American Universities and Colleges [14th ed. Reprint 2014] 9783110850482, 9783110129830

Table of contents :
Contents
List of Tables
Notes on Institutional Exhibits
Accreditation in Higher Education
Abbreviations and Definitions
I. Higher Education in the United States
1. The Evolution of Higher Education
2. Higher Education: Prospects for the 1990s
3. The Structure of Higher Education
4. Undergraduate Education
5. Graduate and Professional Education
6. Government and Higher Education
7. The Foreign Student in the United States
II. Professional Education in the United States
Architecture – Forestry
Health Professions – Veterinary Medicine
III. Universities and Colleges: Institutional Exhibits
Alabama – California
Colorado – Delaware
District of Columbia – Idaho
Illinois – Iowa
Kansas – Maryland
Massachusetts – Minnesota
Mississippi – Montana
Nebraska – New Jersey
New Mexico – New York
North Carolina – North Dakota
Ohio – Oklahoma
Oregon – Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico – South Dakota
Tennessee – Texas
Utah – Washington
West Virginia – U.S. Trust Territories
IV. Appendixes
V. Indexes

Citation preview

American Universities and Colleges

American Universities and Colleges Fourteenth Edition Produced in Collaboration with the American Council on Education

w DE

_G Walter de Gruyter · New York · Berlin

Copyright © 1992 Walter de Gruyter, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. 14th Edition published 1992 by Walter de Gruyter, Inc. 200 Saw Mill River Road Hawthorne, New York 10532

ISBN 0-89925-861-1 (New York) 3-11-012983-3 (Berlin) ISSN 0066-0922 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 28-5598 Printed in the United States of America

Preface American Universities and Colleges has been serving higher education for over six decades. The first edition of the directory, published in 1928, included 401 institutions; the fourteenth edition of the work includes detailed descriptions of over 1900 institutions of higher education, all accredited institutions of higher education offering a baccalaureate or higher degree. The increase in the number of colleges and universities included, and the diversity of programs described, have greatly complicated the process of compiling this directory. Numerous tables, appendixes, and indexes are included to better suit the needs of the users of this volume. Many persons contributed to the preparation of this work, but without the cooperation and goodwill of our college and university officials and their staffs, who supplied most of the information on which the institutional data are based, the publication of this directory would not be possible. In this edition, the data for all institutional exhibits (Section III) were collected and compiled by Modoc Press, Inc., Santa Monica, California, for the publisher, Walter de Gruyter · New York · Berlin. Several individuals and organizations merit special thanks. Richard M. Krasno, president, and Edward Battle, director of communications of the Institute of International Education, supplied the survey of foreign students in the United States (Chapter 6) for this edition. Marjorie Lenn of the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation provided the statement on accreditation. Boichi San of the American Council on Education's Division of Policy Analysis and Research compiled all statistical data in Section I and Appendix II. Diane Hampton of the Council's Division of Governmental Relations revised Chapter 5 on the Government and Higher Education, and Arthur Hauptman, policy consultant to ACE, provided the information on financial aid. Special thanks are due to Patricia Plante, former president of the University of Southern Maine, for the introductory essay and for the significant contributions made to Sections I, II, and IV, which were prepared under the supervision and coordination of James J. Murray, Director of Publications and Advancement, American Council of Education. Special thanks are due to Eckart A. Scheffler, Vice President of Walter de Gruyter, Inc., for the overall coordination of the work. While American Universities and Colleges is now the property of Walter de Gruyter, Inc., the American Council on Education continues to maintain an intellectual interest in one of our first and still one of our most important publications.

ROBERT H . A T W E L L

President American Council on Education

Contents Preface

ν

List of Tables

ix

Notes on Institutional Exhibits

xi

Accreditation in Higher Education

xiii

Abbreviations and Definitions

xvii

I. Higher Education in the United States 1. The Evolution of Higher Education

3

2. Higher Education: Prospects for the 1990s

7

3. The Structure of Higher Education

9

4. Undergraduate Education

15

5. Graduate and Professional Education

21

6. Government and Higher Education

25

7. The Foreign Student in the United States

31

II. Professional Education in the United States Architecture Art and Design Business Administration Construction Education Dietetics Engineering and Engineering Technology Engineering Engineering Technology Forestry Health Professions Allied Health Chiropractic Education Dentistry Health Services Administration Medicine Nursing Nurse Anesthesia Optometry Osteopathic Medicine Pharmacy Physical Therapy Podiatry

49 51 52 55 56 57 64 69 70 72 73 74 75 78 78 79 79 80 82 83

Health Professions (cont.) Public Health Rehabilitation Counseling Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology Home Economics Interior Design Journalism and Mass Communications Landscape Architecture Law Librarianship Music Psychology Social Work Teacher and School Service Personnel Education Theology and Rabbinical/Talmudic Education Theology Rabbinical and Talmudic Education Veterinary Medicine

84 85 86 89 90 92 93 94 97 98 103 105 109

110 113 114

III. Universities and Colleges: Institutional Exhibits Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii

117 148 153 165 181 291 314 339 345 365 407 448

Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota

455 463 542 592 627 654 681 708 727 756 827 880

viii

AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

Contents

Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

916 932 986 995 1017 1022 1036 1071 1082 1224 1277 1288 1369 1392 1418

Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming U.S. Trust Territories

1530 1543 1553 1582 1596 1641 1721 1729 1745 1788 1809 1829 1873 1876

IV. Appendixes 1. An Academic Costume Code and An Academic Ceremony Guide 2. Tables of Earned Doctorates and Master's Degrees Conferred by American Universities and Colleges, 1861-1986 3. ROTC Units: Army, Air Force, and Navy 4. Summary Data by State for Institutions Appearing in Part III 5. American Council on Education

1879 1882 1911 1919 1953

V. Indexes Institutional Index General Index

1957 1987

List of Tables Tables in Part I 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9a. 9b. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

The Fifty Oldest Colleges and Universities in the United States Opening Fall Enrollment, by Sex and Matriculation Status, 1989 Higher Education Institutions, by Type, Control, and Size, Fall 1989 Earned Degrees Conferred, by Level, in Selected Years Number and Ranking by Discipline of First-Professional and Graduate Degrees Conferred, 1988-89 Number of Institutions of Higher Education, by Highest Level of Offering and by Region, Fall 1989 Voluntary Support of Higher Education, 1971-87 Current Fund Revenues (in $ Millions) of Institutions of Higher Education, by Source and Institutional Control Current Fund Expenditures of Institutions of Higher Education, in Constant 1967 Dollars, Selected Fiscal Years, 1975-86 Current Fund Expenditures (in $ Millions) of Institutions of Higher Education, 1986-87 (in Actual Dollars) Doctoral Degrees Conferred by Twenty Major Institutions of Higher Learning, 1988-89 Graduate Student Enrollments and Distribution by Sex and Institutional Control Enrollment for Advanced Degrees, by Field of Study, 1960-76, and Advanced Degrees Conferred, 1988-89 Federal Funds for Education and Related Activities: Fiscal Years 1985-91, in Millions of Dollars Federal Funds for Education and Related Programs, by Level of Education or Activity, Agency, and Program: Fiscal Years 1985-91, in Thousands of Dollars Research and Development in Colleges and Universities, Fiscal Year 1990 (Estimated), in Millions of Dollars Appropriations of State Tax Funds for Operating Expenses of Higher Education, in Thousands of Dollars Foreign Student and Total U.S. Enrollment, Selected Years, 1954-55 to 1990-91 Foreign Students by State and Territory or Percentage Change, 1989-90 to 1990-91 Institutions with 1,000 or More Foreign Students, 1990-91 Facts from the 1990-91 International Student Census

4 9 9 10 10 11 12 12 13 14 22 23 23 25

26 28 29 31 32 33 35

Tables in Part IV 1. Earned Doctorates and Master's Degrees Conferred by American Universities and Colleges, 1861-1984 2. Earned Doctorates in American Universities and Colleges, 1960-61 to 1984-85, by Field of Study 3. Earned Doctorates in American Universities and Colleges, 1975-85, by Year and Field of Study 4. Earned Doctorates (and Intermediate Degrees) in Regionally Accredited American Universities and Colleges, 1975-85, by Institution and Year 5. Earned Doctorates (and Intermediate Degrees) in Regionally Accredited American Universities and Colleges, 1983-86, by Institution and Field of Study: Summary

1882 1884 1885 1886

1894

Notes on Institutional Exhibits Part III of this book includes over 1,900 individual entries on degree-granting baccalaureate-or-above institutions and units thereof that are accredited or recognized candidates for accreditation by one of the nine regional agencies (described in Part I). Each institution's description also includes its regional, professional, and institutional accreditation. Those fields in which programs offering specific areas of the profession for accreditation are also indicated. For information on specialized professional accrediting agencies, see Part II of this book. For abbreviations under which the associations are listed, see p. xvii. The information in Part III was largely prepared from data supplied by the institutions themselves in questionnaires sent to all degree-granting regionally accredited colleges and universities and candidates for accreditation in 1986. In addition, information was gleaned from other available sources. The institutions which did not return questionnaires have exhibits prepared from data provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (*) HEGIS questionnaires, their catalogs, and institutional sources. Unless noted, data are for the 1989-90 academic year. Exceptions are as follows: "degrees conferred," which are for 1989— 90, "tuition and fees," 1991-92, "financial aid," 1990-91 and "finances" (fiscal year 1991). Changes in addresses, chief executive officers, and admissions officers up to October 1991 are also reflected in the exhibits. The material throughout Part III was prepared in as set a format as possible to augment comparison of data not only among exhibits in this edition but also to earlier editions of American Universities and Colleges. However, the variety of higher education in America defies formulas, and the exhibits reflect diversity as well as similarity. Whenever possible, qualifications offered by the institutions appear (for example, estimates are so labeled). For the most part, negative information has been omitted. However, exhibits report if institutions conduct no summer sessions, offer no financial aid, especially for foreign students, have no campus housing, or do not permit cars on campus grounds. Omission of sections from institutional descriptions may indicate negative information, data withheld, or unavailable or irrelevant material. Characteristics of Institutions. Institutions were asked to provide summary views—control, enrollment, degrees awarded, general relation to statewide coordinating bodies and governing boards, and membership in consortia oriented toward providing student services. Accreditation. Regional, specialized, and instiutional accreditation is noted. History. Institutions were asked to provide brief histories followed, where available, by referrals to the best and most comprehensive institutional history available. Institutional Structure. Institutions were asked to offer a summary view of their governing structure and composition. They were asked to list the number and type of members of the governing board and the number of administrators and faculty in the institution as well as the title of the academic governance body. Faculty represented by collective bargaining agents were so designated. Calendar. This section indicates the institution's primary calendar system (semester, quarter, etc.) and whether or not summer session is available. It notes the months freshmen may enter and tells when degrees are offered and when commencement occurs. Characteristics of Freshmen. Institutions were asked to offer information on the entering class (usually freshmen, but sometimes students at other levels in, for example, professional or upper-division-only schools). Institutions were further asked to specify average secondary school rank, SAT or ACT scores if appropriate, and to note number of Merit Scholars attending,

number of applicants accepted, number of accepted applicants enrolling, number of freshmen graduating within five years as well as place of origin of freshmen. Admission Requirements. Institutions were asked to describe both admission procedures and requirements. Procedures include the type of admission plan (rolling or standard) and the earliest and latest possible application dates, as well as information about the existence of early decision and early acceptance policies. Under the rolling admissions plan, applications are processed as received and the applicants notified when the processing is completed. Early decisions belong to the more traditional admissions plan and provide for a notification of acceptance for highly qualified students in advance of usual admissions notification date. Early acceptance pertains to a policy whereby such students may be admitted at the end of their junior year. Institutions were asked to provide requirements common to their entering class (usually freshmen) as a whole. Requirements are distinguished from recommendations in information on number and distribution of secondary school units, secondary school class standing, GPA, and entrance examinations. Transfer student admission requirements could also be mentioned in this category. Degree Requirements. Institutions were asked to indicate the levels of degrees for which they were reporting requirements and to list only common requirements. Special requirements often appear in the supplemental exhibits for complex institutions with separate units. Often credit, GPA, and residence requirements are reported as ranges rather than single figures. Institutions were asked to indicate whether students could fulfill requirements through achievement tests, and whether exit examinations, chapel attendance, physical education, or ROTC were required. Finally, institutions were asked to describe their grading systems. In the case of regionally accredited graduate or professional schools the degree requirements given, like the admission requirements, were those pertaining to programs entered directly following the baccalaureate. Distinctive Educational Programs. Institutions were asked to report academic offerings such as work-experience programs, including cooperative education and internships; flexible meeting places and schedules, including off-campus centers, weekend and evening classes; accelerated degree plans; dual and joint degree programs involving two institutions and two degrees; doubledegree programs where one institution awards two degrees; cooperative degree programs where two units or institutions offer one degree; external degree programs and continuing education curricula; special facilities for using telecommunications in the classroom; interdepartmental and interdisciplinary programs; study abroad; and many other programs. ROTC. Institutions were asked to specify whether ROTC was available, whether it was required, and whether it was offered cooperatively with another institution. Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred, 1990-91. Institutions were asked to report degrees at the baccalaureate, master's, and doctoral degree levels in agriculture and nautral resources, architecture and environmental design, area studies, biological sciences, business and management, communications, computer and information sciences, education, engineering, fine and applied arts, health professions, home economics, law, letters, library science, mathematics, military sciences, physical sciences, psychology, public affairs and services, social science, theology, interdisciplinary studies, and other professions. Institutions listed in addition the number of degrees awarded at the associate level in arts and sciences; in science- or engineeringrelated organized occupational programs in data-processing, health services and paramedical, mechanical and engineering, and natural science technologies; and in other occupational programs

xii

AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

in business and commerce, and public service-related technologies. Finally, they were asked to report any intermediate degrees—formal recognitions for programs between master's and doctorates which are in essence the doctoral degree without the dissertation. Fees and Other Expenses. Institutions were asked to provide tuition figures for 1990-91. They were also asked to provide information on fees and room and board. Financial Aid, 1990-91. Institutions were asked to give the reasons for awarding their undergraduate scholarships, grants, and loans and their graduate fellowships (excluding first-professional awards). They were also asked to report figures on the number of recipients, the total funds awarded, and the range of awards for their undergraduate scholarships, grants, loans, and college-assigned jobs; and for their graduate fellowships (also excluding first-professional) and grants, teaching and research assistantships, and other college-assigned jobs. They were requested to provide similar information on federal and state aid received by their students. Departments and Teaching Staff. Institutions were asked to list by department and rank those members of the teaching and research staff (including those with released time) who were employed on a full-time basis and whose major regular assignment was instruction. They were also asked to list part-time teachers who taught less than full-time, however that status was defined by the individual institution. In complex institutions with separately defined units such as divisions, schools, or colleges, total faculty figures appear in the main exhibit, with the departmental breakdown available in the descriptions of the individual unit. Enrollment, 1991. Institutions were asked to report their total student enrollment, divided into full- and part-time students at the undergraduate, first professional, and graduate levels. They were also asked to list unclassified students who take courses for credit but are not degree candidates, and numbers of transfer students. In addition, institutions were asked to provide information on the ethnic and racial nature of the student body as well as the age breakdown. Foreign Students. In this section, institutions were asked to provide information on nonresident aliens in attendance as well as the number of students from various world areas. They were also requested to indicate the availability and extent of the pro-

grams, scholarships, fellowships, and loans especially designated for foreign students. Student Life. Institutions were asked to indicate the presence and nature (particularly whether the dormitories were single-sex or coed) of institutionally provided housing and to describe the availability of married-student housing. They were asked to specify what kinds of intercollegiate athletics were available for men and women; and what kinds of student publications; radio, and television activities were possible. Institutions were asked whether their campus had special regulations regarding cars or dormitory hours. And they were asked to provide information about their medical services, campus transportation systems, and (if appropriate) learning resources centers. Finally, they were asked to characterize the surrounding community as to population and availability of mass transporation. Publications. If appropriate, institutions were asked to provide information about their scholarly journals and university presses. Library Collections. Institutions were asked to provide June 1991 figures on their current collections of number of volumes, government document collections, microforms, audiovisual materials, and periodical subscriptions. They were also asked to describe their three most important special collections and their total budget for 1990-91 or 1991-92. Finances. The institutions were asked to provide financial figures on their revenues from student tuition and fees, state appropriations, local appropriations, restricted and unrestricted private gifts, grants, and contracts, and auxiliary enterprises and expenditures and mandatory transfers for instruction, research academic support for libraries, operation and maintenance of plant, restricted and unrestricted scholarships and fellowships and auxiliary enterprises, which give an overall view of their financial picture. The figures requested do not reflect their total expenditures or revenues and therefore do not usually total. Buildings and Grounds. Institutions were asked to report their campus area, the book value of their buildings, grounds, and equipment, the buildings completed since 1986, the buildings currently being constructed, and the number of buildings. Chief Executive Officer. The chief executive and admissions officers are, whenever possible, those holding the position in 1991.

Accreditation in Higher Education Accreditation is a system for recognizing educational institutions and professional programs affiliated with those institutions for a level of performance, integrity, and quality which entitles them to the confidence of the educational community and the public they serve. In the United States this recognition is extended primarily through nongovernmental, voluntary institutional or professional associations, These groups establish criteria for recognition; arrange site visits and evaluate those institutions and professional programs which desire recognition status; and approve for recognition those which meet their criteria. Institutional accreditation is granted by the accrediting commissions of association of schools and colleges which collectively serve most of the institutions chartered or licensed in the United States and its possessions. These commissions and associations accredit total operating units only. Specialized accreditation of professional schools and programs is granted by commissions on accreditation set up by national professional organizations in such areas as business, dentistry, engineering, or law. Each of these groups has its distinctive definitions of eligibility, criteria for accreditation, and operating procedures, but all have undertaken accreditation activities, primarily to provide quality assurances concerning the educational preparation of members of the profession.

