Amerika Sāmoa: An Anthropological Photo Essay 9780824895464

Table of contents :
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Prologue - the Creation
The Dawn
The Day
Pago Pago and Beyond
Milestones
Religion
Close of Day
Epilogue
Notes
Glossary
Bibliography

Citation preview

Amerika Samoa

So'o le fau ma le fau To tie together two pieces of fau Proverb: To pursue a goal with united strength.

Amerika Samoa

Frederic Koehler Sutter UNIVERSITY

OF

HAWAII

HONOLULU

PRESS

©1984 Government of American Samoa All rights reserved Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 84-51832 ISBN 0-8248-0990-4 Design- Frederic Koehler Sutter Ph.D., and Alan Whistler Origination and separations by Quadrascan N.Z. Bound by The New Zealand Government Printing Office. 89 88 87 86 85 84

4 321

Dedicated to the people of American Samoa my wife Sharon my daughter Lisenga and to my parents Eleanor and Carl

Contents Foreword

ix

Preface

xi

Prologue - The Creation

2

The Dawn

14

The Day

24

Pago Pago and Beyond

42

Milestones

58

Religion

82

Close of Day

92

Epilogue

108

Notes

116

Glossary

127

Bibliography

128

Foreword The Government of American Samoa decided to commission this anthropological photo essay for several reasons: to create a pictorial record of our culture for future generations; to enable overseas Samoans to stay in touch with their heritage; to introduce our islands and culture to those who wish to know more about American Samoa. Although a great deal of effort often goes into the conservation of natural resources, it is unfortunate that culture and geographic beauty are seldom defined as such resources. We in American Samoa are keenly aware that God's gift to us is the incredible beauty of our islands and our way of life, our culture. This anthropological photo essay records that heritage for future generations. Today many of our people are able to take advantage of opportunities to further their education and employment overseas. American Samoans are found all over the U.S. mainland and in many foreign lands as well. Some have been away a long time; others were born far from home. For those who were born in Samoa, this book will evoke memories of their childhood: the smell of the umu, the sounds of the kava ceremony, the joys of White Sunday. And for those who have never been in Samoa, the book will provide visual images to reinforce the stories that are told, as well as their family pride in being American Samoan. To those who wish to learn more about American Samoa and its culture, these photographs and the accompanying proverbial expressions will provide intimate glimpses of the daily and seasonal activities that make up the Samoan way of life, thereby contributing to an understanding of what it is like to be Samoan. The Government of American Samoa chose Dr Sutter to produce this book because of his previous work Samoa: A Photographic Essay. As you will see in the following pages, he combines the skill of the expert photographer with the perception and sensitivity of the field anthropologist to capture peak moments of our culture. It gives me great pleasure to present Amerika Samoa: An Anthropological Photo Essay, a book that successfully records both the beauty of our islands and the richness of our culture. Peter Tali Coleman Governor of American Samoa

Preface Cultural awareness, time, patience, and co-operation are all necessary for producing an anthropological photo essay. Foremost among these requirements is an awareness of the cultural spectrum. This includes the ability not just to recognize the primary colors of life's daily activities, but also to know the subtle shades revealed in a people's celebrations and ceremonies, and the milestones that mark their lives. It is one thing to be aware of all this but quite another to locate and be allowed to record the behaviors and events that illustrate the culture. To achieve this, time, lots of time, is required. The minimum is a year. Some activities follow a daily pattern, but others occur once a week, once a year, or even less frequently. In Samoa, each day begins with cleaning up the family compound. People go about their lives, attending school, working in offices, planting and harvesting the land, and collecting the resources of the sea. In the afternoon, there is time to relax and play before the family gathers for evening prayer. Every Saturday, preparations are made for Sunday's communal meal, and once a year, the legislature opens, Children's Sunday is celebrated, and the palolo are netted. Periodically the daily round is punctuated by special occasions, called fa'alavelave, which underscore the basic rhythm of family and village life. Events such as the bestowal of a title, a tattooing, or the dedication of a church are awaited, not scheduled at predictable intervals. Perhaps once in five years, a lagi soifua occurs — a funeral held while the individual still lives and can enjoy the fine mats, food, and speeches given in his or her honor. To record all this photographically requires the co-operation and assistance of the participants. It requires a people who are proud of their culture, understanding, and generous enough to share their way of life. American Samoa's most precious resource is not a new technology or industrial product, but its culture. With the advance of industrialized society, the demands of a wage economy, and the cultural homogenization that is encouraged by rapid transportation and communication, many unique and irreplaceable cultural practices have become diluted. This anthropological photo essay is an attempt to record traditional practices by documenting the rich and varied celebration of the human spirit that is every Samoan's heritage. The book is divided into eight sections. The Prologue is based on the creation myth as told in Manu'a, the easternmost islands. This is followed by a traditional view of activities associated with Dawn and the Day. Pago Pago and Beyond addresses some aspects of modern life as well as American Samoa's involvement with the Pacific community. Milestones is an anthology of events that mark important junctures in a Samoan's life. These events reflect the culture's vitality and values just as the proverbs cited are a distillation of its wisdom. The section on Religion portrays American Samoa's spiritual life and heritage. Close of Day is

devoted to activities assocated with the e n d of w o r k and a time of relaxation and recreation. T h e Epilogue presents a final look at a group of beautiful islands a n d their people. A n undertaking of this m a g n i t u d e c o u l d not s u c c e e d without the assistance, support, and e n c o u r a g e m e n t of m a n y people. First a n d foremost, I w o u l d like to thank G o v e r n o r Peter Tali C o l e m a n for his enthusiastic support. I especially wish to express my gratitude to Director of E c o n o m i c and D e v e l o p m e n t Planning Joseph Pereira, w h o s e foresight a n d vision made the project possible. O v e r the past two years, m a n y p e o p l e have generously given of themselves, their k n o w l e d g e , hospitality, a n d services. Lieutenant G o v e r n o r Tufele Li'a a n d H i g h C h i e f F u i m a o n o have responded to every request for assistance. Governor's Special Assistant Palauni T u i a s o s o p o not o n l y helped remove m a n y an obstacle but also provided personal friendship, as did Eni H u n k i n a n d Failautusi Avegalio. M o v i n g about the islands w a s a major consideration. O n Tutuila, several y o u n g m e n carried the e q u i p m e n t a n d at times assisted me in getting up a n d d o w n mountainsides. M y thanks to M u a n d N o f o Mafatau, T u p u g a Leota, a n d A n e t o n e Fuga. O n Swains Island, nine-year-old S a m o a Fio w a s my guide a n d assistant. For m o r e than a year, A l o a n d Marilyn A n e s i and Jack a n d Mary Pavitt of Pavitt's U D r i v e provided the ultimate in co-operation. At sea, Captain N i c k M a r i n k o v i c h put his boat the Elspeth and its helicopter at m y disposal. W i t h o u t his generous help, several photographs c o u l d not have been taken. T h r o u g h o u t the project, South Pacific Island A i r w a y s gave every possible assistance. I wish especially to thank the president of the airline, G e o r g e W r a y , for his total c o m m i t m e n t to the project, w h i c h w a s reflected in the support given by his staff. In H o n o l u l u , assistance w a s provided by Pita Sala, inflight by N a f a n u a Patu and Tevita Prescott, and in A m e r i c a n S a m o a , by C h u c k Phelan, Evelyn Tuia, a n d Captains Kaher, D o w , a n d Paul. Even with the a b u n d a n c e of hospitality a c c o r d e d a stranger in S a m o a , there are times w h e n o n e longs for the intimate w a r m t h of an old and d e e p friendship. O n Tutuila, this was given by R o b a n d L o m a Shaffer, Va'a and Julie Afoa, Eti a n d Telia Sa'aga, Rev. Elia and G a l o a n e Ta'ase, a n d Puleisili a n d Mereane Tuiolosega. In Manu'a, Leuta Faleafine, Bert a n d Joan Marian, and Rev. Salesa and his family always provided hospitality a n d w a r m friendship. M y deepest gratitude goes to my assistant H e r m a n Tuiolosega for his insights and suggestions. A l t h o u g h burned by the sun a n d d r e n c h e d by the rain, he always maintained his sense of h u m o r a n d dedication to the project. Without the help of all these people, the project c o u l d not have s u c c e e d e d . T h a n k y o u all. Thank you Samoa. FKS Fogagogo, Tutuila

Amerika Samoa

Prologue - the Creation ragaloa ... the god w h o made all things ... traversed the illimitable void."

