D a ta . J o u r n a l o f C h e m ic a l E d u c a t i o n , 13 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ), p p . 6 2 -6 4 . B. C. H e n d r i c k s , R.W. T y l e r , a n d P .P . F tm tc h ey , T e s tin g th e A b i l i t y t o A p p ly C h e m ic a l P r i n c i p l e s . J o u r n a l o f C h em ical E d u c a t i o n , 11 (November, 1 9 3 4 ), pp. 611-6137 Howard A. U ra y , An A p p ro a c h t o t h e M easurem ent o f Bio­ lo g ic a l A ttitu d e s . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a rc h , 28 ( S e p te m b e r , 1 9 5 4 ) 7 PP* £ 5 ^ 2 9 .

71

Summary A s u r v e y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e

i n r e g a r d t o f o u r m ajor

a s p e c t s o f t h e s t u d y I n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n s t a k e n in t h i s s tu d y h av e t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e w r i t i n g s i n t h e f i e l d . S in c e t h e s e l a r g e p h a s e s o f th e p r o b le m a r e w e l l s u p p o r te d b y th e l i t e r a t u r e

t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v id e n c e t h a t t h i s i n ­

v e s t i g a t i o n may p o s s i b l y h a v e q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s * The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s c o u r s e have b e e n f o u n d t o com­ p are f a v o ra b ly w i t h th o se u s u a l l y p r e s e n te d as d e s i r a b l e f o r sc ie n c e in g e n e r a l ed u c a tio n *

In f a c t i t ap pears t h a t th e re

i s r a t h e r g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t a s t o t h e b r o a d s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f a c o u r s e s u c h as t h i s *

One good summary of

t h e s e v a r i o u s s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s w o u ld a p p e a r t o b e th o s e ob­ j e c t i v e s as s t a t e d f o r th e co u rse In v o lv e d in t h i s stu d y . The q u e s t i o n o f w hat do we mean by th e s c i e n t i f i c a t ­ t i t u d e and w h a t fo rm s I t a c t u a l l y

t a k e s i n p r a c t i c e i s con­

s i d e r e d fro m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s g i v e n i n th e lite ra tu re *

A f t e r a s u r v e y of t h e s e ,

one i s l e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t

th e c o n c e p t i o n o f a t t i t u d e u s e d I n t h i s 3 tu d y a s " a mind s e t ” o r tta p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o a c t , ” c a n w e ll be a c c e p t e d a s a so u n d d e f i n i t io n . The m e th o d s o f i n s t r u c t i o n s u g g e s t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e seem t o I n d i c a t e

t h a t one must t e a c h r a t h e r d i r e c t l y f o r w h a t ­

ev e r im p ro v em en t i n v a r i o u s o b j e c t i v e s h e d e s i r e s t o b rin g a b o u t i n th e s t u d e n t .

V a r io u s

t y p e s o f t e a c h i n g h av e b e e n

s u g g e s te d a s s u i t a b l e f o r . t h i s w o rk b u t t h e r e seems t o be a

72

l a c k o f s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e a s t o j u s t what c h a n g e s , i f a n y , a r e made i n such, o b j e c t i v e s . e v a lu a tio n one i s

In th e d is c u s s io n re g a rd in g

c a u t i o n e d t h a t t e s t s m ust be b o t h r e l i a b l e

and v a l i d i n o r d e r t o be m e a n in g fu l.

S u g g e s ti o n s g iv e n f o r

d e v e lo p in g s u c h a t e s t a r e e s s e n t i a l l y th o s e u se d i n t h e d e ­ v elo p m en t o f t h e m e a s u r in g I n s t r u m e n t em ployed I n t h i s s t u d y . By c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h i s s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , I n r e g a r d t o t h e s e m a jo r a s p e c t s o f t h e p ro b le m , one r e c e i v e s a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e o f w hat t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n v o l v e s and o f i t s Im p o rtan ce .

Though a c o m p a r is o n o f p r o c e d u r e s recommended

a s b e in g m ost d e s i r a b l e , w i t h t h o s e a c t u a l l y u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y , c o n s i d e r a b l e e v id e n c e h a s b e e n g a t h e r e d t o s u p p o r t t h e p o i n t s o f v ie w r e f l e c t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e p o r t .

CHAPTER XXI RELATED STUDIES

A s u r v e y o f p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s of r e s e a r c h and o t h e r s t u d i e s r e v e a l s no i n v e s t i g a t i o n w h ic h c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l s t h i s . The num ber o f s t u d i o s w h ich w ere fo u n d t h a t I n v o lv e d t h e m easu rem en t o f o u tc o m es o t h e r t h a n f a c t s was r a t h e r l i m i t e d . Most o f t h e s e w ere c o n d u c t e d a t l e v e l s below t h a t o f c o l l e g e . Many r e p o r t s a r e a v a i l a b l e w hich make a c o m p a ris o n o f d i f f e r e n t m ethods o f te a c h i n g *

I n th is c h a p te r a r e p o r t

o f a s t u d y was a c c e p t e d a s r e l a t e d t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n when t h e r e p o r t made a d e f i n i t e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o an y o ne o f s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p r o b le m .

F o r t h i s p u rp o se s i x m a jo r

p h a s e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h s t u d y were i n v e s t i g a t e d .

In th e d i s ­

c u s s i o n w h ic h f o l l o w s th e r e p o r t s t o w hich r e f e r e n c e i s made a r e b e l i e v e d t o make some d e f i n i t e c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e p a r t i c u ­ l a r t o p i c b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a t th e t i m e .

S t a t u s o f G e n e r a l i z e d S c i e n c e C o u rse s The r e f e r e n c e s r e p o r t e d h e r e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s t a t u s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f su rv e y or o r i e n t a t i o n c o u r s e s o ffe re d In v a rio u s c o lle g e s .

Moat o f th e r e p o r t s d e a l w i t h

p h y d i c a l s c i e n c e a n d a r e o f t h e s u r v e y ty p e o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n . Of c o u r s e , n o t a l l s u r v e y c o u r s e s a r e In t h e f i e l d o f s c i e n c e

73

74

a s h a s b e e n fo u n d by s e v e r a l I n v e s t i g a t o r s * 1 W o rth y u s e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e m ethod I n 1 93 1 -1 9 3 2 a n d fo u n d a b o u t o n e - s i x t h o f t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s o f f e r i n g o r i e n t a t i o n c o u r s e s w hich w e re n o t s c i e n c e c o u r s e s b u t c o u r s e s f o r th e p u r p o s e o f o r i e n t a t i n g t h e s t u d e n t w i t h h i m s e l f a n d h i s su rro u n d in g s* 2

W in o k u r

r e v ie w e d some o f t h e c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e

and

c o n c lu d e d t h a t s u r v e y c o u r s e s w ere a b r o a d e r i n c l u s i o n t h a n t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l c o u r s e s t a k e n t o g e t h e r and t h a t ’’th e s e c o u r s e s p r e s e n t a b r e a d b a s i s o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n . ’1 3 N o r r i s p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e f i e l d o f m a jo r I n t e r e s t f o r most s t u d e n t s t a k i n g s u r v e y c o u r s e s l i e s outside t h e f i e l d o f sc ie n c e . n am ely ,

He g i v e s tw o l a r g e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c o u r s e s , ■a( 1 ) t o t e a c h th e s t u d e n t t o t h i n k , (2,) t o a c q u a i n t

t h e s t u d e n t w i t h t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod o f t h o u g h t by t r a c i n g t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s . I n carder t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f c o l l e g e s u r v e y 4 c o u r s e s I n t h e p h y s i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s , H a v ln g h u r s t s t u d i e d t h e c a t a l o g u e s o f 64 l i b e r a l

1. 2. 3.

4.

a r ts c o lle g e s fo r th e

Elmer T . W orthy, O r i e n t a t i o n C o u rse s i n J u n i o r C o l l e g e . T he J u n i o r C o l le g e J o u r n a l ., I l l ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 3 ), p p . 360-371. M. W in o k u r, S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n i n t h e B u s in e s s C u r r i c u l u m . S c i e n c e E d u o a t l o n , 24 ( O c to b e r , 1 9 4 0 ), p p . 2 5 6 - 2 6 0 . W ill V . M o r r i s , S u rv e y C o u r s e s o f th e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s . E u g e n e , O regon: U n i v e r s i t y oT d reg o n . I t i s b e lie v e d th e s e s t a t e d o b je c tiv e s te n d to s u p p o rt th e o n es c o n sid e re d In t h i s in v e s tig a tio n . R o b e r t J . H a v l n g h u r s t , S u rv e y C o u rse s i n t h e N a t u r a l S c i e n c e s . A m e ric a n P h y s ic s T e a c h e r , I I I (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 3 5 ) . p p . 9 7 -

Tor:

75

y e a r 1935-1936.

He fo u n d t h e number o f s u r v e y c o u r s e s i n ­

c r e a s i n g , a n d a l l c o m p a r a t i v e l y new .

There w e re t h r e e t y p e s :

(a) n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , ( b ) b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e , a n d (c) p h y s i c a l sc ie n c e .

1 P ru itt

s u b m i t t e d a l i s t o f te n q u e s t i o n s to 128

lib e r a l a r t s and te a c h e rs c o lle g e s .

He fou nd t h a t i n 1936

h a l f t h e c o l l e g e s h ad s u r v e y c o u r s e s a n d o f t h e s e most o f them g av e i t f o r f r e s h m e n , a b o u t h a l f on a r e q u i r e d b a s i s . 2

W in o k u r

s e n t a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o 172 i n s t i t u t i o n s t o

d e t e r m in e t h e s t a t u s o f g e n e r a l i z e d s c i e n c e c o u r s e s in c o l ­ le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .

He fo u n d g e n e r a l i z e d s c i e n c e c o u r s e s

a l l over t h e co u n try i n a l l ty p e s o f i n s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r le a rn in g *

3

I n 1938 Hard a n d J e a n i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ic h h a d s t a t e d , o f f e r e d s u r v e y ty p e c o u r s e s .

s e n t a q u e s t i o n n a i r e to 2 0 9 on a r e t u r n p o s t c a r d , t h a t t h e y The s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s e

c o u r s e s w h ic h h e fo u n d r a t i n g v e r y h i g h were n ( l ) g e n e r a l i z e d u n d e rsta n d in g s, a ttitu d e s;

1. 2. 3.

(2 ) v a l i d a n d r e l i a b l e t h i n k i n g ,

(3) s c i e n t i f i c

w ith p u re s c ie n c e ra n k in g a poor f o u r t h . ”

C l a r e n c e M. P r u i t t , S u rv e y C o u rse s i n th e N a t u r a l S c i e n c e s . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n . XXI ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 7 ) , pp. 1 0 - 1 6 . M. W in o k u r, A S u rvey o f G e n e r a l l z e d - S c i e n c e C ou rses i n I n s t i t u t i o n s o f H ig h e r E d u c a t i o n . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , XX ( O c to b e r , 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 1 3 2 - 1 4 0 . H. 0 . H ard a n d F . C. J e a n (C o lo ra d o S t a t e C o lle g e o f E du ­ c a t i o n , G r e e le y , C o l o r a d o ) , N a t u r a l S c ie n c e S u rv e y C o u r s e s i n C o l l e g e s . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 32 (N ovem ber, 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 29 4 - 2 9 9 . NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION * LIBRARY •

76

1 R e y n o ld s

u s e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a n d su p p le m e n te d

h i s f i n d i n g s by a s t u d y o f c o l l e g e c a t a l o g u e s f o r i n s t i t u ­ t i o n s w h ic h d i d

not re p ly .

He fo u n d tw o m ain k in d s o f s u c h

c o u r s e s , n a m e ly , ( 1 ) p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n from c h e m i s t r y , p h y s i c s , a s tro n o m y an d g e o lo g y an d (2 ) b i o l o g i c a l co u rses.

I t seem ed t h a t m o st i n s t i t u t i o n s w ere r a t h e r c l e a r

on t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e s e c o u r s e s . 2

I n 1940 Wataon

used c u r r e n t c a ta lo g u e s of te a c h e rs

c o l l e g e s a n d fo u n d t h a t some 2 8 . 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o l l e g e s i n 1 9 38 -19 39 o f f e r e d s u r v e y c o u r s e s I n th e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s . T here w e re n e a r l y t w i c e a s many p h y s i c a l c o u r s e s a s t h e r e w e re p h y s i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l ones co m b in ed , 3 B l a n c h e t t em ployed a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o s u r v e y N egro c o lle g e s as a group.

He fo u n d many o f t h e s e c o l l e g e s h a d b e ­

gun s u r v e y c o u r s e s i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s , s o c i a l s t u d i e s , a n d I n n a tu ra l sc ie n c e s.

Among t h e o b j e c t i v e s s t a t e d was t h a t o f

making " t h e c o l l e g e c u r r i c u l u m f u n c t i o n more e f f e c t i v e l y a s a d i r e c t i v e f o r c e i n t h e l i v e s o f t h e s t u d e n t s ” by g i v i n g ( 1 ) t h e 1.

2.

3.

C h a r l e s W. R e y n o ld s ( E a s t C a r o l i n a T e a c h e rs C o l l e g e , G r e e n v i l l e , N o r t h C a r o l i n a ) , The D evelopm ent o f G e n e r­ a l i z e d S c i e n c e C o u r s e s i n S t a t e T e a c h e rs C o l l e g e s . A b s t r a c t o f D o c t o r ' s D i s s e r t a t i o n , George P eab o d y C o l l e g e f o r T e a c h e r s , 19 3 8 . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , XXIV (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 4 0 ), pp. 87-91. D o n a ld R . W atson (San D ie g o S t a t e C o l l e g e , San D ie g o , C a l i f o r n i a ) , A C o m p ariso n o f th e Gro w th o f S u r v e y C o u r s e s i n P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s i n H igh S ch o o ls a n d C o l­ l e g e s . S c i e n c e E d u c a t l o n , XXIV ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 14-20. W aldo E . B l a n c h e t t , A S tu d y o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e S u rv e y C o u r s e s . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , 23 (O c to b e r , 1 9 3 9 ) , p p . 265-274.

77

fu n c tio n s and g e n e r a liz a ti o n s o f s c ie n c e ,

(2) s c i e n t i f i c a t t i ­

t u d e , ( 3 ) e l e m e n ts o f

t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod,

N atu re o f G r o w th s

S c ie n c e

in

An e f f o r t was

made t o o b t a i n

from c e r t a i n r e p o r t s

some p r a c t i c a l i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g th e n a t u r e o f g r o w th s o t h e r t h a n f a c t s w h ic h e d u c a t o r s h o p e d t o b r i n g ab o u t by means o f sc ie n c e c o u r s e s .

Too o f t e n i n t h e p a s t o u r c o u r s e s have

te n d e d t o b e s u c h t h a t t h e o n l y

o b j e c t i v e w hich a p p e a r e d t o

b e I m p o r t a n t was t h e r e c a l l o f f a c t s .

Much e v id e n c e i s a v a i l ­

a b l e t o d a y w h ic h shows t h a t a c o u r s e i n s c i e n c e s h o u ld b r i n g about g ro w th s i n v a rio u s o b je c ti v e s in a d d itio n t o r e c a l l o f f a c t u a l k n o w le d g e . I t w ould n o t b e c o r r e c t t o assume t h a t t h e e m p h a s is on o u tco m es o t h e r t h a n f a c t s was e n t i r e l y a new i d e a .

As f a r

b ac k a s 1 9 0 9 Dewey made a s t r o n g c a s e f o r s c i e n c e o b j e c t i v e s o f v a rio u s ty p e s .

S p e a k in g b e f o r e a s e c t i o n o f t h e A m e ric a n

A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Advancement o f S c i e n c e , he la m e n te d th e f a c t t h a t s c i e n c e h a d n o t b e e n a b l e t o a t t r a c t g r e a t numbers o f stu d e n ts.

T h a t he c o n s i d e r e d t h i s t o be l a r g e l y due t o t h e

n a t u r e o f t h e c o u r s e i s c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d a s he s a i d : I mean t h a t s c i e n c e h a s b e e n t a u g h t to o much a s a n a c c u m u l a t i o n o f re ad y -m a d e m a t e r i a l w i t h w h ic h s t u d e n t s a r e t o be made f a m i l i a r , n o t en o u g h a s a m ethod o f t h i n k i n g , a n a t t i t u d e o f m in d , a f t e r t h e p a t t e r n o f w h ich m e n ta l h a b i t s a r e t o be t r a n s f o r m e d . 1 1,

J o h n Dewey, S c ie n c e a s S u b j e c t - M a t t e r and As M ethod. S c ie n c e (Jan u ary 28, 1910), p. 122.

78

Dewey w ent o n to e x p l a i n what h e th o u g h t n e e d e d im­ p r o v in g a b o u t s c i e n c e c o u r s e s a t t h a t t i m e .

I n d o in g s o th e

Id e a l a p r e s e n t e d t h a t t h e m ethod o f p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d s u b j e c t m a t t e r u s e d s h o u l d b e s u c h t h a t f o r t h e p u p i l , t h e r e w i l l be a d e f in ite c a r r y over in to l i f e

a c tiv itie s *

He f e l t t h a t " I f

th e em p h asis h a d b e e n p u t upon m ethod o f a t t a c k and m a s te r y , fro m t h i s c h a n g e he w o u ld h a v e l e a r n e d t h e l e s s o n o f c u r i o s i t y , f l e x i b i l i t y a n d p a t i e n t s e a r c h a s I t I s th e r e s u l t t o o o f t e n 1

o f a ’b la s e * s o c i e t y , " I n r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod I t is s ta te d th a t

t h i s I s n o t j u s t t h e m eth o d o f s c i e n c e .

In

f a c t I t s I m p o r t a n c e i s so g r e a t p a r t l y b e c a u se o f i t s wide a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c e " i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e o n ly m ethod o f t h i n k i n g t h a t h a s p r o v e d f r u i t f u l i n a n y s u b j e c t — t h a t i s w h at we 2

mean when we c a l l i t s c i e n t i f i c , " S in c e t h i s r a t h e r e a r l y h ave b een m any o t h e r s .

s ta te m e n t o f o b je c tiv e s th e re

S e v e r a l I n v e s t i g a t o r s h ave made s u r ­

v e y s t o d e t e r m i n e what o b j e c t i v e s a r e a c c e p t e d i n v a r i o u s s itu a tio n s, 3 S m ith

a tte m p te d to d e te rm in e th e o b je c tiv e s o f c o l­

l e g e c h e m i s t r y and so s u b m i t t e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o I n s t r u c t o r s o f c h e m i s t r y o f e v e r y t h i r d c o l l e g e l i s t e d i n t h e 1928 e d i ­ t i o n o f "A m erican U n i v e r s i t i e s a n d C o l l e g e s , " 1, 2• 3.

The same q u e s -

I b i d . j p . 126. I b i d , , p , 127 • '6. M. S m i t h , A c c e p te d O b j e c t i v e s i n t h e ^ e a o h in g o f C o l­ l e g e G e n e r a l C h e m i s t r y . J o u r n a l o f C h em ical Educa­ t i o n , 12 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 1 8 0 - 1 5 ^

79

t I o n s were 8111311111 t e d t o many a u t h o r s o f w e l l known c h e m i s t r y te x tb o o k s.

I n c l u d e d among o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s w h ic h t h e y c o n ­

s i d e r e d m ost i m p o r t a n t w e r e : A,

E aqperlence I n u s e o f and know ledge o f th e s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d o f t h i n k i n g (w h ile u s in g c h e m ic a l p r o b l e m s ) .

B,

Knowledge o f n a t u r a l laws a n d i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e s and f a c t s ,

C,

A b i l i t y t o d raw g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s .

C e r t a i n comments were r e c e i v e d a s r e q u e s t e d a n d t h e y in d ic a te d a fe e lin g th a ts 1.

D raw in g

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s was to o d i f f i c u l t a n d to o

much t o e x p e c t o f s t u d e n t s i n b e g in n in g c o l l e g e ch e m istry . 2.

N ot much f a v o r was fo u n d f o r t r y i n g t o d e v e lo p l a b o r a t o r y s k i l l as a m a jo rity fa v o re d le a v in g th e s e sk ills

3.

fo r l a t e r ,

Only 41 p e r c e n t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e I s any s u c ­ c e s s I n t r a i n i n g i n s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d .

I t s h o u ld b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h i s s tu d y was c o m p le te d some y e a r s a g o a n d t h a t I n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y t h e i n s t r u c t o r s w e re t h i n k i n g o f a g e n e r a l c o l l e g e i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u r s e i n c h e m i s t r y a s i t w as t h e n c o n d u c t e d .

W ith t h i s i n m ind, I t i s

n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t d ra w in g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and use o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod d i d n o t r a t e

to o h i g h .

80

1

H u n te r

s u b m i t t e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o (1 ) J u n i o r h i g h

school te a c h e rs ,

(2) s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , and (3) mem•» o f t h e N .A .R .S .T . He f o u n d t h a t t h e members o f t h e

bers

N .A .R .S .T . p l a c e d more e m p h a s is u p o n th e o b j e c t i v e s c o n c e r n i n g ( 1 ) s c i e n t i f i c m ethod,

( 2 ) s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g h a b i t s , an d

(3 ) s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e f o r te a c h i n g a t th e J u n io r h ig h l e v e l t h a n d id t h e t e a c h e r s

a t th a t le v e l.

I n t h e same way t h e mem­

b e r s p l a c e d g r e a t e r e m p h a sis u p o n ( 1 ) m a s te r y o f s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d , (2 ) d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e to w ard a l l p r o b le m s , f o r t h e s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l t h a n d i d t h e t e a c h e r s • None o f t h e t e a c h e r s g a v e much e v i d e n c e o f "h um an izin g s c i e n c e th r o u g h th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e work o f s c i e n ­ tis ts ." 2

N o ll s in c e 1900.

made a s t u d y o f t h e alm s o f t e a c h i n g s c i e n c e He u s e d 130 s o u r c e s i n c l u d i n g th o s e g i v e n I n

(1 ) sc ie n c e te x tb o o k s ,

( 2 ) c o u r s e s o f s t u d y , (3 ) p ro n o u n c e ­

m e n ts o f c o m m itte e s , a n d (4) a r t i c l e s and p e r i o d i c a l s .

For

h i g h s c h o o l, on t h e b a s i s of p e r c e n t a g e o f o c c u r r e n c e , he fo u n d t h e f o l l o w i n g aim s r a n k e d a c c o r d i n g t o f r e q u e n c y : (1 )

know ledge

c e n t);

(3) a b i l i t i e s

and I n t e r e s t s 1. * 2.

( 5 1 .5 p e r c e n t ) ;

(2) a p p r e c i a t i o n s ( 1 3 .8 p e r

( 1 2 . 3 p e r c e n t) :;

(7 .9 p er c e n t);

(4 ) h a b i t s

(5) a t t i t u d e s

(7 .9 p e r c e n t ) ;

(4 .9 ,per c e n t).

George W. H u n te r a n d R . K napp, S c ie n c e O b j e c t i v e s a t t h e J u n i o r a n d S e n i o r H igh S c h o o l L e v e l. S c ie n c e E d u c a ­ tio n , 16, pp. 4 0 7 -4 1 6 . N a ti o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r R e s e a r c h i n S c ie n c e t e a c h i n g . V. H. N o l l , Xhe T e a c h in g o f S c ie n c e i n t h e E le m e n ta ry and S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l .

81

I n r e g a r d to a t t i t u d e s , w hich were r a n k e d l o w e s t , t h e f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n w as g i v e n :

" I n b r i e f , t h e n , we d e f i n e

a t t i t u d e a s a c q u i r e d a n d c o n d i t i o n e d a c t i o n p a t t e r n s t h a t mo­ t i v a t e human s o c i a l b e h a v i o r a n d a r e b a s e d on h a b i t s o f t h l n k 1

ln g o r r e s p o n d i n g w h ich c a n b e m o d i f i e d , " 2

Ju d d

com pared s t u d e n t s o f z o o lo g y and home ec o n o m ic s

as to t h e i r a b i l i t y to r e c a l l In fo rm a tio n ta u g h t w ith t h e i r s u c c e s s i n c a r r y i n g on h i g h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s .