Uses of Accreditation In most other countries the establishment and maintenance of educational standards is the responsibility of a central government bureau. In the United States, however, public authority in education is constitutionally reserved to the states. The system of voluntary nongovernmental evaluation called accreditation has evolved to promote both regional and national approaches to the determination of educational quality. While accreditation is basically a private, voluntary process, accrediting decisions are used as a consideration in many official actions: federal funding agencies consider accreditation as an important factor in determining eligibility for financial assistance; scholarship commissions and philanthropic foundations frequently limit their grants to accredited institutions or programs of study; employers rely on the accredited status of institutions when evaluating credentials; school counselors use the decisions in advising students about colleges and programs; college and university officials depend on them to assess and award academic credit; and potential students need them for assurance that a college or university has met minimum requirements for educational quality. In addition, these decisions are useful to faculty and staff in their efforts to develop comprehensive educational goals. In many professions, eligibility for certification or licensure is limited to graduates of accredited institutions. Finally, the public is protected from unqualified graduates who may have been inadequately prepared for professional practice. The accrediting process is also useful in helping institutions maintain high educational standards and improve quality. The accrediting bodies provide counsel to both established and developing institutions and protect them from both external and internal encroachments which might jeopardize their educational effectiveness and academic freedom. The accrediting process is continuously evolving. The trend has been from quantitative to qualitative criteria, from the early days of simple check lists to an increasing interest and emphasis ön measuring the outcomes of educational experiences. The process begins with the institutional or programmatic selfstudy, a comprehensive effort to measure progress according to previously accepted objectives. The self-study considers the in-

terests of a broad cross-section of constituencies—students, faculty, administrators, alumni, trustees, and, in some circumstances, the local community. The resulting report is reviewed by the appropriate accrediting commission and serves as the basis for evaluation by a site-visit team from the accrediting group. The site-visit team normally consists of professional educators (faculty and administration), specialists selected according to the nature of the institution, and members representing specific public interests. The visiting team considers the institution or program according to the dimensions of the self-study and adds judgments based on its own expertise and its external perspective. The evaluation team completes a report, which is reviewed by the institution or program for factual accuracy. The original self-study, the team report, and any response the institution or program may wish to make are forwarded to an accreditation review committee. The review body uses these materials as the basis for action regarding the accreditation status of the institution or program. Negative actions may be appealed according to established procedures of the accrediting body. Accrediting bodies reserve the right to review member institutions or programs at any time for cause. They also reserve the right to review any substantive change, such as an expansion from undergraduate to graduate offerings. In this way accrediting bodies hold their member institutions and programs continually accountable to their educational peers, to the constituencies they serve, and to the public interest. Historically and currently accreditation at the postsecondary level may be said to foster excellence in postsecondary education through the development of uniform national criteria and guidelines for assessing educational effectiveness; to encourage improvement through continuous self-study and review; and to assure the educational community, the general public, and other agencies or organizations that an institution or program has clearly defined and appropriate objectives, maintains conditions under which their achievement can reasonably be expected, appears in fact to be accomplishing them substantially, and can be expected to continue to do so. Accrediting bodies do not rank or grade institutions; they either accredit or decline to accredit them. Most commissions, however, do specify a definite term for which their accreditation is valid, five years usually being the maximum for initial accreditation and ten years for reaccreditation. Many accrediting bodies award candidate status to developing or newly applying institutions which satisfy eligibility requirements and which present evidence of sound planning, adequate implementation resources, and potential for meeting stated goals within a reasonable period of time. This status, designed for postsecondary institutions and programs which may or may not be fully operational, usually is granted for a two-year term. If progress is being made, candidacy can be extended for up to six years. Institutions or programs which show serious weakness in one or more areas, but which at the same time show firm potential for remedying the deficiencies, may be placed in a probationary status. Accreditation continues, but generally for a sharply reduced term, and an interim report or extra site visit is generally required.

Accrediting Organizations Nine regional commissions in six geographic areas cover all parts of the nation and grant total institutional accreditation. These associations are: Commission on Higher Education, Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, 3624 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104 (Delaware, District of Columbia,

xiv

AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands); Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, New England Association of Schools and Colleges and Commission on Vocational, Technical, and Career Institutions, New England Association of Schools and Colleges, The Sanborn House, 15 High Street, Winchester, Massachusetts 01890 (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont); Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, 159 North Dearborn Street, Chicago, Illinois 60601 (Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming); Commission on Colleges, Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges, 3700-B University Way, N.E., Seattle, Washington 98105 (Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington); Commission on Colleges, Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and Commission on Occupational Education Institutions, Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, 1866 Southern Lane, Decatur, Georgia 30033-4097 (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia); Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities, Western Association of Schools and Colleges, c/o Mills College, Box 9990, Oakland, California 94613 (American Samoa, California, Guam, Hawaii, Trust Territory of the Pacific); and Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges, Western Association of Schools and Colleges, P.O. Box 70, Aptos, California 95003 (American Samoa, California, Guam, Hawaii, Trust Territory of the Pacific). The Council on Postsecondary Accreditation recognizes six specialized associations that accredit total institutions on a national scale. These are: Commission on Accreditation of the American Association of Bible Colleges, P.O. Box 1523, 130-F North College Avenue, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701; Accreditation Commission of the Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools, 175 Fifth Avenue, Room 711, New York, New York 10010; Accrediting Commission for Independent Colleges and Schools, Career Colleges Association, 750 First Street, N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002; Accrediting Commission, National Home Study Council, 1601 Eighteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D.C. 20009; Commission on Accrediting, Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada, 10 Summit Park Drive, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15275-1103. Finally, forty-two national associations offer recognized specialized and professional accreditation for programs or other academic units within an institution, or for free-standing single purpose institutions. It is thus possible that a large number of accrediting bodies may be involved in a single institution, usually a university with a variety of professional programs. However, for most degree-granting institutions, the basic accreditation remains institutional (and usually regional) accreditation upon which virtually all other accreditation is built.

Relationship of Accreditation with the States Before the organization of voluntary accrediting associations, state departments of education and state universities were faced with the necessity of judging the quality of the educational programs of collegiate institutions within their states. The statutory responsibilities of the states for licensing public school teachers required the development of systems of state approval of teacher preparation institutions. The Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York was the first state agency to develop machinery for the approval of courses of study in teacher education as well as in the liberal arts and many other specialized areas. The majority of the state agencies did not enter accrediting until after the first decade of the present century, and, to a great extent, have continued to limit their accrediting activities to approval of teacher education programs.

Accrediting activities by state universities in nearly every instance had their origin in relations with the secondary schools. These accrediting activities related to the admission of secondary school graduates to the universities on the basis of certification of the secondary schools rather than entrance examinations given to the applicants. Most of the state universities, however, have abandoned the practice of accrediting other institutions of higher education and now rely upon the accredited status given through the institutional accrediting associations.

Coordination of Accrediting Organizations In 1975, the Federation of Regional Accrediting Commissions of Higher Education, which had been founded in 1964 to coordinate the work of the regional bodies, and the National Commission of Accrediting, which was formed in 1949 to review, recognize, and encourage good practices among the specialized accrediting bodies, merged to form the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation. The new СОРА organization was expanded beyond the constituents of FRACHE and NCA to include additional national accrediting groups. Institutional interests were given a direct voice in СОРА through the membership of institution-based national associations, which now number six: the American Council on Education, the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, the Association of American Universities, the Association of Governing Boards of Colleges and Universities, and the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges. The governance of СОРА is vested in a board, representing institutional and specialized accreditation, national associations of colleges and universities, and the general public. A majority of COPA's board members represent the voluntary accrediting bodies and are selected for their educational leadership and experience in accreditation.

Relationship of Accreditation with the Federal Government Although the federal government does not accredit any educational activities, the Veterans Readjustment Act of 1952, which provides for federal assistance to veterans for their education, charged the former United States Commissioner of Education with the responsibility of publishing a list of nationally recognized accrediting agencies which he determined to be reliable authorities for determining the quality of training offered by educational institutions. In 1968, the Accreditation and Institutional Eligibility Staff and an associated internal advisory committee were established in the United States Office of Education to administer the Commissioner's review process for accrediting agencies being used to establish institutional eligibility for several other education acts. Congressional authorization for federal involvement in nongovernmental accreditation has traditionally been limited to the establishment of an institution's eligibility to apply for funds from federal programs, and the maintenance of records of accrediting status by the Secretary of Education to implement the processes of legislation.

The Triad As the system presently functions, there is a need for the federal government to establish eligibility for its funds, as there is a need for the states to charter educational institutions within their jurisdictions. The voluntary sector, represented by the accrediting organizations, serves as a bridge between the federal and state roles in education.

Accreditation in Higher Education

Thus, a three-part structure for accreditation has been created. This three-part structure has been termed a "triad" for eligibility. The triad consists of the states, which grant institutional charter or licenses to operate; the accrediting bodies, which provide an educational assessment of institutions and programs; and the federal government, which provides funding for some activities related to student aid and education.

Information on Accredited Institutions and Accreditation The American Council on Education annually publishes Accredited Institutions of Postsecondary Education, which can be ordered from Macmillan Publishing Company, Front and Brown Streets, Riverside, N.J. 08075 (telephone: 1-800-257-5755). СОРА publishes a Directory of Recognized Accrediting Agencies, an annual СОРА Handbook: Policies and Procedures, and the publication, Accreditation and the Role of the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, available from СОРА at One Dupont Circle, N.W., Suite 350, Washington, D.C. 20036. Each accrediting body recognized by СОРА publishes a list of accredited institutions or programs.

References Austin, Alexander W., Bowen, Howard R., and Chambers, Charles M. Evaluating Educational Quality. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1979.

xv

Casey, Robert J. and Harris, John W. Accountability in Higher Education. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1979. Finkin, Matthew W. Federal Reliance on Educational Accreditation: The Scope of Administrative Discretion. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1978. Fisk, Robert S. and Duryea, E.D. Academic Collective Bargaining and Regional Accreditation. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1980. Harcleroad, Fred F. Voluntary Organizations in America and the Development of Educational Accreditation. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1980. Kaplin, William A. Accrediting Agencies' Legal Responsibilities: In Pursuit of the Public Interest. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1981. Kuhns, Eileen and Martorana, S.V. Toward Academic Quality Off-Campus: Monitoring Requirements of Institutional Accrediting Bodies and the States for Off-Campus, Military Base, and Study Abroad Program. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1984. Lenn, Maqorie Peace. "The US Accreditation System". Quality Assurance in International Higher Education. The Falmer Press, London and Washington, D.C.: 1992. Seiden, William K. and Porter, Harry V. Accreditation: Its Purposes and Uses. Washington, D.C.: Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, 1979.

Abbreviations and Definitions The following sections define many of the terms and abbreviations that readers will encounter in Part III. Bachelor of Arts

NASC

B.D.

Bachelor of Divinity

NATTS

B.F.A.

Bachelor of Fine Arts

B.S.

Bachelor of Science

D.C.

Doctor of Chiropractic

D.D.S.

Doctor of Dental Science or Doctor of Dental Surgery

D.M.D.

Doctor of Dental Medicine

D.O.

Doctor of Osteopathy

D.P.

Doctor of Podiatry

D. Pharm.

B.A.

Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges National Association of Trade and Technical Schools

NCA

North Central Association of Colleges and Schools

ΝΕΑ

National Education Association

NEASC-CIHE New England Association of Schools and Colleges—Commission on Colleges NEASCCVTCI

New England Association of Schools and Colleges—Commission on Vocational, Technical, Career Institutions

Doctor of Pharmacy

NHSC

National Home Study Council

D.V.M.

Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

OCAT

Optometrie College Aptitude Test

J.D.

Doctor of Jurisprudence

PSAT

LL.B

Bachelor of Laws

M.B.A.

Master of Business Administration

M.D.

Doctor of Medicine

M. Div.

Master of Divinity

Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test; Administered by College Entrance Examination Board Southern Association of Colleges and Schools— Commission on Occupational Education Institutions

M.F.A.

Master of Fine Arts

M.S.W.

Master of Social Work or Master of Social Welfare or Master in Social Work

O.D.

Doctor of Optometry

Ph.D.

Doctor of Philosophy

SACS-COEI

SACS-Comm. on Coll. SAT SCAT

Other Abbreviations

Southern Association of Colleges and Schools— Commission on Colleges Scholastic Aptitude Test School & College Ability Test; Developed and sold (not administered) by Educational Testing Service (ETS); SCAT 3 runs through 12th level, SCAT 2 runs through 14th level (i.e., equivalent to sophomore college year) Test of Academic Skills; Stanford Teacher Education Examination Program Test of English as a Foreign Language; College Board

AABC

American Association of Bible Colleges

AADSAS

TASK

AAUP ACE ACT AFT AICS

American Association of Dental Schools Application Service American Association of University Professors American Council on Education American College Testing Program American Federation of Teachers Association of Independent Colleges and Schools

AMCAS AP

American Medical College Application Service Advanced Placement

WASC-Jr.

APP

Advanced Placement Program

ATS

Association of Theological Schools

CLEP DANTES (DSSTs) DAT GED

College-Level Examination Program Defense Activity for Non-Traditional Education Support (DANTES Subject Standardized Tests) Dental Aptitude Test General Educational Development; Administered by ACE

GMAT

Graduate Management Admission Test; Administered by ETS

GRE

Graduate Record Examination

LSAT

Law School Admission Test

LSDAS MCAT

Law School Data Assembly Service Medical College Admissions Test

Audiovisual Materials—teaching and learning aids which are neither books nor microforms, which are interpreted through hearing and / or sight, and which require special equipment to use. Audiovisual materials include motion pictures, records and tapes, filmstrips, slides, transparencies, videotapes, and the like.

MSA/CHE

Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Higher Education National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Branch Campus—a relatively permanent unit of an institution which offers an organized program(s) of work requiring at least two years of study (as opposed to merely courses) and which is

NASA

TEEP TOEFL TSWE URE

WASC-Sr.

Test of Standard Written English; College Board Undergraduate Record Examination Western Association of Schools and Colleges—Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges Western Association of Schools and Colleges—Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges

Definitions Administrators—institutional staff members with administrative responsibilities who teach no more than one class per term and who have titles such as dean of instruction, academic dean, dean of faculty, dean of students, librarian, registrar, coach, etc.

xviii

AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

located in a community beyond a reasonable commuting distance from the main campus or parent institution. Cluster College—a group of institutions, located within close proximity to each other, which cooperate in providing educational programs and other facilities to students in all the institutions forming the aggregate. Cluster colleges cooperate more closely than institutions joined in a consortium. Extension Education—instruction other than that offered in the regular academic program on campus. Examples include courses scheduled at night, on weekends, or offered on a correspondence basis to serve special needs of learners such as part-time or fully employed students. External Degree-Program—system of study that grants credit for courses at institutions other than that offering the degree; that often counts extrainstitutional learning; and that often emphasizes off-campus, self-directed study. First-Professional Degree—one which signifies completion of academic requirements for a selected profession and which is based on a program requiring at least two academic years of college work for entrance and at least six years of postsecondary work for completion. First-professional degrees include architecture; dentistry; medicine, optometry; osteopathic medicine; pharmacy; podiatry or podiatric medicine, including chiropody; veterinary medicine; chiropractic; law, general; theological professions, general. 4-1-4—a semester system which consists of two terms, each about 16 weeks long, divided by a one-month term during which students participate in intensive short courses, independent study, employment, or other educational activities. Free University—programs, usually operating without credit, grades, or attendance constraints, set up by students and faculty for discussion of issues and subjects not necessarily typical of those covered in postsecondary courses. Full-time Instructional Faculty—those members of the instruction / research staff (including those with released time) who are employed on a full-time basis and whose major regular assignment is instruction. Department heads should be included (if they have no other administrative title and hold faculty rank). Do not include administrators with titles such as dean or instruction, academic dean, dean of faculty, dean of students, librarian, registrar, coach, etc., even though they may devote part of their time to classroom instruction. Institutional System—a complex comprising two or more separately organized or independently complete postsecondary units under the control or supervision of a single administrative body. (Compare Multicampus Institution.) Intermediate Degree—a formal recognition (degree or certificate) for a program intermediate between the master's degree and the doctor's degree, which in essence is the terminal degree without the dissertation. Examples are Master of Philosophy, Candidate in Philosophy, etc. Learning Resource Center—a specially designed study area where individual students or groups are provided with study supplies and equipment, usually including books, programmed materials, and audiovisual supplies. Main Campus—the most important unit in an institution which comprises one or more branch campuses. The main campus (sometimes called the parent institution) usually houses the core, primary, or most comprehensive program and is usually also the location of the central administrative office.

Microforms—books, periodicals, and other materials that have been photographically reduced in size for storage, protection, and inexpensive publication and which must be read with the aid of enlarging equipment. Minority Group—any racial, religious, ethnic, or social aggregation of people who have suffered some discrimination due to bias. Although this term is not a precise one, respondent may wish to answer in terms of HEGIS categories which suggest the following five racial / ethnic groups as minority categories: Black nonHispanic; American Indian or Alaskan Native; Asian or Pacific Islander; Hispanic; and, under the heading White non-Hispanic, Middle Eastern. For the purposes of this questionnaire, women should not be considered a "minority group." Multicampus Institution—an organization which resembles an institutional system but is unequivocally designated as a single body organized according to one of the two following specifications: (1) an institution having two or more administratively equal campuses responsible to a central governing structure (which may or may not be located on one of the campuses) or (2) an institution having a main campus with one or more branch campuses attached. (Compare Institutional System.) Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)—a group of nations established to unify, coordinate, and safeguard the oil policies and interests of its member nations: Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela. Organized Occupational Program—a course of study consisting of an integrated series of required and elective courses designed to prepare students for employment in a job or cluster of occupations. Programs are science- or engineering-related in areas of data-processing technologies, health services and paramedical technologies, mechanical and engineering technologies, or natural science technologies; other non-science- and non-engineering-related programs are in business and commerce technologies, and public service-related technologies. Completion requires at least one but less than four years of full-time attendance, or the equivalent in part-time attendance, and culminates in formal recognition that the student has completed an organized program. Part-time Instructional Faculty—those members of the instruction / research staff who are employed to teach less than—and are paid for less than—a full-time course load, however defined by the institution. Postbaccalaureate—graduate study beyond the bachelor's degree including that toward the first-professional (see definition), master's, intermediate (see definition), and doctoral awards. Rolling Admissions Plan—the procedure followed by some institutions of immediately considering each student's completed application and notifying the applicant as soon as the school's decision for or against admission has been made. Colleges following this practice announce their admissions decisions continuously over several months in contrast to others which announce all decisions simultaneously. Sponsored Research—projects funded by extrainstitutional financial sources, such as government or industry. Student Services—systems and facilities provided to contribute to student well-being outside the context of formal academic instruction. Student services are provided by counseling centers, financial aid programs, student health systems (unless operated as a self-supporting enterprise), registrar's procedures, and admissions offices.