"He assumed the form of the TulT and went about to visit the lands; but no lands could be seen, only the wide expanse of waters."

"At a point at which he took his stand, up sprang a rock."

"Tagaloa said to the rock divide! and the heaven was born ... and Immensity and Space, and the palm of clouds ... and commencing where the Eastern Group (Manu'a) now stands he caused it to emerge

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"The creator looked down and Tutuila (and 'Aunu'u) emerged." 7

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"Then said Tagaloa to the heaven-raising king, 'Come and raise the h e a v e n s ' . . . H e went and brought the first of all vegetable growths and with these he succeeded in raising the heavens."

"Then he stood on the tops of the mountains and trod them d o w n so as to prepare them well f o r . . . habitation." 9

" . . . w h i c h g a v e to Tutuila its inhabitants."

11

"That they may Tagaloa entertain.

"Said Tagaloa, T o each of you from above I now impart a will'. "

"Your faces they must shine, I so ordain."

13

Ua sanisani fa'amanuao. The joy of the welcome is like the birds greeting the dawn. Proverb.

The Dawn

E a le puga nisi, a le 'ana n i s i . Let each do a fair share of the w o r k .

Proverb.

Na o le taeao o faiva. O n e should go f i s h i n g (hunting) o n l y in the morning. Proverb: Early morning is the best time for work.

16

"They are a very cleanly people, both about their houses, their persons, and their food. They bathe at least twice a day." (Williams)

"Every morning at daylight every particle, weed, fallen leaf, and rubbish is carefully picked up." (Williams)

Youth scraping medicinal bark for his grandfather's morning tea.

18

Ta te gase a uluga. Let us die together. Proverb: Late for school.

Lutia i P u a v a 'ae m a p u i Fagalele. Distressed at Puava but w e shall rest at Fagalele. Proverb: Better things are coming.

Fine mats are h u n g out to air in the m o r n i n g sun. 20

The people go about their daily lives — on wings, on foot, on wheels.

E tu manu, 'ae le tu logologo. T h e town crier is reliable, a rumor suspect. Proverb.

"[Issues] were argued on both sides with a calmness that seldom characterizes debate in more civilized countries and with an acuteness that does credit to their senses." (Williams)

23

Po'o ua atoatoa ea tupe i le fala? Are all the discs on the mat? Proverb: Are all present?

The Day 24

Fa'aafu fa'aufi. Search for the wild yam. Proverb: Find the 7'e 'i'e vine and follow it to the source. Solve the problem.

25

U a vela le fala. The mat is warm. Proverb. Applied to any performance that takes a long time.

Ua numi le fau. It's more complicated than it looks. Proverb. 27

Ua o gatasi le futia ma le umele. We must be of one mind in this undertaking. Proverb.

28

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Ua api le ulu. Proverb:

T h e mark is near. The end is in sight.

S o ' o le f a u . To tie t o g e t h e r t w o p i e c e s of fau. Proverb: To pursue a goal with united

effort.

N a si'i le f a i v a o se alili, a u a m a u a ai le p u i a l i ' i . T h e y w e r e s e a r c h i n g for shellfish but f o u n d m u c h . more. Proverb.

Fa'atauga 'o'a. L i k e t h e pressing o u t of t h e 'o'a. Proverb: Slowly and thoroughly. 30

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la ifo le fuiniu i le lapalapa. May the cluster of nuts bow to the midrib of the leaf. Proverb: The individual is responsible to the family.

Mountain plantations.

Se'i toto le ta'amu te'evao. Plant the giant taro to control the weeds. Proverb.

O le aso ma le filiga'afa, o le aso ma le mata'inatila. Sennit should be made daily, and daily the rigging must be examined. Proverb: Act only after mature reflection.

U a se fau e ta'i. Like the twisting of a cord. Proverb: A unanimous decision.

34

Proverb:

Fa'asavali a nunu. Like the return from the nunu. Patiently and thoroughly done.

Malo le onosa'i. Congratulations to patience. Adage.

37

Ua tu'u i tai le va'a tele. The big net has been spread. Proverb:

O le seuseu ma le fata. Fish with a proper net. Proverb:

Do it the right

Listen and consider

the orator's

words.

way.

38

Ua suluia le pagi. The bait has been lit up [by the rising sun]. Proverb. Applied to secrets divulged.

I

Fili e le tai se agava'a. Let the sea determine the quality of the boat. Proverb.

E ala i aso. Some days one is lucky. Proverb.

IL«

O le sau o le ola. Life-giving dew. Proverb. An expression of gratitude.

Dawn, and the town awakens. 43

Pago Pago and Beyond

Talanoa atu, 'ae le talanoa manu. The bonitos swim about thoughtlessly but the seagulls are on the alert. Proverb:

Woe

to the

incautious.

••¿i'v,-,?.

Ua leai se ulu e ala. There is not even time to scratch one's head.

Proverb.

Referring

to work

that keeps one's hands

busy.

44

"They appeared very knowing merchants ... lively with all, which is indeed their natural disposition." (Williams and Barff)

45

Ua tofo i tino matagi lelei. A favorable wind is felt on the body. Proverb. Referring to the joy of expectation

Ua iloa i va'a lelea. Seen as briefly as voyagers carried away by the wind. Proverb.

47

Friendly

reproof

for too short a visit.

Sa matou tu'u la'au mai nei. On our journey we have enjoyed much hospitality. Proverb.

la 'oso 'ati'ati. Dig out even the small pieces [of yam].

Proverb:

Be

frugal.

Aua ne'i galo Afi'a i lona vao. Let not Afi'a be forgotten in his forest. Proverb:

Remember

those

left

behind

48

E o'u le aso, 'ae o oe taeao.

Today my turn, tomorrow yours. Proverb.

"Men, women, and children are allowed to speak and give their opinions . . . " (Williams)

"Upon the whole the government may be said to be a popular one for all important ... determinations are come to by a meeting of the whole of the people with the chief at the head." (Williams)

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Ua fuifui fa'atasi, 'ae vao 'ese'ese. Gathered into one flock from different parts of the forest. Proverb.

Heads of state and delegates arrive for the South Pacific Conference.

A papal delegate and Samoa's cardinal preside over the formation of the new Diocese of Pago Pago.

American Samoa helps Western Samoa celebrate its independence day.

54

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The opening of the South Pacific Games. O le ti'a ulu tonu lou finagalo. Your will is like a ti'a that flies to its goal. Proverb. Expression of courtesy and respect.

O le ua na fua mai Manu'a. A rain that originated in Manu'a. Proverb. Said of an event for which due notice was given. The women's golf team wins the gold.

E manatua pule, 'ae le manatua fa'alaeo. Proverb: Compassion is remembered, destruction forgotten. 57

E tasi, 'ae afe. Only one, but worth a thousand. Proverb

A boy's first haircut E valavala a t u m a n u T h e shagginess of a young banana bunch Proverb applied to that which will mature well.

Milestones

The hair is added to the family's

ceremonial headress.

58

Ua tino le soifua, ua to i tua Apolima. Life is assured, Apolima has been passed. Proverb. A danger has been avoided.

Induction into the Army. Tau ina ta ma fa'apio. May it end with threats, but not come to blows.

la manuia le malaga. Blessings on your journey. Adage. HULL11?"!

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E tupu le fafine fanau, e tupu le tane ta le tatau. The woman must bear children, the man must be tattooed. Traditional

tattoo

E logo le tuli ona tat a. The knee feels the tapping. Proverb:

63

Becoming

aware.

song.

Ua maua le fili a Aumua le Sigano. Aumua le Sigano has attained his desire.

Proverb:

Hopes

realized despite

difficulties.

U a le s u l a f a l a o 'le'ie. 'le'ie's mats w e r e not a c k n o w l e d g e d . Proverb: Expression of joy for such abundance that there isn't strength enough to thank for everything.

65

The extended family prepares to bestow its title.

Each branch of the family makes its presentation.

O le vaivai o le fe'e. The softness of an octopus. Proverb. A calm but momentous

speech. 66

SSSSutì iiumuuiuiuumuijj

A careful record is kept. Avatu ni lo, aumai ni lo. Proverb:

Jit for tat.

