An analysis of the development of the style of the automobile body

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AN ANALYSIS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STYLE OF THE AUTOMOBILE BODY

A 'T h e s i s P r e se n te d to t h e F a c u l t y o f t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f F i n e A r t s The U n i v e r s i t y

o f S ou th ern C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f t h e R e q u ir e m e n t s f o r t h e D e g r e e M a s te r o f A r t s

M e l v i n G. H i l l g e r Ju n e

19^2

UMI Number: EP57842

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

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Th is thesis, written by

under the direction of h.X& F a c u lt y C o m m it te e , a n d a p p r o v e d by a l l its m e m b e r s , has been pr es e nt e d to and a c ce pt e d by the Co unc il on G ra du ate S t u d y and Resea rch in p a r tia l fulfill­ m e n t of th e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e of ................................

D ean

Secretary D ate.

J u n e , 19 4 2

F aculty C om m ittee

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I

PAGE

The P r o b le m and D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms u s e d ..........................

1

The p r o b l e m .............................................................................................

1

S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m ........................................................

1

I m p o r ta n c e o f t h e s t u d y .........................................................

1

D e fin itio n s

II

o f te r m s u s e d .........................................................

2

R e v ie w o f t h e R em ain d er o f t h e t h e s i s ..........................

2

H i s t o r y o f t h e P r o b l e m ........................................................................

5

L i t e r a t u r e on t h e e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e .............................................................

5

L i t e r a t u r e on t h e l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u to m o b ile

............................................................................................

6

L i t e r a t u r e on t h e s t r e a m l i n i n g o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e b o d y ............................................................................. III

H i s t o r y o f t h e I n v e n t i o n and S t y l i n g

6

o f th e

.................................................................................................

8

A l b r e c h t D lir e r , an e a r l y s t y l i s t .........................................

8

A u t o m o b ile

E a r ly e f f o r t s

in c o n str u c tio n o f s e lf - p r o p e lle d

v e h i c l e s ...................................................................................... L egal d i f f i c u l t i e s

and p u b l i c r e s i s t a n c e

C h r o n o l o g i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s t y l e

9

.....................

11

o f t h e body

t o t h e y e a r 1 9 1 0 ........................................................................

.

12

..................................................................................

15

D e p e n d en cy o f t h e body s t y l e upon t h e c a r r i a g e b u ild e r s c r a f t

iii CHAPTER

PAGE

S t y l e d e v e lo p m e n t from 1 9 1 0 t o W orld War I ..

.

.

16

G eneral s t y lin g

.

,

18

.................................................. ..

20

C o n tr ib u tio n s sty lin g ,

t r e n d s s i n c e W orld War I .

.

o f i n v e n t i o n s and im p r o v em e n ts t o

s in c e 1918

.

.

S t y l e d e v e lo p m e n t s i n t h e f r o n t a l p l a n e

. . . .

23

S u m m a r y ............................................................................................ IV

P r o b le m s and A t te m p te d C h an ges i n Body D e s i g n

.

.

E r r o r i n d e s i g n .........................

for p ro g ress

in d e sig n

. . . .

33

. . . . .

37

S u m m a r y ............................................................................................ V

The Car o f t h e F u t u r e .................................................... P o ssib ilitie s

i n r e d e s i g n ...................................

Some l i m i t a t i o n s M o d els b u i l t

i n d e s i g n ...................................................

on a b o v e p l a n s

..............................

S u m m a r y ............................................................................................ VI

29 29

A t t e m p t s a t s t r e a m l i n i n g and r e d e s i g n i n g R e sp o n s ib ility

24

C o n c l u s i o n .......................................................................

B IB L IO G R A P H Y ..................................................................................................

39 40 40 46 50 52 60 64

LIST OF PLATES PAGE

PLATE I

S t y l e D e v e lo p m e n t t o W orld War I ................................................

26

II

S t y l e D e v e lo p m e n t t o W orld WarI I ............................................

27

S t y l e D e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e F r o n t a l P l a n e

.................................

28

IV

U n f u n c t i o n a l P l a n s .................................................................................

54

V

F u n c t i o n a l P l a n s .......................................................................................

55

V a r i a t i o n o f F i r s t P l a n .......................................

56

V a r i a t i o n o f F i r s t P l a n ..................................................................

57

III

VI V II V III IX

V a r i a t i o n o f S e c o n d P l a n .............................................................

.

53

V a r i a t i o n o f S e c o n d P l a n ..................................................................

59

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED I.

THE PROBLEM

S ta tem en t o f th e p r o b le m . stu d y ( l )

I t was t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s

t o show t h a t t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s t y l e

o f th e

a u t o m o b i l e body w as a n e v o l u t i o n a r y and p r o g r e s s i v e p r o c e s s ; ( 2 ) to e x p lo r e th e e x i s t i n g

e r r o r s i n b o d y d e s i g n and some

h i s t o r i c a l a tte m p ts a t fun dam ental r e d e s ig n ; and e v a l u a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

and ( 3 ) t o a n a l y z e

and l i m i t a t i o n s

in d e sig n in g

t h e c a r o f t h e f u t u r e , a i d e d by a c t u a l c r e a t i o n o f a u t o m o b i l e m o d e ls. Im p ortan ce o f th e s tu d y .

T h e r e e x i s t i n t h e p u b l i c m ind

v a r i o u s m i s c o n c e p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s an d t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t.

The a u t o m o b i l e b od y i s no e x c e p t i o n .

Among t h e s e

m i s c o n c e p t i o n s a r e t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t th e m a n u f a c t u r e r s s e e n o common g o a l i n t h e i r g e n e r a l d e s i g n ;

t h a t th e a u to m o b ile

body was s l o w l y c h a n g e d b e c a u s e t h e d e s i g n e r s c o u l d n o t f o r e ­ s e e th e a u to m o b ile o f th e fu tu r e ;

o r t h a t t h e body d e v e l o p e d

i n s t y l e b e c a u s e o f t h e s h a p e and p l a c e m e n t o f t h e p a r t s w i t h i n it.

F in a lly ,

sig n e r ^

th e p u b lic

is

from t i m e t o tim e e x p o s e d t o d e ­

c o n c e p tio n s o f th e fu tu r e c a r .

f u n c t io n a l or i n e f f i c i e n t .

T h e se a r e u s u a l l y u n ­

I t se e m e d im p o r t a n t t o d e t e r m i n e

th e f a c t s

o f t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r t h e i r r e l a ­

tio n sh ip s

t o e a c h o t h e r and t o a p p r a i s e t h e g o a l to w a r d w h ic h

2 t h e y a r e m o v in g . II. S ty le .

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED

The s t y l e

o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e body was i n t e r p r e ­

t e d t o mean t h e s h a p e o f mode o f c o n s t r u c t i o n appearance,

im p ly in g a l s o

in r e g a r d to

some d e p e n d e n c e u p on t h e s h a p e and

mode o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p r e v i o u s m o d e l s . D e sig n .

The w ord wdesign** was i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean t h e

s h a p e or mode o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a s d e p e n d e n t upon t h e f u n c t i o n a l p u r p o s e s o f t h e p r o d u c t and i t s m eth od o f c o n s t r u e t i o n . S tr e a m lin in g .

T h is w ord i s u s e d s o g e n e r a l l y

h a s become a l m o s t m e a n i n g l e s s .

I n t h i s s t u d y i t was i n t e r ­

p r e t e d a s t h e t e n d e n c y i n s t y l i n g and d e s i g n i n g zo n ta l lin e s

th at i t

t o r e d u c e w in d r e s i s t a n c e ,

to w a r d h o r i ­

a p p lic a b le

o n ly to

s u r f a c e s m oving t h r o u g h a f l u i d . D e v elo p m e n t.

In t h i s

s t u d y t h e w ord

d e v e lo p m e n t ” was

i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean e v o l u t i o n , w i t h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s e v o l u t i o n was o r d e r e d by man.

III.

REVIEW OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS

C h a p te r I I .

C h a p te r I I i s

d evoted to a b r i e f h is to r y

o f t h e p r o b le m w i t h a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w p r e v io u s

in v e stig a to r s

in i t s

fie ld .

o f t h e w ork done by

3 C h a p te r I I I , C h a p te r I I I

I s d e v o t e d t o t h e p r o b le m o f

sh o w in g t h a t our modern m o t o r c a r body i s e v o lu tio n a r y p r o c e ss .

T h is i s

t h e p r o d u c t o f an

i l l u s t r a t e d w ith p r o f i l e s

s u c c e s s i v e m o d e ls o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e b o d y .

of

T h e se p r o f i l e s

a r e i n t h e form o f l i n e d r a w in g s d u r i n g t h e p a s t h a l f c e n ­ tu ry .

T y p ic a l p r o f i l e s

fo r t h e ir r e s p e c t iv e y ea rs are arranged

c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y s o t h a t i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e s p e c t i v e v ie w

o f t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t.

to g e t a p e r ­

T h is c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s

a l s o a c o m p a r is o n o f t h e v a r i o u s d e t a i l s a c c o m p a n ie d w i t h a c r i t i c a l a n a ly sis C h a p te r I V .

o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e i r s t y l e . C h a p te r IV p o i n t s o u t some e r r o r s

d e s ig n o f th e p r e s e n t- d a y a u to m o b ile body.

in th e

Some h i s t o r i c

e x a m p le s o f e f f o r t s a t fu n d a m e n ta l r e d e s i g n a r e r e c a l l e d and d i s c u s s e d t o d e t e r m i n e why t h e s e d e s i g n s a r e n o t u s e d t o d a y . F i n a l l y s th e q u e s tio n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in d e sig n i s

fo r p r o g r e s s iv e change

d isc u sse d .

C h a p t e r V.

C h a p te r V d i s c u s s e s

o f f e r e d by f u n d a m e n t a l r e d e s i g n . are p osed th e l im it a t io n s . fo u n d i n p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s

th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

A g a in st th e se p o s s i b i l i t i e s

Common e r r o r s , w h ic h a r e o f t e n c o n c er n in g th e fu tu r e c a r , a r e

p o i n t e d o u t by means o f a p l a t e o f s i l h o u e t t e s . o f s ilh o u e t t e s r ep r e se n tin g p o s s ib le fu tu re car i s

A n oth er p l a t e

fu n c tio n a l id e a s

fo r th e

o f f e r e d a s a s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b le m o f d e s i g n ­

in g th e c a r o f th e n e a r f u t u r e .

F in a lly ,

p h o t o g r a p h s o f two

an.tornQ b ile^ m odels b u i l t up on t h e f u n c t i o n a l p l a n s s t a t e d a b o v e ,

4 are d isc u sse d as a p o s s ib le s o lu tio n fo r th is

f u t u r e a u to m o b ile

a s p l a n n e d i n p l a t e V. C h a p te r V I . T h is f i n a l c h a p t e r i s

d e v o ted to a sta te m en t

o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s a s s e e n i n perspec t i v e .

CHAPTER I I HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM Numerous b o o k s and a r t i c l e s h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n r e g a r d i n g th e s t y l i n g

o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e bod y and t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e

m otorcar in g e n e r a l .

I n e a c h c a s e t h e s e w orks d e a l w i t h a

lim it e d p e r io d o f h is t o r y

or f a i l t o make a c o m p r e h e n s i v e

s t u d y o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f one s t y l e

from i t s

p a ren t.

L i t e r a t u r e on t h e e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e . S l o s s 1 h a s g i v e n a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s u r v e y o f a u t o body d e v e l o p ­ ment i n i t s

e a r ly h is to r y .

H is p h o t o g r a p h s i l l u s t r a t e

e v o l u t i o n fro m t h e h o r s e and b u g g y . terested

i n an a n a l y s i s

He i s ,

the

how ever, n o t i n ­

o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f one s t y l e

from

i t s p red ecessor. Kahnmann , 2 i n a n i l l u s t r a t e d a r t i c l e , h a s d e s c r i b e d i n g e n e r a l t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e body from a l o g th e h o r s e le s s v e r tic a l lin e s

c a r r ia g e .

He p o i n t s o u t i n t h i s a r t i c l e

th at

b e l o n g t o s t a t i o n a r y d e s i g n and h o r i z o n t a l

l i n e s b e lo n g to d e s ig n s o f m o tio n .

1 R. T. S l o s s , Book o f t h e A u t o m o b ile D. A p p l e t o n C e n t u r y Company, 1905"), 3 7 2 pp . 7 6 :5 2 ,

to

(New Y ork:

2 G. A. Kahnmann, wS t e e l i n M o t i o n , n C o u n tr y L i f e , O ctob er, 1939-

6 Whitman? h a s w r i t t e n a w e l l - i l l u s t r a t e d a r t i c l e sh o w ­ in g c o n t r a s t s

i n body d e s i g n up t o 1 9 2 2 , a l s o

o f th e r a d i a t o r - l e s s

th e e v o lu tio n

F r a n k lin .

M axim ,4 i n a w e l l - i l l u s t r a t e d w o rk , h a s p i c t u r e d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e fro m t h e h o r s e - d r a w n v e h i c l e . T h is b o o k i n c l u d e s t h e o l d s t e a m - d r i v e n c a r s and c o n t a i n s e x c e l l e n t p h o t o g r a p h s o f m o d e ls b e f o r e 1 9 0 0 . L i t e r a t u r e on t h e l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e . I n a r e c e n t b o o k by R e c h , 5 b r ie fly fu lly

th e h i s t o r y o f th e m o to rca r i s

r e v i e w e d and b r o u g h t up t o d a t e .

illu str a te d ,

au th or i s ,

T h is w ork i s b e a u t i ­

i n c l u d i n g o l d and new body d e s i g n s .

The

h o w e v e r , c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e

a u to m o b ile in g e n e r a l. L i t e r a t u r e on t h e s t r e a m l i n i n g o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e b o d y . The g e n e r a l p u b l i c was f i r s t made c o n s c i o u s o f s t r e a m l i n i n g abou t th e y e a r s 1 9 3 4 -3 5 th e Scarab,

I n 1 9 3 5 a p p e a r e d an a r t i c l e

i n w h ic h

o f S t o u t E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r i e s , 6 made i t s

d eb u t.

3 R o g e r B. W hitman, ^’Y e s t e r d a y 1s Car and T o -m o rr o w 1a 11 C o u n tr y L i f e , 4 1 : 4 2 - 4 4 , J a n u a r y , 1 9 2 2 . 4 H iram P e r c y Maxim, H o r s e l e s s C a r r i a g e Days (Hew York: H a rp er B r o t h e r s , 1 9 3 6 - 3 7 ) , 175 PP5 F r a n k l i n M. R e c h , A u t o m o b i le from S t a r t t o F i n i s h (Hew Y ork : Thomas Y. C r o w e l l Company, 1 9 4 1 ) , 10 0 p p . 6 f,An E n t i r e l y Hew-Type A u to m o b ile ,* ' D e s i g n , 3 7 : 3 9 - 4 1 , Jun e, 1935-

7 A l l p r e v i o u s c o n c e p t i o n s o f body d e s i g n w e r e i g n o r e d an d body d e s i g n was a d a p t e d from t h e a i r p l a n e . The d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s t r e a m l i n e d body c a n be r e ­ v i e w e d i n a s t a t e m e n t from A r c h i t e c t u r a l Forum 1 w h ic h a r r i v e d a t th e fu n d a m en ta l r e a s o n th u s: U n ev e n d e v e lo p m e n t i s t h e c h i e f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f tr a n sp o r ta tio n d e sig n . A i r p l a n e s , w h er e f u n c t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e a l l - i m p o r t a n t and w i t h no t r a d i t i o n t o l i v e down, show p h e n o m in a l p r o g r e s s . The a u t o m o b i l e on t h e o t h e r h a n d , d e s p i t e m e c h a n i c a l im p r o v e m e n ts and b e t t e r s t y l i n g , i s s t i l l f a r from a d e f i n i t e s o l u t i o n w h ic h w o u ld i n v o l v e r e a l s t r e a m l i n i n g and c o n s e q u e n t l y fu n d am en tal r e d e s ig n .

1 A r c h i t e c t u r a l Forum, 7 3 0 0 8 - 3 0 9 *

O ctob er, 1 9 4 0 .

CHAPTER I I I HISTORY OF THE INVENTION AND STYLING OF THE AUTOMOBILE T h is c h a p t e r b r i e f l y

o u tlin e s

th e h i s t o r y o f th e s t y l i n g

o f th e a u to m o b ile b e g in n in g w ith th e c o n c e p tio n s o f A lb r e c h t D tir e r .

Some l e g a l d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h w h ic h t h e ow n ers o f t h e

e a r l y s t e a m a u t o m o b i l e s h a d t o c o n t e n d a r e r e c a l l e d and t h e l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e c h a n g e t o t h e i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t io n e n g in e i s

p o in ted o u t.