Abbreviations and Definitions

Terminal Degree—one which represents the highest formal academic recognition or certificate available to an individual in a given field. 3-3—a calendar system in which the academic year is divided into three terms with students enrolled in three courses per term. Unclassified Students—those who take courses for credit in regular classes with other students but are not candidates for a degree or other formal award. Upper Division Only—institution which has no freshmen or sophomore postsecondary program. Degrees Awarded as: Area studies degrees—Those offered in Asian, European, American, Latin American, African, Islamic, Russian and Slavic, Middle Eastern, and Pacific area studies, and other similar fields. bs / mng: Business and management degrees. comm: Communications degrees—Those offered in communications (general), journalism, radio and television, advertising, communication media, and other similar fields. educ: Education degrees. engr: Engineering degrees. fine / ap arts: Fine and applied arts degrees—Those offered in painting drawing, sculpture, art history and appreciation, music (performing, composition, theory, and liberal arts programs), dance, dramatic arts, applied design, cinematography, photography, and other similar fields. for lang: Foreign languages degrees. hlth prof: Health professions degrees—Those offered in nursing, dental and medical specialties, occupational therapy, optometry, pharmacy, physical therapy, dental hygiene, public health, medical record librarianship, podiatry or podiatric

xix

medicine, chiropody, biomedical communication, veterinary medicine, speech pathology and audiology, chiropractic, clinical social work (medical, psychiatric, and specialized rehabilitation services), medical laboratory technologies, dental technologies, radiologic techniques, and other similar fields, home ec: Home economics degrees—Dietetics, interdisc: Interdisciplinary degrees—Those offered in general liberal arts and sciences: biological, physical, and natural sciences; humanities and social sciences; engineering and other disciplines, law: Law degrees (undergraduate). lett: Letters degrees—Those offered in English (general); English literature; comparative literature; classics; linguistics (include phonetics, semantics, and philology); speech, debate, and forensic science (rhetoric and public address); creative writing; teaching of English as a foreign language; philosophy; religious study; and other similar fields. phys sei: Physical sciences degrees—Those offered in physical sciences (general), physics, chemistry, astronomy, astrophysics, atmospheric sciences and meteorology, geology, geochemistry, geophysics and seismology, earth sciences, paleontology, oceanography, metallurgy, and other similar fields. pub aff / sves: Public affairs and services degrees—Those offered in community services (general), public administration, parks and recreation management, social work and helping services (other than clinical social work), law enforcement and corrections (baccalaureate and higher programs), international public service (other than diplomatic service), and other similar fields. soc sei: Social sciences degrees—Those offered in social sciences (general), anthropology, archaeology, economics, history, geography, political science and government, sociology, criminology, international relations, Afro-American (black culture) studies, American Indian cultural studies, Mexican-American cultural studies, urban studies, demography, and other similar fields. theo: Theology degrees—Those offered in theological professions (general), religious music, biblical languages, and religious education.

I Higher Education in the United States

1 The Evolution of Higher Education The growth of American higher education might be divided into four major periods: 1636-1776, the founding of the colleges; 1776-1862, the expansion of professional studies; 1862-1900, the rise of the university; 1900-present, the period of growth and diversity. During each of these periods, one of the distinctive structural components of the present complex system of higher education emerged. In the first period, the colonial colleges were founded; in the second period, separately organized professional schools were established; in the third period, most of today's major universities emerged; and in the fourth period, the community colleges were born and significant modification and expansion of established institutions occurred. The history of higher education took a momentous turn at the end of World War II. With the passage of the G.I. Bill of Rights after the war, the era of true mass education in the United States began. Between 1950 and 1987 enrollment in American colleges/ universities grew dramatically. In 1950, the opening fall enrollment of all students in all institutions was 2.6 million; in 1987 it had risen to 12.8 million. In 1990 estimates point to 13.2 million students in higher education. College and university enrollment is expected to remain steady through the 1990s.

1636-1776: The Founding of the Colleges The two major concerns of the founders of Harvard College, the nation's first institution of higher education, were the advancement of learning and the training of clergymen. These continued to be the dominant purposes of higher education throughout the colonial period. The nine colonial colleges founded between 1636 (Harvard) and 1769 (Dartmouth) took the English college, rather than the university, as their model. With one exception, all were founded and supported by religious groups. These early colleges, however, were not the equivalent of today's divinity schools. At no time was theology the only subject taught, for it was assumed that the clergy, who were the educated leaders of the day, needed a broad, general background. Classical languages, Hebrew, logic, rhetoric, ancient history, and mathematics usually formed a substantial part of the curriculum followed by all students; there was little or no training in applied sciences, modern history, or modern languages. From the beginning, students were admitted to prepare for other professions, and there was usually no practice of excluding students who were not members of the denomination that controlled the institution. The college, with its emphasis on the ideal of developing the cultured scholar, remained a potent force in American higher education until the rise of the university. The attempt to train the refined person, who knows the "best that has been said and thought in the world," is still one of the dominant aims of the present-day liberal arts college. The list of the oldest U.S. institutions is found in Table 1.

1776-1862: The Expansion of Professional Studies The founding of American institutions of higher education had begun to increase during the twenty-five years before the Revolutionary War and, by 1820, twenty-nine more had been added. Many of the new institutions followed the classically oriented curriculum of the colonial colleges. However, in opposition to the

ideal of training cultured scholars, increasing demand was made for more specific traning which would produce the skilled professional. External and internal pressures were brought to bear on the colleges to make their training more useful and practical. Because the established institutions did not respond quickly to such demands, the second distinct structure of American higher education came into existence—the separately organized professional school. America was then entering a period of accelerated economic growth and industrial expansion but there were practically no technical training centers. At the time the Erie Canal opened, West Point was the only institution with a program in engineering. The year before, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute had been founded, but to train teachers of scientific agriculture; some ten years later a course in engineering was offered. During the 1850s, the number of schools of applied science increased; the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and Cooper Union were founded, as well as state schools of agriculture in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. The established colleges then initiated programs emphasizing scientific training; both Harvard and Yale established such schools in 1847, and in 1851, Dartmouth received $50,000 to support a separate department of science. In 1861 the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was chartered. The success of the separately organized technical schools curtailed their further proliferation. They had demonstrated a need for an educational program that the established institutions could no longer ignore. In addition, the Land-Grant College Act of 1862 specifically required that participating institutions include agriculture and the mechanic arts in their curricula. The professional curricula of the technical institutions were increasingly incorporated into the private and public universities and colleges. The normal school, the prototype of the teachers college, was also begun in this period. The first state-supported normal school was established in Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. The primary function of these institutions was to train teachers for the rapidly expanding public elementary schools. As public secondary schools began to grow, it became obvious that a more comprehensive training for teachers was needed. Consequently, the normal schools either closed or developed into teachers colleges. In this period, a clear distinction emerged between public and private institutions. The colonial governments had often contributed to institutions of higher education, and the practice was not immediately discontinued. Partly because of dissatisfaction with the policies and the curricula of the denominational colleges, the states began to consider alternative ways of influencing the pattern of higher education. One possible method was to take control of existing institutions; another was to establish schools of their own. The famous Dartmouth College case in 1819 clearly established that state institutions could not be created from existing private ones (without their consent) by act of legislature, and that if the states were to operate institutions of higher education, they would have to found and support them. The beginnings of such institutions were already in evidence. Three state institutions of higher education were chartered before 1800: the universities of Georgia (1785), North Carolina (1789), and Vermont (1791). By the Civil War, twenty-one had been established. The University of Virginia (1819) introduced the elective course system and maintained unusually high academic standards. Before the Civil War, it was the common fate of the state institutions to remain small and plagued by poverty and neglect. It was only late in the nineteenth

4

H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N IN T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S

1. The Fifty Oldest Colleges and Universities in the United States Rank* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Institution

Established

Harvard U. College of William and Mary Yale U. U. of Pennsylvania Moravian College Princeton U. Washington and Lee U. Columbia U., main division Brown U. Rutgers U. at New Brunswick Dartmouth College College of Charleston (S.C.) Salem College (N.C.) Dickinson College Hampden-Sydney College Transylvania U. Washington and Jefferson College Washington College (Md.) Saint John's College (Md.), main campus Becker Junior College at Leicester New Brunswick Theological Seminary U. of the State of New York Regents External Degree Program U. of Georgia Louisburg College Franklin and Marshall College U. of Pittsburgh, main campus Georgetown U. U. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Saint Mary's Seminary and U. (Md.) U of Vermont and State Agricultural College Williams College Pittsburgh Theological Seminary U. of Tennessee at Knoxville Bowdoin College Tusculum College Union College (N.Y.) U. of Louisville Middlebury College Vincennes U. U. of South Carolina at Columbia United States Military Academy

1. The Fifty Oldest Colleges and Universities in the United States (continued) Current affiliation

Rank *

1636

Independent

1693 1701 1740 1742 1746 1749

State Independent Independent Moravian Church Independent Independent

42. 43. 44.

1754 1764

Independent Independent

45. 46. 47. 48.

1766 1769

State Independent

1770 1772 1773

State Moravian Church Independent

1776 1780

Presbyterian, U.S. Independent

1780

Independent

1782

Independent

1784

Independent

1784 1784

Independent Reformed Church in America

1784 1785 1787

State State United Methodist

1787

Independent

1787 1789

State-related Roman Catholic

1789

State

1791

Roman Catholic

1791 1793

State Independent

1794

United Presbyterian, U.S.A.

1794 1794 1794 1795 1798 1800 1801

State Independent United Presbyterian, U.S.A. Independent State Independent State

1801

State

1802

Federal

49. 50.

Institution Bradford College Ohio U., main campus U. of Maryland, Baltimore Professional Schools Andover Newton Theological School Mount Saint Mary's College (Md.) Miami U., Oxford campus (Ohio) Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary Lycoming College Princeton Theological Seminary

Established

Current affiliation

1803 1804

Independent State

1807

State

1807

Independent

1808

Roman Catholic

1809 1810

State Reformed Presbyterian United Methodist United Presbyterian, U.S.A.

1812 1812

SOURCE: Chronicle of Higher Education •When more than one college was founded in the same year, priority was determined by the month established (when provided).

century that the states undertook a policy of regular support. Another form of public higher education, the municipal college or university, was also begun during this period. Such institutions were usually controlled by city authorities and financed ip part by local taxes. Louisville College, founded by decree of the city council in 1837, became the University of Louisville in 1846. Between 1825 and 1875, the idea of college education for women developed in several sections of the country. At first it was provided in separate colleges for women, but when Oberlin opened in 1833, it admitted both men and women, the first degreegranting college to do so. After the Civil War, a number of separate colleges for women were established, but the general trend was toward coeducation. The coordinate college, separately organized for women but operating in conjunction with a college for men, was established toward the end of the nineteenth century; Newcomb College at Tulane University is an example. The establishment of colleges for black Americans is also a notable chapter in the history of higher education. Although the first blacks to graduate from an American college did so in 1826, it was not until 1837 that the Institute of Colored Youth, later to be known as Cheyney State College in Pennsylvania, was founded. Immediately after the Civil War, such institutions as Atlanta University, Meharry Medical College, Hampton Institute, and Howard University were established. More than a hundred traditionally black institutions exist today in addition to many more that are predominantly black, often located in major urban areas.

1862-1900: The Rise of the University In the second half of the nineteenth century, two major movements, both of which had been developing earlier, came into full force. The first was the establishment of the land-grant college; the second was the emergence of the university, public or private, as the dominant and most influential structure of higher education. The Land-Grant College. One of the most important acts of legislation in the history of the development of American higher education was the Land-Grant College Act of 1862, frequently known by the surname of its sponsor, Justin R. Morrill. Although the federal government had had a policy of making specific grants of land to the states to foster higher education, the Morrill Act, because of its scope and magnitude, had a more enduring influ-

Evolution of Higher Education

ence than any previous legislation. The bill granted to each state 30,000 acres of land (or its equivalent) for each senator and representative in Congress. The proceeds from the grant were to help support at least one college whose principal aim was to provide training in agriculture and the mechanic arts, although the law specifically stated that such an emphasis was not to exclude other scientific and classical studies. In states where a public university or college had already become well established, these institutions broadened their scope to include the course provisions of the Morrill Act. Not all states managed their grants equally well, and it became obvious that the original grants would not provide sufficient income for the operation of the institutions. Within ten years, Morrill sponsored another bill to provide additional federal support. The measure did not pass until 1890, however, and by that time the states had come to realize that regular support was necessary if their institutions were to survive. The land-grant colleges and universities have exerted considerable influence on the structure and curriculum of American higher education. They gave official academic recognition to disciplines previously isolated in separate professional schools; they assumed that if education were to be offered to the agricultural and industrial classes, it must be placed within their economic means; and they contributed to the development of a peculiarly American concept of the university—what Ezra Cornell called "an institution where any person can find instruction in any study." The University and Graduate Education. Concomitant, and in some instances coincident, with the emergence of the landgrant colleges came the rise of the university and of graduate education. Although there were a number of attempts throughout the first half of the nineteenth century to establish graduate education, all of them failed. It was only after the founding of Johns Hopkins in 1876 that the university became firmly established. Once this happened, the university rapidly assumed the position of leadership in American higher education that it still retains. Part of the reason for this rapid and successful emergence of the university was that it constituted, in one sense, little change at all; many of the oldest and best-known liberal arts colleges, such as Yale, Columbia, and Harvard, became universities during this period as did several of the better-established public institutions, such as Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and California. Furthermore, a number of institutions were founded as universities and endowed with grants from business fortunes of a magnitude hitherto unheard of: $1 million from Vanderbilt: $20 million from the Stanford estate; $30 million from Rockefeller to establish the University of Chicago. Coming into existence on so grand a scale, these universities were, from the beginning, in a position to influence (considerably) the course of American higher education. Among the leaders of the university movement, there were differences as to what form the new structure should take. In the absence of university training in the United States, many Americans had gone to Germany to study, and there were powerful proponents for establishing the university along German lines. Presidents Gilman of Johns Hopkins, Hall of Clark, and Harper of Chicago wanted to see what is now called the graduate school of arts and sciences established as a separate structure, devoted primarily to the increase rather than the transmission of knowledge. In their view, the graduate school was to be oriented primarily toward research rather than teaching as the college traditionally had been. But there were too many pressures against such a view prevailing—the long tradition of the liberal arts colleges as the core of higher education, the need for providing pregraduate training to prospective graduate students, and the financial necessity of having an undergraduate college to help support the more expensive graduate training. The compromise produced a peculiarly American structure unlike any other existing university system. An essentially German graduate school emphasizing research was placed structurally on the top of an English college devoted to general education. Professional schools, which in Europe had usu-

5

ally existed as separate structures, were increasingly incorporated into the university.

1900 to the Present: The Period of Growth and Diversity During the twentieth century, the community and junior college emerged as a distinct structural unit of higher education. Initially, the major purpose of these colleges was to provide a parallel to the first two years of liberal arts instruction given in four-year colleges. Such a program is still customarily included in the curriculum, but throughout the first half of the twentieth century the junior colleges expanded their scope. As early as 1907, with the founding of the first Agricultural and Technical Institute of New York State, terminal programs to provide skilled vocational training began to develop. Junior colleges, the term which now generally designates private two-year institutions (which, in 1980, enrolled five percent of the two-year students) and community colleges, the term most commonly used for public two-year institutions (which enroll the other 95 percent of the two-year students), together enrolled 217,572 students in 527 institutions in 1950-51, 453,617 in 593 institutions in 1960-61, 2,227,214 in 897 institutions in 1970-71, and 4,776,222 in 1,368 institutions during the 1986-87 academic year. In that latter year, enrollees included 56 percent women. Community and junior colleges, which grew faster than any other category of institutions between 1960 and 1985, and now account for 45 percent of all institutions, rank with land-grant colleges as one of American higher education's principal inventions. The twentieth century is notable for the attempt to make higher education useful to students in their careers as well as more accessible, irrespective of sex, race, creed, handicap, national origin, or similar factors. Overall, enrollments expanded as follows: • 237,600 students (including 5,800 graduate students) in 1899-1900, • 355,200 (9,200 at graduate level) in 1909-10, • 597,900 (15,600 at graduate level) in 1919-20, • 1,100,000 (47,300 at graduate level) in 1929-30, • 1,494,200 (105,700 at graduate level) in 1939-40, • 2,659,000 (237,200 at graduate level) in 1949-50, • 3,582,700 (356,000 at graduate level) in 1960-61, • 7,920,100 (1,031,000 at graduate level) in 1970-71, • 12,097,000 (1,343,000 at graduate level) in 1980-81, • 12,241,940 (1,114,184 at graduate level) in 1984-85, • 12,247,055 (1,129,538 at graduate level) in 1985-86. • 12,768,000 (1,452,000 at graduate level) in 1987-88. In 1972, 12% of all students were members of minority groups. In the fall of 1986, 2.2 million minority students comprised 18% of the total student enrollment. Between 1980 and 1986, blacks as a percentage of total enrollment decreased from 9.2% to 8.6% while non-black minorities increased from 7% to 9.3%. In 1984-85, minorities earned 12% (112,988) of all bachelor's degrees awarded; 10% (29,841) of all master's degrees; and 9% (3,056) of all doctorates. In 1970, 41% of all students were women. In the fall of 1986, 6.6 million women comprised 53% of the total student enrollment. The number of bachelor's and advanced degrees earned by women between 1975-76 and 1985-86 increased by 16%. In 1985-86, women earned 51% (987,823) of all bachelor's degrees awarded; 50% (144,283) of all master's degrees; and 35% (11,778) of all doctorates. Accompanying this growth was a significant shift in enrollment from private, sometimes called independent, to public institutions. In 1950, half of all students were in public and half in private institutions. In 1960, that had shifted to 59 percent in public institutions; in 1970, to 75 percent in public; in 1980, to 78 percent in public. In 1986, the percentage in public was 78. The split among actual numbers of institutions shows a smaller shift. In 1960, there were 2,040 nonprofit accredited institutions in the United States, of which 1,319 were private institutions, or 65