Sad fa'alalelei! Thank you, it is very beautiful. Expression

69

used to acknowledge

a fine mat.

C e l e b r a t i n g t h e n e w title.

'The Chief held one end of the cloth ... in his hands leaving the other to drag after him ... and presented it in a rather stately manner." (Williams and Barff)

E sua le 'ava, 'ae to le 'ata. The kava plant is dug up, but a twig is planted immediately. Proverb:

The family is

Ua lauiloa e pili ma se. It is known by every lizard and grasshopper.

Proverb.

immortal.

Celebation of a lagi soifua, a funeral held while the guest of honor still lives and can enjoy the food, fine mats, and speeches.

Fa'aulufalega. Dedication of a church. O le mea a 'Oi. The work of 'Oi. Proverb: A great endeavor. 72

Sili le foe. Put away the paddle. Proverb: Time to leave the work to others.

Tuai tuai ta te ma'ona ai. Long in coming but satisfying when it does. Proverb. Refers to a giant ground oven.

As a girl from each family dances, friends and relatives join in and contribute money to the new church.

Fa'atoetoe le muli o le ola. Keep the remainder of the basket for others. Proverb: Show love and kindness to everyone. 76

Celebrating the 150th anniversary of the arrival of John Williams, the first missionary.

'The name of the bay is Le One (Leone)... in no place have I landed where better arrangements were made or greater order preserved." (Williams) 78

O le taeao na i Saua. The morning that was at Saua. Proverb. Expressing joy and appreciation event.

of a great

O le va'a ua mafa tautai. The boat is full of captains. Proverb: There's an abundance of skill here.

Religion

Sunday morning — the smoke from the ground ovens rises. 82

Sunday rest.

la uluulu matafolau. To go from house to house. Proverb. Analgous to the Holy Spirit going from heart to heart.

Pastor's school - learning to read.

Evening Bible study. O le uta a le poto e fetala'i A wise man thinks before speaking. Proverb. 87

O le po. Preparing the pastor's food for the next day. Alofa moli po. Love shown at night. Proverb.

Choir practice. O le va'a fau po fau ao. A boat is being built day and night. Proverb.

A death in the village. O le pa ua sala i le maga. The hook has been torn from the shaft.

Proverb.

Villagers keep vigil with the family, singing hymns throughout the night.

90

U a tagi le Fatu ma le 'Ele'ele. T h e stones and the earth wept. Proverb.

O le mamao a siu i tila. The distance of the top of the mast. Proverb: When the mast is sighted, loved ones will soon be home. An assurance ot reunion after death.

Close of Day

Ua pipili tia 'ae mamao ala. The hilltops are near, but the roads to them are long. Proverb.

Mama i avega si'i. A burden is light when first lifted. Proverb. 92

U a to i lologamata. H e is secure in the net. Proverb: Said of something that success is assured. 95

done with so much skill

In the evening there is time to relax. U a fa'ala'au tU i vanu. Like a tree standing near a precipice. Proverb.

E mu'a le vao. The wood is still green. Proverb. Apology for mistakes due to inexperience

96

Fa'ape'ape'a le tu. L i k e t h e s w i f t b i r d t h a t n e v e r rests.

Proverb.

Ua se ¡'a e sola. H e is l i k e a f i s h t h a t e s c a p e d . Proverb. Simile for speed.

Ua lelea le laumea. Dry leaves are carried away by the wind. Proverb.

Allusion

to troops

routed.

Ua tusa tau'au. Both shoulders are of equal strength.

Proverb referring to well-matched

partners.

Ua se vl e toli. Like fruits shaken from the vl tree. Proverb applied to defeated cricketers.

99

"Samoans are a fine race of people. The men in particular are well proportioned, some of gigantick stature." (Williams)

Even at twilight the fishermen go off.

O le malie ma le tu'u.

Proverb:

Every shark has its price. Every act receives its reward.

Palolo netting o n c e a year.

O le upega e fili i le po, 'ae talatala i le ao.

T h e net that was tangled at night will be straightened in the morning. I'rowrb: To settle a dispute.

100

Lighting the lanterns.

Evening prayers. Talo lua Tuna ma Fata. Pray for both Tuna and Fata. Proverb: Don't restrict your love to only one person.

When guests depart, a farewell party is given.

Ua patipati ta'oto le Fe'epo. Fe'epo clapped his hands lying down. Proverb.

Expression

of joy.

E tasi le po 'ae ogaoga. Only one night but a long one. Proverb. 104

¡É0ii¡ÉÉÉgí "MWMîÊËsa

Beneath the Southern Cross, day and night meet on the horizon. 106

mmm

Pago Pago harbor.

Epilogue

108

"A village nestles in its grove of palms." (R.L. Stevenson)

109

la malu le vai i lou finagalo. May your mind be like cool water. Proverb.

O si'ufofoga. Echo. 111

A'e i le Pola ne'i gase, ne'i sosola o manu e. Climb the Pola noiselessly lest the game birds fly away. Ua ta'oto le ataata o Taulelei. The reflection of Taulelei lies on the waters. Proverb: The descendants will be handsome. 112

••in - • .sij!

mmr O le aso e loaloa. T h e day is long. Proverb: A wise man waits until the truth is

known.

O le m e l o m e l o a M a n u ' a . cl glow of Manu'a. Proverb.

114

Notes

C O V E R . The islands of O f u and Olosega. [Aerial off Ofu] P A C E ii. S a m o a n youths proudly parade the flags of the United States and A m e r i c a n Samoa during Flag Day. Each year American Samoa celebrates the raising of the American Flag on 17 April 1900. S o ' o le fau ma le fau. Schultz, 168. [Pago Pago, Tutuila],

116

Prologue — The Creation The islands of American between

Australia

Samoa are situated

and Hawaii.

170° we5t. All are volcanic and lush vegetation. resting on submerged

in the South Pacific, about

They lie some 15° south of the equator,

in origin.

The remaining

The five high islands have abundant

halfway at

about rainfall

two islands are atolls - rings of exposed

coral

volcanoes.

PAGE 5. O f u , O l o s e g a , a n d Ta'u c o m p r i s e t h e islands of M a n u ' a s o m e 65 miles east of T u t u i l a . G e o l o g i c a l l y t h e y are t h e oldest a n d socially t h e m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l of t h e g r o u p . [Aerial off M a n u ' a ]

PAGE 7. Left, M o u n t a i n ranges o f T u t u i l a . [ M t A l a v a , Tutuila] Top right, Swains Island, 280 miles n o r t h of T u t u i l a is a p e r f e c t a t o l l w i t h a c e n t r a l f r e s h w a t e r l a g o o n . It has b e e n p r i v a t e l y o w n e d by t h e Jennings f a m i l y since 1856. [Swains Island f r o m t h e sea] Bottom right, Rose, an u n i n h a b i t e d atoll 2 5 0 miles east o f T u t u i l a , is a fish a n d w i l d l i f e preserve. [Aerial o f f Rose]

PAGE 6. T u t u i l a , w i t h t h e small island o f ' A u n u ' u o f f its coast, c o n t a i n s t w o - t h i r d s of t h e t e r r i t o r y ' s l a n d a n d o v e r 90 p e r c e n t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n . [ A e r i a l o f f 'Aunu'u]

PAGE 8. T h e m o i s t t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e s u p p o r t s lush vegetation. A giant banyan tree frames M t Matafao (2,142 ft.), t h e highest m o u n t a i n o n Tutuila [Tafuna, Tutuila]

PAGE 4. Left. TulT - a w h i t e s e a b i r d . [ O f f t h e coast of Ofu] Right, S p e c t a c u l a r v o l c a n i c f o r m a t i o n s a b u t m a n y of t h e islands. [Eastern e n d of O l o s e g a ]

117

PAGE 9. Left, Large bird's nest ferns g r o w o n t h e forest f l o o r . [In t h e m o u n t a i n s b e h i n d M a l a e l o a , Tutuila] Middle, A t h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s w i l d o r c h i d s b l o o m b e n e a t h t h e c a n o p y of t h e r a i n f o r e s t . [ M t A l a v a r o a d , Tutuila] Right, D a w n - s l e e p i n g c l o u d s rise f r o m t h e mountaintops. [Mt Matafao] PAGES 10-13. T h e S a m o a n s are m e m b e r s o f t h e Polynesian race, w h o s e ancestors m i g r a t e d f r o m island Southeast Asia s o m e t h r e e t h o u s a n d years ago. T h e y possess t h e i r o w n l a n g u a g e a n d c u s t o m s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l S a m o a n w a y , o r fa'a Samoa, focuses o n t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , or 'a/ga, w h i c h m a y c o n t a i n several related W e s t e r n - s t y l e f a m i l i e s . T h e head of t h e "a/ga, is t h e matai, or c h i e f . Families t e n d t o be large a n d are c l o s e l y k n i t . [Samoa]