The d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s t y l e from i t s

o f th e a u to m o b ile i s

tra ced

i n v e n t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n t d a t e by means o f l i n e d raw ­

i n g s t o show c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y i t s

ch an ges through i t s h i s t o r y .

E m p h a sis i s p l a c e d u p on t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e s t y l e a u t o m o b i l e body u p o n i t s

predecessor,

T h er e a r e a l s o eth er i n f l u e n c i n g

o f th e

th e h orse-d raw n v e h i c l e .

fa cto rs,

such a s th e P a r is

E x p o s i t i o n o f 1 9 2 5 and t h e e c o n o m ic d e p r e s s i o n o f t h e 1 9 3 0 s . A l b r e c h t D t ir e r , an e a r l y s t y l i s t . sty lin g

o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e body i s

c o n str u c tio n .

The h i s t o r y o f t h e

o ld e r th a n t h a t o f a u to m o b ile

For s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s man h a s t h o u g h t o f im ­

p r o v i n g h i s means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n by s p e e d i n g i t b e a u tify in g h is v e h ic le , as p o s s i b l e .

u p , by

a n d by m aking h i s r i d e a s e f f o r t l e s s

The I n v e n t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e ,

w h ic h h a s b e e n t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n p e r f o r m i n g t h i s t a s k on t h e g r o u n d , d i d n o t t a k e p l a c e u n t i l t h e e i g h t e e n t h

9 c e n tu r y , w ith i t s n e w ly -d isc o v e r e d u se s

o f steam .

B e f o r e t h e a d v e n t o f t h e s t e a m e r , h o w e v e r , men h a d t h o u g h t o f s e l f - p r o p e l l e d c a r r i a g e s and many i d e a s w e re p r o ­ posed.

A l b r e c h t D tire r* s c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e l f - p r o p e l l e d

v e h i c l e w e r e t h e c l a s s i c a l e x a m p le .

T h is s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y

e n g r a v e r c o n v e i v e d p l a n s and made i l l u s t r a t i o n s

fo r n in e

su ch fo r e r u n n e r s o f th e a u to m o b ile fo r th e a p p ro v a l o f K a ise r M a x im illia n .

D tir e r ,

in te r e ste d

in a r t as a p r o fe s s io n ,

s t y l e d h i s " a u t o m o b ile s * ' m a i n l y f o r t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e .

The r e ­

s u l t was w h a t m ig h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d f o r a n y a r t i s t o f h i s

t im e

who w i s h e d t o o u t d o h i m s e l f f o r h i s r u l e r , - - a p r o d u c t t o d e l i g h t t h e e y e and a r o u s e a m e a s u r e o f e n v y .

I n h i s day t h a t m eant

b u rd en som e d e t a i l s a n d o r n a t e n e s s , a s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y s t y l e s u p e r i m p o s e d u p on a f u n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e t o g a i n t h e e f f e c t o f lu x u ry . It

is

t r u e t h a t D u rer a l s o

t io n fo r each o f h is

d e sig n s.

s u p p l i e d a form o f l o c o m o ­

T h e s e fo rm s o f l o c o m o t i o n w e r e

m e r e l y som ew h ere on t h e b e h i c l e .

It

Is o f i n t e r e s t to n o te

t h a t D u r e r h a d s o l v e d t h e p r o b le m w h ic h c o n f r o n t s u s t o d a y a s t h e g r e a t e s t d e s i g n e r r o r i n our a u t o m o b i l e , - - t h a t o f p l a c e ­ m ent o f t h e m o t o r .

He h a d w i s e l y l o c a t e d h i s nmotor*' i n t h e

rear. E a r ly e f f o r t s The s t e a m e r made i t s

in c o n str u c tio n

o f s e l f - p r o p e lle d v e h i c l e s .

a p p e a r a n c e i n E u r o p e d u r in g t h e e i g h t e e n t h

10 cen tu ry .

T hese f i r s t

and s t y l e .

e f f o r t s a p p e a r e d i n e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e form

Toward t h e en d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r ,

t h e s t e a m a u t o m o b i l e s h a d i n g e n e r a l a c q u i r e d a common d e s i g n . M e a n w h ile t h e i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e h a d made i t s a n c e and i t s

appear­

body d e s i g n f o l l o w e d t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e s t e a m

v e h ic le . I t is

o b v io u s,

from t h e s t u d y o f t h e s k e t c h e s o f t h e s e

p r e - a u t o m o b i l e s , t h a t t h e r e was no c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t made i n sty lin g

th e body.

The f o r e m o s t and o n l y p r o b le m c o n s i d e r e d by

t h e i n v e n t o r and b u i l d e r was t h a t o f m aking t h e v e h i c l e w o rk . At t h is p o in t in i t s h is t o r y ,

th e a u to m o b ile c o u ld h ave s t a r t e d

u p on a n o t h e r a v e n u e o f d e v e l o p m e n t .

H o w ev er, by t h e t im e i t s

d e s i g n becam e g e n e r a l l y s t a n d a r d , w i t h i t s fr o n t o f th e d r iv e r ,

e n g in e p la c e d In

t h e d i e h a d b e e n c a s t and m o to r c a r d e ­

s i g n was doomed t o f o l l o w

t h e g r o o v e d e e p l y c u t by c e n t u r i e s

o f u se o f th e h o rse-d ra w n v e h i c l e . E a r l y i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y an i m p o r t a n t c h o i c e f o r t h e f u t u r e was m ade, t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n g a s o l i n e and s t e a m . Who o r w h a t g r o u p i t was t h a t t i p p e d t h e s c a l e

in fa v o r o f th e

g a s o l i n e m o to r c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d , n o r do we know c o n c l u ­ siv e ly

f o r w h at r e a s o n s .

I t w o u ld b e an i n t e r e s t i n g

a n a l y z e and com pare t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g c h o ic e .

fa cto rs

stu d y to

to t h i s s p e c i f i c

D id t h e g a s o l i n e m o to r g a i n p r e - e m i n e n c e b e c a u s e i t

was m o s t r a p i d l y d e v e l o p e d i n A m e r ic a , a r a t i o n r i c h

in o il?

11 Was t h e s t e a m e n g i n e more d a n g e r o u s i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e average d r iv e r ?

Would t h e s t e a m - d r i v e n v e h i c l e h a v e b e e n

more e c o n o m i c a l or more e f f i c i e n t

to o p era te?

D id t h e

n e e d f o r r a i s i n g s t e a m b e f o r e s t a r t i n g w e ig h a g a i n s t t h e stea m er, lin e ?

or d id s e l f i s h

in te r e sts

T hese w ere i n t e r e s t i n g

t u r n t h e t i d e to w a r d g a s o ­

s p e c u l a t i v e q u e s t i o n s and

w o u ld h a v e se em e d t o b e o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e d e s i g n and s t y l e body.

o f th e a u to m o b ile

As a m a t t e r o f f a c t t h e y w e r e w h o l l y u n i m p o r t a n t .

Had t h e s t e a m e r d e v e l o p e d i n s t e a d o f t h e g a s o l i n e m o t o r , w i t h c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g t h e sa m e ,

t h e a u t o m o b i l e body c o u l d

h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h t h e v e r y same e v o l u t i o n a r y s t e p s . fa ct,

In

t h e r e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e s t e a m e r t o t h e m o t o r - c a r seem s

to prove t h i s . The one im p o r t a n t f a c t i s

t h a t th e e a r ly d e s i g n e r s w ere

g u i d e d by t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e p o w er p l a c e d ’" h o r s e - w is e * ' and t h e m o to r becam e a s u b s t i t u t e

fo r th e h o r se in s te a d o f th e

h a r b i n g e r o f a c o m p l e t e l y new p r o d u c t . how c o n s c i o u s

t h e p u b l i c was o f t h i s

In order to r e a l i z e

fa ct i t

i s n e c e ssa r y to

remember how r e c e n t l y

our m o to r c a r was known a s a *?g a s

b u g g y 1" o r a h o r s e l e s s

c a r r ia g e .* *

L egal d i f f i c u l t i e s

and p u b l i c r e s i s t a n c e .

t h e s t e a m e r was f i r s t b u i l t

fo r p u b lic u s e ,

h a s had to c o n t e n t w ith p u b lic r e s i s t a n c e

Ever s i n c e

th e a u to m o b ile

to r a d ic a l ch a n g es.

12 In i t s

e a r ly h is to r y d r a s tic

m o b ile .

l a w s w e r e made a g a i n s t t h e a u t o ­

The s e v e r e s t l a w s a g a i n s t i t w e r e made i n t h e B r i t i s h

Is le s.

C o n se q u e n tly i t s

d e v e lo p m e n t i n B r i t a i n was im p e d e d ,

w h e r e a s on t h e E u ro p ea n c o n t i n e n t g r e a t e r s t r i d e s w e r e made. In th e U n ite d S t a t e s

th e l e g a l r e s t r i c t i o n s a g a i n s t th e steam

ca r w ere n o t r i g i d l y

en fo rced .

Some c l a s s i c

e x a m p le s o f d i s c o u r a g e m e n t w e r e s u c h

r u l i n g s a s t h o s e w h ic h c l a s s i f i e d

th e steam er as a lo c o m o tiv e ,

and an a d v a n c e g u a r d w a v in g a r e d f l a g was r e q u i r e d t o s i g n a l t h e ap p roach o f th e stea m m enace.

A n o t h e r law r e q u i r e d a l l

s t e a m a u t o m o b i l e s t o b e i n s p e c t e d by a p r o p e r d e p a r t m e n t o f th e c i t y

and o n l y l i c e n s e d e n g i n e e r s w e r e " a l l o w e d t o o p e r a t e

a steam v e h i c l e .

A n o t h e r law a g a i n s t a l l a u t o m o b i l e s d e t e r ­

m in e d t h a t p a r k s w e r e m eant f o r h o r s e - d r a w n v e h i c l e s and c h ild r e n . fore,

A u t o m o b i l e s , b e i n g a m eance t o t h e s e , w o u ld t h e r e ­

be e x c l u d e d . C h r o n o l o g i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s t y l e

th e y ea r 1 9 1 0 .

The l i n e p r o f i l e s

o f t h e body t o

on P l a t e 1^ t r a c e t h e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e b od y from t h e 9 0 * 8 t o W orld War I . g e n e r a l,

In

t h i s p a r t o f th e a u to m o b ile ’s h is t o r y d i s c l o s e s

th e

1 T h e s e l i n e d r a w in g s do n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f any s p e c i f i c make o f c a r , b u t r e p r e s e n t w h at t h e a v e r a g e a u to m o b ile b u i l t in a c e r t a i n y e a r lo o k e d l i k e . Thus e a c h d r a w in g f a v o r s t h o s e makes o f a u t o m o b i l e w h ic h w e r e b u i l t i n l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s d u r i n g t h e y e a r w h ic h i t r e p r e s e n t s .

15 fa ct

t h a t a new i n d u s t r y was "being b o r n and t h a t t h i s new

i n d u s t r y w as s t r u g g l i n g w i t h m e c h a n i c a l im p r o v e m e n t s .

B r ie fly ,

e a c h m a n u f a c t u r e r v i e d w i t h t h e o t h e r i n an e n d e a v o r t o p r o d u c e a b e t t e r m ech a n ica l p ro d u ct a c c o r d in g p o lic y .

t o h i s own s p e c i f i c

D u r in g t h i s p e r i o d t h e r e w e r e many s m a l l m a n u f a c t u r e r s

a s com p ared w i t h t o d a y .

The r e s u l t o f t h i s was t h a t t h e

v a r i o u s makes o f a u t o m o b i l e s w e r e p e c u l i a r l y d i s t i n c t i v e

in

sty le . D e p e n d e n c e o f t h e d e s i g n e r upon t h e c a r r i a g e is

o b v io u s

i n t h e e a r l y m o d e ls b e f o r e 1 9 0 0 .

in d u str y

I t can be s e e n

t h a t t h e i n v e n t o r was c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o b le m s o f a s t r i c t l y m ech a n ica l n a t u r e .

E xtra l i g h t

f o r n i g h t d r i v i n g was u n n e c e s ­

s a r y and t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l u n h e a r d o f .

The c h a i n d r i v e was

t h e l o g i c a l s o l u t i o n f o r pow er t r a n s m i s s i o n s i n c e i t e x is te d .

a lr e a d y

M o to r s w e r e a t f i r s t p l a c e d u n d e r t h e s e a t b u t w e r e

s o o n moved f o r w a r d , many o f them b e f o r e 1 9 0 0 . t h e same y e a r ,

A p p r o x im a te ly

s m a l l e r w h e e l s w e r e s u p p l i e d and two new i n ­

v e n t i o n s n o t b a s e d upon t h e c a r r i a g e a p p e a r e d , w h e e l and t h e p n e u m a t ic t i r e .

th e s t e e r i n g

T h u s, w as b o r n a new d e p e n d e n t

in d u s t r y . S oo n a f t e r 1 9 0 0 d e s i g n e r s b e g a n t o t h i n k o f t h e c o m f o r t o f t h e o w n e r , and o f i n t e r e s t i n g h im by means o f r e s t y l i n g . The w i n d s h i e l d was t h u s i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e c o m f o r t and p r o t e c ­ t i o n o f th e p a s s e n g e r s .

P e n d e r s , a l r e a d y i n u s e on h o r s e - d r a w n

c a r r i a g e s , w e r e now a d a p t e d t o t h e m o to r c a r a s p r o t e c t i o n

14 a g a i n s t mud.

A u t o m o b i le h o o d s and s e a t s w e r e a l s o r e s t y l e d

w i t h an e f f o r t t o c r e a t e

in te r e stin g

curves.

The wM erry

Q l d s m o b i l e ” w i t h c u r v e d d a s h became p o p u l a r i n 1 9 0 3 . in g a t t h i s

t im e d i d much t o s a v e a s t r u g g l i n g

f u t u r e was a s y e t u n c e r t a i n . h its

R e sty l­

i n d u s t r y w h o se

E xtern a l fa c t o r s ,

s u c h a s so n g

a b o u t t h e a u t o m o b i l e and s k e t c h e s by a r t i s t s

su ch as

C h a r l e s Dana G i b s o n , d i d much t o c o n t r i b u t e . As m o t o r s becam e more p o w e r f u l , t r i b u t e d more s p e e d , lig h tin g

i t was n e c e s s a r y

t o f i n d a b e t t e r way o f

t h e r o a d , and t h e r e w e re e x t r a c o m f o r t p r o b l e m s .

1 9 0 7 i t w as n e c e s s a r y w in d sh ie ld s, to p .

and c o n s e q u e n t l y c o n ­

t o make s t r o n g h e a d l i g h t s ,

By

ex tra -h ea v y

f e n d e r s c l o s e d t o t h e b o d y , and a s e r v i c e a b l e

H e a d lig h ts w ere f u e l e d w ith a c e t y l e n e .

The a u t o t o p

was o f c o u r s e a d a p t e d from t h e c a r r i a g e i n d u s t r y , w h e r e a s t h e l a r g e f e n d e r s w e r e s o n e v t h a t t h e r e was n o t s u f f i c i e n t s u p ­ p o r t f o r th em . so lv e

The a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e r u n n i n g b o a r d h e l p e d t o

t h i s p ro b le m ,

t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e w e i g h t o f t h e

feh ^ er

was s u p p o r t e d by t h e a i d o f s t r a p s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e w i n d s h i e l d p o sts.

W ith t h i s v e h i c l e

tr a v e lin g

t h r o u g h to w n , o v e r r o u g h

r o a d s and a r o u n d b l i n d c o r n e r s , w i t h a n u n s k i l l e d o p e r a t o r b e h in d th e w h ee l d r i v in g a t unheard o f s p e e d s , a lso

to in v e n t a h orn .

Much o f t h e d r i v e r ' s a t t e n t i o n was

r e q u i r e d i n o p e r a t i n g t h i s new d e v i c e . E n c y c lo p e d ia

Americana,2

i t w as n e c e s s a r y

,JThe y e a r 1 9 1 0 , w s a y s

*Jsaw t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f w i n d s h i e l d s

^ E n c y c lo p e d ia A m e rica n a , 1936 e d i t i o n ,

p. 660.

15 c lo s e d car b o d ie s, c o m p a r tm e n t. ft

and f o l d i n g

T h u s,

t o p , and d o o r s f o r t h e f r o n t

t h e s e f e a t u r e s o f c o m f o r t and s t y l e b e ­

came s t a n d a r d e q u i p m e n t , a l t h o u g h m o st o f them h a d a l r e a d y come i n t o u s e .

A t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t d e c a d e t h e a u t o m o b i l e

w as p r o u d t o p a r a d e i t s

a c c e s s o r i e s on t h e o u t s i d e .