6

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

percent; 2,573 institutions were counted in 1970, with 1,472 of them private, or 57 percent; and in 1980, there were 3,270 institutions, of which 1,760 were private, or 54 percent. By 1985, of the total of 3,388, 1,871 (55 percent) were private. Such diversity among categories of institutions became characteristic of American higher education. Principal categories included doctorate-granting research institutions, comprehensive institutions often granting graduate degrees, liberal arts colleges, community and junior colleges, specialized institutions usually oriented to a single profession, and proprietary institutions. Such pluralism is said to be a strength of U.S. higher education. Throughout the nineteenth century the tendency was to create new institutions to meet the rising demand for higher education. In the twentieth century, the major burden of enlarged enrollments has been met by expanding or modifying existing institutions. The teachers colleges added liberal arts and certain undergraduate professional programs; many special-purpose state institutions broadened their programs. During the 1800's, most institutions had remained small: in 1870, Harvard had 655 students; Michigan, 432; and Minnesota, 300 (about half of whom were in the precollegiate schools). Today enrollments of these universities range from 24,000 to more than 64,000 students. The following chapter reviews in more detail the structure of higher education today. The diversity of institutional structure and educational programs provides a broad spectrum of opportunities for students with widely varying interests and abilities, and represents a major strength of American higher education. Challenge and Experimentation. Starting in the second half of the 1960's, a period of anxiety about the future of higher education ensued. It was also a period of experimentation. On the one hand, rapidly expanding institutions were attacked by students demanding special curricula, provisions for new and unconventional styles of living, and institutionwide stands on political and social issues. On the other, demands were made for the admission of increasing numbers of students from backgrounds that had prepared them inadequately for conventional college programs. The immediate results of these pressures,

brought on in large measure by the Vietnam War into the early 1970's, included violence. Long-range results included curricular experimentation, fewer institutional controls over nonacademic aspects of student life, greater participation by students in some aspects of college decision-making, and large increases in the admission of students from lower economic strata and ethnic minorities. During the 1970's, experimentation ran its course and was followed by a number of after effects. Decline in academic quality was widely decried; students moved in large numbers from liberal arts curricula to career oriented courses; a renewed interest in general education curricula became fashionable; campuses quieted down and some critics claimed that campus life had become dull and that students had become "too serious." Anxiety about higher education's costs was also evident, caused most probably by the high rate of inflation, which strained budgets and lowered the average standard of living for professors and staff. But anxiety was also caused by decline in student enrollments projected for the early 1980's, which appeared first in overall enrollment statistics in 1984. Further, by the early 1980's, declining federal support for higher education and rapidly rising tuition rates became particular concerns. Still, the essential role that higher education was playing in the highly complex, technologically advanced U.S. society was widely recognized and remained a source of hope for frustrated academics. The pattern of change now being formed in American higher education is a matter of varied, even contradictory, interpretation. However, there is virtual unanimity in identifying the changes themselves: a marked differentiation between the "rich" and "poor" institutions; a continuing decline in the number of those attending private institutions; an increase in the number of older than traditional age students; a conspicuous interest in job-related courses; a growth in the number of students attending proprietary institutions; an expanding willingness to use telecommunications and computers in instruction; an expansion in state coordination and multi-campus systems. While the ideals of mass education remain firm, where these ideals will lead is a matter of broad speculation.

2 Higher Education Prospects for the 1990s ROBERT H. ATWELL AND PATRICIA R. PLANTE Three thousand five hundred and thirty-five custom-made college and university mission statements to the contrary, certain themes at certain times do influence the habits of mind on all of America's campuses. There is no denying, for example, that in the second half of the 1960s, higher education institutions from the University of Maine to the University of California called for a heightened social consciousness, and that in the 1970s, they invested in a bull market in career-oriented curricula. While the themes rang more loudly and persistently on some campuses than on others, one heard them everywhere without straining. No institution completely transcends its age. Now that the 1980s can be recalled in some tranquility, a theme—now pianissimo, now fortissimo—is emerging from the writings of historians and sociologists and philosophers. In the 1960s, the theme was "caring"; in the 1970s, the theme was "useful"; and in the 1980s, the theme was something like "inclusive." "Caring," "useful," and "inclusive" are all concepts associated with this country's most cherished ideals: compassion for those in need; pragmatism as a philosophy of choice; and respect for differing views. The theme of inclusiveness was a manifestation of higher education's coming of age. As a sign of the opening of the American mind, it took many forms and reached into many areas of collegiate life to create a climate wherein complacency with the achievements of the past was no longer acceptable. Among the most noticeable changes supported by this vision was an unprecedented willingness to expand the curriculum to include the works and views of minority and foreign cultures. The danger inherent in " a little knowledge" was revealed: a university that exposes its students to only one vision of culture places its students at excessive risk of accepting or even perpetuating intolerance, distortion, injustice, and prejudice. Such a university certainly cannot call its graduates educated. Unfortunately, the roots of this professed openness to multicultural and multinational views do not go very deep. To our national disgrace, the incidence of racism on our campuses is alarmingly high, and only 60,000 of 12 million American students study in a foreign country each year. However, by the end of the 1980s, a majority of university and student leaders welcomed the improved access to global thought. By the year 2000, nearly one in three Americans will be minority; global leadership in science and technology will determine economic leadership; women everywhere will expect greater opportunity; and mastery of language, both native and foreign, will increasingly become a significant source of power. The standard curriculum was clearly far too provincial, far too restrictive in its practical focus and in its narrow content— in fact, it was wholly inadequate for preparing students for adult lives in the year 2000. The Chinese tell of a student who wanted to know all about jade. He sought out a master to teach him. Each day, the master would place pieces of jade in the student's hand, and they would walk and talk. Many weeks passed, and still the master talked of anything and everything except jade. One day, the teacher slipped

something into the hand of his pupil and they began to walk and talk as usual. But all at once, the student stopped and said, "Master, this is not jade." 1 One legacy of the 1980s is the ideal of a campus where any student may stop—in the cafeteria, in the residence hall, in the classroom—and say, "This is not inclusive, this is not open, this is not a university." We must acknowledge the validity of that perception. In 1960, when many of today's senior faculty and administrators were writing their dissertations, 94 percent of the college students were white; 63 percent were men; nine of every ten Ph.D.s were awarded to men; and 80 percent of university faculty were men. Some of our most distinguished universities would not admit blacks, and many would not admit women. While university campuses began their march toward the ideal of inclusiveness in the 1970s, only in the 1980s did they march with alacrity. One may issue an invitation, yet hope that the invitee will decline; it requires yet another level of grace to treat the guest as one would want to be treated oneself. A second bequest of the 1980s is a new willingness to share one's storehouse of knowledge. It was not so long ago that the academic world was so insular that poets wrote poems to one another, and physicists' blackboard equations served as models for jokes in high-brow magazines. Though neither poetry nor physics has magically become limpid, the public (which supports the work of both private and public universities) is now more likely to attribute the obfuscation to its own weaknesses than to any deliberate obscurity on the part of poets or physicists. In the 1980s, higher education left the ivory tower and began to speak and, equally important, to listen to its varied constituencies. Of course, no university gave signs of being under the illusion that it alone could formulate wise public policies, reform a public school system that placed the nation at risk, raise the cultural life of cities, or solve the problem of nuclear waste disposal. However, all serious universities began to acknowledge their obligation to help find solutions. Land-grant institutions, with their agricultural extension centers and their schools of forestry, have always included in their mission the application of new knowledge for the good of the larger community. However, researchers in many other disciplines (such as law, economics, and business management) have tended to be bound to hierarchical notions of intellectual merit that have held them hostage to purely theoretical forms of inquiry. The inclusiveness of the 1980s has persuaded many universities and their faculty that teaching should go beyond the classrooms, beyond the professional journals and conferences—that educators have a responsibility to the world at large. While the university world cannot claim to have reached a broad consensus on academic priorities, the spirit of openness in the 1980s forced a reexamination of intellectual values that historically have discouraged many of the most highly educated members of our society from directing their extensive knowledge to problems that threaten us all: poverty, illiteracy, substance abuse, violence, and environmental pollution. It pointed out

8

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

forcefully and repeatedly that knowledge, like love, increases with the giving. A third gift offered us by the last decade is the willingness to accord all the rights, privileges, and opportunities of university life to any who wish to learn. For many decades, universities blocked the light for thousands upon thousands of students who were not between the ages of 18 and 22, single, middle class, or prepared to attend classes before sunset. However, by the end of the 1980s, the majority of colleges and universities had recognized their need for corrected vision. The National Center for Educational Statistics now shows that 30 percent of the nation's college students are 25 or older, and that of the 12 million students now enrolled in higher education, 5.5 million attend part time. 2 Once persuaded that their policies of exclusiveness were both unjust and unwise, universities began to tear down the barriers to learning that they themselves had erected. They understood that in a knowledge-intensive society, citizens who were poorly educated were destined to carry less than their fair share of the load and to reap less than their fair share of the rewards. Hence, after dismantling regulations and policies that had kept many of the poor, the disabled, the single parents, and other lifelong learners from obtaining degrees, universities instituted a host of student services designed to help those nontraditional learners. They established day care centers, scheduled classes early in the morning and late in the evening, expanded counseling staffs, improved transportation to and from campuses, and structured orientation sessions designed to address special needs. The 1980s taught academics that they could not afford to rest on their laurels. They might once have taken pride in the 20 percent of American universities that were the best in the world. But the historical exclusiveness of those universities, in an economy where 70 percent to 80 percent of all new jobs required postsecondary education, served only to exacerbate the gap between the "haves" and the "have nots." And just as important as economic justice was the recognition that the joys associated with the turn of a phrase, the structure of an argument, and the music of a poem should not be the exclusive domain of a privileged few. Of course, no theme, however noble—not even the idealistic one of inclusiveness—can drive through a decade without its exhaust fumes posing some dangers. The challenge of the 1990s is to contain these dangers, or better yet, to eliminate them. Among the more serious are the following: • First, in an effort to end its aristocratic distance and collaborate with government and business in addressing complex social issues, the university may cease to mind its own mission: to advance knowledge and to share it. In this activist, expansive mode, the university may weaken its autonomy and objectivity, promise the economically useful to the exclusion of the intellectually important, and neglect its theoretical long-term research. While academics have become ever more generous in meeting the heightened expectations of their communities, they must remain mindful of the risk of transforming their institutions into simply another business. Indeed, many would agree with Clark Kerr, who writes that some universities have already trespassed into the danger zone, and others are ready to follow. In his words, "They respond too much and lead too little." 3 • Second, those who enthusiastically embrace without serious examination any and all theories and perspectives as equally valid forget that an open mind is not necessarily an empty one. The ideal of inclusiveness, of respect for differing views, has led some to be seduced by the radically chic notion that power has replaced truth. Universities that cannot convincingly retort that truth is power are in grave danger of abolishing their reason for being. So-called "political correctness" is not an invention of the 1980s; it has jeopardized free and open inquiry for hundreds of years. Liberal settings that encourage liberal themes (such as inclusiveness) are no

less susceptible to fashionable ideology than are conservative settings that discourage them. • Third, many institutions are falling into the temptation of answering all calls without regard either to merit or to their ability to respond effectively. We may grant that Alfred North Whitehead was right: that curricula that do not change suffer the fate of all organic things that are kept too long. But without judgment, perspective, or direction, collaborative projects topple over one another, advisory boards meet without purpose, degree programs are initiated without thorough study, faculty and administrators are over-extended, and quality is lost in the shuffle. Universities must heed the lesson many businesses learned in the 1980s: expansion is not synonymous with growth. To accept that fact requires discipline during a period in history when many are engaged in competitive feats of acquisition and when most are distracted by numbers that are asked to signify more than they were ever intended to signify: numbers of students, numbers of programs, numbers of projects, numbers of entrepreneurial endeavors. The universities that will grow in reputation through the 1990s are those that resist such distractions while remaining true to the ideals of inclusiveness—ideals that have never called for a mediocrity that benefits no one, not even those who finally have been provided access. Throughout the 1990s, academics will continue to be preoccupied with faculty shortages in many disciplines, discouraging financial prospects, diminution of respect for the academy, a spiraling decline in the preparation of incoming students, and social strife and divisiveness as manifested in campus violence and racism. But what will it profit a university to gain additional faculty, improved funding, more knowledgeable students, and peaceful quads, if it loses sight of its central purpose in the glare of the attention bestowed upon those who respond enthusiastically to all calls and accept indiscriminately all views? In Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum, the narrator wants to break into a computer file. All he knows is that the password contains seven letters or fewer. He also knows that 6 billion combinations of seven letters are possible, and that a computer's running through 6 billion configurations at the rate of a million per second would still have to be fed these combinations one at a time. For each grouping of seven, he therefore allows ten seconds to ask for the password and to verify it. That comes to 60 billion seconds, or roughly 2,000 years. One afternoon, after following certain leads, he feeds the computer one password after another. Nothing. Finally, in a fit of exasperation, when the computer for the hundredth time asks him in an ever cool, dispassionate fashion, "Do you have the password?", the narrator types " N O . " 4 And the screen fills up with the flood of communication he is seeking. All knowledge that truly matters, knowledge that can make a difference in one's life and in the lives of others, arises from a willingness to speak the word " N O . " "No, I do not know." Followed by, "But I want to know." Only then will the screen light up with insights. All themes in colleges and universities, dangerous and otherwise, center upon these words, the only truly important ones in our custom-made mission statements. Έ . Β . De Vito, "Graduates," The American Scholar, 58 (1989): 282.

department of Education, Digest of Education Statistics 1990 (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, 1991), p. 169. 3 "Higher Education and Service to the Labor Market: Contributions and Distortions." Philadelphia: Institute for Research in Higher Education, University of Pennsylvania, 1988), p. 30. "Umberto Eco, Foucault's Pendulum Trans. William Weaver (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988), pp. 32-42.

3 The Structure of Higher Education Higher education is the general term for all programs of instruction customarily undertaken after the completion of secondary school training. Diversity, size, and steady change distinguish higher education in the United States. In the absence of a national agency for central educational direction, such as a ministry of education, each institution or formal administrative grouping of institutions has developed according to its own conception of service and excellence. (The U.S. Department of Education does not operate as ministries of education do in other nations. Rather, it primarily gathers data and distributes educational financial aid, but exercises only weak control over policy and curriculum.) The combination of a college's local and regional environment and the source and extent of its financial support largely determine its form. Similarities in colleges may be related directly to similarities in these formative influences. The most cursory examination of the institutional exhibits in Part III, however, would support the remark of a university president that "the outstanding characteristic of the American system of higher education is that it is not a system at all." Control is widely dispersed. The patterns of evolution were described in Chapter 1. These patterns reflect responses to needs rather than planned development. Statewide master plans to guide the development of higher education within states are attempts to control and direct the evolution of institutions in categories that were historically determined and that antedate the planning program. The second major attribute of American higher education is its size: the nation generally believes that all individuals should have the opportunity to develop themselves to their highest potential. Consequently, there is widespread feeling that it is the "right" of every interested and capable secondary school graduate to continue some sort of training beyond the twelfth grade. Such an attitude has led to an enrollment pattern different from that of any other developed nation. About 57 percent of high school graduates were enrolled in undergraduate or first-professional degree programs in 1986. The recent history of American higher education reveals a quickening of the traditional patterns of change and development. After 1960, population growth and the increasing percentage of college-age students seeking instruction in a variety of programs caused rapid growth, development, and change. The willingness of government and private groups to give additional financial support led to expansion, diversification, and experimentation in higher education. The community and vocational colleges are now well established; liberal arts colleges are sending larger numbers of their students on to professional and graduate schools; most teachers' colleges and some special-purpose state schools have evolved into arts and sciences colleges; major universities have become research centers while continuing to perform their traditional educational roles. These changes persisted in the 1980s despite the stabilization of student numbers overall. The Broad Structural Components Coordinating Bodies. The number of public colleges and universities governed wholly or in part by coordinating boards increased dramatically in the 1960s and early 1970s. Some boards, whether elected or appointed, govern senior institutions only, while others include all institutions in a state; others act to coordinate data gathering or serve as a convening authority on state

higher education problems. In some states, there are state-wide coordinating boards for single institutions or groups of institutions. Parallel to the growth of statutory superboards was the rise of voluntary consortia of institutions, public and private, for a large variety of purposes, including exchange of faculty and students and the avoidance of duplication of facilities or library materials. Types of Institutions. Although any classification of American higher education involves some arbitrary judgments, it is useful to distinguish certain general types of institutions. An analysis of fall enrollment for 1989 by institutional category is shown in Table 2; the number of institutions is provided in Table 3. 2. Opening Fall Enrollment, by Sex and Matriculation Status, 1989 Institutional category

Total

Men

Women

All institutions 6,219,167 7,402,036 Four-year institutions 4,024,482 4,493,077 Two-year institutions 2,194,685 2,908,959

Total enrollment

Students Full-time Part-time

13,621,203

7,751,789 5,869,414

8,517,559

5,905,202 2,612,357

5,103,644

1,846,587 3,257,057

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Center for Statistics. Fall 1989 Enrollment.

