An analysis and evaluation of seven full band class methods designed for the public schools

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AN ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF SEVEN FULL BAND CLASS METHODS DESIGNED FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the School of Music The University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Music

fey Ralph Henry Rider August 1950

UMI Number: EP61887

AH rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publ h*rig

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T h is thesis, w ritte n by

Ralph Henry Rider under the guidance of h.2La.. F a c u lty Com m ittee, and app ro ved by a l l its members, has been presented to and accepted by the C o u n cil on G ra d u ate S tudy and Research in p a r t ia l f u l f i l l ­ ment of the requirements f o r the degree of .......................

rw,

Augu st 1950

Faculty Committee

Chairman

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER

I.

PAGE

THE P R O B L E M ....................................

1

Statement of the problem . ,................. •

2

Importance of the s t u d y .......... .

2

Justification of the study .................

4

Definitions of terms u s e d ...........

4

Selection of seven full band class methods for analysis and evaluation

....................

Survey of m e t h o d s .................... ' • . .

6 6

Sources of d a t a .............................. 10 Related literature ............................

10

Introduction ................................

10

Review of t h e s e s .............................. 11 Summary of relatedliterature

...............

Organization of the remaining chapters . . . . . II.

FIVE ORGANIZATION PLANS FOR THE STUDY

17 18

OF INSTRU­

MENTAL M U S I C

19

Introduction.....................

19

Plan I:

Private lessons..................

19

Plan II:

Class lessons on likeinstruments

23

Plan III: Plan IV: Plan V:

.

Families of instruments............ 28 Full b a n d ...............

29

Full o r c h e s t r a ..................... 35

S u m m a r y ........................................ 36

iii

CHAPTER III.

PAGE

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OP SEVEN METHODS . . . . . .

40

Introduction ..............................

40

The Boosey and Hawkes Band M e t h o d ..........

40

The Belwin Elementary Band M e t h o d ..........

44

Easy Steps to the B a n d ......................

47

The Mark Hinds ley Band M e t h o d ..............

49

Ensemble Band M e t h o d ........................

52

The World of Music Band C o u r s e ..............

54

The Moore Band C o u r s e ...................

57

.

S u m m a r y .................................... IV.

59

AN ANALYSIS OP THE SPECIAL FEATURES OP SEVEN M E T H O D S .................................... Introduction

61

......................

61

Physical format of the b o o k s ................

62

Style and size of p r i n t ..................

62

Spacing of music symbols.............

63

Types of scores and m a n u a l s ................

64

Conductors full s c o r e ....................

64

Score and manual c o m b i n e d ................

68

TeacherS m a n u a l ..........................

69

Piano-conductor

69

..........................

Instructions for care of instruments, photo­ graphic pictures, theory lessons, lesson explanations ..............................

70

iv CHAPTER

PAGE

Instructions for care of instruments . . * •

70

Photographic pictures

71

....................

Written tests or theory lessons Lesson explanations

..........

71

......................

72

Pull band program numbers, solos with piano accompaniment, definition of musical terms, fingering charts

....................

73

Pull band program n u m b e r s ................

73

Solos with piano accompaniment............

74

Definition of musical t e r m s .............

75

Fingering c h a r t s .........................

75

........................

76

S u m m a r y ....................................

77

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS......................

78

Introduction ..............................

78

Piccolo and f l u t e ..........................

78

O b o e ........................................

83

B a s s o o n ....................................

89

C l a r i n e t s ..................................

95

Additional features

V.

Eb

c l a r i n e t .............................

95

Bb

c l a r i n e t .............................

97

Eb

alto clarinet.........................

112

Bb

bass clarinet.........................

115

Saxophones...............

117

V

CHAPTER

PAGE Bb soprano saxophone

VI.

...........

.

Eb alto s a x o p h o n e ........................

120

Bb tenor saxophone.............

120

Eb baritone saxophone

....................

120

Bb bass s a x o p h o n e ........................

121

S u m m a r y ....................................

123

THE BRASS I N S T R U M E N T S ........................

125

Introduction ..............................

125

Cornet and trumpet..........................

125

French horns, alto, and mellophone ..........

143

Horn with F and Eb s l i d e s ................

147

Single horn in B b ........................

148

The double h o r n ..........................

149

Eb alto and mellophone....................

151

T r o m b o n e s .........................

VII.

119

152

Bb tenor t r o m b o n e ........................

152

Bb bass trombone..........................

152

Baritone and euphonium......................

158

T u b a s ......................................

159

S u m m a r y .....................

162

THE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS........

163

T y m p a n i ....................................

163

Snare d r u m ..................................

176

Bass drum and c y m b a l s ......................

191

vi CHAPTER

PAGE

Su mm a r y ..................................... VIII.

196

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................

197

S u mm ar y ...................................

197

Conclusions.................................

215

BIBLIOGRAPHY .........................................

217

APPENDIX A ................................. APPENDIX B .............................. s .........

243

LIST OP TABLES TABLE

.

PAGE

!• Instrumentation Books for Seven Pull Band Class M e t h o d s ................................

236

II* Comparison of Measures in Various Meters . . . . III. Types of Scores and M a n u a l s ...............

237 238

IV. Instructions for Care of Instruments, Photo­ graphic Pictures, Theory Lessons, and Lesson Explanations ................................

239

V. Pull Band Program Numbers, Solos with Piano Accompaniment, Definitions of Musical Terms, and Fingering C h a r t s .................... VI.

Provision for the Thirteen Essential Rudiments for Snare D r u m .............. * ..........

VII.

240

241

The Thirteen Essential Rudiments of Drumming . .

242

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM Class instruction on band instruments in the schools dates from about 1910, but did not come into extensive use until after 1920*

Since 1910, methods of approach to teach

instrumental music in the public schools have progressed from emphasis on the private methods of instruction to the class methods of instruction.

In most cases, the full band

class methods used in this investigation are arranged so that any combination of instruments may be used, provided each player uses the book designed for his particular instrument. As a result of this arrangement, the books are not limited to a class for one instrument, but may be used for private lessons, class lessons on like instruments, or combined for full band instruction.

One of the objectives of the full

band class method is to combine students of different instru­ ments into one group; thus economizing time and making available the advantages of instrumental music study to a larger number of pupils.

One of the purposes of this study

is to determine the efficiency with which the various methods attempt to solve the somewhat abnormal situations involved in the teaching of band instruments together.

Too seldom Is

sufficient attention given to the careful selection of materials for the beginning full band classes.

The selection

2

and use of methods and materials is one of the first requi­ sites toward the beginning of a successful teaching program. Statement of the problem.

It is the purpose of this

study (1) to select and analyze seven representative full band class methods designed for teaching woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments in the public schools; (2) to outline five organization plans for the study of instrumental music; (3) to preview separately, for purposes of orientation to the reader, the seven methods selected; and (4) to compare and evaluate certain features of the methods by means of supple­ mentary viewpoints of other noted teachers. Importance of the study.

Methods and materials in

both vocal and instrumental music are being changed and evaluated,

Taylor"*" makes the following statements

”It is

generally recognized that many phases of teaching musical instruments have not been scientifically studied long enough to establish conclusive facts,” In 1945 a committee of the North Central Division of the Music Educators National Conference made a survey of research studies of higher institutions in the ten states which comprise this Division,

Elizabeth M, Taylor, serving

1 Maurice D, Taylor, Conductor1s Score and Manual for Easy Steps to the Band (New Yorks Mills Music, Inc,, 1942), p. 7.

3

as chairman, prepared a review of the scope and extent of research being conducted and stated, in part, that, MThere is further need for critical evaluations of published materials currently in use in the schools.” The true value of instrumental music in the public school curriculum depends in a large measure upon the availa­ bility of comprehensive and well organized materials which deal with the fundamentals underlying the organization and administration of the work to be done. 3 Pew teachers have the time or funds available to experiment with new publi­ cations.

The usual procedure is to inquire from others,

look over materials from publishers at home, or on display at music festivals and conventions, and make a choice.

In

most cases the basis for selection is difficult to determine. The background of the teacher, where and by whom he was taught, instrumentation, type of band desired, schedule of classes, budget, interest, previous musical experiences of the students, and educational objectives are only a few of the many factors to be taken into consideration.

With so

many theories presented as to the proper approach, the publishers have flooded the market with instruction books. 2 Hazel Nohavec Morgan, editor, Music Education Source Book (Chicago: Music Educators National Conference, 1947), p. 193. 3 Llewellyn Bruce Jones, Building the Instrumental Music Department (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc~ 1949), p. iii.

To write a. successful method the author must consider the commercial possibilities as well as the content*

Printed

advertisements and book reviews as found in periodicals are of value to the teacher, but should be investigated for verification*

The majority of full band class methods are

not published with a complete full score.

In order to make

an intelligent selection, the teacher should examine all of the separate books* Justification of the study.

The writer feels that

this study is of value and is justified because of the following reasons:

(1) the contents of recent full band

class methods need to be arranged in a convenient form so that different instructional approaches may be compared; (2) the study is of practical value to the writer as a teacher of instrumental music; (3) the findings may be of value to other teachers in selecting full band class methods; and (4) lead to a better understanding of instrumental music instruction. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Full band class method.

These terms are used to

designate a method of band instruction with separate books for the principal instruments of the band.

As a general

rule, the books are arranged so that the various pitched

5

instruments may be combined for purposes of instruction*

A

full band class method, as used in this study, will refer only to those methods which include the woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments* Band and orchestra class method* A method of in­ struction with separate books for the string, woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments. Beginning class method*

A beginning class method, as

used in this study, will indicate an instrumental method designed for a student who has not had any previous instruction on the particular instrument of which he is a beginner.

The

seven full band class methods to be analyzed in this study are beginning class methods. Intermediate class method* A method designed to follow the beginning class method.

By means of the inter­

mediate books, students continue the process of technical development. Unison method of approach.

The unisonal exercises

lend a helpful support to the weaker players, as all instru­ ments play the same tones in the appropriate register, thus making a wrong note on the part of any player instantly detectable.

6

Technical method of approach*

The student receives

under the traditional procedure a solid technical foundation before venturing into music.

The purely physical or mechani­

cal operations involved in the playing of the instrument receive major emphasis.

Stated in another way, the main idea

is technique, as such, before application to melodies. Semi-technical method of approach. A combination of both the technical and melodic methods.

Such a system at­

tempts to reconcile the old and new by introducing a little of both. Melodic method of approach.

In the melodic approach

the principal emphasis is placed upon melodies more than through any other medium.

Early inclusion of well-known

melodies provides a psychological approach for interest and enthusiasm.

Many books use melodies, but in the final

analysis are technical exercises.

An extreme example of the

melodic approach is a method in which every note is a part of a musical composition. SELECTION OP SEVEN PULL BAND CLASS METHODS FOR ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION Survey of methods.

During the summer session of 1948

at the University of Southern California, music teachers in the course for "Band and Orchestra Development" were asked to

7

list full band or full band and orchestra class methods being used; also in which grade levels and the state* were represented from fifteen states*

Forty teachers

In addition other music

teachers were contacted personally who were not in the above class*

As a result of this survey it was found that although

some teachers used a combination band and orchestra method, the majority in use were designed especially for full band classes*

Texts written for separate classes on like instru­

ments and impossible to combine with different pitched instruments were not considered in this survey. In addition to the above survey, two of the leading music stores of Los Angeles which act as agents for the leading publishers of the world were consulted as to the best sellers*

After an examination of all the best known full

band, and also full band and orchestra methods published since 1930, it was decided to limit the study to those de­ signed for full band*

Authorities in the field of instru­

mental music generally agree the inclusion of strings in a band instrument class is undesirable, and cite the following main reasons: The full orchestra class procedure allows for all of the instruments of the orchestra in one class, which introduces even greater difficulties than the Full Band Class in that the strings take a longer time to learn* String players should by all means be given some extra time, otherwise the brass and wood-wind members of the orchestra will progress far ahead and the director will be faced with the problem of trying to select music that

8

will satisfy everyone, . . .^ Owing to differences in pitch, timbre and basic technique, it is not easy to combine effectively both stringed and wind instruments in a single class, . • . , , Strings generally begin with sharp keys, while brass and woodwinds begin in flat keys. Because of this fundamental fact any method book written to combine wind and stringed instruments in one class will handicap one group and favor the other* . . .6 The seven methods selected for this study have one point in common.

They assume that students have not had

previous instruction on a band instrument.

In examining

methods, it was found in spite of theoretically simple solutions in teaching fundamentals, even beginning methods are far from being standardized because procedures and objectives vary as to ,fwhatfl instruments are to be combined for instruction, ,fhowff they are combined, and ’’when,”

Due

to these variations in methods, care was taken in the final choice to include those band class methods which use different approaches and combinations of instruments, such as: (a) unison, (b) technical, (c) semi-technical, (d) melodic, (e) full ensemble chords, (f) whole notes in the first lesson, (g) quarter notes in the first lesson, and (h) special 4 Sylvan D, Ward, The Instrumental Director*s Handbook (Chicago: Rubank, Inc., 1940), pp. 28-29. 5 Theodore P. Normann, Instrumental Music in the Public Schools (Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson Company, 1941T, p. 148. 6 Gerald R. Prescott and Lawrence W. Chidester, Getting Results with School Bands (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1938), p. 52.

9

studies for preparatory exercises. The seven elementary full band class methods selected for this study are as follows: 1. The Boosey and Hawkes Band Method, by Joseph Skomieka and Joseph Bergeim, published in 1947. and

edited

The Belwin Elementary Band Method, by Fred Weber by Nilo W. Hovey, published in 1945.

3. Easy Steps to the Band, by Maurice D. Taylor, published in 1942. 4. The Mark Hindsley Band Method, by Mark Hindsley, published in 1940. and

5. Ensemble Band Method, by Claude Smith, Harold Bachman, published in 1939.

Paul Yoder,

6* The World of Music Band Course, by William D. Revelli, Victor L. F. Rebmann, Charles B. Righter, and G. E. Holmes, published in 1939. The Moore Band Course, by E. C. Moore, published in 1930. Complete instrumentation and a biography of the above authors are listed in the back of this thesis. In order to have the methods near at hand throughout this investigation, the seven complete methods totaling 148 books were purchased, for all instruments.

The -size of each

book is that of concert music, nine inches by twelve inches. The price for each book is seventy-five cents with the exception of f,The World of Music Band Course” which sells for one dollar.

The cost of the various types of scores and

teachersf manuals varies from one dollar to six dollars. Standard individual instrument instruction books were

10

also examined for woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments. It was noted that some instruction books presented discussions of technical problems while others merely contained technical exercises.

Those containing teaching aids for the techniques

of the various instruments were purchased for use in this study. Sources of data.

The general sources of information

for this study are as follows! 1.

TeachersT manuals.

2.

Method books for both private and class instruction.

3.

Periodicals.

4.

Publications of Music Educators National Conference.

5.

Books on music education by recognized authorities.

6.

Books, treatises, and band arranging methods on instrumental music by recognized authorities.

7.

Related theses by music educators.

8.

Bulletins and pamphlets. RELATED LITERATURE

Introduetion.

Due to the scarcity of specific refer­

ences to band class methods in books and periodicals, the review of related literature is of necessity limited to un­ published theses.

Although much material has been written

concerning the organization and administration of school bands,

11

and although new band class methods appear on the market from time to time, little attention, if any, has been given in published books and periodicals to specific analyses of books designed to meet the needs of the beginning band.

The Music

Educators Journal has for years maintained a special section for review of new publications, but these have been brief and of a general nature.

Many noted music educators and pro­

fessional musicians have contributed valuable information gained from actual teaching experience in the form of books and periodicals.

Such information may be considered as an

indirect criticism of existing methods, and will be referred to in later chapters. Review of theses.

A bibliography of research projects

and theses was compiled in 1944 which included the titles of all studies made in the field of music education during the 7 years 1932-1944. The second edition of the Bibliography of Q

Research Studies in Music Education,

1932-1948, published in

1949 with over 1,600 titles, includes material of the former edition and additional studies reported as having been com­ pleted since the first edition was printed in 1944.

Prom the

7 Bibliography of Research Studies in Music Education. 1952-1944. Arnold M. Small, editor. Des Moines: University of Iowa Press, 1944. 55 pp. 8 Bibliography of Research Studies in Music Education, 1952-1948. Prepared by William S. Larson. Chicago: Music Educators Rational Conference, 1949. 119 pp.

12

above bibliographies, eight theses were found to be somewhat related to the present investigation.

One of the eight

theses is concerned with an analysis of method books for teaching stringed instruments in the public schools.

It is

%

included because it is of a parallel nature to the present study, for some of the criteria selected for the analysis of orchestra methods apply equally as well to full band class methods.

Similar studies of a parallel nature were also

found in class methods for piano and voice. In 1935, Forsblad 9 made one of the first studies on the graduate level of group methods in band instruction.

The

term "method” was used to designate a book of music material for class instruction in band instruments; that is all instruments in the same group.

However, several of the

methods were written for band and orchestra combination. The purpose of the study was: . . . to make a survey of the various methods used for band instruction in the junior and senior high schools of Fresno County, California, and to evaluate these methods by criteria that conform to the best educational theory and practice. . . .10 At the time of the survey, fourteen different methods were used throughout Fresno County by sixteen different schools.

The dates of publication, for the different methods

9 Arthur C. Forsblad, ”A Study of Group Methods in Band Instruction,” (unpublished MasterTs thesis, The Uni­ versity of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1935), 95 pp. 10 Ibid., p. 1.

13

used, ranged from 1910 to 1933.

Significant statements

taken from the recommendations of the study are: 1. Since, as the texts are now written, a single method is usually inadequate, it is advisable, in most situations, to use more than one method. 2. The findings of this study indicate a need for better teacher's manuals, with clear and specific in­ structions for use of the method and other aids for teachers• 3* Need is indicated for better grading of text materials. 4. Methods should be devised that would be suf­ ficiently complete so that the teacher of instrumental music would not be required to use too many different methods to meet the needs of his classes.^ In 1937, Howe 12 selected ten advanced technic books and evaluated each as to adequate provisions for: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5* 6. 7. 8. 9.

Bhythm study. Interval study. Articulation study. Scale study. Arpeggios and broken chords. Dynamics. Intonation development. Development of tone. Embellishments.

On the basis of his findings, the following recommen­ dations were presented: There is need for a method of band technique which includes all phases of technical training. It was 11 Ibid., p. 79. 12 Harold B. Howe, ”An Evaluation of Ten Band' Books of Technical Exercises,” (unpublished Masterfs thesis, The Uni­ versity of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1937), 125 pp. 15 Ibid., p. 103.

14

found in this study that most of the books of technical exercises emphasized only a few of the phases of tech­ nical training. Because of this situation, it is recom­ mended that several methods be used to supplement each other. In 1940, Sessions 15 sent a questionnaire to seventy elementary, junior high, and senior high schools throughout California.

Practically all of the forty-seven schools which

answered the questionnaire used class methods for band in­ struction.

Only one used a band and orchestra class method.

The division of beginners for class work was one of great variety among different teachers.

Teachers were using

different methods in an effort to find one to satisfy their needs.

One conclusion of this questionnaire is to show that

no absolutely workable method seems to have been found by the teachers for all instruments together. In a letter to Sessions on May 4, 1940, Morse M. Preeman, Inc., Music Dealers, in Los Angeles made the following statement! According to our survey, the Smith-Yoder-Bachman Method is the No. 1 seller, the Van Deusen Elementary Band Course published by Eubank is the No. 2 seller, the World of Music by William Bevelli No. 3, the Victor Method No. 4 seller, and the Short-Cut Band Method of Metcalf No. 5. The balance of the methods are more or less slow sellers, and sell spasmodically in various 14 Ikid., p. 104. 15 Alfred P. Sessions, f,The Use and Improvement of Class Methods for Beginning School Band Instruction,11 (un­ published Master!s thesis, College of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 1940), 96 pp.

15

parts of the country, depending upon the section and the amount of promotion work that has been done. In 1940, Lutz 17 divided the sixteen band method books used in his survey into the following three classifications: Class I. Methods which are complete in themselves, containing the presentation and development of all problems in a manner that will enable the students to adequately bridge the gap between Beginning Ensemble and Second Band. Class II. Methods which are adequate for the ultimate transition from elementary to more advanced band work, but in which the procedure lacks either clear presen­ tation, or thorough development of the problems. For better results and less work on the part of the student and teacher, supplementary material of one type or other is recommended. Class III. Methods which are incomplete, lacking whole phases of the procedure necessary in the mastering of the fundamentals of music. The use of supplementary material is imperative to obtain any kind of a result with a beginning group. On the other hand, these books usually emphasize a particular phase of instruction that the other books, due to lack of space, are forced to neglect, and are therefore more useful as supplements to other method books, than as regular beginning ensemble procedure.I® In connection with the above study, it was also mentioned that there was a high correlation between the number of harmonized tunes contained in a method and the interest of the procedure involved. 16 Ibid., p. 31. 17 Paul G. Lutz, "A Survey, Critical Analysis, and Comparison of Current Beginning Band Methods,” (unpublished Masterfs thesis, College of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 1940), 98 pp. 18 Ibid., p. 93.

16

In 1942, Johnson 19 selected general and specific criteria and applied them in an analysis of available method books for string instruction in the public schools.

Ten

tables together with an explanation of data point, in part, to the following conclusionst 1. General instructions for instrument care should be more detailed and would be more effective if placed at strategic intervals throughout the book. 2. Illustrations of correct position should be clearer, more numerous, and should conform more rigidly to accepted standards. 3. Reference fingering charts and illustrations of the piano keyboard should be correlated for highest learning efficiency. 4. Previous vocal experience should be utilized more often to provide a carry-over from knowledge already acquired. 5. The melodic approach, though excellent for moti­ vation, should not be used to the exclusion of important string techniques. 6.

Inexpensive full scores should be provided.

7. Homogeneous methods should provide more individual exercises for the study of techniques peculiar to the stringed instruments.^ In 1945, the purposes of a study by Good 21 were: 19 Valdemar Johnson, f1An Analysis of Method Books for Teaching Stringed Instrument Classes in the Public Schools," (unpublished Master*s thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1942), 159 pp. 20 Ibid., pp. 131-32. 21 Merle K. Good, "Development of an Advanced Class Instruction Book for Band,” (unpublished Master^ thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1945), 145 pp.

17

• . • (1) to determine the limitations of the present methods for advanced instrumental groups; and (2) to make an original attempt to show how many of the problems can be solved.22 Goodfs method of procedure included an analysis of band selections of easy grade and criteria were devised to see which part made the most demands on the technical ability of the player.

An examination was made of individual in­

struction books for the clarinet, and the usefulness of such books as class methods.

It was found that a method which

includes more development of technical ability and includes also well selected pieces to supplement these technics should be written.

The method should include in its clarinet part

more exercises for the study of technics peculiar to the clarinet and related woodwinds. 23 An inquiry by Moody 24 in 1946 consisted of a survey of materials for the beginning band.

No bibliography is listed

in the thesis, but there is a general description of the most important band books published during the last twenty-five * years. Summary of related literature. Former theses indicate that much progress has been made in the improvement of class 22 Ibid., p. 53. 23 Ibid., pp. 55-57. 24 Leo W. Moody, nA Survey of Materials for the Beginning Band,” (unpublished Masterfs thesis, The University of Colorado, Boulder, 1946), 110 pp.

materials.

Desirable standards have been established for

judging materials for band and orchestras.

Reference was

made to the poor grading of materials in full band class instruction books.

This lack of attention in planning the

content and organization of materials is not to be found in the academic curriculum.

The review of related literature

for band class methods indicates a definite trend away from technical virtuosity on the instrument to concentration on tone quality and intonation.

Another trend is to combine

both the technical and melodic methods of approach into a system of instruction in which important things are included and matters of no importance omitted.

Students enjoy

learning a new skill, especially if the new skill is within their reach and can be attained. ORGANIZATION OP THE REMAINING CHAPTERS The remainder of this thesis was organized as follows Chapter II, Five Organization Plans for the Study of Instru­ mental Music; Chapter III, General Description of Seven Methods; Chapter IV, An Analysis of the Special Features of Seven Methods; Chapter V, The Woodwind Instruments; Chapter VI, The Brass Instruments; Chapter VII, The Percussion Instruments; Chapter VIII, Summary and Conclusions.

CHAPTER II

FIVE ORGANIZATION PLANS FOR THE STUDY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC Introduction.