The

s t y l i s t made a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o p l a c e a l l a c c e s s o r i e s w h e r e t h e b u y e r c o u l d s e e them and w h er e a l s o , c o u l d b e h o l d them w i t h e n v y .

t h e buyerfe f r i e n d s

F or, b e fo r e th e y ea r 1910,

m o to r c a r d i d n o t c o m p e te w i t h t h e c a r r i a g e

th e

in d u str y .

D e p e n d e n c y o f t h e body s t y l e u p o n t h e c a r r i a g e b u i l d e r s cra ft.

At th e c l o s e

o f th e f i r s t decade- th e a u to m o b ile had

c e a s e d t o b e an a w e - i n s p i r i n g n o v e l t y , now a c c e p t e d a s a p e r m a n e n t r e a l i t y .

and t h e m oto r c a r was The a u t o m o b i l e o f t h e

f u t u r e w o u ld now h a v e t o c o m p e te w i t h t h e c a r r i a g e i n d u s t r y str ic tly

on i t s

answ er.

D u r in g t h i s

sa le

own m e r i t s .

A g a in t h e s t y l i s t

su p p lie d th e

s e c o n d d e c a d e i d e a s w e r e b o r r o w ed w h o l e ­

from t h e c a r r i a g e b u i l d e r s .

In t h i s

d e c a d e t h e m o to r c a r

r e p l a c e d t h e c a r r i a g e by im p r o v in g u p o n t h e c a r r i a g e a r t i n e ffic ie n c y .

The m a n u f a c t u r e r p r o d u c e d h i s make i n many m o d e l s ,

T h u s, by t h e en d o f t h e d e c a d e t h e r e w e r e a u t o m o b i l e m o d e ls b e a r i n g s u c h h o r s e - a n d - b u g g y nam es a s b e r l i n e , la n d a u le t,

c o u p e , brougham , l a n d a u ,

sedan,

co a ch , p h aeton ,

lim o u sin e ,

etc.

16 S t y l e d e v e lo p m e n t from 1 9 1 0 t o World War I . th e p r e c e d in g decade th e s t y l i n g c o m p lic a te d ap p earan ce.

D u r in g

t e n d e n c y was to w a r d a more

A f t e r t h e n e c e s s a r y a c c e s s o r i e s had

been in v e n te d or s u p p lie d ,

th e s t y l i s t began to s i m p l i f y

th e

appearance o f h is p ro d u ct.

By p u t t i n g on f o u r d o o r s ,

body l i n e becam e u n b r o k e n .

The d r i v e r ! s d o o r w a s a t f i r s t

b l i n d ,3 o b v io u sly

fo r th e sak e o f ap p earan ce.

A c e t y l e n e lam ps

o f th e p r e v io u s y e a r s w ere l a r g e .

The new e l e c t r i c

w ere r e l a t i v e l y

By r e f e r r i n g

it

s m a l l and s i m p l e .

th e

lig h ts

to P la te I

c a n be s e e n t h a t t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p a r k i n g l i g h t was

m e r e l y a p r o g r e s s i v e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o l d b u ggy la m p , w hereas i t

c o u ld as w e l l have been r e d e s ig n e d to

new e l e c t r i c h e a d l i g h t .

O ther a c c e s s o r i e s ,

a n d h o r n , w e r e moved t o l e s s

fo llo w

s u c h a s t o o l box

o b v io u s p o s i t i o n s .

By c o n s t r u c ­

t i n g h e a v i e r b o d i e s and f e n d e r s i t was p o s s i b l e a l s o n a te

the

to e li m i ­

th e s t r a p s . S u p e r fic ia lly ,

body l i n e s w e r e im p r o v e d by r e d e s i g n i n g

t h e l o u v r e s on t h e h o o d , by c u r v i n g t h e body h e r e and t h e r e t o e l i m i n a t e c o r n e r s , by s l a n t i n g

th e l i n e

o f t h e h o o d , and by

c u r v in g th e fe n d e r s in th e l a t e r a l p la n e . T h re e new i d e a s , p e c u l i a r t o t h e a u t o m o b i l e , b u t e d t o t h e body a p p e a r a n c e d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s .

c o n tr i­

The f i r s t

3 R e f e r s t o a d o o r w h ic h was o n l y sta m p e d on t h e body fo r appearance. A c t u a l l y , t h e r e was n o t h i n g t h a t f u n c t i o n e d .

17 was t h e im p r o v e d t o p w i t h s i d e c u r t a i n s . p r o u d ly o f t h e i r

on e-m an t o p .*3

M o to r is ts spoke

S id e c u r t a i n s w ere n o t d e ­

s i g n e d t o h e u s e d a s p e r m a n en t f i x t u r e s ,

but to be u sed o n ly

when f o r b i d d i n g w e a t h e r r e q u i r e d .

The m o t o r i s t o f 19 15 h a d

c o n sid e r a b le d i f f i c u l t y

t h e s e on a t a tim e when a

in p u ttin g

s u d d e n sh o w e r was a b o u t t o o v e r t a k e h im . necessary

to sp read th e c u r ta in s

I t was commonly

on t h e r o a d s i d e t o f i g u r e

o u t t h e p l a n , and o f t e n d r i v e r and p a s s e i g e r s w o u ld b e r a i n s o a k e d b e f o r e t h e o r d e a l was a c c o m p l i s h e d .

The c e l l u l o i d

l i g h t s w o u ld c r a c k e a s i l y and c a u s e d i s c o m f o r t , r a r e ly

fit

s n u g l y and h a d t o b e b u t t o n e d and u n b o t t o n e d f o r

on e t o g e t i n and o u t o f t h e c a r . q u ic k ly w ith age th erefo re,

th e c u r ta in s

The c e l l u l o i d d a r k e n e d

and a d d e d t o t h e g lo o m i n s i d e o f t h e c a r ,

t h e m o t o r i s t w o u ld rem ove t h e c u r t a i n s a f t e r

th e

summer s h o w e r . The m o t o r i s t ' s im p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t

s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e s i d e c u r t a i n s was l e d t o one o f t h e g r e a t e s t tr iu m p h s o f

t h e body b u i l d e r — t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e u s e o f p l a t e g l a s s . T h is r e q u i r e d a new t y p e o f b o d y and fro m t h i s

t im e on t h e

a u t o m o b i l e a c q u i r e d a n a p p e a r a n c e d e s t i n e d t o grow i n t o

th e

m oto r c a r body w h ic h we know t o d a y . A n o t h e r f e a t u r e o f v o n c e n i e n c e was t h e a d d i t i o n o f a n e x tra t i r e ,

fu lly

in fla te d ,

c a r r ie d u s u a lly

in th e r e a r .

made i t u n n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e m o t o r i s t t o pump up h i s t h e han d pump, a l t h o u g h h e h a d t o d is m o u n t t h e r im .

T h is

t i r e w ith

18 G eneral s t y lin g to P la t e I I , th e s t y l i s t

it

t r e n d s s i n c e W orld War I .

ca n be s e e n t h a t d u rin g t h i s q u a r t e r c e n tu r y

e a r n e s t l y w o r k e d to w a r d an i d e a l o f s l e e k n e s s and

sim p lic ity .

He was n o l o n g e r s a t i s f i e d

from t h i s p l a c e t o t h a t , c e sso r ie s

in th e l i n e s

body,

The d e s i g n e r

t o move t h e a c c e s s o r i e s

but endeavored to in c o r p o r a te th e a c ­

o f th e body.

The d e s i g n e r l e n g t h e n e d

t h e w h e e l b a s e th e r e b y a d d in g a f e e l i n g lu x u r y .

By r e f e r r i n g

o f m a s s i v e n e s s and

fu rth erm o re lo w e re d th e f l o o r

o f th e

t o t h e p o i n t a t w h ic h t h e d r i v e s h a f t i n t e r f e r e d t o o

much w i t h c o m f o r t .

By s o d o i n g ,

a lr e a d y v a n ish in g v i s i b i l i t y .

t h e d r i v e r l o s t more o f h i s

A f t e r t e n y e a r s t h e f l o o r was

g r a d u a lly r a is e d to a s a fe r p o s it io n .

W h e e ls w e r e s i m p l i f i e d

and b a llo o n t i r e s r e p la c e d th e h ig h p r e s s u r e D u r in g t h e d e c a d e o f p r o s p e r i t y

ty p e.

fo llo w in g th e war,

t h e r e was a g e n e r a l t r e n d to w a r d e l a b o r a t i n g d e t a i l s .

A u to­

m o b ile s o f t h i s p e r io d w ere a d v e r t i s e d fo r t h e i r lu x u r io u s h a n d le s,

fix tu r e s,

ga d g ets,

etc.

and t h e f i n e s t i n c u s h i o n b u i l d i n g ,

added

The d e p r e s s i o n h a d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t upon t h e sty le

o f th e body.

The a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y fo u n d i t

n ecessary

t o e c o n o m i s e i n many w ays i n o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e t h e same p r o ­ d u c tio n .

Many m e r g e r s o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n ie s r e s u l t e d

an d t h e v a r i o u s makes b e g a n t o e v o l v e

to w a r d a common g o a l .

D u r in g t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r s an y o n e o f t h e p u b l i c w i t h a l i t t l e p r a c tic e

c o u l d r e c o g n i z e a l m o s t a n y make o f c a r a t a d i s t a n c e ,

19 by a p p e a r a n c e o r by t h e s o u n d o f t h e m o t o r . t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s becam e i n c r e a s i n g l y l e s s m o b i l e was b e c o m in g a d e f i n i t e by d e f i n i t e

fu n c tio n s,

A fte r 1930, how ever, o b v io u s.

The a u t o ­

th in g w ith a p r o f i l e p r e s c r ib e d

a lth o u g h t h i s

common g o a l was a r r i v e d a t

t h r o u g h a s many a p p r o a c h e s a s t h e number o f m o d e ls on t h e h i g h ­ w ay. The e c o n o m ic d e p r e s s i o n a l s o c a u s e d t h e b u i l d e r s t o d i s ­ c o n t in u e p r o d u cin g t h e i r s p e c i f i c m o d e ls.

cars

i n a l a r g e number o f

S e d a n s , c o u p e s , and c o a c h e s r e m a i n e d , and a l m o s t a l l

o f th e o th e r v a r i e t i e s p o s s ib ilitie s

o f c a r r ia g e s w ere d is c o n t in u e d .

The

o f m ore e c o n o m i c a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w e r e now e x ­

p lo ite d . I n 193^- t h e p u b l i c w as made c o n s c i o u s ^ s tr e a m lin in g .^

o f t h e word

A w ord w h ic h d e c a d e s b e f o r e f a i l e d

to c a tc h

t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e b u y e r , now becam e t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t w ord i n t h e b u s i n e s s m an! s v o c a b u l a r y . w ord m eant h o r i z o n t a l n e s s ,

sim p le ,

To t h e p u b l i c

curved l i n e s .

th is

The p u b l i c

m ind h a d b e e n made r e a d y f o r t h i s movement by t h e P a r i s E x h i ­ b itio n of I 925.

E veryone in th e l a t e

2 0 ' s a n d e a r l y 3 0 ' s was

c o n s c i o u s o f s u c h w o r d s a s wm o d e r n i s t i c , w a n d ’" a r t m o d e r n e .*1 One r e c a l l s w i t h a s h u d d e r t h e w e i r d i n i t i a l r e s u l t s tr y in g

t o be ^ m o d e r n i s t i c . w

o f d e sig n s

I n p e r s p e c t i v e we c a n s e e t h e

e f f e c t on t h e a u t o m o b i l e body a s a demand f o r a s i m p l i c i t y w h ic h u s h e r e d i n t h e s t r e a m l i n i n g m ovem ent.

20

A fte r sim p lify in g h a d no c h o i c e l e f t

th e l i n e s

o f th e body,

th e s t y l i s t

t o h im i n o r d e r t o r e g a i n i n t e r e s t ,

th an r e d e c o r a t in g .

oth er

T h u s, a f t e r 1 9 3 7 t h e s t y l i s t r e d e c o r a t e d

t h e bod y by e m p h a s i z i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s w i t h chrom ium . By 1 9 4 2 t h e m o to r c a r body i s b r in g in g

out l in e s

tr a s te d to i t s

to g iv e

a g a in d e c o r a te d ,

th is

t i m e by

th e appearance o f u n ity as c o n ­

p r e d e c e sso r o f a th ir d o f a cen tu ry b e fo r e .

C o n t r i b u t i o n s o f i n v e n t i o n s and im p r o v e m e n ts t o s t y li n g , sin c e 1918. ■with p l a t e g l a s s .

By 1 9 1 8 a l l c l o s e d b o d i e s w e r e b u i l t

T h is im p r o v em e n t e l i m i n a t e d t h e g l o o m y ,

u n co m fo r ta b le s i d e c u r t a in s .

L a r g e r w ind ow s w e r e now p o s s i b l e .

The f i r s t m o d e ls w i t h p l a t e g l a s s w e r e l e s s

c u r v ilin e a r in

t h e body t h a n t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s b e c a u s e m a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e new i d e a . p u b lic

c o n sc io u s

By 1 9 2 8 Henry F ord made t h e

of sh a tterp ro o f g la s s .

c a r s w ere b u i l t w ith t h i s

W ith in a d e c a d e a l l

fe a tu r e u sed in a l l

it s g la ss.

S e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r g l a s s was c u r v e d f o r t h e r e a r w indow i n many a u t o m o b i l e s . o u tsid e

Wind w i n g s a t f i r s t w e r e a t t a c h e d on t h e

o f th e body.

body o r i g i n a l l y .

O ften th e y w ere n o t b u i l t w ith th e

The w in d w i n g s w e r e b u i l t i n t o

t h e body l i n e

a s a p a r t o f t h e window i t s e l f to w a r d t h e end o f t h e 3 0 *s . B r ie fly ,

by 1 9 4 2 g l a s s u s e d i n t h e a u t o m o b i l e body h a d becom e

s u f f i c i e n t l y w o r k a b le t o be u s e d f r e e l y lim ite d

for i t s

l im i t e d ends;

i n t h e s e n s e a s com p ared t o t h e p o s s i b l e c a r o f t h e

21

fu tu re. A t t e m p t s w e r e made t o s i m p l i f y t h e w h e e l d u r i n g t h e 2 0 *s by s u b s t i t u t i n g

a d isc

f o r t h e w o o d en s p o k e s w h ic h i n

r e a l i t y w e r e n o t h i n g more t h a n a n a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e bu ggy w h e e l.

T h e s e e a r l y d i s c w h e e l s , h o w e v e r , h o w le d 1^ and w e r e

g e n e r a lly n o is y . d isc s.

Im p ro v e d w i r e w h e e l s t h e n r e p l a c e d t h e

T h e s e l a t e s t w i r e w h e e l s w i t h t h e i r n u m erous s p o k e s

w e r e d e c o r a t i v e and l o o k e d e s p e c i a l l y h an d som e on l a r g e c a r s . A c o m p ro m ise w h e e l was u s e d a b o u t 1 9 3 6 , a c o m p ro m ise w h ic h r e s u l t e d i n a m e t a l w h e e l on t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e w ood en o n e . T h is w as u n so u n d a s a n a r t p r i n c i p l e , to

but i t

le d d ir e c tly

t h e im p r o v e d m e t a l w h e e l w h ic h we know t o d a y .

M e a n w h ile ,

t h e h u b ca p grew p r o g r e s s i v e l y l a r g e r u n t i l i t a l l b u t c o v e r e d th e w h e e l. The s p a r e t i r e was moved from t h e r e a r p o s i t i o n and sunk in t o sp ares.

th e fr o n t fe n d e r . To s i m p l i f y

c o m p le te ly covered ;

th is

‘"Swanky *1 c a r s c a r r i e d two s u c h

f e a t u r e t h e s p a r e t i r e was s o o n

a s f e n d e r s grew l a r g e r ,

th e sp are t i r e

w i t h t h e s p a r e w h e e l a t t a c h e d was a g a i n moved t o t h e r e a r p o sitio n . tru n k ,

By 1 9 3 7 a l l b o d i e s c a r r i e d t h e s p a r e w h e e l i n t h e

t h u s t h e s p a r e t i r e w e n t o u t o f s i g h t and w as n o l o n g e r

a concern o f th e s t y l i s t .

® The e a r l y d i s c w h e e l s , by t h e i r d e s i g n , b u t t h e a i r i n s u c h a .m a n n e r a s t o c r e a t e a w h i s t l i n g o r h o w l i n g n o i s e .

22

S m a l l bum pers a p p e a r e d s o o n a f t e r ste a d ily

la r g e r in s iz e .

t h e war and g r e w

T h is made i t p o s s i b l e t o e x t e n d t h e

hood w e l l beyond th e fr o n t a x l e .