The Dawn The morning

sunburst

marks the beginning

system of roads provides leave for school. while

Throughout

of the lagoon,

The women or weave

take care of their

the precious

fine

PAGE 14. Dawn - the lights around Pago Pago harbor still glitter, the last clouds drift from Mt Pioa, the Rainmaker, and the workday begins. Ua sanisani fa'amanuao. Schultz, 131. [Pago Pago harbor, Tutuila] PAGE 15. Left, O n Swains Island, villagers wake as the m o r n i n g sun filters through their mosquito nets. The traditional Samoan house is ideally suited to the climate. [Taulaga, Swains Island] Right, Most villages are made up of a score or more extended families living in adjoining houses. The classic village has one or more churches, and is built around a malae or village green w h i c h is used for ceremonial occasions and recreation. [Vailoatai, Tutuila] PAGE 16. Left, Three youths on a fishing expedition carry their family's handmade outrigger canoe d o w n to the lagoon. 'E a le puga nisi . . . Brother Herman, 7. [Sa'ilele, Tutuila] Right, A young hunter armed w i t h gun and bush knife leaves for the mountains where he will stalk pigeons, edible fruit bats, and w i l d pigs. Na o le taeao o faiva. Schultz, 530. [Masefau Tutuila] PAGE 17. Before the sun gets too hot, a father and son leave for their plantation. There they will cultivate and weed their crops of taro and banana. [Olosega]

a

the islands,

In the rural areas, the men leave for their plantations

the sun is still low.

shallows

of a new day. For many,

easy access to town.

households,

superior children or go

fishing

fish in the

mats.

PAGE 18. Left, Samoans are a cleanly people and most bathe twice a day — in the morning and after work. All the islands have running water. In the outer villages people enjoy an outdoor shower. 'They are a very cleanly people . . . " Williams. [Faga'itua, Tutuila] Middle, Everyone contributes to the family's welfare. Each morning the children from toddler to teenager pick up the rubbish and fallen leaves. Most villages resemble well-groomed parks. "Every morning at daylight . . . " Williams. [Fiti'uta, TaU] Right, A young man scrapes the bark of the toa tree. This will be pounded and squeezed through a cloth, to produce a juice that will be mixed with water and drunk by his grandfather as a digestive aid. [Luma, TaU] PAGE 19. Free education is available to all children of American Samoa from elementary through secondary school. Each elementary school chooses its o w n distinctive uniform. Ta te gase a uluga. Schultz, 3. [Fiti'uta, Ta u] PAGE 20. Traditionally, old people in Samoa are revered and cared for. They continue to contribute to the family's welfare throughout their lives. O l d w o m e n in particular are respected for their knowledge of genealogy. This w o m a n takes time to air some of the family's fine mats in the morning sun. [Nu'uuli, Tutuila]

PAGE 21. Left, Untitled young men, called taulele'a, provide society's muscle. This young man shaves the lawn w i t h a bush knife. Lutia i Puava . . . Brown, 196. ['Ili'ile, Tutuila] Right, Sporting a traditional tattoo that extends from his upper pectoral muscles to below his knees, this young man enjoys the convenience of a power mower. ['Ili'ili, Tutuila] PAGE 22. Left, A village mayor announces a morning w o r k project and a meeting of the chiefs. E tu manu . . . Schultz, 547. [Olosega] Right, A council of chiefs, or village fono, meets for a discussion. Each family's chief or matai has an opportunity to give his or her view. Decisions are not made until a consensus is reached. "[Issues] were argued on both sides . . . Williams. [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 23. Top, American Samoa's international airport accommodates jets from overseas as well as small propeller planes that fly between the islands. [Tafuna, Tutuila] Bottom left, Dressed in her traditional puletasi, a matching tunic and sarong, this w o m a n is on her way to visit a relative. [Olosega] Bottom right, Father and son enjoy the cool morning air. [Le'ala, Tutuila] 118

The Day American

Samoa is a fascinating

Elementary

school

computers.

Women

children

learn

blend

take time to weave

well as holding

jobs throughout

have mastered

the skills required

of the traditional

to count

with

mats and search

the territory.

and the

shells while

Many

modern.

teenagers

the lagoon

program for shellfish

men not only work

to make a plantation,

work

with

wood,

in town

as but

or fish the sea.

PAGE 32. All the high islands possess dramatic scenery. The shortage of flat land necessitates cropping on the slopes of the mountains. A suitable area of bush is cleared, and taro or bananas planted. [Mountains behind Afono, Tutuila]

PAGE 24. Left, Throughout the education system, the usual elementary and high school curricula are supplemented w i t h courses in the Samoan language, culture, and arts. Po'o ua atoatoa ea tupe ile fala? Brown, 113. [Faleasao, TaU] Right, Whenever possible, indigenous materials are used in the classroom. Fa'aafu fa'aufi. Brown, 63. [Olosega] PAGE 25. It is a long journey from counting w i t h fingers and shells in elementary school to w o r k i n g w i t h computers in high school. [Lepuapua, Tutuila] PAGE 26. Left, W i t h skill and patience a master craftswoman supervises a child's siapo or tapa-cloth design. Through classroom instruction and special programs offered by the museum, school children learn the art of producing, designing, and printing siapo. Ua numi le fau. Schultz, 94. [Nu'uuli, Tutuila] Right, In the Community College, students master the intricacies of the human anatomy. [Mapusaga, Tutuila] PAGE 27. O l d w o m e n take pride in continuing to use their weaving skills. This grandmother keeps her grandchild close as she works on a mat. Ua vela le fala. Schultz, 165. [Sa'ilele, Tutuila]

119

PAGE 28. Left, Three sisters enjoy a lively discussion w h i l e doing the family laundry. Ua o gatasi le futia ma le umele. Brother Herman, 9. [A'umi, Tutuila] Right, The skills are passed from one generation to the next. Using materials she herself has gathered and prepared, this w o m a n is making a hot pad. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PAGE 29. Top, Samoans are a very social people and enjoy w o r k i n g together whenever possible. Bottom, Three w o m e n from the same family share the w o r k of weaving a very large fine mat. Ua api le ulu. Brown, 87. [Luma, TaU]

PAGE 33. Left, A youth climbs a cocounut palm the most useful tree in the islands. The trunk is a source of w o o d for fuel and posts. The leaves are w o v e n into baskets and food trays or even used for thatch. The nut's outer husk is a ready source of fuel, and its thick fibers are treated and braided into twine. The mature nut is a source of oil, and the grated meat w h e n squeezed produces a thick cream used in cooking. la ifo le fuiniu i le lapalapa. Schultz, 177. [Ofu] Right, Taro is staple to Samoa, as wheat is to North America and rice to Asia. The edible tuber can be baked or boiled. The severed stem is replanted, takes root and after several months produces another taro. Se'i toto le ta'amu te'evao. Schultz, 187. [Taro garden on mountains near Pago Pago]

PAGE 30. Left, W i t h some guidance from the head of the household, the w o m e n of the family hang a new set of blinds. So'o le fau. Schultz, 168. [Vaitogi, Tutuila] Right, W o m e n also specialize in shallow-water fishing called figota. Na si'i le faiva . . . Schultz, 433. [Fatumafuti, Tutuila]

PAGE 34. Left, The fibers of the coconut husk are soaked in the sea before being pounded. O le aso ma le filiga'afa . . . Schultz, 148. [Si'ufaga, Ta'u] Right, Several times a week, the men gather to w o r k at making coconut sennit. The prepared fibers are rolled together and braided into an incredibly strong twine. Ua se fau e ta'i. Schultz, 167 [Si'ufaga, Ta'u]

PAGE 31. Left, The intricate and demanding skills of making siapo, or tapa, are practiced and taught by this master craftswoman. Fa'atauga 'o'a. Schultz, 163. [Vaitogi, Tutuila] Right, The traditional skills of printing siapo are carried over to silk screening. [Fagatogo, Tutuila]