It is the purpose of this chapter to

discuss the relative importance and attention which should be given the various plans for teaching instrumental music in the schools.

There are five organization plans in use at

the present time, each of which has its special uses, its advantages, and disadvantages.

There was a time when argu­

ments on homogeneous against heterogeneous groupings occupied considerable attention.

While it may be necessary because

of local conditions to teach the entire band as a class, a great deal of mass rehearsal is lost motion, and often results in little or no progress.

An attempt will be made

to show that it is perhaps a combination of all plans that is most efficient.

The organization of class work is of a

great variety among different teachers*

For purposes of con­

venience, they may be grouped under five plans of organization, as follows•

(1) private lessons; (2) class lessons on like

instruments; (3) families of instruments; (4) full band; and (5) full orchestra. .Plan JC:

Private lessons.

studies privately.

In this plan each student

If at all possible, private lessons under

20

school supervision along with daily full band instruction can be recommended as the most nearly ideal plan*^

In most of

our schools, however, only a small percentage of students can afford to pay for private lessons, or they are unwilling to make the necessary financial sacrifice to gain the help of a specialized teacher* The private teacher in the past has been critized for too much emphasis upon the development of technic set-up as a goal rather than a means to a goal. been recognized by private teachers.

Such complaints have In increasing numbers

they are acquainting themselves with the problems of the school music teacher.

Certain states and cities require

certification of private teachers.

This makes it possible

for the student to apply credit earned in private study p toward graduation. Ward suggests that the school music teacher should enlist the support of the private teachers and point out to them that developing the instrumental program in the school will result in many more private pupils for them. In many schools there could be put forth much greater effort by the teacher and parent to place students with a private teacher.

In too many instances, particularly since the war,

1 Gerald R. Prescott and Lawrence W. Chidester, Getting Results with School Bands (New Yorks Carl Fischer, Inc., 1938), p. 54. 2 Sylvan D. Ward, The Instrumental Director*s Hand­ book (Chicagos Eubank, Inc., 1940), p. 23.

21

students have been content to loiter along having the fun and fine social experiences of the band and orchestra without 3 having to put forth the necessary practice. In attempting to get a cross section of thought re­ garding vocal and instrumental class teaching in our schools, a questionnaire was sent by Mattern

4

to one hundred and sixty

people distributed between public school, private, and uni­ versity teachers and administrators. sampling of opinion. 1.

This permitted a fair

Significant findings were as follows:

A large majority in all groups agree that public

school class teaching is helpful to the private teacher, and provides the private teacher with more pupils.

2.

Class

teaching in schools is endorsed as an exploratory subject, but with largely qualified opinion as regards its success beyond the first year level.

3.

As to method, it is felt

that the socialized approach to music study definitely develops and sustains interest, and that the competitive element is really effective in motivating practice.

4.

All

are unanimous, excepting a very few with a qualified ”yes,” in agreeing that public school and private teachers can work together for their mutual benefit. 3 George E. Wain, MIs Individual Study Necessary I ” The Instrumentalist, 2:12, May-June, 1948.

4 David Mattern, "A Re-evaluation of Class Music Teaching in Secondary Schools,” Music Teachers National Association Volume of Proceedings, 1940, pp. 178-80.

22

Only a few schools have found it possible to provide individual private lessons for students; where this plan prevails the lessons are very short*

An example of a school

system, organized on the six-three-three plan, which uses short private lessons is the band and orchestra department of the Whiting, Indiana city schools where a director and assistant are employed.

The plan of organization is as

follows: There is only one concert band 'and one concert orchestra for the whole school system* There are no so-called junior organizations. When a student is enrolled in the department he is placed in a practice period where he receives individual training* There are from 15 to 20 Students in each practice period. The instructor starts at the top of the list and gives each one a private lesson ranging from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the amount of time the student needs* These students are in practice rooms, and scattered around the rehearsal room, each one practicing on his own lesson* By this method each student pro­ gresses as rapidly as his ability and ambition permit him* Students may enroll in the department any day of the year. Beginners and advanced students are all in the same period. Thus conflicts with other subjects are eliminated. A student enrolls for instrumental music whenever he has a free period excepting for the concert band and orchestra which have a set p e r i o d * 5 Although short private lessons have proved successful, the expense involved for teachers makes it prohibitive for the average school system.

A studentTs presence with a

group of learners may be used to create interest which is not found in the individual studio lesson*

The rise and development

5 Adam P. Lesinsky, The Whiting High School Band and Orchestra Department. Bulletin No. 6, published by the Board of Education, Whiting, Indiana. 17 pp.

23

of the American school band movement is very closely connected with competition as a tonic for the motivation of interest. This is certainly proven, according to Revelli,

by the

progress and development of school organizations under the stimulus of various contests and festivals. Plan II t

Class lessons on like instruments.

The

”Music Education Source Book,” defines the instrumental class as : . . . a group of pupils having approximately the same proficiency on their respective instruments, which meets on regular schedule to learn the principles and techniques of playing their respective instruments ■under the guidance of the instructor in charge.7 In connection with the instrumental class, various fundamental concepts contribute toward attaining the ob­ jectives.

One concept is that the greatest contribution to

the school music program occurs when the class is organized below the high school level, but nothing should prohibit organization of classes at the secondary school level if the school has sufficient equipment and personnel to carry out such a program.

Another concept is that the instrumental

class differs from the beginning band in that there is some degree of homogeneity in the class. 8 6 William D. Revelli, ”A New Challenge to the School Musician,” The Etude, 56:505, August, 1938. 7 Hazel Nohavec Morgan, editor, Music Education Source Book (Chicago: Music Educators National Conference, 1947), p. 72. 8 Ikid., pp. 72-73.

24

An analysis of the writings of various authorities indicates a variety of terms in use for describing class lessons on like instruments♦

These terms, some of which are

referred to here and throughout the remainder of the thesis, are obviously synonymous, such as:

"The homogeneous or

segregated class; that is, a separate class for each instru­ ment,"^ "The Individual Instrument C l a s s , " T h e section, or class (separate groups of instruments such as violin, clarinet, horn, and so on),n^

"Classes of the same instru13

._

ment,"

"Homogeneous groups (Instruments alike),"

"Class

Lessons on Similar Instruments,"^^ and "Homogeneous Group­ ings . Modern teachers generally accept the class on like instruments as the best and most practical.

However, if a

teacher is given a situation where it is impossible to use 9 Prescott and Chidester, 0£. cit,, p, 53. 10 Ralph E. Rush, "The Individual Instrument Class," Yearbook of the Music Educators National Conference, Chicago: Music Educators National Conference, 1936, p, 239, 11 Revelli, 0£. cit., p. 505, 12 Mark H. Hindsley, School Band and Orchestra Adminis­ tration (New York: Boosey and Hawkes, Inc., 1940), p. 29. 13 Llewellyn Bruce Jones, Building the Instrumenta1 Music Department (New York: Carl Fischer, IncT^ 1949), p. 8. 14 Theodore F. Normann, Instrumental Music in the Public Schools (Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson Company, 194X7, P* 147# 15 Morgan, 0£. cit., p. 76.

25

this plan of organization, with modern methods and materials excellent results have been attained with heterogeneous groupings.

Classes on like instruments have been very

successful ‘in city school systems where the enrollment is large enough to permit separate classes of students with approximately the same stage of advancement.

In small school

systems, due to the scarcity of the more unusual instruments, such as oboe and bassoon, instruction on these instruments usually results in private lessons.

Class lessons on like

instruments make it possible for students to study common problems; students do not have to remain idle while the fundamentals of another instrument are being explained.

The

plan produces better results if the class is made up of students with the same degree of advancement.

If students

of different levels of advancement are in the same class, not only interest lags, but also the teacher has no alternative except to help each individual student, one at a time. The type of literature as well as the plan of organi­ zation will depend upon what the teacher is trying to ac­ complish.

In the choice of materials, more literature is

published for the single instrument than for the mixed group. If a teacher uses both the single instrument method book and the full band class method for the class lessons on like instruments, care must be taken in order to avoid unnecessary duplication of materials.

26

The teacher may encounter scheduling problems. In regard to scheduling, Prescott and Chidester 16 comments It may be possible to arrange for certain beginners to meet the teacher at regular periods, but it is not always so easy to provide that the classes shall contain players on the same instrument* • • • In the scheduling of classes, the teacher must have sufficient time for the correction of separate students for major faults which arise from time to time.

This is particu­

larly true in the elementary class where the fundamentals are being acquired.

Some administrators insist that the instru­

mental music teacherfs class load be the same as for other subjects in which case a less efficient teaching plan must of necessity be adopted.

As a result, the speed of learning

will progress slower due to lack of time and, at the end of the school term, more students will be deficient in funda­ mentals.

Wise administrators, however, realize the instru­

mental teacher's problem and know that it is impossible to teach children instrumental music with the same procedure as they are taught geography, English, or some other academic subject. 17 The size of a class will depend upon such factors as the experience of the teacher, variation from an average playing ability, the length and number of daily school periods, the number of classes scheduled each week, and rehearsal room 16 Prescott and Chidester, o£. cit., p. 54. 17 Ward, c>£. cit., pp. 26-27.

27

facilities*

The Eastern Consultants1 Council, one of the six

groups affiliated with the Music Educators National Con­ ference, recommended in 1945 homogeneous grouping for the beginning instrumental class instruction with a minimum of eight in a class. Because music depends upon the sounds produced, the instrumental music class cannot be considered as an ordinary class where each person can work on an individual problem without disturbing the rest of the class.

The efficiency of

the instrumental music department depends upon suitable rehearsal rooms.

Besides the large rehearsal rooms there

should be a large number of small practice rooms.

Such rooms

should be provided with proper acoustical treatment, for re­ verberation prevents the ear from hearing the details of musical sound.

In outlining the schedule of classes to meet different teaching situations, Jones 19 presents the following

plans, one for individual teaching and another for group teaching: Plan I: Individual Teaching Provide at least six practice rooms large enough for four to twenty pupils. b. Schedule students individually two periods a week on rotating schedule or out of study hall. c. Have instructor pass from room to room during the period, spending approximately five minutes with each pupil. a*

18 lfThe Instrumental Music Program,11 Music Educators Journal, 31:29, May-June, 1945. 19 Jones, o£. cit., pp. 7-8

28

Under this plan, the instructor has, in addition to individual instruction, only full band rehearsal and full orchestra rehearsal; sectional rehearsal and en­ semble rehearsals, if any, are taken from time of full rehearsals; solo instruction is given in the individual technique lesson. a.

Flan lit Group Teaching Homogeneous groups. (Instruments alike) (1) Provide at least six practice rooms large enough for four to twenty pupils. (2) Schedule a homogeneous group to each of these rooms, each group meeting three periods a week. (3) Divide instructor's time between rooms, using advanced pupils as helpers.

Allowing three periods a day for work with organi­ zations, this plan will allow eighteen homogeneous groups to be taught three periods a week. Plan III; Families of instruments. the instruments into four classes: (3) brass, and (4) percussion.

This plan divides

(1) strings; (2) woodwinds;

Another plan is to take

instruments of the same family and group them into instruments of similar keys, that is, all Bb, C, Eb, or F instruments. Although in this approach the teacher is handicapped because of the different technical problems of each instrument, it has the advantage of dealing with those problems common to each family.

The plan is used with good results by teachers who

manage to keep a scrutinizing eye on each member of the class, plan the work, and avoid any possibility of disinterest. 20 Mention should also be made that there is a scarcity of available material written especially for families of 20 Ward, o£. cit., p. 27.

29

instruments.

Schedule problems with this plan are more

marked than with class lessons on like instruments.

Other

problems encountered in the instruction of instruments by families are given by Hindsley

21

as follows:

Separate classes for the strings and Bb brasses appear practical, but insertion of Eb and P instruments in the brass class, and combination of woodwinds with their varied keys and characteristics are apt to result in considerable confusion in the early stages of in­ struction. . . • The instruments certainly should be brought together whenever possible for ensemble train­ ing, but not at the beginning when purity of tone, accuracy of intonation, and an adequate basis for technic are the uppermost considerations. For related groups of instruments Jones

22

suggests

the following schedule of classes: Related groups. (Instruments from same family or choir) (1) Use same number of practice rooms from the start. (2) Schedule related groups to regular rehearsal room three periods a week each, leaving the other two days open for individual technique instruction for advanced players. Under this plan, scheduling is simplified. In a sixperiod day, if the director uses three periods with organizations, this plan allows technique classes to be . divided into three related groups: strings and wood­ winds, brass, and percussion. . . . Plan IV:

Full band.

The full band class method books

are arranged so that all instruments of the band may be taught simultaneously in one class, or the books may be used for plans I, II, or III as previously discussed. 21 Hindsley, op. cit., p. 29. 22 Jones o£. cit., p. 8.

In this

30

respect, the full band class method has a decided advantage over the books designed only for the private lesson, class lessons on like instruments, or families of instruments* Offhand it seems a baffling problem to teach all instruments of the band in one class.

In spite of the many

problems involved there have been a sufficient number of successes to indicate with a capable teacher satisfactory results may be reached.

The instrumental music teacher must

be allowed sufficient time to teach band and orchestra.

Very

often this is not the case, for many teachers are required to teach vocal- music, instrumental music, and an academic subject. A reasonable explanation for this condition is that taxpayers, parents, boards of education, and administrators have not yet realized the instrumental music teacher is a teacher of many subjects, not just one, for each of the instruments may be considered as a separate subject*

It would appear the teacher

of instrumental music has some good reasons to change this situation, for as one writer states: I have not the slightest doubt that the science and mathematics teachers could write a method book, as the music teacher has done, whereby an attempt could be made to teach all the branches of science or mathematics simultaneously; but the mere suggestion of such an idea would meet with the most pronounced ridicule. Why it is that teaching all the musical instruments at one time doesn’t seem just as ridiculous is a matter difficult to fathom. -. • .23 23 Kenneth L. Bovee, "Developing a Band in a Small Community," The Etude, 63:180, March, 1945.

31

Various authorities have expressed themselves as to the advantages of the full band class method and, in most cases, at the same time have mentioned a few of its disad­ vantages.

A teacher who is more fully aware of strong and

weak points in this plan of instruction naturally is in a better position to avail himself of the opportunities which present themselves.

The following advantages may prove of

value in this respect: 1. Because of its stimulating values, children realize that they are participating in a genuine total musical experience in a real band or orchestra from the outset. 2. There is a greater opportunity for variation of drill, dynamics, timbre, ensemble balance, analysis of form, thematic development, and tempo in the rehearsal routine. 3. This method is most fascinating from both pupil and teacher standpoint because it utilizes a musical process for the acquisition of mechanical skills, rather than a mechanical process for the attainment of a musical understanding and technique.24 4.- It is a sugar-coated pill to the beginner, and helps him over the period of "growing pains" on his instrument. 5.

There is unbounded enthusiasm.

6.

Schedule

conflicts are reduced. ^

7. The public schools require some form of instruc­ tional material which may be used by groups of related 24 Irving Cheyette, "A Study in Evaluating the Instrumental Music Program,” The School Musician, 20:6-7, January, 1949. 25 Revelli,

ojd

.

cit., p. 505.

instruments or by mixed groups.^ 8. It requires less trouble for students and teacher and it is naturally more attractive and popular for the student•27 9. The class can be used as a demonstration group* The teacher may do the demonstrating, or the teacher may use one of the pupils for a demonstration subject* 10. In addition the class can be used as a discussion group, audience group, or function as a group of musical explorers, and render a variety of musical services to the community*28 11. Since classes meet daily, a student will make more progress when his practice is supervised, even in combination with other instruments, than he will when met once or twice a week as under the usual plan of class instruction.29 12. Instruction of heterogeneous instruments is more economical both in use of equipment and in pupil load per teacher; with extra mouthpieces for the instruments, each may be used by as many pupils as there are periods in the day.30 13. Group instruction is more effective as an in­ structional method for music, especially for all levels below advanced music learning.31 26 William D. Revelli, Victor L. P. Rebmann, and Gharles B. Righter, The World of Music Band Course Teacherfs Book (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1939), p. 7. 27 Loc. cit. 28 James L. Mursell, "Class Teaching in Applied Music, The Etude, 63:609, November, 1945. 29 Normann, op. cit., p. 149. 30 Lee M. Lockhart, "Classes of Heterogeneous Instru­ ments," Yearbook of Music Educators National Conference, 1936 pp. 242-45. 31 R. V. Hunkins, "Advantages of Group Instruction," The School Musician, 15:6, May, 1944.

33 14• When all the instruments or groups of them have common problems and the same materials to meet those problems, it is inefficiency not to combine them.32 . The preceding points stressed the merits of the full band class plan of instruction.

These points may lead one

to conclude that the teaching of all band instruments in one class is the most desirable plan of organization. the plan should be considered from all angles.

However,

Actual

teaching experience with this plan has caused many to con­ clude the plan very often turns out to be the least desirable. The disadvantages of this plan may be grouped roughly as follows: 1. Those who disagree with the full band approach say it is the swinging of the pendulum from the one extreme of private lessons to the other extreme of class lessons. 2. Although general principles of good performance apply to every instrument, certain difficulties of at­ taining a good performance are different. Therefore any method which attempts to teach other than like instru­ ments is bound to face an abnormal s i t u a t i o n . 33 3. When this method is used exclusively, mass pro­ duction with undue regard for particulars often results, for it is not possible in all stages of instruction to present problems which concern all students. 4. Large numbers alone do not justify class in­ struction from an educational, standpoint unless that instruction is just as thorough and efficient as private 32 Mark Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Score and Manual (Cleveland: Sam Fox Publishing Company, 1940*77 p. 4. 33 Prescott and Chidester, o p . cit., p. 53

instruction would be under the same teacher.^ 5. Because of the player*s tendency to over blow in order that he may be heard, it is difficult to develop the proper embouchure in the wind class of mixed instru­ ments •35 6. The average rate of progress on the various instruments is not the same. 7. Certain instruments present undue difficulties of range and key if taught together at the beginning; the E-flat and B-flat instruments offer this problem. 8. The advancement of the members of the average group is not the same* This may handicap the rapid learners or the slow; perhaps both.36 9. This plan when compared to individual instruction not only lacks thoroughness of instruction, but also there is a lack of tone quality, intonation, and good ensemble performance. 10* Enthusiasm subsides after the first few weeks and there is a decline of interest due to the fundamental deficiencies of tone production, control, and the ensemble suffers.37 11* If it is true as one writer points out that the tone of brass players tends to mature sooner than that of woodwinds and the woodwind parts in band are more difficult technically than brass parts,38 tbe bass tuba player should not have to play the same exercises as the clarinet player. 34 Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Score and Manual, op. cit., p. 4. 35 George E. Wain, f!How Shall Woodwinds be Taught-Private or Class Method?1* Etude, 64:19, January, 1946. 36 Prank T. Coulter, **The Growth of the Child Through Instrumental Music,*1 Yearbook of the Music Educators National Conference, 1936, p. 307. 37 Revelli, 0£. cit., pp. 504, 557. 38 Paul Van Bodegraven, **Your Band is Unbalanced 111 The Instrumentalist, 3:10, November-Deeember, 1948.

35

12. When instruments are combined from the beginning, traditional starting notes are impossible for all instruments. In addition, it is more difficult to show the similarities of fingerings in the various registers as new notes are introduced. Plan V:

Full orchestra.

Authorities in the field of

instrumental music generally agree that the combination of strings, brass, woodwind, and percussion into a method of instruction is the least desirable plan of organization. Perhaps, the only advantage of this plan is the obvious one of scheduling.

The disadvantages are largely those noted in

connection with plans three and four plus the technical problems of the strings.

In spite of the many difficulties

involved, there have been a sufficient number of successes to indicate that satisfactory results can be attained.

If

conditions make it necessary to combine all families of instruments for instruction Ward 39 suggestst . . . String players should by all means be given some extra time, otherwise the brass and woodwind members of the orchestra will progress far ahead and the director will be faced with the problem of trying to select music that will satisfy everyone. If extra string classes cannot be arranged, or private lessons given, then all members should be given a beginning method to study at home. Lessons can be assigned by the director and checked upon at various intervals as time permits*

39 Ward, op.cit., p. 29.

36

SUMMARY The purpose of this chapter has been to discuss the relative importance and attention which should be given the various plans for teaching instrumental music in the schools. The significance of the five plans of organization lies in the contribution each may make to the successful use of the full band or orchestra class method of instruction.

For

convenience, the organization plans were grouped under (1) private lessons; (2) class lessons on like instruments; (3) families of instruments; (4) full band; and (5) full orchestra.

Solos and ensembles are necessary additions to

these basic plans, but since they form a more advanced type of instruction with at least the fundamentals as a pre­ requisite, they were not considered within the scope of this investigation. Although private lessons under school supervision along with full band instruction is a recommended plan, only a small percentage can afford private lessons.

The private

teacher has been criticized for too much emphasis upon technique set-up as a goal in itself.

The attitude and

interest of the learner were frequently disregarded, but by and large, private teachers are gradually accepting with interest pupils of average talent, for they realize that music study is a worthwhile avocational outlet for better

37

living.

More and more, they are giving attention to the

teaching profession as a vocation.

In increasing numbers

private teachers are taking courses in the colleges and universities in order to meet certification requirements. The rise of the national, state, and local private teachers* associations gives further evidence, and the Music Teachers National Association has provided leadership in this develop­ ment.

School music teachers must realize that by cooperating

with good private teachers the school music program will improve.

Private teachers must realize that many of their

pupils* first musical interests originated in the school music program. Modern teachers generally accept class lessons on like instruments as the best. each instrument.

There is a separate class held for

Players do not have to remain idle while

the fundamentals of another instrument are being taught.

In

the choice of materials, more literature is published for the like instrument class than for the mixed group.

Indi­

vidual faults may be corrected in spite of the fact that less time is given to each student.

Group activities may be used

to contribute to the effectiveness of this plan.

The level

of advancement for each pupil selected for this type of class should be about the same.

If classes are too large sufficient

attention cannot be given to separate students. The teaching of instruments in families has the

advantage of dealing with problems common to each family. In addition, the groups will be smaller.

The teacher is,

however, handicapped in the amount of technique he can teach because each instrument presents a different problem.

The

Eb and F instruments in the brass class, and the different keys and characteristics of the woodwinds are apt to result in considerable confusion.

Other problems include a lack of

materials for instruction and scheduling of classes. The full band class books are arranged so that all instruments of the band may be combined into one class for instruction.

This plan meets the needs of music teachers

who have been forced in many teaching situations to combine and teach all instruments in the shortest length of time possible.

The advantages and disadvantages of the full band

class plan of organization were pointed out by various music educators.

This plan gives better results when it is possible

to supplement the work with classes of like instruments. Where individual instruction is by necessity limited, the band may be divided into families of instruments for instruc­ tion.

This may demand more time and effort from the teacher,

and perhaps the use of student assistants is one solution, but the problem is one which can be worked out and will pay for itself immeasurably. It was generally agreed that the combination of all instruments of the orchestra for instruction is the least

39

desirable plan of organization*

However, in spite of the

many difficulties involved, it is possible to use this plan with satisfactory results*

From the standpoint of thorough­

ness of instruction, it is the least desirable organization plan* From the preceding analysis of the different plans of organization, it is obvious that no single plan can be set up to guarantee results in every teaching situation. For some the full band or orchestra is the beginning point of instruction.

Others view the fourth or fifth plan as

culmination of the first three.

It is probably a combination

of different plans of organization that makes for efficiency and thoroughness of instruction.

CHAPTER III

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SEVEN METHODS Introduction*

In any full band class method, there

are certain essential matters of organization which should be outlined in advance, so that the purpose of the method may be more fully understood.

Since the reader may not be

acquainted with the methods selected for this investigation, it is the purpose of this chapter to present a description of each method before proceeding with an analysis of the special features in Chapter IV.

The material for this

chapter is taken, in part, from the instrumentation books and manuals. THE BOOSEY AND HAWKES BAND METHOD Plan of the course.

It is impossible, according to

the authors of this course, to have the entire ensemble play in unison without handicapping some of the instruments.

In

order to avoid having some instruments play either above or below their normal starting tones, all instruments of the band are divided into four groups.