By 1 9 4 0 t h e bumper was w e l l

on i t s way to w a r d e n c o m p a s s in g t h e e n t i r e b o d y , h e a v y i n f r o n t and b a c k a n d s u p p o r t e d on t h e s i d e s w i t h chromium g u a r d s . Head l i g h t s a nd t a i l l i g h t s u n t i l 1 9 3 6 w e r e d e s i g n e d an d s t r e a m l i n e d a s s e p a r a t e u n i t s .

In 1937 l i g h t s w ere i n ­

c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e b od y l i n e s by l e a d i n g d e s i g n e r s and w e r e v e r y soon in c o r p o r a te d in th e fen d e r. head l i g h t s

T h is move p l a c e d t h e

i n a more f u n c t i o n a l p o s i t i o n .

The Cord a u t o m o ­

b i l e p r o v e d t h a t h e a d l i g h t s c o u l d b e made t o d i s a p p e a r i n t o th e fe n d e r .

I n ^ c l o s e d 10 p o s i t i o n

tu rn ed back in t o

t h e Cord h e a d l i g h t s w e r e

t h e f e n d e r and p r e s e n t e d a f l u s h s u r f a c e .

I n **openw p o s i t i o n ,

i n w h ic h h e a d l i g h t s

f e n d e r l o s t much o f i t s

fu n c tio n e d ,

str e a m lin e d s h e e r n e s s .

The d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e l u g g a g e t r u n k i s At f i r s t rear.

th e

in te r e stin g .

i t was a r e c t a n g u l a r s h a p e d o b j e c t a t t a c h e d i n t h e

O f t e n t h e r e was a g r e a t s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e t r u n k an d

th e body.

As t h e t r u n k moved c l o s e r

ad ap ted to th e p r o f i l e

o f th e body,

t o t h e body i t was th en b u i l t

in to

the body.

By 1 9 4 0 t h e t r u n k l i n e h a d c o m p l e t e l y d i s a p p e a r e d . The r a d i a t o r g r i l l e p la te .

A decade l a t e r

th in g .

S ty lists

i n t r o d u c e d a l a r g e a r e a o f chrom ium

th e r a d ia to r g r i l l e

s e i z e d u p on i t

in te r e s tin g p attern s

becam e a f o r m i d a b l e

t o a d d t o t h e a u t o body many

i n chromium p l a t e .

23 The body i n g e n e r a l h a s moved to w a r d t h e u n i f i e d i d e a l e r r o n e o u s l y d e s c r i b e d a s a nt e a r d r o p . " ca n be done w ith o u t fu n d am en tal r e d e s i g n . h a s becom e a s i n g l e s w e e p .

L i t t l e more

The t a i l l i n e

H ear w h e e l s a r e c o v e r e d w i t h

m e t a l s t a m p i n g s , known t o t h e t r a d e a s ^ p a n t s ,*1 a n d f r o n t fen d ers have been p r a c t i c a l l y

in c o r p o r a t e d w it h th e hood

lin e .

The w i n d s h i e l d h a s . b e e n t i l t e d

an d i s

c u r v e d l a t e r a l l y a s i a t h e r e a r w in d o w .

lin e s

from i t s

v e r tic a l p o sitio n The h o r i z o n t a l

c r e a t e d by t h e s i d e w in d ow s a r e c o n v e r g e d t o

t a i l sw eep,

fr o n t fe n d e r s a re ex ten d ed in t o

fo llo w th e

t h e d o o r and r u n ­

n i n g b o a r d s a r e m ere v e s t i g u a l r e m a i n s . S t y l e d e v e lo p m e n ts i n th e f r o n t a l p l a n e . traces b r ie fly

t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e bod y a s s e e n

from t h e f r o n t . u n sta b le v e h ic le .

In g e n e r a l,

t h e body b e g i n s a s a v e r t i c a l and

T h e s e p r o p o r t i o n s may h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l

i n t h e h o r s e a n d b u gg y a g e b u t w e r e u n s a f e speeds.

P la te I I I

fo r t r a v e l a t h ig h

The i n v e n t i o n o f t h e c l o s e d body p r e s e n t e d a n a n g u ­

l a r p r o f i l e b u t a s t h e t o p was l a t e r p a d d e d some o f t h e s e v e r i t y was e l i m i n a t e d . b od y i n 1 9 3 7 made i t

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e a l l - s t e e l

p o ssib le

fo r th e s t y l i s t

t o p and c r e a t e a som ew hat c o n t i n u o u s l i n e . w e r e e a r l y p r o d u c e d by t h e F r a n k l i n . v e r s a l l y ad ap ted u n t i l l a t e

O n e-p iece hoods

T h is i d e a w as n o t u n i ­

in th e 3 0 * s .

o f t h e f r o n t f e n d e r s made t h i s

to cu rve th e

By 1 9 4 0 t h e s i z e

typ e o f hood im p e r a tiv e .

M odel

24 1942 i l l u s t r a t e s

one o f n u m erous a b s t r a c t p a t t e r n s u s e d i n

th e r a d ia to r g r i l l e . e x c lu s iv e ly , en ters

sin c e

O b v io u s ly t h i s

is

a sty lin g

fa cto r

i t makes n o d i f f e r e n c e w h e t h e r t h e a i r

th ro u g h a v e r t i c a l or a h o r i z o n t a l s l i t . The f i r s t bumpers w e r e d e s i g n e d to p r o t e c t one w h e e l

o n ly .

Thus a c a r h a d f o u r i n d i v i d u a l b u m p ers.

w e r e made o f p i p e ,

Some bum pers

but s p r in g s t e e l so o n g a in e d p r e -e m in e n c e

By 1 9 4 2 t h e bumpers h a d m er g ed i n t o a s i n g l e l i n e w i t h h e a v y f r o n t a n d r e a r bum pers c u r v i n g a r o u n d i n t o

th e l a t t e r a l p la n e

a n d s u p p o r t e d e s t h e t i c a l l y by p a r a l l e l chromium l i n e s . The body a s s e e n from t h e f r o n t h a s d e v e l o p e d from a r e c t a n g u l a r , p r e d o m in a n tly v e r t i c a l v e h i c l e c o v e r e d w ith a c c e sso r ie s,

t o a s q u a t d o m e -s h a p e d u n i t w i t h p r o j e c t i o n s

e l i m i n a t e d , g r e a t l y d e c o r a t e d w i t h chrom ium l i n e s and h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e s . much a s i s is

in v e r t i c a l

Window p o s t s h a v e b e e n e l i m i n a t e d a s

p o s s i b l e w i t h s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n , and s l e e k n e s s

th e order o f th e day. Summary.

H a v in g t h u s r e v i e w e d t h e h i . s t o r y o f t h e d e ­

v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e body on e may s a f e l y c o n c l u d e t h a t : 1.

Man h a d y e a r n e d f o r t h e s e l f - p r o p e l l e d v e h i c l e

for

c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e i t becam e a v a i l a b l e . 2.

The e a r l y a u t o m o b i l e s w e r e met w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e

p u b lic d isa p p r o v a l. 3 .

The d e s i g n and s t y l e

o f our p r e s e n t a u t o m o b i l e i s

d e r i v e d from t h e c a r r i a g e b u i l d e r * s c r a f t .

25 4.

D i v e r g e n c e from t h e c a r r i a g e

th ro u g h p r o g r e s s i v e , n e c e ssity 5.

e v o lu tio n a r y ,

t r a d i t io n has been

s t e p s d i c t a t e d by t h e

o f r e l a t e d d i s c o v e r i e s and i n v e n t i o n s . The s t y l e and a p p e a r a n c e b ecam e p r o g r e s s i v e l y more

im p o rta n t to th e p u b l i c ,

a f t e r t h e a u t o m o b i l e and i t s

acces­

s o r i e s h a d becom e a n a c c e p t e d f a c t . 6.

The a u t o m o b i l e body now t e n d s

and s i m p l i c i t y

to c r e a te

to w a r d s l e e k n e s s

t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f b e i n g ws t r e a m l i n e d . n

26

1907

1894

1897

*912

1916

1908

P la te

I

S t y l e D e v e lo p m e n t t o W orld War I

27

1938

1923

f---- }

LJ n rr?i

™ am

©

194?

1933

1942

Plate I I S t y l e

To

W o r ld W ar I I

28

1822

o

1023

1902

w

r

—

1938

1223

i

i—

Q ■ -->

'

i

r ----- —--------

ri A

r^ rX

1l[0j

j

—

L“

1942 P la ta

III

S t y l e D e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e F r o n t a l P la n e

CHAPTER IV PROBLEMS AND ATTEMPTED CHANGES IN BODY DESIGN £ T h is c h a p t e r r e v i e w s w h ic h e f f e c t

th e s t y l e

th e e r r o r s

o f th e v e h i c l e .

d e sig n e r s have been w i l li n g

attem p ts are r e c a lle d

id e a s w ere sound. p r o g r e ssiv e

S e v e r a l such

to d e te r m in e w h eth er t h e s e -

im p o r v em e n t o f d e s i g n and s t y l e

among c o n s u m e r s ,

is

d isc u sse d .

T h er e i s a common m i s c o n c e p t i o n

t h a t th e d e s i g n o f our p r e s e n t - d a y a u to m o b ile

t h e l o g i c a l r e s u l t d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p l a c e m e n t and d im e n ­

sio n s is

in e ffic ie n c y .

F i n a l l y , th e q u e s t i o n o f r e sp o n sib ility f o r

E rror in d e s i g n .

is

Numerous i n v e n t o r s and

to ex p e rim en t w ith r e v o lu t io n a r y

I d e a s t o e l i m i n a t e some o f t h i s h isto r ic

in a u to m o b ile d e s ig n

o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l p a r t s w h ic h t h e body h o u s e s .

t h a t th e s tr e a m lin e d c a r o f today e x h i b i t s l e s s

The f a c t

r e la tio n sh ip

b e t w e e n bod y and w o r k in g p a r t s

t h a n d i d t h o s e m o d e ls p r e c e d i n g

1910.

fa r advanced.

Its

s t y l i n g how ever,

is

W it h o u t f u n d a ­

m en ta l r e d e s i g n th e a u to m o b ile h as a lm o st r ea c h e d i t s progress

in s t y l i n g .

lim it

fo r

Among t h e l a r g e m a n u f a c t u r e r s t h e r e h a s

n ev er been a s in c e r e

e f f o r t to w a r d f u n d a m e n t a l r e d e s i g n .

m o st w a s t e f u l f a c t o r

i n our p r e s e n t - d a y c a r s i s

sp a ce w it h in th e body.

th e :.lo s s

The of

B e f o r e 1 9 1 0 i t w as a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o

r e c o g n i z e t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f th e- m o to r c a r by t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e h o u sin g .

T h is was b e c a u s e t h e body was s h a p e d p r i m a r i l y

30 fo r th e pu rp ose o f p r o t e c t io n fo r s p e c i f i c p a r t s .

A fter

th e

f i r s t d e c a d e t h i s p u r p o s e becam e c o n s i s t a n t l y l e s s

im p o r ta n t.

Thus t h e r e was a l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e h o o d o f an a i r - c o o l e d and a w a t e r - c o o l e d m o t o r , a s t e a m e r a n d a g a s o l i n e car. When d e s i g n e r s becam e c o n s c i o u s h o u sin g s p r o te c tin g

o f appearance,

th e

t h e p a r t s o f t h e m o to r c a r w e r e s h a p e d f o r

e y e a p p e a l and s a l e s a p p e a l. m in e by o u tw a r d a p p e a r a n c e ,

Today i t

is

im p o ssib le

to d e t e r ­

t h e s t r u c t u r e and p l a c e m e n t o f

m ost o f th e p a r t s w i t h i n th e body. T h is

fa ct is

sig n ific a n t.

I t means t h a t h a v i n g o n c e

d e te r m in e d t h a t a u to m o b ile s a r e fo u r -w h e e le d ,

se lf-p r o p e lle d

v e h i c l e s w i t h a m o to r p l a c e d i n f r o n t o f t h e d r i v e r ,

i t was

p r e c l u d e d t h a t e v e n t u a l l y a l l makes s h o u l d l o o k v e r y much lik e

th e o t h e r s .

I t m eans f u r t h e r m o r e ,

th a t even th e u se o f

s t e a m i n s t e a d o f g a s o l i n e w o u ld h a v e h a d n o s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t upon th e u l t i m a t e ou tcom e.

As e a r l y a s 1 9 0 5 t h e r e was l e s s

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s t e a m e r s and g a s o l i n e c a r s c la s s,

in th e ir

t h a n t h e r e was b e t w e e n g a s o l i n e c a r s t h e m s e l v e s .

T h is

t r e n d w as s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e a i r - c o o l e d F r a n k l i n , w h ic h r e ­ q u ir e d no r a d ia t o r ,

e v e n t u a l l y h a d t o c o n fo r m t o t h e norm .

T h is t y r a n n i c a l t r e n d b r o u g h t w i t h i t o f s p a c e w h ic h we a c c e p t a s n o r m a l .

I n o l d e r m o d e ls

owner c a r r i e d a b o u t w i t h h im g r e a t q u a n t i t i e s above h is h ead .

th e g r e a t w a ste th e car

o f w aste space

T h is h a s b e e n p r e t t y w e l l e l i m i n a t e d .

By

31 liftin g

t h e h o o d o f t h e modern m o to r c a r i t

t h e r e i s more s p a c e w a s t e d t h a n i s se lf,

can he s e e n t h a t

o c c u p i e d by t h e m otor i t ­

w it h s u f f i c i e n t sp a c e b eh in d th e r a d i a t o r g r i l l e

y e t a n o th e r m otor.

T h is g r o s s i n e f f i c i e n c y

a t e d w ith o u t fu n d a m en ta l r e d e s ig n .

fo r

c a n n o t be e l i m i n ­

F u rth er e v id e n c e o f such

w a s t e c a n be f o u n d by l o o k i n g u n d e r t h e f e n d e r o f a n y c a r , r e ­ g a r d le ss

o f age.

T h is c a n b e s o l v e d by r e d e s i g n o f t h e b o d y .

B e fo r e 1940 th e ru n n in g board o c c u p ie d l a r g e a r e a s w ith o u t r e ­ tu r n in g s e r v i c e ;

t h i s p r o b le m a s w e l l a s r e c l a i m i n g w a s t e w i t h i n

t h e b o d y , c a n b e s o l v e d a l s o by b o d y r e d e s i g n r a t h e r th a n r e sty lin g . One o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t e r r o r s is

t h a t o f m o to r p l a c e m e n t .

th e above p r o b le m s. p o ssib le

i n a u to m o b ile d e s ig n

S o l v i n g t h i s w o u ld s o l v e m o st o f

By m ovin g t h e m o to r t o t h e r e a r i t

to r e c la im

th e l o s t

s p a c e i n f r o n t o f t h e d r i v e r and

much m o to r n o i s e w o u ld be e l i m i n a t e d a s w o u ld b e a l s o and fu m e s .

is

A more c o m p a c t a r r a n g e m e n t o f p a r t s ,

b u reto r, d is tr ib u to r ,

sta rter,

e tc .,

be t r a n s m i t t e d d i r e c t

to d i f f e r e n t i a l ,

th e h e a t

such as c a r ­

is p o ssib le .

Power c a n

th u s e li m in a t i n g

th e

d r i v e s h a f t and g a i n i n g a d d e d s p a c e . C o n c e r n i n g t h i s move i t q u ir e s th e

fe e lin g

h im a n d t h a t ,

argued th a t th e d r iv e r r e ­

o f p r o t e c t i o n w h ic h t h e m o to r and h o o d g i v e

fu rth erm ore,

to ed u ca te th e p u b lic fir s t p o in t,

is

th ere i s

t h i s c h a n g e m u st b e made g r a d u a l l y

t o a h o o d l e s s m o to r c a r . th e p o s s i b i l i t y

A g a in s t th e

o f r e in fo r c in g

th e fr o n t

32 en d f o r t h e d r i v e r ' s p r o t e c t i o n and p>»o s s i b l y p l a c i n g

th e sp are

w h e e l i n a f r o n t com p artm en t f o r h i s a d d e d b e n e f i t .

A fo r­

w ard m o t o r ,

it

i s argued, w i l l absorb th e i n i t i a l

case o f a c o llis io n .

sh ock in

T h is i s u n d o u b t e d l y t r u e , y e t a g o o d

d e s i g n e r w i l l p r o v i d e t h e d r i v e r w i t h some p r o t e c t i o n i f h e m oves t h e m o to r t o t h e r e a r . p r o v e d by t h e s u c c e s s s i n c e 19 3 ^ •

T h is

t h i s c a n be d o n e h a s b e e n

o f t h e S c a r a b b u i l t by W i l l i a m S t o u t

The r e a r m o t o r , h o w e v e r , w o u ld r e q u i r e l o n g e r

c o n t r o l , ; ; r o d s , w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s a d i s a d v a n t a g e . g a i n added s a f e t y

th rou gh in c r e a s e d v i s i b i l i t y

n e e d e d when t r a v e l i n g

in c £ ty t r a f f i c .

sa ry to ed u c a te th e p u b lic

It

The d r i v e r w o u ld w h ic h i s much

i s no lo n g e r n e c e s ­

to a h o o d le s s v e h i c l e

fo r i t has

commuted i n h o o d l e s s b u s e s f o r n e a r l y a d e c a d e and h a s n o t f e l t u n sa fe.