The t e s t s

u s e d c o v e re d s e v e r a l outcom es w h ic h t h e i n s t r u c t o r d e s i r e d t o im p ro v e , n a m e ly ,

(1) r e c a l l o f I n f o r m a t i o n , (2 ) r e c a l l o f

p r i n c i p l e s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n t o new s i t u a t i o n s ,

(3 ) a b i l i t y t o

draw I n f e r e n c e s w hich b a d n o t b ee n p r e s e n t e d t o them b e f o r e . The a v e r a g e C o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e f a c t o r s w ith t h e v a r io u s f a c t o r s c o n s id e re d a f t e r b ein g c o rre c te d fo r " a t t e n u ­ a t i o n " ( e s t i m a t e o f r i f th e t e s t s h ad b ee n p e r f e c t l y r e l i a b l e ) was r a . 5 8 , w h i l e m ost o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere c l o s e t o Betw een r e c a l l o f

.4 5 .

i n f o r m a t i o n and a b i l i t y t o d raw I n f e r e n c e s

t h e c o r r e l a t i o n was c l o s e r t h a n b e tw e e n r e c a l l a n d a b i l i t y ap p ly p r i n c i p l e s . g a in s In

to

I t was f o u n d t h a t th e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n

r e c a l l an d a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r i n c i p l e s was .27 i n

z o o lo g y a n d .3 1 i n home e c o n o m ic s w h ile t h e c o r r e l a t i o n f o r g a i n s i n r e c a l l an d a b i l i t y t o draw i n f e r e n c e s was o n ly . 0 7 i n z o o lo g y a n d .1 1 I n home e c o n o m ic s .

1. 2.

Loc. c l t . CTSarles H. J u d d , The R e l a t i o n b etw een R e c a l l and H ig h e r M e n ta l P r o c e s s e s . C h a p t e r I I I n E d u c a t i o n a s C u l t i ­ v a t i o n o f t h e H ig h e r M e n ta l P r o c e s s e s .

82

1

Judd

c o n c lu d e d t h a t s t u d e n t s may d e v e lo p f a c i l i t y i n

one ty p e of* outcome w i t h o u t d e v e l o p i n g e q u a l f a c i l i t y

i n o th e r

ty p e s o f m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s .

E v a l u a t i o n o f O b j e c t i v e s a t C o l le g e L ev el N o t v e r y much r e s e a r c h a p p e a r s t o have been d o n e i n ­ v o lv in g v a r i o u s o b j e c t i v e s a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l .

Ones w h ic h

h av e b e e n c o m p le te d u s u a l l y i n v o l v e some g e n e r a l i z e d s c i e n c e c o u r s e i n w h ic h t h e o b j e c t i v e s do i n c l u d e more th a n t h e im­ p ro v e m e n t i n f a c t u a l k n o w le d g e .

C e rta in o b je c tiv e s h av e been

c o n s i d e r e d from t h e p o i n t o f view o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e am o u n t o f g ro w th i n t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s , ex p e rim e n ta l p e rio d .

w h ich was made d u r i n g a c e r t a i n

I n o t h e r c a s e s t h e s t u d y has m o s t l y i n ­

v o lv e d t h e c o m p a r is o n o f t h e d ev e lo p m e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t ’ s a b i l i t y I n one o b j e c t i v e w i t h sane o t h e r o b j e c t i v e i n t h e course.

I n any c a s e t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d h e r e a p p e a r t o i n ­

v o lv e some form o f e v a l u a t i o n o f one or more o b j e c t i v e s o f sc ie n c e a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l . Bond e v a l u a t e d t h e nc h a n g e s e f f e c t e d I n c e r t a i n c o l l e g e stu d e n ts d u r in g th e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a te a c h in g u n it, p re p a re d 2

w i t h o b j e c t i v e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h th o s e o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n . ” The u n i t w as one I n g e n e t i c s c o n c e r n in g r a c i a l s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s a n d c o v e r e d t h r e e weeks o f t i m e , e a c h w eek o f 1. 2.

Loo* cJLt. A. I). Bond, An E x p e r i m e n t a l i n t h e T e a c h in g o f G e n e t i c s , w i t h S p e c i a l R e f e r e n c e t o O b je c t i v e s o f G e n e r a l E duca­ tio n . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 24 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 0 ), p . 67.

83

fiv e

c l a s s p e r i o d s o f f i f t y m in u te s d u r a t i o n .

A c o n t r o l g ro u p

was u s e d i n w h ic h e m p h a sis was p l a c e d on th e l e a r n i n g o f f a c t s an d p r i n c i p l e s o f g e n e t i c s w ith no s p e c i a l e m p h a sis "being p l a c e d on " t h e b i o l o g i c a l b a c k g ro u n d s o f r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s an d s i m i l a r i t i e s " a s was done w ith t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . "In e v a lu a tin g th re e

changes r e s u l t i n g from i n s t r u c t i o n . . .

c r i t e r i a w ere a d o p t e d . " 1.

Growth i n "knowledge and i n s i g h t s "

2.

G row th i n " a b i l i t y t o u s e s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d "

3.

C hanges i n " a t t i t u d e s "

The f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e (1) " t h a t g ro w th i n a b i l i t y t o u s e s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d a n d change i n a t t i t u d e s c a n b e e f f e c t e d i n s t u d e n t s w i t h o u t l o s s In grow th I n know ledge a n d i n s i g h t s " ; (2 )

i n s t r u c t i o n d i r e c t e d tow ard b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r a c ­

t i c a l p r o b le m s of e v e r y d a y l i f e can be " so t a u g h t a s t o e f ­ f e c t c h a n g e s i n a b i l i t y t o u s e s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d ;"

( 3 ) change

i n a t t i t u d e s i s g r e a t e r when i n s t r u c t i o n i s p l a n n e d t o f o s t e r c h a n g e th a n when change I s l e f t to c h a n c e . titu d e (4)

The c h a n g e i n a t ­

I s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n f o r w h ich th e i n s t r u c t i o n I s p l a n n e d ;

th is u n it,

s e t up w ith o b je c tiv e s c o n s is te n t w i t h g e n e ra l

e d u c a t i o n , was made more e f f e c t i v e w i t h t h e b r i g h t e r s t u d e n t s , a n d s o he q u e s t i o n s t h e s e t t i n g up o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n p r o ­ g ra m s f o r t h e l e s s a b l e s t u d e n t s . Bond end S u n d q u is t, a t te m p te d t o l e a r n " i f t h e d l f 1,

A u s t i n D. Bond a n d Leona S u n d q u is t, A S tudy o f P erm anence i n L e a r n i n g S e l e c t e d M a t e r i a l s from t h e F i e l d o f G e n e t i c s . S o l e n o e - E d u c a t i o n . 24 (November, 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 3 1 2 .

84

f e r e n c e s fo u n d I n t h e two g r o u p s , r e p o r t e d I n t h e e a r l i e r s t u d y , te n d t o becctne p e r m a n e n t .'1 A l l a v a i l a b l e s t u d e n t s w ere g i v e n a t e s t one y e a r a f t e r c o m p le tio n o f t h e s t u d y .

Out o f

t h e o r i g i n a l 1 94 t h e r e w ere 125 f o r t h e r e t e s t , 56 o f them f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p a n d 64 fro m t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t r o l gro u p . The r e t e s t c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e p a r t s : d e a l i n g w i t h f a c t s freon g e n e t i c s ,

(1) t r u e - f a l s e

(2 ) a p p l i c a t i o n o f c e r t a i n

p r i n c i p l e s i n s o l v i n g c e r t a i n p r o b le m s ,

(3) e v a l u a t i o n o f e v i ­

d en ce su p p o rtin g e a c h o f a s e r i e s o f s ta te m e n ts .

S t u d e n t s w ere

m a tc h e d on t h e b a s i s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and f i n a l s t a n d i n g on t h e b a t t e r y o f t e s t s g i v e n a t t h e end o f th e s c h o o l y e a r so any d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d “be i n t e r p r e t e d a s h a v in g a c c r u e d d u r i n g t h e y e a r w h ic h h a d e l a p s e d . " T h e y f o u n d t h a t a f t e r on e y e a r :

1,

B rig h t s tu d e n ts

of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s t i r -

p a s s e d e v e n more s i m i l a r b r i g h t s t u d e n t s o f t h e c o n tro l g ro u p . 2 m L e s s i n t e l l i g e n t s t u d e n t s from t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p s u r p a s s e d s i m i l a r ones fro m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . 3.

The

t e n d e n c y i n th e f i r s t s tu d y f o r b r i g h t e r s t u ­

d e n t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p t o s u r p a s s b r i g h t e r s t u d e n t s i n t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p was c o n t i n u e d . 4.

Low

s t u d e n t s fro m t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p g a i n e d on t h e

low

s t u d e n t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p an d ev en

s u r p a s s e d th e m a t th e end o f a y e a r .

85

1

T y le r,

w o rk in g w i t h s t u d e n t s I n e l e m e n t a r y c o l l e g e

b i o l o g y a t Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , s t u d i e d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e ­ tw e e n i n f o r m a t i o n a n d " t r u e f a c t o r s " w h ic h w ere p a r t l y a m easure of th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

The c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n

i n f o r m a t i o n and (1 ) a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r i n c i p l e s was . 4 0 ; t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x p e rim e n ts,

(2) i n ­

.4 1 ; a n d (3 ) f o r m u l a t i o n o f e x ­

p e r i m e n t s t o t e s t h y p o th e s e s .4 6 .

He c o n c lu d e d t h a t i n s o f a r

a s h i s d a t a w ere r e l i a b l e th e n much f u r t h e r s t u d y was n e e d e d t o d e v e lo p t e c h n i q u e s t o i n c u l c a t e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s a n d t h a t t h e r e was no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a t t i t u d e s a r e m o re e a s i l y le a rn e d th a n f a c t s . 2

In an o th er a r t i c l e

a summary a s f o l l o w s a p p e a r s .

In

v a r i o u s f i e l d s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere a s f o l l o w s , f o r (1 ) a c ­ q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d new e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , .2 7 t o .6 0 ; ( 2 ) m em orized f a c t s a n d p r i n c i p l e s an d u s e o f t h a t in f o r m a ­ t i o n t o s o l v e new p r o b le m s , .3 1 t o .5 8 ; ( 3 ) u s i n g m em orized i n f o r m a t i o n i n s o l v i n g new p ro b le m s a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g e x p e r i ­ m e n ta l d a ta ,

.3 3 t o . 5 4 . 3

H e n d r ic k s on an d Tyi©r

fou n d a h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n I n

c h e m i s t r y f o r s c o r e s on q u e s t i o n s Where s t u d e n t s w ro te t h e i r own r e s p o n s e s t o e x p l a i n o r i g i n a l s t a t e m e n t s and q u e s t i o n s 1. 2. 3.

R. W. T y l e r , M e a s u rin g t h e R e s u l t s o f C o l l e g e I n s t r u c t i o n . E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , XI (May 1 1 , 1 9 3 2 ), p p . 2 5 2 -2 6 0 . F . P . F r u t c h e y , R . W. T y le r an d B. C. H e n d r i c k s , M e a su r­ in g t h e A b i l i t y t o I n t e r p r e t E x p e r i m e n t a l D a t a . Jour­ n a l o f d h e m lc a l E d u c a tio n , 13 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ), p . 64. B. C l i f f o r d H e n d r ic k s ' anil fealp h T y l e r , T e s t i n g f o r a M a s te r y o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f C h e m is tr y . S c ie n c e Edu­ c a t i o n , 18 (D ecem ber, 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 2 1 2 - 2 1 5 .

86

w here t h e s t a t e m e n t s w ere a l l g i v e n and t h e s t u d e n t m e r e ly h a d to make a s e l e c t i o n In o r d e r t o e :q ? la in t h e o r i g i n a l s i t u a ­ tio n ,

They w e r e t e s t i n g f o r 11an a b i l i t y t o a p p l y p r i n c i p l e s o f

c h e m i s t r y , ” know ing f u l l w e l l t h a t was o n ly one o f t h e many o b ­ je c tiv e s*

I t was f e l t t h a t t h e e s s a y t y p e q u e s t i o n w as r a t h e r

u n s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f m e a s u rin g t h i s o b j e c t i v e so t h e y t e s t e d t h e same n a t e r i a l by u s i n g t h e "new ty p e " q u e s t i o n w i t h an sw ers g i v e n a n d r e q u i r i n g o n ly t h a t c h o i c e s be made. The c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t h e two t y p e s o f q u e s t i o n s w as fo u n d t o be h i g h o r r a *8 4. 1

D eW itt

r e p o r t s th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a f i f t y - f o u r page

in stru m e n t r e f e r r e d t o a s an " a t t i t u d e fin d e r* " l a r i n s t r u m e n t , "known a s t h e

T h is p a r t i c u ­

’Y o u th E x p r e s s i o n n a i r e , *" was

d e v e lo p e d i n t h e C h a r a c t e r E d u c a t i o n I n s t i t u t e a t wa s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y , S t* L o u i s .

I t c o n s i s t e d o f some t h r e e th o u s a n d

Ite m s " s o v a r i e d i n n a t u r e t h a t n o t o n ly th e s u s p e c t e d a t t i ­ tu d e s w i l l be m e a su re d b u t a l s o many u n s u s p e c t e d o n e s . " Some 250 s u b j e c t s e a c h s p e n t a b o u t s e v e n h o u r s r e a c t ­ in g to th e i t e m s . groups.

Of th e l a r g e g ro u p t h e r e w ere t h r e e s m a l l e r

One h u n d r e d f i f t y c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s were d i v i d e d i n t o

two g r o u p s (1 ) t h e 50 g r a d u a t e s who h ad h ad th e m ost s c i e n c e known a s th e " s c i e n c e g r o u p ," a n d (2 ) t h e 50 g r a d u a t e s w i t h l e a s t s c i e n c e , known as t h e "n o j» scie n ce g ro u p " t o g e t h e r w i t h

1,

P. P* D e W itt, A t t i t u d e s R e l a t e d t o t h e S tud y o f C o l l e g e S c i e n c e . S c h o o l S c ie n c e and M a th e m a tic s , ( J u n e , 1 9 3 9 ) , p p. 5 5 2 - 5 5 7 T ” *”~

87

(3 ) 100 h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s known a s " t h e n o n - c o l l e g e g r o u p . ” A f t e r t h e r e s u l t s w ere p u t on H o l e r l t h c a r d s , t h e f o l l o w i n g f i n d i n g s w ere r e p o r t e d , among o t h e r s : 1.

T h o s e w i t h m ore s c i e n c e d i d h a v e d i f f e r e n t a t t i ­ tu d e s,

2.

o p in io n s and i n t e r e s t s .

The " n o n - s c i e n c e g r o u p ” r e s e m b l e d t h e c o l l e g e g r o u p " m a re t h a n I t

"non-

d id th e o th e r c o lle g e

g r a d u a t e s who t o o k m o s t s c i e n c e ,

in o p in io n s and

in te re s ts .

3.

The s c i e n c e g r o u p h ad a g r e a t e r r e s p e c t f o r a c ­ cu racy .

4.

No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n s u p e r s t i t i o n was fo u n d among th e c o l l e g e g ro u p s b u t t h e members o f t h e n o n - c o l l e g e g ro u p w ere more s u p e r s t i t i o u s .

5.

The s c i e n c e g r o u p w as more o p e n -m in d e d a n d h a d le s s p re ju d ic e .

6.

The s c i e n c e g ro u p was more t o l e r a n t , a s shown by t h e l e s s e r number o f d i s l i k e s f o r f o o d s , a c t i v i t i e s , v o c a tio n s, e tc .

7.

T he " n o n - c o l l e g e ” g r o u p w a s m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d t h e ”n o n - s c l e n o e ” g r o u p n e x t .

The r e p o r t re m in d s u s t h a t we c a n n o t be s u r e , from t h e s e f i n d i n g s , w h ic h o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s c a u s e d t h e s c i e n c e g ro u p t o s e l e c t s c i e n c e a s a v o c a t i o n a n d w h ich , i f a n y , a r e th e r e s u l t o f sc ie n c e t r a in i n g .

88

P r o c e d u r e R e l a t e d t o T h is S tu d y C e rta in re p o rts

o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n fo u n d -which a p ­

p e a r t o h a v e v a l u e t o t h i s s tu d y b y s u g g e s t i n g e l e m e n ts o f p r o c e d u r e w h ich m ig h t be u s e f u l .

I n C h a p te r I I c o n s i d e r a b l e

d i s c u s s i o n was d e v o t e d t o w hat s u g g e s t i o n s w ere o f f e r e d I n th e l i t e r a t u r e

r e g a r d i n g t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e p r o b le m .

T h ese

re c o rd s o f in v e s tig a tio n s p re se n t a c c o u n ts of w hat a c t u a l l y h appened when s a n e of t h e s e s u g g e s t e d p r o c e d u r e s were t r i e d In a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n s . The p ro b le m o f how t o m easu re v a r i o u s o b j e c t i v e s h a s b e e n f o u n d t o b e one of c o n s i d e r a b l e I m p o r t a n c e .

Some s tu d y

h a s b e e n done c o n c e r n i n g t h e p ro b lem o f j u s t w h a t one s h o u l d o r s h o u ld n o t do I n an a t t e m p t to e v a l u i t e a c h ie v e m e n t i n v a rio u s o b j e c t i v e s . 1

F ru tc h e y

s t u d i e d t h e p ro b le m o f w h e th e r one c o u l d

s a f e l y u s e a new ty p e t e s t t o m e a su re c e r t a i n ou tcom es w h ic h m ig h t b e m e a su re d by a q u e s t i o n r e q u i r i n g t h e p u p i l t o w r i t e h is an sw er.

He u s e d two fo rm s o f o n e c h e m i s t r y e x a m i n a t i o n

dealing w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o a p p ly c h e m i s t r y p r i n c i p l e s . The f i r s t form p r e s e n t e d a p r o b le m and r e q u i r e d s t u ­ d e n t s to w r i t e t h e outcom es th e y w o u ld e x p e c t a n d t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r e x p e c t i n g t h e s e o u tc o m e s.

The s e c o n d fo rm w h ic h was c a l l e d

t h e " p r a c t i c a l f o r m ," r e q u i r e d t h a t s t u d e n t s s e l e c t a n d ch e ck 1.

F re d P . F r u tc h e y , M e asu rin g th e A b i l i t y to A pply C h e m ic al P r i n c i p l e s , E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , (O h io S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ) , 16 '(Decem ber, p p .S 5 6 - 6 6 0 .

89

t h e e x p e c t e d outcomes a n d the p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h e x p l a i n e d them. B o th fo rm s 7/ e r e given t o h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s a f t e r t h e y h ad c o m p le te d one y e a r in c h e m is tr y .

F i f t y m i n u t e s w ere r e q u i r e d

t o g i v e th e w r i t e - i n fo rm w hile t h e o n ly t w e n t y .

"new t y p e " fo rm r e q u i r e d

S co rin g was done b y f i v e c h e m i s t r y t e a c h e r s ?h o

worked i n d i v i d u a l l y a c c o rd in g t o c a r e f u l d i r e c t i o n s .

The

s c o r e s g i v e n by ea ch s c o r e r were t h e n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the s c o r e s o f t h e g r o u p a n d th e c o r r e l a t i o n s r a n g e d fro m .85 t o

.96 w i t h

a n a v e r a g e of r a .9 0 . The c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n f o r t h e two form s o f t h e t e s t was h i g h , b e i n g r s . 8 2 , " w h ic h i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e r o l a t i v e s t a n d i n g s t h a t th e s t u d e n t s on t h e p r a c t i c a l exam ina­ t i o n a g r e e d q u i t e c l o s e l y w ith t h e

r e l a t i v e s t a n d i n g s of th e 1 s t u d e n t s on th e d i r e c t e x a m i n a t i o n s . " 2

W rig h ts to n e

a d m i n i s t e r e d a t e n t i n w h ich p u p i l s i n

g r a d e s f r o m 7 -1 2 a t Summit, New J e r s e y ; B r o n x v i l l e a n d R oches­ t e r , New York; were a s k e d to s e l e c t th e b e a t s o l u t i o n on th e b a s i s o f e v id e n c e g i v e n .

The t e s t was d e s i g n e d t o m easu re

s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g , a n d c o n s i s t e d o f n i n e t y ite m s w i t h a co­ e f f i c i e n t of r e l i a b i l i t y f o r s p l i t h a l v e s o f .8 8 a n d c o r r e c t e d by t h e Spearman Brown form ula t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was .9 3 .

I n ad d itio n to t h e t e s t f o r s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g , v e r b a l

i n t e l l i g e n c e was m easured by th e O t i s S e l f - A d m i n i s t e r i n g T eat

1. 2.

F r u t c h e y , 0£ . c l t . , p p . 2 5 5 - 2 6 0 . J.W . W rig h ts t o n e , C o r r e l a t i o n o f N a t u r a l S c ie n o e B e l i e f s and A t t i t u d e s w i t h S o c i a l and I n t e l l e c t u a l F a c t o r s . S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , 18 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 1 0 -1 2 .

90

o f M e n ta l A b i l i t y ,

N a t u r a l s c i e n c e know ledge was t e s t e d by

t h e C o o p e r a tiv e G en eral S c ie n c e T e s t , Form 1 9 3 3 , a n d s o c i o ­ ec o n o m ic s t a t u s by a n a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e S im s S c o re C a r d , The r e p o r t g i v e s th e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s , n am ely , th a t: 1.

The c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g and (a) I .Q . i s p o s i t i v e th o u g h lo w , r = .3 2 £ .0 5 ; (b) knowledge was a m arked c o r r e l a t i o n o f r * .4 2 £ .0 5 ;

(c ) s o c io - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s i s n e g l i g i b l e ,

r tt .0 8 £ .0 6 . 2,

T here was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een t h e means f o r boys ( 7 8 ,1 5 ) a n d th e means for g irls in g .

(7 5 .8 0 ) o n t h e t e s t f o r s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k ­

This was t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e t h a t bo ys a r e

more d i s c r i m i n a t i n g

i n t h e ir th in k in g th a n g i r l s .

A r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g , th o u g h n o t to o w e ll d e f in e d -a p p r o a c h to n ea su re m e n t of th e g r o w t h i n a t t i t u d e * was t r i e d by 1

L ic h te n ste in .

H is p ro b lem w as t o

t r y a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e ex­

t e n t t o w hich a t t i t u d e s m ig h t h e m o d if ie d b y s t r e s s i n g them in c o n n e c tio n w ith te a c h in g . Two " e q u i v a l e n t g r o u p s " o f i n t e r m e d i a t e g r a d e c h i l d r e n i n t h e B a ltim o re p u b l i c s c h o o l s w e re t e s t e d .

The a t t i t u d e i n ­

v o l v e d w as, *'a f e e l i n g o f s a t i s f a c t i o n o f g e t t i n g o u t d o o r s , " a s t a k e n fro m t h e s y l l a b u s o f t h e s c h o o l . 1.

As a s p e c i a l p a r t

A r t h u r L i c h t e n s t e i n , The E f f e c t o f T e a c h in g S t r e s s upon A t t i t u d e , S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n . 19 ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 7 3 -7 5 .

91

o f t h i s a t t i t u d e t h e p u p i l s w ere t o c h o o s e b etw een a movie a n d a t r i p t o th e c o u n t r y . P u p i l s w ere p r e s e n t e d w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n t o a p p l y to th e S a t u r d a y f o l l o w i n g t h e d a t e o f t h i s v o te . The s i t u a t i o n was t h a t i f

i t c o s t t h e same t o go t o a movie o r

go t o th e c o u n t r y th e f o l l o w i n g S a t u r d a y , t h e n w h ic h would y o u choose?

A f t e r t h e f i r s t b a l l o t one g r o u p was t a u g h t w ith

s p e c i a l em phasis b e in g p l a c e d on t h e a t t i t u d e i n q u e s t i o n w h ile t h e o t h e r was t a u g h t i n r e g u l a r m anner f o r one s e m e s t e r o f tim e .