The authors of this

course point out: Since each group is composed of instruments in like keys and similarly pitched, each group is able to play in unison from the beginning, without encountering the problem of playing out of the normal starting range of the individual instrument. These groups are: Group 1 9

41

C Flute and Oboe; Group II, Bb Clarinets, Bb Bass Clarinet, Bb Tenor Saxophone, Bb Cornets or Trumpets, Bassoon, Baritone, Eb and BBb Tubas; Group III, Eb Alto Clarinet, Eb Alto and Baritone Saxophones, Eb Horns, Altos and Mellophones, F Horns; Group IV, Drums.1 The first lesson is played by groups I, II, III, and IV and is devoted to the starting tones for all instruments* All lessons after the first are planned on the basis of eleven lines to a page, the first five for group playing and the remaining six for full band*

Beginning with the second

lesson, the plan for each page is as follows: Line one, new tones*

Each group of instruments is introduced to

In some eases, certain lines are to be played by

like instruments alone in order to maintain normal and logical progress in expanding the range of the woodwinds, which differs from the brasses.

The remainder of the group

may still play together in unison. Lines two, three, four, and five*

Tones introduced

in line one are used for the development of the range by means of familiar tunes and melodies.

These lines also pro­

vide material for home practice. Line six*

This line is given to the introduction of

chord progressions which should be played with holds or 1 Joseph E* Skornicka and Joseph Bergeim, The Boosey and Hawkes Band Method Conductor1s Score (Hew York: Boosey and Hawkes, 1947), p. 2.

42

pauses by the entire full band.

Each succeeding page has a

new chord progression, either with a new melodic pattern for each instrument, or in a new key, or with the addition of new tones which expand the range both up and down. Lines seven, eight, nine, ten, and eleven. lines are played by the entire full band.

These

Individual Instru­

ments play melodic patterns learned in the chord progression of line six.

Rhythm is the basic factor involved.

Counting,

previously required by individual players and in the groups, is now required by the entire ensemble. Rhythm.

This band course is based on rhythm.

The

authors states Rhythm, and all its implications, is the basis for all musical performance. Every other factor in musical development and accomplishment depends directly on the mastery of rhythm, and consequently, nothing is possible without it. Throughout the entire course, special emphasis is placed on rhythmic problems. The player who has a sound rhythmic concept will have little or no difficulty with other factors concerned with musical performance such as precision, articulation, intonation, tone and dynamics.2 Breathing.

Exercises are written in phrases of three,

five, and seven beats so that breathing becomes automatic. Therefore, it is possible for the student to breathe on quarter rests and not between tones on successive beats, nor is the student required to rest for a span of an entire measure. 2 Ibid., p. 3.

43

Whole notes.

New tones are introduced by means of

whole notes with a pause or hold for the production and development of tone.

The long tones are not counted so that

the student may concentrate on quality of tone, pitch recog­ nition, and fingering.

The authors strongly recommend that

tfthe playing of long tones be introduced as a game in which all students will participate for the purpose of determining who is able to hold each tone the longest period of time.1* In many lessons, long tones are written above and below the range being utilized.

These tones offer a challenge for the

student to expand the range. Quarter notes.

Quarter notes are introduced and

played at the first lesson.

The authors believe that almost

all students possess an instinct for marching and the use of quarter notes from the beginning is supported by the follow­ ing factorsr 1.

The marching instinct is synchronized with the

beat and the action of the tongue. are strengthened and developed.

3.

2.

Lip and cheek muscles

The student will get

four times more tonguing practice when playing quarter notes than when playing whole notes. be played from the start.

5.

4.

In addition more tunes can

Playing quarter notes establishes

a rhythmic eoncept for sight reading and ensemble performance. 3 Skornicka and Bergeim, loc. cit. 4 Loc. cit.

A

44

Conductor 1s score and instrumentation books.

The

conductor’s score contains suggestions to the instructor for teachings

rudiments; attacks and releases (tonguing);

dynamics; production of tone for woodwind instruments; brass instruments; and percussion.

Each instruunentation book con­

tains a fingering chart; suggestions to players; and a definition of common musical terms. THE BELWIN ELEMENTARY BAND METHOD Purpose of the method.

The general purpose of this

method is stated by the author as followss This publication is intended to fill the need for a band method that progresses slowly and with an under­ standing of the mental and physical capabilities of the young beginner. Each book is written along lines similar to the finest individual method books for each instru­ ment, although the primary purpose is for teaching the full band or mixed classes containing any number of persons or any combinations of instruments.5 Exercises for each instrument.

Two separate pages

for each instrument help develop range and special problems peculiar to each instrument that cannot be dealt with when all instruments play together.

These pages can be used for

separate practice, and tryouts used to encourage their preparation by the students. Familiar tunes.

Familiar tunes are used throughout

5 Fred Weber, Belwin Elementary Band Method Conductor1s Book (New Yorks Belwin, Inc.7 1945), p. 2.

45

the book to illustrate a previously introduced fundamental. Solos.

Each instrument has an easy solo with piano

accompaniment. Harmony and full band. .Hannony and full band playing are introduced after the first 141 exercises.

A total of 220

exercises are used in this method of which the first 141 are in unison.

An eight line condensed score to all full band

numbers is provided in the conductor’s book. Theory tests. cluded in each book.

Two music fundamental tests are in­ These are to help the instructor check

on the student’s knowledge of music notation and the names of notes. Fingering charts. Each instrument is provided with the simplest possible fingering ehart in the front of the book.

The author states, ’’only the usual fingerings are

given, since very few alternate fingerings are used by be­ ginners, and they would only make the charts more confusing to the student. Key signatures.

The use of key signatures is delayed

until the student has the necessary knowledge of accidentals. By delaying the use of key signatures until they can be first 6 Ibid., p. 3.

46

used simultaneously by all instruments, the conductor greatly simplifies the problem of their introduction. Clarinet register change.

One of the most difficult

problems involved in teaching a combination of instruments in the same class is the clarinet register change.

In this

method, the higher register is not used until the student has had ample opportunity to develop the use of all fingers by playing in the low register.

Lip slurs, interval slurs,

and other material are used by the other instruments while the clarinets are working on this problem. Index.

As each new problem is introduced, it is

numbered, and a square is placed around the number.

If the

student forgets the meaning, he can look up this number in the index in the back of the book. Conductor's book and instrumentation books.

The con­

ductor's book contains a full score of the first five pages of the individual books.

After the first five pages of the

student's books, the conductor has a one line score in con­ cert key with the drum parts, for all unison exercises. Comments relative to problems involved by the group or the special instruments are made on the pages throughout the conductors book whenever it is thought they might prove helpful.

An eight-line conductor's score gives the teacher

47

information on what notes each instrument is playing on all full band numbers. 7 Each instrumentation book contains some suggestions to players; a fingering chart; and an index of musical terms and fundamentals. EASY STEPS TO THE BAUD Plan of the course.

The various books of this course

may be taught together in any combination up to full band. The twenty-five lessons are, for the most part, arranged in unison.

Provision is also made for special solos, duets,

and trios.

In addition eleven harmonized full band pieces,

located in the back of the book, may be introduced following certain lessons and thus provide material for a concert. Accidentals are used in place of key signatures in the first nine lessons; signatures are introduced in the tenth lesson. New notes are introduced at the top of each page with the fingerings.

Drum rudiments, with playing directions, are

given one lesson previous to use in the score. Conductor Ts score and manual.

Throughout the twenty-

five lessons a score is given for the eight most frequently used instruments.

The score for the harmonized pieces in

the back of the book includes all instruments.

Fingering

charts are given for all instruments in both the conductor^ ^ Ibid., p. 4.

48

manual and Instrumentation books.

The symbol of the pointing

finger is used to indicate the first actual use of any note for the instrument in the conductor’s score.

Teaching sug­

gestions and other information appear at the side of the page.

Considerable space is available where the teacher may

record ideas.

Q

General suggestions.

Under general suggestions, a

certain amount of preliminary work is advised before- the instrument is placed in the hands of the student.

Common

problems for all instruments such as time signature, clef, measure, and staff can be taught before the first lesson, or in connection with later lessons.

It is suggested that an

instrument of each kind be brought to the class where each pupil can learn the names of ‘the principal parts of the instrument he is to play, as well as putting the instrument together and dismantling it get them out of adjustment.

so as not to bend the keys or In regard to the importance of

preliminary .work, the author of this course statest . . . it usually takes some time to get the class established and ready for actual playing, since some will have instruments needing repair, others will have to secure them, and still others will not decide to join the class until they have seen some of their friends actually taking part. A pupil starting late is not only seriously handicapped himself but he detracts from the 8 Maurice D. Taylor, Score and Manual (New Yorks

Easy Steps to the Band, Conductor’s Mills Music, Inc., 1942), p. 8.

49

interest of the others. The preliminary rehearsals unify the class and enable the director to spend his full time teaching the use of the instruments when the time comes.® Other suggestions includes

seating of class; posture;

use of practice pads for snare drums; tuning; rehearsal of materials; teaching of rhythm; assignments; the use of alternate fingerings; general comments applying to all instruments; forms of articulation; balance of breath pressure and lip tension; drum rolls; the unit method of rhythm read­ ing; principal rhythm units of two-four, three-four, and fourfour measures; principal rhythm units of cut-time, two-two, and three-two measures; principal rhythm units of threeeight, four-eight, six-eight, and nine-eight measures. THE MARK HINDSLEY BAND METHOD Plan of the method.

This method is, for the most part,

a unison method in which a large percentage of the exercises can be played only by small portions of the band.

When

technical problems apply only to a single instrument or to a group of instruments, they are taught in classes of that instrument or group, because: It is the author’s belief that it is practical and efficient to teach wind instruments in mixed classes only when the instruction involves problems, and materials for meeting them, which are common to all the instruments; that when problems are not common, the 9 Taylor, loc. cit.

instruments must be treated separately or in groups according to their problems and materials, . , • Teaching all the instruments together all the time will reduce either thoroughness or efficiency in covering separate problems; teaching the instruments separately all the time is inefficient in time and ensemble experience•10 Instrumentation books.

Out of the fourteen separate

instrumentation books for flute, oboe, bassoon, Bb clarinet, Eb saxophone, Bb saxophone, cornet (trumpet), trombone, baritone, French horn (in F), Eb alto (mellophone), Eb tuba, BBb tuba, and drums, the author of this method considers all of these instruments except the oboe, bassoon, and French horn as beginning instruments; that is, instruments which may be started by the student without previous experience.

In

this connection! • • . It is ordinarily advisable that oboe and bassoon students be chosen from outstanding performers on another wind instrument, in order that the difficulties may be minimized and success insured. French horn students should have had previous training on the Eb alto, prefer­ ably, or on the cornet, for the same reasons. After about two years training, flute players should also learn to play the piccolo. Likewise, after a foundation has been secured, Bb clarinet players may be transferred to alto bass, and Eb clarinet.11 The French horn is in F, but may be played by horns in Eb, for advantages of combination with other instruments. Separate books are provided for Eb tuba and BBb tuba in order 10 Mark Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Score and Manual (Clevelands Sam Fox Publishing Company, 1940T7 P** 4. 11 Ibid., p. 5.

51

that each instrument may be treated in its natural register* The book for drums includes instruction for snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, and timpani, with bells later in the book.

The drums are treated separately during the first

twenty pages of the book, but are included later with the wind instruments.

For the snare drum, a generous use of

practice pads is recommended by the author in order to pre­ serve the purity of wind instrument tone. Combination of instruments.

Separate exercises for

single instruments are to be found throughout the book; these are to be played alone.

In addition the following combi­

nations are used for instructions

cornet, trombone, baritone,

and BBb tuba; cornet, baritone, and BBb tuba; Eb alto and Eb tuba; flute, oboe, and bassoon; clarinet, Bb saxophone, cornet, trombone, baritone, and BBb tuba; Eb saxophone, Eb alto, and Eb tuba; flute and bassoon; clarinet and Bb saxo­ phone; baritone and BBb tuba; clarinet, cornet, trombone, baritone, and BBb tuba. Units of instruction.

The musical material is divided

into units of instruction, as followst II.

I.

The first tones;

Attack and release— whole and half notes; III.

Attack

and release--quarter notes; IV.

Increased register; V.

and releasefcin new register; VI.

The slur and legato;

VII.

Key of F (G, Bb)--two part playing; VIII.

Attack

Eighth notes;

52

IX.

Higher tones; X.

Chromatics; XI to XX.

include instruction in nine different keys.

These units All the instru­

ments play together in the concert keys (major) of Bb, P, Eb, C, Ab, G, and Db.

The C, Bb, and P instruments combine in

playing in the key of D; the Bb and Eb instruments combine in playing in the key of Gb; the C and P instruments play in the key of A alone; and the Eb instruments play in the key of Cb alone.

XXI.

Six-eight and three-eight time; XXII.

with two beats In a measure; XXIII.

Six-eight

Six-eight rhythms.

The

last three units are arranged for all instruments to play together. ENSEMBLE BAND METHOD Plan of the course.

The Authors of this course state:

It is the intention . . . to present a series of logically developed exercises for beginners on wind and. percussion instruments, interspersed with enough theory lessons to cover elementary fundamentals of musicianship, enough mechanical exercises to develop technique, enough individual routines to overcome problems of the various instruments, enough melody, harmony, and rhythm to de­ velop skill In performance of music within the capability of first year students, and enough interesting material to create a desire to make music.12 The method consists of over one hundred exercises for class, individual, or full band instruction. exercises is applied to a page of tunes.

A page of

A student is thus

12 Claude Smith, Paul Yoder, and Harold Bachman, Ensemble Band Method Conductor-Piano Accompaniment (Chicago: Neil A. Kjos Music Company, 1939), p. Ii.

53

given a chance to employ the technical skills by playing melodies*

Fingerings are inserted each time a new note is

presented.

Each fingering chart is a four page loose-leaf

sheet with two pages devoted to the fingering chart and the other two used for pictures to explain correct position, a description of tone production, and a history of the instru­ ment.

The Eb horn and the Eb mellophone books are alike with

the Eb horn fingerings indicated first and the mellophone fingerings in parentheses.

The authors advise the use of the

F horn book for the beginning French horn student. and BBb bass books are alike.

The Eb

The BBb bass fingerings are

indicated in parentheses when they are different from the Eb bass.

Singing by syllables is suggested to help the students

with tone placement. each book.

Eight theory lessons are included for

Snare drum instruction starts with the first

lesson and after sixteen pages offers material for bass drum, snare drum, and bells. Unison exercises *

Before the introduction of harmo­

nized tunes and studies, sixty-three exercises and thirty-one melodies are introduced for the study of;

tone production;

whole notes; half notes; quarter notes; eighth notes; slur; chromatics; accidentals; and rhythmic figures. Harmonized tunes and studies.

The harmonized tunes

and studies begin with exercise sixty-four.

At this point

54

key signatures are first introduced. books for unison work.

Part one appears in all

Part two is included for most of the

books in order to form a duet for any desired combination. Part three appears in the bass book in place of part two and at times in the baritone, trombone, and bassoon parts.

By

assigning the three parts in various ways, the band can begin work in ensemble playing.

All three parts are given in the

conductor-piano accompaniment. of the books are as follows:

The contents for the remainder sixteenth notes; the dotted

eight followed by a sixteenth; alia breve; triplets; six-eight measure; scales, arpeggios, chords; four part ensembles; eight, full band arrangements; and musical terms. THE WORLD OP MUSIC BAND COURSE Plan of the course.

The contents of "The World of

Music Band Course" may be grouped under four parts as follows: preparatory studies; unison wind and percussion ensemble; full band; technical studies; and full band repertory. Preparatory studies.

The forty-six preparatory

studies offer beginning instruction in accordance with the playing requirements of each instrument.

The authors point

out: Experienced teachers will recognize in this plan of presentation the basic virtue of teaching the most logical and the easiest tones first, not only for the more common instruments but for all. Correct technical

55

habits and ease of reading are in this way established before the student is thrust into ensemble playing and before the need of playing in the more extreme ranges and keys arises. . . .J-3 The preparatory studies apply only to the following homogeneous groups:

(1) Piccolo in Db; (2) piccolo in C,

flute and oboe combined; (3) all Eb clarinets combined; (4) all Bb clarinets combined; (5) Bb saxophones combined; (6) Eb saxophones combined; (7) bassoon; (8) cornet (or trumpet), baritone, trombone, and tuba combined; (9) French horn in F; (10) French horn and alto (or mellophone) in Eb combined; (11) timpani; (12) drums.

The authors point out

that all instruments may meet in the same class at the beginning, but the exercises and melodies may not be played by the entire ensemble; a few special class meetings with separate groups will help in establishing correct habits Unison wind and percussion ensemble.

Studies forty-

seven to seventy-eight are for unison wind ensemble.

Al­

though some new tones are introduced, the material is in the nature of a review.

Since all instruments of the band are

combined for the first time, some suggestions are given in the tfTeacherfs Manual” regarding:

conduct of rehearsals;

tuning; and position of instruments. 13 William D. Revelli, Victor L. F. Hebmann, and Charles B. Righter, The World of Music Band Course Teacher1s Book (Bostonr Ginn and Company, 1939), p. 4. 14 Loc. cit.

56

Full band.

Full band numbers extend from exercise

seventy-eight to one hundred seventy-three and present new note values and rhythms, articulations, varieties of meter and tempo, dynamic gradations, and both musical and technical forms which are found in band music.

There is a balance

between unison and harmonized numbers and between melodies and technical studies.

This section may be rehearsed in

three combinations by*

(1) woodwind ensemble (with or without

percussion); (2 ) brass ensemble (with or without percussion); (5) woodwind, brass, and percussion. Technical studies. pages.

These studies include about four

They cannot be played in full ensemble, but must be

performed separately by the same pitched instruments.

The

cornet (or trumpet), baritone, trombone, and tuba may be combined.

The technical studies are concerned with the

following topics:

new tones; breath control (the swell);

flexibility of embouchure; articulation; scales and arpeggios; interval studies; alternate fingerings; and agility studies• Full band repertory.

Twenty-three concert numbers com­

prise the remainder of the course.

Rehearsal procedures are

indicated for each of these numbers in the “Teacherrs Manual.” Conductor fs score. A complete conductor's score is published for this course.

The score includes fingerings,

metronome, expression, and breath marks.

As new notes are

57

introduced, fingerings are written in the score and instru­ mentation books. Teacher 1s manual.

In the introduction of the ’’Teacher1s

Manual” topics included ares

objectives of instrumental music

instruction; organization of classes and rehearsals; housing and equipment; methods of teaching and materials.

Explanation

of playing fundamentals have been supplemented by ninety-two pictorial illustrations and fingering guides.

Therefore the

teacher is urged to make the fullest possible use of the manual as an aid in the understanding of the students* books and the full score. THE MOORE BAND COURSE Plan of the course.

The general plan of ’’The Moore

Band Course” is stated by the author as follows I The material is presented in a systematic, logical manner, calculated to lead the student step by step, towards technical ability sufficient for reading and playing an easy grade of band music. All exercises and pieces are harmonized so that any combination of instruments may be used. • • .15 The instrumentation books consist of ninety exercises; every exercise is in duet form.

All books contain the unison

or melody part ”A ” and in addition one of the following parts: alto ”B ”; tenor ”C”; or bass ”D ”.

The four parts are distributed

IS E. C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Teacher’s Manual (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), p. v.

58 -

in the full band class books as follows: alto ffB ns

Soprano nA fl and

Flute and piccolo (Db); flute and piccolo (C);

oboe; Eb clarinet; Bb clarinet; soprano saxophone; Eb alto saxophone; Bb cornet (trumpet); horns in F; and altos in Eb. Soprano tfA w and tenor fTCff:

Alto clarinet; bassoon; tenor

saxophone; C melody saxophone; trombone in bass clef; baritone in bass clef; and baritone in treble clef. bass flP tf:

Soprano >fA 11 and

Bass clarinet; baritone saxophone; bass saxophone;

Eb bass; and BBb bass.

The piano-conductor1s part contains

parts l,A w, ”B”, ,fCff, and ,fD ff.

It Is suggested by the author

that the teacher use the piano-conductor *s part with small groups or for private teaching.

The student will then have

the benefit of hearing the full four part harmony. The author of this course offers the following example in which all players will play both of their parts: . . • tell the cornets to play A-B-A, the clarinets to play A-A-B, the trombones to play A-C-C, the basses to play A-D-D. The entire ensemble will then play the "A” part, the trombones the ”Cn part and the basses the ffD n part, -resulting in four part harmony. The third time the cornets will change and play the f,A n part, while the clarinets play the ffB,! part, the trombones and basses the ffCM and ,fD-n parts, as they did previously. In this way each player will play both of his parts. Unison studies or the playing of the melody results when all play the ”A ,f part. the players learn all parts.

However, it is recommended that Many of the reed parts are

written in octaves, and the student must practice all parts i® Ibid., p. 2.

59

to develop technique and tone in every register of his instru­ ment.

Throughout each book detailed instructions are placed

on the left side of each page.

These instructions are to be

used in the playing of the music which is located on the right side of each page. Teacher’s manual.

The manual contains thirty chapters

and about thirty-five pictorial illustrations. includes

Subjects

plan of books; how music is written; position in

general; tuning and intonation; transposing and non-transposing instruments; woodwind instruments; brass instruments; in­ structions for various instruments; choosing the players; instrumentation; public appearances; credits, awards, and contests; rehearsal procedure; and other subjects pertaining to the organization and administration of the course. SUMMARY The purpose of this chapter has been to give a general description of the seven methods selected for this study. Prom the preceding description of the different methods, it can be seen that various appr9ach.es and combinations of instruments' were used to meet the fundamental objective of elementary band class instruction.

Lengthy discussions on

the teaching of the band instruments were found in some of the teachers1 manuals, whereas in others it was assumed that

the teacher has an adequate training and understanding of the instruments and their problems.

CHAPTER IV

AN ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIAL FEATURES OF SEVEN METHODS Introduction,

It is the purpose of this chapter to

separate and compare the special features directly and indi­ rectly related to the contents of the music*

The special

features and their contributions to the effectiveness of the band class methods will be considered separately in the follow­ ing order:

(1) physical format of the books; (2) types of

scores and manuals; (3) instructions for care of instruments; (4) photographic pictures; (5) theory lessons; (6) lesson ex­ planations; (7) full band program numbers; (8) solos with piano accompaniment; (9) definition of musical terms; and (10) fingering charts* In addition, but highly important, are those features that depend upon the subjective judgment of the student and teacher.

These features are concerned with such questions as:

Does the method provide a musically worth-while experience? Is the method interesting from the studentfs point of view? Is the page easy to look at or is it cluttered?

Due to indi­

vidual differences and background, questions of this type do not lend themselves to exact measurement, but are mentioned in this chapter as additional factors to be taken into con­ sideration in selecting and comparing full band class methods of instruction.

PHYSICAL FORMAT OF THE BOOKS Style and size of print.

From the beginning, the

student of music must acquire a knowledge of the physical means by which musical expression is conveyed.

Any addition

al aid given the student through the mechanical arrangement of the printed page will not only assist him, but also make the reading of music more enjoyable.

In regard to the

general style or set-up of a book Mursell^ states: . . . It is very desirable that children use books which are not only excellent from the standpoint of content and organization, but are also pleasing in appearance, easy to handle, easy to read, and durable. The size of each band class method book used in this study is nine inches by twelve inches.

Although the pages

are of the same size, close examination reveals a wide variety of sizes of notes and staffs.

By direct communi-

cation with several music printing houses Wheelwright

was

informed that there is no standard system of classifying sizes of print.

The same writer states as follows:

. . . The music printers have ways of indicating sizes peculiar to each plant. Some use numbers and others use descriptive terms such as band size, octavo, standard, standard piano, large, and jumbo. Throughout the industry it is common practice to use whatever size 1 James L. Mursell, Music in American Schools (New York: Silver Burdett Company, 19437, p. 119. 2 Lorin F. Wheelwright, An Experimental Study of the Perceptibility and Spacing of Music Symbols ^New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1939), pp. 13-14.

63

the engraver or typesetter believes is appropriate for the work. His judgment is guided by tradition and cost. Spacing of music symbols.

Common sense would indicate

that the crowding of music symbols is very undesirable. experiment with a tachistoscope by Bean,

An

in which he used

musicians ranging from beginners to concert artists, shows that accurate reading of music includes the ability to grasp a musical pattern of notes.

In the summary of data, he con­

cluded: • , , A close analogy exists between the reading of words and the reading of music, for there are groups of notes which are definite perceptual units, and in this way the equivalent of words. • . In order to meet the reading requirements of all mu­ sicians and prevent the crowding of music symbols, the size of the book should be as generous as cost will allow. gives a larger and more readable page of music.