3. Higher Education Institutions, by Type, Control, and Size, Fall 1989 Control of institutions and size by enrollment

Institutions

All institutions

Other 4-year

2-year

All institutions All institutions Under 1,000 1,000-4,999 5,000-9,999 10,000-19,999 20,000-29,999 Over 30,000

3,542 1,335 1,411 415 260 87 34

2,147 833 841 226 158 61 28

1,395 502 570 189 102 26 6

Public Institutions All institutions Under 1,000 1,000-4,999 5,000-9,999 10,000-19,999 20,000-29,999 Over 30,000

1,572 170 732 332 228 79 31

608 42 215 144 126 56 25

964 128 517 188 102 23 6

Private Institutions All institutions Under 1,000 1,000-4,999 5,000-9,999 10,000-19,999 20,000-29,999 Over 30,000

1,970 1,165 679 83 32 8 3

1,539 791 626 82 32 5 3

431 374 53 1 3

SOURCE: American Council on Education, Division of Policy Analysis and Research. Special analysis of the Department of Education's 1989/90 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS).

10

HIGHER E D U C A T I O N IN THE UNITED STATES

The official name of an institution is frequently an unreliable guide to its actual structure or function. Some institutions called "university" offer no degree beyond the bachelor's degree (for example, Denison University). Others entitled "university" offer first-professional and master's degrees but have no doctoral program (for example, Colgate University). On the other hand, other institutions that are called "colleges" offer regular doctoral programs (for example, Boston College). Furthermore, several technical institutes have developed the characteristics of a general university, having large doctoral programs offering training in fields other than the physical sciences (for example, Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Chapters 3 and 4 describe in more detail the common characteristics of the undergraduate college and the graduate school. The University. Many institutions in the university category place considerable stress on graduate instruction; they confer advanced degrees in a variety of liberal arts and professional fields and strongly emphasize research. This definition is not very precise and is open to various interpretations. In popular usage, a university is often identified as an institution offering doctoral programs in a variety of fields. Because of its size and its emphasis on scholarship and research, the university has had a formative influence on American higher education. Its components are, typically, an undergraduate college and a cluster of graduate and professional schools. Graduate schools stress research training in an academic discipline; professional schools emphasize the development and application of theory in such fields as law, medicine, engineering, and business. A mere count of institutions with graduate schools is a misleading guide to their relative productivity of earned doctorates. The number of earned degrees conferred is shown in Table 4 and disciplines of advanced degrees in Table 5. The Liberal Arts College. Liberal arts colleges place their principal emphasis on a program of general undergraduate education. The distinction between the university and the liberal arts colleges is not always clear because many of the present universities (Harvard, Columbia, and Yale, for example) began as liberal arts colleges and continue to place great emphasis on the undergraduate college within the university structure. The four-year liberal arts colleges concentrate on programs leading to the bachelor's degree. Academic disciplines are usually broken into departments, responsible to a dean of the college, rather than into semiautonomous schools (larger structural units are more common in universities). Since the 1960s many liberal arts colleges have increased their emphasis on preparing students for advanced work in graduate and professional schools. 4. Earned Degrees Conferred, by Level, in Selected Years Year

All degrees conferred

1949--50 1959--60 1964--65 1969--70 1974--75 1979-- 8 0 1980--81 1981--82 1982--83 1983-- 8 4 1985--86 1988-- 8 9

498,373 479,215 667,592 1,072,581 1,315,659 1,330,244 1,335,593 1,353,283 1,365,336 1,380,011 1,383,953 1,897,973*

Projection 1997--98

1,314,400

Bachelor's and first-professional

Master's

Doctorates

433,734 394,889 538,930 833,322 987,922 999,548 1,007,096 1,025,030 1,042,640 1,061,245 987,823 1,101,489

58,219 74,497 112,195 209,387 293,651 298,081 295,739 295,546 289,921 285,462 288,567 311,050

6,420 9,829 16,467 29,872 34,086 32,615 32,758 32,707 32,775 33,304 33,653 35,791

916,000

290,000

34,700

SOURCE: American Council on Education, Division of Policy Analysis and Research. Special analysis of the Department of Education's 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 Earned Degrees Conferred data tape. •Includes Associate Degrees, two- but less than four-year degrees, Bachelors, M.S.s, Ph.D.s.

5. Number and Ranking by Discipline of First-Professional and Graduate Degrees Conferred, 1988-89 First-professional Disciplines Law Medicine Education Business/Management Life Sciences Social Sciences Dentistry Public Affairs-Services Physical Sciences Engineering Health Sciences Psychology Chiropractic Veterinary Medicine Letters Theology Optometry Osteopathy Pharmacy Podiatry Visual and Performing Arts

Number

15683

4321

2890 2157

1122 1635 1074 636

Rank

Master's Number

Doctorate

Rank

2211

9

82637 73363

1 2

10867

6

18506

5

23735 19410 8652

3 4 7

Number

Rank

6786

1

3536 2878

4 6

3853 4533

3 2

3275

5

1238 1165

7 8

1

2

3 4

6 5 7 8 8234

8

SOURCE: American Council on Education, Division of Policy Analysis and Research. Special analysis of the Department of Education's 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 Earned Degrees Conferred data tape.

The Community and Junior College. Community (public) and junior (private) colleges are institutions offering two-year programs of study beyond the secondary school level. There are two basic curricula: transfer and terminal. The first type enables the student to take in his or her own community the first two years of work leading to the bachelor's degree, thereby reducing educational costs. Such programs also relieve the pressure for admission on the senior colleges and universities, and may permit them to give more attention to upper division and graduate education. The terminal programs usually lead to the Associate in Arts or Associate in Science degree, indicating that the student has completed a unit of recognized academic work. The emphasis in such programs is vocational, enabling the student to become proficient in one of a wide variety of semiprofessional and technical areas. The Upper Level Institution. A small number of institutions offer academic programs solely for students who have completed the first two years of college study, and in some instances offer graduate programs as well. Many such institutions are located in Illinois, Florida, and Texas, an example being the University of Houston at Clear Lake City. State Colleges and Universities. State colleges and universities offer comprehensive programs attuned to the needs of their states. The teachers college is an identifiable category—an institution placing major stress on the preparation of teachers and administrators for elementary and secondary schools—has virtually disappeared. Former teachers colleges have broadened their functions and assumed the characteristics of liberal arts colleges or small universities. Most universities have schools of education, and most liberal arts colleges have programs in teacher education that meet certification requirements. Separately Organized Professional Schools. This category includes schools that offer programs directed toward one or more fields of specialization and that are not attached to a liberal arts college or university. Included in this group with specialized tech-

Structure of Higher Education

nological institutions would be such schools as the federally financed service academies, theological schools for the training of clergy, and schools of fine arts. Vocational and Adult Education. Within universities, especially land-grant universities, vocational education programs are designed to combine general education and training, in such areas as agriculture, trade, and industry. More emphasis is now given to theoretical preparation in these fields than to practical training, in order to enable students to keep pace with changing technology. Outside the academic community, the federal government has on occasion become involved in programs to retrain and upgrade the unskilled worker displaced by the application of science and technology to industry, making continuing vocational education, both within and outside existing school structures, an important part of postsecondary education in this country. Budgetary restrictions have limited these effects in recent years. Vocational education is especially characteristic in community and junior colleges. Some states have vocational training institutes as part of their public colleges; in other state institutions, jobrelated education, at various levels of professionalism, are integral parts of the curriculum. In addition, rising demand for updated skills training has resulted in a wide array of evening, weekend, summer, and other programs in adult vocational education. Besides adults who take courses as a leisure time activity, demand has also come from professionals who, in rapidly expanding and changing fields, require formal refresher work; adults who, having never entered college in youth or having left it before completing a degree, now wish to complete a degree; and younger students who want the pacing and focus of typically part-time adult education programs in lieu of the conventional full-time, campus-oriented degree programs. The emphasis on degrees by the latter two of these groups has moved institutions to devise new organizational arrangements that provide a closer association between the institution's traditional academic programs and its extension activities than has been common in the past. Proprietary Institutions. Approximately 1,200 institutions, founded to make a profit, are accredited by agencies recognized by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation. Most of these institutions provide vocational training. Until 1984, they represented a rapidly growing segment of postsecondary education. In addition, many business corporations operate major in-house professional training programs at a level of sophistication comparable to higher education. Xerox, Holiday Inn, IBM, and American Telephone and Telegraph are among corporations prominent in this regard.

11

See Table 6 for a breakdown by region of institutions of higher education. Faculty. The role of faculty members in administrative matters varies from institution to institution. Most, however, exert considerable influence in the appointment and promotion of colleagues, the conferring of tenure, curriculum, the admission and evaluation of students, and institutional planning and budgeting. Structures by means of which their views are expressed include departmental organization, faculty senates, committees, and, in some institutions, collective bargaining units. In 1984, there were an estimated 722,000 faculty employed in higher education. Approximately 64% were full time. In 1987-88, the average academic year salary for a full professor at a doctoral level university was $52,950; at an independent baccalaureate college, $42,540. In that same year, fringe benefits for full professors averaged $10,070. Many faculty earn additional income by writing and consulting. At institutions that honored the tenure system, 66% of the men and 46% of the women were tenured. Students. Until recently, student involvement in the administration of universities was generally limited to matters affecting their social or extracurricular activities. In the late 1960's, provision was made in a number of institutions for participation by students in administrative bodies, formerly the provinces of faculty and administrative officers. Students in the 1988-89 academic year paid an average charge for tuition, fees, room and board of $5,823 at public four-year institutions and of $12,526 at private four-year institutions. Undergraduate tuition and fees for the academic year 1990-91 at sample universities were as follows: $16,100 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; $15,530 at Yale University; $13,050 at the University of Miami; $12,560 at Grinnell College; $2,269 at the University of Maryland, College Park; $1,694 at the University of California, San Diego. In 1985 the median number of years taken to complete a course of study from entrance as an undergraduate to the attainment of a doctorate was 10.4 years. National norms for selected characteristics of entering undergraduate students in the fall of 1987 included the following (in approximate numbers): Highest degree planned—Bachelor's degree for 35.9% of the men and 34% of the women; a Ph.D. or Ed.D. for 10.7% of the men and 10% of the women. Racial background—87.6% of the men and 84.5% of the women were white/Caucasian; 7.2% of the men and 10% of the women were black/Negro/African American. Business attracted 26% of the students who identified it as a probable field of study. The next closest discipline so identified was Education by 13.3% of the students. Support of $1,500 or more was expected from parents by 54.8% of the men and 57% of the women.

6. Number of Institutions of Higher Education, by Highest Level of Offering and by Region, Fall 1989 Region (population in 1984) (in millions) U.S. and outlying parts 50 States and Washington, D.C. (236.1) New England (12.6) Mideast (37.2) Southeast (54.5) Great Lakes (41.6) Plains (17.5) Southwest (26.1) Rocky Mountains (12.6) Far West (34.2) U.S. service schools Outlying parts

All institutions

Associate degrees

3,542 3,482 258 677 824 547 352 278 103 433 10 60

1,388 1,370 81 213 381 198 131 127 52 186 1 18

Bachelor's and first-professional degrees 1,673 1,637 136 361 350 276 179 110 33 186 6 36

All doctorates 481 475 41 103 93 73 42 41 18 61 3 6

SOURCE: American Council on Education, Division of Policy Analysis and Research. Special analysis of the Department of Education's 1989-90 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) institutional data.

12

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

7. Voluntary Support of Higher Education, 1971-87 Voluntary support (in millions of dollars) Per student Constant 1967 dollarsb

For all institutions"

Year 1970-71 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87

Total amount

Percentage change from prior year

Current dollars

Amount

Percentage change from prior year

1,860 2,160 2,410 2,670 3,040 3,230 3,800 4,230 4,860 5,160 5,600 6,320 7,400 8,500

4.5 -3.6 11.6 10.8 13.9 6.3 17.6 11.3 14.9 6.2 8.5 12.9 17.1 14.9

217 211 215 240 269 284 325 350 393 418 449 516 604 680

183 137 130 136 143 138 140 135 140 142 147 163 186 203

-7.1 -17.5 -6.6 6.2 5.1 -3.5 1.4 -3.6 3.7 1.4 3.5 10.9 14.1 9.1

1971-72 Amount All Sources Foundations Nonalumni individuals Alumni/alumnae Business Corporations Religious Organizations Other

1975-76 Percentage

2,020 523 493 481 275 101 147

1985-86

Amount

Percentage

Amount

Percentage

2,410 549 569 588 379 130 195

100.0 22.8 23.6 24.4 15.7 5.4 8.1

7,400 1,363 1,781 1,825 1,702 211 518

100.0 18.4 24.1 24.7 23.0 2.8 7.0

100.0 25.9 24.4 23.8 13.6 5.0 7.3

"Estimate for all institutions of higher education based on data from institutions responding to questionnaire; includes giving for current operations and capital purposes. b Current dollar estimate converted by the Consumer Price Index (CPI, 100 = 1967) which, in turn, was converted to an academic year basis by averaging the CPI for the two calendar years that make up the academic year. SOURCE: Voluntary Support of Education (New York: Council for Financial Aid to Education, 1987).

Financial Sources Four principal sources have supplied the income for educational and general purposes of institutions of higher education: (1) philanthropic gifts, (2) student tuition and fees, (3) endowment earnings, and (4) state and federal government appropriations. The relative contribution and importance of each of these sources have varied considerably during the past fifty years.

In the past, philanthropic gifts have not provided a large percentage of the total operating income of higher education in the United States. Most donors have preferred to give their gifts for endowments or buildings rather than for support of current expenditures. Many institutions, however, are now giving more attention to this source of support for current programs. Their efforts have resulted in substantial increases in gifts available for current purposes. In most colleges and universities, alumni and other

8. Current Fund Revenues"1 (in $ Millions) of Institutions of Higher Education, by Source and Institutional Control

Total current fund revenue Student tuition and fees Government Federal State Local Endowment income Private gifts and grants Sales and services of educational activities Other Auxiliary enterprises Sales and services of hospitals Independent operations

Percentage distribution in 1986-87

Public institutions 1986-87

1978-79

1980-81

1983-84

1986-87

34,527.5 4,380.6 (22,018.6) 4,539.1 16,018.1 1,461.4 153.6 835.9

43,195.6 5,570.4 (26,768.6) 5,540.1 19,676.0 1,622.9 214.6 1,100.1

84,342.9 19,714.9 (37,231.1) 10,331.8 24,707.0 2,192.3 1,873.9 4,415.3

111,600.8 25,705.8 (47,783.6) 13,680.8 31,303.5 2,799.3 2,378.0 5,952.7

100.0 23.0 (43.0) 12.3 28.1 2.6 2.1 5.3

71,408.8 10,198.6 (41,774.8) 8,799.9 30,439.9 2,535.0 349.8 2,293.0

2,665.8 3,476.8 11,340.3 9,227.8

2.4 3.1 10.2 8.3

1,771.8 1,793.5 7,093.0 5,910.8

3,014.3

2.7

223.6

698.8 683.3 3,627.9 2,128.7

943.7 1,016.1 4,614.6 2,897.1

1,970.7 2,640.0 9,456.4 7,040.6

—

—

—

•Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Center for Statistics, unpublished data, 1989-90.

Percentage distribution in public institutions 1986-87

Private institutions 1986-87

Percentage distribution in private institutions 1986-87

40,192.0 15,507.2 (6,008.8) 4,880.9 863.6 264.3 2,028.2 3,659.7

100.0 38.6 (14.8) 12.1 2.1 0.6 5.0 9.1

2.5 2.5 9.9 8.3

894.1 1,683.3 4,247.3 3,367.1

2.2 4.2 10.6 8.4

0.3

2,790.7

6.9

100.0 14.3 (58.5) 12.3 42.7 3.5 0.5 3.2

Structure of Higher Education

13

9a. Current Fund Expenditures of Institutions of Higher Education, in Constant 1967 Dollars, Selected Fiscal Years, 1975-86 Amount (in millions of dollars) 1974-75

1979-80

Kind of expenditure Total Current Fund Expenditures and Mandatory Transfers Educational and General Expenditures and Mandatory Transfers Minus Scholarships and Fellowships Instruction Research Public service Academic support libraries Other academic support Student services Institutional support Plant operation & maintenance Educational and general mandatory transfers Auxiliary enterprises Scholarships and fellowships Hospitals

1983-84

1984-85

1985-86

All institutions 22,588.7

24,468.4

26,891.9

28,393.7

29,918.9

(17,515.3) 7,601.7 2,717.6 707.3 (1,453.5) 645.6 807.9 927.1 1,969.4 1,795.6 343.1 2,624.7 934.0 1,514.7

(18,688.8) 7,952.1 2,677.1 781.0 (1,666.5) 698.1 968.4 1,103.5 2,173.0 2,020.7 314.9 2,788.3 946.0 2,045.3

(20,354.8) 8,670.5 2,737.2 819.7 (1,814.1) 731.7 1,082.4 1,245.6 2,546.2 2,207.2 314.3 3,033.8 1,082.9 2,420.4

(21,546.3) 9,083.7 2,973.3 903.1 (1,917.4) 745.5 1,171.9 1,318.9 2,710.6 2,318.7 320.6 3,160.4 1,158.6 2,528.4

(22,747.0) 9,519.0 3,259.1 956.9 (2,045.2) 782.6 1,262.6 1,399.7 2,868.3 2,332.9 365.8 3,229.5 1,276.1 2,666.3

Public institutions Total Current Fund Expenditures and Mandatory Transfers Educational and General Expenditures and Mandatory Transfers Minus Scholarships and Fellowships Instruction Research Public service Academic support Libraries Other academic support Student services Institutional support Plant operation & maintenance Educational and general mandatory transfers Auxiliary enterprises Scholarships and fellowships Hospitals

15,135.3

16,237.3

17,411.2

18,407.4

19,384.6

(12,155.6) 5,524.3 1,632.9 595.4 (1,038.4) 438.1 600.3 634.4 1,234.9 1,246.9 248.5 1,634.4 463.1 882.1

(12,776.3) 5,726.0 1,491.5 650.4 (1,197.6) 479.1 718.5 754.4 1,348.0 1,404.7 203.6 1,776.4 417.2 1,267.4

(13,579.7) 6,097.9 1,524.2 672.0 (1,249.5) 480.0 769.5 806.9 1,534.9 1,501.4 193.1 1,935.7 418.7 1,477.0

(14,392.0) 6,403.9 1,645.9 731.2 (1,347.1) 491.6 855.5 847.3 1,638.8 1,591.2 186.6 2,030.2 434.0 1,551.3

(15,162.3) 6,711.9 1,790.5 771.7 (1,439.7) 516.9 922.8 896.3 1,738.4 1,588.1 225.7 2,095.2 483.4 1,643.8

Independent institutions Total Current Fund Expenditures and Mandatory Transfers Educational and General Expenditures and Mandatory Transfers Minus Scholarships and Fellowships Instruction Research Public service Academic support Libraries Other academic support Student services Institutional support Plant operation & maintenance Educational and General mandatory transfers Auxiliary enterprises Scholarships and fellowships Hospitals

7,453.4

8,231.1

9,480.7

9,986.3

10,534.3

(5,359.5) 2,077.4 1,084.7 112.0 (415.0) 207.5 207.5 292.7 734.5 548.6 94.6 990.3 470.9 632.6

(5,912.5) 2,226.1 1,185.5 130.6 (468.9) 219.0 249.9 349.1 825.0 616.0 111.3 1,011.9 528.8 777.9

(6,775.1) 2,572.6 1,213.0 147.7 (564.7) 251.8 312.9 438.7 1,011.3 705.8 121.3 1,098.2 664.2 943.3

(7,154.3) 2,679.9 1,327.5 172.0 (570.3) 253.9 316.4 471.6 1,071.8 727.5 133.9 1,130.3 724.6 977.1

(7,584.7) 2,807.1 1,468.6 185.2 (605.4) 265.7 339.7 503.4 1,129.9 744.8 140.1 1,134.4 792.7 1,022.5

Note: Current dollars were converted to constant dollars for 1967, the base year shown in source 2, using the CPI adjusted to the academic year The deflators used were: 1974-75, 1.552; 1979-80, 2.326; 1983-84, 3.049; 1984-85, 3.168; 1985-86, 3.26. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Figures in parentheses are subtotals. SOURCES

1. Data from Tables 99-101. 2. CES Digest of Education Statistics, 1987 (Washington: GPO), p. 30. 3. Finance Data 1989-90 from ACE Fact Book on Higher Education.