D u rin g t h e s e m e s te r th e p u p i l s w ere a s k e d t o keep a

d i a r y w ith o u t b e i n g t o l d t h a t i t w ou ld r e v e a l w h e th e r t h e y h a d ch a n g ed t h e i r h a b i t s o f g o i n g o u t d o o r s .

A t t h e end o f th e

s e m e s t e r th e v o te i n r e g a r d t o g o in g t o a m ovie o r th e c o u n t r y was r e p e a t e d ,

L i c h t e n s t e i n c o n c lu d e s t h a t he fo u n d l i t t l e

or

no d i f f e r e n c e b etw e en t h e two b a l l o t s and t h a t u n t i l more work i n th e f i e l d i s done i t w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t th e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a n a t t i t u d e i n t e a c h i n g i s a 2? a t h e r d u b i o u s p r o c e d u r e . I t s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t t h e r e i s n o s t a t e m e n t h e r e t h a t a t t i t u d e s cannot b e m o d ifie d b u t t h a t th e r e i s a su g g e s­ t i o n f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e y c a n b e . 1

Wood

h a d t e a c h e r s r a t e c h i l d r e n on {1 ) h o n e s t y ,

( 2 ) good h a b i t s o f w ork,

(3) i n i t i a t i v e ,

(4) d e p e n d a b ility ,

( 5 ) o p e n -m in d e d n e ss , ( 6 ) g r o u p c o o p e r a t i o n .

1.

They w ere r a t e d

George C. Wood, A s t u d y i n th e E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a Norm I n S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e s and A b i l i t i e s Among N in th -Y e a r Pu p i l s . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 21 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 3 7 ), p p . 140146.

92

b e f o r e a n d a f t e r a te n -w ee k p e r i o d o f t e a c h i n g i n o r d e r to o b t a i n some m e a su re o f w hat e x t e n t t h e e n t e r i n g c l a s s " p r a c ­ t i c e d c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s o r p o s s e s s e d c e r t a i n a b i l i t i e s w h ic h are o r d in a r ily a s s o c ia te d w ith s c ie n ti f i c a ttitu d e * "

The

se co n d r a t i n g was t o i n d i c a t e " t o w h at d e g r e e h as home and s c h o o l t r a i n i n g a f f e c t e d t h e s e n i n t h - y e a r p u p i l s i n so f a r a s th e s e a t t i t u d e s o r a b i l i t i e s are c o n c e rn e d ." H is f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e d th e f o l l o w i n g : 1*

B oth boy s and g i r l s a d v a n c e d s l i g h t l y i n h o n e s ty w h ile b o th h e ld t h e i r o r i g i n a l p o s it io n in h a b i t s o f w o rk .

2.

G i r l s seem ed t o make a d i s t i n c t im provem ent i n i n i t i a t i v e , w h ile boys s l i p p e d back s l i g h t l y , b u t t h e r e seem ed t o be l i t t l e o r no change i n "gro up c o u r te s y and c o o p e ra tio n * "

I t s h o u ld be k e p t i n mind t h a t th e work h e r e r e p o r t e d 1

by Wood

u s e d o n l y t e a c h e r judgm ent a s a b a s i s f o r m e a s u re m e n t.

One m ig h t q u e s t i o n t h e a b i l i t y of a t e a c h e r t o a d e q u a t e l y j u d g e t h e s e t h i n g s and e s p e c i a l l y o n e 's a b i l i t y

t o judge them f o r t h e

"in c o m in g c l a s s " b e f o r e i n s t r u c t i o n was g iv e n a s seems t o h a v e b ee n t h e ca se h e r e . 2

Bingham

c o n s t r u c t e d an a t t i t u d e t e s t i n o r d e r to

m easu re a t t i t u d e to w a rd o n e ' s d i e t a f t e r th e manner o f T h u r s to n e 3 a n d C b a v e. He q u e s t i o n e d w h eth e r p u p i l s w ere n o t j u s t a g r e e 1. 2. 3.

Loo. c i t . N. lEldred Bingham , T e a c h in g N u t r i t i o n i n B j o i 0gy C l a s s e s , p p. 6 5 - 8 4 . L .L . T h u r s to n e an d E .J .C h a v e , T he Measurement o f A t t i t u d e s . p p . 1 -9 6 .

93

i n g w i t h s t a t e m e n t s th e y t h o u g h t t h e t e a c h e r w an te d them t o a g r e e w i t h when th e y a n s w e re d t h e s e q u e s t i o n s o r s t a t e m e n t s d e s i g n e d to m e a s u re a t t i t u d e ,

" i n o t h e r words was t h e t e s t

m e a s u r in g t h e a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e s e l e c t i o n o f d i e t o r was i t m e a s u r in g t h e i r a b i l i t y i n s e l e c t i n g t e a c h e r a p p r o v e d a n s w e r s ? " I n o r d e r t o m eet t h i s p o s s i b l y g ra v e f a u l t he a t t e m p t e d t o c a m o u flag e t h e t e a c h e r s * p u r p o s e b y i n s e r t i n g a l a r g e r num­ b e r o f e x t r a n e o u s ite m s t h a n t e s t i t e m s .

A f t e r t h e s e were

mixed t h e y w ere g i v e n t o b o t h u n d e r g r a d u a t e an d g r a d u a t e s t u ­ d e n ts.

I t w as fo u n d t h a t t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s s c o r e d co n­

s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r th a n t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s . In t h i s e x p e r i m e n t (1) a t t i t u d e s ,

(2) I n f o r m a t i o n ,

an d (3 ) a p p l i c a t i o n w e re n B a s u r e d w i t h p u p i l s o f L in c o ln S c h o o l, C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y .

He f o u n d :

1,

S i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s I n o b j e c t i v e m e a s u re d .

2.

In r e t e n t io n th e e x p e rim e n ta l re ta in e d ( l) p ra c ­

i

t i c a l l y a l l th e ir g a in in a t titu d e ,

(2 ) a p p ro x i­

m a te ly t w o - th ir d s t h e i r g a i n in In fo rm a tio n , a n d {3} a b o u t o n e - t h i r d t h e i r g a i n i n a b i l i t y t o a p p l y in fo rm a tio n . The c o n t r o l g ro u p made s m a ll i n c r e a s e I n a t t i t u d e and a b i l i t y t o ap p ly p r i n c i p l e s . The e x p e r i m e n t showed t h a t ( 1 ) n in e o f t h e e le v e n s c h o o l s made s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s i n a t t i t u d e an d t h e two w h ic h d i d n ' t had l i t t l e

e q u ip m e n t, ( 2 ) a l l g ro u p s showed seme g a i n s ,

( 3 ) s i x o f t h e n i n e s c h o o l s showed s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s i n a p p r e -

94

e la tio n .

Low I n t e r - c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere fo u nd b e tw e e n t h e t e s t a 1

w h ic h Mi n d i c a t e s t h a t e a c h m e a s u re i s a s e p a r a t e a t t r i b u t e . ,f

M easurem ent o f A t t i t u d e s I n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e p ro b le m o f how we can m e a s u r e sc ie n tific a ttitu d e s

i t is

f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o know w h at we

mean by a s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

I t would o f c o u r s e be r a t h e r

s im p le t o o b t a i n a d e f i n i t i o n o f i t b u t f o r a c t u a l p r a c t i c e I t w ould seem t h a t t h i s I s n o t e n o u g h .

A tte m p ts have b e e n

made t o a r r i v e a t some c o n c l u s i o n a s to w hat we mean by t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e by r e f e r e n c e t o th e e x p r e s s e d o p i n i o n s o f t h o s e p re su m e d t o

be a c q u a i n t e d w i t h I t .

In o rder to o b ta in

s u c h I n f o r m a t i o n i t I s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e p a r e some form s o r q u e s t l o n r s h e e t s c a l l i n g f o r c e r t a i n r e s p o n s e s from t h e p e r s o n s b ein g q u e s tio n e d . 2

I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n Skews

su b m itte d

a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o t e a c h e r s t o d e te r m in e w h at th e y c o n s i d e r e d some o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e . He fou n d t h a t 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r s a c c e p t e d t h e f o l l o w ­ in g as f i v e im p o rta n t p a r t s o f a s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e : 1.

W i l l i n g n e s s t o ch a n g e o p i n i o n s on t h e b a s i s o f new e v i d e n c e .

1.

2.

Bingham, o p . c l t . . p p . 6 5 - 8 4 . George W.“ S kew s, What I s t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e ? S c h o o l S c i e n c e a n d M athem ati c s , 33 (1 9 3 3 ), p p . 9 6 5 -9 6 7 .

95

2.

S e a r c h f o r w hole t r u t h r e g a r d l e s s o f p e r s o n a l r e l i ­ g io u s or s o c i a l p r e ju d ic e s .

3*

C o n c e p t o f c a u s e and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p .

4.

H a b it o f b a s i n g judgm ent on f a c t .

5.

Power to d i s t i n g u i s h betw een f a c t and t h e o r y . 1

D a v is

f o l l o w e d t h e p h i lo s o p h y o f t h e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g

c o u n c i l i n W is c o n s in a n d s e t up a number o f p o s s i b l e c h a r a c ­ t e r i s t i c s o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

T hese w ere s e n t t o s e ­

l e c t e d te a c h e r s f o r a c c e p ta n c e or r e j e c t i o n . a c c e p te d th e f iv e

E ig h ty p e r c e n t

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e p o r t e d b y Skews a n d a d d e d

o n e — “ fre e d o m fro m s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f . " A t e s t d e s i g n e d t o m easure " c a u s e a n d e f f e c t r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p ” w as t h e n s e t up a n d t h i s t e s t , a lo n g w i t h a f a c t - t h e o r y t e s t , was a d m i n i s t e r e d t o 295 p u p i l s and 25 t e a c h e r s .

D a v is

made th e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s : 1.

H ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s i n W is c o n s in a r e n o t s u p e r ­ stitio u s.

2.

H igh s c h o o l p u p i l s make a lm o s t a s good marks on s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e t e s t s a s do t e a c h e r s .

3.

P u p i l s seem to h av e a c l e a r c o n c e p t o f c a u s e an d e ffe c t re la tio n sh ip s.

4.

T each ers do not c o n sc io u sly t r y

t o d e v e lo p a

s c ie n tific a ttitu d e . 2

N o ll 1. 2.

assu m ed t h a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e was o h a r a c -

I r a C. D a v i s , The M easurement o f S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e s , S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 19 ( O c to b e r , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 1 1 7 -1 2 2 . V. N o l l , M e a s u r in g t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e . The J o u r n a l o f Abnorm al P s y c h o lo g y , 30 ( J u l y , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 1 4 5 -1 5 ^ .

96

t e r l z e d by o r c o n s ts te d o f c e r t a i n k in d s o f t h i n k i n g * c r i b e d t h e s e a s h a b i t s o f (X) a c c u r a c y ,

He d e s ­

( 2 ) o p e n - m in d e d n e s s ,

(3 ) i n t e l l e c t u a l h o n e s t y , (4) su sp e n d e d ju d g m e n t,

(5 ) lo o k i n g

fo r t r u e cause and e f f e c t r e la tio n s h ip , and (6 ) c r i t i c a l n e s s , In c lu d in g s e l f - c r i t i c i s m . He d e v e lo p e d a t e s t t o m easure some p a r t s o f t h e s c i e n ­ t i f i c a t t i t u d e s and g a v e i t t o h i g h s c h o o l p u p i l s fro m g r a d e s se v en to t w e l v e .

He fo u n d t h a t t h e means i n c r e a s e d g r a d u a l l y

from g r a d e s 7 t o 12 so c o n c lu d e d t h a t h i s t e s t h ad some r e a l v a lu e • I n a n o t h e r a r t i c l e t h e same a u t h o r r e p o r t s t h a t he a n a l y z e d some o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e

i n th e f i e l d o f s c i e n c e an d

drew s e v e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s from h i s s t u d y .

He named s i x a s p e c t s

o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e a s fo llo w s: 1.

A c c u ra c y o f o p e r a t i o n s , e * g . c a l c u l a t i o n s

2*

I n t e l l e c t u a l h o n e s ty

3*

O pen-m indedness

4.

S u sp e n d e d judgment

5*

L o ok in g f o r t r u e c a u s e and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s

6.

C r i t i c i s m even t o I n c l u d e c r i t i c i z i n g o n e ' s s e l f *

1

2

C a ld w e ll a n d Lundeen

r e p o r t an a t t e m p t t o f i n d ways

o f c h a n g in g u n f o u n d e d b e l i e f s w h ic h " d e a l t w i t h c e r t a i n i t e m s 1.

2.

V i c t o r H. N o l l , The H a b it o f S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g . T e a c h a r s C o l le g e R e c o rd , 35 (May, 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 6 8 3 - 6 9 3 . O t i s W. US.dwell 'ana E. Lundeen, An E x p e r i m e n t a l S tu d y o f S u p e r s t i t i o n s and O th e r U n f o u n d e d ’B e l i e f s a s 'd e ­ la t e d to ^en eraT S c ie n c e , ]Pp. 13&*

97

w h ic h a r e r e l a t e d t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r now commonly t a u g h t I n t h e g e n e ra l s c ie n c e c o u rs e .”

T h ir ty -s e v e n d i f f e r e n t s c h o o ls In

f o u r t e e n d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s w ere i n v o l v e d .

A fte r g iv in g p r e ­

t e s t s and e n d t e s t r e s u l t s a s f o l l o w s w e r e r e c o r d e d : 1.

A v erag e know ledge g a i n i n a l l f a c t u a l i t e m s , i n c l u d i n g u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s was 2 8 .2 p e r c e n t w h ile t h e g a i n f o r u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s a lo n e wa 3 3 7 .6 p a r c e n t.

2.

E ach u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f show ed some im p ro v em en t " f o l ­ lo w in g i n s t r u c t i o n . ”

3.

Y ounger s t u d e n t s s c o re d b e t t e r on u n fo u n d e d b e ­ l i e f s b o t h on p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s .

4.

" I t seem s h e r e t h a t k n o w le d g e o f an d b e l i e f I n u n ­ fo u n d e d b e l i e f s i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c o r r e c t fa c tu a l in s tru c tio n ."

I n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a t e m e n t one i s l e d t o a s k w h a t ty p e o f i n s t r u c t i o n an d t e s t i n g was u s e d .

The r e ­

p o r t s t a t e s t h a t w id e ly s p r e a d u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s s u c h a s " ( l ) m e n ta l d i s o r d e r s r e s u l t fro m t o o i n t e n s e s t u d y ;

(2 ) c h il­

d r e n o f f i r s t c o u s i n s a r e v e r y l i k e l y t o be f e e b l e - m i n d e d , an d ( 3 ) b i r t h m a r k s a r e c a u se d by f r i g h t s e x p e r i e n c e d by m o t h e r s . " T h e s e and o t h e r u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s w e re i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a n e x ­ p e r i m e n t a l t e a c h i n g u n i t In b io l o g y a n d t a u g h t d i r e c t l y .

They

w e re th e n a p p a r e n t l y t e s t e d j u s t a s t h e y had b e e n t a u g h t , mak­ i n g a s i t u a t i o n w hich c o u ld p e r h a p s b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s r e ­ c a l l of w h a t h ad been s a i d i n r e g a r d t o c e r t a i n b e l i e f s .

98

1

C a ld w e ll and Lundeen

c o n d u c te d a second ex p e rim en t

s i m i l a r t o t h e one i n g e n e r a l s c i e n c e b u t t h i s tim e w i t h Penn­ s y l v a n i a a e n i o r - h i g h - s c h o o l c l a s s e s i n b i o l o g y an d I n v o lv e d 235 p u p i l s .

They found t h a t t h e p e r c e n t o f im pro vem en t i n

“k n o w led g e o f u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s ” was 2 2 . 3 p e r c e n t t o 4 7 .1 p e r c e n t w i t h a p u p i l a v e r a g e o f 3 2 . 9 p e r c e n t , w h ile t h e im prove­ m ent on " f a c t u a l i te m s o t h e r t h a n u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s r a n g e d by c l a s s e s fro m 1 9 .6 p e r c e n t to 2 9 . 7 p e r c e n t w i t h a p u p i l a v e r ­ age o f 2 1 ,1 p e r c e n t . ” In c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e se fin d in g s i t w ill be re c a lle d t h a t th e u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s were i n c o r p o r a t e d d i r e c t l y In th e u n i t s u p p o s e d ly t o r e c e i v e d i r e c t d r i l l . ab o v e,

The s t a t e m e n t q u o te d

" f a c t u a l ite m s o t h e r t h a n u n f o u n d e d b e l i e f s ” m ig h t i n ­

d i c a t e t h a t u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s w e re p r e s e n t e d t o b e " l e a r n e d , ” o r m em orized a s t h e " f a c t s ” may h a v e b e e n i n t h i s c a s e .

The

p h r a s e "know ledge o f u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s ” s u g g e s t s t h a t what was b e i n g t e s t e d was t h e p u p i l s 1 a b i l i t y t o r e c a l l w h a t b e l i e f s were s a i d t o b e u n so u n d , i n c l a s s ,

and rem em ber th em lo n g enough

t o make th e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e on a t e s t . little

T h e re seem s t o be

o r no e v id e n c e t h a t r e s u l t s f o r t h a t a b i l i t y would be

a n y v a l l d i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e th e r t h e p u p i l h a d a c t u a l l y b e e n im­ p r o v e d I n r e g a r d to a n y u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s h e m ig h t h a v e . In c o n t in u a t io n of t h e i r s tu d y o f u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s , 2

C a l d w e l l and Lundeen 1.

2.

p re p a re d an " o p in io n b a l l o t "

fo r a la rg e

Loc. c lt* d'.W. C a ld w e ll and G.E . L u nd een, F u r t h e r S tu d y o f Unfounded B e l i e f s among J u n i o r H ig h S c h o o l P u p i l s . T e a c h e r s Col l e g e R eco rd , 3 6 ( O c to b e r , 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 3 5 - 5 2 .

99

j u n i o r h i g h sc h o o l In New R o c h e l l e , New Y o rk .

The b a l l o t co n ­

s i s t e d o f 200 ite m s with 5 0 c o r r e c t a n d 150 i n c o r r e c t i t e m s . I t was g iv e n to 8 54 p u p i l s

f a i r l y w e ll d i s t r i b u t e d among t h e

7 t h , 8 t h , and 9 t h g r a d e s . The p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m h e r e w a s :

" I s t h e r e a n y change

i n b e l i e f i n s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e 7 t h , 8 t h , an d 9 t h g r a d e s i n j u n i o r high sc h o o l? "

T h is t e s t sought to le a r n th e p er cent

o f I n c o r r e c t ite m s b e l i e v e d by e a c h p u p i l , w i t h t h e t e s t b e in g g i v e n n e a r th e c l o s e o f t h e

s c h o o l y e a r so p u p i l s h a d r e c e i v e d

a l m o s t a f u l l y e a r f s i n s t r u c t i o n I n t h e g r a d e i n w h ic h th e y w ere l i s t e d . I t was fo u n d t h a t

(1 ) e r r o n e o u s b e l i e f e x i s t e d t o a

g r e a t e r e x t e n t i n the l o w e r g r a d e s s i n c e th e mean number o f i n c o r r e c t Item s b e lie v e d w a s 5 5 .0 1 f o r t h e 7 t h g r a d e , 2 2 .5 4 f o r th e 8 t h , and only 2 0 . 0 9 i n c o r r e c t i t e m s b e l i e v e d by th e 9t h g rad e;

( 2 ) g i r l s r e g u l a r l y b e l i e v e d more o f t h e f a l s e

i t e m s t h a n d id t h e boys;

( 3 ) o l d e r p u p i l s a l s o b e l i e v e d fe w e r

o f t h e f a l s e ite m s than d i d th e y o u n g e r o n e s . I n d i s c u s s i o n of t h e r e s u l t s t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s n o te d t h a t t h e e v id e n c e i n d i c a t e d a " d i s t i n c t r e d u c t i o n I n a c c e p ta n c e o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e lie f s I n j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l . ”

T here was a

c o n t i n u a l program o f s c i e n c e I n s t r u c t i o n In t h e s c h o o l t e s t e d , “ i t h a s n o t b een p rov ed,

b u t seem s l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e I s c a u s a l

r e l a t i o n betw een t h i s s c i e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n a n d th e r e d u c t i o n I n a c c e p t a n c e o f unfounded b e l i e f s . M

100

1

D a v is

t r i e d t o p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e i n s c i e n c e th e v ie w s # a s e x p r e s s e d b y th e " T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g C o u n c il i n W is c o n s in ." He c o n s t r u c t e d a t e s t o f s i x t y - s i x p a i r s o f o c c u r r e n c e s to m easure c a u se an d e f f e c t t o be m arked fro m A t o E a c c o r d in g t o t h e d i r e c t n e s s o f c a u s e and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g . The t e s t was t a k e n by h i g h s c h o o l p u p i l s and some o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s i n th e p u b l i c s c h o o l s o f W iscon sin*

From th e

r e s u l t s he c o n c lu d e d : 1.

H ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s i n W isco n sin seem n o t t o be s u p e r s t i t i o u s and d i d a lm o s t a s w e l l as t h e i r te a c h e rs.

2.

T e a c h e rs do n o t c o n s c i o u s l y t r y t o d e v e lo p th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e and any im provem ent m ust be by chance*

As one c o n s i d e r s t h i s s t u d y he i s l e d t o q u e s t i o n t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t p u p i l s o f an y s c h o o l anyw here a r e n o t s u p e r ­ stitio u s.

The q u e s t i o n m ig h t be r a i s e d a s t o w hether a n y t h in g

was done t o s e c u r e r e a l and t r u e i n d i c a t i o n s o f how th e p u p i l r e a l l y f e l t or was h e r e a c t i n g t o w hat h e f e l t th e t e a c h e r would have him f e e l . I n a t t e m p t i n g t o s t u d y t h e a t t i t u d e o f h ig h s c h o o l 2

s e n i o r s , Lundeen and C a ld w e ll i d e a s s e l e c t e d from l i t e r a t u r e . 1* * 2.

c o n s t r u c t e d a l i s t o f two h un dred They w ere I d e a s w hich e x p r e s s e d

I r a C. D a v is , A W is c o n s in J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n , (November, 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . "l^TTT . R e f e r r e d t o i n C h a p te r I I , p ag e 3 9 o f t h i s stu d y * G erhard Lundeen a n d O t i s W, C a l d w e l l , S tu d y of Unfounded B e l i e f s among H ig h S c h o o l S e n i o r s . J o u r n a l o f E d uca­ t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 22 (November, 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 2b1T^2ilZ .

101

s u p e r s t i t i o u s o r u n f o u n d e d b e l i e f s w i t h o n ly a few w h ic h had ev en a p a r t i a l f o u n d a t i o n i n f a c t .

S t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d only

t h e i r age a n d s e x o n t h e p a p e r b u t n o t t h e i r nam es.

P u p ils

o f t h e t e n c o o p e r a t i n g s c h o o l s were t o i n d i c a t e t h r e e t h i n g s f o r e a c h s t a t e m e n t , n am ely , ( 1 ) had t h e y h e a r d i t ,

( 2 ) d id

th e y b e l i e v e i t ,

T h ere were

( 3 ) d i d i t a f f e c t t h e i r c o n d u c t.

1 ,0 3 0 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f i l l e d o u t b u t n o t a l l were u s a b l e s i n c e i t was n e c e s s a r y t o d i s c a r d some b e c a u s e t h e y were i n c o m p l e t e . From t h e 91 8 u s a b l e r e t u r n s 5 2 6 were from b o y s and 392 g i r l s . 1

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e r e t u r n s t h e a u t h o r s 1*

s ta te :

E igh s c h o o l s e n i o r s had h e a r d a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t o f th e s e sta te m e n ts.

2 J.

They b e l i e v e d a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t and w ere i n f l u e n c e d by a n e q u a l num ber,

3.

R u r a l b o y s a n d g i r l s w e re more s u p e r s t i t i o u s in each o f t h e

4.

t h r e e w ay s.