This

For example,

the tympani player!s eyes must move over a wider area than required for some of the other instruments.

The number of

notes in the pattern, eye-span, the arrangement of the notes on the staff, and,the way they sound when played are important. Many books use a somewhat glaring white paper; this type of paper reflects light and is hard on the eyes.

Correct playing

positions, position of music stand, and lighting also 3 Kenneth L. Bean, 11An Experimental Approach to the Reading of Music," Psychological Monographs, 50:1-80, 1938. 4

* P* 79*

64

contribute to the ease or reading music.

The music stand

should be kept nearly even with the eyes so that the music and the teacher may be seen at the same time.

As a general

rule, the music should be at least fourteen inches from the eyes if they are normal. TYPES OF SCORES AND MANUALS Conductor *s full score.

Strictly speaking only one of

the seven methods, ”The World of Music Band Course,” has a complete full score with fingerings for new notes written in the score; the size of this score is roughly eleven inches by fourteen inches.

The ”Boosey and Hawkes Band Method” con­

ductor^ score and manual is fairly complete, but some trans­ position is necessary in a few places in order to get the written sounds for some of the instruments.

A full score

contains all the notes for the various families of instruments. With a full score the teacher can tell at a glance the notes written for any instrument.

There was a time when a band

director was given, and used, a melody part to direct from; it was usually the solo cornet condensed on a single staff along with an occasional cue for other instruments. connection, Van Bodegraven5 states:

In this

• • • This practice is a hold-over from the military brass band in which the cornet almost always carried the 5 Paul Van Bodegraven and Harry R. Wilson, The School Music Conductor (Chicago: Hall and MeCreary Company, 1942}, p . 45 •

65

lead and the conductor often played the solo cornet part as well as directing from it. The next step was a variety of condensed scores written on two, three, or four staves, giving a fairly good outline of the music, but requiring transposition because all parts were written in concert pitch.

Although a condensed

score does not necessitate the turning of as many pages, rehearsal details for beginners are more easily checked with a full score.

Rohner points outs

It Is not necessary to enumerate the many advantages of a full score. Actually, we should have a full score for all band, orchestra, and ensemble music. Rehearsal efficiency is at the core of the arguments in favor of thi s•6 The lack of uniformity of instrumentation in the concert band, and also in placing the instruments in the score, adds to the difficulty of reading a full band score. The score is further complicated by the variety of names assigned to the clarinet and cornet parts.

Out of over six

hundred band directors, instrumental instructors, and super­ visors of music who replied to a questionnaire sent out by rt

Travelstead,

the majority of replies favor the naming of Bb

clarinet and cornet parts as first, second, and third. Standardization in regard to the naming and placement of parts 6 Traugott Rohner, MWhy Not More Conductors1 Scores?” The Instrumentalist, 2*40, May-June, 1948. 7 Chester C. Travelstead, f,600 Directors Can*t Be Wrongi” The Instrumentalist, 2*4-7, November-Deeember, 1947.

66

would remove much confusion, misunderstanding, and inconQ

venience.

In 1938, O'Neill

stated, in part, that score

reading would be very much aided if the various instruments would be In the same relative position In all band scores. Since previous research has determined the fact that a majority of band directors want full scores, 9 and publishers have indicated their desire to print full scores if a sufficient number are purchased to pay for the added cost, 10 the Music Publishers Holding Corporation set* up a committee to investigate the lack of standardization in the placement of parts.

Hauser,^ chairman of the Music Publishers Holding

Corporation reported a committee of six conferred with publishers of band music, the American Bandmasters Association, and the University and College Band Conductors Conference. Disagreement was reported on the placement of the bassoon, harp, fluegelhorn, and French horn.

The form, that is whether

or not it should contain the full instrumentation on each page, was also a matter of divided opinion. The most important objective of a survey by Fuller IP 8 Charles O'Neill, r,Aids to Score Heading,” The School Musician, 9:10-11, January, 1938. 9 Travelstead, o£. cit. 10 Rohner, o£. cit., pp. 40-41. 11 Arthur A. Hauser, !,The Sequence of Parts in Band Scores,11 The Instrumentalist, 2:11-12, March-April, 1948. 12 P. J. Fuller, Standardizing the Full Band Score,11 The Instrumentalist, 3:36-37, November-Deeember, 1948.

67

was to determine a standard placement of parts which should be followed by all publishers in the printing of full scores. There were 1,212 questionnaires sent out.

The number of forms

filled out and returned by representatives of secondary schools, colleges and universities, and by professional band directors nation-wide was 505.

The majority opinion of band

directors suggested the placement of parts as followst bassoon, after the double reeds; harp, after the basses; fluegelhorn (if any) after the trumpets; and French horn, after the trumpet-fluegelhorns.

On the basis of these

results the standard placements of parts should be as followst Piccolo, flutes, oboes, English horn (if scored), bassoons, Eb clarinet, Bb clarinets, alto clarinet (if scored), bass clarinet, saxophones, comets, trumpets, fluegelhorns (if scored), French horns, trombones, baritones, tuba, string bass, harp (if scored), tympani, snare drum and traps, bass drum and cymbals. The remaining point of disagreement had to do with the form of the score; that is, whether or not it should contain the full instrumentation on each page.

Sixty-one per cent of

the band directors favored using only those staves represent­ ing playing instruments as is done in the orchestra; thirtysix per cent favored a complete number of staves on each page, that is, one for each instrument. 14

Ibid., p. 36. 14 Loc. cit.

68

Score and manual combined#

Four of the seven methods

combine the score and manual into one book#

The ’’Belwin

Elementary Method” has a full score of the first five pages of the instrumentation books#

This helps the teacher get

started and through the first period of instruction.

After

the first five pages of the instrumentation books the teacher has a one line score in concert key with drum parts written below, for all unison exercises# is necessary.

A knowledge of transposition

An eight-line conductor's score gives the

teacher complete information on what notes each instrument is playing on all full band numbers.

In regard to the conductor’s

book the author states as follows: The conductor’s book has been kept as brief as possible, while still giving the teacher all necessary information on conducting the class. A complete score of all books is impractical, because it would be bulky and expensive, and because experience shows it to be very little used by the average teacher.15 In the ’’Easy Steps to the Band Course” a score is given for eight of the most frequently used instruments throughout the twenty-five lessons; the teacher can tell the notes the other Instruments are playing by memorizing a formula as given in the conductor’s score and manual.

The score for the

harmonized pieces at the back of the book includes all instru­ ments. Fred Weber, Belwin Elementary Band Method Con­ ductor ’s Book (New York: Belwin, Inc., 1945), p. 4.

69

For separate instruments or groups of instruments, the "Mark Hindsley Band Method" score and manual contains the written sounds of the instrumentation books. of the score, transposition is not necessary.

For these parts When all

instruments are combined for four part harmony, the instru­ mental parts are indicated in a condensed score. Teacher*s manual.

The "World of Music Band Course"

and the "Moore Band Course" have separate manuals. Piano-conductor.

The "Ensemble Band Method" and the

"Moore Band Course" have a piano-conductor type of score. Concert pitches are written throughout both of these methods. For most of the exercises in the "Ensemble Band Method" the drum parts are written below the piano-conductor part.

Only

two of the seven methods are provided with a piano-conductor~ part.

When considered apart from its value as a score, the

piano-conductor has certain advantages, for it may serve as an accompaniment when desired either at school or for indi­ vidual practice at home. For a summary of types of scores, the reader is referred- to Table III of Appendix A.

INSTRUCTIONS FOB CARE OF INSTRUMENTS, PHOTOGRAPHIC PICTURES, THEORY LESSONS, LESSON EXPLANATIONS Instructions for care of instruments.

Three of the

methods, "The Mark Hindsley Band Method," "The World of Music Band Course," and "The Moore Band Course," contain in­ structions for care of instruments in both the manual and instrumentation books. of instruction.

Four of the methods omit this feature

With a few exceptions, instructions for the

care of instruments as found in the separate books are in­ adequate.

Because musical instruments are complicated

machines,, they require care in operating and servicing in order to have a long and useful life.

Instructions in regard

to oiling, cleaning the instrument after use, handling the instrument, putting the instrument together and dismantling it so as not to bend the keys or get them out of adjustment, may be given before the student learns to play the first tone. 16 The pamphlet "How to Care for Your Instrument" and the "Band Instrument Repairing Manual" 17 are cited as valuable sources of information for both care and repair of instruments From these and other sources, the teacher may avoid needless repetition by having mimeographed and distributed to the students separate instructions for the care of all instruments 16 How to Care for Your Instrument (C. G. Conn Ltd.. 1942), 36 pp. 17 Erich D. Brand, Band Instrument Repairing Manual (Elkhartz H. and A. Selmer, Inc~ 1946), 198 pp.

71

Photographic pictures*

Clear and accurate pictures

are an obvious aid to instruction.

There is little doubt

that this type of material has genuine value, and that it provides interesting opportunities for teaching*

The number

of pictures in the instrumentation books include from one to fourteen, depending upon the method being considered*

All of

the pictures are located in the front of the various books* The pictures cover a wide range of subjects such ass (1) sitting and standing positions for holding and playing the instruments; (2) pictures of the instruments with the labeled parts; (3) fingering charts; and (4) right and left hand positions. Written tests or theory lessons.

The purpose of the

written tests or theory lessons is to give the student certain minimum essentials of musical theory without which progress is impossible.

Only two of the methods, the flBelwin

Elementary Band Method” and the "Ensemble Band Method” have special theory lessons.

Since the instrumental music teacher

is required to give a grade in the majority of school systems, written tests may be used as one factor in determining the grade of a student.

The results of these tests serve as a

check for the student and teacher in regard to effectiveness of instruction.

The teacher can then encourage the student

to learn what he has failed to do.

For supplementary material,

an instrumental music work book may be used for those methods

72

which do not contain theory lessons and other essentials. 18 Separate books for treble and bass clef instruments, as listed below, may be assigned for study at home, or used during the regular lesson to occupy one group of students while the teacher is working with another group* Lesson explanations.

The importance of lesson expla­

nations is indicated by the fact that six of the seven methods include such information as an aid to the student. It is important for explanations to be worded in simple language so that the student can work by himself with a minimum of help from the teacher*

It is obvious that mere

admonitions in the book have little, if any, value to the student, unless such warnings or cautions are supplemented with an explanation by the teacher.

The "Boosey and Hawkes

Band Method” inserts a few suggestions at the beginning of the book, but is weak in that very few are to be found after the first lesson.

In the ”Belwin Elementary Band Method,” as

each new problem is introduced, it is numbered and a square placed around the number.

If a student forgets the meaning,

he can refer to the index in the back of the book for an explanation.

For "Easy Steps to the Band,” short sentences

of explanation are written directly below a large number of exercises.

Questions, addressed to the student, are inserted

18 T. Rohner, Instrumental Music Primer (Chicago! The Raymond A. Hoffman Company, 1934),48 pp.

73

at strategic points*

Examples of three questions taken at

random from the books are as followsr

Are you sitting and

holding your instrument correctly?

Is your tone improving?

Did you look at the time signature?

Lessons are explained

to the student in the "Mark Hindsley Band Method" by means of introductory paragraphs at the beginning of the lessons, the use of short sentences between the lines of music, and foot­ notes.

The "Band Ensemble Method" inserts lesson explanations

between the lines of music.

Arrows representing both down

and up footbeats are shown to replace the verbal one, and, two, and, for each measure.

The "World of Music Band Course"

contains no written suggestions to the student for the playing of the exercises.

However, detailed instructions for

the student and teacher are given in the teacherfs manual. Detailed explanations for all exercises of the "Moore Band Course" are placed on the left side of the page.

A page of

instructions is applied to the exercises located on the right side of the page. For a summary of the four topics of this section, the reader Is referred to Table IV of Appendix A. FULL BAND PROGRAM NUMBERS, SOLOS WITH PIANO ACCOMPA­ NIMENT, DEFINITION OF MUSICAL TERMS, FINGERING CHARTS Full band program numbers.

The inclusion of full band

program numbers is a desirable feature.

Numbers are usually

74

arranged so as to include the problems studied in previous lessons.

Public demonstrations in regard to the progress of

a young band are important for the following reasons:

(1) the

players have an objective to work toward, (2) they give the students more poise and confidence than can be gained at rehearsals, (3) public appearances stimulate the interest of parents as well as students, (4) they are about the only criterion the public has to use in judging the teacher's work, (5) they offer worth-while entertainment to the listeners, provided the work is well done, and (6) if the occasion is such as that it doesnft merit the best, a public performance should not be attempted. 19 On the other hand, the preparation of a series of concerts during the elementary stages of instruction very often detracts from the teaching of fundamentals.

At one

time emphasis was placed upon playing a concert in six weeks, but parents and administrators are beginning to realize that playing a concert is but one phase of the musical development of the s tudent• Solos with piano accompaniment.

The "Belwin Elementary

Band Method" contains nine solos with piano accompaniment, and the "Ensemble Band Method" fourteen.

The inclusion of

too many solos is open for criticism in that full band funda19 E. C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Teacher!s Manual (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), p. 52.

75

mental exercises must be omitted.

The solo phase of musical

activity should be started as soon as possible.

There is a

wealth of supplementary material to select from to meet solo needs.

The mere participation in daily band rehearsals

allows a limited training for the playing of melodies; this is especially true for players who are required to play the alto, tenor, or bass parts of a chord. Definition of musical terms.

Pour of the methods, the

flBoosey and Hawkes Band Method," the "Belwin Elementary Method," the "Moore Band Course," and the "Band Ensemble Method" provide a separate index for musical terms.

The

"Easy Steps to the Band Method," and the "Mark Hindsley Band Method” define Italian musical terms as they are introduced in connection with the music.

The "World of Music Band

Course" indicates musical terms by means of Italian words, English definitions are not given, but the majority of the exercises and band numbers have metronome marks. Fingering charts.

The importance of these reference

visual aids is indicated by the fact that all methods include fingering charts in varying scope and types* For a summary of the four topics of this section, the reader is referred to Table V of Appendix A.

76

ADDITIONAL FEATURES Certain features of full band class methods depend for evaluation upon the studentfs background while others are based on personal opinion.

Hannon 20 suggests using the

following questions for selection of materials:

(1) Is the

material suitable for older as well as younger beginners? (2) Does it have lasting value? children can work by themselves? graded?

(3) Is it presented so that (4) Is the material well

and (5) will it hold the interest of the child? Irving Cheyette^ adds the following:

(1) Is the

material of such length as to be played successfully without tiring physically?

(2) Is the rhythmic development readily

grasped and understood?

(3) Does the material employ the

previous vocal experience of the student?

and (4) Will the

material provide an adequate technique for further study? The answers to the preceding questions contribute to both aims and objectives; although very often used synony­ mously, probably a distinction should be made between the meanings of ’’aims” and ”objectives” of instrumental music study.

Dykema and Gehrkens 22 maintain:

20 Helen M. Hannen, f,Instrumental Classes, Bands, and Orchestras in the Elementary School,” Music Educators National Conference Yearbook, 1938, p. 305. 21 Irving Cheyette, Evaluating the Instrumental Music Program,” The School Musician, 20:6-7, January, 1949. 22 Peter W. Dykema, and Karl W. Gehrkens, The Teaching and Administration of High School Music (Boston: C. C. Birchard and Company, 1941), p. 126.

77

. . • The word "aims” might well be used to describe what is to be done to the musical material; the word "objectives” might be reserved for reference to the effects of these aims upon the students who attempt to realize them. . . . SUMMARY It was the purpose of this chapter to separate and compare the special features related to the music.

The style,

size of print, and spacing of music symbols for the seven methods may be considered as adequate.

This was made possible

by the use of books nine inches by twelve inches which provide a larger and more readable page of music than the smaller march size type of book.

Prom the preceding analysis and

tables it can be seen that certain methods are deficient in not having a conductor’s full score, piano accompaniment, teacher’s manual, instructions for care of instruments, and written tests or theory lessons.

More use should be made of

photographic pictures that are clear and accurate.

The in­

clusion of full band program numbers is a desirable feature, but the numbers should be arranged so as to include the problems learned in previous lessons, rather than for the introduction of new notes and rhythms.

Additional features

of a less measureable nature that depend upon the subjective judgment of the teacher and student were included in the form of nine questions as factors to be taken into consideration in selecting and comparing full band class methods of instruction.

CHAPTER V

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS Introduction.

It is the purpose of this chapter to

analyze each woodwind book of the seven methods under the general topic of tone production.

Attention will also be

given to the selection of players, mouthpieces, reeds, and other problems related to each instrument. The woodwind instruments will be considered in the following order:

(1) piccolo and flute; (2) oboe; (3) bassoon

(4) clarinets; and (5) saxophones. PICCOLO AND FLUTE The ,!Boosey and Hawke s Band Method” and the ”Mark Hindsley Band Method,” do not have instrumentation books for Db piccolo or C piccolo.

Although the C piccolo student

could use the C flute book, the two methods are weak in that a separate book is not provided for the Db piccolo.

The

piccolo and flute are fingered alike, except that the piccolo does not have the foot joint for the low C and C#.

The

principles of tone production for the piccolo and flute are the same, but in the case of the piccolo the blowhole is smaller. Tone production.

A good way for a beginner to produce

a tone on the flute is to take the upper joint and stand

79

before a mirror.

The left hand holds the head joint where

the eork adjusting nut is placed, while the right hand holds the

head joint at the open or lower end*

of the lips into a smiling position*

Draw the corners

Rest the upper joint

lightly on the lower lip, with the lower lip covering about one fourth of the blowhole.

The inner edge of the lower lip

is centered against the middle of the lip plate.

In trying

to find the proper place for the lower lip to rest on the lip plate, Fair"*" states: . . • it is well to start with the lower or inner part of the embouchure (the very edge of it) at exactly where the red part of the lower lip begins. That some deviation from this may be necessary is quite possible. The exact place for the edge of the flute embouchure to rest on can be determined only by many trials. • • • The ’’Easy Steps to the Band” method suggests: , . . rolling the head joint inward and outward, and also placing it higher and lower on the lip until the tone comes freely. The head should be erect. To secure the correct placement of the blowhole, some teachers have the pupil place it equally against the upper and lower lips, then roll the instrument outward so that only the lower lip remains in contact.2 ”It is the splitting of the air column when directed against the rather sharp outer edge of the embouchure,” iZ

according to Fair,

”that produces the tone.”

The head piece

1 Hex Elton Fair, ”Your Flute Questions Answered,” The School Musician, 19:28, May, 1948. 2 Maurice D, Taylor, Easy Steps to the Band Conductor fs Score and Manual (New York: Mills Music, Inc., 1942), p. 13. 3 Rex Elton Fair, Flute Method Book I (Chicago: M. M. Cole Publishing Company, 1937), p. 7.

80

should be parallel with the lips under which condition the flute is best suited to receive full breath.^

To start the

tone the student may tongue the syllable "too" and blow a small stream of air against the opposite edge of the blowhole. In assembling the instrument, the blowhole is in line with the right hand keys.

The foot joint is adjusted so that

the keys can be easily reached with the little finger of the right hand.

The three posts and rods are turned inside the

center of the keys that are used for the right hand. The flute is held by the following four contacts; One Is against the lip; the second is against the first finger of the left hand above the knuckle; the third is the thumb of the right hand; and the fourth is the little finger of the right hand, which rests on the D# key with the ex5 ception of a few tones. The flute is not held parallel with the floor, but slants downward, about twenty degrees from the horizontal position.

This enables the instrument to drain

properly and permits the player more comfort in holding the arms nearer the body. jC and Db flute and piccolo.

The question as to

whether or not the piccolo should be pitched in C or Db is 4 Arthur Kitti, "Strive for Fine Tone Production on the Flute," The School Musician, 13rl2, January, 1942. 5 E. C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Flute and Piccolo in C (New Yorks Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), p . 7.

81

very often raised.

There was a time when if a student wanted

to play in both band and orchestra it was practical to have both Db and C piccolos because parts were published only for Db piccolo.

The reason for almost exclusive Db parts was to

keep the piccolo in easier keys.

In answer to a student's

question as to whether a new piccolo should be C or Db, Pair

statest

• • . Owing to the fact that most band arrangements now have piccolo parts written for the G as well as the D flat, I believe that the C instrument would be the better all around instrument. By having the C piccolo you would be properly equipped for playing in the orchestra and there would be few pieces in the band that you could not play. Even though there should be no G piccolo part for you, you could read off the flute part on your C piccolo, . . . Lesinsky

comments r

The flute and piccolo in D-flat are definitely on the way out. C parts are being published for old arrange­ ments as they are being modernized. The D-flat flute is already a rarity. The D-flat piccolo still exists to take care of old editions, but it too, will soon be relegated to the museum. The piccolo has occupied a position of secondary importance because the low octave was soft and weak in volume and practically valueless.

The latest piccolo made by an

American instrument manufacturer will, in the belief of many, revolutionize piccolo writing and playing.

This is a conical

bore instrument, a model of 1941; Taylor points out? 6 Rex Elton Pair, "Let Me Answer Your Questions on the Piute,” The School Musician, 11:39, February, 1940. 7 Adam P. Lesinsky, "Inconsistencies in Musical Notation,” Etude, 67r476, August, 1949.

82

. . . Once it comes into general use, musical opinion cannot fail to recognize that almost all of the faults and. inherent horrors which have hampered the players in the past, have been ironed out before the instrument is ever placed in the hands of the performer. • • .8 The same writer also mentions that the notes (fourth line to first space G above the staff) which used to be the weakest and least valuable of all on so many of the older piccolos are no longer feeble and almost impossible to control in forte passages, for these notes can be struck sharply and maintained at forte without danger of their ascending a fifth. The G# key.

Flutes may be purchased with closed G# or

with open G# key, but in America and France most flutes are closed G#.

Dayton C. Miller,

who translated Theobald Boehm*s

”The Flute and Flute-Playing,” from German to English states in regard to the G# keys Boehm is said to have declined to make flutes with the closed G# key. However, he did in a few instances provide such instruments for players of the old flute. The translator has never seen but one closed G# key made in Boehm*s shop; nearly all the closed keys found on these flutes have been added by other makers. . . . The student who doubles flute and piccolo should use the same type of G# key for both instruments.

A .change from

open G# to closed G# can be made by sending the instrument to the factory.

Carse points out, ”The only place Boehm*s open

8 Laurence Taylor, ”The Piccolo,” The Etude, 63:19, January, 1945. 9 Theobald Boehm, The Flute and Flute-Playing (Cleveland: The Judson Company, 19227*7 PP* 66-67.

83

G# key is popular is in England and Germany*11^

The differ­

ence between the two systems is that on the closed G# flute the G# key remains closed by a spring.

On the open G# flute,

the G# key is closed with the left hand little finger when using any of the regular keys with the right hand or when playing G natural on the staff or first G above the staff* Selection of flute player*

Students with a downward

projection in the middle of the upper lip are likely to find it difficult to form a satisfactory aperture between the lips. When this condition exists, placing the blowhole slightly to one side may overcome the difficulty. 11

Strong lungs are

desirable, but they are not absolutely necessary, for efficiency in breathing will develop lung power.

12

OBOE Selection of oboe player*

Because so few oboe players

are used, it is important to select players with previous ex­ perience in piano, voice, or some other instrument*

A person

with long upper front teeth and a short upper lip should not study the oboe.

The lower jaw should be normal or firm, but

10 Adam Carse, Musical Wind Instruments (Londons The Macmillan Company, 1939), p. 82. 11 Maurice D. Taylor, 0£. cit., p. 13. 12 Gerald R. Prescott and Lawrence W. Chidester, Getting Results with School Bands (New Yorks Carl Fischer, Inc•, 1938), pT 34.

84

not protruding.

A person with, so-called double jointed

fingers should not play an instrument whose holes have to be covered with the fingers. desirable.

For oboe, a long little finger is

The player should have patience and a certain

mechanieal aptitude to adjust and experiment with reeds, for as Miller 13 emphasizes! . . . On the flute or the clarinet, the beginner can reach a certain level of performance rather quickly, and this of course encourages him. The oboe, however, is difficult from the start I Tone production.

Different viewpoints concerning the

technique of tone production for the oboe in the seven methods are stated, in part, as follows: Method 1*

The lips should be pulled firmly over the

teeth in a smiling position.

To avoid pressure on the reed,

pull the chin down away from the reed.

The playing portion

of the reed is at the tip (approximately one third of an inch) and that portion must be free to vibrate. pressure.