On t h e c o n t r a r y ,

th e rea r-m o to red b u ses a r e very

p o p u l a r ; n o o n e w i l l p a s s up a s t r e a m l i n e d bus i n o r d e r t o w & it f o r on e t h a t h a s a h o o d .

The bus h a s f u r t h e r m o r e p r o v e d t h a t

added c o m fo r t can be g a in e d th rou g h th e r e a r p la c e m e n t o f th e m otor. D r iv e r v i s i b i l i t y S in c e i t s g r e ssiv e ly an a l l

i s a p r o b le m w h ic h n e e d s a t t e n t i o n .

e a r l y d a y s t h e a u t o body h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d w i t h p r o ­ le ss v is ib ilit y

fo r th e o p e r a to r , u n t i l i t

t im e low a n d b e g a n s l o w l y

to in c r e a s e .

t r a v e lin g a t p r e se n t-d a y sp eeds i t f a c t o r be r e c t i f i e d . d r iv e r

is

reached

W ith m o to r c a r s

im p e ra tiv e th a t t h i s

T h is c a n b e d o n e o n l y b e p l a c i n g t h e

f o r w a r d w h ih h i n t u r n d e p e n d s u p on a r e a r m o t o r .

33 A t t e m p t s a t s t r e a m l i n i n g and r e d e s i g n i n g .

In 1905

t h e p u b l i c , n o t y e t c o n s c i o u s o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e , was g i v e n a p r e v ie w

o f a s t r e a m l i n e d body i n t h e form o f a s t e a m c a r

w h ic h was

fa r in advance o f i t s

tim e.

T h is r e m a r k a b l e c a r

h a d won f i r s t p l a c e i n r a c e c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r s t e a m e r s of its

c la s s.

d e sig n ,

Its

s u c c e s s was due i n g r e a t m e a s u r e t o i t s

t h e body b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y s h e e r and m inu s a n y p r o j e c ­

t i o n s w h ic h m ig h t o f f e r w in d r e s i s t a n c e . i t s w h e e ls,

W ith e x c e p t i o n o f

t h e r e w e r e n o w o r k in g p a r t s e x p o s e d .

So u n u s u a l

was t h i s r a c e r t h a t i t was du b b ed t h e wt e a k e t t l e c a r , * Jl sle e p

t y p e o f body b e i n g u n h e a r d o f .

U n fo r tu n a te ly

th is

t h e manu­

f a c t u r e r s d i d n o t p r o f i t by t h i s p r e c e d e n t . L ate in th e y e a r 1921 a d e s ig n o f a r e v o lu t io n a r y was e x h i b i t e d b u ilt

for

i n B e r l i n , Germany.

th e a u to m o b ile

I n many r e s p e c t s

type

T h is c a r was d e s i g n e d and

show o f t h a t y e a r , by D r. B u m p ie r .

t h i s d e s i g n was w e l l i n a d v a n c e o f i t s

tim e.

D r . R um pler h a d e l i m i n a t e d i n 1 9 2 1 some o f t h e d e s i g n e r r o r s w h ic h s t i l l

e x is t

good v i s i b i l i t y

i n o u r m oto r c a r s .

H is c a r p r o v i d e d f o r

f o r th e d r i v e r and p a s s e n g e r s a s w e l l .

T h is

w as o n e o f t h e f i r s t r e a r m o to r a u t o m o b i l e b o d i e s b u i l t s i n c e t h e t i m e t h a t t h e p o w er u n i t was p l a c e d i n a f o r w a r d p o s i t i o n .

1 R. T. S l o s s , The B ook o f t h e A u t o m o b i l e D. A p p l e t o n and Company, 19 0 5 ) , p . 2 8 4 .

(New Y ork:

D r . R u m p le r 's d e s i g n c r e a t e d e n t h u s i a s m a t home and g a i n e d in te r n a tio n a l p u b lic ity as

w e l l . 2

I n 19 3 3 B u c k m i n s t e r F u l l e r b u i l t h i s T h is d e s i g n was much m ore r e v o l u t i o n a r y b u ilt.

t h a n any p r e v i o u s l y

The body was b u i l t o f alum inu m a n d was s h a p e d a s much

a s p o s s i b l e l i k e a r a in d r o p .

The c a r h a d o n l y on e w h e e l In

t h e r e a r , w h ic h w as u s e d t o s t e a r . fu lly

"D ym axion C ar.

sty le d ,

F u l l e r ' s c a r was b e a u t i ­

r e se m b lin g th e c a b in o f a tr a n s p o r t p la n e .

V i s i b i l i t y was g o o d and many new f e a t u r e s c a r e f u l l y p l a n n e d , b u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t f a i l e d b e c a u s e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t h e o r y u p on w h ic h i t was b u i l t - - t h a t

o f t h r e e w h e e l s - - w a s u n s o u h d .3

E a r l y i n 1 9 3 4 W i l l i a m S t o u t ' s S c a r a b made i t s as th e f i r s t s tr e a m lin e d s to c k c a r .

U n fo r tu n a te ly ,

debut th is a u to ­

m o b i l e was n o t m a n u f a c t u r e d i n l a r g e e n o u g h q u a n t i t i e s b ecom e a v a i l a b l e case,

to th e g e n e r a l p u b lic .

Had t h i s b e e n t h e

t h e l a r g e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s w o u ld h a v e b e e n g r e a t l y

f l u e n c e d to w a r d t h i s p r o g r e s s i v e

id e a l,

to

fu n d am en tal

in ­

redesign.4

2 D r . A l f r e d G r a d e n w i t z , " Q u e e r -S h a p e d Car h a s E n g in e i n Bear,** I l l u s t r a t e d W o r ld , 3 7 * * 3 3 -8 4 , March 1 9 2 2 , a l s o L it e r a r y D i g e s t , 7 2 : 4 4 , January 1 4 , 1 9 2 2 . "The R e v o l u t i o n a r y 'R a in d ro p * Car from Germany.** 3 **Dymaxion Car,** NewsWeek, 1 : 2 0 , J u l y 29> 1933* 4 "The S c a r a b Makes i t s D e b u t ** NewsW eek, 5 : 3 0 , F e b r u a r y 2 , 1935* a l s o , '" S t r e a m lin e d S c a r a b ,**.B u s i n e s s Week, F e b r u a r y 2 , 1935.

35 T h is c a r h a s p r o v e d i t s

p r a c tic a b ility ,

o f r e v o lu tio n a r y d ep a rtu re i t

is

still

for a f t e r e ig h t y ea rs in u se.

The d e s i g n o f t h e S c a r a b o f 1 9 3 ^> a l t h o u g h i m p e r f e c t i n som e r e s p e c t s - - s u c h a s d r i v e r v i s i b i l i t y - - r e m a i n s s to n e in th e h is t o r y

a m ile ­

o f t h e d e s i g n o f t h e m o to r c a r b o d y .

By t h e s i m p l e move o f p l a c i n g

t h e m o to r i n t h e r e a r , Mr.

S t o u t ! s d e s i g n d i s p e n s e s w i t h t h e h o o d and d r i v e s h a f t and r e c l a i m s much w a s t e d s p a c e . in fe r io r

is

o f t h e Scarafe i s

t o t h a t o f t h e D ym axion C a r , b u t t h e S c a r a b h a s

proved th e p r a c t i c a b i l i t y th is

The s t y l i n g

o f some r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e p a r t u r e s ;

im p o rta n t. D e s i g n e r s h a v e a l w a y s w o r k e d o u t on p a p e r t h e i r

fa v o r ite

id e a s.

T h e se v i s i o n s h a v e n o t a l w a y s b e e n i n t e n d e d

f o r im m e d ia t e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Norman B e l G eddes h a s d e s i g n e d

nu m erous s u c h **cars o f t h e f u t u r e .* * p a rtu re o f G eddes1 d e sig n s

The m ost r e d i c a l d e ­

i s perhaps h is

**teardrop** body

f o r w h ic h h e f o r e s e e s t h e u s e o f a f i n t o s t a b i l i z e course.

As w o u ld be e x p e c t e d , G e d d e s 1 d e s i g n d o e s n o t s u f f e r

from l a c k o f g o o d s t y l i n g .

The q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r a c t i c a b i l i t y

o f t h e t e a r d r o p s h a p e r e m a in s p a r a m o u n t, h o w e v e r . le m i s

its

T h is p r o b ­

i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f t h e D y m a x io n C a r ; t h a t i s ,

if

two w h e e l s a r e u s e d i n t h e r e a r t h e y m u st be o u t s i d e o f t h e body;

if

one i s u s e d ,

t h e b od y i s

a p t t o t&p a t low s p e e d s

36 and be d a n g ero u s a t h ig h s p e e d s . may l o o k g o o d on p a p e r b u t i t s Would p e r h a p s a l a r g e i n a c r o s s w in d ? m o b ile s

The f i n u s e d a s a s t a b i l i z e r

p r a c tic a b ility

The f i n w o u ld be m o s t p r a c t i c a l f o r a u t o ­

t r a v e lin g a t v ery h ig h sp e e d s .

I t c o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d

t h e c a r t o t r a v e l on a r e l a t i v e l y

an a l t e r n a t i v e B r ie fly

th en ,

i s unproved.

f i n be d a n g e r o u s a t lo w s p e e d i f c a u g h t

to ex ten d to o fa r beyond th e r e a r a x le .b e c a u s e lim it

too,

th e f lo o r

t h i s w o u ld

even s u r fa c e ,

or as

o f t h e c a r w o u ld h a v e t o be r a i s e d .

t h e f i n w o u ld n o t e x t e n d b e y o n d t h e e x t r e m e s

o f to d a y ’ s c a r s.

D e s i g n e r s who h a v e u s e d t h i s

a lw a y s u se d a f i x e d of sta b iliz a tio n .

fin .

Thus t h e f u n c t i o n i s

To b u i l d i t v e r s a t i l e

s t e e r i n g , w o u ld c r e a t e a c o m p l e t e l y new

id e a have lim ite d

or m o v a b l e , problem.

t o one

to a s s i s t

3

I t w o u ld be w e l l t o s a y h e r e t h a t e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h t h e f i n w e r e p o p u l a r a d e c a d e a g o on r a c i n g c a r s .

S i r M a lc o lm

C a m p b e l l ’ s B l u e b i r d was p e r h a p s t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l e x p e r i m e n t w ith th e f i n

on a m o to r c a r .

T h is w a s ,

o f cou rse, a s p e c ia lly

b u i l t c a r o f g r e a t w e i g h t an d p o w e r , b u i l t a t g r e a t e x p e n s e and f o r a s p e c i f i c car b u ilt

fu n c tio n .

It

I s I m p o r t a n t t h a t t h i s was a

to t r a v e l a t h ig h sp eed in a s t r a ig h t l i n e

3 Norman B e l G e d d e s , H o r i z o n s Brown and Company, 1 9 3 2 ) , 3 2 0 p p .

(B o sto n :

over a

Brow n, L i t t l e

37 s m o o th s u r f a c e .

O th e r s t r e a m l i n e d o b j e c t s w i t h f i x e d f i n s ,

s u c h a s bom b s, r o c k e t s , a fix e d cou rse.

sh e e ls,

are d e sig n ed to t r a v e l

A p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n Would be a v e r s a t i l e

w h ic h w o u ld a i d i n s t e e r i n g , s h ip or th e t a i l

e tc .,

som ew h at l i k e

o f an a e r o p la n e i f

fin

th e rudder o f a

th e v e h ic le

is

to s te e r

fro m t h e r e a r . D e s i g n e r Raymond Loewy a l s o fin

foresaw

th e u se o f th e

f o r th e s t r e a m lin e d a u to m o b ile and th e s t r e a m lin e d t r a i n

as w e ll.

Lowey h a d v i s u a l i z e d t h e f u t u r e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e

m o t o r c a r a s a t r e n d to w a r d s i m p l i f i c a t i o n a n d s l e e k n e s s , w i t h w h e e l s e x p o s e d and t a i l Re3 p o n s i b i l i t y a r tic le ,

f in added. 6

fo r p rog ress

in d e sig n .

d e s i g n e r G e o r g e W a lk er7 s t a t e d

In a r e c e n t

th a t th e p u b lic

is

m a in ly r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e l a c k o f more r a d i c a l c h a n g e s i n

a u to m o b ile d e s i g n ,

and t h a t t h a t i s

b eca u se th e p u b lic r e ­

f u s e s t o a c c e p t g r e a t c h a n g e s i n d e s i g n and s t y l e .

T h is

6 S h e l d o n Chaney and M artha C a n d l e r C h e n e y , A r t and t h e M a ch in e (New Y o rk : W h i t t l e s e y H o u s e , The M c G r a w -H ill BookCom pany, 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 9 9 .

7 G e o r g e W. W a lk e r , ^ A u t o m o b il e s o f Tomorrow, n P o p u la r M e c h a n i c s , 7 4 : 5 * N ovem b er, 1 9 4 0 . I n th is a r t i c l e Mr. W alk er s t a t e s , ^ W h ile e v e r y a u t o m o b i l i s t i s g r e a t l y i n t r i g u e d by s w e e p i n g i n n o v a t i o n s and r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e s i n m o t o r c a r d e s i g n s , h e h a s n o t w i t h i n h im t h e w i l l i n g n e s s to a c ce p t g r e a t changes r a p id ly .

38 statem en t r e p r e se n ts t h i s w ere t r u e , is

th e v ie w p o in t o f th e m a n u fa ctu rer.

If

on e w o u ld h a v e t o a ssu m e t h a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r

c o n s t a n t l y m aking s a c r i f i c i a l c h a n g e s t o e d u c a t e t h e p u b ­

lic ,

s i m p l y f o r common b e n e f i t .

A lth o u g h i t

is

has o fte n been r e c e p tiv e f o r ex a m p le, b een s o l d n u m erou s y e a r s ;

Why t h e n ,

th e m a n u fa ctu rer. th e p u b lic

a lso

to

tru e th a t th e p u b lic

f o r more a d v a n c e d c h a n g e s .

We h a v e ,

th e s tr e a m lin e d , r e a r -m o to r e d i d e a l fo r

th e rea r-m o to red v e h i c l e has a lr e a d y proved

U ltim a te ly ,

it;

is

v a l u e a n d t h e p a t e n t s on t h i s

been is s u e d .

f a r from t h e t r u t h ,

t r u e t h a t th e p u b l i c h a s a lw a y s b een slo w

a c ce p t r e v o lu tio n a r y changes i t

its

T h is i s

id e a fo r c i v i l i a n u se have

do we n o t h a v e t h e p r o d u c t ?

th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r c h a n g e l i e s w x th

The p u b l i c may buy h i s p r o d u c t o r r e j e c t

th u s h a s a r eferen d u m b u t i t h a s no i n i t i a t i v e .

The c o n su m e r c a n n o t demand and r e c e i v e s o m e t h i n g w h ic h t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r d o e s n o t o f f e r h im .

D e s i g n e r s and s t y l i s t s h a v e

a l w a y s w o r k e d o u t new m o d e ls w e l l i n a d v a n c e o f t h e t i m e . m a n u f a c t u r e r c a n s e l e c t h i s new f e a t u r e s

from a w e a l t h o f

advance m a t e r ia l but c h o o se s c o n s e r v a t i v e ly . th is

is

too c o n se r v a tiv e becau se h is

what he i s w i l l i n g e n ta ils

se le c tio n

to ta k e a chance w ith .

th ou san d s o f d o l l a r s

The

A l l too o fte n is

b a s e d on

A c h a n c e w h ic h

f o r e v e n t h e m o st s i m p l e c h a n g e .

The m o st s i m p l e c h a n g e s m u st b e a m o r t i z e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f years.

The d i e s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o p e r m i t s u c h a m o r t i z a t i o n .

39 Thus a new m o d e l I s c r e a t e d by e c o n o m ic e x p e d i e n c e r a t h e r th a n m e c h a n ic a l n e e d a s f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Summary. d e sig n ,

H a v in g r e v i e w e d t h e p r o b le m s c o n c e r n i n g body

and some h i s t o r i c

c o n c lu d e s 1.

a ttem p ts to r e d e s ig n ,

th is w r ite r

th a t: T h e r e a r e e r r o r s i n t h e d e s i g n o f our p r e s e n t - d a y

a u t o m o b i l e w h ic h a r e s e r i o u s l y r e t a r d i n g p r o g r e s s . 2.