PAGE 35. In Manu'a, a fisherman weaves a fishtrap from the roots of the 'ie'ie vine, tying them together w i t h coconut twine. The traps are laid in shallow waters from January through April. The small fish caught are used as live bait for deep-sea fishing. Fa'asavali a nunu. Schultz, 266. [Olosega]

PAGE 36. Left, Carpenters hollow out the trunk of a tree to make a giant drum. W h e n struck with a heavy pole, the lali gives forth a deep, resonant boom, calling the people to church. Ua tata lali lapopo'a. Schultz, 500. [A'oloau, Tutuila] Right, In no other part of the world are houses built like Samoan fales. Traditionally, the beams are lashed together with coconut twine,- no nails are needed. Ua osofia moega luaga. Schultz, 140. [Tafuna, Tutuila] PACE 37. Left, High in the mountains young men search a streambed for crayfish. [Stream behind Malaeloa, Tutuila] Right, A prolonged underwater hunt is rewarded. [Stream behind Malaeloa, Tutuila] PACE 38. Left, At the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor, a group of relatives construct a communal fish trap. O le seuseu ma le fata. Brown, 85. [Fatumafuti, Tutuila] Right, A skilled net thrower stalks a school of fish. Ua tu'u i tai le va'a tele. Schultz, 18. ['Aunu'u, Tutuila] PAGE 39. Left, In the shallow waters between Ofu and Olosega, a fisherman sets his trap, surrounding it with sand and coral to hold it in place. Ua suluia le pagi. Schultz, 497. [Asaga between Ofu and Olosega] Right, With practiced eye and skilful arm, a spearfisherman stalks the large fish that feed among the breakers. O le sapatu moe 'ese. Schultz, 45. [Olosega] PAGE 40. Left, W h e n a fish is sighted, a fisherman slaps the surface with his spear, noting where the fish hides. He then dives and spears it beneath a coral ledge. [Ofu] Right, Far out at sea, the men pursue their quarry in sunshine or stormy weather. Fili e le tai se agava'a. Brown, 90. [Out at sea] PAGE 41. Sometimes one is lucky and the catch is good, very good. Wrasse (Labridae; Chelinus Undulatus Ruppell, 1835), E ala i aso. Schultz, 509. [Out at sea]

120

Pago Pago and Beyond The name Pago Pago is frequently used to refer to the entire urban settlement around the bay, which in fact is made up of three villages - Utulei, Fagatogo, and Pago Pago. Although each village in American Samoa has its own council of chiefs, this area is the seat of the central government and much of the territory's commercial life. American Samoa is very much a part of the wider Pacific and has not only hosted the South Pacific Conference ? ^ received representatives from all over the world, but also frequently sends delegations to Western Samoa and beyond. PACE 42. At dawn, sunlight reaches into the crater that surrounds the town area. Clockwise from left are the Queen Salamasina, which travels between American and Western Samoa, the dome-shaped buildings of the territorial legislature, and the white-columned court house. [Fagatogo Tutuila] PAGE 43. Left, Throughout American Samoa, school buses pick up the children in the morning and bring them home at the end of each day. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] Right, Now a store, Sadie Thompson's Mart was formerly a rooming house made famous in Somerset Maugham's short story, play, and film "Rain". O le sau o le ola. Schultz, 468. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PAGE 44. Top left, A multimillion-dollar fishing vessel leaves Pago Pago harbor on its way to the western Pacific. Over fifty such ships make up the tuna fishing fleet. Talanoa atu, 'ae le talanoa manu. Schultz, 42. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Bottom left, Each vessel is air conditioned and equipped with sonar, a satellite communication system, computers, a helicopter, and several small power launches. [Atu'u, Tutuila] Right, The fishing fleet lands enough tuna to supply two large multimillion-dollar canneries. Ua leai se ulu a ala. Schultz, 501. [Atu'u, Tutuila] PACE 45. Left, Religion plays an important role in American Samoa's life ... even on the assembly line. [Atu'u, Tutuila] Middle, O n Saturdays everyone in Samoa purchases, harvests, or catches the food for the Sunday feast. "... they appeared very knowing merchants . . . " Williams and Barff. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] Right, Unlucky at fishing, a lavalava-clad youth catches his fish another way. Uatofo i tino matagi lelei. Schultz, 310. [Nu'uuli, Tutuila] 121

PAGE 46. With one of the most magnificent harbors in the South Seas, Pago Pago is a favorite port for ocean liners. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PAGE 47. Left, Disembarking passengers are welcomed with traditional Samoan songs and dances. Ua iloa i va'a lelea. Schultz, 300. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] Right, Situated on a harbor promontory, the Rainmaker Hotel, with its distinctive traditional architecture, provides hospitality and recreation for visitors to American Samoa. Sa matou tu'u la'au mai nei. Schultz, 114. [Utulei, Tutuila] PAGE 48. Left, A lavalava-clad youth makes an early morning deposit. la 'oso 'ati'ati. Schultz, 504. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] Right, The museum not only houses a fascinating permanent collection of Samoan artifacts but also exhibits local art and handicrafts. Aua ne'i galo Afi'a i lona vao. Brown, 16. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PAGE 49. Through the Art Council of American Samoa, the museum sponsors programs that teach Samoa's youth such cultural skills as weaving, tapa making and carving. E o'u le aso 'ae o oe taeao. Schultz, 423. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PAGE 50. Top, American Samoa's governor, lieutenant governor, legislature, and congressional delegate are all popularly elected. "Men, women, and children ..." Williams. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Bottom, The legislature or Fono of American Samoa is bicameral. Senators are elected according to Samoan custom by the chiefs of each county. Members of the House of Representatives are populary elected. [Fagatogo, Tutuila]

PAGE 51. The January opening ceremonies are always impressive. The Fono meets for two 45-day sessions each year. The second opening is in July. "Upon the whole the government ..." Williams. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PAGE 52. American Samoa hosted the South Pacific Conference in 1982. The heads of state and government leaders of twenty-one island nations and territories met in Pago Pago to discuss matters of mutual interest and concern. [Tafuna, Tutuila] PAGE 53. Left, The governor of American Samoa chaired the conference, which was conducted simultaneously in English and French. Ua fuifui fa'atasi, 'ae vao 'ese'ese. Schultz, 91. [Utulei, Tutuila] Top right, At the opening ceremonies, the Arts Council sang each of the twenty-one island groups anthems in its native tongue. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Bottom right, The head of every delegation was given a King's Kava. The drink is prepared outside the house rather than inside. A specially titled young man, manaia, wearing a tuiga, a headdress of bleached human hair decorated with feathers, beads, and shells, mixes the kava. The drink is strained through the fibers of the wild hibiscus. Ua malie ma le faga i Pa'au. Schultz, 452. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] PAGE 54. Left, When the new diocese of Pago Pago was formed, the Pope's special representative assisted the Samoan Cardinal. [Tafuna, Tutuila] Right, The village of Leone, Tutuila, sent more than a hundred dancers to help Western Samoa celebrate the twenty-first anniversary of its independence. [Mulinu'u, Upolu] PAGE 55. The Arts Council of American Samoa sent a delegation to the inauguration of the governor of Hawaii. [Honolulu, Hawaii] PAGE 56. Left, Every four years the South Pacific Games are held. Attended by all the island nations and territories, they are the Olympics of the South Pacific. In 1983 American Samoa's team was one of the largest ever. [Apia Park, Upolu] Right, American Samoa's volleyball team create an aerial wall. O le ti'a ulu tonu lou finagalo. Schultz, 245. [Apia Park, Upolu] PAGE 57. One of American Samoa's boxers and the women's golf team are shown receiving their gold medals. Top, O le ua na fua mai Manu'a. Brown, 49. [Vaivaseuta, Upolu] Bottom, E manatua pule, 'ae le manatua fa'alaeo. Schultz, 518. [Matautu, Upolu]

Milestones W e are all travellers milestones

to mark

that illustrate graduation, bestowal social

a people's marriage,

of a title.

milestones

dedication,

through human

life and each culture progress.

values and cultural and death,

As the culture as celebrating

Samoan is oriented the arrival

and Flag Day have been

creates

These provide genius. culture

its own

particular

a rich and descriptive

record

To the usual milestones has added

toward

family

the tattoo

and

and community,

of the first missionary,

a

of

birth,

the such

church

included.