In other words— no

A tone is started with the tip of the tongue

gently drawn from the tip of the reed as if saying "dah."'*'4 Method II.

The f,Belwin Elementary Band Method11 contains

13 Mitchell Miller, ’'About the Oboe," The Etude, 66:601, October, 1948. 14 Joseph E. Skornicka and Joseph Bergeim, The Boosey and Hawkes Band Method Oboe Book (New York: Boosey and Hawkes, 1947), p.~4.

85

no information for tone production in teaching the different instruments. Method III*

To produce a tone draw the upper and

lower lips inward, slightly covering the teeth*

Place the

reed on the lower lip in such a way that the tip of the reed clears the lip on the inside of the mouth; tongue with the tip of the tongue to the tip of the reed*

Avoid excessive

pressure and placing the reed too far in the mouth* Method IV*

Turn both lips slightly over the teeth.

Hold the head erect and the instrument at the proper angle. Place the reed on the lower lip, with the tip just inside the mouth, and close the lips lightly around it* through the reed and into the instrument*

Blow easily

Adjust the amount

of reed in the mouth to the place where the tone comes easily, full and in tune.

The lips should not have to exert pressure

on the reed to make the tone.

If it blows hard or if the

tone is flat in pitch, the reed is too "hard;n if the tone is thin or choked, the reed is too "soft."

In either case the

reed should be checked by the teacher, and adjusted properly. Do not waste time with a poor reed.

It is the soul of the

tone, and the key to success on the oboe. the mouth thoroughly before using it.

Soak the reed in

Never play with a dry

reed. 15 Maurice D. Taylor, o£. cit., p. 14. •16 Mark Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Oboe Book (Cleveland: Sam Fox Publishing Company, 1940), p7 6.

86

Method V.

The red portion of the lower lip should be

folded over the lower teeth and the red part of the upper lip folded under the upper teeth, giving a double cushion for the reed.

The lips are drawn back and no pocket of air should

appear under either lip.

The approximate length of the reed

placed in the mouth will depend on the reed used.

The player

is advised to experiment until he can find the exact point of pressure on the reed which will produce the clearest and purest tones. 17 Method VI.

The following preliminary exercise is to

be practiced with the reed only: Embouchure. Draw the corners of the lips into a smiling position. With the lips in this position draw them slightly inward so that they cover the teeth. Place from one-eighth to one-quarter inch of the reed in the mouth, resting it on the lower lip. Both lips are then closed firmly around the reed so that no air can escape. Avoid holding the lips too rigid or pressing too hard against the reed. Keep the lips flexible at all times. . . . The exact placement of the reed between the lips vary depending upon the formation of the lips and teeth of the player. Experiment with various positions until you find the one which is most natural and with which you can best control the tone. Tone production. Good tone depends upon maintaining an even flow of breath and upon proper control of the vibration of the reed. Attack. . . . Place.the tip of the tongue against the tip of the reed. Draw the tongue downward and back 17 Hoy Miller, Oboe and English Horn Fingering Chart for the Smith-Yoder-Bachman Ensemble Band Method (Chicagot Neil A. Kjos Music Company, 1939)•

87

quickly as if pronouncing the syllable ’’tee,” at the same time releasing the breath into the reed. Sustaining the .tone. . . . Too much pressure of the lower lip against the reed will interfere with the free vibration of the reed and thus prevent the production of a good tone. Release. The tone is released by stopping the flow of the breath into the reed. This is accomplished by controlling the action of the diaphragm and lungs rather than by any movement of the tongue or throat. Avoid the common fault of releasing the tone by striking the reed with the tongue.IQ Method VII.

After the reed has been soaked, go to a

mirror and place the reed in the mouth by leaving the lips in their natural position,, and then place the reed In. the center of the lower lip.

Then push the reed Into the mouth, carrying

the lower lip with it, over the lower teeth.

Draw the upper

lip in over the upper teeth; hold the reed very lightly instead of stretched. not pinch it.

The lips must draw around the reed and

The reed pries slightly against the upper lip,

while the lower lip is used as a support.

1Q

In addition to the preceding methods, Rathbun states: . . . The lips must fold in enough to slightly cover the teeth and then be pulled up at the sides to keep them taut. This gives two firm surfaces between which the reed will lie, and the tautness across the front of the teeth will prevent the entrance of any air between 18 William D. Revelli, Victor L. F. Eebmann, and Charles B. Righter, The World of Music Band Course Oboe Book (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1939J, pp. 2-3. 19 E. C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Oboe Book (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), pp. 7-8.

88

the lips and gums which would disturb the delicate control of the r e e d . 20 In regard to tonguing, Russell 21 states as follows: The tip of the tongue or the under side of the tip of the tongue must touch the tip of the reed. If the flat or upper side of the tongue is used, the reed con­ stantly has water in it due to the scraping action of the tongue across it. After a double reed is soaked properly, it is a good plan to try out the reed before putting it on the instrument. If the result of blowing is a high pitched "mew," too stiff and must be lightened.

the reed is

For this the player must

have a sharp knife, plaque, and other equipment.

When playing

a new reed, saliva accumulates on the inside of the reed and stiffens it.

A reed maker cannot possibly allow for this in

the making of a reed.

With experience the player will develop

an ear for the proper "crow" of a good reed. Breath control. take breath too often.

PP

The tendency with oboe players is to Owing to the smallness of the opening

of the small end of the reed, so little breath Is required that the production of tone results In the accumulation of excess air. 20 Loyd R. Rathbun, "The Oboe Manual," (unpublished Master’s thesis, the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1942), pp. 55-56. 21 Myron C. Russell, "On Playing the Oboe," The Etude, 63:560, October, 1945. 22 Jack Spratt, "The Double Reed Classroom," The Etude, 17:37, March, 1946.

89

The amount of lip pressure upon the reed should be only enough to control and not to the extent of biting or pinching, for biting or pinching kills the very thing the player is trying to keep alive--the vibration of the reed. The vibrations of a reed may be compared to the ringing of a bells • • • ring a bell then take hold of it with the hand and see how quickly it stops ringing; or take hold of a bell and try to make it ring while you are holding it. It is exactly the same effect to pinch or bite a reed and expect it to sound with resonance.23 BASSOON Selection of bassoon player.

Bassoon players need

fairly large hands and fingers to reach the finger holes. Students should be started in the seventh or eighth grade. It is not wise to take chances on a student who has not had previous musical experience.

Pianists generally prove most

successful in mastering the bassoon. Interest can be aroused for oboe and bassoon by some special attention to students playing them such as inter­ views in the school paper, and small ensembles where they get a chance to be heard as well as seen.

In all probability,

due to the cost, the student will not purchase an instrument of his own after leaving school, but he likes to feel that he 23 Bob Organ, "The Double Reed Classroom," The School Musician, 19i28, January, 1948.

90

is playing something special and just a little harder than the average player.

There is a demand for university oboe

and bassoon players and scholarships can often be obtained on these instruments where otherwise it might not be available.

24

Heckel system bassoon.

Bassoons are made with the

French or Conservatory system of fingering.

However, the

Heckel system is much to be preferred because of its dura­ bility, ease of playing, and almost universal use in America. Both systems are made in several styles, some having more keys than others. Tone production.

Different viewpoints concerning the

technique of tone production for the bassoon in the seven methods are stated, in part, as followsr Method JI.

Good playing posture, with the instrument

the right distance from the body, must be regulated so that the reed is at about right angles to the teeth.

The lips

should be pulled firmly over the teeth in a smiling position. To avoid pressure on the reed, retract the lower jaw slightly. Place the reed in the mouth about one inch.

A tone is started

with the tip of the tongue gently drawn from the tip of the

24 Jack Spratt, ,fThe Double Reed Classroom,” The School Musician, 18r23, March, 1947.

91 pci

reed as if saying ”dah.fl Method II,

The "Belwin Elementary Band Method”

contains no information for tone production in teaching the different instruments. Method III.

For tone production, draw the upper and

lower lips inward to cover the teeth well; place the reed in the mouth until the first wire winding almost touches the upper lip.

Tongue with the tip of the tongue to the tip of

the reed and keep the head erect.

A flat tone is often

caused by failure to place the reed in the mouth far enough. A reed that is too soft or deadened from long use will also cause flatting of pitch. 26 Method IV.

Roll both lips over the teeth and into the

mouth as far as possible without tightness.

Let the lower

jaw go back until the upper lip extends beyond the lower. Insert the reed far into the mouth, with the upper lip almost touching the wire loop near the base of the reed.

Close the

lips lightly around the reed, and blow easily through the reed and into the instrument.

The lips should not exert

pressure on the reed. P7 25 Joseph E. Skornicka and Joseph Bergeim, The Boosey and Hawkes Band Method Bassoon Book (New Yorkr Boosey and Hawkes, 1947), p. 4. 26 Maurice D. Taylor, oj). cit., p. 14.

27 Mark Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Bassoon Book (Cleveland: Sam Fox Publishing Company, 1940), p. 6.

92

Method V.

The "Ensemble Band Method" bassoon general

instructions for tone production are the same as previously described for oboe. Method VI,

The "World of Music Band Course" bassoon

general instructions for embouchure, tone production, attack, sustaining the tone, and release are the same as previously described for oboe. Method VII.

It is very important that the first

blowing be done with just the reed, and by all means before a mirror, in order that any bad habits may be avoided.

The

lower lip is drawn in over the lower teeth and the upper lip Is pulled in covering the upper teeth.

The lips in this

position are then closed by drawing them in around the reed. The reed pries across the upper lip and against the lower lip.

The reed must not lay flat but must be held at a slight

angle to the line of the lips. is placed on the lower lip.

The stiffest side of the reed

Do not pinch with the jaw.

Take

a breath through the corners of the mouth; touch tip of reed lightly with the tip of the tongue; drop the tongue as in saying "too," and blow through the reed.

Keep practicing

until the reed "crow" can be sustained for some time and then place the reed on the mouth pipe and practice.

Do not shift

the lips when tired, just rest them. 28 28 E. C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Bassoon Book (New Yorkr Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), pp. 7-8.

93

Bassoon stand.

One of the hardest obstacles for the

beginning bassoonist to overcome is to hold the instrument in a relaxed position.

A stand designed by Rahn

OQ

holds the

bassoon in playing position so that fingers and body are more relaxed; it may be adjusted to any angle or elevation to suit the individual performer.

The stand will hold the instrument

in upright position when not being used so that collected moisture does not run into the pads and rot them, as happens when the instrument is laid down. Breath control.

The tendency to take too much air

into the lungs may be overcome by taking less breath at more frequent intervals.

This allows the body to be more relaxed

and at the same time a fresh supply of air is in the lungs as in normal breathing.

The player should sit up straight

and inhale (through the nose and corners of the mouth), and exhale (into the reed) in the same manner as when lying down 4« 30 resting. Embouchure.

With reference to the position and control of the mouth in producing a tone, Rahn 31 states: 29 John Rahn, "The Beginning Bassoonist," (unpublished Master’s thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1946), pp. 8-9. 30 Ibid., p. 17. 31 Ibid.. pp. 17-18.

94

Place the reed in the center of the mouth (if the formation of the teeth will permit) and pucker the lips as in saying "UU (as in you). The reed extends into the mouth about seven eighths of an inch* The reed should be thought of as a focal point* Prom all sides the lips exert equal pressure on this focal point. Imagine that you are trying to yawn and at the same time trying to take a bite out of an apple with the lips, not the teeth* This makes a larger resonating cavity, gives the tongue more freedom and assures that the position is relaxed. The jaw muscles in eating are not used to any extent in forming the embouchure. Be careful that the tongue is not used to bolster up the lip. By using a soft reed which is easily set in vibration, the danger of using the tongue incorrectly or biting and closing the reed is lessened. The tongue should be relaxed and free to strike the reed. Bassoon tone.

Some notes are more difficult for the

student to cover, but for a solid foundation it is essential for the student to produce a round and covered tone.

For

bassoon the lips should be almost to the first wire.

When

the student who plays with too little reed ascends to the upper notes, he tries to force them by pinching more and blowing harder. sharp tone•32

Both of these practices produce a thin and

Bassoon reed.

If the reed plays too hard, a little

wood may be scraped from the tip and sides, but not so much, if any, from the center of the reed, as heavier wood is necessary here to act as a backbone. important in all woodwind reeds.

This backbone is most

When held to the light this

32 Jack Spratt, ”The Double Reed Classroom,” The School Musician. 18r33, January, 1947.

is easily seen in bassoon reeds but does not show so plainly in the oboe reed*

This feature,should also be in clarinet

and saxophone reeds, for if the heart is cut away, a thin nasal tone is produced, and the reed soon wears out.

A little

experimenting with the wire adjustment will show the student how important these wires are to the proper adjustment of the reed.

Handmade reeds are apt to be heavier on one blade than

the other, so it is necessary to find which side plays best on top.

These reeds should be marked so they are placed on

the mouth pipe with the same side up each time.

The well

made bassoon reed will have a decided heart running clear to the tip, thin edges, even sides, a smooth finish both inside and outside, and an opening of about one sixteenth inch at the tip.3^ CLARINETS Eb clarinet.

Four of the seven full band class methods

provide a separate Eb clarinet book.

Although the r,Boosey

and Hawkes Method” has no separate book, the Eb clarinet player could use the Eb alto clarinet book.

The ”Belwin

Elementary Band Method” Eb alto clarinet book is also designed for the small Eb clarinet.

The ”Mark Hindsley Band Method”

has one clarinet text written for the Bb instrument.

The

33 Leo Ruckle, ”How to Baby those Delicate Doubles into Ripe Old Age," The School Musician, 18:18, November, 1946.

96

author points out, ”after a foundation has been secured, Bb clarinet players may be transferred to alto, bass, and Eb clarinet . The standard instrumentation for symphonic band established by the National School Band Association in its official manual suggests for class A schools with seventyfive or more players two Eb clarinets, but two Eb clarinets may be replaced by two additional C or Eb flutes, or one Eb clarinet and one or more C or Eb flutes*

For class B and G

bands one Eb clarinet is suggested, but may be replaced by an Eb flute or an additional C flute A questionnaire by Travelstead 36 in 1947 shows that the majority of directors who have more than fifty members in their band advocate publication of Eb clarinet parts, whereas directors who have less than fifty members do not advocate publication of parts. Forsyth 37 characterizes the distinctive tone quality of the Eb clarinet as, ”preternaturally hard and biting. ! The winning feminine charm of the larger instrument is quite 34 Mark Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Score and Manual (Clevelands Sam Fox Publishing Company, 194071 pT 5. 35 School Music Competition-Festivals Manual (Chicago: Music Educators National Conference! 1941), p. 22. 36 Chester C. Travelstead, ”600 Directors Canft be WrongJ” The Instrumentalist, 2:5, November-December, 1947. 37 Cecil Forsyth, Orchestration (New York: The Mac­ millan Company, 1942), p. 279.

97

wanting, and in its place we have an incisive tone-color that has much the same relation to the ”Bb” as the piccolo has to the flute.”

Another writer is of the opinion that the Eb

clarinet should be treated as an occasional voice rather than one that is to be employed constantly in conjunction with the Bb clarinets.

Arrangers have treated the instrument as though

it belonged to

the flute family and have written for it in octaves with the Bb clarinet--a most pernicious practice. 38 This small clarinet is fine for starting a child whose hands are too small for the regular Bb instrument and later the child can transfer to the larger instrument. Bb clarinet. Bb.

The Boehm

The

clarinet in most common use is the

system is more m o d e m than, and is conceded to

have a fingering system much superior to the Albert, and is used almost exclusively in American school bands. several Boehm models.

There are

Most players use the ”plain Boehm,”

called ”seventeen-six” because there are seventeen keys and six rings for the fingers to operate.

On this model there is

no ring over the third open hole from the top of the instru­ ment.

It is the.simplest model with the fewest keys to

require adjustment and repadding.

There are several other

models, the most complete being the ”full Boehm” with twenty keys and seven rings. 38 Victor J. Grabel, 56*17, January, 1938.

f,The Clarinet Choir,” The Etude,

98

Tone production*

Different viewpoints concerning the

technique of tone production for the clarinets in the seven methods are stated, in part, as follows! Method _I.

Draw the lower lip slightly over the lower

teeth; permit the reed to rest on the rim of the lower lip and rest the upper teeth gently on the mouthpiece about one half inch from the tip.

The corners of the mouth should be

compressed sufficiently to keep the instrument from moving unduly, while the throat must be open as if pronouncing the vowel ”0.”

The^ tone is started by the tongue.

When forming

the embouchure, the tip of the tongue should touch the reed lightly, about one eighth of an inch below its thin tip.

By

suddenly withdrawing the tip of the tongue from the reed, in a manner similar to spitting a small piece of thread off the tip of the tongue, the tone will start with a firm and defi­ nite attack.

The lighter the touch of the tongue and the

less distance that it moves away from the reed, the better the tonguing results. Only the tip of the tongue should move. 39 Method II.

The ,fBelwin Elementary Band Method” does

not include information for tone production on the various instruments.

Joseph E. Skornicka and Joseph Bergeim, The Boosey and Hawkes Band Method Bb Clarinet Book (New Yorks Boosey and Hawkes, 1947), p. 4.

99

Method III*

To produce a tone on the clarinet, draw

the lower lip slightly over the lower teeth; place the clarinet in the mouth so that the reed rests on the lower lip and the upper teeth rest on the mouthpiece.

About one third

of the slanting part of the mouthpiece should be placed in the mouth.

To tongue whisper the syllable ^too.1' If the

mouthpiece is in the mouth too far, a coarse tone and a ten­ dency to squeak will result; if it is not in far enough, the tone will be very thin or may not sound at all.

Do not pull

the lower lip over the lower teeth more than is necessary to cover them.

Both lips must be held back against the teeth in

order to avoid an air pocket between the lips and the teeth. When the embouchure is correctly formed, the upper register is played with the same lip pressure as the middle register; beginners who have trouble finding the high tones or playing them up to pitch may be holding the bell of the clarinet too high, or may not have the lower jaw far enough ^ j 40 forward. Method IV.

To produce a tone, roll the lower lips

slightly over the teeth; pull the corners' of the mouth back and the flesh of the chin down until the lower lip is firm; insert the tip of the mouthpiece in the mouth against the upper teeth; close the lips lightly around the mouthpiece, 40 Maurice D. Taylor, o£. cit., pp. 14-15.

100

without disturbing the firmness of the lower lip, which must not press too tightly against the reed. 41 Method V.

For tone production, place the mouthpiece

about three sixteenths to one half inch in the mouth; this distance will depend somewhat on the lay of the mouthpiece. The upper teeth rest on top of the mouthpiece.

Fold a portion

of the red part of the lower lip over the lower teeth, thereby forming a cushion for the reed.

Draw the lips back as in

smiling so that the upper lip is pulled slightly down to avoid squeezing the reed, for the freedom and correct vibra­ tion of the reed for every note is most essential.

The reed

must vibrate freely in order to secure a clear, resonant tone. Breathe deeply and release the air by withdrawing the tongue from the tip of the mouthpiece. trolled by the abdominal muscles. control a steady stream of air. instrument.

The breath should be con­ Learn to produce and Do not "puff11 into the

Think of the tongue as a valve which releases

the air column entering the mouthpiece.

The tongue should be

withdrawn when making an attack and this should be done without disturbing the vibration of the reed. 42

41 Mark Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Bb Clarinet Book (Clevelands Sam Fox Publishing Company, 1940), p. 6 . 42 Claude Smith, Paul Yoder, and Harold Bachman, Roy Miller Bb Clarinet Chart for Ensemble Band Method (Chicago: Neil A* Kjos Music Company, 1939).

101

Method V I s

Embouchure.

For embouchure development

the student is urged to practice the following preliminary exercise with mouthpiece and reed only: Draw the corners of the lips into a smiling position* With the lips in this position, draw the lower lip slightly over the lower teeth. Place about one-half inch of the mouthpiece between the lips with the reed resting against the lower lip and the upper teeth resting upon the mouthpiece. The upper lip is drawn until it rests against the mouthpiece, and both lips are then drawn back and closed firmly around the mouth­ piece so that no air can escape. • • • The exact placement of the mouthpiece between the lips will vary depending upon the formation of the lips and teeth of the player. Experiment with various positions until you find the one which is most natural and with which you can best control the tone. Attack. With the mouthpiece in the position described inhale deeply, observing the correct method of breathing. Place the tip of the tongue against the tip of the reed. Draw the tongue downward and back quickly as if pro­ nouncing the syllable ”tee,n at the same time releasing the breath into the mouthpiece. Sustaining the tone. Sustain the tone as long as possible without undue strain. Maintain an even volume of tone by means of steady breath pressure. Control the quality of the tone by observing the correct position of the lips. Too much pressure of the lower lip against the reed will interfere with the free vibration of the reed and thus prevent the production of a good- tone. Release♦ The tone is released by stopping the flow of breath into the mouthpiece. This is accomplished by controlling the action of the diaphragm and lungs rather than by any movement of the tongue or throat. Avoid the common fault of releasing the tone by striking the reed with the t o n g u e . 45

45 William P. Revelli, Victor L. F. Rebmann, and Charles B. Righter, The World of Music Band Course Bb Clarinet Book (Bostons Ginn and Company, 1939), pp. 2-3.

102

The student is urged to practice the preceding steps with the mouthpiece only, until he has acquired the correct habit of attacking, sustaining, and releasing the tone. Method VII,

It Is suggested that the student practice

with the mouthpiece and reed at first before a mirror. upper teeth rest lightly on the mouthpiece# lip in slightly over the lower teeth.

The

Draw the lower

Then draw the lips

around the mouthpiece so that no air can leak out.

Place the

tip of the tongue against the tip of the reed; let the tip of the tongue drop quickly, and blow through the mouthpiece to produce the tone.

This is called tonguing the reed, and is

always done in starting a tone.

The cheeks must not puff out,

and the air must go directly from the throat into the instru­ ment.

By blowing only with the mouthpiece, the tone can be

altered up and down.

Play softly at all times, and start the

tone with the tongue.

Think of the syllable "too" when starting, never nhoo.H44 Position of hands and fingers.

The position of the

hands and fingers are very important in clarinet playing. The hands are slanted downward to make the side keys easily accessible without change of hand position#

The thumb should

be placed on the thumb ledge touching the nail.

Beginners

44 c . Moore, The Moore Band Course Bb Clarinet Book (Kew Yorkr Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), pp# 8-9.

103

are likely to place the thumb too far under the clarinet in order to relieve the strain of supporting the weight of the instrument.

The ball of the fingers, not the tip, should

snap lightly on the tone holes, with the fingers slightly curved and relaxed.

When not being used, the fingers should

be directly above the holes.

When playing the f,A ri key the

forefinger is rolled upward, not lifted and placed on the key. The same holds true for the thumb when playing the register key.

Whether or not the keys are being pressed, the index

finger of the left hand should be over the first tone hole and touching the MA tf and !,G#M keys.

The instrument is held

while playing at about thirty or forty degrees from the perpendicular. 45 The mouthpiece. part of the clarinet.

The mouthpiece is the most important It is preferable to have a good mouth­

piece and an inferior instrument than the contrary.

The lay

of the mouthpiece is the curve of the table upon which the reed vibrates.

The curve of the mouthpiece starts about five-

eighths inch from the tip and provides room for the reed to vibrate.

Generally, a standard make mouthpiece with a medium

French lay is preferred.

Some players like the curve shorter

and more open at the tip, but few like a tip opening greater than one millimeter; the majority prefer less.

It is essential

45 Gustave Langenus, Complete Method for the Boehm Clarinet (New Yorks Carl Fischer, Inc., 1923TT P*

104

that the curve of the two sides of the lay be identical* Willaman states: . . . If one side is a little lower all the way along, the mouthpiece will blow hard and sound fuzzy because the reed will not only vibrate back and forth but it will also have to twist a little to meet the lower side. Since this happens several hundred times per second, the importance of a straight lay is easily understandable. • •

*

46

Hard rubber mouthpieces are almost in universal use today.

However, its principal hazard is heat.

If a mouth­

piece is exposed to a hot radiator or excessive heat of the sun, in a short time the facing may be warped beyond usage. One writer is of the opinion that if mouthpieces which are in the hands of our school players could be measured, it would be safe to say that 40 per cent of them would show evidence of some warping.

The facing of the mouthpiece can be altered

so that it meets the needs of the player. Many players prefer and use the glass type of mouth­ piece.