G i r l s w e re more s u p e r s t i t i o u s t h a n b o y s .

The a u t h o r s s t a t e t h a t g i r l s

have b e e n shown t o be

more s u p e r s t i t i o u s by o t h e r s t u d i e s a l s o .

They c a u t i o n t h a t

th e ir d ata are in a d e q u a te f o r f i n a l c o n c lu sio n s.

The t e s t s

were a l s o g iv e n a num ber o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s and i t was s t a t e d t h a t c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s had h e a r d o f m ore o f t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s b u t w ere a f f e c t e d l e s s b y th em .

T h ir ty o f th e sta te m e n ts

w ere, h ow ev er, f o u n d t o b e common b e l i e f s t o th e members o f th is group. 1.

L o c. o l t *

102

F in d in g s P e r t i n e n t t o T h is P roblem In v a r io u s r e p o r ts o f s tu d ie s th e re appeared f in d in g s r e la te d to th e p roposed r e s u l t s o f t h i s in v e s tig a tio n .

T h e se

s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n r e f e r r e d t o h e r e r e g a r d l e s s o f th e l e v e l a t w h ic h th e y -were c o n d u c t e d .

S in c e many o b j e c t i v e s have b e e n

c o n sid e re d b y v a r io u s I n v e s t i g a t o r s s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t ones are

Involved h e r e . 1

Downing*

a b o u t 1 9 3 3 , g av e t e s t s t o m easure s c i e n t i f i c

t h i n k i n g a n d f o u n d some i n c r e a s e from g r a d e t o g r a d e I n t h e a b i l i t y m easured.

By means o f p a i r s I t was fo u n d t h a t s t u ­

d e n t s who t o o k s c i e n c e showed some te n d e n c y t o b e b e t t e r i n t h e a b i l i t y , tu t i t was n o t e d t h a t s c i e n c e was a s e l e c t i v e course.

S i n c e s t u d e n t s I n s c i e n c e w ere p r o b a b ly n o t a f a i r

sam ple t h e c o n c l u s i o n was t h a t t h e r e was no e v id e n c e t h a t h i g h sch o o l s tu d e n ts a c q u ir e s k i l l \ i n s c i e n t i f i c th in k in g a s a n e c e s s a r y b y - p r o d u c t o f s c i e n c e a s i t was th e n ta u g h t* 2 * S t r a u s s u s e d t h e t e s t by Downing - - “Some E le m e n ts o f S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g ."

The t e s t c o n s i s t s of f i f t e e n p a r t s o r

p ro b le m s e a c h t o t e s t one e le m e n t o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g o r one o f t h e

s a f e g u a r d s t o be throw n aro u n d t h e p r o c e s s .

Some ,,3 4 3 p u p i l s i n g r a d e s 8 - 1 2 of t h e G a r f i e l d High S c h o o l , A k ro n , O h io , t o o k the 4 5 -^n in ute t e s t . 1. 2.

I t was fo u n d t h a t :

E.R. D ow ning, Does S c i e n c e T each S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g ? S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , 17 ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 3 ), p p . 8 7 - 8 9 . Sam S t r a u s s , Some R e s u l t s f o r th e T est o f S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g . S c ie n c e E d u c a t l o n , 16 (December, 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 - 9 2 . P u b l i s h e d by E . R. d o w n in g , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s ,

103

1*

The a b i l i t y

t o r e c o g n i s e a p ro b le m and a b i l i t y t o

o b s e r v e seem ed t o b e b e s t m a s t e r e d w h i l e t h e a b i l i t i e s t o r e a s o n , a n a ly z e a n d s e e e s s e n t i a l r e ­ l a t i o n s h i p s w as t h e l e a s t d e v e lo p e d . 2.

T h e re was l i t t l e

d i f f e r e n c e b etw e e n t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y

o f b o y s and g i r l s . 3.

T here was a n i n c r e a s e in a b i l i t y from g r a d e s 8 -1 2 w i t h m o st i n c r e a s e a t g ra d e 10 b u t n e a r l y a s much a t t h e 12 t h g r a d e .

4.

Of t h e 161 s t u d e n t s t e s t e d , In t h e t e a c h e r s c o l ­ le g e o f th e U n iv e r s ity o f p ro v e m e n t f o r a f te r th a t.

A -k ro n

t h e r e w as some im ­

fre s h m e n b u t l i t t l e im p ro v em en t H a l f o f th e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s showed

m a s t e r y of a l l f i f t e e n o f t h e i t e m s , 5.

Age a s s u c h a p p e a r e d t o have r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e

to

do w i t h t h e p u p i l s 1 m a s te ry o f th e e l e m e n t s o f s c ie n tif ic th in k in g . 6*

F or a group o f 10 B h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s t h e c o r r e l a ­ t i o n s b e tw e e n I n t e l l i g e n c e , a s d e t e r m i n e d by th e " O t i s Group I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t , H ig h er E x a m i n a t i o n , " an d t h e I n d i v i d u a l s c o r e s o f t h e p u p i l s on th e Downing t e s t was , 6 4 i .0 4 .

I t was c o n s i d e r e d

t h a t t h i s w as n o t a v e r y h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n . 1

Powers 1.

t e s t e d h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n c h e m i s t r y an d

S . R . P ow ers, The C o r r e l a t i o n b etw een M ental A b i l i t y and M easures o f A c h ie v e m e n t i n C h e m is tr y . S c h o o l S c ie n c e an d M a th e m a tic s , XXVIII (D ecem ber,1 9 2 8 ), p p . 9 8 1 -9 8 7 .

104

fo u n d th e fo llo w in g c o r r e la tio n s f o r

1.

sco res on :

M e n ta l a b i l i t y a s m e a su re d by t h i s

t e s t and by a

f a c t u a l c h e m i s t r y t e s t g i v e n to t h r e e g r o u p s , t h e r e was a c o r r e l a t i o n r a n g i n g from . 3 1 i .6 7 £ .0 3 .

*06 t o

The h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n b e i n g a s e n i o r

g ro u p w ith h ig h e r i n te l li g e n c e an d a c h ie v e m e n t.

2.

M ental a b i l i t y and t e a c h e r s ’ m a r k s , .0 3 4 1095.

3.

C h e m is t r y f a c t s a s m e a su re d by t h e Powers t e s t an d t e a c h e r s ' m a rk s,

,5 3 ± . 0 7 .

4.

The T erm an t e s t a n d R e g e n t s ’ e x a m i n a t i o n ,

5.

The Powers t e s t and R e g e n t s ’ s c o r e s , 1

W rig h tsto n e

stu d ie d th e s c ie n tif ic

.4 4 ± . 0 6 5 .

.35 £ . 0 6 .

a ttitu d e ,

" th e

c a p a c i t y t o ch o o se b e tw e e n a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a n d u n fo u n d ed b e ­ lie fs ," sc h o o l.

w ith a g ro u p o f g e n e r a l s c ie n c e p u p i ls The c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s c i e n t i f i c

t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s was 2

Hanske

in seco n d ary

a ttitu d e

and i n ­

.4 5 4 .0 5 .

s u r v e y e d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s r e p o r t e d b e tw e e n

o b j e c t i v e t e s t s i n c h e m i s t r y an d Terman i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t s . Ee r e f e r s t o a q u o t a t i o n by B reed a s f o l l o w s : A g r e a t num ber o f c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n b etw e en i n t e l l i g e n c e and a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s have b e e n p u b l i s h e d , many o f which a r e o f d o u b t ­ f u l v a l u e . . . c o e f f l c i e n t s r a n g e a l l t h e way from 1. 2.

J . W. W r i g h t s t o n e , C o r r e l a t i o n o f N a tu r a l S c i e n c e B e l i e f s and A t t i t u d e s , w i t h S o c i a l a n d I n t e l l e c t u a l F a c t o r s . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 18 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 1 0 - 1 2 . C arl Banska', Vhe C o r r e l a t i o n betw een S c o r e s on O b je c ­ t i v e T e s t s I n C h e m is try a n d Terman I n t e l l i g e n c e Quo­ t i e n t s . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 23 ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 1 ) , p . “ S3^

105

v a ry low t o v e r y h i g h , and more d e p e n d a b le ones seem t o c l u s t e r somewhere b e tw e e n ,4 0 and . 6 0 . 1 Hanske fo u n d t h a t c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d a c h ie v e m e n t i n c h e m is tr y w ere s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n a g re e m e n t w i t h th o se r e p o r t e d above*

I t appears t h a t p o sitiv e c o r r e la ­

t i o n s were fo u n d f o r a l l t e s t s b u t were v e r y lo w . 2

Hurd

s t u d i e d w hat b a s i s one s h o u l d u s e t o m a tc h

groups f o r e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d ie s *

H is s u b j e c t s f o r th e e x p e r i ­

m ent were e l e v e n t h or t w e l f t h g r a d e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n v a rio u s sc h o o ls.

They were g i v e n p r e l i m i n a r y an d f i n a l a c h i e v e ­

m e n t t e s t s f o r e a c h u n i t o f t h e c o u rs e i n p h y s i c s .

The t e s t s

u s e d w ere r a t h e r r e l i a b l e h a v i n g a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f " a b o u t ,9 1 £ .0 1 # " I t was f o u n d t h a t t h e a v e r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a ­ t i o n b etw een th e p r e l i m i n a r y a n d f i n a l t e s t s was .54 a n d a f ­ t e r e l i m i n a t i n g one s c h o o l w h ic h showed a v e ry low c o r r e l a ­ t i o n , th e c o r r e c t e d mean c o r r e l a t i o n was .6 5 .

He th e n s t a t e s

t h a t i t I s e v i d e n t t h a t I n g e n e r a l th e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e " h i g h e r t h a n th e g e n e r a l r u n o f c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d a c h ie v e m e n t r a t i n g s o r b etw een a c h ie v e m e n t r a t i n g s and any o t h e r c r i t e r i a commonly r e p r e s e n t e d , "

1. 2.

Prom t h a t he c o n c l u d e s :

F r e d e r i c k S . B r e e d , S h a l l We C l a s s i f y P u p i l s by I n t e l l i g en c e T e s t s ? S ch oo l and S o c i e t y , XV ( A p r i l , 1 9 2 2 ) , p p. 406-409. ■ A. W. Hurd, P r e l i m i n a r y T e s t s as P ro g n o w tic of F i n a l A ch ie v em e n t. S cho ol S c ie n c e and M a th em a tic s, XXI ( J u n e , 1 9 3 1 ) , PP.V 43-746.

106

A ll I n a l l th e c o r r e l a t i o n s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e show t h a t u n d e r u s u a l c o n d i t i o n s a p r e ­ l i m i n a r y t e s t c o v e rin g t h e i d e n t i c a l m a t e r i a l i s s u p e r i o r t o any o t h e r s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n used* I t i s a c tu a l ly th e n e a r e s t s in g le c r i t e r i o n m ost l i k e l y t o be r e l a t e d t o a c h ie v e m e n t * ! 2

R e in e r

fo u n d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n i n f o r m a t i o n an d

a s p e c i f i o s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e , I n th e f i e l d o f h i g h s c h o o l c h e m i s t r y , t o be *45 £ *01.

He n o te d t h a t h i s f i n d i n g s c l o s e l y 3 4 a g r e e d w i t h t h o s e fo u n d by W r ig h ts to n e a n d T y le r * The I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t I n v o l v e d t h e s i n g l e ite m " h e a t ­ in g o f m e t a l s in

a i r , M w hich w as t a u g h t t h e f i r s t week i n t h e

te r m , th e n t e s t e d b y u s in g 5 ite m s 3 m o n th s a f t e r w a r d .

T h e re

was no w a r n in g o r p r e p a r a t i o n by t h e f o r t y s t u d e n t s o f t h e s in g le se c tio n *

The a t t i t u d e t e s t e d w as C u r t i s '

o f u n i v e r s a l b a s i c cause a n d e f f e c t * "

" c o n v ic tio n

H is a t t i t u d e t e s t c o n ­

s i s t e d of u s in g a d e s c r ib e d s i t u a t i o n fo llo w e d by f i v e p o s ­ s ib le re a so n s fo r th e d e sc rib e d o c c u rre n c e .

P u p i l s w ere t o

r a t e t h e r e a s o n s on a s c a l e from 0 -4 w h ic h h a d b e e n k e y e d by a group o f c h e m istry te a c h e rs .

Two p o i n t s w ere g i v e n f o r e x ­

a c t l y c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s b u t no c r e d i t f o r p a r t i a l l y c o r r e c t an sw ers. 1. 2*

3. 4.

Some w o rd s in t h e t e s t were f o u n d t o be " g iv e - a w a y s "

I b i d . , p . 747* W illia m B. R e i n e r , The C o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n S c i e n t i f i c A t­ t i t u d e s a n d F a c t u a l Knowledge i n a H igh S c h o o l Chem­ i s t r y T o p ic . S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , 23 (November, 1 9 3 9 ) , p p . 327-331* J.W . W r i g h t s t o n e , C o r r e l a t i o n o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e B e l i e f s an d A t t i t u d e s , w i t h S o c i a l a n d I n t e l l e c t u a l F a c t o r s . S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , 18 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 4 ), p p . 1 0 - 1 2 . R1W. T y l e r , M easu rin g t h e Re s t i l t s o f C o l le g e I n s t r u c t i o n . E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , X I (May 1 1 , 1 9 3 2 ) , p p . 2 52-260.

107

a s f o r exam ple c a l l i n g s o m e th in g " a t r i c k ” would te n d t o I n ­ d i c a t e t h a t i t was u n s c i e n t i f i c a n d s o g i v e away t h e a n s w e r . The r - .4 5 seemed t o i n d i c a t e t h a t s t u d e n t s may l e a r n I n f o r m a t i o n and y e t f a i l to g e t t h e d e s i r a b l e a t t i t u d e s t h a t a r e p o t e n t i a l l y a v a i l a b l e in t h e same a r e a o f k n o w le d g e . I t seemed t o t h a t i n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t : one o f two c o n d i t i o n s seem t o be t r u e *

"Prom t h e d a t a e i t h e r E i t h e r t o o much tim e

i s b e i n g d e v o t e d t o m e m o riz a tio n o f f a c t s or i t i s more d i f f i ­ c u l t t o i n s t i l l a s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e t h a n i t i s t o p a s s on fa c ts ."

Summary The s t u d i e s i n s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n w h ich seem t o p r e ­ s e n t e v i d e n c e on any a s p e c t o f t h i s p ro b le m h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d and r e p o r te d h e re .

I n t h e s e r e p o r t s o n l y th o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e

s t u d i e s w h ic h seem t o h e l p p r e s e n t t h e d e s i r e d b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e in c lm d e d . M ost o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h i s s t u d y have b e e n a t g r a d e l e v e l s below t h a t o f c o l l e g e .

Many of t h e r e ­

p o r t s a t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l d e a l w i t h d e t e r m i n i n g th e s t a t u s o f s o - c a l l e d "survey c o u rse s" in c o l l e g e s c ie n c e .

The w orks

m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t e n d t o show t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e s I n v o l v e d h e re a re n o t very c l o s e ly c o r r e la te d *

Low c o r r e l a t i o n s h av e

b e e n f o u n d b etw een m o st o f th e o u tc o m es w h ich h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d . Most o f them have b e e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y r = .4 5 among s u c h o u t ­ comes a s r e c a l l , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and. a b i l i t i e s I n v o lv e d I n

108

p r o b le m s o lv in g . S i g n i f i c a n t d a t a have b e e n g a t h e r e d h e r e t o I n d i c a t e t h a t th e I n v e s tig a to r s reco g n ized th e n eed f o r f h r t h e r r e l a t e d s t u d y s i n c e th e y very o f t e n p o i n t o u t t h e n e e d f o r more r e ­ search of th is n a tu re .

I n r e g a r d t o w h e th e r we c a n o r d o im­

p ro v e s t u d e n t s i n v a r i o u s outcom es ( e . g . t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i ­ t u d e ) t h e r e seems t o be c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t . h o w e v e r,

I t i s re p o rte d ,

t h a t v a r i o u s outcomes h a v e b e e n fo u n d t o be p r e s e n t

t o a h i g h e r d e g r e e i n s c ie n c e s t u d e n t s t h a n I n n o n - s c i e n c e p erso n s.

In t h e s e c a s e s t h e p o i n t i s u s u a l l y made t h a t we

c a n n o t assum e from t h i s f i n d i n g t h a t t h e t a k i n g o f s c i e n c e I s t h e c a u s e o f th e m e a su re d d i f f e r e n c e s .

One m ig h t c o n c lu d e

from t h e s e s t u d i e s t h a t t h e r e i s d o u b t t h a t we im p ro v e s t u d e n t s I n o u tco m es o t h e r th a n f a c t s and t h a t c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r i m e n t a ­ t i o n t o an sw e r t h a t q u e s t i o n i s g r e a t l y n e e d e d .

CHAPTER IV SOURCES OP DATA AND PRELIMINARY STUDY

The two m ain t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s u i t a b l e m e a s u r in g i n s t r u m e n t a n d t h e u s e o f t h a t in stru m e n t in a ir e li m in a r y s tu d y .

Most o f t h e d a t a f o r

t h i s s t u d y i s o b ta in e d from t h e u s e o f a t e s t d e s i g n e d t o m e asu re f o u r ty p e s o f o b j e c t i v e s . c a l l o f s p e c i f i c in fo rm a tio n , z a tio n s,

T h ese o b j e c t i v e s a r e ( l ) r e ­

(2) u n d e r s ta n d in g o f g e n e r a l i ­

( 3 ) a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n ts o f p r o b le m s o l v i n g ,

and ( 4 ) p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

S e l e c t i o n o f Item s f o r T e s t Having d e c id e d t h a t t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s w ere t o be m eas­ ured , them*

i t was n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n a n I n s t r u m e n t t o m e a su re S in c e no known s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t o r t e s t s seem ed t o

f i l l t h i s p u r p o s e , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s t r u c t s u c h m e a su r­ in g I n s t r u m e n t s .

The d e s c r i p t i o n o f how e a c h p a r t o f t h e t e s t

was d e v e lo p e d and how i t s r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y were d e t e r ­ m in e d i s h e r e d e s c r i b e d .

I t w i l l b e se e n t h a t t h r e e m ethods

o f Im p ro v in g or d e t e r m in in g t h e v a l i d i t y o f e a c h p a r t o f th e t e s t w ere u s e d . The f i r s t p ro b le m i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t of t h e t e s t was t o o b t a i n a l a r g e number of t e s t I te m s w h ic h a p p e a r e d t o th e

109

110

i n v e s t i g a t o r to b e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e .

In p re p a ra tio n

f o r t h i s s t e p a s u r v e y was made o f s e v e r a l v a l u a b l e s o u r c e s o f s u g g e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f v a l i d and r e l i a b l e te s ts . P a r t I o f t h e t e s t , now c o n t a i n i n g 60 r e c a l l i t e m s , was o r i g i n a l l y composed o f 150 t e s t i t e m s s e l e c t e d from (1) among th o s e p r e v i o u s l y u s e d b y th e i n v e s t i g a t o r , and (2 ) a l a r g e r l i s t made f o r t h i s p u r p o s e .

I n s e l e c t i n g f a c t u a l I te m s ,

no I t e m was I n c l u d e d u n l e s s t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r d e f i n i t e l y knew ( f r o m p r e v io u s t e a c h i n g o f t h e c o u r s e ) t h a t t h a t Item o f i n ­ f o r m a t i o n a p p e a r e d i n one o r more c o n s p ic u o u s p l a c e s i n such s o u r c e s a s t e x t - b o o k , m ovie3 , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , t h e u n i t I t s e l f , or in c la s s d isc u ssio n s.

T h e se q u e s t i o n s w ere b a s e d on th e

c l a s s a s t a u g h t d u r i n g t h e s e m e s t e r p r e c e d i n g t h e e x p e r im e n t. C a re was u s e d to s e l e c t I t e m s w h ic h w ere b a s i c en o u g h t o the c o u r s e so t h a t

it

was q u i t e p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e y would a l s o

a p p e a r I n th e c o u r s e d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d . P a r t s I I a n d I I I o f t h e t e s t now c o n t a i n f o r t y and fifty

q u e s tio n s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The i te m s f o r t h e s e p a r t s were

s e l e c t e d from h u n d re d s o f s u c h i t e m s w h ic h h ad b e e n d e v e lo p e d a n d p r e v i o u s l y u s e d by v a r i o u s i n s t r u e t o r s o f t h i s c o u r s e . A l l q u e s t i o n s had b e e n d e v e l o p e d I n th e few y e a r s im m e d ia te ly p re c e d in g .

S in c e t h i s s e m e s t e r o f t h e c o u r s e h a s n o r m a lly

b e e n g i v e n f o u r t i m e s e a c h y e a r ( I n c l u d i n g Ju n e i n t e r s e s s l o n s a n d summer s e s s i o n s ) t h e r e h a d b e e n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a s e l e c t i v e p r o c e s s to o p e r a t e , c a u s i n g t h e I te m s w h ic h h a d s u r v i v e d in t h e

I ll

f i l e s t o be t h o s e

w h ic h a p p e a r e d v a l i d *

Prom t h i s s o u rc e

one h u n d red i t e m s were s e l e c t e d t o m e a s u re , " u n d e r s ta n d in g o f g e n e ra liz a tio n s"

(P art I I )

m en ts o f p ro b le m s o l v i n g "

and o n e h u n d re d t o m easure " e l e ­ (P art I I I ) .

In o r d e r t o t e s t f o r t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e , u s e was made o f f i v e a t t i t u d e s c a l e s w hich had b e e n 1

d e v e lo p e d p r e v i o u s l y .

E a c h o f t h e s e f i v e s c a l e s was d e v e lo p e d

a s a M a ster o f A r t s t h e s i s a t C o lo r a d o S t a t e C o lle g e o f Educa­ tio n .

These e a c h c o n s i s t e d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h i r t y ite m s d e ­

s i g n e d t o m e a su re one a s p e c t o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

S in c e

t h e r e were f i v e s c a l e s e a c h c o n t a i n i n g from t h i r t y to t h i r t y t h r e e i t e m s , t h e r e was a t o t a l o f a p p r o x im a te l y one hundred s ix ty sc a le ite m s . Having o b t a i n e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o u r h u nd red s i x t y ite m s d e s ig n e d t o m easu re t h e f o u r o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s tu d y , th e n e x t s t e p w as to t r y o u t t h e ite m s on s t u d e n t s su c h a s would be i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p .

F o r t h i s p u rp o se th e ite m s

w ere a r r a n g e d i n t h r e e t e s t s o f a p p r o x im a te l y two h undred tw e n ty item s e a c h ; i n w h ic h some g ro u p s o f ite m s a p p e a re d I n more t h a n one t e s t .

At t h a t ti m e th e i n v e s t i g a t o r was i n s t r u c t ­

in g a p p r o x im a te l y one h u n d r e d s t u d e n t s In t h e s c i e n c e c o u rse of th is

s tu d y .

These s t u d e n t s w ere g i v e n t h e ite m s which h ad

been g a th e re d a s d e s c r ib e d .

1.

See A p p en d ix , p . 262 , f o r nameB o f p e r s o n s who d e v e lo p ed sc a le s.

112

■it T hese Ite m s w e r e k e y e d by t h e two I n s t r u c t o r s n o rm a lly t e a c h v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h i s th e I n v e s tig a to r . th is

key.

who

c o u rs e , I n a d d i tio n to

T he p a p e r s were t h e n m arked a c c o r d in g t o

By t h e u s e o f t h e " i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y in d e x ” f o r

e a c h ite m a n d I t s " i n d e x o f d i f f i c u l t y " t h e number o f ite m s was re d u c e d t o th e num ber i n t h e p r e s e n t t e s t . In a p p l y i n g t h e i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y i n d e x t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s u s e was made o f a n u n p u b l i s h e d t a b l e d e v e lo p e d f o r 1

t h e p u rp o se a t th e S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y . The t a b l e I n v o lv e d t h e c o m p a ris o n o f t h e number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s on e a c h I t e m from th e s t u d e n t s o f t h e u p p er t w e n t y s e v e n p e r c e n t w i t h t h o s e s t u d e n t s I n t h e lo w e r tw e n t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t on s c o r e s f o r t h e t o t a l t e s t .