PAGE 58. W h e n a baby is born, the father prepares and presents to the new mother a special drink made of warm coconut milk. E tasi, 'ae afe. Schultz, 161. [LBJ Tropical Medical Center, Tutuila] PACE 59. Left, A boy's first haircut is marked by a gathering of the family's chiefs. A kava ceremony is held, and speeches made exhorting the boy to grow into an obedient youth, serving and sharing. After a prayer has been offered, the head of the family cuts the boy's hair. E valavala a t u m a n u . Schultz, 397. [Leone, Tutuila] Right, The lock of hair is w o v e n into the family's headdress, and in this way the boy symbolically becomes a part of the family's ceremonial life. [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 60. Top left, At his high school graduation a y o u n g man touches his diploma to his head in a traditional gesture of appreciation and gratitude. U a tino le soifua . . . Schultz, 428. [Mapusaga, Tutuila] Bottom left, Young men are inducted into military service. Samoa contributes one of the highest percentages of any ethnic group to the U.S. armed forces. Tau ina ta m a fa'apoi. Schultz, 351. [Utulei, Tutuila] Bottom right, Laden w i t h garlands of flowers and of shells from relatives and friends, the new inductees await their flight. la m a n u i a le malaga. Adage. [Tafuna, Tutuila] PAGE 61. O n e of the finest international airports in the South Pacific connects American Samoa w i t h the outside world. [Tafuna, Tutuila]

PAGE 62. Some of American Samoa's most educated young professionals assume the traditional marks of manhood. The tattoo, w h i c h extends from the upper pectoral muscles to below the knee cap, consists of twenty-two named elements. The tattoo master and his assistants work rapidly and efficiently. Six to eight sessions over a t w o - m o n t h period are ordinarily required to complete the traditional pattern. E logo le tuli o n a tata. Schultz, 323. [Nu'uuli, Tutuila] PAGE 63. Left, Traditionally the young w o m e n of the village encouraged the youths in their ordeal by singing during the operation. This young man has incorporated twentieth-century music and a headset. E t u p u le fafine f a n a u . . . Kraemer p. 42. [Nu'uuli, Tutuila] Middle, Several youths are always tattooed together, sharing one another's pain. At the conclusion of the operation, they present the tattoo master with flower leis and lengths of cloth. In symbolic recognition of their new status, he cracks an egg on each one's head. [Nu'uuli, Tutuila] Right, After paying the tattoo master w i t h fine mats and money, the newly tattooed youths and their host and hostess celebrate w i t h a dance. U a m a u a le fili O A u m u a le Sigano. Schultz, 417. [Nu'uuli, Tutuila]

PAGE 64. Left, Although a marriage is primarily to formalize and sanctify the relationship between the bride and groom, in Samoa it very much involves the extended families of each partner. The bride's relations contribute many fine mats and sleeping mats to the groom's family. These frequenly run into hundreds if not thousands. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] Right, It is incumbent on the groom's family to balance the exchange w i t h money. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PACE 65. The mats are redistributed among the groom's relatives, and the money to the bride's extended family, in proportion to the contribution made by each family member. The w e d d i n g exchange is between the families of the marriage partners. Although the material benefits do not go directly to the bride and groom, the exchange represents a major family undertaking orchestrated on their behalf. U a le sula fala o 'le'ie. Schultz, 267. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] PAGE 66. Top, W h e n a chief dies, the extended family chooses his or her successor. Unlike most Polynesian cultures, in Samoa a title is not inherited. Everyone related to the title has a chance to speak about the new candidate. Important considerations are age, wisdom, service to the family, and how close the connections are. Ideally, the new chief is chosen by consensus. Once chosen, he or she prepares for the saofa'i, an investiture or election feast. The saofa'i indicates the formal acceptance of the new matai by the village, county, and all of Samoa. [Leone, Tutuila] Bottom, The extended family and village assemble to hear speeches exchanged by the talking chiefs. O le vaivai o le fe'e. Schultz, 63. [Leone, Tutuila] 122

PAGE 67. Left, Each b r a n c h of t h e f a m i l y presents t h e matai elect w i t h s y m b o l i c f o o d a n d t h e a c c o u t r e m e n t s of t h e n e w rank. [Leone, Tutuila] Right, T h e m e n of t h e f a m i l y p r e p a r e for t h e kava c e r e m o n y , w h e r e t h e n e w matai w i l l be f o r m a l l y addressed by title for the first t i m e . [Leone, Tutuila] PACE 68. T h e cost of t h e investure feast w o u l d astonish a n y o n e not familiar w i t h Samoan c u s t o m . A t r e m e n d o u s o u t l a y of f o o d a n d presentation of fine mats takes place b e t w e e n t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y a n d t h e village. At this particular saofa'i, 3 , 8 0 0 fine mats a n d $ 4 3 , 0 0 0 w e r e redistributed. Sao fa'alalelei. M i l n e r , 200. [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 69. Left, A carefull tally is kept of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e by each b r a n c h of t h e f a m i l y . Today, h a n d calculators a n d c o r r e c t i o n f l u i d m a k e for m o r e efficient r e c o r d - k e e p i n g . Avatu ni lo, a u m a i ni lo. Schultz, 58. [Leone, Tutuila] Right, As each b r a n c h of t h e f a m i l y makes its c o n t r i b u t i o n , relatives sing a n d d a n c e , e n c o u r a g i n g t h e f l o w of fine mats. [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 70. Top left, As part of t h e c u s t o m , t h e f a m i l y gives t h e c h i e f of each c o n t r i b u t i n g g r o u p a sua or special p r e s e n t a t i o n consisting of a c o o k e d pig, f o w l , a c o c o n u t w i t h o n e eye pierced, a d o l l a r bill, taro c o o k e d in banana or breadfruit leaves, a fine mat, a n d a siapo (tapa cloth), or length of fabric. These gifts s y m b o l i z e t h e services r e n d e r e d by t h e f a m i l y - food, drink, money, and clothing. ' T h e C h i e f held o n e e n d of t h e c l o t h . . . " W i l l i a m s a n d Barff. [Leone, Tutuila] Bottom left, Such large exchanges give relatives a c h a n c e t o get t o g e t h e r a n d discuss t h e latest news. U a lauiloa e pili ma se. Schultz, 338. [Sa'ilele, Tutuila] Right. As a special m a r k of respect, not o n l y t h e kava root but t h e w h o l e bush is presented. E sua le 'ava, 'ae to le 'ata.Schultz,196. [Sa'ilele, Tutuila]

123

PACE 71. Left, Kava is p r e p a r e d a n d served t o all chiefs present. [Leone, Tutuila] Right, T h e highest t a l k i n g chiefs of t h e village place t h e i r hands o n t h e head of t h e matai elect t o f o r m a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e title a n d bless t h e n e w matai. [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 72. Left, W i t h t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of t h e family, elderly persons c a n have their funerals before they die. At t h e i r lagi soifua, t h e y e n j o y t h e speeches, feast, a n d fine mats g i v e n in t h e i r h o n o r . [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Right, All t h e b r a n c h e s of t h e f a m i l y c o m e and present fine mats a n d m o n e y . W h e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l dies at some later date, a s i m p l e b u r i a l is p e r f o r m e d w i t h a small religious service. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] PACE 73. Left, T h e c o m p l e t i o n a n d f o r m a l o p e n i n g of a n e w c h u r c h is c e l e b r a t e d w i t h a special c h u r c h service a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of fine mats a n d f o o d . Relatives of c h u r c h m e m b e r s f r o m all o v e r t h e islands and e v e n farther afield c o m e t o assist their families. [ A ' o l o a u , Tutuila] Right, A sua is g i v e n t o i m p o r t a n t guests a n d especially t h e c a r p e n t e r s w h o b u i l t t h e c h u r c h . O le mea a ' O i . B r o w n , 32. [ A ' o l o a u , Tutuila] PACE 74. Left, H u n d r e d s , if not t h o u s a n d s of fine mats are d i s t r i b u t e d . la e vae o Vaeau. Schultz, 477. [ A ' o l o a u , Tutuila] Right, Large kegs of salt beef are part of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e s o c i a b l e Samoans, w i t h their tight f a m i l y o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h o r o u g h l y e n j o y such gatherings. Assistance is given freely as d o n o r s k n o w that it w i l l be r e t u r n e d o n f u t u r e occasions. [A'oloau, Tutuila] PAGE 75. Left, S o m e o l d e r c h u r c h w o m e n take t i m e o u t t o rest a n d e n j o y a c o o l d r i n k . Sili l e f o e . Schultz, 87. [Faleniu, Tutuila] Right, W i t h t h e i r relatives, t h e y o u n g m e n of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n p r e p a r e a giant g r o u n d o v e n . Tuai tuai ta te ma'ona a i . B r o w n , 2 0 3 . [ A ' o l o a u , Tutuila]