T h ese e r r o r s

in d e sig n cau se g r o s s

in e ffic ie n c y

and w a s t e o f s p a c e . 3-

I n v e n t o r s and d e s i g n e r s h a v e b e e n w i l l i n g

r e v o lu tio n a r y d e s ig n s .

to b u ild

Some o f t h e s e h a v e s u c c e e d e d , w h e r e a s ,

o th ers have f a ile d . R e sp o n s ib ility

fo r the s t y l e

an d p r o g r e s s i v e d e ­

v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e body u l t i m a t e l y l i e s w i t h t h e manu­ f a c t u r e r , r a t h e r th a n t h e co n su m er who m u st make h i s c h o i c e from t h o s e m o d e ls w h ic h a r e show n h im .

CHAPTER V THE CAR OF THE FUTURE T h is c h a p t e r l o o k s a t t h e p r o b le m s i n v o l v e d In d e s i g n i n g th e car o f th e fu tu r e .

P o ssib ilitie s

in r e d e sig n concern th a t

o f m o to r p l a c e m e n t , a n g l e o f v i s i b i l i t y , s e q u e n t c h a n g e s i n body s t y l i n g . p o s sib ility

f r o n t w h e e l s , an d c o n ­

W i t h i n t h e body t h e r e i s

o f new s e a t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t ,

th e

t h e a d d i t i o n o f new

g a d g e t s ^ and u s e o f d e c o r a t i o n . In s p i t e

o f new p o s s i b i l i t i e s

th ere a r e, n e v e r th e le s s ,

from r e d e s i g n ,

many f u n d a m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n s .

are d is c u s s e d w ith r e fe r e n c e and s t y l e

r e su ltin g

T hese

t o t h e i r e f f e c t upon t h e d e s i g n

o f th e body.

W ith t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

and l i m i t a t i o n s

i n m in d ,

th e

w r i t e r h a s d e s i g n e d two a u t o m o b i l e b o d i e s f o r d i s c u s s i o n . P h otograp h s o f t h e s e

two a u t o m o b i l e m o d e ls s e r v e a s i l l u s t r a ­

t i o n o f p o s s i b l e d e s i g n s and s t y l e s P o ssib ilitie s

in r e d e sig n .

o f change, as s ta te d above,

is

o f th e n ea r f u t u r e . The m o st im p o r t a n t p r o b le m

t h a t o f m o to r p l a c e m e n t .

H er e

1 F i x t u r e s o r o t h e r f e a t u r e s w h ic h do n o t c o n t r i b u t e to t h e f h n c t io n o f th e ca r but a r e g r e a t a id s to th e s t y l i s t an d a p p e a s e t h e b u y e r ! s t a s t e f o r l u x u r y and am u sem en t, s u c h a s d i s a p p e a r i n g or p u s h - b u t t o n a s h t r a y s , c i g a r e t t e l i g h t e r s , s m a ll d is a p p e a r in g s t o r a g e com p artm en ts, p u s h -b u tto n d o o rs f o r com p artm en ts, e t c .

41 t h e r e a r e n u m ero u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s . tio n

is

The m o s t i m p o r t a n t l i m i t a ­

t h a t t h i s g r e a t w e i g h t m ust n o t b e p l a c e d t o o f a r b a c k

a s t o o much w e i g h t b e h i n d t h e a x l e w o u ld b e i n e f f i c i e n t dangerous.

Thus t h e m o t o r ,

b e h in d th e r e a r a x l e .

if

it

s h o u l d b e h e a v y , m u st n o t be

The m odern bus d o e s p l a c e

p l a n t c o n s i d e r a b l y b eh in d th e a x l e b u t t h i s t h e g r e a t w e i g h t o f t h e v e h i c l e and i t s sp r in g s.

i f not

is

i t s pow er

b a l a n c e d by

n e c e s s a r ily heavy

The m o to r m ig h t w e l l b e p l a c e d t r a n s v e r s l y r a t h e r

t h a n tf,h o r s e - w i s e . n

T h is i s

in fa c t th e p r o b a b ilit y ,

s ta te d above, F ord’s p a te n t p la c e s i t

th u s.

s in c e as

The m o to r m ig h t

b e b u i l t i n a n o t h e r g e n e r a l s h a p e s u c h a s f o r e s e e n by Mr. W illia m

Stout.

^

T h is p o s s i b l e d e s i g n i s

r e fe r r e d to as a

,?p a n c a k e m o to r 4” a n d r e c l a i m s much l o s t s p a c e d u e t o i t s p a c tn e s s w it h in th e body.

com ­

Economy o f s p a c e w i l l r e s u l t from

th e r e a r p la c em e n t r e g a r d l e s s

o f t h e t y p e o f m o to r u s e d , and

th e lo n g d r i v e s h a f t w i l l be p e rm a n en tly ab an don ed . The amount o f v i s i b i l i t y

o f t o d a y 1s c a r c a n b e im p r o v e d

by t h e s i m p l e r e m o v a l o f t h e h o o d o r a t l e a s t by s h o r t e n i n g i t by on e h a l f .

The d r i v e r ’ s v i s i b i l i t y

s u p p l y more d r i v e r v i s i b i l i t y

may b e i n c r e a s e d t o

fo r s a f e t y .

f a c t o r w h ic h w i l l b r i n g c o m f o r t , and i s

T h is t o o ,

is a

t o be s o u g h t f o r .

2 W i l l i a m B. S t o u t , wOut o f t h e A i r - - T o m o r r o w 1s C a r , w P o p u la r M e c h a n i c s , 7 7 : 1 , J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 2 .

42 The p r e s e n t t r e n d i s much a s p o s s i b l e . it

d o e sn ’ t h e lp

to w a r d c o v e r i n g

T h is i s p r i n c i p a l l y

th e w h e e ls a s

fo r appearance b ecau se

th e s tr e a m lin in g a p p r e c ia b ly .

T h is p r o b le m o f

t h e f r o n t w h e e l s may be a t t a c k e d i n s e v e r a l w a y s .

The f r o n t

w h e e l s c o u l d b e c o v e r e d w i t h a c o n t i n u o u s sw eep o f t h e body lin e

if

th e tr e a d w ere red u ced s l i g h t l y .

T h is n e e d n o t be

more t h a n a n i n c h o r tw o b a s e d u p on t h e p o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e 1 9 4 2 m o d els.

As an a l t e r n a t i v e ,

la te r a lly

su ffic ie n t

th e fen d e r l i n e

to a llo w

a co m b in a tio n o f t h i s

c o u l d be i n c r e a s e d

th e w h eel s t e e r in g

sp ace.

Perhaps

l a t e r a l w i d e n i n g a n d n a r r o w in g o f t h e

f r o n t t r e a d w o u ld b e t h e h a p p i e r medium. w h e e l s c o u l d rem ain p a r t i a l l y

exposed.

F in a lly ,

th e fr o n t

T h is w o u ld n o t i n t e r ­

f e r e s e r i o u s l y w i t h s t e a m l i n i n g and t h e w h e e l s c o u l d t h u s be used as a s t y lin g

fa cto r.

P a r k in g a b i l i t y h a s n o t b e e n g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t c o n s i d e r a ­ tio n in

t h e m ore r e c e n t m o d e l s .

F u n ctio n h as been s a c r i f i c e d

f o r a p p ea ra n ce so t h a t th e 1 9 4 2 m o d e ls , w it h g r e a t o v e rh a n g in g bum pers a n d g r i l l e , a s t e e p d r iv e w a y .

h a v e becom e d i f f i c u l t

t o p ark or t o e n t e r

T h is i s a m a t t e r o f p o r p o r t i o n i n g

b a se to th e o v e r a ll le n g t h ,

th e w heel

th e w h eel b a s e , how ever, a l s o has

its

lim its.

I t h a s b een s u g g e s t e d t h a t f o r p a rk in g p u r p o s e s ,

a ll

f o u r w h e e l s s h o u l d b e made t o s t e e r .

i s no o b s t a c l e s i n c e th e fou r w h ee l d r i v e .

M e c h a n ic a lly ,

th is

t h i s p r o b le m h a s b e e n m et and s o l v e d w i t h The p r a c t i c a b i l i t y

o f ste e r in g

on a l l

43 f o u r w h e e l s may n o t h e s o s i m p l y a r r i v e d a t , c iv ilia n

cars.

A lso ,

when a p p l i e d t o

t h e r e a r w h e e l s w o u ld h a v e t o be g i v e n

sp a c e to c u t th u s i n t e r f e r i n g w ith th e fe n d e r l i n e . m ore,

it

may be d i f f i c u l t

t o make a r e l a t i v e l y

m e c h a n ism w h ic h w i l l n o t c o m p l i c a t e s t e e r i n g

F u rth er­

in e x p e n s iv e

t o o much f o r t h e

ow ner. M a in ly , to r.

s tr e a m lin in g has been c o n sid e r e d a s t y l i n g

U n d o u b te d ly ,

p o s s ib ilitie s

s t r e a m l i n i n g h a s g i v e n t h e s t y l i s t many

but i t

in g a i r r e s i s t a n c e .

s h o u l d be c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h r e d u c ­ Todayf s c a r s a re so p o o r ly str e a m lin e d

from a f u n c t i o n a l p o i n t o f v i e w , tic a lly

fa c­

th a t th e o p e r a to r i s p r a c ­

d r iv in g w ith brakes a p p lie d .

The l a r g e

a c t a s b r a k e s a g a i n s t th e fo rw a rd m o tio n .

open fe n d e r s

F u rth erm o re,

t h e t u r b u l e n c e c r e a t e d b e n e a t h t h e body i s no s m a l l f a c t o r . T h is c a n b e p r o v e d by o b s e r v i n g an a u t o m o b i l e a h ig h w a y l i g h t l y a ir

c o v e r e d w i t h sn o w .

tr a v e lin g

The r e s u l t

is

over

t h a t th e

t u r b u l e n c e c r e a t e d s w e e p s t h e h ig h w a y c l e a n w h e r e a s t h e

snow i s

s p r e a d i n snow p lo w f a s h i o n .

d e t e c t e d i n w in d t u n n e l t e s t s so lid .

T h is,

th erefo re,

T h is t u r b u l e n c e i s n o t

b e c a u s e c a r m o d e ls a r e b u i l t

b e c o m e s t h e s o l u t i o n - - t h e c a r body

m u st b e e n c l o s e d b e n e a t h , a s w e l l a s e l s e w h e r e . str e a m lin in g h a n d le s,

fa cto rs,

e tc .,

such as e n c lo s in g

L ess

th e l i g h t s ,

h a v e a lr e a d y b een s u c c e s s f u l l y m et.

th e a p p ea r a n c e o f th e 1942 m odel i s n o t bad. i s n n ly a p p a r e n tly s t r e a m lin e d .

im p o r t a n t

h in g e s, G e n e r a lly ,

U n fo r tu n a te ly ,

it

The s t y l i s t h a s n o t d o n e w e l l

44 enough w ith h i s

d e sig n lim it a t io n s .

W ith t h e e x t e r i o r s t r e a m l i n e d , arranged.

The s e a t i n g

a h e r ita g e

from t h e h o r s e and b u g g y .

th e p o s s i b i l i t y

t h e i n t e r i o r c a n now b e r e

a r r a n g e m e n t , w h ic h i s

custom ary i s

a lso

S t y l i s t s have toyed w ith

o f s p .p p ly in g a l o u n g e o r d i v a n t o r e p l a c e t h e

tr a d itio n a l rear se a t. b r id g e t a b l e or bed.

E x t r a s m ig h t i n c l u d e c o n v e r t i b l e c h a i r s , W i l l i a m S t o u t f o r e s e e s a v e r y w id e b o d y ,

s u f f i c i e n t l y w i d e t o a c c o m o d a t e on e o r more b e d s i n t h e t r a n s ­ v e rse a x is .^

I f s u c h a body i s

t a i n l y n o t be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

b u ilt,

how ever,

o f t h e c a r o f 'tom orrow;

w o u ld w a n t t o d r i v e s u c h a l a r g e v e h i c l e o f u sin g

it

o c c a sio n s.

to s u b s t it u t e

fo r a huuse t r a i l e r

In o th er w ords,

and l i t t l e It

favors

f o r an e x t r a l a r g e

and p a r k i n g d i f f i ­

b u t l u x u r y w o u ld be g a i n e d from r e d e s i g n .

Is c e r ta in

in th e f u t u r e .

on c e r t a i n r a r e

f o r a n ^ e x t r a ■l o n g

t h i s w o u ld c a l l

c a r w h ic h i n t u r n w o u ld i n c r e a s e s t e e r i n g c u ltie s

f o r who

sim p ly f o r th e lu x u r y

T h is d e s i g n f u r t h e r m o r e , c a l l s

w heel b ase.

i t w o u ld c e r ­

t h a t t h e r e s h a l l b e p l e n t y o f new g a d g e t s

A n a tio n as g a d g e t-c o n s c io u s as ours o fte n

t h e p r o d u c t o f one m a n u f a c t u r e r a b o v e a n o t h e r b e c a u s e

o f d isa p p e a r in g ash t r a y s ,

p u s h b u t t o n d o o r s an d l i d s ,

tr ic a lly

e tc .,

o p era ted d e v ic e s ,

co n stru cted o f p la s t ic s .

t io n a lly w e ll to t h is .

U n d o u b t e d ly t h e s e s h a l l be

The s t r e a m l i n i n g

c o r n e r s and s u b s t i t u t e c u r v e s ;

e le c ­

p la stic s

tren d is

to e lim in a te

le n d th e m se lv e s e x c e p ­

45 The u s e o f p l a s t i c s 2*- i n t h e f u t u r e m o t o r c a r i s Many a d v a n t a g e s and p o s s i b i l i t i e s tic s

are hereby p r e sen ted .

P la s­

c a n b e more f r e e l y m o ld e d and r e i n f o r c e d t h a n s h e e t m e t a l .

That i s , a ll

assured .

a p la stic

p a n e l c a n be m o ld e d t o i n c l u d e i n on e p i e c e ,

o f t h e r e i n f o r c i n g a r e a s w h ic h a r e made o f h e a v i e r g a u g e

m a t e r i a l t h a n t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e p a n e l . f o r c e d by s p o t - w e l d i n g rod fo r s t i f f e n i n g , ex tr a o p e r a tio n s.

to a su p p o rt,

Sh eet m etal i s

by c r i m p i n g , by a d d i n g a

o r by o t h e r means a l l P la s tic s

r e in ­

o f w h ic h r e q u i r e

fu rth erm ore w i l l e lim in a t e p a in t in g

b e c a u s e t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l b e o f t h e sam e c o l o r t h r o u g h o u t , a s c r a t c h w o u ld b e r em o v ed by s i m p l y p o l i s h i n g

it

o ff.

T rans­

p a r e n t p a n e l s w i l l be o p t i o n a l ,

s i n c e a c le a r a r ea c o u ld be as

s t r o n g a s o n e w h ic h i s

F in a lly ,

w e i g h much l e s s the p l a s t i c body,

for i t s

opaque.

stren g th ,

b od y w i l l w e i g h l e s s

in

th e p l a s t i c

fa ct,

it

is

body w o u ld

p r o b a b le th a t

a nd b e s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e s t e e l

t o a l i m i t e d d e g r e e b e y o n d w h ic h s t e e l e x c e l l s . D e c o r a t io n w i l l u n d o u b te d ly p la y a l a r g e r o l e

in g th e m otorcar o f th e n e a r f u t u r e .

in r e s t y l ­

The n e e d f o r g o o d s t y l i n g

h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r .

D u r in g t h e l a s t

two

d e c a d e s we h a v e s e e n t h e h u m b l e s t o b j e c t r em ov ed from t h e s t o r e

4 C ly d e V a n d e b u r g , ^ P l a s t i c a l l y S p e a k i n g , v E s q u i r e , 1 6 : 4 , O c t o b e r , 1 9 4 1 ." Mr. V a n d eb u rg e x p l o r e s some i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e u se o f p l a s t i c s as a p p lie d e s p e c ia lly t o t h e m o to r c a r . W ith t h i s a r t i c l e a r e p u b l i s h e d i n c o l o r , e i g h t c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e f u t u r e m o t o r c a r by d e s i g n e r s G e o r g e W a lk e r , A r t h u r F i t z p a t r i c k , a n d J o h n R e i n h a r t . T hese i l l u s ­ t r a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e b e a u t i f u l and i n t e r e s t i n g , s e r v e a s e x a m p le s o f i n e f f i c i e n c y a n d d i s r e g a r d f o r f u n c t i o n .

46 c o u n t e r to be r e s t y l e d and o f t e n r e d e s i g n e d . r e s u l t h a s b e e n im m e d ia te s a l e s demands g o o d s t y l i n g

P o p u l a r t a s t e now

b ec a u se p o p u la r t a s t e h a s ,

c o m p e titio n o f s t y l i s t s , th is

in c r e a se .