The m easu re o f " i n n e r

c o n s i s t e n c y " o r " i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y " assu m es th e whole t e s t t o be v a l i d .

I t i m p l i e s t h a t e a c h I t e m s h o u l d do i t s p a r t t o

s e p a r a t e t h e b e t t e r s t u d e n t s , a s m e a s u r e d by t h e whole t e s t , fro m t h e p o o r e r s t u d e n t s on t h e t o t a l

te st.

I t i s necessary

t h e n t h a t m ore s t u d e n t s o f t h e u p p e r g ro u p make a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e on e a c h I t e m

t h a n do t h e s t u d e n t s i n t h e low er g r o u p .

Byd e t e r m i n i n g th e p e r c e n t a g e o f s u c c e s s e s In t h e

up per a n d

lo w e r g ro u p s and r e a d i n g from t h e t a b l e p r e v i o u s l y m e n tio n e d , t h e " i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y " f o r e a c h I te m w as d e te r m in e d . I te m w ith a n " i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y " •a1,

Any

o f l e s s t h a n .2 0 was d i s c a r d e d .

P r o f e s s o r s M a r t i n L . R o b e r t s o n and C y ru s L. B a rn e s . D evelo p ed by J o h n C. F l a n a g a n , J a n u a r y , 1936, u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f D r . P a u l V. W est, P r o f e s s o r o f Educa­ t i o n , S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y .

113

The s e c o n d f a c t o r w h ic h w as ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t a t t h i s tim e was t h e " i n d e x o f d i f f i c u l t y . "

T h is i s "based upon th e

i d e a t h a t f o r th e p u r p o s e o f m e a s u rin g g r o w th s no t e a t ite m s h o u ld b e s u c h t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l s t u d e n t s e i t h e r g e t i t r ig h t o r th a t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l stu d e n ts g e t i t in c o r r e c t.

As

f o r exam ple, a n y q u e s t i o n w h ic h n i n e t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f a l l t h e s t u d e n t s g o t wrong w ould a p p e a r to b e t o o d i f f i c u l t or o th e r w is e u n s u i t a b l e .

C o n v e r s e ly I f a s i m i l a r p e r c e n t a g e made

a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e i t w o u ld seem t h a t t h i s ite m i s to o e a s y , c o n t a i n s a " g iv e a w a y ," o r i s o t h e r w i s e u n t e n a b l e .

F or t h e s e

r e a s o n s no i t e m was i n c l u d e d i n t h e f i n a l t e s t w h ich d i d n o t have an in d e x o f d i f f i c u l t y o f b e tw e e n . 1 0 an d . 9 0 .

A fter

t h e s e two c r i t e r i a h a d b ee n a p p l i e d n a m e ly : " i n n e r v a l i d i t y in d e x " and " in d e x o f d i f f i c u l t y , 11 t h e r e w e re s t i l l more i te m s i n e a c h p a r t o f t h e m e a s u r in g i n s t r u m e n t t h a n seemed t o be d e ­ sira b le .

T h is a l lo w e d a f u r t h e r s e l e c t i o n o f ite m s i n o r d e r

t o i n c r e a s e t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t a g a i n .

In t h i s s e l e c ­

t i o n p r e f e r e n c e was g i v e n t o i t e m s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t " i n n e r v a l i d i t y in d e x " and t o t h o s e whose " i n d e x o f d i f f i c u l t y " was n e a r e s t to i 6 or . 7 ,

s i n c e t h e s e a r e t a k e n t o be more d i s ­

c rim in a tin g ite m s. So f a r two s t e p s I n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a m e a su rin g i n s t r u m e n t o f a c c e p t a b l e r e l i a b i l i t y a n d v a l i d i t y have b e e n d e sc rib e d .

These s t e p s w ere t h e c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f ite m s

and t h e g i v i n g o f a l a r g e r number o f i t e m s t o s t u d e n t s and th e s e l e c t i o n o f I t e m s a s d e s c r i b e d .

114

F u r t h e r im p ro v e m e n ts a n d t e s t s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t were made w h ich may be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e t h i r d a p p r o a c h t o t h e de­ v elo p m en t o f a s u i t a b l e t e s t .

The e n t i r e t e s t was g iv e n to

s t u d e n t s a n d r e v i s e d t h r e e tim e s b e tw e e n t h e w ork d e s c r i b e d above a n d t h e tim e i t was g iv e n a s a p r e t e s t i n th e main p a r t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t. When th e P a r t I was f i r s t g i v e n t o s t u d e n t s , tim e was ta k e n i n c l a s s to s c o r e t h e i t e m s and t o r e c e i v e comments and s u g g e s t i o n s from s t u d e n t s .

In a d d i t i o n t o o r a l comments which

were w r i t t e n down b y t h e I n s t r u c t o r , s t u d e n t s were en c o u ra g ed t o c r i t i c i z e any p a r t o f t h e w h o le t e s t by w r i t i n g comments on th e t e s t I t s e l f .

Many h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s w ere r e c e i v e d in

t h i s way a n d s p e c i a l h e l p was r e c e i v e d i n t h e m a t t e r o f w r i t ­ in g d i r e c t i o n s s o t h e y m e a n t t o t h e s t u d e n t s w hat i t was i n ­ te n d e d th e y s h o u ld m ean. D u rin g t h e s e r e p e a t e d r e v i s i o n s , s p e c i a l c a r e was ta k e n t o make u s e o f s u g g e s t i o n s , w h ic h a r e fo u n d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e 1

r e g a r d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t t e s t i n g .

The f i n a l k ey f o r t h e t e s t was

made t h r o u g h use o f t h e p a p e r s o f t h e s e v e n s t u d e n t s who sc o re d h i g h e s t on th e p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y .

T h is key was f u r t h e r checked

by t h e com m ittee w h ic h d e v e lo p e d t h e o r i g i n a l key u s e d i n th e ■* p re -te st.

1. #

W a lte r S. M onroe, E n c y c l o p e d i a o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h . Of m o s t a s s i s t a n c e was t n e summary o f s t u d i e s on a c h ie v e m en t t e s t i n g , p p . 1 2 8 3-1 30 1 by W a lte r W. Cook* See p . 112 .

115

J u r y f o r J u d g in g V a l i d i t y o f T e 3 t In a d d i t i o n t o t h e work a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d , P a r t 3 I I and I I I o f th e t e s t ,

t o g e l i i e r w i t h a c h e c k l i s t , were s u b ­

m i t t e d t o a group o f q u a l i f i e d ju d g e s a s r e c o r d e d i n th e Ap­ p e n d ix .

The a t t e n t i o n o f t h e ju d g e s was c a l l e d t o e a c h p a r t

o f th e t e s t s e p a r a t e l y .

I n e a c h c a s e t h e p u rp o s e f o r w h ic h th e

group o f q u e s t i o n s was d e s i g n e d was s t a t e d on th e check l i s t a s w e ll as a p p e a r i n g a s t h e u n d e r l i n e d h e a d in g o f ea ch p a r t o f th e t e s t .

E ach ju d g e was t h e n a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e by c h e c k in g

on a fo u r p o i n t s c a l e h i s ju dg m en t a s t o how w e ll he c o n s i d e r e d t h a t each p a r t o f t h e t e s t m e a s u re s w h a t i t h a s been s t a t e d i t was d e s ig n e d t o m e a s u r e .

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s m easure o f v a l i d i t y

a c c o rd in g t o th e ju d g m e n t o f a j u r y o f f i v e members i s a s shown i n Table I

(page 1 1 6 ) .

Prom e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e judgm ents o f th e members o f t h e j u r y I t w i l l be s e e n t h a t th e y c o n s i d e r e d th e item s t o be v a l i d *

The ju d g m e n ts a p p e a r t o be d i v i d e d

In two g ro u p s w i t h f o u r members c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e it e m s ranked h i g h i n v a l i d i t y .

One member o f th e j u r y c o n s i d e r e d

t h a t th e v a l i d i t y o f two p a r t s s h o u ld be r a n k e d i n g ro u p t h r e e . Through t h e comments o f t h i s member I t was a p p a r e n t l y d e t e r ­ mined t h a t he was I n d o u b t a s to w h e th e r s u c h o b j e c t i v e s c o u ld be m easured by a n y p e n c i l an d p a p e r t e s t . S e v e r a l com ments were r e c e i v e d from th e members o f th e ju r y and t h e s e w e re o f s u c h n a t u r e a s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t f o u r members o f th e j u r y c o n s i d e r e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e I te m s to be

116

TABLE I V a l i d i t y o f Two P a r t s o f T e s t as J u d g e d on a F o u r - P o i n t S c a l e b y a J u r y o f F iv e Members

P art of T est II III* III A

A b ility t h i s p a rt of te s t was d e s i g n e d t o m easu re " U n d e rsta n d in g of g e n e r ­ a liz a tio n s" "E le m e n ts o f Problem S o lv in g "

Number o f ju d g e s who ranked th a t p a rt of t e a t I n ea c h grou p h i g h e s t , 2 nd , 3 r d , lo w e s t ////

/

(J u d g e d b y i t s f o u r p a r t s )

"To r e c o g n i z e th e s t e p s In P ro b le m S o lv in g "

////

" E v a lu a tio n of sta te m e n ts w ith r e f e r e n c e to a p r o b ­ lem"

//

m e

"E v a lu a tin g In fe re n c e s "

///

/

/

H ID

" S e l e c t i o n o f d a t a w h ic h a r e p e r t i n e n t to a p ro b ­ le m a tic s i t u a t i o n "

///

/

/

I I IB

*

/

///

P a r t I I I I s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s a w hole In t h i s s tu d y a l t h o u g h i t was r a n k e d b y I t s f o u r p a r t s In o r d e r t o d e te r m in e i t s v a l i d i t y .

T ab le t o r e a d : P a r t two o f t e s t was d e s i g n e d t o m easu re " u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . When i t s v a l i d i t y was ju dg ed on a f o u r p o i n t s c a l e b y a fiv e-m an j u r y f o u r of t h e ju d g e s r a n k e d i t s v a l i d i t y in th e h i g h e s t g ro u p and one Judge r a n k e d t h e ite m in t h e t h i r d g r o u p .

117

h ig h .

These d a t a t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r m e asu res u s e d i n d i c a t e

t h a t t h e t e s t w£s o f s a t i s f a c t o r y v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y .

S c a le f o r M e a s u rin g S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e So f a r I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n no v e r y d e f i n i t e i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n g iv e n i n r e g a r d t o t h e p a r t o f th e i n s t r u m e n t u s e d t o m easure t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

I t may be r e c a l l e d fro m

t h e s y n t h e s i s a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n C h a p te r s I and I I o f t h i s r e p o r t t h a t t h e m easu rem ent o f a s o - c a l l e d I n ­ t a n g i b l e s u c h a s t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e seems t o b e q u i t e a ta sk .

Many r e p o r t s have p o i n t e d t o th e d i f f i c u l t y o f m e a s u r­

in g I t , b u t h a v e s t a t e d t h a t I t seem s d e s i r a b l e t o a t t e m p t t o do s o .

This p o i n t o f view b e in g a c c e p t e d , t h i s I n v e s t i g a t o r

f e e l s i t n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o r d h e r e , w i t h some c a r e , t h e v a s t amount of w ork w h ic h was done by v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f i v e s c a l e s f o r m e a s u rin g t h e s e f i v e a s p e c t s o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

T h i s w ork was done by o t h e r s t o 1 whom c r e d i t I s e x t e n d e d e l s e w h e r e I n t h i s r e p o r t . I n C h a p t e r I s e v e r a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t ­ t i t u d e were d i s c u s s e d .

I t was d e c i d e d t h a t a w o rk in g d e f i n i ­

t i o n o f an a t t i t u d e m ig h t be a "m ind s e t " o r a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to a c t."

Then a s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e would be a "m ind s e t " o r

" p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o a c t " i n a c c o r d a n c e w ith a c c e p t e d s c i e n t i f i c la w s and t h e o r i e s .

1.

Even I f we a g r e e on a d e f i n i t i o n of a t t i t u d e

Names g i v e n i n A p p e n d ix , p . 2 6 2 .

118

t h a t I s n o t enough I n o r d e r t o m easu re i t .

Someone m u s t b r e a k

t h a t d e f i n i t i o n up i n t o i t s a s p e c t s o r p r a c t i c a l fo rm s I n w h ic h i t m ig h t b e e x p e c te d t o a p p e a r i n r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s . T h e a t t i t u d e s t o be m e a su re d were t h o s e d e t e r m i n e d by 1 C u r tis * tem pt t o

The p ro b lem o f h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n " r e p r e s e n t s an a t ­ s e c u r e a l i s t , c o m p le te an d as d e f i n i t e a s p o s s i b l e , 2

o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s . "

The method was to f i r s t make

an e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e s c i e n t i f i c

lit e r a tu r e d e a l­

in g w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h i c p h a s e s o f s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t .

Such

works a s P e a r s o n 's A Grammar o f S c i e n c e . D ew ey's How We T h in k , K ra m e r's T he Method o f D arw in , an d o t h e r s w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r th e p u r p o s e o f s e c u r i n g a l i s t o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s . There w e r e t h e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f a t t i t u d e s w h ic h w ere s u b m i tte d t o f i f t y h i g h s c h o o l and f i f t y c o l l e g e and u n i v e r ­ s i t y t e a c h e r s o f s c ie n c e *

T hese s c i e n c e s p e c i a l i s t s w ere r e ­

q u e s te d t o mark " e " ea ch i t e m w h ich th e y c o n s i d e r e d t o be e s 3 s e n t i a l I n a c o m p le te l i s t o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s t o mark "D" each i t e m w h ich t h e y c o n s i d e r e d h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e b u t n o t e s ­ s e n t i a l a n d mark "U" each I te m w hich th e y c o n s i d e r e d e i t h e r u n ­ d e s ir a b le or unnecessary I n such a l i s t .

P e r s o n s who m arked

th e s e i t e m s w ere i n v i t e d t o w r i t e i n or ad d t o th e l i s t I n any t h e y t h o u g h t d e s i r a b l e .

1. 2.

3.

F r a n c i s Day C u r t i s , A D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i ­ t u d e . J o u r n a l of C h e m ic a l E d u c a t i o n , 3 ( A u g u s t, 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 9 2 0 -9 2 1 . I b l d . , p . 920. EocT c i t •

119

F i f t y - e i g h t r e p l i e s w ere r e c e i v e d and t h e y v a r i e d a l l t h e w ay fro m a c c e p t a n c e w i t h a n o t e o f com m endation on e a c h p o i n t t o one w h ic h s t o o d a l o n e by e x p r e s s i n g d i s a p p r o v a l w i t h th e e n t i r e l i s t .

"Hot a l l a u t h o r i t i e s e v a l u a t e d e a c h s u b - h e a d

and s a n e e v a l u a t e d o n ly t h e s u b - h e a d s .

I t seemed r e a s o n a b l e

t o u s e t h e d a t a i n e a c h c a s e , ho w ever, an d so t h e r e s u l t s o f th e p e r c e n t o f th e g r o u p m a rk in g e a c h o f t h e t h r e e p o s s i b l e ways w as t a b u l a t e d .

T h is t a b u l a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e com­

m e n ts a n d a d d i t i o n s by t h e s p e c i a l i s t s was u s e d t o f o r m u l a t e th e r e v i s e d o u t l i n e o f a t t i t u d e s .

T h is r e v i s e d l i s t a s r e -

1

p o r t e d by C u r t i s I.

C o n v i c t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l b a s i c c a u s e and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s , re n d e rin g u n te n a b le a. b. c.

II,

b. c.

Of c a r e lb 1 a n d a c c u r a t e o b s e r v a t i o n o r o f e q u a l l y c a r e f u l a n d a c c u r a t e use o f p e r t i n e n t d a t a p r e ­ v i o u s l y c o l l e c t e d by o t h e r s ; Of p a t i e n t c o l l e c t i n g o f d a t a ; Of p e r s i s t e n c e i n t h e s e a r c h f o r a d e q u a t e e x p l a n a ­ tio n .

H a b i t o f d e l a y e d r e s p o n s e , h o l d i n g v ie w s t e n t a t i v e l y f o r s u i t a b l e r e f l e c t i o n ( v a r y in g w ith t h e m a t t e r In band) a.

1.

S u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s in g e n e r a l , a s “ s i g h s " o f "good l u c k " o r “b ack l u c k " and c h a rm s ; "U n ex p la in a b le m y s te r ie s " ; " B e a ts a l l " a t t i t u d e , commonly r e v e a l e d by (1) Too r e a d y c r e d u l i t y ; (2) T endency to m a g n ify t h e I m p o rta n c e o f co ­ in c id e n c e ,

S e n s i t i v e c u r i o s i t y c o n c ern in g re a so n s f o r happen­ i n g s c o u p le d w i t h I d e a l s a.

III.

i s g i v e n b e lo w .

C u rtis,

To p e r m i t a d e q u a t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e op­ tio n s ; oj). c l t . , p . 927

120

b.

IV.

To p e r m i t a c o n s c io u s p l a n o f a t t a c k , c l e a r l y lo o k in g fo rw a rd t o a p r e d i c t i o n of t h e p ro b a b le outcome o r s o l u t i o n .

H a b it o f w e ig h in g e v id e n c e w itli r e s p e c t t o I t s a. b. c.

V.

P e rtin e n c e ; S oundness; A dequacy.

R e s p e c t f o r a n o t h e r ’ s p o i n t o f v ie w , an o p e n -m in d e d n e ss an d w i l l i n g n e s s t o be c o n v in c e d by e v i d e n c e . T hese f i v e " s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s ” form ed t h e s u b j e c t

f o r f i v e t h e s e s b t t h e C o lo ra d o S t a t e C o lle g e o f E d u c a tio n a t 1 G r e e l e y , C o lo r a d o . I t becam e th e p r o b le m o f t h e s e f i v e I n ­ v e s t i g a t o r s t o c o n s t r u c t a s c a l e t o m easu re one o f th e f i v e a t ­ t i t u d e s m e n tio n e d a b o v e .

These s c a l e s w ere d e v e lo p e d u n d e r 2

t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e same s p o n s o r ,

a member o f th e f a c u l t y

o f t h e C o l l e g e , who i n s u r e d t h e y w ere c o m p le te d f o r a common purpo se.

They w ere p la n n e d a s a u n i t and c a r r i e d o u t i n e s ­

s e n t i a l l y t h e same m an n er. As an ex am p le o f how t h e s e s c a l e s were c o n s t r u c t e d , c o n s i d e r a t i o n I s g iv e n t o one i n p a r t i c u l a r .

The p r o c e d u r e s

u s e d by e a c h o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w ere e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same 3 a s e v e r y o t h e r o n e . The p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y o f Edwards was " t o c o n s t r u c t a d e v i c e s u i t a b l e t o m easure th e e f f e c t s o f s c i e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n upon t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e c u rio s ity .' 1. 2.

3.

's e n s itiv e

”

Names g i v e n i n A p p e n d ix , p . 262. Name g iv e n i n A p p e n d ix , p . 262. Lon E. E d w ard s, a n d M.L. R o b e r t s o n , The C o n s t r u c t i o n of a S c a l e f o r t h e D e te r m in a ti o n o f th e S c i e n t i f i c A t t i ­ t u d e ’’S e n s i t i v e C u r i o s i t y , ” S c io n c e E d u c a t i o n , 23 ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 9 ) , p p . 1 98 -2 0 6 .

121

The d e f i n i t i o n o f a t t i t u d e a s e x p r e s s e d h e r e a s w e l l a 3 i n th e r e p o r t s o f e a c h o f t h e o th e r f o u r s t u d i e s , m e n tio n e d p r e v i o u s l y , was Ma mind s e t , a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o a c t i n a c ­ c o rd a n c e w i t h a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n o f "behavior • 11

T h is d e f i n i t i o n

o f a t t i t u d e u s e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s f o r d e v e lo p m e n t o f a t t i t u d e s c a l e s i s a l s o a c c e p t e d f o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s t u d y .

Many

o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n s h a v e b e e n r e f e r r e d to p r e v i o u s l y i n t h i s w o rk , h u t no one seem s s u p e r i o r f o r t h e purpose o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r t o t h e one J u s t s t a t e d . The s t u d y b y Edwards t h e n was to d e v e l o p a s c a l e t o 1 m easure one o f t h e f i v e a t t i t u d e s a s s t a t e d by C u r t i s . T h is s tu d y u s e d a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e method o f T h u r s to n e a n d Chave 2

i n t h e i r m e a s u re m e n t o f a t t i t u d e s toward t h e c h u r c h .

For th e

c o n stru c tio n o f th e a t titu d e sc a le s c e rta in m o d ific a tio n s of th e T h u rs to n e an d Chave t e c h n iq u e were u s e d a s s t a t e d by E d 3 w a rd s , The m o d i f i c a t i o n s w ere:

1.

2. 3.

1.

T h is s t u d y u s e d a n i n e p o in t s c a l e i n s t e a d o f t h e e l e v e n p o i n t s c a l e . The r a n g e o f t h e n i n e p o i n t s c a l e was c o n s i d e r e d t o b e s u f f i c i e n t l y la rg e . I t a l s o made p o s s i b l e t h e u s e o f a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t te c h n iq u e i n s c a l i n g th e ite m s.

2.

E x p e r t ju d g e s were u s e d to s c a l e t h e ite m s i n ­ s t e a d o f la y m en . Due to the s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d w i t h w h ich t h e s tu d y d e a l t , i t w as assum ed t h a t

F r a n c i s Day C u r t i s , A D e te r m in a tio n o f t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t­ titu d e s. J o u r n a l o f C hem ical E d u c a t i o n , 3 ( A u g u s t, 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 9 2 6 -9 2 1 , L.L* T h u r s to n e and E . J . Chave, The M easurem ent o f A t t i ­ tu d e s# p p .1 -9 6 . Lon E . E dw ard s, and M.L. R o b e rts o n , o j d . c i t . , p . 1 9 8 .

122

t h e ju d g m e n ts o f e x p e r t s In t h a t f i e l d w i t h w h ic h t h e s t u d y d e a l t would b e more v a l u a b l e t h a n t h o s e o f laym en. 3.

A s m a l l e r number o f ju d g e s was u s e d . B e cau se o f t h e r e s t r i c t i v e c r i t e r i a f o r th e d e t e r m i n a ­ t i o n of t h e e x p e r t s , i t would h a v e b e e n d i f f i ­ c u l t t o h a v e o b ta in e d a l a r g e num ber o f c o m p e te n t ju d g e s.

4.

The s c a l e v a l u e B and t h e m e a s u r e o f a m b i g u i t y w e re d e te r m in e d by s t a t i s t i c a l f o r m u la e r a t h e r t h a n by t h e g r a p h ic m ethod.

The u n i t u s e d i n th e Edwards s c a l e was t h e e q u a l a p 1 p e a r l n g i n t e r v a l a s d e s c r i b e d by T h u r s t o n e . The t e c h n i q u e was t o c o n s i d e r a l i n e e x te n d in g b e tw e e n th e two e x tre m e d e ­ g re e s o f p o s s e s s io n o f th e a t t i t u d e " s e n s i t i v e c u r i o s i t y . " Such a l i n e w o u ld a p p e a r a s b e lo w :

B T ow ard B shows h i g h d eg ree of p o sse ssio n o f th is a ttitu d e

A Toward A shows low d eg ree o f p o sse ssio n of th is a ttitu d e 2

Now when, a s e x p l a i n e d by E dw ards, we e x a m in e th e s t a t e m e n t "No a t t e m p t s h o u l d be made t o e x p l a i n n a t u r a l h a p p e n in g s " i t would be e v i d e n t t h a t a p e rso n m aking t h a t s t a t e m e n t was e x ­ p r e s s i n g a low d e g r e e o f " s e n s i t i v e c u r i o s i t y . "

T h is o p i n i o n

t h e n s h o u l d b e p l a c e d somewhere t o th e l e f t o f t h e c e n t e r o f th e l i n e

(i.e .)

to w a r d t h e A e n d .