PACE 76. Left, Everyone a t t e n d i n g t h e c e l e b r a t i o n participates in t h e feast a n d is given a basket of f o o d t o t a k e h o m e a n d share w i t h those u n a b l e t o c o m e . Fa'atoetoe le muli o le ola. Schultz, 202. [Olosega] Right, At night a d a n c e is held t o raise m o n e y for t h e n e w b u i l d i n g . As a y o u n g girl of each f a m i l y dances, relatives s u r r o u n d her a n d place m o n e y in her b o d i c e or at her feet. [Faleniu, Tutuila] PAGE 77. O f f t o t h e side, in t h e s h a d o w s , a small b o y gives his o w n p e r f o r m a n c e . [Faleniu, Tutuila] PAGE 78. Left, In 1832, t h e Reverend John W i l l i a m s of t h e L o n d o n M i s s i o n a r y Society l a n d e d for t h e first t i m e in w h a t is n o w A m e r i c a n Samoa. O n e h u n d r e d a n d fifty years later, t h e village of Leone a n d t h e w h o l e Congregational Church celebrated the anniversary of his arrival a n d t h e f o r m a l i n t r o d u c t i o n of Christianity. [Leone, Tutuila] Right, T h e village c h o i r sang several h y m n s a n d a s o l e m n service was c o n d u c t e d . [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 79. O u t s i d e t h e c h u r c h , t h e m e n of t h e village h e l d a special kava c e r e m o n y in h o n o r of t h e occasion. ' T h e n a m e of t h e bay is Le O n e . . . " W i l l i a m s . [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 80. Top left, T h e a n n u a l c e l e b r a t i o n of Flag Day c o m m e m o r a t e s t h e cession of t h e islands t o t h e U n i t e d States. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Bottom left, All s c h o o l c h i l d r e n t a k e part in t h e celebration. O le taeao na i Saua. B r o w n , 8. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Middle, Villages vie w i t h o n e a n o t h e r t o p r o d u c e t h e most spectacular mass d a n c e . Se'i fono le pa'a ma ona vae. Brother H e r m a n , 15. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Right, A n interested spectator e n j o y s t h e p r o c e e d i n g s . [Pago Pago, Tutuila] PAGE 81. Village fautasi or longboats w i t h c r e w s of forty m e n or m o r e c o m p e t e . O le va'a ua mafa tautai.Schultz, 2 7 6 . [ O f f t h e coast]

Religion Religion plays a very important part in Samoan culture. Most people go to church twice on Sunday and conclude each day with a family prayer. Children attend Pastor's school, youths enjoy Sunday evening Bible class, and adults attend choir practice several nights a week.

PACE 82. Saturday is called Aso To'ona'i, the day when preparations are made for the Sunday feast. Before sunrise the young men of each family prepare ground ovens. At daybreak, first one puff of smoke, then another can be seen, until the whole valley floats in an early morning haze. Within fifteen minutes the trade winds disperse the smoke and one of the South Seas' most romantic sights is gone for another week. [South coast of Tutuila] PAGE 83. Left, Dressed in white, a family makes its way to church. Each Sunday the road through the village is decorated with sprays of flowers. O le gase a ala lalovao. Schultz, 195. [Vailoatai, Tutuila] Right, Three churches within a mile underscore the importance of religion in Samoa. [Lepua/Aua, Tutuila] PAGE 84. Left, In Sunday school children learn Bible passages and hymns. la uluulu matafolau. Pratt, 37. [Nua, Tutuila] Right, Morning service is over, and people go home for the Sunday feast or to'ona'i. [Taulaga, Swains Island] PAGE 85. Although each family prepares its own to'ona'i, in many villages the Sunday meal is eaten communally. The pastor and chiefs eat together in one house and the untitled young men in another. Later, everyone relaxes for a Sunday rest. [Taulaga, Swains Island]

PAGE 86.Left, Many weddings are a beautiful blend of religion and culture. The bride and groom are seated on fine mats as the women of the family approach the altar with flower leis. la fua le niu. Schultz, 178. [Fagatogo, Tutuila] Right, The second Sunday in October, White Sunday or Children's Sunday, is the traditional day for baptisms. During the morning service, the small children recite Bible passages. In the afternoon the older children put on plays. This is a special day for recognizing children, a day when they receive new white clothes and the best of food. [Vailoatai, Tutuila] PAGE 87. Top, The pastor and his wife hold school several afternoons a week. Many children learn to read and master the rudiments of arithmetic before beginning their formal education. [Fiti'uta, Ta'u] Bottom, O n Sunday evening young people meet for Bible study and debates. O n some weekends and holidays they play cricket and volleyball and on special occasions they exchange visits with the youth of other villages and islands. O le uta a le poto e fetala'i. Schultz, 507. [Taputimu, Tutuila] PAGE 88. Choir members gather for practice several nights each week. O le va'a fau po fau ao. Schultz, 149. [Futiga, Tutuila]

PAGE 89. Left, In Manu'a, each family takes turn in providing the pastor with food. The men of the family get up at midnight and cook throughout the night. [Fiti'uta, Ta'u] Right, Before sunrise the baskets of food are delivered to the pastor's house. Alofa moli po. Schultz, 326. [Fiti'uta, Tau] PAGE 90. Top, When a death occurs, the village chiefs and untitled men assemble outside the house to pay their respects. The talking chiefs debate among themselves to determine who will address the family on behalf of the village. O le pa ua sala i le maga. Schultz, 6. [Olosega] Bottom, That night, various branches of the extended family pay their respects with speeches and fine mats. The village pastor and choir conduct a service and the women of the village sing hymns, staying with the family throughout the night. [Olosega] PAGE 91. Left, In the morning, before the coffin is closed, everyone makes a last farewell. It is a time of intense emotion and grief. Ua tagi le Fatu ma le 'Ele'ele. Brown, 153. [Olosega] Right, Even in death the family stays close. The grave is dug and the funeral conducted on family land. O le mamao a siu i tila. Brown, 93. [Fatumafuti, Tutuila] 124

Close of Day There is a special ambience about the end of day in Samoa. Work is over in town and village. Men return from garden or sea, laden with food for the evening meal. This is the time for recreation and relaxation ... On remote Swains, the lanterns are lit. All over American Samoa families gather for prayers before the evening meal. Farewell celebrations are held for guests who will depart the next day. A few families gather to discuss and plan for a forthcoming event. The stars come out. One by one the children fall asleep. The lights go out. The islands sleep.