Its disadvantages are that it is easily broken and

saliva collects on the inside.

Therefore, for the beginner,

the hard rod rubber or the ebonite are preferred. The reed.

No two reeds are exactly alike.

is too new, the cane will have a green tinge.

If a reed

It is helpful

in selecting a reed to look for smooth, straight grained reeds, free from rough porous fibres, of a golden color rather 46 Robert Willaman, The Clarinet and Clarinet Flaying (New York: Robert Willaman, 1949), pp. 26-27.

105

than with prominent dark- streaks.

The strength markings on

reeds range from one to five or six*

The two, two and one

half, and.three are best for the average player*

The reed

must be soft enough to blow without too great a pressure* For the beginner, it is a good plan for the teacher to pick the proper reeds*

This will require time in selecting and

scraping or clipping reeds so they will blow with a free and easy tone, but the results will be finer work and more interest on the part of the students.

Although the real test

of a reed is in the playing, one way to judge the flexibility of a new reed is by the spring at the tip as it is pressed against the finger*

By buying reeds slightly on the soft

side, it is often possible to clip the extreme tip and arrive at the desired strength*

Some prefer the technique of

clipping a reed slightly to the more precarious method'of shaving a stiff reed. A test for a new reed is to dip the reed in clear water.

This will not work on a reed that has been played, as

the pores will be filled with dirt.

Place the base of the

reed in the mouth, seal the lips firmly around the reed and attempt to blow through the reed.

If air bubbles appear all

over the lay of the reed, the cane is likely to be too soft and porous.

In playing, this type of reed may be fine at

first, but soon becomes water-soaked.

The same reed with

many playings might become a fair reed after the pores become

106

filled so that the reed does not soak up so much water. Select a reed through which only a small amount of air can be blown, for the reed through which no air can be blown is likely to be too stiff or have a reedy tone quality. 47 To soften a reed: 1. Place the reed (wet) on 7-0 ”Wet or Dry” sand­ paper, the flat side down. Work back and forth lightly with the first three fingers of the hand. 2. The tip may be thinned by holding the reed at a very low angle (cut side next to sandpaper), working it lightly as if sharpening a chisel with a very long bevel. 3. Place the reed on a piece of glass and thin with a sharp knife where needed, or, using 7-0 sandpaper sand down grain using plenty of water. The reed must have a dark center of backbone, never removing it if you wish to have a clear tone, a reed that will speak, and one that will last for a reasonable length of time.48 To stiffen a reed: 1. Use a commercial reed trimmer, trimming only the width of a fine pencil line at each cut. One can always remove more, but one cannot add once it is removed. 2. A fair substitute for a trimmer is a pair of scissors. 3. Razor blades may be used for trimming quite successfully, cut against a close grained piece of hardwood. 4. I do not favor burning off the tip, as I have known many players to do.49

47 Myron E. Russell, ”The Clarinet, The Mouthpiece and Its Facings,” The Etude, 63:682, December, 1945. 48 Loc. cit. 49 Loc. cit.

107

Use of the tongue.

The function of the tongue is to

act as a valve to start and stop the air, or in other words, to cut off the tone into portions of any desired length.

The

jaw is not moved as in a chewing motion, for this would change the pitch and quality of the tone. for starting tonguing practice.

The note E is excellent

This note blows easily with

a minimum of resistance, and fingering it provides a good grip on the instrument. 50 The importance of the tongue in the playing of any wind instrument is stated, by RIghter 51 as follows: . . . In the case of the reeds, its task is to close the opening between the reed and the mouthpiece in preparation for the actual start of the tone. The release of the tongue permits the breath to flow-through the instrument, causing the reed to vibrate. The tongue does not, however, stop thevibration of the reed by a similar action. The player should stop the flow of breath by diaphragmatic control— not by means of the tongue or the throat muscles. Hence the discard of the old ritoot,f or ’ftutfl method of teaching the young and the substitution of the ,ftoo!| or flturt method. . . . At a clarinet clinic

for high school students at the

University of Missouri, it was found that, out of sixty players present, forty were using reeds that were too stiff. At least the sound produced was characteristic of a reed that was too stiff, and the result was an airy tone that lacked resonance.

In addition to the use of too stiff reeds, It was

50 Willaman, ££. cit., pp. 62-63. 51 Charles B. Eighter, Success in Teaching School Orchestras and Bands (Minneapoliss Paul A. Schmitt Music Company, 1945), pp. 107-8.

108

found by Van Bodegraven 52 that the majority of the players had poorly formed embouchures, as follows: • • • The first fault was in drawing too much of the lower lip over the teeth, thus permitting the reed to rest on a soggy portion of the lip, which resulted in a tone that lacked brilliance. Only a small part of the red portion of the lip should cover the teeth which, in cases of average-sized lips, will permit the teacher to see part of the red of the lip. Thus the muscles of the lip will be outside the mouth, where they can be used to help control the tone. The second fault was in playing with a wrinkled chin, which generally results in soggy lip muscles and creates a pillow for the reed to rest on, rather than a firm cushion. The chin should be smooth and active from the lip to the point of the chin. . . . In fact, "point the chin" is a good phrase to use. As the lip muscles be­ come stronger and the cushion firmer,- the tone will gain in brilliance. Because the action of the tongue tends to foster a soft lip cushion, the same author is of the opinion that good embouchure and tone quality are quickest realized during the beginning stages of playing by eliminating the use of the tongue in making all attacks.

The use of the tongue is taught

as soon as good embouchure and clear tone are established, for it is easier to teach the correct use of the tongue at this time than during the first lessons. 53 Finger technique.

Finger technique is chiefly a

matter of coverage of holes and keys.

A solution to the

52 Paul Van Bodegraven, "The Foundations of Clarinet • Tone Quality," The Etude, 66s415, July, 1948. 53 Ibid., p. 449.

109

problem is to have the player finger and cover the holes downward in the order of thumb, E, D, C, Bb, A, G-, F, and E; this should be done without blowing.

The ball of the fingers,

not the tip as in piano and violin playing, should be used to cover the holes.

In order to cover the holes air-tight, the

student may press the fingers for’a moment and examine the fleshy pads of the fingers; a complete circle from the tone hole rim will be visible if the seal is air-tight. Embouchure and register development.

The possession

of good teeth in the playing of the clarinet cannot be over­ emphasized.

If either of the upper center front teeth is

chapped or broken, the student is obviously handicapped.

The

lower teeth should not be too sharp, irregular, or broken. In so far as possible, the player must avoid biting in the embouchure grip.

The bite on both top and bottom will

tend to give a pinched tone, whereas a grip around the mouth­ piece will give a more flexible tone.

In regard to the equal-

ized horizontal and vertical pressure on the reed, Bone

RA

states: It Is true that a highly developed embouchure does exert a large amount of side pressure, as in a slight pucker, to allow the reed greater freedom of vibration with less up and down bite. But for the beginner, or for any student who has played less than five years, I believe it is wrong to attempt to use this advanced 54 Allan H. Bone, "The Clarinetists Column,” The School Musician, 19rl8, October, 1947.

110

embouchure. Let the student play several years, using the conception of the up and down control, before suggesting the rubber band approach. A sure check for firmness of embouchure, so necessary for playing in tune and for gaining a clear tone, is to try shaking

themouthpiece up and down while the pupil is playing

a tone.There schould

be no loose bumping against the teeth.

Instead, the mouthpiece will move the player*s head.

This

procedure teaches the student to gain a certain grip and firmness.

During the first lessons it is recommended that

the student exercise a steady lift with his right thumb wedging

themouthpiece more firmly between the lips and the

teeth.^ For tone production in the lower register more breath is used as the player goes into the ehalumeau register.

It

is on the three lowest notes that the largest amount of air will be used.

The throat tones G, G#, A, and Bb on the

treble staff are weak because a short part of the clarinet is used to produce them.

A poor mouthpiece shows up badly

on these notes more quickly than any other register.

A stiff

reed or one which responds poorly will give feeble results on these connecting tones.

However, a flexible reed, a good lay

on the mouthpiece, and an open throat will help fill the body of tone on these weak notes. George E. Wain, f,The Clarinetists Column,11 The School Musician, 15rl9, April, 1944.

Ill

After a student learns to produce a good tone in the lower register, that is, from low E to third line B, the student is ready to attempt the notes which employ the clarion register.

The following device may be used.

• • • have the student play a low C and then, without the studentfs knowledge of what is happening, the teacher will open the register hole and see if the tone jumps up to a G on top of the staff. An embouchure which produces a good tone in the low register should be able to pro­ duce any of the notes in the clarion register— up to C above the staff--without noticeable difficulty. . . In most of the full band class clarinet books, no mention is made of keeping the right hand fingers down in passing from the chalumeau to the clarion register.

Whenever

possible, the right hand fingers cover the holes, at all times, and the little finger of the left hand is kept on the B key when making both Bb and B natural.

Many clarinetists

hold the right hand finger down when playing second space A, Ab, and second line G.

However, some do not recommend it,

claiming that it makes the throat tones out of tune.

On the

clarinet S first line is generally flat; by pressing the G# key, the pitch may be raised.

Third line B is nearly always

flat and needs considerable humoring.

E, fourth space, is

usually flat and needs an alternate fingering. its relation to E, F is also flat. needs raising.

Because of

First A above the staff

The natural tendency for the clarinets is to

56 Allan H. Bone, ”The Clarinetists Column,” The School Musician, 19:27, October, 1947.

112

play flat in the higher register and sharp in the low register.

The Hbreakfl is the most vulnerable spot*

Of

course, intonation is a problem throughout the entire range and players must.hear accurately in order to humor the pitch whenever necessary.

Bb on the middle line is probably the

poorest tone on the entire instrument* solved the problem.

One manufacturer has

By a clever device the regular fingering

for Bb will now produce a clear and resonant tone. Eb alto clarinet.

The alto clarinet occupies a

position in the clarinet class comparable to the viola in the orchestra.

According to one authority, excellent instruments

are now being manufactured for both alto and bass clarinets which remedy past mechanical imperfections.

The covered tone-

hole alto and bass clarinets have been found satisfactory, and the open tone-hole models are decidedly obsolete. S7

Six

out of seven of the full band class methods provide an Eb alto clarinet book.

Since the fundamentals of embouchure,

articulation, and hand positions are the same for all clarinets, the usual procedure is to select a player who has had previous experience on the Bb soprano instrument. When a student changes from Bb soprano clarinet to Eb alto, certain characteristics and teaching procedures of the alto clarinet should be noted, as follows: 57 William H. Stubbins, 66r669, November, 1948.

(1) Its sonority,

"The Alto Clarinet," The Etude,

note for note, is greater than that of any other of the clarinet class; (2) When compared to the same pitches as reproduced on the soprano clarinet, the upper clarion and harmonic registers of the alto clarinet lack the brilliance of the soprano; (3) The chalumeau register, when compared with the same pitches produced on the bass clarinet, lacks the same depth as the bass; (4) The entire range of the alto clarinet possesses an evenness and balance, whereas other members of the clarinet class are subject to more change in tone color between the registers; (5) The alto is a perfect catalyst for the blend of tone in the clarinet section;

Gj Q

(6) In playing the alto clarinet, the throat must be quite open at all times; (7) The corners of the mouth should be pushed in slightly, a dip made in the lip muscles, and the chin pointed; (8) The top of the mouthpiece should be kept firmly pushed against the upper teeth; (9) The player should be certain he is holding the clarinet in a position that he will be blowing directly into the mouthpiece and not against the back of the reed;

(10) Due to a larger air column, more

breath is required; (11) Because of a larger mouthpiece and reed, a slightly longer Tlbitefl is necessary for alto clarinet (12) For articulation, the tip (or about one quarter of the 58 Ibid., p. 709• 59 Clarence E. Sawhill, flThe Problem of the Alto Clarinet,” The Instrumentalist, 2*8-9, March-April, 1948.

114

end) of the tongue will strike the tip (about one quarter inch from the end) of the reed, and the tongue will strike the reed from underneath, or from straight behind, and not from above the reed; (13) For embouchure formation, a more pronounced r!0000” formation of the oral cavity may be illustrated by the mouth position when a long, low whistle is being formed by the lips; (14) The covered tone holes eliminate stretches, but larger keys must be manipulated. 60 On certain alto and bass clarinets a plateau key, similar to that found on the oboe, is used by the forefinger of left hand; a small speaker aperture has been drilled in the finger plate and this aperture is opened by a sliding motion of the forefinger when the harmonic register is desired. When playing any note above C above the staff, the left fore­ finger must open only the small aperture, and not the entire tone hole.

The aperture for this purpose must be in the first

tone-hole key, or there will be literally no fingerings for any note above C above the staff*

The Eb key should be on

all alto and bass clarinets, not because of the fact there are many low Eb*s to play, but because the addition of this key in the construction of the clarinet permits an added resonance of B natural third line. 61

60 Stubbins, o£. cit., p. 741, 61 Ibid., p. 776.

115

The old style Eb alto and the Bb bass clarinets were fitted with the double octave or speaker keys.

The Eb alto

clarinet fitted with the double octave keys generally uses the short key for all fingerings from B, third line, to Ab above the staff, inclusive, and the long octave key for all notes above Ab, first ledger line above the staff. Bb bass clarinet* When compared to the Bb soprano clarinet, the problems of the bass clarinet are somewhat similar to those discussed under the alto clarinet, but due to the size of the bass, the problems of embouchure, finger technique and so forth must be on a larger relative scale than the Bb soprano. popularity.

The bass clarinet is rapidly gaining in

Players usually change over on it after becoming

proficient on the Bb soprano.

The place of the bass clarinet

in band parallels that of the violincello in the string family.

The part is written in the treble clef and sounds a

major ninth below the written notes. It is interesting to note as explained by Forsyth 62 that the Germans wrote for the instrument in the bass clef and the French in the treble clef. Although the French custom of writing for the instrument is usually used today, Stubbins 63 is of the opinion that the bass 62 Forsyth,

ojd

.

cit., pp. 272-74.

53 William H. Stubbins, "Never Underestimate the Bass Clarinet,M The Etude, 68:22, February, 1950.

116

clarinet should rightfully be written for and read in the bass clef, as it sounds.

The same writer also points out two

exceptions in fingering peculiar to the bass clarinet, as follows: • • • The first is that the first tone hole of the instrument is equipped with an articulation key-plate somewhat similar to the plateau key for the first tone hole of the oboe. The purpose of this mechanical arrange­ ment is to permit a small aperture drilled in one-half of this key plate to be opened by a sliding motion of the left forefinger without allowing the entire tone hole to become uncovered. This small aperture is used to permit the easy response of the harmonic register (high C and above)• Without this key arrangement, literally no fingerings, except the normal harmonic resultants, are possible. The second exception in fingering is the double register key which is quite often found on older bass clarinets. When this key arrangement is used, the usual straight register key is used for the first over-blown notes of the Clarion register (B, C, and C# on the staff), and the second register key is used for all notes above these. Due to peculiarities of each individual instrument it will be found that the second register will sometimes work best when used on D natural, sometimes on P#, and sometimes on E natural, as the first note in its series# Experimentation will provide the answer for this.6^ Due to the curved position of the mouthpipe, the bass clarinet mouthpiece meets the embouchure of the player at more of an angle than for the soprano or alto clarinet.

Therefore,

the player must hold the instrument in front of the body, at an angle which permits the bell of the instrument to fall easily and naturally toward the body of the player.

It is

incorrect to hold either the alto or bass clarinet on the 64 ibid.. p. 64

117

side, as in playing the saxophone*

These instruments must

be held directly in front of the body* SAXOPHOHES The saxophone, the most recent addition of the wood­ wind family, was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a Belgian instrument maker living in Paris*

The saxophones provide a

group of instruments midway in tonal strength between the weaker sounds of the reeds and the stronger sounds of the brass*

With their strange sweetness of tone and variety of

effects, they serve the useful purpose of blending the reeds and brass choir together*

For organ effects and sustained

chords, the saxophones are excellent either playing as an independent choir or in combination with other instruments* School bands usually include at' least two Eb altos, one Bb tenor, and one Eb baritone.

The Bb soprano and the Bb bass

are sometimes included in the instrumentation of large bands* The famous Garde Republicaine Bande of France, one of the world’s finest concert bands, has for years included in its instrumentation a saxophone group*

Because the tones of.

the scale and fingerings are not as difficult as the other woodwinds, it has been considered as an easy instrument* However, the problems of tone production, intonation, ton© quality, and technique are just as difficult as they are upon most of the other woodwinds*

Though slightly inferior to the

118

clarinet in compass, quality and articulation, the saxophone is of great value as an addition to the band.

Regardless of

the prejudice and criticism heaped upon the instrument mostly because of its association with jazz, the saxophone in the hands of a good performer is capable of many beautiful effects• Tone production.

With the exception of the pictorial

illustrations, the saxophone instructions for tone production of four of the seven full band class methods are the same as those given for Bb clarinet*

In the "Easy Steps to the Band

Conductor’s Score and Manual," remarks applying distinctively to the saxophone are as follows: The strap supporting the instrument should be ad­ justed so that the mouthpiece fits the mouth without requiring the head to be lowered. Correct embouchure demands that the head be very erect. Since low tones are somewhat troublesome to the beginner, have the pupil reduce the pressure on the reed by lowering the jaw. Sometimes he will have the impression that the lip is being drawn almost entirely away from the reed. The instrument must be in good condition to produce the low tones easily; they do not *respond readily on some of the older saxophones even if in good condition.66 The "Moore Band Course" contains about two pages of instructions for saxophone players, a few of which follow: Place the mouthpiece with the reed in the center of the lips. 65 William D. Revelli, "The Saxophone— Its Uses and Abuses," The Etude. 57:163, March, 1939. 66 Maurice D. Taylor, 0£. cit., p. 15.

119

Then push the mouthpiece into the mouth, carrying the under­ lip in against the teeth*

Rest the upper teeth very lightly

on the mouthpiece, draw the lips around the mouthpiece like a rubber band, place the tip of the tongue on the tip of the reed and blow*

Do not puff out the cheeks*

with the tongue.

"g o *1’

Start each tone

Think of the syllable "too" with a round

The throat plays an important part in tone control,

and a round "oo" will tend' to open the throat and improve the tone.67 Bb soprano saxophone.

Most bands do not use the

soprano saxophone even though a good make of modern instru-v ment in the hands of a capable performer is very effective.

go

"The neglect of the soprano saxophone," according to the opinion of Grainger 69 "is an extraordinary example of musical shortsightedness, for what is any family of instruments with­ out its soprano?"

The same writer states:

• • • There are differences of opinion concerning the tonal quality of the soprano saxophone. Personally, I consider it the most beautiful and characteristic voice of the entire saxophone family* It has a rich bucolic timbre that enables it to take, in the band, a place similar to that occupied by the oboe in the orchestra* 67 E* C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Eb Alto Saxophone Book (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), pp. 7-8* 68 William J. Skeat, Harry F. Clarke, and Russell V* Morgan, The Fundamentals of Band Arranging (Cleveland: Sam Fox Publishing Company, 193817 P* 23. 69 Percy A. Grainger, "The Saxophonefs Business in the Band," The Instrumentalist, 4:6-7, September-October, 1949.

120

Eb alto saxophone.

Many bands use two alto saxophones

playing the soprano and alto parts, and the majority of arrangements include two parts scored in this manner. 70

The

Eb alto is an excellent solo instrument and is the most useful of the saxophone family. Bb tenor saxophone.

The Bb tenor saxophone is es­

sential to any ensemble of saxophones.

While it lacks some

of the brightness of the higher pitched saxophones, it has a depth and fullness of tone which makes it an excellent solo ins trument. Eb baritone saxophone.

The Eb baritone saxophone has

plenty of power and can be used effectively as a substitute for the bass clarinet and the bassoon.

In discussing the

importance of the baritone saxophone as an integral part of the instrumentation for small or minimum bands, Chidester 71 points out: . . . It can provide a strong bass to the woodwind section and blend nicely if well played. As a matter of fact it has a half-tone lower range than the bass clarinet. Too many directors have been prone to transfer alto sax players to baritone and expect immediate results. Good tone and technique on the baritone sax take time and practice to develop, even with previous experience on the alto or tenor. If I had but two saxes I should prefer the tenor and baritone, to strengthen those voices in the woodwinds• 70 Grainger, loc. cit. 71 Lawrence W. Chidester, "Instrumentation for Small or Minimum Bands," The Instrumentalist, 2:13, JanuaryFebruary, 1948.

121

Bb bass saxophone.

The Bb bass saxophone is usedt

(1) To play the bass part in unison with the tubas; (2) To serve as bass for saxophone or woodwind passages in place of the tuba; and (3) To play bass melodies in unison with the tubas* 72 The Bb bass saxophone has a deep organ-like tone that furnishes an excellent foundation for band chords*

The

bass saxophone is not difficult to play, but is a very heavy instrument to handle, and requires a performer with a good sense of pitch to play in tune. Saxophone problems.

The saxophonist should not draw

the lower lip over the lower teeth.

The position of the

lower lip in playing the saxophone resembles the position of the lower lip while smoking a cigar.

The flohtf is used on

tones below G and rigidly adhered to on low C, B, and Bb. The student may use either !ttoo,f (two) or ,ftohff (toe) in the middle register, but above the staff he should use the syllable Htoo*n^ The most important element in good saxophone playing is, as in any other musical instrument, the development of tone quality*

The saxophone is different from the clarinet

in construction because its conical bore is more open and 72 Paul Yoder, Arranging Method for School Bands (New Yorkr Robbins Music Corporation, 1946), pp* 130-31* 73 w * M. Eby, The Saxophone Embouchure and Other Valuable Pointers (Buffalos W. M. Eby, 1925), p. 16.

122

therefore offers less resistance to the air column*

Due to

the lack of resistance in the air column, breath control is more essential than in instruments such as the oboe, and clarinet, which.set up a resistance and thus serve as an aid to breath pressure and control*

The clarinet style of

embouchure should not be used on the saxophone.

With the

clarinet embouchure, the lower teeth are used as a support for the lower lip, while on the saxophone the lower lip is supported by the corner muscles of the mouth.

The chin

muscles are drawn up and the corner mouth muscles drawn forward.

This may be done by the pronunciation of the

syllable fldufl or !fdoo.,f The syllable serves as an aid in drawing the corners of the mouth forward.

If the action is

ended by pronouncing the letter f,m H as in ’’du-m, ” the chin muscles and lower lip are properly drawn up.

The most

prevalent fault of saxophone embouchures is that of using the lips in a broad^ smiling position, and with too much lower lip over the teeth.

The tendency to bite with too much

pressure causes the tone to be thin, sharp, and inflexible. Relaxation of the embouchure muscles will aid in overcoming the common error of playing sharp, while correct breath support will prevent the tendency of flatting the pitch. Many players tongue the reed too heavily and too near the middle.

This habit results in an audible slapping of the

tongue against the reed.

It can be corrected by pronouncing

123

the syllable "du" with a soft and legato stroke of the tongue•74 SUMMARY In this chapter each of the seven methods was analyzed under the general topic of tone production*

Attention was

also given to the selection of players, mouthpieces, reeds, and other problems related to each instrument*

The instructor

must do his most careful teaching during the initial stages of tone production*

At this time habits are being formed not

only in regard to embouchure, tone, attack, release, and breath control, but also body posture, position of instrument, and position of hands and fingers on the instrument*

Tone

production is a rather difficult subject to explain to the beginner and in order to compensate for the physical features of individuals it is necessary to alter the details of ex­ planation.

The teacher should try to make his explanations

interesting and understandable.

The majority of methods

recommend that the first efforts of tone production be made with the mouthpiece in front of a mirror. photographs is helpful.

A careful study of

Audio-visual aids along with

recordings and demonstrations may be used to help the student develop the proper conception of good tone quality.

If the

74 William D. Revelli, "The Saxophone— Its Uses and Abuses," The Etude, 57rl63, 205, March, 1939.

124

pupil has trouble producing the type of tone desired, it is a good plan for the teacher to test the instrument for mechanical defects.

In order to avoid acquiring communicable

diseases the instructor should have an extra mouthpiece for all instruments.

CHAPTER VI THE BRASS INSTRUMENTS

Introduetion.