A s t a t e m e n t "W henever I s e e

s o m e th in g new X a lw a y s t r y t o f i n d out w h a t i t i s " seems t o 1. 2.

L .L . T h u r s t o n e , The Law o f C o m p a ra tiv e Ju d g m en t. P s y c h o ­ l o g i c a l R eview , 34 ( J u l y , 1927), p p . 2 3 7 -2 8 6 . Edw ards a n d R o b e r t s on, op. c i t . , p . 1 9 9 .

123

I n d ic a te a h ig h degree o f p o s s e s s io n o f t h i s a t t i t u d e .

It

w ould t h e n h e p l a c e d t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e l i n e s c a l e o r to w a r d t h e B ©nd.

I n t h i s w ay, i f a p erso n a c c e p te d

o r r e j e c t e d s e r i e s o f su c h s t a t e m e n t s e a c h h a v i n g a d e f i n i t e l o c a t i o n a l o n g th e s c a l e , i t would se e m t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t s w h ic h he a c c e p t e d would be a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e d e g r e e t o w h ic h he p o s s e s s e d t h i s a t t i t u d e . I n t h i s s t u d y t h e r e w ere s e v e n t y - o n e s t a t e m e n t s s e l e c t e d from v a r i o u s ty p e s o f l i t e r a t u r e and deem ed s u i t a b l e , by a s m a l l g ro u p o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n , t o r e ­ f l e c t th e a t t i t u d e I n q u e s t i o n . 1 th e fo llo w in g c r i t e r i a :

T hese s t a t e m e n t s h a d t o m e e t

1.

E ac h o p i n i o n a t e d s t a t e m e n t s h o u ld c o n t a i n o n ly one th o u g h t .

2.

The v o c a b u la r y u s e d in e a c h o p i n i o n s h o u l d be a s s im p lif ie d as p o s s ib le .

3.

E ach i t e m s h o u ld e x p r e s s c l e a r l y t h e s i t u a t i o n I t re p re se n ts.

4.

The o p in io n s s h o u l d r e p r e s e n t v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t h e a t t i t u d e so t h a t a l l p a r t s o f th e s c a l e w ould c o n t a i n I te m s .

T hese i t e m s w e re s u b m i tte d t o f i f t y p u p i l s I n e i g h t h g r a d e s c i e n c e t o i n s u r e t h a t a s w r i t t e n t h e y were s u i t a b l e f o r p u p i l s of ju n io r h ig h school le v e l.

C e r t a i n Ite m s w ere m o d i f i e d a s a

r e s u l t o f t h i s p re lim in a ry t r i a l .

1.

E dw ards a n d R o b e r ts o n , o p . c l t .

124

The ju d g e s who w ere t o c o n s i d e r t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s t h e n 1 w ere s e l e c t e d a c c o rd in g t o th e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a : a.

The judges h a d t o h a v e a m em bership i n th e Na­ t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r R e s e a r c h I n S c ie n c e Teach­ in g .

b.

They had t o b e a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n r e ­ search in a r e a s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c a ttitu d e s.

The d i r e c t i o n s which w ere g iv e n t o t h e

ju d g e s in c l u d e d t h e

fo llo w in g : c.

You a r e g iv e n n i n e e n v e l o p e s w i t h l e t t e r s on them A ,B ,c ,D ,E ,F ,G ,H , a n d I , P le a s e a rra n g e th e se b e f o r e you i n r e g u l a r o r d e r . On t h e e n v e lo p e B p u t th o se s l i p s o r s t a t e m e n t s o f o p i n i o n t h e a c ­ c e p ta n c e o f w h ich you b e l i e v e , e g r e s s e s t h e lo w est d e g re e o f ' s e n s i t i v e c u r i o s i t y . ' On e n ­ v elo p e E p u t th o s e e x p r e s s i n g a n a v e r a g e d e g r e e . On en velop e H p u t t h o s e s l i p s w h ic h e x p r e s s th e h ig h e st degree o f 's e n s i t i v e c u r i o s i t y . ' A fte r t h e s e s l i p s have b ee n r e d u c e d t o t h r e e p i l e s , s e p a r a t e e a c h p i l e I n t o t h r e e more p i l e s a c c o r d ­ i n g to th e v a r y i n g o f t h a t a t t i t u d e w i t h i n t h a t p i l e . T hat I s th e p i l e on e n v e lo p e B w i l l be d iv id e d I n t o ABC, t h a t on E i n t o DEF and on H i n t o GHI.

d.

T h is means t h a t when y o u a r e t h r o u g h s o r t i n g you w i l l have n i n e p i l e s a r r a n g e d In orriter o f v a l u e e s t i m a t e , fro m A to t h e l o w e s t , t o I th e h i g h e s t .

e.

Do n o t t r y t o g e t t h e same number i n each g r o u p . I t I s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e y a r e e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d .

I n o r d e r to have th e s c a l e d o p i n i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d by a n u m e r i c a l v a lu e an o r i g i n was a r b i t r a r i l y c h o s e n a t t h e low end o f t h e s c a l e and g iv e n a v a l u e o f z e r o .

S ta te m e n ts w hich

had b e e n p l a c e d in group A were g i v e n a v a l u e o f one, th o s e 1,

Loc« c l t .

125

I n g r o u p B a v a lu e o f two a n d s o on t i l l were g i v e n a v a lu e o f nine*

th o se in group I

A f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n was t h e n

made "by t a b u l a t i n g t h e number o f t i m e s e a c h I te m h a d b e e n p l a c e d by t h e Judges i n e a c h g r o u p .

A m ed ian f o r e a c h it e m 1 was t h e n com puted by t h e u s e o f O d e l l ’ s f o rm u la p l a n . S in c e a l l j u d g e s would n o t be e x p e c t e d t o a g r e e a s t o j u s t w h ich p o i n t on t h e s c a l e a n ite m s h o u l d a p p e a r t h e n e a c h i t e m w ould have a s p r e a d .

A s t a t e m e n t w h ic h w as q u i t e am b ig u o u s w ould

t e n d t o be bim odal i n i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n and b e s p r e a d o v er a la rg e a r e a .

The 0,- v a lu e t h e n was d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h ite m as 2

a " c r i t e r i o n of a m b ig u ity o r c h r i t y o f meaning'.'

O th e r c r i t e r i a

w ere a d d e d t o make t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r : 1,

The t i - v a l u e f o r any i t e m s h o u ld n o t e x c e e d 1 . 1 1 .

2,

B oth t h e u p p e r and l o w e r ra n g e o f th e s c a l e s h o u ld b e r e p r e s e n t e d e q u a l l y w e l l .

5.

A s c a l e v a lu e s h o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t e d by one ite m o n ly .

4.

Where a c h o ic e i s t o b e made b e tw e e n tw o ite m s o f t h e same s c a l e v a l u e t h e one w i t h t h e lo w e r ti- v a lu e s h o u ld be u s e d .

Any Ite m w h ic h d i d n o t c o n f o r m to t h e s e c r i t e r i a was d isc a rd e d .

The f i n a l l i s t c o n s i s t e d o f t h i r t y - t w o s t a t e m e n t s .

H a l f o f t h e s e were ones w hich h a d b e e n ju d g e d t o b e l o n g below th e c e n t e r o f th e s c a l e and h a l f a b o v e t h e c e n t e r o r i n th e

1. 2.

C.W. O d e l l , S t a t i s t i c a l M ethod i n E d u c a t i o n . New Y o rk : D. A p p le to n C e n tu ry Company, 19&5. P p . 7 7 - 7 8 . I b i d . , p . 201.

126

h a l f I n d ic a tin g a h ig h e r d egree o f p o s s e s s io n o f t h i s a t t i ­ tu d e . I n t h e manner c a r e f u l l y d e s c r i b e d a b o v e each, o f t h e f i v e i n v e s t i g a t o r s p r e c e d e d t o e a c h d e v e lo p a s e t o f s t a t e 1 m e n ts f o r t h e m easurem ent o f an a t t i t u d e a s s t a t e d b y C u r t i s . P r e v io u s d i s c u s s i o n h a s e x p l a i n e d how e a c h o f t h e s e f i v e s c a l e s were a d m i n i s t e r e d t o s t u d e n t s a n d ite m s w h ich seem ed m o s t s u i t a b l e s e l e c t e d .

Prom e a c h o f th e f i v e s c a l e s

f i f t e e n Ite m s were s e l e c t e d from t h e t h i r t y t o t h i r t y - t h r e e i t e m s c o n t a i n e d in e a c h s c a l e .

I n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f Ite m s t h e

i n d e x o f d i f f i c u l t y was e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l a s d e s c r i b e d on p a g e 113 •

The u s e o f t h i s I n d e x was e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t 3 in c e

t h e s e i t e m s were o r i g i n a l l y made f o r u s e I n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s . By t h i s p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i o n o n ly t h o s e i t e m s were u s e d w h ic h w e re o f s u i t a b l e d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a c t u a l l y in th is

c la ss. D u rin g t h e t h r e e tim e s w h ic h t h e r e v i s i o n w as made

i n t h e m e a s u r in g I n s t r u m e n t a s a iriaole, th e r e v i s i o n s i n t h i s p a r t w ere c o n f in e d t o t h e d i r e c t i o n s .

The w o rd in g o f t h e I n ­

d i v i d u a l I te m lias n o t b e e n c h a n g e d fro m t h a t fo u n d i n th e o rig in a l sc a le .

To have changed a n y ite m w ould h a v e d e s t r o y e d

t h e s c a l e o f v a l u e w h ic h had b e e n a s s i g n e d t o i t .

T hese ite m s

h a d b e e n w e ig h te d by j u d g e s , a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , on a s c a l e o f " e q u a l a p p e a r i n g i n t e r v a l s ” fro m o n e to n i n e w i t h no 1.

F r a n c i s Day C u r t i s , A D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e S c i e n t i f i c A t ­ t i t u d e . J o u r n a l o f C h e m ic a l E d u c a t i o n . 3 ( A u g u s t, 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 920-9217

127

r e f e r e n c e t o how many Item s f e l l i n a n y one i n t e r v a l .

T h is

made t h e v a l u e s a s s i g n e d to th e ite m s n o t d e p e n d e n t upon th e v a l u e o f th e o th e r ite m s o f t h e s c a l e .

S in c e t h i s w as t r u e

and a l l i t e m s had b e e n w e ig h te d on t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l m e r i t a l o n e on t h e same s c a l e th en ite m s c o u ld be l i f t e d fro m t h e i r g ro u p an d u s e d i n an y c o m b in a tio n d e s i r e d w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g th e w e i g h t s o r i g i n a l l y a s s i g n e d . H aving s e l e c t e d f i f t e e n ite m s from e a c h o f f i v e s c a l e s a l a r g e r s c a l e was d e v e lo p e d o f f i v e p a r t s (A-E o f t e s t a s shown i n A p p en d ix , p . 256) t o m easure f i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e s c ie n tific a ttitu d e .

As has b e e n p o i n t e d o u t i n t h i s r e p o r t ,

one I m p o r t a n t w eak ness o f a l l m easurem ents o f th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e h a s b een t h e p ro b lem o f h a v in g s t u d e n t s g i v e r e s ­ p o n s e s w h ich a r e a c t u a l l y t h e i r own r a t h e r t h a n r e s p o n s e s w hich t h e s t u d e n t f e e l s t h e i n s t r u c t o r would have him g iv e ..

V a r io u s

a t t e m p t s h a v e b een made to overcom e t h i s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f success* The I n v e s t i g a t o r b r o u g h t t h e p ro b le m o u t i n th e o pen w i t h s t u d e n t s i n t h e c l a s s d u r i n g t h e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d v a l i d a ­ t i o n o f t h e t e s t a n d was a b l e t o o b t a i n t h e i r r e a c t i o n s o f t h e many r e a s o n s why s t u d e n t s f e l t th e y m ig h t n o t g i v e a t r u e response.

The main p o i n t s seem ed t o b e s u c h t h a t t h e y c o u ld

be su m m arized i n o n e i d e a t h a t would say t h a t t h e s t u d e n t would be l i k e l y t o g iv e w h a t h e f e l t t h e i n s t r u c t o r

( o r somebody e l s e )

w o u ld have him f e e l i f by g i v i n g h i s own f e e l i n g h e m ig h t " l o s e f a c e " i n t h e eyes o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r o r o t h e r p e r s o n i n a p o -

128

s i t l o n to g i v e an a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n t o h i s I n f e r i o r r e s p o n s e * A f t e r v e r i f y i n g t h i s I d e a by n o t i c i n g t h a t I t was e x ­ p r e s s e d i n v a r i o u s w ays by s t u d e n t s ,

th e I n v e s t i g a t o r e x p e r i­

m e n te d w i t h ways o f o v erco m in g t h i s v e r y r e a l d i f f i c u l t y .

It

a p p e a r e d t h a t a means o f a l l o w i n g t h e s t u d e n t t o e x p r e s s h i s own f e e l i n g s

(" w h a te v e r they may b e M) c o u l d be g i v e n a n d a t

t h e same tim e a c h a n ce to e x p r e s s h i s k n o w led g e i n c a s e s where h e knew b e t t e r th a n h e a c t u a l l y f e l t .

The f i n a l d e c i s i o n was

t h e two column a r r a n g e m e n t u s e d i n t h e s c a l e s .

S in c e t h i s

a r r a n g e m e n t seems t o b e a new a p p r o a c h a n d s i n c e e v i d e n c e I s p r e s e n t e d l a t e r i n t h i s r e p o r t w h ic h seems t o 3how i t s r e a l v a l u e th e a r r a n g e m e n t i s p r o d u c e d h e r e . a r r a n g e m e n t f o r th e a t t i t u d e

The d i r e c t i o n s and 1 s c a le I s as fo llo w s:

PART IV I t i s b e lie v e d th a t you w ill fin d th is an i n t e r e s t ­ in g c h e c k on how y o u say y o u w o uld f e e l or a c t i n a c e r ­ ta in situ a tio n . P l e a s e ch eck ( V ) i n t h e l e f t colum n o n ly t h o s e s t a t e m e n t s w hich you f e e l w o u ld c o r r e c t l y e x p r e s s y o u r f e e l i n g or a c tio n in th e s i t u a t i o n s t a t e d o r im p lie d . A c h e c k i n d i c a t e s a g r e e m e n t, a b la n k d i s a g r e e m e n t . P l e a s e check ( V ) i n t h e r i g h t column o n l y t h o s e s t a t e m e n t s w hich you f e e l a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s w hat s h o u ld b e t h e f e e l i n g o r a c t i o n o f an I n s t r u c t o r o f a s c i e n c e c o u r s e p r o v id e d h e a c t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h known s c i e n ­ t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n and p r o c e d u r e s . L eave b l a n k a l l s t a t e ­ m e n ts w hich you c o n s i d e r do n o t a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s w hat s h o u ld be th e view p o i n t o r a c t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r i n each c a se . The two columns a r e p r o v i d e d so t h a t y o u can f r a n k l y

1.

A ls o shown more f u l l y i n A p p e n d ix , p . 261

129

e y r e e a w h a te v e r you r e a l l y do p e r s o n a l l y f e e l r e g a r d l e s s o r why you f e e l t h a t way a n d a t t h e same tim e t o show t h a t y o u know how an i n s t r u c t o r s h o u ld f e e l o r a c t . _______1. _______2 . 3.

(In th is space appear th e s c a l e I t e m s t o be c h e c k e d or l e f t b la n k a c c o rd in g to th e d ir e c tio n s a b o v e ,)

1 . _____ 2 . ______ 3 . ______

I n c o n s i d e r i n g th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s m e th o d o f ob­ t a i n i n g a t r u e r e s p o n s e I t w o u ld seem t h a t I f s t u d e n t s d i d n o t c h e c k t h e column a t t h e l e f t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r own f e e l i n g s b u t a c c o r d i n g to w h at th e y t h o u g h t t h e i n s t r u c t o r w ould w ant th e m t o f e e l t h e n t h e r e s p o n s e s o f b o t h colum ns wodld t e n d t o be i d e n t i c a l .

The p r e l i m i n a r y s tu d y showed t h a t » r e l y d i d a

s t u d e n t an sw e r t h e same in t h e two co lu m n s.

In p r a c t i c a l l y a l l

c a s e s t h e s t u d e n t i n d i c a t e d t h a t he f e l t t h e i n s t r u c t o r s h o u ld a c c e p t fe w e r ite m s t h a n he a c t u a l l y a c c e p t e d . T h is to o k th e fo rm o f t h e s t u d e n t c h e c k in g fe w e r i t e m s o f low s c a l e v a l u e . The r e s u l t was t h a t a l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s made a n o t i c e ­ a b l y b e t t e r s c o r e i n t h e co lu m n a t t h e r i g h t t h a n a t t h e l e f t i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e i r kn ow ledg e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e t e n d s t o be b e t t e r th a n t h e i r r e a l f e e l i n g s to w a r d t h e m a t t e r s i n q u e stio n .

I t is f u r th e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t th e r e a l a t t i t u d e s

o f th e s tu d e n ts have been m easured.

I t can be s e e n t h a t th e

tw o column a r r a n g e m e n t r e a l l y am ounts t o m e a s u r in g ( l ) w hat th e s t u d e n t a c t u a l l y f e e l s and ( 2 ) what he s h o u ld f e e l .

T h is was

n o t s t a t e d anywhere d u r in g t h e t e s t i n g I n t h e s e word3 i n o r d e r n o t t o a r o u s e an a d v e r s e r e s p o n s e a n d it

bo

f a i l to g e t a tru e

M eaning t h a t t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h a t ite m t e n d e d t o I n d i c a t e a poor s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e .

130

m easure o f th e s tu d e n ts * f e e l i n g s and th u s d e f e a t th e p u rp o se. T h i s q u e s t i o n o f m e a s u rin g t h e s t u d e n t s ' own a t t i t u d e I s ob­ v i o u s l y m o st i m p o r t a n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e s c a l e and 30 h a s b ee n r e p o r t e d I n some d e t a i l .

F u r t h e r V a l i d a t i o n o f th e A t t i t u d e S c a l e A n o th e r m e asu re o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e f i n a l a t t i t u d e s c a l e , d e v e lo p e d an d p r e s e n t e d a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , was m a d e.

F o r t h i s p u r p o s e a g r o u p o f e i g h t e e n ad v a n c e d g r a d u a t e s

I n s c i e n c e were g i v e n th e a t t i t u d e

s c a l e u n d e r c la s s r o o m con­

d i t i o n s co m p arab le t o t h o s e u n d e r w h ich t h e s t u d e n t s i n t h e e x p e rim e n ta l group r e a c t to t h e s c a l e . B ecause o f th e t r a i n i n g , e x p e r i e n c e , I n t e r e s t s , s e l e c ­ t i v e p ro c e s s o f s c ie n c e and p e rh a p s o th e r f a c t o r s o f t h i s g r o u p t h a t th e s e p e r s o n s s h o u l d p o s s e s s t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e th a n o r d i n a r y c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s .

T h is b ein g

assu m ed t r u e , t h e n I f t h i s s c a l e I s v a l i d f o r m e a s u rin g th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e , t h e s e p e r s o n s s h o u ld s c o re s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on th e s c a l e th a n do B t u d e n t s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n ta l g ro u p . While o t h e r f a c t o r s may e n t e r i n t o th e s c o r i n g o f th e tw o g ro u p s su c h a s a d v a n ce d a g e , g r e a t e r m a t u r i t y and ex­ p e r i e n c e , e t c . , i t re m a in s t r u e t h a t I f t h i s g ro u p s c o r e s a b o u t A d u lt g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s m o s t l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h e d o c t o r a t e , I n S c ie n c e e d u c a t i o n , o r t e a c h e r s o f s c i e n c e , o r b o t h . A l l s t u d e n t s i n a d v a n c e d s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n , S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n , Hew Y ork U n i v e r s i t y , acad em ic y e a r 19 4 1 -4 2 .

131

t h e 3 am© a s do o r d i n a r y s t u d e n t s t h e n t h e 3 c a l e w ould he o f d o u b tfu l v a lid ity .

The r e s u l t s , h o w e v e r, show ed t h a t t h i s

g ro u p sco red c o n s id e ra b ly h i g h e r . TABLE I I S c o r e s on A t t i t u d e S c a l e by G r a d u a te S t u d e n t s in S c ie n c e A verag e s c a l e v a l u e o f ite m s a c c e p t e d P e rso n a lly S h o u ld be a c c e p te d a c c e p te d

S tu d e n t Number

Number o f i t e m s ch e ck e d S h o u ld be P e rso n a lly ac c e p te d a c c e p te d

6 .7 6 .9 7 .4 6 .8 5 .5 7 .4 7 .8 6 .2 6 .3 6 .9 7 .1 7 .6 7 .2 7 .1 6 .2 6 .7 6 .4 7 .1

29 24 27 28 13 18 21 38

18

6 .7 6 .9 6 .5 6 .6 6 .7 7 .3 6 .8 7 .4 5 .8 6 .1 6 ,6 6 .6 6 .6 6 .6 6 .2 6 .7 5 .4 7 .1

41 21 21 22 23 39 35 37 29

31 24 18 26 38 17 18 30 36 28 21 22 20 19 39 35 34 27

Means

6 .6

6 .3

18

17

Means o f p re lim in ­ a r y s tu d y

5 .9

6 .1

32

33

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17

39

T a b le t o r e a d : S t u d e n t No. 1 h a d a n a v e r a g e s c a l e v a l u e o f 6 . 7 o f t h e it e m s he p e r s o n a l l y a c c e p t e a n d 6 .7 on i t e m s w h ic h s h o u l d b e a c ­ c e p t e d h a v in g c h e c k e d 29 i t e m s i n t h e f i r s t column a n d t h i r t y - o n e I n t h e s e c o n d .

132

This g r o u p s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n d i d t h e s t u d e n t s o f p r e lim in a r y stu d y , th u s g i v in g f u r t h e r ev iden ce as to the v a l i d i t y of t h e s c a l e .

The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d h e r e I n Table I I

(page 131) can be compared w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t I t s e l f as rep o rted l a t e r in th e study. The r e s u l t s show ahere I n d i c a t e t h a t t h e means o f t h e s e g ra d u a te students a r e h ig h e r th a n th o se o f th e o r i g i n a l t e s t o f t h e group i n t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y .

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s

s t u d y w i l l show t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s eve n a f t e r i n s t r u c t i o n d i d n o t do a s w e l l on t h e s c a l e a s d i d t h i s g r o u p . w ould b e e x p e c t e d by u s i n g a v a l i d s c a l e .

T h is s i t u a t i o n

T h e s e r e s u l t s may

be u s e d as a k i n d o f m e a s u r i n g s t i c k f o r c o m p a r i s o n o f s c o r e s o f s t u d e n t s i n t h e main p a r t o f t h e s t u d y .

R e l i a b i l i t y o f M e asuring I n s t r u m e n t In o rd er t o determ ine th e r e l i a b i l i t y

o f t h e m e a s u r in g

I n s t r u m e n t t h e ’’r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t ” and " i n d e x o f r e l i a ­ b i l i t y " were d e t e r m i n e d .

The r e l i a b i l i t y o f " s p l l t - h a l v e s "

f o r e a c h p a r t o f t h e t e s t was c a l c u l a t e d by c o r r e l a t i n g th e s c o r e s f o r e a c h o b j e c t i v e , f o r t h e odd n u m b e re d q u e s t i o n s w i t h t h e e v e n numbered o n e s .