The i n v a r i a b l e

been ed u ca ted .

through

Mr. F o rd r e c o g n i z e d

f a c t when h e t w i c e r e s t y l e d c o m p l e t e l y .

The M od el T and

M odel A h a d r u n t h e i r c o u r s e and t h e p u b l i c h a d b e e n sh o w n , a n d now dem anded s o m e t h i n g m ore t h a n f u n c t i o n a l o n e . reason i t

is

For t h i s

c e r t a i n t h a t a same amount o f p u r e d e c o r a t i o n

w o u ld b e n e c e s s a r y t o s a t i s f y a n e e d f o r v a r i a t i o n a n d a r e ­ lie f

o f m o n o to n y .

A good s t y l i s t ,

h ow ever, w i l l n o t a llo w

h is d e c o r a tio n to in t e r f e r e w ith th e fu n c tio n o f th e v e h ic le e v e n t h o u g h t h i s d e c o r a t i o n i s n o t m ean t t o c o n t r i b u t e

to

fu n c tio n .

Much i n t e r e s t c a n be g a i n e d t h r o u g h c o n t r a s t o f

m a te r ia ls,

such as a tra n sp a re n t p l a s t i c

w it h an opaque, c o l o r f u l ,

body.

the

top i n c o m b in a tio n

New p r o d u c t s may r e s u l t

from t h e p r e s e n t war w h ic h may a d d more i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i ­ tie s.

A lr ea d y th e tr a n s p a r e n t p l a s t i c s

are w id e ly u sed in

a ir c r a ft. Some l i m i t a t i o n s c r e a t e new h o r i z o n s d e sig n e r , y e t resp ected .

in d e s ig n .

A lth o u g h t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

fo r th e s t y l i s t ,

th ere are d e f in it e

lis h e s h is v is io n

fo r

th e

l i m i t a t i o n s w h ic h m u st b e

M ost o f t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s

t io n o f good s e n s e .

and e s p e c i a l l y

a r e m er ely th e a p p l i c a ­

U s u a l l y , when a d e s i g n e r o r s t y l i s t p u b ­

o f t h e '■''car o f tomorrow'*''* h e d i s r e g a r d s t h i s

m a t t e r o f g o o d s e n s e i n an e f f o r t

to ca p tu re th e r e a d e r fs

47 im a g in a t io n and h i s a p p r o v a l.

O ften a s m a ll m odel o f t h i s

p r o j e c t e d f u t u r e c a r w o u ld e x p o s e i t s a r u le ,

such p r e v io u s

im p r a c tic a b ility .

As

o f fu tu re ca rs as are p u b lish e d fo r

p u b lic c o n su m p tio n r e s u l t

i n n o t h i n g more t h a n a p r e t t y p i c ­

tu re. P l a t e IV r e p r e s e n t s by means o f s i l l o u h e t t e s common e r r o r s

th u s in d u lg e d .

(T h e o p e n l i n e s r e p r e s e n t bum­

p e r s w h ic h a r e n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e p r o f i l e but are e x te n sio n s

t h e m o st

o f t h e body

o f t h e fra m e i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m anner.

The s o l i d s i l h o u e t t e s : ; a r e t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s h a v i n g t h e i r bum pers i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e l i n e

o f th e b o d y .)

F i g u r e 1 r e p r e s e n t s a common e r r o r among d e s i g n s fu tu re c a r s.

T h is bumper i s n o t e f f i c i e n t b e c a u s e t h e r e i s

n o t s u f f i c i e n t c o n t a c t a r e a to s e r v e as p r o t e c t io n a c o llisio n . it

fo r

That i s ,

o n l y a t low s p e e d ,

if

in c a se o f

two s u c h c a r s s h o u l d make c o n t a c t ,

t h e r e s u l t w o u ld b e much more s e v e r e

b eca u se o f th e w ed ge-sh ap e.

W ith a g i v e n i m p a c t ,

t h i s shape

w o u ld c a u s e c o n s i d e r a b l y more damage t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l k in d .

F in a lly ,

fo r

th e sak e o f a p p ea ra n ce,

s a c r i f i c e d p a rk in g a b i l i t y ,

th e d e s ig n e r has

g e n e r a l m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y and h a s

w asted sp a c e . F ig u r e 2 i s

a le s s

th e n o v e lty v a r ie t y .

common e r r o r .

T h is bumper i s

I t c o u ld be d e c o r a te d or v a r ie d in sh a p e,

t o c o n t r i b u t e much t o t h e b e a u t y o f t h e v e h i c l e , a b ility

of

i s n o t fo.und i n t h i s d e s i g n ;

but fu n c tio n -

i t p ro tru d es

too fa r

48 r e q u ir in g e x t r a p a r k in g s p a c e ,

and o f f e r s n o p r o t e c t i o n f o r

th e f e n d e r s . F i g u r e 3 d ia g r a m s a common e r r o r i n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e d e s i g n e r ’s id e a . th e str e a m lin e s o f h i s

In h is

e f f o r t to im p r ess th e r e a d e r w it h

c o n c e p tio n ,

t h e a r t i s t d ra w s h i s p i c ­

tu r e w ith th e p e r s p e c tiv e so g r e a t ly

e x a g g era ted th a t th e r e

w o u ld b e i n s u f f i c i e n t room f o r t h e r e a r w h e e l s w i t h i n t h e b o d y . The w e d g e - s h a p e o f t h e bumper i s

i n e f f ic ie n t as a in fig u r e s 1

and 6 . The m o st f u n c t i o n a l p l a n i n t h i s g r o u p i s F i g u r e 4 Y et,

i f a u to m o b ile s a re b u i l t

w o u ld b e much l o s s

in th is

e g g - s h a p e d m a n n er,

th ere

o f v a l u a b l e p a r k i n g s p a c e and much s p a c e

w o u ld n e c e s s a r i l y be l o s t s u r r o u n d i n g t h e w h e e l s .

G e n e r a lly ,

t h i s p l a n c o u l d p r o d u c e a b e a u t i f u l c a r b od y b u t w o u ld c a u s e s u f f i c i e n t t r o u b l e t o make i t

a n u isa n c e .

P la n 5 i s w h o lly u s e l e s s D e sig n e rs p e r s i s t haps i t

in to y in g t x t h

under p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s . th e th r e e -w h e e le d id e a .

s h a l l b e o f some v a l u e a t a f u t u r e d a t e ,

th e f u n c t i o n o f our m o to rca r h a s b een ch an ged . c a r from t i p p i n g ,

str ic tly try

a c ity

but n o t u n t i l To k e e p t h i s

t h e w h e e l s m u st o c c u p y t h e p o i n t s

a p p ro a ch es an e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e . car.

I m a g in e l e a v i n g

S e c o n d ly ,

Per­

o f w h at

t h i s w o u ld be

t h e sm o o th p a v e m e n t t o

t o n e g o t i a t e a r o u g h c o u n t r y r o a d , a r o a d on w h ic h t h e

s m a l l s t e e r i n g w h e e l w o u ld h a v e t o r i d e t h e bumpy r i d g e I

^9 F in a lly , w h ic h g i v e s p la n w i l l ,

p la n 6 i s

t h e m u c h - s e e n wc a r o f tom orrow"

on e t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f a s t r e a m l i n e d t r a i n . o f cou rse,

fu n c tio n but n o t e f f i c i e n t l y

T h is

fo r reason s

s ta te d above. Common s e n s e d i c t a t e s

se v e r a l o th er lim it a t io n s .

se e m s w i s e t h a t a l l w h e e l s f o r a c i v i l i a n sam e s i z e ,

s o t h a t o n ly one sp a r e t i r e

F u rth erm o re,

is

lo n g b eca u se s t e e r i n g tak en in la r g e

sw eeps.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

p a r k in g d i f f i c u l t , bum pers t o s c r a p e . th e t a i l sw eep ,

P a r k in g i s

and t u r n s m u st b e

fu rth erm ore c o m p lic a te d .

t h e w h e e l b a s e m ust n o t be t o o s h o r t ,

for

The f r o n t and r e a r o v e r h a n g makes

and e n t e r i n g a s t e e p d r i v e w a y c a u s e s Bumper g u a r d s m u s t n n o t f o l l o w

th e

th e l i n e

of

f o r by s o d o i n g t h e y a r e r e n d e r e d u s e l e s s .

Some f u n c t i o n a l p l a n s .

W ith - t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

i n m ind t h i s w r i t e r c o n c l u d e s e x p e c t e d to p erfo rm to d a y s

t o t r a v e l v a r i e d h ig h w a y s and r o a d b e d s , s ix passengers,

enough

The w h e e l b a s e m u st n o t be t o o

th e n becom es d i f f i c u l t ,

t h e n b ec o m e s c h o p p y .

m o to r c a r i s

and w h e e l a r e n e c e s s a r y .

c o m f o r t a b l e and n o t t i p p y , y e t c l o s e

so th a t i t w i l l o p era te e a s i l y .

lim ita tio n s

c a r s h a l l be o f t h e

t h e w h e e l s m u st be s p a c e d w i d e l y e n o u g h a p a r t s o

th a t th e v e h i c l e

th e r id e

It

and

th a t as lo n g a s th e fu n c tio n s,

th at i s ,

t o c a r r y from o n e t o

t o be p a r k e d p a r a l l e l t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e ,

and

t o p e r f o r m w i t h r e a s o n a b l e e co n o m y , t h a t t h e p l a n o f t h e m o t o r ­ c a r m u st b e r e a s o n a b l y c o n s e r v a t i v e .

Two s u c h p l a n s a r e shown

50 a r e show n on P l a t e V , F i g u r e s 1 and 2 . t h e s e p l a n s may h e i n f i n i t e ,

The v a r i a t i o n s

of

h u t th e d e sig n e n r in u st ta k e h i s

c h o i c e o f some v a r i a t i o n o f t h e r e c t a n g l e ;

F ig u r e 1 p la n s

th e

w id e s t p o in t in fr o n t o f th e c e n t e r . The p r o f i l e s ,

F i g u r e s 3 a^d 4 ,

show t h e desfenerte

c h o i c e o f a hody w i t h o r w i t h o u t h o o d . w h ic h a r e p o s s i b l e ,

a r e g r e a t i n nu m b er.

n o t he in c o r p o r a t e d

in to

te c tio n

t h e h od y l i n e .

su p p lie d fo r th e door i f

rem oved.

T h is i s

A g a in ,

Bumpers may o r may They w i l l g i v e p r o ­

th e r u n n in g hoard i s

s u p p l i e d m o st l o g i c a l l y

bum pers a l l a r o u n d t h e h o d y .

th e v a r ia t io n s

e n tir e ly

by c o n t i n u i n g

th e

E i t h e r o f t h e s e p l a n s c a n he

e c o n o m ic a lly d e s ig n e d so t h a t a l l

s p a c e w i t h i n t h e hody i s p u t

to good u s e . M o d e ls b u i l t p o s s ib ilitie s

on a b o v e p l a n s .

and l i m i t a t i o n s ,

m odel a u to m o b ile s .

K e e p in g i n m ind t h e a b o v e

th e w r ite r has b u i l t

two c l a y

P l a t e s V I and V I I a r e v i e w s o f t h e m o d e l

b a s e d on t h e p r o f i l e ,

F i g u r e 3> P l a t e V #

T h is i s

t h e more c o n ­

s e r v a t i v e p l a n w h ic h r e t a i n s a s e m b l a n c e o f t h e h o o d f o r sake o f t r a d it io n . d e c o ra tio n .

Only f u n c t i o n i n g u n i t s h a v e b e e n u s e d a s

T h is m o d e l was p l a n n e d f o r a p l a s t i c

t e c t e d by a c o n t i n u o u s bumper s u r r o u n d i t . bumper m u st b e rem oved t o c h a n g e w h e e l s .

body p r o ­

P a r ts o f th e The s p a r e w h e e l i s

p la c e d in s id e

th e fr o n t hood to g iv e

tio n ,

s u f f i c i e n t sp ace fo r a s iz e a b le

le a v in g

th e

th e d r iv e r added p r o t e c ­ tru n k .

The m o to r

51 i s p la c e d over th e r e a r a x le w ith lo u v r e s

i n t h e bod y t o t a k e

i n an d e x p e l l a i r .

th e se as a d e c o r a tiv e

m o tif,

or ig n o r e

The s t y l i s t

c o u ld u se

tham a s h a s b e e n d o n e h e r e .

c o u l d b e made r e t r a c t a b l e

The op aq u e t o p

f o r op en a i r d r i v i n g .

T h is m o d e l w as p l a n n e d t o u s e t h e s p a c e g a i n e d , r a t h e r t h a n t o e c o n o m i z e by b u i l d i n g a s m a l l e r b o d y . about t h ir t y per c e n t e x tr a sp ace w ith in .

Thus t h e r e i s

E i g h t p e o p l e w o u ld

f i n d s u f f i c i e n t s p a c e f o r c o m f o r t , a s an a l t e r n a t i v e s ig n e r c o u ld rea r ra n g e th e s e a t s w ith s le e p in g s p a c e ,

th e d e -

t o c r e a t e a #,,home on w h e e ls®

th e bed b e in g c o n v e r t i b l e

to a lo u n g e

w h ile d r iv in g . P la te s V II, F i g u r e 4 , P l a t e V. th e h o o d le s s p la n ,

IX a n d X a r e v i e w s o f a v a r i a t i o n o f p r o f i l e T h is i s

le ss

c o n se r v a tiv e , a v a r ia tio n o f

c r e a t in g a sim p le r p r o f i l e .

m o st o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g ; bumper p r o t e c t i o n a l l a r o u n d , h a s b e e n moved fo r w a r d i t fr o n t w h e e l. exp osed , a llo w s

T h u s,

etc.

T h is plan h a s

sp are w h eel in fr o n t,

B ecause th e d r i v e r !s s e a t

is n ecessary

to p la c e i t

above th e

t h e f r o n t w h e e l m u st b e a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y

in order to g iv e

t h e d r i v e r s u f f i c i e n t l e g room ,

fo r a w id e r tr e a d .

e lim in a tin g a u s e le s s

Bumpers a r e p a r t o f t h e b o d y ,

fo o t in le n g th ,

T h is m o d e l, a s t h a t a b o v e ,

c o u ld lo c a t e

r e a r to r e tu r n to a g r a v it y t o p p r o v i d e s more p r i v a c y

an d f a c i l i t a t i n g

fe e d system .

th is th u s

p a r k in g .

th e g a s tan k in th e The t r a n s p a r e n t p l a s t i c

t h a n w o u ld a t f i r s t

se e m p r o b a b l e .

52 D e s ig n e r W illia m S to u t p o i n t s l ik e m a te r ia l w i l l r e f l e c t parent p la s tic

out th a t a curved ,

o b jects

th u s s e r v e s b e t t e r

sla n te d g la s s -

from t h e o u t s i d e .

The t r a n s ­

to s e e out o f th an to s e e

in to . T h is s e c o n d m od el was p r o p o r t i o n e d t o e c o n o m i z e w i t h som e o f th e sp a c e s a v e d .

T h erefore,

a t e ly about seven per c en t sm a lle r . is

s u f f i c i e n t room i n s i d e

se a tin g

t h i s bod y i s p r o p o r t i o n ­ In s p i t e

f o r .th e d e sig n e r

d r iv e r * s

sea t.

d isa p p e a r in g

s t o r a g e c o m p a r tm e n t, r a d i o ,

e tc .,

h in d th e m otor,

e tc .,

w h ic h

cu rv ed to a llo w

fe a tu r e su ch a s a t a b le , t o be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e

The f r o n t s e a t c o u l d b e b u i l t

or t h e f o l d away v a r i e t y .

ta b le ,

f o r tw o , b e h i n d t h e

The b a c k o f t h e f r o n t s e a t i s

space fo r a b u i l t - i n ,

sty list.

sp ace

th ere

to r e a r r a n g e th e

i n f a v o r o f a l o u n g e , m o v a b le s e a t s ,

c o u ld be c o n v e r te d i n t o s l e e p i n g

of th is,

T here i s

i n two u n i t s ,

a d ju sta b le ,

room f o r s t o r a g e s p a c e b e ­

i n t h e wt a i l . ft’ B r i e f l y ,

t h i s m odel e l i m i n a t e s

a l l l u x u r y s p a c e f o r t h e s a k e o f e c o n o m i c a l o p e r a t i o n and e a s y h a n d lin g . Summary. tio n s c lu d e s

A fte r stu d y in g

fo r d e sig n in g

th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

th e ca r o f th e n ea r f u t u r e ,

and l i m i t a ­

th e w r i t e r c o n ­

th a t: 1.