14

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

9b. Current Fund Expenditures* (in $ Millions) of Institutions of Higher Education, 1986-87 (in Actual Dollars)

Kind of expenditure Total Current Funds Expenditures and Transfers Instruction Research Public service Academic support Student services Institutional support Operation and maintenance of plant Scholarships & fellowships Mandatory transfers Nonmandatory transfers Educational and general expenditures and mandatory transfers (incl. in TOTAL) Auxiliary enterprises Hospitals Independent operations

Amount in 1986-87 110,303.9 33,711.2 9,352.3 3,448.5 7,276.0 4,975.9 10,084.7 7,819.0 7,232.2 1,212.5 1,340.2

(86,413.5) 11,301.5 9,315.4 2,935.2

Percentage distribution in 1986-87

100.0 30.6 8.5 3.1 6.6 4.5 9.1 7.1 6.6 1.1 1.2

(78.3) 10.2 8.4 2.7

Public institutions amount in 1986-87

Percentage distribution in public institutions in 1986-87

Private institutions in 1986-87

70,392.4

100.0 33.2

39,911.5 10,352.1

8.9 3.9 7.2 4.5 8.6 7.5 5.0 1.0

3,093.7

2,727.6 5,048.2 3,159.0 6,042.6 5,308.6 3,547.2 704.0 658.0

0.9

23,359.1 6,258.6

(56,812.9) 7,332.7 5,991.0 255.8

(80.7) 10.4 8.5 0.4

720.9 2,227.8 1,816.9 4,042.1 2,510.4 3,685.0 508.5 682.2

(29,600.6) 3,968.8 3,324.4 2,679.4

Percentage distribution in private institutions in 1986-87 100.0 25.9 7.8 1.8 5.6 4.6 10.1 6.3 9.2 1.3 1.7

(74.2) 9.9 8.3 6.7

*Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Center for Statistics, unpublished data, 1989-90.

interested persons are encouraged to contribute to an annual financial campaign whose proceeds are available for unrestricted purposes. These campaigns have attracted many donors whose relatively small annual gifts add up to a significant total. The success of such efforts is indicated by the fact that the amount of income from voluntary gifts and grants to higher education in 1985-86 was $7.4 billion. See Table 7. Endowment is held chiefly by privately controlled institutions, although a number of state-controlled universities, such as the Universities of Texas and California, have large endowments. Endowment funds of significant size tend to be concentrated in a small number of colleges and universities, with about threefourths of total endowment funds held by 100 institutions. With a few notable exceptions, almost all institutions of higher education, including state-supported schools, charge tuition. In 1986-87, student fees constituted nearly 25 percent of the educational and general income for all institutions of higher education combined. Government financial support for higher education comes from three major sources—local, state, and federal. The contribution of local governments to higher education has been small, except in such instances as the City University of New York, but state governments have continuously provided funds toward the creation and support of the state universities and colleges. The federal government, which prior to World War II contributed relatively small sums of money, has become one of the substantial supporters through the appropriation of research grants and contracts and student financial aid. Tables 8 and 9a-b show the current fund revenues and expenditures of higher education institution (public and private) by source and percentage of distribution. By the 1985-86 academic year, higher education expenditures had grown to $98 billion. As a percentage of the Gross National Product, higher education expenditures amounted to an estimated 2.7% in 1986-87. That percentage was the same as in 1970-71, but up from 2.5% in 1981-82. Of the 2.7% in 1986-87, an estimated 1.8% went to public education.

National Associations of Higher Education In the United States, where the control and operation of education are decentralized, hundreds of voluntary education associations have been formed to provide direction, leadership, and assistance to their members. Through such associations, members, whether institutional or individual, are able to cooperate in the formulation of educational policies and practices. The Association of American Colleges, which seeks to promote higher education in the liberal arts, is one such organization. The Association of American Universities, with a membership of fifty-six major universities (two Canadian), seeks to maintain high quality in graduate and professional education. The National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, and the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges all have as their major objective the development of their constituent memberships. The American Association of University Professors was founded in 1915 to work with institutional associations in setting national standards for the profession and its relationship to colleges and universities. In the late 1960s, it undertook to assist association chapters in collective bargaining and now shares with the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association the one-third of the professoriate that bargains collectively. Besides the unions, a wide array of disciplinary associations are concerned not only with intellectual issues but also with the interests of research scholars and teachers. Of those associations whose membership is by institution, the largest is the American Council on Education (ACE). Its membership consists primarily of national and regional education associations and institutions of higher education. A major function is to serve as the principal nongovernmental coordinating body in higher education. It represents higher education with the federal government and convenes bodies to address higher education's salient issues. The Council also sponsors independent research projects and institutes for those involved in higher education.

4 Undergraduate Education Many features of undergraduate education in America have remained largely consistent in spite of the diversity of institutions serving student needs. The offerings at baccalaureate-level colleges which are separately organized share characteristics with the courses of study provided by undergraduate divisions of large universities, by state-supported colleges, church-affiliated schools, urban commuter, and rural residential institutions. Although beyond the scope of American Universities and Colleges, programs offered by the two-year institutions in many cases serve similar needs and follow similar patterns. However, in the past two decades, the profile of the undergraduate population has changed considerably. Women now outnumber men: whereas in 1970 women comprised 37% of all those enrolled in four year institutions, they now comprise 51%. The average age of enrollees continues to climb: more than half are now over 21 and a large number attend part time. In sharp contrast to the pre 1970 decades many more men and women favor preprofessional programs over liberal arts programs both in two-year and four-year institutions. A broad description of the common features of undergraduate education in American colleges and universities follows.

The Curricula Arts and Sciences. In spite of the open admissions institutions (many at the associate level) that open their doors to virtually all students of college age or above, most undergraduates are admitted to baccalaureate study only after achieving a specified score on the College Board SAT or the ACT standardized examinations. In addition, many colleges and universities require a secondary school class rank above a certain cutoff, a certain distribution of preparatory courses, and the fulfillment of other criteria. The curriculum for the baccalaureate from a liberal arts college usually requires four years to complete, although some institutions have experimentally shortened this period. The first two years of the average four-year program are devoted mainly to general education, typically consisting of a series of required courses in basic areas such as English composition, foreign languages, humanities, mathematics, and natural and social sciences, and often are supplemented by survey courses providing introductions to major fields of knowledge including computer science. At a stated point—usually toward the end of the second year—students are expected to name their majors (fields of concentration) and, with the aid of their faculty advisers, to plan programs of specialized study. Many institutions also require one or more minor concentrations outside the major field. The first two years of undergraduate education are often referred to as the lower division (sometimes called the general college). Some baccalaureate-and-above institutions offer students the option of earning an associate degree after two years of directed study whether or not they plan to continue to the upper division, the last two years of baccalaureate study. In many colleges, different administrators supervise the two levels. Although most students interested in professional training in fields such as dentistry, law, and medicine begin their career studies only after earning their baccalaureates, a few begin specialized professional coursework following their sophomore or

junior year and receive their baccalaureates at the end of their first, second, or third year of professional training. During any given term, full-time students concurrently study four or five different subjects. In recent years, however, experimentation has led to variations both in the calendar and in the number of courses pursued per term. Instead of following traditional quarter and semester divisions, some students take three courses in each of three terms (the 3-3 plan); others follow the 4-1-4 or the 4-4-1, a modified semester system with an interim or additional month in which a student may take a special course, pursue individual study, or work at another institution in the United States or abroad. Several institutions are exploring competency-based systems wherein students are evaluated both by traditional and experimental means. Most institutions offer opportunities for special study. Many, particularly those with open admission programs, provide remedial or developmental courses, sometimes for college credit, in basic subjects such as composition, reading, and mathematics. Some even offer summer programs to help prepare educationally disadvantaged students to enter college. Others feature honors courses, individual majors, contract learning, independent study programs, study abroad (often with exchanges), semester programs in Washington, New York, and other cities, and—frequently through consortia—reciprocal study and other privileges with other institutions. Many allow students advanced standing or academic credit by examination or for extrainstitutional learning (life experience) gained before entering college. In addition, internships and cooperative education (available in about a third of American universities and colleges), where paid or unpaid work and academic experience are combined, have become increasingly popular. Different kinds of institutions are suited to the demands of different kinds of students: while some students thrive in the academic, professional, and social variety offered by large universities, others respond better to the greater singleness of academic purpose of many small colleges. Some students enjoy the sense of community that characterizes a residential college; others prefer the separation of academic and social life possible at a commuter institution. The structure provided in certain church-affiliated schools appeals to some, while the freedom of choice available at public colleges seems important to others. At a college that forms part of a large university, students will probably find a greater choice of courses as well as more abundant library and laboratory resources than at a smaller institution. However, the direct relationship between student and teacher fostered by many small colleges may be missing at the large university despite the presence of distinguished lecturers, scholars, and teachers and the availability of technical and professional courses. Many universities have taken steps against some of the negative consequences associated with large size and expanding enrollments by establishing tutorial systems, by setting up discussion groups in large lecture classes, by experimenting with peer counseling, and by combining academic and social elements of the undergraduate experience in a residential context. Universities that offer residential colleges usually attach a portion of the staff to each college, and undergraduate instruction is often provided by professors and associate professors rather than by less experienced faculty. By contrast, many of the better small colleges have attempted to overcome limitation of scale by providing excellent library and

16

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

laboratory facilities, by providing research opportunities for their faculty, and by setting up cooperative arrangements with other colleges, such as cross-registration and shared-facilities programs. Professional Curricula. Education for some professions is provided in four-year curricula which students enter upon graduation from secondary school and which culminate in a baccalaureate degree. Among the fields in which such programs are common are education, engineering, forestry, journalism, and nursing. Professional curricula typically require broad study in the liberal arts and sciences as well as specialized study. Many professional curricula, however, take six years or more to complete and require a number of years of preprofessional training, often including a baccalaureate. Thus, the first-professional degree in theology commonly requires three years beyond the four years of baccalaureate preparation; the medical degree normally takes four years beyond the three years of preliminary training; law is often three and three; dentistry, veterinary medicine, and osteopathy are frequently two and four. In some fields, such as social work, public health, and librarianship, the master's degree rather than the first-professional award is virtually essential for practice. Most institutions suggest preprofessional programs for students interested in further study. For specific offerings, see institutional descriptions in Part III of this book. Part II lists and briefly describes professional education in the 102 fields represented by one or more of the fifty-two specialized accrediting agencies recognized by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation. Nontraditional Curricula. To serve the needs of nontraditional students, who are often older than average students and who may be partially or fully employed, many institutions offer weekend and evening classes both in their regular curricula and in their adult and continuing education programs. In addition to conventional classroom instruction, nontraditional students are often given the opportunity to study off campus through correspondence, independent reading, or television. Some states offer college degrees through assessment programs which award credit for both traditional academic work and for life experience. Methods of Instruction Much of college instruction continues to rely on the lecture. Professors may lecture to groups ranging in size from forty to a thousand or more students. To ensure that the knowledge thus imparted is understood, to allow the raising of questions, and to measure the progress of individuals, the large lecture classes are frequently divided into discussion groups of 15 to 30 students. Each section, led by a junior faculty member or graduate student, meets once or twice a week to discuss and question the content of the lecture and assigned reading. Some subjects, particularly process skills such as writing, lend themselves better to small-group instruction. In colleges and universities where small classes are common, the favored teaching method, which involves informal talks based on assigned and other outside material, permits students the opportunity for immediate response and discussion. Both large and small institutions are investigating peer teaching systems where much of the learning is the result of student-to-student discussion under faculty supervision. Instructors meet their students at regular periods several times a week for lecture, discussion, and evaluation. Periodically, students submit essays and reports and take tests which indicate their progress. Although most instructors emphasize the importance of regular class attendance, and some impose penalties for absence, many institutions make class attendance an individual responsibility. Increasingly, technological advances are used in support of pedagogy: language laboratories, inter-active television, video recorders and other informational retrieval systems now allow students to become ever more self-reliant in directing both the pace and the depth of their learning.

Credit Hours Students usually earn one academic credit for each hour spent in class per week, although laboratory courses generally require two or three hours in the laboratory per unit of credit. Full-time students typically attend 15 or 16 hours of discussion or lecture classes a week which, in addition to preparatory study, results in an academic work week of 40 to 50 hours. Students normally accumulate 120-124 semester hours or 180-186 quarter hours to graduate. The average semester lasts fifteen weeks, the average quarter ten; both are usually followed by brief examination periods. Although a few institutions are experimenting with ungraded or self-graded evaluation systems, the large majority measure student achievement in classes with grades assigned by instructors. The most common system uses letters to indicate quality of work submitted: generally, A indicates originality and excellence; В shows responsible, above-average work; С describes average performance; D means work of minimal competence; F designates failure. Most institutions assign quality points to the letters (A, 4; B, 3; C, 2; D, 1; F, 0) to allow the calculation of grade point averages or quality point indexes (GPAs or QPIs). These averages are compiled by multiplying the total quality points by credit hours earned per course, adding them up, and dividing the total by total credit hours studied. Most institutions require that students maintain grades of designated quality to continue from year to year and to graduate. The record of courses taken and grades earned is kept on a permanent basis by the registrar. When reproduced, this record is called a transcript and becomes the official document proving that a given student has attended an institution and achieved a specific status there. Transcripts, rather than diplomas, are the primary records considered by graduate and professional schools as well as institutions deciding whether to admit transfer students. Although most colleges require at least а С grade for graduation, a very few have dispensed altogether with letter grades, recording only whether students pass or fail their courses. More institutions have introduced the pass-fail option on a limited basis, offering entry only to a specified number or type of courses under this system. A third group does not note courses failed on the transcript at all. However, experimentation with grading systems is not widespread because of the difficulty students with unusual transcripts might meet in transferring from an institution with an unconventional system to one with a more conventional one, or in having their records assessed by graduate or professional schools. When the term in residence is used in connection with an academic program, it usually refers to a student's being in full-time attendance at courses on campus taught by the institution's regular faculty. However, in recent years, many institutions have relaxed their definitions to count part-time study and courses taken on an extension or correspondence basis toward fulfillment of residence requirements for the baccalaureate. As a rule, however, colleges and universities ask that a baccalaureate student spend at least one academic year (nine months) in residence, often specifying that residence requirements be met in the student's last year before graduation.