It is the purpose of this chapter to

analyze each brass instrument book of the seven methods under the general topic of tone production*

Attention will also be

given to the selection of players, mouthpieces, the practice of lip buzzing, and other problems related to the brass instruments* The brass instruments will be considered in. the following orders

(1) cornet and trumpet; (2) French horns,

alto, and mellophone; (3) trombones; (4) baritone and euphonium; and (5) tubas* CORNET AND TRUMPET Cornet and trumpet differences *

General information

in the seven band class methods applies to both cornet and trumpet.

The cornet and trumpet are similar in many ways,

but differ in quality of tone.

The cornet is slightly more

flexible to play than the trumpet and has a more mellow and broader tone.

However, when the cornet is played loudly, the

tone tends to loose its mellow quality and may become rough. The trumpet has a penetrating tone no matter how loudly it is played.

For school bands, the cornet should be used on

cornet parts, and the trumpet on trumpet parts.

Many players

126

players are able to produce qualities of tone that are characteristic of both instruments on either cornet or trumpet.

Present day demands of radio and movie music favor

the trumpet for an all around instrument. fessionals use cornet for their work.

Very few pro­

If a student has any

ambitions toward a professional career it would seem im­ practical to study cornet, for in all probability he will be required to play trumpet. Posture and breath control.

One of the first require­

ments of proper breathing is correct posture.

In a sitting

or standing position, the body is erect, and care must be taken to keep the chest up.

If the chin is held up, the

throat muscles are more relaxed.

A good position not only

looks well, but is less tiresome and the internal organs are not cramped.

When not playing the player may use the back of

the chair, but when playing he should lean forward free of the back of the chair, both to prevent the hampering of breathing and to reflect proper mental attitude and alertness. In attaining mastery of the breath, there must be correct breathing and adequate breath support with the dia­ phragm.

The diaphragm is a large dome-like layer of muscle

that separates the cavity of the chest from that of the abdomen. Since a large portion of the lung chamber is located directly above the diaphragm it follows naturally that if the full capacity of the lungs is to be utilized one must use the

127

diaphragm constantly.

The problem lies not so much in in­

haling as in exhaling, for it is in the expiration of the breath that the tone is produced.

When the player executes

notes of long duration either softly or loudly, he should allow the breath to escape into the instrument in a long, even, and continuous flow.

The use of the diaphragm and

proper breath support may be explained to a wind instrument player as followsr

Have the student fill the chest with air

so that the diaphragm muscles push against the chest.

Care

must be taken to make no noise with the intake of air through the corners of the mouth.

After the lungs are filled with

air, press the lips together, and exhale very slowly through the lips.

If the student will place his hands on the abdomen

with the thumbs around the waist line, he can feel the con­ traction of the diaphragm muscles. Normally, it is best to inhale through the corners of the mouth.

It is sometimes desirable to breathe through the

nose for extended passages in the upper register wherein in­ halation through the mouth may disturb the embouchure position to the extent that the attack which follows will be uncertain. Nasal Inhalation may also be suggested to avoid an extreme stretched position of the lips for the low register. Embouchure.

The jaws, teeth, lips, and associated

structures are used continuously in playing a wind instrument. Cheney and Hughes, in an experiment conducted at the University

128

of Michigan with one hundred musicians, found evidence to indicate that adjustment to embouchure, when dento-facial irregularities are present, is more difficult for those playing the small mouthpiece instruments than it is for those playing the large brass or woodwind instruments*

Significant

statements taken from the study are as follows: . • • examination revealed that embouchure diffi­ culties attain the greatest frequency among small brass instrumentalists with a retruded lower jaw* Among individuals with the protruded lower jaw, the diffi­ culties were fewer and distributed evenly among all types of players*1 . • • For brass players, the deeper the over-bite the greater the tendency for embouchure difficulties. Few woodwind players complained about over-bite* . . .2 • • • When orthodontic consultation and correction are not available it seems requisite that those who teach wind instrument playing pay attention to those undesirable dental relationships and their probable consequences in order to devise functional adjustments suited to embouchure. Certainly these irregularities should not go unrecognized There are thousands of different jaw, lip, and teeth formations and each one of these types represents different positions of the mouthpiece on the lips.

In the normal re­

lationship of the teeth, the upper front teeth overlap the 1 Edward A* Cheney and Byron 0. Hughes, "Dento-Facial Irregularity,” (Part I), The Etude, 64:379, July, 1946. ^ ______ , ”Dento-Facial Irregularity and Embouchure,” (Part II), The Etude, 64:440, August, 1946. 5 ______ , ”Dento-Facial Irregularity and Embouchure,” (Part III), The Etude, 64:500, September, 1946.

129

lowers by approximately one third the crowns of the latter* Generally, those best fitted to play a brass instrument are students whose mouth formation permits the upper and lower teeth to rest almost evenly when the jaws are* closed*

When

the jaws are closed, if the upper teeth protrude over the lower teeth to a large extent, the air column will be directed downward instead of straight into the mouthpiece*

Exactly

the opposite results if the lower teeth protrude over the upper.

With either of these positions the player must shift

the lower jaw, as the upper jaw is immovable. Students with extremely short lower or upper teeth, or with teeth that slant inward or protrude outward, to an abnormal degree, usually experience difficulty.

This is

especially true for the small mouthpiece instruments where more lip pressure is exerted on the teeth. Selection of mouthpiece.

The size of a mouthpiece is

measured by the diameter of the cup.

Generally the depth of

the cup is described as medium, shallow, or deep.

A large

mouthpiece produces a large tone of great volume and carrying power; unless too large, it gives more endurance, better lip control and greater flexibility than a small one.

A cup too

deep, while producing a mellow, round tone will not have the necessary brilliant and penetrating qualities to cut through the rest of the brass section of a band.

A deep cup usually

flattens the high register, whereas a shallow cup t ends to

150

sharpen the high register.

A mouthpiece that is too large

produces a fuzzy tone, poor intonation, and quick fatigue. A mouthpiece with too large a throat produces a fuzzy tone, poor intonation, and quick fatigue.

The back bore of a mouth­

piece is that part of the instrument surrounded by the shank. A large back bore does not give a larger tone, for while it makes the tone more mellow it always makes it fuzzy and spoils the entire intonation of the mouthpiece.

4

In regard to the size of brass mouthpiece rims, Maretta states: For thick lips I would suggest mouthpieces with thin rims which allow for more flexibility. For even bite and thin lips, mouthpieces with moderately thick rims are usually satisfactory. . . .5 A study by Hunt

was concerned with the adaptation of

different structural types of embouchure to mouthpieces. Plates were made of the upper and lower teeth and jaws of brass instrument players with various types of dento-facial irregularities.

The plates show how a few of the more common

types of dento-facial irregularities may be corrected by using a mouthpiece with a rim which, to a degree, fits the 4 Vincent Bach, The Art of Trumpet Playing (New York: Vincent Bach.Corporation, 1925), pp. 18-19. 5 Leonard V. Maretta, "Advice to the Cornetist," The School Musician, 17:30, December, 1945. 6 Norman J. Hunt, ,fThe Cup Mouthpiece with Special Reference to Dento-Facial Irregularities," (Part III), The School Musician, 21:10-11, 56, March, 1950.

131

contour of the teeth and thus relieve a great deal of the pressure exerted upon the lips. Instrument manufacturers sell faced mouthpieces for extreme cases of protruding or receding jaws. 7 It is possible to have an exact impression of the embouchure made by a dentist and a special mouthpiece constructed for the player.

Some recommend dips in the rim to compensate for

irregular teeth and jaw formations, while others believe that it is impossible to

place such amouthpiece in exactly

the same position each time.

Once a satisfactory mouthpiece

has been found, it is best not to change, as frequent use of different mouthpieces is It is interesting

injurious to the lips. to note that the famous cornetist

Couturier with extremely thin lips developed a six octave scale from third G below middle C to the third G above the staff by using a mouthpiece with a deep cup and wide diameter. Courturierfs biographer and pupil states: . . . a dime can be layed flatwise in most cornet mouthpieces, but a penny can lay in his mouthpiece, flush with the rim. The rim is perfectly round and very thin. . . . The pressure was placed on the lower jaw, while the vibrating medium, the upper lip, was left free and unconfined. The least pressure of the upper lip meant a discontinuance of vibration. . . 7 Leonard V. Meretta, "Advice School Musician, 13:24, May, 1942.

to the Cornetist," The

8 Ernst A. Couturier, "Wizard of the Cornet with a Range of Six Pull Octaves," (A biographical sketch by Birley Gardner), The School Musician, 17:15, 27, May, 1946.

132

Mouthpiece placement.

Authorities agree that the

mouthpiece should be placed in the center of the lips. /- Due to the fact that a c o m e t or trumpet mouthpiece is small and does not cover a large area of lip surface, any irregular front teeth quite frequently result in the mouthpiece shifting slightly to one side.

Differences of opinion exist

as to how much of the upper and lower lips should be placed in the mouthpiece.

Concerning the placement of the cornet

mouthpiece, Clarke states: Place the mouthpiece in the middle of the lips in the easiest and most natural position, so that the two lips will vibrate equally in the center of the mouthpiece. Neither two thirds on the upper and one third on the lower, nor one third on the upper and two thirds on the lower, but in the center, which in time will produce an even tone with volume throughout the entire scale.9 A different viewpoint by Bach is as follows: . . . For trumpet or cornet the mouthpiece should be placed one-third on the upper lip and two-thirds on the lower lip in the exact center of the mouth if possible* This is very important and the only correct way of playing, and will enable the diligent student to play the high register easily. . . . ^ The lip muscle is an oval muscle with several muscles attached to it, and-leading off at every angle.

To quote

from Hunt: In the lower lip there are three important muscles that are actually involved in supporting the mouthpiece. 9 Herbert L. Clarke, Clarke fs Elementary Studies for the Cornet (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1933), p. 5. 1° Bach, o£. cit., p. 25.

133

These muscles are all on a different angle. In the upper lip there is only one muscle directly involved# During the process of playing the greater amount of pressure from the mouthpiece should be carried on the lower jaw. The lower lip is the sturdiest of the two since there are several groups of muscles involved, whereas on the upper there is only one. When the lips tire there is a natural desire for relief and, because the lower lip can be relieved by allowing the jaw to recede, there is a tendency to transfer the pressure to the upper lip. Since the upper lip is the weaker of the two, use of excessive pressure on it tends to lower the playerrs resistance much sooner. Excessive use of pressure causes rigidity throughout the entire body, especially in the neck. When the neck muscles become tense, the air column becomes restricted and the tone quality suffers.ll In the natural lip formation, the lips are contracted vertically toward the mouthpiece rather than stretched hori­ zontally to the side.

In other words, the stretched position

robs the lips of their power to contract or resist pressure. In order to hold the lips at the required tension, the player should have the feeling that the corners of the mouth are coming slightly forward.

The powerful muscles of the

chin which control the lower lip are when developed properly capable of great strength. Remarks on tonguing.

Many players and method books

recommend different syllables for tonguing, such as "te," "ta," "tu," and "tut.11 The attack should be started as distinctly as possible.

When playing loud, more of the

11 Norman J. Hunt, "The Cup Mouthpiece with Special Reference to Dento-Facial Irregularities," (Part II), The School Musician, 21i24, February, 1950.

134

tongue is used and less when playing softly*

If a cornetist

plays with a pleasing quality, and in tune, his method of tonguing on the instrument is correct*

In this regard Clarke

states as follows: . . . there is no set rule for cornet playing, except by playing naturally; consequently there is no set rule for tonguing. Each player must discover the most natural and easiest way for himself. There is any amount of experimenting necessary, before one really feels the proper way. Use of the syllable "tu, " not ,fthuff in the middle register, seems to be the most natural way to ' express the attack. As a matter of argument, when the muscles of the lips are contracted for high tones, one would necessarily pronounce "te," and when relaxed for low tones, "tu"; consequently it would be unnatural, and almost impossible to use the same syllable for tones in all registers on the cornet. One method for developing a good attack is to divide the range of the trumpet into low, middle and high.

Use the

syllable "ta" in the low register, "tu" in the middle, and "tee" in the high.

The only movement of the mouth is the

pronunciation of the syllables "ta," "tu," or "tee," which permit, respectively, an open tone, a semi-open tone, and an almost closed tone.

Ascending legato intervals are played

"ta-ee," "tu-ee," and "tee-ee."

Descending legato intervals

are played "te-ee," "tee-u," and "tee-a." has been used as the example.

The consonant ”t"

However, it must be added that

"t” is employed in loud or explosive passages.

When the

music calls for a soft tone, the player places the consonant 12 Clarke, o£. cit., p. 6.

135

"d" before the appropriate vowel sounds.

The latter part of

the vowel sounds, however, remain the same in both forte and pianissimo passages, and the position of the lips is similar in both cases.^ Although there are fine players who use the syllable !ftutf! for short isolated staccato passages, cutting off the tone with a syllable that ends in "t" is generally frowned upon by the best players.

In stopping a tone, the player

merely stops the flow of air. Before attempting double and triple tonguing, the student should have control over single tonguing with the ability to attack with decision and articulate with ease. Triple tonguing is used for articulating fast triplets and consists in two ordinary f,tuM attacks followed by a "ku. " Care must be taken to make the rfkuf! as distinct and accurate as the "tu.”

Double tonguing is the rapid alternation between

"tu" and "ku" attacks.

As in the case of triple tonguing,

clear articulation Is of utmost importance.

No amount of

speed can ever clear up a poor attack, but if all attacks are clear and free, speed is easily attained* ^ Tone production.

Different viewpoints concerning the

13 Harry Freistadt, "Notes on the Schlossberg Method," Symphony, 1:9, October, 1948. 14 Ernest S. Williams, The Ernest S. Williams Modern Method for Trumpet or Cornet (Brooklyn: The Ernest Williams School of Music, 1937), p. 175.

136

technique of tone production for the cornet or trumpet in the seven methods are stated, in part, as followsz Method I_.

In the "Boosey and Hawkes Band Method,” the

separate books of instruction for tone production are the same for cornet, trumpet, mellophone, trombone, baritone, and tuba*

The instructions stater

1. A tone is produced by the vibration of the lips* This vibration, when done without the mouthpiece of the instrument, is known as a buzzing sound* 2. It is most advisable that the student produce a fairly good buzzing sound before, applying the mouthpiece to the lips* The less effort used in producing the buzzing sound, the more correct the process will be* The most common error in producing the buzzing sound is to press the lips together and force the air through. The proper way is to set the muscles in the corners of the mouth firmly, touch the lips together lightly and blow the air out between the lips with as little effort as possible* Thus the vibration of the lips will take place without undue pressure from the diaphragm. 3. As soon as the lips vibrate freely and without much effort, place the mouthpiece in the center of the lips, blow as before and a true tone will result. 4. Tu.

Each tone will be started by the tongue by saying (Behind the teeth* )15

Method II.

The "Belwin Elementary Band Method”

contains no information for tone production in teaching the different instruments. Method IIIt

Position of lips and teeth*

Place the

15 Joseph E* Skornicka and Joseph Bergeim, The Boosey and Hawkes Band Method Bb Cornet Book (New Yorks Boosey and Hawkes, 1947), p. 4*

137

lower teeth directly under the upper teeth with the two jaws separated enough to allow the tip of the tongue to be inserted between them*

Bring the lips lightly back against the teeth

and at the same time roll them inward just enough to remove any outward projection; the lips should then feel smooth and even to the finger*

With the lips in this position, practice

tonguing by whispering the syllable fltoo,f until it can be done without disturbing the position of the lips or teeth* Lip buzzing practice.

The edges of the lips where the

vibration takes place should be moistened with the tongue before buzzing or playing on the instrument.

The exterior of

the lips where the mouthpiece makes contact may be wet or dry* The author of this course prefers dry lips, but points out that the majority of nationally known teachers recommend wet lips*

Many teachers have the pupils produce a buzzing sound

with only the lips.

The pupils continue the buzzing practice

until they can do it with freedom before they are allowed to use the mouthpiece or instrument*

Although the pupil who

buzzes readily will have no trouble in. producing a tone with the mouthpiece, the one who has been unsuccessful should not necessarily be considered as hopeless*

Many fine cornet

players have difficulty in producing a buzz without a mouth­ piece*

Other successful teachers do not teach the pupil to

buzz the lips alone, but teach tone production with the mouth­ piece alone, or with the mouthpiece in the instrument.

138

First tones.

The usual tone produced without valves

down will be second line G, although some may produce C below the staff, or the third space C. High and low tones♦

To produce high tones increase

the firmness of the lips and roll them slightly inward; for extremely low tones the mouthpiece should be held very lightly to the lips and the lips definitely blown outward toward the mouthpiece.

Low tones require a larger aperture

between the lips while high tones required that it be made smaller.

Do not allow a player to develop the habit of

pressing the lips together or of forcing the mouthpiece against the lips for high tones.

The pressure of the mouth­

piece on the lips should be light and remain practically , .16 constant• Method IV.

The ’’Mark Hindsley Band Method” in­

structions for tone production are practically the same for cornet, French horn, Eb alto, trombone, and baritone.

Cornet

instructions stater Bring the front teeth together, the lower teeth as far forward as the upper teeth, then open them about one-eighth inch. Close the lips at the corners of the mouth, without stretching them sideways; have the feeling that the lower lip is ’’standing straight up” and the red of the upper lip is curled in slightly.. 16 Maurice D. Taylor, Easy Steps to the Band, Con­ ductor ’s Score and Manual (New York: Mills Music, Inc., 1942), pp. 15-16.

139

Touch the lips together lightly in the center of the mouth; blow through the lips thus formed and see that the air comes straight out, not up or down, in a small stream. Bring the instrument to the lips, with the mouthpiece in the center of the mouth, a little more of the mouthpiece on the lower lip than on the upper; fit the mouthpiece to the lips— do not change the lip for­ mation in setting the mouthpiece* Without tightening the lips at the corners of the mouth, blow into the instrument to produce a tone. If the lips and teeth are in the correct positions, you should soon "find” the tone "G, " which sounds the same as ”Bb" on the piano. I"7 Method•V*

The "Ensemble Band Method” tone production

instructions are practically the same for all brass instru­ ments, and are as followsr Take a deep breath and produce a buzzing sound by vibrating the upper lip.

The breath should be controlled

by the abdominal muscles, and released by drawing the tongue back slightly from the upper teeth as in pronouncing the syllable f,ta."

Produce the buzz with a steady stream of air

and not with a "puff.” Next place the mouthpiece on the lips.

Practice with

the mouthpiece until a buzzing tone is produced*

Experiment

until the position of the mouthpiece on the lips is found which produces the buzz most easily.

When contracting the

lips slightly the buzz will sound higher in pitch, and when relaxing them it will sound lower.

To breathe, inhale

through the corners of the mouth so that the position of the 1*7 Mark Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Cornet Book (Cleveland: Sam Fox Publishing Company, 1940), p* 6 .

140

mouthpiece on the lips remains unchanged.

After the student

has learned to produce and control the buzzing sound through the mouthpiece, he is ready to play the first note on the instrument.

The first tone will probably be treble clef 1o second line G for c o m e t / 0 Method VI.

In the "World of Music Band Course,11 the

same instructions for breathing, lip vibration, tonguing, and tone production are included in all brass instrument texts, as follows: Breath control.

With the lips slightly parted take a

full natural breath through the corners of the mouth.

As the

breath is drawn in there should be a pressure against the abdomen and lower ribs and a gradual expansion of the waist­ line.

To exhale, release the breath slowly and gradually

relax the muscles of the abdomen and lower ribs while the waistline contracts.

The practice of this method of breathing

will develop the habit of controlling the breath through the use of the muscles of the diaphragm. Lip vibration.

(1) Inhale deeply as explained in the

preceding paragraph; (2) With the lips entirely relaxed and slightly touching each other, blow the breath between them in 18 Claude Smith, Paul Yoder, and Harold Bachman, Roy Miller Bb Cornet Chart for Ensemble Band Method (Chicagor Neil A. Kjos Music Company, 1939).

141

such a manner as to produce a loose buzzing sound; (3) Draw the lips back into a smiling position and repeat the foregoing buzzing sound until a sustained lip tone of definite pitch is produced; (4) Place the mouthpiece lightly against the lips and repeat the exercise*

The exact location of the mouthpiece

on the lips will vary with individual players because of differences in the formation of lips and teeth.

Experiment

with various positions until the most natural one is found and with which the lips vibrate most freely. Tonguing.

Practice the following exercises at first

without the mouthpiecei

(1) Inhale deeply; (2) Place the

tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth directly back of, and touching, the upper teeth; (3) Draw the tongue down­ ward and back as if pronouncing the syllable f,ta,M at the same time releasing the breath.

Exhale slowly and keep the

tongue well down in the lower part of the mouth so that it does not obstruct the flow of breath. Mouthpiece practice.

Practice the following with the

mouthpiece onlys Prepare for the start of the tone (the attack) by placing the mouthpiece lightly to the lips. Inhale and place the tongue in the correct position. As the tongue is withdrawn the breath starts the vibration of the lips. The tone is sustained by maintaining a steady breath pressure and by controlling the position of the lips. The tone is released by stopping the flow of breath into the mouthpiece. This is accomplished by controlling the action of the diaphragm and lungs rather than by any movement of the tongue or throat.

142

Avoid all tightness of the muscles of the lips, jaw, throat, and chest. Do not puff out the cheeks. Method VII.

Instructions for tone production on brass

instruments for the ’’Moore Band Course” are practically the same for all brass texts.

The following general procedures

are suggested? Lip buzzing practice.

As the lips are held together,

push the tip of the tongue slightly between the lips, then jerk the tongue back quickly and blow through the lips, holding the lips close together. sound can be held a few counts. loud.

Practice until the buzzing The tone should not be too

Try playing the scale of C or Bb with the lip buzzing

and the piano. Take the mouthpiece of the instrument and place about one third on the upper lip.

In case of larger instruments,

such as trombone or bass, it may be well to use one half on the upper lip.

With the mouthpiece resting upon the upper

lip as if hinged there, talk a little, the idea being to feel that the lower lip and jaw are relaxed andfree. the lips in the mouthpiece.

Then

Themouthpiece is held so

the lower lip barely touches it.

vibrate that

The lips are pushed together

and are not stretched across the teeth. William D. Revelli, Victor L. P. Rebmann, and Charles B. Righter, The World of Music Band Course Cornet Book I (Boston? Ginn and Company, 1939), pp. 2-4.

145

After the student has become proficient with lip vibrations in the mouthpiece, the entire instrument is used. When a clear, steady tone can be produced easily, and sus­ tained for a few seconds, it is recommended that the student proceed with lesson one. 20 ‘ FRENCH HORNS, ALTO, AND MELLOPHONE Selection of French horn player.

Cornet and trumpet

players, who usually outnumber the field of brass instrument players, will readily adjust to French horn.

Normann,

21

states, "Some leading authorities maintain that the nicety of adjustment required for the French horn embouchure makes for greater security on the cornet and trumpet.”

The French

horn requires a discriminating ear and a sensitive lip.

A

beginner should be selected who has a keen sense of pitch. In regard to the lips and teeth, one noted French horn in­ structor advises: • . . Average or slightly thinner than average lips are preferable to heavy or thick lips. Excellent players possessing thick lips are the exception rather than the rule. Reasonably straight teeth are a definite asset in the playing of any brass instrument but here too one finds some notable exceptions to the general r u l e . ^ 2 20 E. C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Cornet Book (New Yorks Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), pp. 8-9. 21 Theodore F. Normann, Instrumental Music In the Public Schools (Philadelphia£ Oliver Ditson Company, 1941J7 p. 96. 22'Max Pottag, ”The Beginning French Horn Player,” The Instrumentalist, 1:10, January-February, 1947.

144

Selection of mouthpiece.

The beginning horn player

is most likely to succeed on a mouthpiece of medium size. It should neither be too deep nor to wide and have a medium bore or throat.

If a worn dime can be placed inside the rim,

the width of the cup may be considered about right for the beginner. 93

Brass instrument mouthpieces vary in shape from

the pure cup-shape of the trumpet to the funnel of the horn, and in size from the cornet to the tuba.

On the horn mouth­

piece, there is no flange and nothing definite to form an edge-tone.

If the mouthpiece debouches on the tube with a

sharp flange, the tone is brilliant in the sense that the higher harmonics are favored.

On the other hand, a tapering between mouthpiece and tube favors mellowness of tone. 24 A

horn mouthpiece with a short cup and narrow throat improves the upper range.