F or t h e f u t u r e ,

t h e d e s i g n e r m ust t a k e g r e a t e r a d ­

v a n t a g e o f t h e g r e a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h ic h w o u ld p r o v i d e more s a f e t y , g r e a t e r e co n o m y , p o r tio n s

( i n o p e r a t i o n , and i n g e n e r a l p r o ­

o f t h e m o t o r c a r ) more c o m f o r t , a nd g r e a t e r

53 m a n e u v e r a b ility . 2.

S t r e a m l i n i n g m u st b e c o n s i d e r e d a s p e r t a i n i n g

t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e m o to r v e h i c l e , 3>.

D e c o r a tio n ,

as w e ll as i t s

appearance.

f u n c t io n a l or n o n - f u n c t i o n a l,

may be

u s e d b u t m u st n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e v e h i c l e . 4.

T here a r e l i m i t a t i o n s

i n th e d e s i g n o f a m otorcar

w h ic h c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d . 5.

The s i l h o u e t t e s

on P l a t e

IV r e p r e s e n t common m i s ­

c o n c e p t i o n s w h ic h w i l l n o t f u n c t i o n e f f i c i e n t l y

s o l o n g a s our

m oto rca rs a r e u sed fo r t o d a y ’s p u r p o s e s . 6.

Common s e n s e d i c t a t e s

t h a t s u c c e s s f u l body d e s i g n s

f o r t h e n e a r f u t u r e m u st n o t b e more r a d i c a l t h a n v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e p l a n s r e p r e s e n t e d on P l a t e V. illu str a te d

i n P l a t e s V I - X.

Two s u c h v a r i a t i o n s a r e

to

54

F ront

Fig*

F ig *

I

F ig*

g

?

Front

■ Rear •

*

4-

P l a t e IV

F lg *

5

U n f u n c t io n a l P la n s

55

Front

L, F ig .

R ear

1

F ig .

F ig * in­ n a te

V

F u n c tio n a l P la n s

2

^6

V* o f F i r s t p la n p l a t e VI

V a r i a - ^ 011

0f s e c o n d p l a n p la te

vxxx

-r»_

« lyj-'-'— VarXat lo n

cond P i

CHAPTER V I

CONCLUSION F o r c e n t u r i e s man h a s w a n t e d t o r i d e

to h is d e s t in a t io n .

U n t i l t h e a d v e n t o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e , h e w as n o t a b l e t o g o w h e r e h e p l e a s e d or w hen h e p l e a s e d w i t h a n y d e g r e e o f s p e e d or e ffic ie n c y . A fte r stu d y in g se e m s s e l f - e v i d e n t

th e h i s t o r y

th at i t

owes i t s

o f th e h orse-d raw n v e h i c l e . th is

t r a d it io n have b een ,

a n e c e ssity

o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e bod y i t sty le

F u rth erm ore,

to th e t r a d i t io n th e d e v ia tio n s

f o r th e m ost p a r t ,

r a t h e r th an d e s i r e .

from

th e r e s u l t o f

New d e v i c e s and a c c e s s o r i e s

h a v e b e e n s u p p l i e d w h i c h , unknown i n t h e h o r s e - a n d - b u g g y d a y s , w e r e t h e r e s u l t o f new n e e d s o f t h e m o t o r c a r . such in v e n tio n s a r e , - - t h e e le c tr ic

h e a d lig h ts,

proof g la ss,

E xam p les o f

s t e e r i n g w h e e l , p n e u m a t ic t i r e s ,

th e ru n n in g b o a r d ,

th e s t e e l body,

sh a tter­

e tc .

A f t e r t h e u s e o f t h e m o t o r c a r becam e a c c e p t e d and t h e necessary a c c e sso r ie s

su p p lie d ,

th en m an u factu rer sou gh t to i n ­

duce th e buyer to p u rc h a se h i s p r o d u ct th rou gh e y e -a p p e a l. I t becam e a r u l e The s t y l e

t h a t e a c h m a n u f a c t u r e r w o u ld r e s t y l e a n n u a l l y .

a n d a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e m o t o r c a r becam e p r o g r e s s i v e l y

m ore i m p o r t a n t a s t h e w o r k i n g p a r t s w e r e r e f i n e d and p o l i s h e d . T here e x i s t a s y e t , m o torcar.

C h ie fly ,

nu m erous e r r o r s

in th e d e s ig n o f th e

t h e y a r e m o to r p l a c e m e n t , g r o s s w a s t e o f

61 s p a c e and p o w e r , and t h e l a c k o f t r u e f u n c t i o n a l s t r e a m l i n i n g . The m a n u f a c t u r e r s h o u l d a t t a c k t h i s p r o b le m more from t h e v i e w ­ p o i n t o f th e in h e r e n t n e e d s o f th e m o to rca r and i t s

se r v ic e

to

t h e c o n s u m e r , r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l S p l a y i n g s a f e *1 a ttitu d e .

Many o b j e c t s h a v e b e e n f u n d a m e n t a l l y r e d e s i g n e d

and s i m p l i f i e d w i t h a r e s u l t a n t l e a p

in s a l e s .

It

i s hoped

t h a t th e m an u fa ctu rer w i l l c r e d i t th e p u b lic w ith s u f f i c i e n t in te llig e n c e

to a c c e p t a change i n th e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .

t h e p r o d u c t w h ic h t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r knows i s

Thus

sou nd and p r a c t i c a l

can be had to d a y r a t h e r th a n te n y e a r s h e n c e . D e s i g n e r s and i n v e n t o r s h a v e b u i l t r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o d e ls an d h a v e p r o v e d t h e i r p r a c t i c a b i l i t y w ere b u i l t .

The r e s u l t h a s a l l

e v e r s i n c e y e a r l y m o d e ls

too o f t e n b een th a t th e d e s ig n e r

h a s h a d much more t r o u b l e s e l l i n g

h is

id e a to th e m a n u factu rer

o r f i n a n c i a l b a c k e r th a n t o t h e c o n s u m e r .

R e g a r d le ss

w h eth er or n o t th e p u b lic w an ts a s p e c i f i c

fea tu re

car,

i t h a s no c h o i c e

sta tem en t,

'"the p u b l i c

in i t s

m otor­

One s o o f t e n h e a r s t h e

i s n ’ t r e a d y , ** b u t t h e p u b l i c c a n n o t

show t h a t i t

is

i s unready?

The b u y e r c a n o n l y a c c e p t o r r e j e c t

is

ready.

in th e m a tte r .

of

M ust i t

t h e r e f o r e be assum ed t h a t i t t h a t w h ic h

show n h im , h i s c h o i c e i s u s u a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by h i s p o c k e t

book.

If

th e c o n su m er 's p a r t i c u l a r n e e d i s n o t m et,

m u st g e t a l o n g a s b e s t h e c a n . can n ot tak e th e i n i t i a t i v e ,

S in c e ,

th erefo re,

th en he

th e p u b lic

th e n th e produ cer o f th e p ro d u ct

m u st u l t i m a t e l y be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e

for i t s

d e sig n .

62 The f u t u r e h o l d s some v e r y i n t r i g u i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s . A u to m o b ile s, e ffic ie n t, in g l o s t

i f d e sig n e d w ith good s e n s e ,

a n d more s a f e

c a n b e much more

(r e g a r d in g v i s i b i l i t y ) .

s p a c e and r e p r o p o r t i o n i n g

th e body,

By r e c l a i m ­

our m o t o r c a r c a n

o p e r a t e more e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t h e same t i m e g i v i n g a d d e d room and g r e a t e r m a n e u v e r a b ilit y . P l a s t i c s w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e fu tu r e c a r .

A p la stic

body p r e s e n t s

t h e i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e s o f m akin g p a i n t i n g u n n e c e s s a r y and th e p r o b a b le u s e o f tr a n s p a r e n t p a n e ls .

S tron ger b o d ie s w ith

l e s s w e ig h t a re p o s s i b l e w ith p l a s t i c s . The f u t u r e c a r may be d e c o r a t e d by s i m p l y u s i n g t io n a l u n its as d e sig n fa c to r s , is

fu n c­

o r b y a d d i n g d e c o r a t i o n , w h ic h

t h e common t r e n d a t t h e p r e s e n t w r i t i n g . I n o r d e r t o b u i l d a more e f f i c i e n t m o t o r c a r ,

strea m ­

l i n i n g m u st be c o n s i d e r e d a f a c t o r o f f u n c t i o n b e f o r e a p p e a r ­ ance.

T h erefo re,

p o ssib le lo ss

t h e body m ust b e e n c l o s e d b e n e a t h a s much a s

in order to e lim in a te

ofp p ow er.

U n til th is

s o l i d m o d e ls a r e u s e l e s s . lin e s

is

t u r b u l e n c e , w h ic h c a u s e s g r e a t d o n e , w in d t u n n e l t e s t s w i t h

The s t y l i s t h a s t h o u g h t >of h i s

i n te r m s o f b e a u t i f u l r e f l e c t i o n s ,

bod y

r a t h e r th a n e e r o -

dyn am i c fu n c t i o n . In s p i t e la te

of a ll

th e I n tr ig u in g p o s s i b i l i t i e s

t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e d e s i g n e r and s t y l i s t ,

c e r ta in d e f in it e

lim ita tio n s.

to stim u ­

th ere are

T hese l i m i t a t i o n s a r e d i c t a t e d

63 m a i n l y by common s e n s e and s h o u l d b e a l m o s t a x i o m a t i c . th e le ss,

d e sig n e r s do, q u ite

w h ic h a r e s u p p o s e d t o g i v e m o r r o w 's c a r .

N ever­

fr e q u e n tly , p u b lish a r t i c l e s

t h e p u b l i c an a d v a n c e l o o k a t t o ­

Too o f t e n t h e p r o p o s e d v e h i c l e w o u ld b e d a n ­

g e r o u s or w o u ld n o t w o rk a t a l l . I t may be c o n c l u d e d t h e r e f o r e , m otorcar i s

b u ilt

fo r i t s

m u st b e r e a s o n a b l y c l o s e

th a t a s lo n g as th e

p resen t-d a y u se ,

its

g e n e r a l p la n

t o t h o s e diagram m ed i n P l a t e V.

The a u t o m o b i l e o f t h e n e a r f u t u r e w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y be b e t t e r s t r e a m l i n e d , w i l l p r o v id e g r e a t e r s a f e t y and c o m f o r t , w i l l h a v e i t s g e n e r a l p l a n r e a r r a n g e d , w i l l p o s s e s s a new b o d y p e r m a n e n t l y c o l o r e d and b e a u t i f u l l y d e c o r a t e d , ta in ly

fu n d a m en ta l r e d e s i g n

l e a d th e way.

but c e r ­

te m p e r e d w i t h common s e n s e m ust

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

BIBLIOGRAPHY A.

BOOKS

A r n o l d , H o r a c e L u c i e n and Fay L eon e F a u r o t e , F o r d M eth o d s and Ford S h o p s. New Y ork: The E n g i n e e r i n g M a g a z in e Company, 1 9 1 9 . "440 p p . B r e n n a n , J o h n F ., A u t o m b b il e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n S i n c e 1 9 1 6 . New Y ork: S c i e n t i f i c A m e r ic a n P u b l i s h i n g Company7 1 ? ^ PP. B r o o k s , C y r i l B . , Trimm ing M otor V e h i c l e s . a n d C h a m b e rla in ^ 1 9 3 4 • 96 PP.

New Y ork :

Spon

B u t l e r , H. J . P r i v a t e and C o m m e r c ia l M otor Body B u i l d i n g . London: S i r I s a a k Putnam a n d S o n s , 1 9 3 2 . 242 pp. C h e n e y , S h e l d o n and M arth a C a n d l e r C h e n e y , A r t and t h e M a c h in e . New Y o rk : W h i t t l e s e y H o u s e , M c G r a w -H ill Book Company, 1 9 3 6 . 3 0 7 PP. F e l d h a u s , F . M. , R u h m e s b l a t t e r d e r T e c h n i k . F r i e d e r i c h B r a n d s t e t t e r , 1*910. , 6 3 2 p p . G e d d e s , Norman B e l , H o r i z o n s . Company, 1 9 3 2 . 320 pp.

B oston :

L e ip z ig ,

Germany:

Brown, L i t t l e ,

Brown &

G i b s o n , C h a r l e s R . , F . R . S . E . , The M otor Car a n d I t s S t o r y . P h ila d e lp h ia : J . B. L i p p i n c o t t a n d Company, 19277 1 8 5 PP. H o b h o u s e , C h r i s t o p h e r , I 8 3 I a nd t h e C r y s t a l P a l a c e . J o h n M u rray , 1 9 3 7 . —l o X p p . I n n e s , A l b e r t T. , C oach a n d M otor T r im m in g . Lockwood a n d S o n , 1 9 3 2 . 93 p p .

London:

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L o m b ro so , G in a , The T r a g e d i e s o f P r o g r e s s . New Y ork: E. P . D u t t o n a n d Company, 1 9 3 1 . 3 2 9 pp. Maxim, H iram P e r c y , H o r s e l e s s C a r r i a g e D a y s . B r o th e r s, 1936-37175 PP. M e r c e r , G e o r g e J . , M otor Body E n g i n e e r i n g . B r o t h e r s Company, 1 9 2 8 ^ 202 p p .

New Y o rk :

H arper

P h ila d e lp h ia :

R e c h , F r a n k l i n M ., A u t o m o b i le from S t a r t t o F i n i s h . Thomas Y. C r o w e l l C o . , 1 9 4 1 . 100 pp.

Ware

New Y ork :

65 S l o s s , R. T . , B ook o f t h e A u t o m o b i l e . and Company, 1905* 372 pp.

New Y o rk :

D. A p p l e t o n

U sh e r, A lb e r t P a y so n , A H is t o r y o f M e c h a n ic a l I n v e n t i o n . York: M c G r a w -H ill B ook Company, 1 9 2 9 . 2701 p p . Van B o r e n , H a r o l d , I n d u s t r i a l D e s i g n . Book Company, 1 9 4 0 . 420 pp. W r ig h t , J . C . , and F r e d C. S m i t h , O p e r a tio n .

B.

New Y ork :

New

M c G r a w -H ill

A u t o m o t iv e C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d

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A r c h i t e c t u r a l Forum , 7 3 : 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 ,

O cto b er, 1940.

B u s i n e s s W eek, " S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f B o d i e s t o Make P r o f i t s D u r in g ^ D e p r e s s i o n ," V o l . 1 6 , F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 3 1 . B u s i n e s s W eek, " S t r e a m l i n e d S c a r a b , " V o l s . I93¥. B u s i n e s s W eek, ’" P l a s t i c s

8 -9 ,

February 2 ,

in A u t o s ," V o l. 3 2 , A p r il 15,

B u s i n e s s W eek, "Car o f t h e F u t u r e , " V o l . 3 1 , May 4 ,

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1940.

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R a i n d r o p 1 Car from Germany"

L i t e r a r y D i g e s t , "The F e m in in e I n f l u e n c e March l b , 1 9 2 2 . News Week, "D ym axion C a r ," 1 : 2 0 ,

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66 P o p u l a r M e c h a n i c s , #,S c r e e n C a r -B o d y C o v e r e d w i t h a P l a s t i c C o a t , ’1'1 7 b : 2 5 , D e ce m b e r, 1 9 4 1 . S c i e n c e News L e t t e r , wR e a r - E n g i n e d A u t o m o b i le i s H enry F o r d , w V o l . 3 7 , J u l y 1 6 , 1 9 3 8 . S c i e n t i f i c A m e r ic a n , May’,' "“1 9 3 8 7 ------

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C.

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E n c y c l o p e d i a A m e r i c a n a , 1 9 3 6 e d i t i o n , New Y ork: 3 0 v o l u m e s , pp. 64 3 -6 6 3 . E n c y c lo p e d ia B r i t t a n i c a , pp. 8 8 0 - 9 0 1 .

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S o c i e t y o f A u to m o tiv e E n g in e e r s , S .A .E . June 191 7 .

B u lle t in , A p r il 1911-

A u t o m o t iv e I n d u s t r y T rad e J o u r n a l , 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 4 2 . M otor A n n u a l , 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 4 2 .

67 A u t o m o b i l e B u y e r 1s G u i d e , 1 9 0 4 - 1 9 3 9 C o m m e r c ia l C ar J o u r n a l , 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 3 0 .

E.

OTHER SOURCES

C orresp on d en ce w ith : F o r d M otor Company, D e t r o i t M i c h i g a n .

( R i v e r R ouge P l a n t )

Jam es E. H ough, C h r y s l e r M o t o r s , H i g h l a n d P a r k , M i c h i g a n . In te r v ie w w ith : R. L. R is c h m a n , D o u g l a s s A i r c r a f t C o r p . , S a n t a M o n ic a , C a lifo r n ia . Mr. R isc h m a n was f o r m e r l y w i t h C h r y s l e r M o t o r s , H i g h l a n d P a r k M ic h i g a n .