Extrainstitutional Fulfillment of Degree Requirements Many institutions offer advanced placement, college credit, or both for work completed outside the institution offering the degree. Transfer programs allowing students to move from one college to another and to secure advanced standing for work already completed are nearly universal. Many university systems allow automatic transfer of associate degree credit earned at one unit to baccalaureate programs offered elsewhere in the system. Evaluation of credits earned is usually performed on the basis of the transcript provided by the previous college attended. Most institutions accept, without question, work completed at similar col-

Undergraduate Education

leges carrying regional accreditation; however, most merely transfer blocks of credit and do not count quality points earned elsewhere as part of the transferring students' QPIs or GPAs. Some secondary schools offer college-level courses to enable highly qualified precollege students to accelerate their education. Increasingly, institutions recognize the quality of such work already completed and either give college credit to or permit advanced placement of entering freshmen who have completed advanced classes. Many colleges base their evaluation of such work on standardized tests such as the College Board APP examinations or CLEP tests, the ACT program subject examinations, or institutional tests of various sorts. In addition to rewarding superior secondary-school study, many colleges and universities serve the needs of the fast-growing group of mature students returning to college classrooms by offering credit based on evaluation of work and life experience. Externaldegree programs offer credit for work completed at institutions other than that offering the degree. This recognition of the value of extrainstitutional learning—work completed outside formal academic settings—is based on student performance on various measures that include College Board APP and CLEP and the ACT tests, as well as other determinants. Among the organizations which aid in measuring extrainstitutional experience are the Council for Adult and Experiential Learning, and the ACE Center for Adult Learning and Educational Credentials. Many colleges also give credit for courses and instructional programs provided by the armed forces, business, and industry if the instruction completed has been evaluated by the ACE Guide to the Evaluation of Educational Experiences in the Armed Services, the ACE National Guide to Educational Credit for Training Programs, or by other measures. Finally, to aid in the evaluation of experience gained without the traditional academic system, many institutions also allow students to take examinations prepared by their own faculty members, to submit student portfolios describing the experience being presented, and to participate in evaluative interviews. Student Services Recognizing the importance of services rendered to students in addition to formal instruction, most institutions organize nonacademic programs into a division or department of student affairs, student services, or student personnel services. Headed by a dean of student services or vice president for student affairs, such units usually oversee new student orientation, counseling and testing services, health services, on-campus living and dining facilities, career planning and placement services, financial aid programs, international student programs, handicapped-student services, student unions, and student activities. In some instances, student services units also supervise programs that help students adjust to college life and develop sound learning skills. Student Health Services. Almost all institutions maintain facilities to promote and care for students' health. Health programs for students, usually supported through a health free or voluntary insurance plan, focus on advocating health education and hygiene and on treating routine sickness and injuries. Most also offer some kind of plan for dealing with serious accidents or illnesses. Staff and facilities in collegiate health programs range from resident nurses with first-aid cabinets to fully equipped departments employing internists and other physicians, psychiatrists, and dentists, as well as nurses. Similarly, hospitalization facilities range from suites of dormitory rooms designated as infirmaries to fully equipped modern hospitals. Career Planning and Placement Services. In addition to their traditional function of listing part-time and summer jobs and of bringing together graduating students and potential employers, many career centers also offer extensive job counseling to undergraduates just entering college. Programs and services assist new

17

students to plan their careers in the context of their selected major field and to take courses that will aid them in future employment. Career counseling can help students to develop firm, realistic bases for vocational plans after college. Most career centers also assist students after graduation by maintaining records and credentials which can be sent to prospective employers on request at any time. Student Unions. Educators' general acceptance of the importance of leisure activities in individual development has led, over the past forty years, to the presence of college unions on almost all campuses. The community center of the college, the union, provides social and recreational activities for students, faculty, administrators, alumni, and guests. The facilities typically include an auditorium, a snack bar, and rooms for games, art exhibits, music, dancing, and dining. Unions may also provide space to rest, study, and relax for the growing commuter population of both regular and continuing education students present on many campuses. Residence Halls. When available, many students prefer to live in dormitories because of the social and educational opportunities offered and because the cost is often less than that of private lodgings. In recent years, many colleges have removed the requirement that students live on campus (although a good number still ask freshmen to do so) and have opened all or part of their dormitory space to coed living arrangements. More married student housing is available than in the past. Most campuses are short of both housing and funds to build new residence halls. Because of the shortage, student affairs offices have found themselves charged with a range of new responsibilities, from assisting with the location of off-campus housing to maintenance of hours and locations convenient to commuter student schedules. Extracurricular Activities. Recognizing their importance in educational growth, typical colleges offer a wide variety of student activities outside the regular academic curriculum. The purposes of student organizations range from the advancement of intellectual, aesthetic, and religious interests to the promotion of social events. In some organizations, faculty or staff participate with students; other organizations confine their membership to students. Typical of the first group are organizations associated with academic disciplines, such as physics or French clubs, which meet regularly to discuss issues of concern and to share programs of special interest. Organizations of the second type are often those concerned with publications, radio broadcasting, intramural sports, debating, and student government. Many colleges have excellent or even famous drama departments, and individual groups are active on almost every campus. Usually working with interested faculty, students have achieved considerable success in their dramatic and muscial offerings. Among the college theatrical offerings that frequently attract audiences both from within the student body and the adjacent community are serious drama, muscial comedy, annual revues, outdoor pageants, and opera. In addition to formal musical instruction, nearly all colleges and universities have choral organizations, and most have bands or orchestras as well. In most institutions, students write, edit, and produce various publications: a daily or weekly newspaper, a yearbook, or a literary magazine. Many student groups are organized under some overall form of student government that has some representation on the general academic governance body (the university or faculty senate). In some instances, student members vote in this institutional body. The student government itself usually has considerable authority in setting up budgets and administering funds collected through mandatory student activity fees for organizations or programs directed and managed by students. In its financial responsibilities, student government usually works with faculty or staff advisers. In addition, student government plays a significant role in student judicial programs on many campuses. Effective student govern-

18

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

ments offer student leadership, an opportunity to make appropriate recommendations to the college administration, and to provide students with experience in self-governance. Most colleges award honors to students with high grade point averages. In institutions with Phi Beta Kappa chapters, the highest academic honor is election to that society, but undergraduates are eligible for membership in many other honor societies as well. Practically every field of study is now represented by one or more such societies. Fraternities and sororities, important on many campuses, are descended from the literary clubs of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, which were founded for the "advancement of literature" and the "promotion of friendship and social intercourse." Although prohibited on some campuses (which may permit local groups), fraternities and sororities (founded in 1850 on the fraternity model) are widespread today. Focusing on social and extracurricular activities, and often offering housing to their members, fraternities and sororities are important social centers on many campuses. Recently, professional fraternities and sororities have been formed to serve students following a common professional course. Probably the most publicized and the most frequently criticized extracurricular activities are athletics, which in many institutions, have become part of carefully developed, officially financed, and closely supervised divisions of athletics and physical education. Certain sports, particularly football and basketball, are highly commercial; season tickets are often widely sold outside the college community; and attendance at an important game is likely to fill the institution's large stadium or field house. Intercollegiate competition in a given region among institutions with comparable populations has led to the formation of athletic conferences. The commissioners, or boards of control, for the conferences are charged with enforcing agreed-upon codes of practices governing competition. In the mid-1970s, revised national standards were adopted for major athletics, despite considerable controversy among sports fans, athletic staff, and academics. At institutions where athletics generate this kind of concern, attention has traditionally been focused on men's sports. In recent years, the number of sports available to women has doubled, but men continue to have a wider choice of activities. Because relatively few students can normally actively participate in intercollegiate athletics, some colleges have also developed varied intramural programs open to a wider percentage of the student body. Regular chapel attendance is a requirement usually found only in church-affiliated schools. In independent institutions, chaplains handle religious programs either in cooperation with the college or in off-campus centers. Many institutions ask students to gather periodically for convocations where speakers announce or explain policies or deliver addresses on subjects related to college life. Physical Facilities College campuses vary greatly in appearance, depending on purpose, size, age, setting, wealth, and architectural style. Certain facilities, however, such as bookstores, classrooms, faculty and administrative offices, laboratories, gymnasiums, auditoriums, student unions, and dining halls, appear on almost all campuses. In recent years, colleges and universities have tried to make as many of their facilities accessible to the handicapped as possible. Maintaining current facilities and building new ones are handled by the physical plant staff. Classrooms and Laboratories. Audiovisual aids to teaching, such as tape recorders, phonographs, projectors, and closed-circuit television, are now widely available in college classrooms. Science laboratories are also better equipped than in the past; in many, complex modern equipment allows well-instructed students to undertake advanced work. Language laboratories reflect the

emphasis in beginning courses on speaking rather than reading. Many institutions are making copying machines, word-processing terminals, and both large and small computer facilities available to students and staff. In some cases, students are required to buy personal computers for their own use throughout their academic programs. Libraries. The college or university library is an invaluable resource, both for the mature scholar and for the beginning student. Many educators regard the library as the most important facility in defining the intellectual climate at an institution. Since the founding of the first libraries in the United States, book collections as a whole have grown at a geometric rate. In 1890 only five colleges possessed more than 100,000 volumes. In 1910, there were 23 such colleges. A recent survey indicated that in a group of 106 university libraries, 97 had more than 1.5 million volumes, and of these, 24 had more than 3 million. Harvard, with 10.9 million, and Yale, with 8.1 million, led the list. The two leading nonuniversity libraries are the Library of Congress (20.3 million) and the New York Public Library (6.2 million). Though acquiring new books, periodicals, and manuscripts is the most obvious way by which libraries make up-to-date material available to their patrons, interlibrary loan systems are also important, permitting limited resources to be shared. In some cases, institutions have cooperated closely in making acquisitions, in cataloging, and in providing common listings of their joint holdings. The typical college library now shares cataloguing with more than 6000 libraries around the world through OCLC (Online Computer Library Center), which, in 1986, added the 14 millionth record to its information base. Many college libraries have introduced computer aids to assist students in the use of their facilities. Other machines have made libraries more compact. Microphotography and electronic data processing can eliminate bulky storage by reducing material to microfilm, microfiche, and electronic tape. Rare book and manuscript material can be made available to scholars in colleges far removed from great libraries. Furthermore, such processes, as well as conventional photographic techniques, can preserve books that would otherwise perish when the material on which they are printed decays.

College Costs The costs of going to college have risen steadily in this century and precipitously in the 1980's. Student payments, however, represent, in most cases, only a part of the total cost of the educational program. America has a long tradition of public support for education which extends even through graduate school. In public, tax-supported colleges and universities, tuition and fees charged are a small fraction of the actual cost of faculty and facilities. Private institutions, at which tuition charges range widely, must also rely on gifts and grants to maintain an academic program that will attract students. Room and board for resident students continues to be a major expense at both private and public institutions. (One argument for a network of community colleges is that such a system enables students to live at home and save some of this cost.) Averages for college costs can be misleading, and realistic estimates of cost per year can be worked out only on an individual basis. In Part III, the principal charges of each institution are provided. Financial Aid. There are four principal ways in which a student in college may receive financial aid: scholarships, grants, loans, and jobs. All four types of aid are available at most institutions. Increasingly, it has become the practice of a college or university to combine two or more different types of assistance into a single aid package for a student who needs financial help to attend college. Financial aid officers on each campus help students put such packages together. Except for a few federal programs, student aid programs are administered by college and universities themselves.

Undergraduate Education

The average annual tuition and fee charges for undergraduate students in the academic year 1991-92 were roughly $2,100 at four year public institutions, $1000 at public two year institutions, $10,000 at four year private institutions, and $5,300 at two year private institutions, according to the College Board. In 1991-92, room and board charges averaged $3,400 at public four year institutions, $4,400 at four year independent institutions, and $3,700 at independent two year institutions. Average additional nonresident charges for out-of-state students were $3,300 at public four year institutions and $2,400 at public two year institutions. The average total charges for resident students including tuition, fees, room, and board in the academic year 1991-92, were therefore as follows: $5,500 at four year public institutions for in-state students and $8,800 for out-of-state students. In four year independent institutions, the average total charges amounted to $14,400, and in two year independent institutions the total charges came to $9,000. Scholarships and Grants. Because the terms "scholarship" and "grant" often are used interchangeably, they are discussed together here. In general, a scholarship means a cash award based on superior scholastic achievement, while a grant means a cash award based chiefly on need. In either case, a waiver of all or part of tuition or expenses may be substituted for cash. Scholarships and grants usually are awarded annually, with renewals contingent upon satisfactory, or sometimes superior, academic standing. There are countless varieties of scholarships and stipulations governing them. Their value ranges from a small amount, such as $50 or $100 awarded by a local club or organization, to the complete cost of tuition, fees, and living expenses. Some scholarships and grants are awarded only to a particular group of students, such as those from a certain state or in certain courses; others are open to any undergraduate student. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation is the largest independent agency awarding undergraduate scholarships. More than 121,500 National Merit Scholarships have been awarded from 1956 to 1990. Loans. The most significant expansion in student financing of higher education in the last two decades has been the increase in student loans. In the face of rising costs and increasing competition for scholarships, many students have borrowed in order to attend college. The economic advantages of having a college degree have made borrowing appear a sound investment in a student's own future. Employment. A considerable share of the actual work of operating a college or university often is done by student employees. Students frequently work as library attendants, clerks in administrative offices, assistants to faculty members, and manual workers in the buildings and grounds departments. Many institutions maintain a placement service to provide students with off-campus jobs in the community. Some educators feel that it is becoming increasingly difficult for students to work their way through college. Expenses at higher education institutions have been increasing rapidly, as have the academic demands placed upon the students. Higher costs and higher standards usually force students who are totally reliant upon their own earnings to leave school for full-time employment at some point in their academic career. Some colleges have a formal work-study program, usually called a cooperative program, in which the student alternates between a semester of classroom work and a semester on the job . Northeastern University, Antioch College, and the Rochester Institute of Technology are examples of schools using the cooperative system. Total student financial aid from federal, state, and institutional sources in 1991-92 was nearly $30 billion. Roughly three quarters of that sum came from federal sources, one fifth from the institutions themselves, and somewhat less than one tenth from state grant programs. Loan volume in the Guaranteed Student Loan Program (GSL) accounted for about 40 percent of total aid in 1991-92; the $12 billion borrowed was roughly 10 times the amount borrowed in 1975.

19

The three principal federal student aid programs are: Pell Grants, Campus-Based Programs, and Guaranteed Student Loans. /. Pell Grants. The Higher Education Act of 1972 established the Basic Education Opportunity Grants Program (BEOG), renamed the Pell Grant Program in 1980, to provide students with a quasi-entitlement to a minimum level of assistance that could be used at any qualified postsecondary institution. Although the institution disburses the funds, the individual student's eligibility is determined by a uniform formula contained in the federal legislation. The maximum award in 1991-92 was $2,400. Awards are reduced below the maximum as family income increases to a minimum of $200. Actual awards are also limited to no more than 60 percent of the cost of attendance. In fiscal year 1991 (to be used in the academic year 1991-92), Congress appropriated $5.4 billion for Pell grants, which will be awarded to roughly 3.3 million students. II. Campus-Based Programs. Three federal programs are generally referred to as the campus-based programs because financial aid administrators on campus are responsible for awarding funds within federal guidelines. Funds are distributed to institutions within a state based on formulas, which take into account enrollments, costs of attendance, estimated family resources of students, and other factors including previous institutional allocations in the program. 1. Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants (SEOG). These grants were initially authorized in 1965 as Educational Opportunity Grants (and were renamed in 1972) to provide federal aid for very needy undergraduate students identified by the institutions. The grants may not exceed $4,000 a year. The fiscal year 1991 appropriation for SEOG was $520 million. In the 1991-92 academic year, some 700 thousand students received supplemental grants. 2. College Work Study (CWS). This program was established by the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 and was then transferred to the Higher Education Act of 1965. Under its guidelines, the federal government provides most of the funds to pay wages of needy students employed by colleges/universities or non-profit agencies. Institutions contribute the remainder of the wages and select the recipients according to federal guidelines. There is no limit on the size of these awards, but students may not work more than 20 hours a week. In fiscal year 1991 the CWS appropriation was $595 million, which supported over 800 thousand students in the 1991-92 academic year. 3. Perkins Student Loans. This program was established by the National Defense Education Act of 1958, incorporated into the Higher Education Act of 1965, and renamed in 1986 for the late Representative Carl D. Perkins, Democrat of Kentucky. Its purpose is to provide low interest loans for needy undergraduate and graduate students. The federal government contributes most of the initial loan capital. Colleges and universities contribute the remaining capital, select the recipients, and collect the principal and interest paid on previous loans which are recycled to make loans to new borrowers. In fiscal year 1991 Congress appropriated $156 million of new money for Perkins loans, and these funds, in combination with institutional contributions and repayment on earlier loans, allowed some 700 thousand students to borrow in the academic year 1991-92. III. Guaranteed Student Loan Programs. The Guaranteed Student Loan (GSL) program is now an umbrella program that covers three related federal loan programs: Stafford Student Loans, Parent Loans for Undergraduate Students (PLUS), and Supplemental Loans for Students (SLS). In each of these programs, banks and other private lenders make federally guaranteed loans to eligible borrowers. 1. Stafford Student Loan Program. This program, formerly known as the Guaranteed Student Loan Program, was established by the Higher Education Act of 1965 for undergraduate and graduate/professional students. Under its provisions, the federal government (1) reinsures loans guaranteed by state or private non-

20

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

profit agencies, (2) subsidizes the in-school interest for students who demonstrate financial need, and (3) pays a special allowance to lenders to make up the difference between the student interest rate (8 percent for the first four years of repayment and 10 percent thereafter) and market rates of interest. The reauthorization of this program in 1986 made the computation of need for these loans the same as that for the campus-based loan programs. The program is a federal entitlement in that the Treasury is obligated to pay lenders for all legitimate interest, special allowance, and default-related claims. The fiscal year 1991 appropriation for GSL of $5.4 billion paid for interest and default claims on more than $50 billion of outstanding loans. In academic year 1991-92, an estimated 3.6 million students borrowed roughly $10 billion in Stafford Loans. 2. Parent Loans for Undergraduate Students Program (PLUS). This program, which was authorized by the Higher Education Amendments of 1980, provides loans to the parents of dependent children to help meet their costs of attendance. The borrower does not have to show need. Repayment of interest and principal begins within 60 days of when the loan was made. The interest rate on new loans is set at the Treasury-bill rate plus 3.25 percentage points. In 1991-92, roughly 300,000 parents borrowed in the program. 3. Supplemental Loans for Students (SLS). In 1981, a program

similar to the parent loan program was established for graduate and professional school students and independent undergraduate students. The program is nc«w called the Supplemental Loans for Students (SLS) Program. As with the PLUS program, borrowers do not have to demonstrate need to participate in the SLS program and repayment is scheduled to begin within 60 days after loan origination. Unlike PLUS, SLS borrowers who are full-time students may defer payments on principal, but not on interest. In making decisions about financial assistance, most institutions of higher education rely on one of two financial aid organizations—either the College Scholarship Service (CSS) or the American College Testing (ACT) program—for help in determining the financial need of scholarship applicants. These two national service organizations, in cooperation with the colleges/universities and other scholarship agencies, evaluate the financial resources of each applicant and of his/her family. They then supply the information on a confidential basis to the institution(s) to which the student has applied for admission. The institutions themselves are then often in a better position than they would be otherwise to determine the appropriate level of financial aid for each applicant. Students interested in obtaining financial aid information are advised to contact the student aid office of the institution to which they plan to apply and to examine directories of scholarships and other aid, available in most academic and public libraries.