As shown i n T a b l e I I I

(page 133)

t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s v a r i e d f r o m .4 3 f o r " s p l l t - h a l v e s " f o r t h e o b j e c t i v e p ro b le m s o l v i n g t o .7 1 f o r t h e t o t a l f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e p a r t s o f t h e t e s t a n d t h e same f o r a t t i t u d e s w h ic h were p e r s o n a l l y a c c e p t e d by t h e s t u d e n t . These c o r r e l a t i o n s w e r e t h e n c o r r e c t e d by u s i n g th e

133

TABLE I I I R e l i a b i l i t y of M easuring In s tru m e n t

A b ility

R eliab. C oeff. rll -

Index o f R eliab . r oo*

C orr. w ith T o t a l (F, U and P . S . ) CD

Corr. of s p l i t halves r s .59

.7 4

.8 6

U nderstand­ ings

.68

.81

.9 0

.77

P ro b le m S o lv ­ ing

.43

.60

.77

.71

T o t a l (F, U, and P . S . )

.71

.8 3

.91

—

A ttitu d e (Per. A ccept.)

.71

.83

.9 1

—

.

Facts

T ab le t o r e a d : The f a c t u a l p a r t o f t h e m e a s u r in g i n s t r u m e n t had a c o r r e l a t i o n f o r i t s " s p l i t h a l v e s " o f .5 9 w h ic h g i v e s a " r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t " o f .74 and a n " i n d e x o f r e l i a b i l i t y o f . 8 6 . The c o r ­ r e l a t i o n o f th e f a c t u a l t e s t w i t h t h e t o t a l i t e m s f o r t e s t i n g f a c t s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and p r o b le m s o l v ­ i n g was . 7 8 .

134

"Spearman Brown f o r m u l a f o r e s t i m a t i n g r e l i a b i l i t y f ro m two com parable h a l v e s o f t h e t e s t , " 1 G arrett is :

'1 1

-

T h i s f o r m u l a as g i v e n by

g r iIT 1 4 r i IT

I n w h ich r ^ ^ i s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e w hole t e s t , a n d r £ l / l l fo und e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , i s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f one h a l f t h e test. By t h i s p r o c e s s i t c a n be s e e n t h a t t h e " r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t " w i l l i n e a c h c a s e be h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of co rre la tio n fo r " s p l i t - h a l v e s."

By t h i s means t h e R e l i a ­

b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t " f o r e a c h p a r t o f t h e t e s t was d e t e r m i n e d a s r e p o r t e d I n column t w o o f T a b le

IIL

The " r e l i a b i l i t y c o ­

e f f i c i e n t " was found t o be .8 3 b o t h f o r t h e t o t a l o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e p a r t s o f the t e s t and f o r the a t t i t u d e s c a l e . As a f u r t h e r m e a s u r e o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h i s i n ­ s tr u m e n t t h e " i n d e x o f r e l i a b i l i t y " a c c o r d i n g t o G a r r e t t was calculated.

He s t a t e s :

The c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a s e r i e s o f o b t a i n e d s c o r e s and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g 1t h e o r e t i c a l l y t r u e 1 s c o r e s may be found b y t h e f o r m u l a r l l 00

3

/* U

( c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n o b t a i n e d s c o r e s on a g i v e n t e s t a n d t r u e s c o r e s i n t h e f u n c t i o n measured by the t e s t ) 1.

Henry E. G a r r e t t , S t a t i s t i c s i n P s y c h o lo g y a n d E d u c a t i o n , p . 319. (Formula' Vl)

135

i n w hich r i ^ i s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e g i v e n t e s t , and i*i00 r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o r r e l a ­ t i o n between o b t a i n e d a n d t r u e s c o r e s . 1 By u s i n g t h i s p r o c e s s t h e " i n d e x o f r e l i a b i l i t y " f o r e a c h p a r t o f t h e t e s t was a s shown i n T a b l e I I I , column t h r e e . I t w i l l be se en t h a t t h e i n d e x f o r t h e t e s t i s

.91 f o r t h e

t o t a l f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e p a r t s o f t h e t e s t a s w e l l a s f o r th e a ttitu d e scale.

From t h e s e d a t a we may c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e t e s t

i s o f d e s i r a b l e and s a t i s f a c t o r y r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e p u r p o s e s intended.

The f o u r t h column o f T a b le I I I Inwhich t h e c o r r e l a ­

t i o n o f e a c h o f th e f i r s t t h r e e p a r t s o f t h e t e s t t o t h e t o t a l i s g i v e n more as a m a t t e r o f g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t t h a n f o r any r e a l significance.

S in c e e a c h p a r t o f t h e t e s t i s d e s i g n e d t o -

measure a d i f f e r e n t a b i l i t y one would n o t e a p e c t a v e r y h i g h c o r r e la tio n w ith the t o t a l .

The P r e l i m i n a r y S tu d y Having made p l a n s f o r c o n d u c t i n g t h i s s tu d y i t seemed d e s i r a b l e t o co n d u c t a p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y .

Such a s t u d y I n v o lv e d

c o n d u c tin g a n a b b r e v i a t e d form o f t h e m ain s t u d y p a y in g p a r ­ t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o m ethods o f p r o c e d u r e w hich s h o u ld be noted*

As has a l r e a d y b e e n s t a t e d , t h e t e s t i t s e l f was r e ­

vised th r e e tim e s ,th e l a s t o f t h e s e r e v i s i o n s follow ing th e prelim inary study.

1.

G a r r e t t , o£. c i t *, p . 319.

(Fo rm ula 72)

136

By t h e n a t u r e and p u r p o s e o f a p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y i t is not b eliev ed to be necessary to r e p o r t the findings in d etail.

I t should be p o in te d o u t , how ever, t h a t ev ery step

which s u c c e e d e d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y was t a k e n I n t h e l i g h t of the experience and th e f i n d in g s of t h a t study.

I n a very

r e a l s e n s e the v a l u e o f p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e m i i n s t u d y w h ic h f o l ­ lowed, r e f l e c t t h e v a l u e o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y . T h i s work was c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e June and Summer S e s s i o n s o f 1941 a t t h e S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , New York U n iv e r ­ sity .

These c l a s s e s w ere I n s c i e n c e c o u r s e s which were the

same o r v e r y s i m i l a r to t h e one i n t h e main s t u d y .

D u rin g

J u n e , 1941, the f i r s t a t t e m p t t o a p p l y t h e s t u d y was made w i t h a group o f t w e n t y - e i g h t s t u d e n t s who c o m p le t e d t h e one semes­ t e r ’ s w ork o f t h i s c o u r s e i n one i n t e n s i v e c o u r s e o f two weeks.

No w r i t t e n r e s u l t s w ere k e p t o f t h i s f i r s t a t t e m p t ,

b u t i d e a s were o b t a i n e d f o r c o n d u c t i n g t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s tu d y d u r i n g J u l y and A u g u s t ,

1941.

Two e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s were u s e d t o g e t h e r w i t h one c o n t r o l group w h i c h was n o t t a k i n g s c i e n c e a t t h a t tim e * The g r o u p s I n v o l v e d h e r e w ere a s f o l l o w s : A.

Group No. 1 c o n s i s t e d o f 34 s t u d e n t s t a k i n g S c i e n c e 0 1 4 . 8 t h e s e c o n d t h r e e weeks.

This

work was t a u g h t by two I n s t r u c t o r s o t h e r t h a n the i n v e s t i g a t o r .

The w o r k , however, was con­

d u c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s y l l a b u s and p r o c e d u r e s u s u a l l y u s e d i n t h i s c o u r s e , r e g a r d l e s a o f who t h e i n s t r u c t o r happens t o b e .

137

B.

Group No* 2 c o n s i s t e d o f s e v e n Freshmen s t u ­ d e n t s m a j o r i n g i n p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n who t o o k t h i s f u l l y e a r c o u r s e d u r i n g s i x w eeks.

This

c o u r s e ( S c ie n c e 0 1 4 . 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 ) i s t h e f o u r p o i n t o r y e a r course reduced t o t h r e e p o i n t s w ith c o r r e s ­ p o n d i n g r e d u c t i o n i n t i m e and work.

The t o p i c s

c o v e r e d and p r o c e d u r e s u s e d a r e t h e same a s t h e c o u r s e i n t h e c a s e o f Group No. 1 w i t h t h e e x c e p ­ t i o n noted. C.

Group No. 3 was t h e c o n t r o l group o f t w e l v e s t u ­ d e n t s e n r o lle d in E n g lis h com position h u t n o t t a k i n g t h i s or any s i m i l a r c o u r s e i n S c ie n c e a t th is

tim e.

The p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e d t h e g i v i n g o f t h e t e s t t o a l l g r o u p s a t t h e f i r s t or se cond m e e t i n g s o f th e c l a s s #

Group 1

t o o k t h e c o m p l e t e t e s t w h ile g r o u p s 2 a n d 3 to o k o n ly t h e o d d numbered q u e s t i o n s . cause th e ir

These g r o u p s t o o k o n ly h a l f t h e i t e m s b e ­

c l a s s e s d i d not m eet f o r t h e two h o u r s r e q u i r e d

fo r thee n t ir e t e s t .

S tudents o f groups

1 and 2 were i n ­

s t r u c t e d t o r e c o r d t h e tim e t h e y a c t u a l l y u se d t o com plete t h e test#

This i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e e n t i r e t e s t c o u l d be

c o m p le te d i n t h e 100 m inutes w hich was t h e e s t i m a t e d mailmum# I n f a c t , t h e r e a p p e a r e d to be a b o u t t e n o r f i f t e e n m i n u t e s l e f t a s a s a f e t y p e r i o d f o r those who m i g h t work more s l o w l y .

The

a v e r a g e time t a k e n b y Group 1 t o c o m p l e t e th e e n t i r e t e s t was 85 m i n u t e s .

On t h i s f i r s t t e s t t h e r e was some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t

s p e c i a l c a r e w o u l d be needed t o h a v e s t u d e n t s o f t h e c o n t r o l

138

remember t h e v e r b a l d i r e c t i o n s t o r e s p o n d t o o n l y th e odd numbered i t e m s .

I t d i d a p p e a r , how ever, t h a t s u c h d i r e c t i o n s

c o u l d be f o l l o w e d b y most s t u d e n t s a n d s o a s a m p l i n g o f t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e s t u d e n t s o f t h e c o n t r o l group c o u l d be o b ­ t a i n e d e v e n I f l i m i t e d t o a o n e - h o u r p e r i o d i n s t e a d o f tw o* Some i n d i c a t i o n was o b t a i n e d a l s o w h ic h seemed t o show t h a t s tu d e n ts o f t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p , not being d i r e c t l y concerned w i t h t h e t e s t , w o u l d h a v e t e n d e d n o t t o do t h e i r b e s t on t h e e n t i r e tw o-hour t e s t . At t h e end o f t h e t h r e e - w e e k p e r i o d , g r o u p s 1 a n d 2 , w h i c h were t a k i n g two s e m e s t e r s w o rk ,w e re a g a i n t e s t e d . The same t e s t a s was g i v e n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c o u r s e was u s e d . At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f o u r t h week a l l groups t o o k t h e "H enmon-Nelson T e s t o f M e n ta l A b i l i t y f o r C o l l e g e S t u d e n t s — Form A."

A t t h e end o f t h e s i x weeks p e r i o d b o t h e x p e r i m e n t a l

g r o u p s w ere t e s t e d f o r t h e t h i r d tim e w h i l e t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p was t e s t e d f o r t h e s e c o n d t i m e .

The t e s t u s e d I n a l l t h e s e

c a s e s was t h e same one e x c e p t t h e m e n t a l a b i l i t y t e s t a n d t h e f a c t t h a t P a r t I o f t h e t e s t c o n s i s t e d o f two s e t s o f q u e s ­ t i o n s to conform t o th e d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t m a tte r covered I n t h e two s e m e s t e r s o f t h e c o u r s e . As h a s been s t a t e d , t h e p r o c e d u r e s k e t c h e d h e r e i s a c o n c e n t r a t e d e d i t i o n of th e w ork d e s c r ib e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l i n t h e l o g o f a c t i v i t i e s f o u n d i n t h e A ppendix.

In the r e s u l t s

w hich f o l l o w t h e s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s employed i n t h e m a i n s t u d y a r e n o t r e p o r t e d a l t h o u g h t h e s e d a t a were u s e d a s a b a s i s

139

f o r ex p e rim e n tin g w ith th e s t a t i s t i c a l p rocedures used i n th e m a in s t u d y .

I t Is recognized t h a t s t a t i s t i c a l treatm ent o f

s u c h few c a s e * a s r e p o r t e d h e r e would n o t he r e l i a b l e a n d I n a n y case t h e

purpose of t h i s p re lim in a ry study d id not in v o lv e

t h e a r r i v i n g a t su c h c o n c l u s i o n s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y w ere a s shown i n T a b l e IV ( p a g e 1 4 0 ) .

D a ta p r e s e n t e d h e r e show t h a t t h e r e was

a n i n c r e a s e I n t h e mean o f t h e s e c o n d t e s t a s compared t o t h e mean o f t h e f i r s t t e s t i n e a c h c a s e f o r t h e two gro u p s t a k i n g science.

I t w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t i n moat o f t h e s e c a s e s t h e im­

p r o v e m e n t was s u f f i c i e n t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t .

S ince

t h i s was t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y no a t t e m p t was made t o d e t e r ­ m ine " s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e " o f any d i f f e r e n c e s f o u n d . I t seem s e v i d e n t f ro m t h e s e d a t a t h a t t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p w h i c h d i d n o t t a k e s c i e n c e d i d n o t im prove a s much a s d i d t h e g r o u p w hich t o o k s c i e n c e .

I n f a c t , f o r the o b j e c t i v e s

I n v o l v i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d knowledge of t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i ­ t u d e t h e r e was a s l i g h t l o s s f o r t h e n o n - s c i e n c e g r o u p .

These

l o s s e s w o u ld seem t o be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t no g a i n f o r t h i s g r o u p was v e r y g r e a t a n d t h a t normal v a r i a t i o n a r o u n d a c e n t r a l p o i n t a l l o w e d some o f t h e means t o be s l i g h t l y l o w e r f o r the seco n d t e s t th an f o r th e f i r s t . I n s o f a r a s we B hould d e s i r e t o c o n c l u d e a n y t h i n g from t h i s " p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y " I t would seem t h a t we would t e n d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e d i d im prove s t u d e n t s t o some e x t e n t I n e a c h o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e d .

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i n t o a c c o u n t i t may b e s e e n t h a t no g a i n mas a s g r e a t a s th r e e t i m e s i t s s ta n d a r d e r r o r alth o u g h w ith t h r e e g a in s th e chances are g r e a t t h a t they a re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . One w o u ld b e l e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s e s t u d e n t s who did not s tu d y sc ien c e b u t t o o t

t h e t e s t t w i c e d id show a

mean g a i n i n e a c h o b j e c t i v e w h ich was g r e a t enough f o r two o b j e c t i v e s and a t o t a l f o r t h e c h a n c e s t o be h i g h t h a t t h e gain i s

s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig n ifican t* I t would b e e x p e c t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s t a k i n g t h e same

t e s t t w i c e would im p ro v e t o some e x t e n t b e o a u s e of v a r i o u s facto rs.

In

v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e in n o

case i s g r e a t e r th an t h r e e tim es I t s sta n d a rd e r r o r b u t in t h r e e o a s e s c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s t h a t v a l u e we m ust assum e th at i f no

t h e two t e s t s w ere r e p e a t e d many tim e s we m i g h t f i n d

d if f e r e n c e a t a l l f o r th e o b je c tiv e s involving f a c t s ,

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and a t t i t u d e s p e r s o n a l l y a c c e p t e d , b u t t h e ch a n c e s a r e g r e a t t h a t f o r p r o b le m s o l v i n g , t h e t o t a l ,

an d

f o r k n o w le d g e o f a t t i t u d e s t h a t t h e g a i n would s t i l l b e g r e a t e r than z e r o . T h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e g r o u p d i d n o t change t o a n y s i g n i f i c a n t e x t e n t s i n c e no mean d i f f e r e n c e o f sigma l a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific an t.

In t h e c a s e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c

a t t i t u d e i t w i l l b e n o t e d t h a t two t e n d e n c i e s n o te d i n t h e case of t h e e x p e rim e n ta l group a r e rep eated h e r e .

They

were ( 1 ) t h a t s t u d e n t s s c o r e h i g h e r on t h e i r knowledge o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e t h a n on w hat t h e y p e r s o n a l l y a c c e p t

174

and (2) t h a t t h e y t e n d t o im p r o v e more in t h e i r know ledge of what i s r i g h t t o a c c e p t t h a n what th e y do a c c e p t .

It

should b e k e p t I n mind h o w e v e r , t h a t even t h e g r e a t e r Im­ provement n o te d f o r t h e s e s t u d e n t s who did n o t s tu d y s c i e n c e is not s t a t i s t i c a l l y

sig n ifican t.

Comparison o f F i n a l S c o r e s f o r E x p e r i m e n t a l and C o n t r o l Groups By co m p a r in g t h e f i n a l s c o r e s f o r t h e two g r o u p s , I t I s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e I f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in mean g a i n s and i n v a r i a b i l i t y f o r t h e two groups are s i g n i f i c a n t .

T his

i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d I n T a b l e X In the same form a s h a s been p r e s e n t e d t h e d a t a f o r t h e

e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l

groups • T h ro u g h e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e columns w hich g i v e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s I n means w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l r a t i o s , i t w i l l b e seen t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s one p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n .

s i g n i f i c a n t In e a c h c a se w i t h

T h i s I s In the c a s e o f p r o b le m

s o l v i n g w here t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f 1 . 7 , with a s t a n d a r d e r r o r of .83 a n d a c r i t i c a l r a t i o

o f 2 . 0 has 98 c h a n c e s o u t o f

100 t h a t i t I s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . I t can b e s e e n from T a b l e X t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s c o r e s f o r t h e o b j e c t i v e of improvement I n s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s p e r s o n a l l y a c c e p t e d I s g r e a t e r t h a n f o r t h e s c o r e s on

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G » • P TO er 1 3 , 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 5 5 - 2 6 0 . G a r r e t t , H e n r y E . , S t a t i s t i c s i n P s y c h o l o g y a n d E d u c a t i o n , 2nd e d . New Y o r k : L o n g m a n s , G r e e n a n d Company, 1 9 3 9 , Pp. 4 9 3 . G e e r , W i l l a r d , Aims a n d O b j e c t i v e s G o v e r n i n g P h y s i c s S u r v e y a nd P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e S u r v e y C o u r s e s a t t h e C o l l e g e L e v e l , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , V o l . 23 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 3 9 ) , p p . 261-265. Good,

C . V . , How t o Do R e s e a r c h i n E d u c a t i o n . B altim ore: W arwick a n d ~ Y o rk , I n c . , 1 9 ^ § . Pp. 298.

Good, C .V ., B a r r , A . S . , and S o a t e s , D . E . , M e th o d o lo g y o f E d u catio n al R e se a rc h . D. A p p l e t o n C e n t u r y Company, 1936. Fp7~ G r a y , Howard A . , An A p p r o a c h t o t h e M e a s u r e m e n t o f B i o l o g i c a l A t t i t u d e s , J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , V o l . 28 (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 3 4 J , p p . 25^29'. H a n c o c k , C y r i l R . , An E v a l u a t i o n o f C e r t a i n P o p u l a r S c i e n c e M i s c o n c e p t i o n s , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n . V o l . 24 ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 0 ), pp. 2 0 8 -2 1 3 . H a n s k e , C a r l F . , The C o r r e l a t i o n B e t w e e n S c o r e s on O b j e c t i v e T e s t a i n C h e m i s t r y a n d Lerman I n t e l l i g e n c e Q u o t i e n t s , J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h . V o l . 23 ( J a n u a r y , 193177"PP* 4 9 - 5 4 . H a rd , H.O ., and J e a n , F . C . ( C o lo r a d o S t a t e C o l l e g e of E d u c a t i o n , G r e e l e y , C o l o r a d o ) , N a t u r a l S c ie n c e Survey C ourses in C o l l e g e s , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , V o l . 3 2 ( N o v e m b e r, 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 294-29^7 H sv in g h u rst, R obert J . , Survey Courses in th e N a tu ra l S c ien c es, A m erican P h y s i c s T e a c h e r , V o l . I l l (S ep tem b er, 1 9 3 5 ), pp. 97-101. A lso C u r t i s , F .E ., T h ird D igest of I n v e s ti­ g a t i o n s in t h e T e a c h i n g o f S c i e n c e , p p . 3 4 7 - 3 5 0 . H e n d r i c k s , B . C l i f f o r d , a n d H a n d o r f , B . H . , New E x a m i n a t i o n s from O ld , J o u r n a l of C h e m ic a l E d u c a t i o n , V o l. 16 ( J u l y , 1 9 3 9 ) , pp”. 3 2 9 - 3 3 2 .

249

H e n d r i c k s , B. C l i f f o r d , a n d T y l e r , R a l p h , T e s t i n g f o r a M astery o f th e P r i n c i p l e s o f C h e m istry , S cien ce E d u c a t i o n , V o l . 1 8 , (D ecem b er, 1 9 3 4 ) , p p .'"212-215. H e n d r i c k s , B .C ., T y l e r , R.W ., and F r u t c h e y , P . P . , T e s t i n g t h e A b i l i t y t o Apply C h em ical P r i n c i p l e s , J o u r n a l o f C h e m ica l E d u c a t i o n , V o l. 11 (November, 1 9 3 4 ) , pp.6 1 1 -6 1 3 . H i l l b e r d , A ddison, A C o r r e l a t i o n Program a t N o rth w e s te rn , Journal o f H igher E d u catio n . V o l. 7 (June, 1 936), p p .“ 3 0 8 - 3 1 2 . How ard, F r e d e r i c k a n d R o b e r t s o n , M . L . , S c a l i n g t h e I n t a n g i b l e s : A Second S t u d y , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , p p . 2 4 9 - 2 5 5 . H u n t e r , G e o r g e , a n d K n a p p , R . , S c i e n c e O b j e c t i v e s a t t h e Ju n l o r and S e n i o r H ig h S c h o o l L e v e l , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , Vol. 16, pp. 4 0 7 -4 1 6 . H u n te r, George W ., S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g . Hew Y o r k ; Book C o m p a n y ", 1 9 3 4 . Pp. 552,

A m erican

H u r d , A . W . , A Common S e n c e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A t t i t u d e s i n S c ien c e I n s t r u c t i o n , S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , V ol. 24 (January, 1940), pp. 1-10. ---------------------- f E f f e c t o f S c h o o l I n s t r u c t i o n a s S t u d e n t A c h i e v e ­ m e n t , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , V o l . XV (May, 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 4 . ------------------ -, P r e l i m i n a r y T e s t s a s P r o g n o s t i c o f F i n a l A c h i e v e ­ m e n t , S c h o o l S c i e n c e a n d M a t h e m a t i c s , V o l . XXI ( J u n e .

1 9 3 1 ) , p p . ""’745-748".' Ise n b a rg e r, J . , B io lo g ic a l S cience in t h e Chicago J u n i o r C o l l e g e s , S c h o o l S c i e n c e a n d M a t h e m a t i c s , V o l . 35 (January, 1936), pp. 73-77. Johnson,

P .O ., The D i f f e r e n t i a l F u n c tio n s o f E x am in atio n s, J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , V o l . 30 ( O c t o b e r ,

1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 93-1(53. ---------- ---------- 1 a M e a s u r e m e n t P r o g r a m I n J u n i o r C o l l e g e S c i e n c e , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , V o l . 17 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 1 7 6 - 1 8 2 . ------------ f C o n c o m i t a n t L e a r n i n g i n Human B i o l o g y , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , V o l . 20 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 11-lTH —- —- — The M easurem ent o f O utcom es o f I n s t r u c t i o n O th e r than I n f o r m a tio n , S c h o o l S c i e n c e and M a th e m a tic s , V o l . 39 (N ovem ber, 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 7 5 4 - 7 5 9 .