PAGE 92. At the end of the day the food harvested is brought back to the village. Mama i avega si'i. Brown, 79. [Taputimu, Tutuila] PACE 93. High on the plateau, a young man finishes his work, climbs a palm and cuts down some branches. In minutes he weaves two baskets, fills them with breadfruit and taro, and slips them on a carrying stick. Following a switchback trail, he descends to his coastal village. Ua pipili tia 'ae mamao ala. Schultz, 92. [Olosega] PAGE 94. Assisted by his two sons, a father brings home the day's catch. Ua to i lologamata. Schultz, 68. [Leone, Tutuila] PAGE 95. Top, The family gathers around its returning fisherman. The catch is handed over and the canoe bailed out and beached for the night. [Olosega] Bottom, Spear fishermen walk on the reef with the day's catch (lobsters and fish.) [Le'ala, Tutuila] PAGE 96. Left, Now there is time to relax and play. A smooth lava shelf becomes a slide. Ua fa'ala'au tu i vanu. Schultz, 329. [Le'al'a, Tutuila] Right, A young man and a boy enjoy a game of marbles. _ E mu'a le vao. Schultz, 350. [Alao, Tutuila] PAGE 97. Left, All around the islands, young people set up volleyball nets and everyone gets a chance to play. Fa'ape'ape'a le tu. Schultz, 109. [Alofau, Tutuila] Right, For some there's pleasure in just running. Ua se ¡'a e sola. Schultz, 72. [Fogagogo, Tutuila] 125

PAGE 98. Top left, Every season has its sport. From about June to December, village rugby teams compete for the championship. Ua lelea le laumea. Pratt, 63. [Pago Pago, Tutuila] Bottom left, Cricket is played from January to April. Each village chooses its own floral lavalava for a uniform and fields a competition team on Saturdays. Before the game, village chiefs and players pray. The chiefs encourage sportsmanship and exhort the young men to bring honor to their village. Ua tusa tau'au. Schultz, 235. [Futiga, Tutuila] Right, Almost every village has a cricket pitch. Ordinary games are quite informal and open to everyone, male and female alike. Each team's size is determined by how many people want to play. [Taputimu, Tutuila] PAGE 99. Left, Championship matches involve village pride and draw sizeable crowds. [Faga'alu, Tutuila] Middle, At the conclusion of each game the teams line up and shake hands. [Vailoatai, Tutuila] Ua se vi e toli. Schultz, 218. [Vailoatai, Tutuila] Right, American Samoa has produced some worldclass football players. Each year, university and professional players return to share their expertise with Samoa's youth. This boy can't quite believe the size of the athlete's legs. "Samoans are a fine race of people. The men ..." Williams and Barff. [Leone, Tutuila] PACE 100. Top left, Even at night the fishing goes on. Traveling together the men leave in search of the elusive bonito. [Off the coast of Tail] Bottom, Once a year, in the middle of the night, the palolo, a small sea creature, rises from the reef to mate. It is a great delicacy. Thousands are scooped up in nets and emptied into pots held by women waiting on the beach. O le upega e fili i le po, 'ae talatala i le ao. Schultz, 24. [Luma, Tall]

PAGE 101. At sunset, the men go far beyond the reef some twenty miles into the open sea. There at night, they shake coconut rattles in the water to make sounds like a wounded fish. Four lines of bait are put out. Sharks, attracted by the noise, circle the boat. One by one, the lines of bait are pulled in. The final line is drawn closer and closer. The men play with the shark the way a matador manipulates a bull. When the shark passes close enough, a fisherman slips a rope over its head. Tightening the noose, he presses down on the head and pulls up until the shark's mouth is wide open. His partner rams a pole down its throat and with five or six blows to the head, the shark is killed. O le malie ma le tu'u. Brown, 101. [Out at sea] PAGE 102. Top left, Every night on Swains, the lanterns are lit before the evening meal. [Taulaga, Swains Island] Bottom left, All over American Samoa, families gather for evening prayers. Talo lua Tuna ma Fata. Schultz, 385. [Taulaga, Swains Island] Bottom right, O n the eve of guests' departure, a farewell feast and celebration is held. [Taulaga, Swains Island] PAGE 103. Bottom left, Children give an exuberant performance. [Village in Samoa] Right, At times, their joy knows no bounds. 'Oa'oa i faleseu. Schultz, 102. [Village in Samoa] PAGE 104. Left, At night, many families relax around their television. Ua patipati ta'oto le Fe'epo. Schultz, 238. [Vailoauta, Tutuila] Right, Up on Mt Alava, a lavalava-clad technician skilfully adjusts the channels. [Mt Alava, Tutuila] PACE 105. Through it all, the little ones sleep. E tasi le po'ae ogaoga. Schultz, 484. [Taulaga, Swains Island] PAGE 106. Late at night, an extended family discusses an impending celebration. Fine mats are gathered, kegs of salt beef stacked, and contributions made. [Sa'ilele, Tutuila] PAGE 107. Beneath the Southern Cross, the passing night and new day meet on the horizon. A new cycle begins. [Pago Pago, Tutuila]

Epilogue

PAGE 108. A bird's-eye view of Pago Pago Harbor from the top of Mt Pioa. [Pago Pago Harbor, Tutuila] PAGE 109. The three islands of Manu'a as seen from T a l i with Olosega and Ofu in the distance. "A village nestles in its grove of palms." R.L. Stevenson, p. 12. [Manu'a] PAGE 110. Remote Cape Taputapu with its palm-fringed beach, turquoise lagoon, and islets off the coast, la malu le vai i lou firiagalo. Schultz, 341. [Cape Taputapu, Tutuila]

PAGE 111. The traditional high dome of a Samoan fale (house) echoes the lofty peak of Mt Matafao. [Aasu, Tutuila] PAGE 112. Jutting out from the village of Vatia, the Pola, a series of rocks, rise straight from the ocean floor. A'e i le Pola ne'i gase, ne'i sosola o manu e. Schultz, 126. [Vatia, Tutuila]

PAGE 113. Samoa's exquisite beauty is mirrored in the children's faces. Ua ta'oto le ataata o Taulelei. Schultz, 421. PAGE 114. View o f T a U from Olosega. O le aso e loaloa. Brown, 188. PAGE 115. The first star of evening shines over Ofu and Asaga. O le melomelo a Manu'a. Schultz, 524. [From Olosega] 126

Glossary

-à/'ga

Aso To'ona'i fa'alavelave fa'a Samoa fale fau fautasi fi gota fono Fono lagi soifua

tali malae manaia matai nunu 'o'a paiolo puletasi

saofa'i siapo sua taulele'a ti'a toa tuiga vi

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e x t e n d e d family Saturday, t h e d a y w h e n preparations a r e m a d e for t h e S u n d a y feast Special o c c a s i o n

The traditional Samoan way House Plant (Hibiscus sp.) from w h i c h bast fiber is o b t a i n e d Longboats shallow-water fishing A c o u n c i l of chiefs T h e legislature of A m e r i c a n S a m o a a funeral held w h i l e t h e h o n o r e e still lives A giant d r u m Village green Specially titled y o u n g m a n Chief, h e a d of t h e 'aiga a ceremonial change Tree (Bischofia sp.); from its bark t h e b r o w n d y for tapa is extracted A small sea c r e a t u r e W o m a n ' s traditional dress, consisting of a m a t c h i n g tunic a n d sarong A n investiture or e l e c t i o n feast Tapa cloth A special presentation of food, drink, m o n e y , a n d c l o t h i n g Untitled y o u n g men A dart Tree

H e a d d r e s s of b l e a c h e d h u m a n hair, d e c o r a t e d w i t h feathers, beads, ; shells A large tree (Spondias sp.)' Tahitian apple

Bibliography

B r o w n , R e v . G e o r g e . 1914. " P r o v e r b s , Phrases, a n d Fourteenth S i m i l e s of t h e S a m o a n s " In Report of the Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, e d i t e d b y T . S . H a l l , pp. 401-433. S y d n e y . Fraser, J o h n . 1890. " O n s o m e folk songs a n d m y t h s f r o m S a m o a "Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales 24: 207-212. H e r m a n , Brother, a n d ). W . H a r t 1966 Samoan

Pesega, W e s t e r n S a m o a .

Culture.

Schultz, E. 1965. Samoan Proverbial Expressions. Translated by B r o t h e r H e r m a n . P o l y n e s i a n P a p e r b a c k s no. 1. W e l l i n g t o n : P o l y n e s i a n S o c i e t y . K r a e m e r Augustin, 1902. Die Samoan Inseln. Stuttgart. M i m e o g r a p h e d translation by B r o t h e r H e r m a n .

S t e v e n s o n , Robert Louis. 1892. A Footnote to History. L o n d o n , Paris, M e l b o u r n e : Cassell a n d C o . Ltd.

M i l n e r , G . B. 1966 S a m o a n Dictionary.

W i l l i a m s , J o h n . J o u r n a l of t h e s e c o n d v o y a g e , 1832. Manuscript, London Missionary Society Archives, London.

U n i v e r s i t y Press.

London: Oxford

Pratt, R e v . G e o r g e 1960. Pratt's Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language. 4th ed., by J. E. N e w e l l , e d i t e d M a l u a , W e s t e r n S a m o a : M a l u a Printing Press.

W i l l i a m s , J o h n , a n d C h a r l e s Barff. J o u r n a l of the first v o y a g e 1830. M a n u s c r i p t , L o n d o n M i s s i o n a r y Society Archives, London.

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