The disadvantage is that the more the cup

is shortened and the more the throat is narrowed, the more nearly a player is approaching the trumpet or trombone type of mouthpiece, which produces a harsh and brassy tone on the horn, especially in fortissimo. 25 The noted French hornist Sansone is of the opinion 23 Pottag, loc. cit♦ 24 E. G. Richardson, The Acoustics of Orchestral Instruments and the Organ (Londonr Edward Arnold and Company, 1929), pp. 70-73. 25 Robert H. Schulze, ''Brass Clinict Playing the French Horn,” The Instrumentalist, 4s30, March-April, 1950.

145

that the rim should be as narrow as possible and should have a sharp edge on the inside and outside. the rim should be slightly rounded.

Between the edges,

Many hornists believe

that the sharp rim cuts the lips, but on the contrary the narrow rim with sharp edges does not slip from the lips, requires less pressure, does not cut the lips, and the tone quality is much better and less tiring.

The wide rimmed

mouthpiece with round rim slips easily from the lips and needs more pressure to keep it in position which tires one Ts lips quickly.

The large rimmed mouthpiece gives a bigger * PR tone, but the horn tone quality is not so beautiful. Until

a beginner can determine which type of rim reacts best to his playing, a slightly rounded mouthpiece rim is probably the best choice. 27 Mouthpiece placement.

There are two different methods

of placing the horn mouthpiece.

One, similar to cornet or

trumpet, places the mouthpiece on the lips; the other, peculiar to the French horn, sets the mouthpiece in the lips. In the latter case the lower lip is turned outward so that the rim of the mouthpiece is placed on the red part of the lip.' The method of setting the mouthpiece on the lips seems 26 Lorenzo Sansone, A Modern Method for the French Horn (New Yorks Sansone Musical Instruments, Inc., 1940), p. 13. 27 Schulze, o£. cit., p. 33.

146

to be preferred. 28

The horn mouthpiece should be placed in

the center of the lips unless the teeth formation favors an off-center placement.

The majority of players place two

thirds of the mouthpiece on the upper lip and one third on the lower.

Some use half of the upper lip and half of the

lower, while still others prefer two thirds on the lower lip. Trumpet or cornet players who change to horn should not change the lip placement if they have been playing satis­ factorily with half upper and lower lips in the mouthpiece. Pottag states: . . . The corners of the mouth are firmly sealed but without pulling them back as in smiling, rather they should have a tendency to pucker just a little. This puckering tendency is highly desirous for shaping the lips as a funnel in directing the air into the mouth­ piece. 29 Bight hand placement.

There is not complete accord

among various authorities as to the best position of the right hand inside the bell.

The most practical appears to

favor placing the hand against the opposite side of the bell, away from the player, in order to permit a free passage of the tone.

It is important that the tips of the fingers are

straight.

Each individual has to find the most desirable

exact opening to be used.

The purpose of partly closing the «

\

28 Taylor, ££. clt., p. 16. 29 Max Pottag, "The Beginning French Horn Player,” The Instrumentalist, 1:37, May-June, 1947.

147

bell is to produce a more mellow tone than is possible with an open bell.

The right hand position is also altered for adjusting the intonation, 30 Sansone states: Normally, the hand in the bell should never be cupped, as the tone produced in this manner sounds choked, which especially causes defective high notes— rand much pressure here is needed to produce those high notes which spoils the horn tone quality. The same horn text points out that the following rule .applies only to the horn in F, as follows: When the hand is tightly closed in the bell, the pitch sounds one-half step higher--in order to play in pitch the performer must transpose one-half tone lower— in this manner many effects, such as echo, stopped, and Bouche, can be obtained.31 For standing or marching with the band, the base of the right hand rests against the side of the bell nearest the player with the first knuckle of the thumb resting against the top of the bell.

With the fingers slightly cupped and

apart, the tone will come through with the desired tone 1 4 +. 32 quality, Horn with F and Eb slides.

Years ago most of the

French horn players used the Eb slide for band and the F 30 Max Pottag, nThe Beginning French Horn Player,” The Instrumentalist, 1:10, January-February, 1947. 31 Sansone, o£. cit., p. 13, 32 Pottag, o£. cit., p. 10.

148

slide for orchestra music.

At present a majority of French

horn players .use the F slide and play F parts both in band and orchestra, if F parts are available and, if there are no F parts, they leave the horn in F and transpose the Eb horn parts down a major second.

The Eb slide adds more length to

the horn, requires more exertion to play, and the tone quality is not as good as the F slide. 33 Many teachers prefer to start a beginner on the F horn. Single horn in Bb.

The Bb horn sounds an interval of

a perfect fourth higher than the F horn.

Those who prefer

the single horn in Bb give the following reasons? (1) The most important single reason is the B flat horn has "note sense.”

The Bb horn, compared to the F horn,

has more mechanical aids for the untrained student; (2) The Bb horn has uniform intonation problems with all other Bb instruments in the register of the treble or bass clef baritone; (3) It has an unusually easy speaking upper range; (4) Its tone can be more easily heard in the band; (5) Its possible range is from low F# to G above high C. 34 The customary bracket of three valves is not sufficient for the single Bb horn, and an additional valve is necessary to compensate for the change of pitch in muting.

When the

33 B. H. Walker, "I Teach the Solo Brass," The School Musician, 21?35, January, 1950. 34 Philip W. L. Cox, "Intricacies of the French Horn Simplified," The School Musician. 19r36-37, November, 1947.

149

hand is closed in the bell of the Bb horn, the pitch is raised three quarters of a tone and requires the use of the left hand thumb valve to put the horn in pitch.

Therefore,

by using the closed hand position plus the thumb valve, the player is released from further transposition.

A popular

addition to the Bb single horn is a fifth valve which in combination with the other valves covers the range of the double horn. The double horn.

The ordinary double horn is known

as a transposing instrument; that is, it is pitched in the key of F and in addition by using the thumb valve the P horn is changed to Bb horn.

In discussing the problems of the

French horn, Lesinsky states as follows* The player of the double horn in P and Bb treats the instrument more like an P horn with certain special fingerings rather than thinking of it as two separate horns. He automatically changes from P horn to Bb. Therefore all music should be written for the F horn. • • • 35 Pottag 36 points out* • . • Somewhere between second line G and fourth line D (written) the professional player of the double horn changes to Bb horn by pushing down the thumb valve. Why? Because in this range and higher the Bb horn has a distinct advantage over the P in the ease of execution and intonation. 35 Adam P. Lesinsky, "Inconsistencies in Musical Notation,” Etude, 67*476, August, 1949. 36 Max Pottag, "Selecting the Right French Horn," The Instrumentalist, 1*30, November-Deeember, 1946.

150

The same writer further states in regard to the use of the single horn in F, single horn in Bb, and the double horn in F and Bb as follows I • • • The single horn in Bb and the double horn are ideally suited to the first horn players of school bands and orchestras. For the players of the other three parts either the single F horn or the double horn are distinctly preferable to the Bb. In making these recom­ mendations let us remember that nearly all music for the French horn in school bands and orchestras is written within the range of two octaves— from the G below middle C and up two octaves, and that the Bb horn has a marked advantage over the F only in the highest five or six notes of this range. . . .37 Horn mutes.

Excellent effects in tone color are

produced by the use of metal mutes, and by inserting the hand in the bell for stopped tones.

The use of the mute is

indicated by con sordino, and its removal by senza sordino. The stopped tone is indicated by a plus (+) sign written directly over the notes. The hand in the bell extends the vibrating length of the horn, progressively flatting the pitch the more the hand is inserted, until, on reaching the degree of almost complete stoppage of the air passage, the pitch suddenly jumps up above that of the open bell.

There is a conical brass mute

which produces the same effect as the hand stoppage of the air passage.

Mutes are also made of different shape, the

37 Pottag, loc. cit

151

material used being either fiber or metal.

38

One type of

non-transposing mute has a screw regulator whieh may be turned in or out to sharp or flat the pitch. Eb alto and mellophone.

Formerly most of the altos

were in Eb, but the present trend in opinion among many directors is becoming in favor of F altos.

The Eb alto,

one of the true saxhorns, was perfected by Antoine Sax about the middle of the nineteenth century.

It is easier to play

than the French horn, and it produces a louder and coarser tone.

The Eb alto has only half as much tubing as the French

horn.

In the key of C, the Eb alto fundamental tone or

generator of the harmonic series is located one octave below treble clef middle C, whereas the fundamental tone of the French horn is two octaves below middle C.

The alto horn is

made in the upright or bell front positions. In regard to the French horn, Eb alto, and mellophone Goldman states as followst The alto cannot successfully substitute for the horn as a solo instrument, but for afterbeats in marches, and for the production of staccato notes, it is sometimes more satisfactory than the horn. • • . When altos and horns are simultaneously used on the same parts, thickness of sound inevitably results. One variant of the Eb alto, used almost entirely in amateur bands, is the mellophone. This instrument is 38 Wendell Hoss, !,The Development of the French horn,rr The Instrumentalist, 3sl4, May-June, 1949. 39 Walker, op. cit., p. 35.

152

simply an Eb alto, constructed in the shape of a French horn rather than in normal saxhorn style. Its advan­ tages over the alto are those of appearance o n l y . 40 TROMBONES Bb tenor trombone.

The tenor trombone, built in Bb,

with its playing range from low E to high Bb is the most common trombone used in the schools, professional orchestras, the military band, and the modern dance band.

The valve

trombone has the same build, pitch and range, but the slide is stationary and the different tones are obtained with the aid of three valves attached to the first position of the slide. Bb bass trombone.

The bass trombone is used in large

bands and symphony orchestras. tenor.

Its bore is larger than the

The tone quality of the bass trombone adds to the

complete balance of a good trombone section.

Noted bass

trombone players seem to agree the best results are obtained with a special large size mouthpiece. 41 The bass trombone is built in Bb, the same as the tenor, but is equipped with a rotary attachment to F and a slide to E.

When the F attach­

ment is used the range is extended down a major third to C 40 Richard Franko Goldman, The Concert Band (New Yorks Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1946), pp. 141-42. 41 Herbert E. Owen, "Trombone Problems," The Instrumentalist, 4rl7, 19, September-October, 1949.

153

below that of the tenor trombone, and a perfect fourth to B when the E slide is used* Selection of trombone player.

A sense of pitch is

very essential for the trombone player as there is no marked place on the slide to show the beginner how to find the exact position.

Although there are exceptions, lips should be of

normal thickness or slightly thicker than average.

Revelli

points outr . . . The rugged, heavy lip, square jaw, long even teeth, and sufficient "red of lip" to provide a cushion, usually indicate the embouchure and facial character­ istics conducive to good brass playing. Those having unusually heavy lips, with more than average "red” are prospective trombone, baritone, and tuba players.42 The trombone should not be started as early in the school as other brass instruments.

Reist points outr

. . . A beginning trombone student should at least be able to reach the fifth position with ease which will make the sixth position possible by stretching. This will enable the young player to sound all tones except the low E and B natural. These tones are not required to any great extent. . . .4^ If the problem of pupils who are unable to reach sixth and seventh position arises, it can be solved by the use of an extension handle. 42 William D. Revelli, "Instrumental Adaptation and Aptitude Tests," The Etude, 59r637, September, 1941. 45 Lloyd A. Reist, "The Slide Trombone, Its History, Literature and Use in the American Schools," (unpublished Masterfs thesis, the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1948), p. 80.

154

Holding the trombone*

In playing the slide trombone,

the right hand should never be used to help hold the instru­ ment*

The right hand is used exclusively to manipulate the slide. 44 The slide should be held lightly near the end of the thumb and first two or three fingers; the change from

one position to another should be made very quickly but with­ out tension in the arm or fingers.

When changing positions,

many fine performers produce most of the motion from the elbow, keeping the wrist straight at all times; others use, primarily, a motion of the wrist, supplementing it with motion of the elbow when necessary.

This action is often

aided by throwing the slide from the thumb to the fingers in going to a lower position or from the fingers to the thumb when changing to a higher position.

It is difficult to say

which is the better method when mastered, although there is no doubt that the second is harder to teach. 45 Mouthpiece and instrument bore.

The size and type of

mouthpiece must be in proportion to the bore of the instru­ ment and must be considered directly with the purpose for which the instrument is used.

A sharp edge at the entrance

to the shank creates a brilliant tone, whereas a smoothly graduated curve to the shank tends to produce a certain 44 E. C. Moore, The Moore Band Course Trombone Book (New York* Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930), p. 7. 45 Taylor, oja. cit., p. 17.

155

degree or mellowness.

The average diameter of the inner cup

for the tenor trombone is about the size of a twenty-five cent piece and slightly larger for the bass. As with other brass instruments, the bore has a direct relation to the quality of tone as well as the ease with which the player may produce the upper notes of the harmonic series.

A player with a small bore trombone which is to be

used for high parts should select a mouthpiece which favors the high register.

The narrow bore has gained some popularity

with dance band musicians because of the ease with which the high notes may be produced.

In order to develop roundness

and solidity of tone, it would perhaps be best to start a beginner with a trombone with a medium bore.

In a theoreti­

cal and practical treatise on "The Trombone and Its Player," the trombonist Raymond 46 states: Generally speaking, there are three sizes of tubings to be considered, namely, large, medium, and small. If one is playing a medium sized trombone, then a cup which is even in response over the entire range should be em­ ployed. On the other hand, on a large bore instrument designed for a large mellow tone of the lower register a cup favoring this register should be chosen. For the school band, a medium bore instrument may* be used on the first part, the medium to large bore on the second, and a large bore is desirable among the third or bass trombone.

The size of the bell is no indication of the size

46 William F. Raymond, The Trombone and Its Player (Cincinnati: Fillmore Music House, 1937), p. 23.

156

of the bore, for some manufacturers have made a practice of spreading out the bell and at the same time retaining the small bore. Mouthpiece placement. placement Cimera 47 states:

For the trombone mouthpiece

. . • The mouthpiece is placed approximately at the center of the lips, vertically and horizontally. In some cases teeth formations might not allow this and another place should be found. The trombonist Raymond points out that he has met a few who played from the side of the mouth*

However, he has neither

met nor heard of a player who has attained an unusual degree of proficiency by using the additional handicap of an unnatural position of the mouthpiece. 48 Slurring.

The general principles of tone production

on the trombone are similar to those discussed under cornet. However, the trombone presents the problem of moving the slide in producing the slur.

Proper instructions together with

alternate positions to help with the slur are not included in the majority of the seven band class methods of this study. Very often the student may form the habit of lightly tonguing each note, or substituting the 11smear” or glissando. regard to slurring, Raymond states as follows: 4V Jerry Cimera, ffTeaching the Trombone,” The Instrumentalist, 3:12, September-October, 1948. 48 Ibid., p. 9.

In

157

The problem is a simple one and easily understood. The trombone player*s tongue is his valve working in exact conjunction with the slide. There is no attack of any kind once the column of air is set in motion, nor is the flow broken until the phrase is completed. The tongue merely "wiggles" across the column of air while the tip gently touches the back of the upper teeth. At the exact instant the tongue touches the teeth the slide must be in the position of the note. If the slide moves after the movement of the tongue, a glissando will be evident.^9 The "Easy Steps to the Band Conductor*s Score and Manual" states: . . . The player should first be conscious of the fact that moving the slide upward (toward closed position) while passing to a higher tone or moving it downward while passing to a lower tone produces a "smear." (This may not always be true if the slur covers a wide interval in the upper register.) A slur made without moving the slide, or one in which the slide moves upward while the tone moves downward, or one In which the slide moves downward while the tone moves upward, will not produce a "smear.". . .50 The slur, one of many forms of articulation, indicates that only the first note Is to receive an attack, the others following without any noticeable interval of silence.

In

cases where the slur cannot be made by means of alternate positions, the soft "da" stroke of the tongue may be used for all notes within the phrase (except the first note which is attacked with "ta").

This method is called the legato slur.

49 Ibid., p. 12. 50 Taylor, op. cit., p. 17

158

BARITONE AND EUPHONIUM Baritone and euphonium*

The Bb baritone is often

referred to as the cello of the band# be called a large bored baritone.

The euphonium might

The double bell euphonium

has two bells, one large and one small.

The larger bell

produces a tone similar to that of the baritone, while the

smaller bell, primarily used for echo effects, produces a tone similar to that of the tenor trombone.

However,

practically speaking, the tone quality of the small bell does not blend too well in the concert band. 51 The baritone and euphonium differ in that the euphonium is of wider bore, giving greater volume to the lower notes, and is equipped with an extra valve which lowers the compass an augmented fourth. 52 The baritone or euphonium bell may be of the upright type or bell-front. 53 Some single bell euphoniums are provided with a fourth valve which allows extra valve com­ binations useful in cross fingering, and tends, through their use, to improve intonation. 54 51 Leonard V. Meretta, "Advice to the Cornetist," The School Musician, 16:26, September, 1944. 52 Goldman, o£. cit., p. 143. 53 Band and Orchestra Handbook (Elkhart: Pan-American Band Instrument Company, 194677 p7 58. 54 William J. Skeat, Harry P. Clarke, and Russell V. Morgan, The Fundamentals of Band Arranging (Cleveland: Sam Pox Publishing Company, 193877 p7 20.

159

Brasch points out: In the brass bands of Europe, especially in England, both instruments are used and usually a different part is written for each* Actually six different models are available in Europe: alto,- tenorhorn, baritone, eu­ phonium, Eb and Bb bass; each of these is successively larger. Since the American instrument is a cross between the English baritone and euphonium, it is permissible to use either name for these baritone-euphoniums.^ TUBAS Selection of tuba player.

The tuba player should be

a person of strong physique and large breath capacity, for it requires a great deal of breath to sustain a tone over a long period or to play a long phrase. better for the tuba.

Thick lips are usually

Students with thin lips may experience

difficulty in developing a full tone.

A good sense of pitch

is desired for the tuba as all other valve instruments, but is not quite as essential as for the French horn or trombone. Tuba parts usually contain fewer notes per measure than the other brasses and for this reason less sight reading skill and speed in thinking are required. Types of tubas. such as:

There are different types of tubas,

upright, recording, helicon, and sousaphone.

The

recording bass and sousaphone are built in Eb, and BBb, while the upright is built in Eb, CC, and BBb.

The fingering for

55 Harold Brasch, MWhen is a Baritone a Euphonium?" The Instrumentalist, 3:36, March-April, 1949.

160

the BBb Is the same as for the baritone one octave lower. The BBb tuba is a whole step lower than the CC and a perfect fourth lower than the Eb tuba; it sounds two octaves lower than the cornet. All tubas read in the bass clef and play from the same music.

However, separate fingerings must be learned

for the instruments in various keys.

The ’’Mark Hindsley Band

Method,” the ’’World of Music Band Course,” and the ’’Moore Band Course” provide a separate book for the Eb and BBb tubas. This is a desirable feature, for each instrument may be treated thoroughly in its natural register.

In band music, the Eb

usually plays the upper notes and the BBb bass the lower when­ ever the parts are written in octaves.

The bell-front

sousaphone is the most popular bass in American bands.

The

adjustable bell may be turned to project the sound in any desired direction. Use of the fourth valve.

Some basses are built with

a fourth valve which is equivalent to the first and third valves.

Use of the fourth valve simplifies awkward finger­

ings, and when used with regular valves it enables the player to descend five half-steps lower. Intonation.

Unless the player adjusts the embouchure,

certain notes will be out of tune on the valved instruments. It is impossible to purchase a valved instrument that is

161

perfectly in tune*

Intonation at its best on these instru­

ments is a compromise, for if the manufacturer raised the pitch of the flat tones, the sharp ones would be higher in pitch, and vice versa. the lips and breath*

Some tones must be "humored" with In the following illustration, certain

notes have a tendency to be sharp or flat, as follows:56

Fl a

■Sh a r p .

)? r T £

&

r- y

■Cr

CORNET. ZZ.

m

BARITONE.

— _ ---

Eb m

BASS. \fr-r

56 Leonard V, Meretta, "Advice to the Cornetist," The School Musician* 17s38, March, 1946.

162

SUMMARY It was the purpose of this chapter to analyze each of the brass instrument books of the seven methods ‘ under the general topic of tone production.

Attention was also given

to the selection of players, mouthpieces, the practice of lip buzzing, tonguing, and other problems related to each of the brass instruments.

CHAPTER VII

THE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS TYMPANI Introductory remarks.

The beginning tympanist should

be a good musician with previous experience on another musical instrument.

A capable snare drummer or pianist is

desirable but not absolutely necessary.

The teacher should

see to it that the beginner receives some instruction in harmony and ear training, for tuning the tympani depends upon a thorough knowledge of bass clef intervals and key signatures.

Obviously, the better natural or developed ear

the player has, the easier it is to tune the tympani.

Many

players possess the enigma of absolute pitch, the power of recognizing or reproducing tones of definite pitch without the aid of an instrument.

Not very much instructional

material is published for the tympani.

Only two of the seven

full band class methods provide exercises for the tympani. Since the hand tuned tympani are practically obsolete, in­ structions apply primarily to the pedal tympani. The instructions for tympani in the "Mark Hindsley Band Method" are included in the drum book.

They are, in

part, as follows: The timpani head should be kept at the same tension and pitch all around, by turning each rod and testing

164

the head near It with the timpani stick. When it is even, the pitch of the hand timpani may be raised or lowered by turning the timing rods in pairs opposite each other, each pair equally until the entire head is tuned to the desired pitch. To tune the pedal timpani, place the pedal in the position of least tension and tune the head evenly with the tuning rods to the lowest tone of its natural range; to raise the pitch, press the pedal with the ball of the foot; to lower the pitch, press the pedal with the heel. The player should learn to tune the timpani quietly during rehearsal by testing it with his finger, pressing the timpani head close to the rim and snapping the finger away, with the ear close to catch the sound. A tuning fork or pipe may be used by the player as first aids in tuning. He must train his ear to tune exactly, learning by constant practice the pitches of the various tones, and the "intervals" between them. Protect the bowls of the timpani from dents; keep them clean and polished. Keep the heads covered when not in use, with the covers provided. Apply vaseline to the threads of the tuning rods and oil the pedal bear­ ings occasionally. Loosen the heads somewhat at the end of each practice period.1 The "World of Music Band Method" tympani book in­ structions are, in part, as follows: Tuning. The rods should be given equal turns in order to secure equal -tension. This is best achieved by testing the pitch near each tuning rod. The pitch is tested by pressing the tip of the middle finger upon the tympani head near the rim and drawing it from the head with a quick flip or snap. . . . Sticking practice. The best place to strike the head is about one-third the distance between the rim and the center of the head. This spot varies with different instruments, and often with the same instru­ ment at different tensions or degrees of volume. ^ Mark H. Hindsley, The Mark Hindsley Band Method Snare Drum Book (Clevelands Sam Fox Publishing Company. 1940). p. 7.

165

Extremely loud sustained tones are often produced by striking the head a glancing blow. The short tones are best produced by a direct blow. To stop the tone from resonating, place the palm of the hand firmly upon the head of the tympani immediately after striking the tone. This is, of course, impossible in rapid passages.2 As a preliminary to the playing of the tympani, the "Teacher's Book” points out that the following ear training practice may be helpfuls (1) The ’’matching” of tones, whereby the student re­ peats accurately with his voice a pitch sounded by another voice, by the piano, or by another instrument. (2) Practice by the student himself in the accurate perception and reproduction of tone. The piano may be resorted to as an aid.3 The reason given for the exclusive use of the small tympany in the first studies lies in the fact that its tones, being higher than those of the large tympany, can be more readily distinguished and are therefore easier to tune.

At

first the student may encounter difficulty in hearing the low tones of the large tympany*

In such cases it is advisable to

proceed slowly and to give the student ample opportunity of hearing and discerning these tones#

In the early instances

of interval playing the student may derive considerable help from the singing of syllables.

In order to tune P-C, the

student may sing in his range the tones F-G-A-Bb-C 2 William D# Bevelli, Victor L. F. Rebmann, and Charles B. Righter, The World of Music Band Course TeacherTs Book (Bostons Ginn and Company, 1939), pp. 108-10.

3 Ibid., p. 105.

166

(do-re-mi-fa-sol) or F-A-C (do-mi-sol) and tune to his voice# The chromatic scale is presented in sections, for it is difficult at first to play the entire chromatic scale* The student should learn each section before proceeding to the next*

An example of a chromatic progression from the tympani book is as follows: 5

S m a l l Ty m p a n y . —

—

------ U

—

f*

/ « 1

------

&

—

I-

*

H-

:

0

1

~

■

g

La r g s T y m p a n y

Sz E

■fcjtg

b