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----------------- --f T h e R e l a t i o n B e t w e e n R e c a l l a n d H i g h e r M e n t a l P r o c e s s e s , C h a p te r I I , E d u c a t i o n a s C u l t i v a t i o n of t h e H i g h e r Mental P r o c e s s e s . New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, T 9 3 6 . P p . 2 0 6 . Lapone, O .J ., E v a lu a tin g th e I n t a n g i b le In E lem entary S cien c e, S c h o o l S c i e n c e an d M a t h e m a t i c s , V o l . 3 9 ( N o v e m b e r , 1939T7 p p . 7 5 4 -7 5 9 . L I c h s t e n s t e i n , A r t h u r , The E f f e c t o f T e a c h i n g S t r e s s Upon an A t t i t u d e , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , V o l . 19 ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 7 3 -7 5 . L u n d e e n , G e r h a r d , a n d C a l d w e l l , O t i s W ., S t u d y o f U n f o u n d e d B e l i e f s Among H i g h S c h o o l S e n i o r s , J o u r n a l o f Educ a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , V o l . 22 ( N o v e m b e r , 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 257-273. M a th e rly , W alter J . , Com prehensive C o u rs e s , J o u r n a l of H igher E d u c a t i o n , V o l. 7 (M arch, 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 1 2 4 -T 3 3 . M c C a l l , W .A ., How t o M e a s u r e i n E d u c a t i o n . M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 2 2 . P p . 4 1 6 7

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R e y n o l d s , C h a r l e s V/., ( E a s t C a r o l i n a T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , G r e e n ­ v i l l e , N orth C a ro lin a ) The D e v e l o p m e n t o f G e n e r a l i z e d S c ie n c e C ourses in S t a t e T eachers C o lle g e s . A b stract o f D o c t o r ' s D i s s e r t a t i o n , George Peabody C o l l e g e f o r T each ers, 1938. S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , V ol. 24 (F e b ru a ry , 1940), pp. 8 7 -9 1 . R lck ett,

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Science

i n G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n , R e p o r t o f t h e S c ie n c e Com m ittee o f t h e C o m m i t t e e on S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l C u r r i c u l u m o f t h e P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n . New Y o r k : D . A p p l e t o n C e n t u r y Com pany, 1 9 3 8 . Pp. 5 9 1 .

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Wood, G e o r g e C . , The S c i e n c e o f T o m o r r o w , H i g h P o i n t s , V o l . 17 (Decem ber, 1 9 3 5 ) , p p. 3 1 - 3 4 . W r i g h s t o n e , J . W . , A p p r a i s a l of E x p e r im e n ta l H ig h S c h o o l P r a c t l c e . New Y o r k : B ureau o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , (Teachers C o l l e g e , Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 3 6 , Pp. 194. - , A p p r a i s a l o f ^ew P r a c t i c e s In S e l e c t e d P u b l i c S c h o o l F . New YorTc: B u r e a u o f P u E T l c a t i o n s V T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 3 5 . Pp. 117. , C o r r e l a t i o n o f N a tu r a l S c ie n c e B e l i e f s and A t t i t u d e s w i t h S o c i a l and I n t e l l e c t u a l F a c t o r s , S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , V o l . 18 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 1 0 - 1 2 . ------------------------, M e a s u r i n g t h e A t t a i n m e n t o f Ne we r E d u c a t i o n a l O b j e c t iv e s , N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n E lem entary P r i n c i p a l s S ix te e n th Y earbook, (J u ly , 1937), pp. 493 -5 0 0 .

APPENDIX

CONTENTS OF APPENDIX

A ppendix

Page

A.

PURPOSE OF EACH PART............................................................................. 2 55

B.

FORM OF TE S T .....................

C.

PERSONS WHO DEVELOPED ATTITUDE SCALES..................................2 6 2

D.

PERSONAL DATA BLANK................................................................................2 6 3

E.

MEMBERS OF JURY FOR VALIDITY OF T E S T ................................... 2 6 4

F.

CHECK LIST REGARDING VALIDITY OF T E S T ..................................2 65

G.

LOG OF TEACHING PROCEDURES.............................................................. 2 6 7 1. 2. 3.

256

G eneral S tatem en t 26 7 R e co rd o f F o u r t e e n M e e t i n g s (Main S t u d y ) 269 A c c o u n t o f S u p p l e m e n t a r y S t u d y ....................................... 3 0 4

255

PURPOSE OP EACH PART OF APPENDIX I n o r d e r t o p r e s e n t as much i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m eas­ u r i n g I n s t r u m e n t a s p o s s i b l e i n a l i m i t e d s p a c e a n d a t t h e same t i m e n o t t o make p u b l i c t e s t I t e m s , w h i c h a r e t h e p r o p e r t y o f man y i n d i v i d u a l s , an a b s t r a c t o f t h e t e s t has been p re p a re d . T h e nam es a n d a d d r e s s e s o f t h e men who d e v e l o p e d t h e a t t i ­ tu d e s c a l e s a re re c o rd e d h e r e . A n y o n e d e s i r i n g t o c o n t a c t them I n r e g a r d t o t h e s c a l e s may do s o f r o m t h i s r e c o r d , w h i c h a l s o se rv e s t o e x p re ss the g r a t i t u d e o f t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r t o them f o r p e r m i s s io n to u s e t h e i r w ork. A r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a b l a n k w h i c h was f i l l e d o u t b y e a c h member o f b o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s s e r v e s t o show w h a t p e r s o n a l d a t a w a s o b t a i n e d a n d I n w h a t f o r m i t was c o l l e c t e d . T h e nam es o f t h e f i v e men who e x a m i n e d a n d g a v e t h e i r judgm ent a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y of p a r t s I I and I I I o f t h e t e s t a r e h e r e r e c o r d e d and t h e i r s e r v ic e g r a t e f u l l y ack now ledged. T he c h e c k l i s t u s e d by t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l j u r y in r e g a r d t o the v a l i d i t y of th e t e s t i s re p ro d u c e d to supplem ent th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s a p p r o a c h t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f two p a rts of the te st. A l o g o f t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s r e c o r d s I n d e t a i l j u s t what to o k p l a c e a t each c la s s m eeting o f th e ex p erim en tal group. D e s c r i p t i v e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h e r e i s i n t e n d e d t o make m o r e c l e a r j u s t what i n f o r m a t i o n I s p r e s e n t e d In t h e r e c o r d .

256

APPENDIX

FORM OF TEST

T his a b s t r a c t o f th e t e s t u se d In t h i s stu d y p r e s e n ts t h e e n t i r e p i c t u r e of t h e t e s t In a b r i e f s p a c e . By o m i t t i n g a c t u a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r , b u t u s i n g t h e e x a c t f o r m a nd d i r e c t i o n s one can o b t a i n an over v iew o f t h e e n t i r e e i g h t e e n p a g es w hich form ed th e t e s t . NEW YORK UNIVERSITY - SCHOOL OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION Name___________________________ S e c t i o n _______________________S c o r e _________ D a t e ___________________________ W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t t h i s t e s t i n v o l v e s some o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t s o f b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e , I t is_ n o t a a su m e d t h a t m o s t o f t h e p e o p l e who t a k e t h e t e s t a r e s c I T s n t T s t s , o r t h a t they n e c e s s a r i l y have any s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t in the f i e l d . One p u r p o s e o f g i v i n g t h e £ e s t i s t o s e e how h i g h y o u s c o r e on t h e s e c a r e f u l l y p r e p a r e d i t e m s a s c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r s t u d e n t s o f th e " S c " ■o b i o f E d u c a ti o n whose e d u c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e ­ m ents appear to be s i m i l a r t o y o u r s . I t is p o s s ib le th a t your e x p e r i e n c e i n t a k i n g t h i s t e s t may p r o v e h e l p f u l t o y o u i n c o n ­ s t r u c t I n g ~ m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s o f y o u r own an tT i n t a k i n g o t h e r o b j e c t i v e type t e s t s . The t o t a l nu m ber o f I t e m s i s 2 2 5 ; P a r t I c o n s i s t s o f 6 0 , P a r t I I 4 0 , P a r t I I I 5 0 a n d P a r t IV 7 5 . I n o r d e r t o make t h e b e s t p erform an ce o f w hich you a r e c a p a b le , i t Is su g g e ste d t h a t you b e g in im m e d ia te l y , w ork r a p i d l y b u t t h o u g h t f u l l y and b e c a r e f u l t o ' i ' o X l o w t h e d i r e c t i o n s g i v e n Tn“ e a c h p a r t . PART I - RECALL OF INFORMATION A•

S e lec tio n of the c o rr e c t f a c t , th e o ry , g e n e ra liz a tio n from a s e r i e s of c h o ic e s " V o c o m p le te a s t a t e m e n t o r a q u e s t i o n w h i c h may b e i m p l i e d .

o r law answer

D i r e c t i o n s : B e f o r e th e number of e a c h s t a t e m e n t , p l e a s e p l a c e t h e number o f t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e f o r t h a t s t a t e m e n t . ( F i f t e e n s t a t e m e n t s e a c h f o l l o w e d b y f o u r c h o i c e s o n l y one w h i c h i s c o r r e c t ).

257

B.

R ecogn ition of th e words o r term s'^

c o r r e c t m eanings or a s s o c i a t i o n s

of

D i r e c t i o n s ; When y o u r e c o g n i z e t h e c o r r e c t m e a n i n g o r a s s o c i ­ a t i o n in th e group o f seven in t h e r i g h t c o lu m n p l a c e t h e num­ b e r o f t h a t m e a n i n g o r a s s o c i a t i o n b e f o r e t h e nu m ber o f t h e te rm in th e l e f t colum n w i t h w hich i t c o r r e s p o n d s .

16. 11 67 .^

1. 23 .^

19. 20.

4. 5. 6. 7.

(Two o t h e r g r o u p s a r r a n g e d a s a b o v e . C.

_____ T o tal of f ifte e n

q u e stio n s.)

To s e l e c t t h e p r o p e r s c i e n t i f i c w o r d o r t e r m f r o m a l i s t o f g i v e n w o r d s o r t e r m s t o c o m p l e t e a s t a t e m e n t and make i t c o r ­ rect .

D i r e c t i o n s : S e l e c t t h e w o r d o r t e r m w h i c h s h o u l d go i n e a c h b la n k , then put the number of t h a t w ord o r t e r m d i r e c t l y in f r o n t o f t h e nu m ber o f t h e q u e s t i o n . Put n o th in g in th e blank space. 1. 2. 3.

___ ( w o r d s o r ___ t e r m s ___ h e r e )

4.__ ___ 31.

(blank s ta te m e n t)

(T otal of f i f t e e n D.

statem en ts)

To j u d g e t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f f a c t u a l s t a t e m e n t s on t h e b a s i s o f i n f o r m a t i o n e x i s t i n g Tfoday.

D irectio n s: P la c e d i r e c t l y b e f o r e t h e number o f e a c h s t a t e m e n t , a p l u s H+ B i f t h e s t a t e m e n t i s e n t i r e l y t r u e w i t h i n t h e l i m i t a ­ t i o n s s t a t e d , a z e r o "O" I f t h e s t a t e m e n t o r a n y p a r t o f I t i s f a l s e , and a check m a rk " " i f t h e s t a t e m e n t c a n n o t b e a n sw e red a s e i t h e r r i g h t o r w r o n g b y a n y one o n t h e b a s i s o f e x i s t i n g In fo rm atio n • 46. (F ifteen n o t be a n s w e r e d . )

s t a t e m e n t s , some t r u e , o t h e r s f a l s e a n d some c a n ( T o ta l f o r t h i s p a r t of t e s t s i x t y q u e s t i o n s .)

25 8

PART I I UNDERSTANDING OP GENERALIZATIONS The f o l l o w i n g were p r e p a r e d t o o b t a i n some e v i d e n c e o f how w e l l you u n d e r s t a n d c e r t a i n s t a t e d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w hich a r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n some- o f t h e a d j u s t m e n t s which man makes t o h i s b i o l o g i c a l environm ent. G eneral d i r e c t i o n s : Each g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , (1) to ( 8 ) , Is f o l ­ lowed b y a l i s t o f s t a t e m e n t s w hich h a v e c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h a t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . Assume t h a t e a c h s t a t e m e n t i s t r u e and c o r r e c t w i t h i n i t s e l f as I t I s s t a t e d . Mark e a c h s t a t e m e n t w i t h : A,B or C a c c o r d i n g t o i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e g i v e n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a s s t a t e d b e l o w . Mark t h e s t a t e m e n t A

i f I t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n u n d e r which I t i s l i s t e d

B

i f I t does n o t d i r e c t l y i l l u s t r a t e t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , b u t I s e s s e n t i a l t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t

£

If i t neith er I llu s tr a te s of th e g e n e ra liz a tio n A.

(1 ) 1. 2. 3.

noris e s s e n t i a l

t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

( g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s given h e re ) ( f o l l o w e d h e r e b y s t a t e m e n t s from t h r e e t o se ven In number) ( T o t a l of f o r t y )

PART I I I METHODS OF PROBLEM SOLVING A.

To R e c o g n iz e t h e S t e p s i n P ro b le m S o l v i n g

(One p a r a g r a p h d e s c r i p t i o n o f a s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i m e n t w r i t t e n here) D i r e c t i o n s : U sin g t h e 5 s t e p s of p ro b le m s o l v i n g g i v e n below p l a c e t h e number o f t h e p r o p e r s t e p ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , or 5 , ) i n t h e b l a n k b e f o r e e a c h s t a t e m e n t belo w t h a t d i r e c t l y h e l p s t o s o l v e the p r o b l e m . S e l e c t t h e problem f i r s t . I f t h e s t a t e m e n t has' n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e problem put n o t h i n g In t h e b l a n k . One number may be u s e d i n more t h a n one b l a n k .

259

(Use t h e f i v e s t e p s o f p r o b le m so lv in g a t the rig h t) 1. 2

B.

.

p ro b lem s t a t e d c o lle c tin g data hypothesis s ta te d t e s t i n g hypothesis conclusions

(ten sta te m e n ts h ere)

___

E v a lu a tio n of s ta te m e n ts w i t h r e f e r e n c e to a problem : In l o c a t i n g I n f o r m a t i o n t o b e used i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f a p r o b ­ lem I t I s n e c e s s a r y t h a t one be a b l e t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e ­ tween s t a t e m e n t s w h ich d i r e c t l y o r I n d i r e c t l y a p p l y t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e pro b lem and t h o s e which have no r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e p r o b l e m . The f o l l o w i n g was p r e p a r e d t o o b t a i n e v i d e n c e o f y o u r a b i l i t y t o make s u c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s . (1)

D i r e c t i o n s : On t h e b l a n k l i n e b e f o r e ea ch o f t h e f o l l o w i n g - s t a t e m e n t s , p l a c e , t h e l e t t e r A, B o r C a s fo llo w s: A.

i f the s ta te m e n t c o n t r i b u t e s d i r e c t l y t o th e p r o b le m

B.

I f i t I s r e l a t e d t o th e p r o b le m , b u t makes no d i r e c t c o n t r i b u t i o n to I t s s o l u t i o n

C.

i f i t h a s no

P ro b le m :

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e pro blem

( s ta t e m e n t o f problem s) 11. 12. 13.

C.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

( f o l l o w e d b y f ro m t h r e e to se v en s t a t e m e n t s fo r a to t a l of fifte e n )

E v a l u a t i n g I n f e r e n c e s : The f o l l o w i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e p e r c e n t o f a l c o h o l In s o n s , e a c h o f whom had d r u n k t h e same whose b l o o d was examined a t I n t e r v a l s hours.

graph p r e s e n t s ev id en ce t h e b lo o d o f f o u r p e r ­ q u a n t i t y o f a l c o h o l and f o r th e n e x t tw elve

(graph h e re ) (1)

D i r e c t i o n s : On t h e b l a n k l i n e b e f o r e ea ch o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s , mark A, B o r C t o I n d i c a t e t h a t you b e l i e v e t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s situ atlo n :

260

A

I s c o m p le t e en o u g h t o make t h e s t a t e m e n t t r u e

B

I s n o t c o m p l e t e enough to w a r r a n t a d i v i s i o n c o n ­ cerning the sta tem en t

C

is

c o m p le t e enough t o make t h e s t a t e m e n t f a l s e .

26, 27. (2)

(eight statem ents h e re )

D i r e c t i o n s : Read t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s . them a r e t r u e .

A l l of

( S t a t e m e n t s a t o I g i v e n as d a t a ) NOW READ t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s . Some o f them a r e t r u e , some a r e n o t t r u e , and some a r e d o u b t f u l b e c a u s e you can n o t be s u r e tlhey a r e t r u e or n o t t r u e T Mark t r u e s ta te m e n ts ( 1 ) , u n t r u e s ta te m e n ts ( 2 ) , and d o u b t­ f u l s t a t e m e n t s ( 3 ) . Use the s p a c e s a t t h e l e f t o f t h e q u e s t i o n s f o r y o u r a n s w e r s . Base your a n s w e r s on t h e preceding s ta te m e n ts . 33, 34, D.

( s t a t e m e n t s 33 t o 40) ____ __________________ _______________________

S e l e c t i o n of d a t a which a r e p e r t i n e n t to a p ro b le m a tic altu ailo n T

(two s e n t e n c e s d e s c r i b i n g a p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g eu g en ics) (1)

D i r e c t i o n s : Mark (X) t h o s e s t a t e m e n t s b e l o w which h a v e d i r e c t l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n c e r n of e u g e n i c i s t s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s p ro b le m . 41. 42. 43.

____________ ( s i x s t a t e m e n t s h e r e f o l l o w e d by a _____________ s i m i l a r problem w i t h f o u r s t a t e m e n t s ) _________ '(to ta l of f i f t y questions In p a rt I I I )

PART IV I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t you w i l l f i n d t h i s an i n t e r e s t i n g che ck on how you s a y you would f e e l or a c t in a c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n .

261

P l e a s e ch e c k ( ) in t h e l e f t column o n l y t h o s e s t a t e ­ m e n ts which you f e e l would c o r r e c t l y e x p r e s s y o u r f e e l i n g or a c t i o n i n t h e s i t u a t i o n s t a t e d or i m p l i e d , A c h e c k i n d i c a t e s agreem ent, a blank disagreem ent. P l e a s e c h e c k ( ) in t h e r i g h t column o n l y t h o s e s t a t e ­ m e n t s w hich you f e e l a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s what s h o u l d b e t h e f e e l i n g o r a c t i o n o f an i n s t r u c t o r of a s c i e n c e c o u r s e p r o v i d e d he a o t e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h known s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n and procedures. Leave b l a n k a l l s t a t e m e n t s which y o u c o n s i d e r do n o t a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s what should be t h e view p o i n t o r a c t i o n of th e i n s t r u c t o r in each c a s e . The two columns a r e p r o v id e d so t h a t y o u can f r a n k l y e x p r e s s w h a t e v e r you r e a l l y do p e r s o n a l l y f e e l r e g a r d l e s s of why you f e e l t h a t way and a t th e seme time to show t h a t you know how an i n s t r u c t o r s h o u l d f e e l o r a c t . A. 1. ( F i f t e e n statem ents here fo r 1 . ____ 2 . p a r t A. T h i s p a r t f o llo w e d _______________ 2 , ____ b y p a r t s B to E, e a c h w ith 3. f i f t e e n s ta te m e n ts . Total 3 , ____ of seventy-five statem en ts.) T o t a l ite m s on t h e t e s t 2 2 5 .

262

PERSONS WHO DEVELOPED ATTITUDE SCALES The f i v e a t t i t u d e s c a l e s which w e r e u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y a r e d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r I I I . At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s a p p e n d i x t h e form i n w hich t h e s e ite m s w ere used I n t h e f i n a l t e s t I s sh o w n . M ention h a s been made of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e s c a l e s were d e v e l o p e d u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f P r o f e s s o r M a rti n L. R o b e r t s o n t h e n o f C o l o r a d o S t a t e C o l le g e o f E d u c a t i o n , G r e e l y C o l o r a d o , b u t now A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r of E d u c a t i o n , S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , New York U n i v e r s i t y . The f i v e men, each o f whom d e v e l o p e d one o f t h e a t t i t u d e s c a l e s , a r e as f o l l o w s . 1.

Mr. Lon Edwards C o l o r a d o S t a t e C o l l e g e of E d u c a t i o n G r e e l y C olora do

2.

Mr. C h a r l e s Bower M i t c h e l l , N ebraska

3.

Mr. R . F . R u t h e r f o r d Atwood, Colorado

4.

Mr. F r e d E . S c h n a b e l I m p e r i a l , N ebrask a

5.

Mr. F r e d T • Howard S ta te Teachers C ollege M a r y v ille , M issouri

The i n v e s t i g a t o r g l a d l y a c k n o w le d g e s h i s I n d e b t e d n e s s f o r t h e v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t h e s e a t t i t u d e s c a l e s made t o t h e presen t study.

263

PERSONAL DATA BLANK Below i s a copy o f t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a b l a n k which was f i l l e d o u t by each member of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups involved in t h is stu d y . PERSONAL DATA (To a i d In i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s o f (1) (2 ) (3) (4 ) ( 5) (6) (7)

th e group)

N a m e ____________________ Ex a c t V o c a t i o n : ____________ . Your Sex Home A d d r e s s : ___ ________________________ _ C u r r i c u l u m No. Ti t l e o f C u r r i c u l u m ^ ~ ________ _________ Y e a r i n C o l le g e ( c h e c k ) : P r . Soph. Jr. Sr . Gr a d . Sp . Check n e a r e s t a g e : ( 1 5 - 1 9 ) ___ ; ( 2 0 - 2 ^ ) ™ ; ( 2 5 - 2 § ) ; (3 0 -o v e F What i s your a v o c a t i o n o r h o b b y ? _______ ________ _____ _____ I f you a r e t a k i n g any s c i e n c e c o u r s e t h i s s e m e s t e r , l i s t i i ; i f no n e, p l e a s e w r i t e "NONE" . _______ _______________ ____ P l e a s e l i s t a c c u r a t e l y a l l p r e v i o u s s c i e n c e o f any k i n d . High S c h o o l C ollege

S ubject

C redit

S ubject

C redit

From t h e u se o f t h i s b l a n k t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a r e l a t i v e to t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p was d e t e r m i n e d . The I n f o r m a t i o n c a l l e d f o r was d e c i d e d upon and a t t a i n e d i n t h i s f o rm so t h a t i t would be r e a d i l y usable fo r the purposes d e s ir e d .

264

MEMBERS OP JURY FOR VALIDITY OF TEST I n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l i d i t y of p a r t s I I and I I I of t h e t e s t u se d I n t h i s s t u d y a p r o f e s s i o n a l j u r y was u s e d . This j u r y c o n s i s t e d o f f i v e members a s f o llo w s 1.

P r o f e s s o r F r a n c i s D. C u r t i s U n i v e r s i t y o f M ic h ig a n Aun A rb o r , M i c h i g a n

2.

D r. J . Wayne W r l g l l s t o n e Bureau of R e f e r e n c e , R e s e a r c h a n d S t a t i s t i c s Board o f E d u c a t i o n , New York C i t y

and t h r e e members of t h e f a c u l t y o f S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , New York U niversity. 3.

P r o f e s s o r M a r t i n L. R o b e r t s o n

4.

P r o f e s s o r C y ru s L, B a r n e s

5.

D r. Glen S . Thompson.

These men a g r e e d t o a s s i s t a f t e r t h e i r h e l p had b ee n s o l i c i t ed b y means o f a l e t t e r , t h e e s s e n t i a l p a r t s of which a r e q u o te d below . The c o u r s e i n v o l v e d i n t h i s s t u d y i s one f o r o r i e n t a t i o n in B i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e a s t a u g h t h e r e a t t h e School o f E d u c a t i o n . I t h a s been n e c e s s a r y t o compile a u e s t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s o f p r o b le m s o l v i n g . The two p a r t s o f t h e t e s t m e n t i o n e d above r e q u i r e t h e Judgment o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l j u r y a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e q u e s t i o n s when c o n s i d e r e d in t h e l i g h t of t h e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s f o r e a c h g r o u p . I t w o uld be of g r e a t e s t a s s i s t ­ ance i f you would a g r e e t o examine t h i s p a r t of t h e t e s t and r e p l y to a o n e page c h e c k l i s t . The check l i s t t o which t h e members of t h i s j u r y r e p l i e d i s shown on th e f o l l o w i n g p a g e .

265

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