5 Graduate and Professional Education While Yale University offered the first American Ph.D. in 1861, no one followed its lead for ten years, and only in the aftermath of World War I would one have found graduate programs so structured as to reveal the distinguishing features that mark the majority of them today. By 1930 nearly 50,000 men and women were enrolled in graduate study; by 1990 the figure had grown to 1,300,000. In the 1920's some twenty or twenty-five universities included advanced study and research as central to their mission; today nearly 750 universities offer master's degrees, and nearly 475 offer Ph.D. degrees or the equivalent. One would have expected a certain growth in advanced study due simply to an increase in national population. However, a growth of such unforeseen magnitude was influenced by many additional factors. Among these, one might include: the demand for highly trained and specialized scientists and engineers by industries dependent upon high technology; the increased complexity of governmental and social policies; the accelerated discovery of knowledge in all fields, but particularly in the physical and biological sciences; the creation of new fields of study; and the demand for more highly educated teachers in the educational establishment. Predicting patterns of enrollment growth or decline is as inexact a science in graduate programs as it is in undergraduate programs: societal demands and needs change; cultural tastes and interests follow trajectories that are more easily explained after the fact than described before the fact. Hence, many universities had failed to heed the warnings of a few who had accurately forecast an excessive supply of graduate trained professionals by the early 1970's. Some institutions responded by capping enrollments; others chose to delay the inauguration of additional programs. As a consequence, many students who had considered enrolling in graduate programs sought other paths, and prognosticators began to worry that the decline in those seeking advanced degrees initiated by the universities themselves had reached a level that no one had intended. However, for two principal reasons, the decrease in the number of graduate students never approached the feared danger mark: women and foreign students enrolled in doctoral granting universities in larger numbers than ever before. For example, in 1970, women comprised 39% of graduate student enrollment; by 1990, that number rose to 49%. And in some fields, such as engineering and mathematics, the percentage of foreign students earning doctoral degrees now approaches or exceeds 50%. Overall, more than 25% of all doctoral degrees earned in American universities are now awarded to students from overseas. The total number awarded to Americans between 1980 and 1990 fell by 4.1%. A distinction is usually made between two types of study beyond the bachelor's degree. Professional training in such fields as law, medicine, and theology is usually carried on only after the completion of an undergraduate program but is distinguished from graduate academic study in that it emphasizes skills for the practice of a profession and leads to a professional degree. The term "graduate education" usually refers to programs conducted beyond the level of the bachelor's or first-professional degree for the primary purpose of training research scholars and teachers. Such programs typically lead to the master's degree or the Ph.D. Organization and Administration While universities organize graduate education in varied ways, the usual structure takes the form of a graduate school. However,

unlike other schools, graduate schools are often without separate facilities, without separate faculty, and even upon occasion without separate budgets. Its faculty are most frequently members of departmental faculties who teach undergraduate as well as graduate courses and who direct the research of graduate students. The graduate school, usually headed by a dean or a vice president for graduate studies and research, determines the membership of the graduate faculty and policies regarding residence and foreign language requirements. Admission to graduate school in a particular program of graduate study is usually jointly determined by the graduate schools; a faculty council assists the dean in formulating educational policy. For admission to a graduate school, the applicant is expected to present a bachelor's degree or its equivalent from a regionally accredited institution (although graduates of nonaccredited institutions are usually considered on the basis of individual merit). Additional requirements are usually imposed by the departments offering graduate instruction to ensure that the student has an adequate foundation for graduate study. Where there are deficiencies in a student's background, admission is often provisional, requiring that some undergraduate courses be taken. A considerable number of universities use the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) administered by the Educational Testing Service as one criterion for admission to graduate school. Admission to a graduate school is not equivalent to admission to candidacy for higher degrees. In the doctoral program, for instance, a student is not formally considered as a candidate for the degree until comprehensive examinations have been passed at the end of required course work.

Graduate Study Courses in graduate school are usually given in three principal ways. First, graduate students enroll in lecture classes that may include advanced undergraduate students. Second, graduate students participate in seminars directed by members of the graduate faculty, combining independent investigations with meetings for discussion and the presentation of reports. Third, students may undertake independent reading and research under direct supervision of a senior faculty member. The scope of the institution's library and other research facilities becomes increasingly important as students undertake advanced work. The traditional usage of the term "graduate" is to designate those studies beyond the bachelor's or first-professional degree that are devoted to the advancement of knowledge as well as its application. Although scores of different graduate degrees are awarded by various institutions of higher education, the master's (M. A. or M.S.), the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) are the most typical degrees obtained. Advanced studies and degrees whose significance is primarily vocational are usually classified as professional. The degree of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), for example, is awarded following the successful completion of a schedule of courses for practice as a physician and, consequently, is a professional degree. The Ph.D. in medicine, on the other hand, is granted in recognition of the advancement of medical knowledge through research and is a graduate degree. The Master's Degree. Today the earned master's degree carries varying significance among the more than 700 institutions that

22

H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N IN T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S

confer it and even among the departments within those institutions. It is sometimes given upon the completion of a year of course work, but may also involve completion of one or all of the following additional requirements: a thesis, a general examination, and a foreign language requirement. It is sometimes granted after a two-year professional program, as is common in business administration, or after a three-year program, as in the case of fine arts. It may be given as a second-professional degree, as in architecture and pharmacy. Because many state boards of education have made the master's degree a requirement for advancement in the public school system, it is a degree that is increasingly becoming associated with professional education; it has been estimated that from one-third to one-half of all master's degrees awarded have been granted in education. The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The doctorate was established in the late nineteenth century as the highest earned degree in the American graduate school. It is the degree program stressing competence in research and the degree that is the most common credential for college teachers as well as researchers. Institutions conferring the most doctorates in the most recent year reported are listed in Table 10.

10. Doctoral Degrees Conferred by Twenty Major Institutions of Higher Learning, 1988-89

1 2 • 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Institution

Number

University of California, Berkeley University of Wisconsin-Madison University of Illinois-Urbana Campus Columbia University in the City of New York Ohio State University Main Campus University of Texas at Austin University of Minnesota Twin Cities Stanford University University of Michigan Ann Arbor Massachusetts Institute of Technology Harvard University University of California-Los Angeles Michigan State University University of Southern California Texas A&M University Purdue University Main Campus Pennsylvania State University Main Campus University of Pennsylvania University of Washington University of Maryland College Park Campus

838 667 647 615 608 583 543 540 527 492 461 459 434 429 420 420 417 414 403 393

SOURCE: Digest of Education Statistics, 1989-90 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Center for Statistics, 1990).

Although requirements of the doctorate vary from one institution to another, there are certain typical prerequisites which may be categorized as follows: course work, residence, foreign languages, comprehensive examination, dissertation, and final examination. Course work in the area of the student's concentration is usually pursued for two years, assuming that the candidate has had an adequate undergraduate grounding in the chosen field. It is during this period that the student supplements and advances his general knowledge of the subject and is introduced to methods of research. Some programs require that the candidate take a master's degree during this period, while others permit the student to proceed directly to the Ph.D. Competence in two foreign languages (French, German, or, sometimes, Russian) is often required as a research tool, although the questioning of the educational value of such a requirement has led to modification in some schools. A considerably more rigorous examination in one foreign language and the substitution of subject-matter requirements (such as mathematics or statistics

for economics majors) are alternatives that some schools have adopted. After a student has satisfactorily completed the course work and met the foreign language requirements, a comprehensive examination is taken to demonstrate a general knowledge of the field. It may be either oral or written or both and is evaluated by the student's special committee (or, occasionally, the entire departmental faculty) to determine whether the student is prepared to undertake a dissertation. Technically, a student is not considered a candidate for a Ph.D. until the comprehensive examination has been passed, and for this reason it is usually called the preliminary, or qualifying, examination. The final period of predoctoral study is given over largely to the preparation of a dissertation. Depending upon departmental standards, the industry and ability of the candidate, the difficulty of the subject and the thoroughness with which it is executed, the dissertation may be completed within one year or may require several years to finish. A number of factors tend to lengthen the time taken to complete dissertations. Some students change subjects for a variety of reasons; others undertake studies too broad in scope. Frequently, students undertake full-time jobs after passing their comprehensive examinations, and this results in their having little time and often inadequate facilities to complete their dissertations. This practice has, in the arts and social sciences, prolonged the average time for completing a doctorate to well beyond five years. Originally, the dissertation was conceived as constituting an important and original contribution to knowledge. Under a variety of pressures, this goal has been to some degree replaced by an emphasis on the value of the dissertation as providing intensive training in the techniques of scholarly investigation. Although these two goals are not mutually exclusive, the emphasis generally has come to be placed on the latter. A final examination is required at most universities after the dissertation and other requirements for the degree have been completed. It is usually oral and confined to the dissertation and related matters. According to tradition, European in origin, the prospective Doctor of Philosophy should publicly defend the conclusions of his dissertation. Consequently, it is frequently the custom to make public announcement of the date and place of the final examination and to permit the attendance of any scholars who may wish to participate. At one time it was not uncommon for universities to require that doctoral dissertations be published, but the increased expense in printing costs as well as the increase in the number of dissertations have made such a requirement obsolete. When dissertations are now published they are usually put on microfilm or published as a series of articles in scholarly journals. Of persons receiving doctoral degrees in the United States in 1985, 65% were men. As to citizenship, 77% held U.S. citizenship. The median age at which the doctorate was awarded was 33 years. The postdoctoral employment profile was as follows: 42% were employed in an educational institution, 20% pursued postdoctoral study, 14% went to business and industry, 8% to government, 5% to nonprofit organizations, and the rest, other or unknown. As to primary post-doctoral work activity, 37% were in teaching, 26% in research, 15% in administration, and 13% in professional services. In the 1960's, with the great increase in graduate enrollments and the increasing demand for the Ph.D., especially for academic appointments, the long process of earning the doctorate in the humanities and social sciences came under considerable criticism. Some institutions, Yale, for example, instituted an intermediary degree (M.Phil.), signifying that the candidate has completed all the requirements for the doctorate except the dissertation. This degree is meant to signify that the holder is qualified to teach his subject matter on the college level. In other institutions, the Doctor of Arts (D.A.) is offered for the preparation of college teachers. It combines work in subject matter with instruction in aspects of college pedagogy; a dissertation is not required. Generally,

however, these degrees have not had the prestige associated with the Ph.D. and consequently have not been popular.

Financial Aid to Graduate Students Financial aid for graduate students has always been a feature of graduate education in the United States. This has been true because of the necessity to provide support for those students who choose to undertake advanced study at the conclusion of their undergraduate education. As the numbers of students undertaking graduate study increased, so did the sources of financial support available to them. Financial aid is given in three principal ways: (1) fellowships, which require no service in return for the grant and are generally tax exempt; (2) assistantships, which are given in return for teaching, laboratory supervision, or other services; and (3) loans, which are usually not repayable until after graduation. With respect to source, fellowships may be categorized as those given by (1) universities, (2) federal or state governments, and (3) private organizations and foundations. Graduate assistantships are almost entirely administered by the granting institutions and generally require some portion of the student's working time. Many graduate students teach elementary courses in their respective departments, supervise undergraduate students in laboratory work, or assist professors in carrying out research. Although these activities in themselves have educational value, they may lengthen considerably a student's time in graduate school. Some institutions do not permit a student to hold an assistantship during his or her first year of graduate study. Loans are available at most institutions, from private funds as well as through the provisions of federal student aid programs. Usually no interest is charged until a student completes his course of study and begins repayment.

Trends in Graduate Enrollment Until 1980, the twentieth century saw sharp increases in graduate enrollment, a growth more accelerated than that of the undergraduate college. Table 11 shows the enrollment change from 1929. There has been, in addition, a changing pattern in the distribution of doctorate degrees by subject, as indicated in Table 12.

11. Graduate Student Enrollments and Distribution by Sex and Institutional Control Percentage Year 1929-30 1939-40 1949-50 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1988/89 1990 (projection) 1995 (projection)

Distribution

Number

Men

Women

Public

Private

47,255 105,748 237,572 250,771 356,000 697,000 1,031,000 1,263,000 1,343,000 1,129,538 1,258,281 1,372,000 1,358,000

62 64 73 71 71 67 61 55 50 51 49 5f 50

38 36 27 29 29 33 39 45 50 49 51 49 50

43 42 46 49 53 63 70 72 67 62 62 66 67

57 58 54 51 47 37 30 28 33 38 38 34 33

SOURCES: U.S. Department of Education, Center for Statistics, unpublished data. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Projections of Education Statistics to 1994-95 (Washington, D.C.: GPO).

Postdoctoral Study The practice of spending one to three years in a research appointment after completing the doctoral program is common, especially in the sciences. The most elaborate postdoctoral programs are government sponsored, and this fact may in part account for their general scientific orientation. The increasing complexity of scientific investigation and the constant demand for more specialization, however, undoubtedly play a part. Most universities have no specific programs for postdoctoral study, for its very nature is alien to any standardized procedure. Typically, postdoctoral fellows assist senior professors in their research and in so doing develop their own research skills. Although they usually do not have faculty status, they are frequently appointed as potential staff members. Most institutions believe that the presence of postdoctoral fellows contributes both to the vitality of the academic community and to the general prestige of research programs. 12. Enrollment for Advanced Degrees, by Field of Study, 1960-76, and Advanced Degrees Conferred, 1988-89 Advanced degrees conferred, 1988-89

Enrollments Field

1960

1970

All fields 314,349 816,207 Biological sciences 29,864 70,492 Education 94,993 254,473 Engineering 36,636 64,788 Health professions 5,842 14,242 Humanities 37,185 104,474 Physical sciences 51,665 37,477 Social sciences 63,700 270,129 Other fields 8,652 70,130 Mathematics and computer science — —

Doctorates

1976

Master's

1,030,007 92,435 325,684 57,330 38,101 121,513 51,073 276,318 67,553

311,050 4,953 82,637 24,563 19,410 26,653 5,764 10,867 123,374

35,791 3,536 6,786 4,533 1,439 3,331 3,858 2,878 8,010

12,829

1,420

—

SOURCE: Fact Book on Higher Education. 1989-90 (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, Division of Policy Analysis and Research. Special analysis of the Department of Education's 1989/90 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) 1991).

Advanced Professional Training A professional curriculum typically includes instruction in the techniques and knowledge employed in rendering professional service. It will often emphasize the basic sciences and other subjects whose mastery is essential to an understanding of these techniques. Postbaccalaureate programs usually require certain prescribed undergraduate course work for admission; thus medical schools ordinarily require a premedical program with concentration in the sciences, law schools prefer a broad background in the social sciences, and engineering schools ordinarily require an undergraduate degree in engineering. The length of program varies according to profession and particular requirements, such as examinations and licenses. The M.D. program is usually four years, plus at least one year of internship (frequently followed by residency programs for specialized training), and requires the passing of licensing examinations. The first-professional degree in law, the J.D., ordinarily requires three years, plus certification by state examiners. In business, the M.B.A. usually requires two years of study. Those wishing to enter teaching in this field frequently seek the Ph.D. or D.B.A. degree, requiring a minimum of three years beyond the baccalaureate. In business, as in engineering, forestry, journalism, library science, and numerous other fields where licensing is not required for professional work, advanced degrees are desirable for advancement in a career but are not required.

24

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

National Societies and Councils Learned societies, research councils, and other organizations of scholars, scientists, and professional workers have made a significant contribution to the advancement of research in American higher education. The rise of the learned societies, whose focus of interest is a particular discipline, coincided with the development of the university in the late nineteenth century. Such societies as the American Chemical Society, the Modern Language Association of America, and the American Political Science Association

stimulate and support research in their discipline, as well as publish journals and hold regional and national meetings to communicate new findings in their fields. National and regional meetings of such societies also provide placement facilities for both new and established members of the professional discipline. The National Research Council, the Social Science Research Council, and the American Council of Learned Societies are organizations to sponsor research projects and fellowships in the broad general academic categories. The Council of Graduate Schools in the United States helps to coordinate the work of graduate deans.

6 Government and Higher Education The federal government of the United States has never been empowered to exercise direct administrative or legal control over education in the states. It has, however, been influential in educational affairs and in recent decades has had a marked effect on the development of both public and private higher education. Today, federal aid is a reality involving billions of dollars distributed through a number of government agencies to a large percentage of the nation's educational institutions for a variety of purposes.

Historical Development Federal aid to education is not a new concept; rather, it is one that has evolved over a long period of time. Even before the adoption of the Constitution, the Congress of the Confederation passed the Ordinance of 1785 providing that certain portions of land in each township be set aside for the support of local schools. The Northwest Ordinance (1787) contained a declaration that "Religion, morality and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education should forever be encouraged." During the first half of the nineteenth century, the growing interest of the government in education was reflected in a number of ways. In at least twenty states, congressional grants for "internal improvements" were used for educational purposes, and when in 1837 a surplus of $28 million was distributed to the states by the federal government, a number of the states devoted all or part of their share to education. More directly, this period witnessed the creation by the federal government of two national educational institutions, the Military Academy at West Point (1802) and the Naval Academy at Annapolis (1845). In addition, two basic themes permeated many of the public statements of the era: that education was absolutely essential to the successful operation of the new nation and that the government had a legitimate stake in, and therefore some responsibility for, providing that education. It was during the Civil War, however, that perhaps the most significant single piece of federal legislation pertaining to higher education in the entire century was passed. The Morrill Act of 1862 was a landmark in the relationship of the federal government and higher education. Under that act, land grants were made available to the states, and revenues from the sale of these lands were to provide for the endowment and support of at least one college in each state whose principal objective should be: " . . . without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including mil-

itary tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life." The land-grant institutions that were subsequently established were destined to become an important segment of American higher education. The Morrill Act not only provided for the creation of a new type of institution, one that was more pragmatic than the old in its approach to education and more responsive to the popular will, but also recognized the need for trained manpower to be a national concern and established the precedent for subsequent federal legislation in this field by not limiting federal aid to public institutions. Other examples illustrate the continuing interest of the federal government in higher education since the Civil War. In 1867, Congress established the Bureau of Education to gather and disseminate information about the state of education in the United States. During World War I, colleges and universities were widely used in the training of officer personnel. Even in the depression years of the 1930's, programs such as the National Youth Administration (NYA) pointed up the fact that the federal government could act directly in the field of higher education if the people wanted it to.

Recent Developments Although federal aid to higher education has been an evolving concept with a long history, a tremendous concentration of activity in this field has taken place during the past nearly fifty years. The reasons for this intensified activity were tied directly to attempts as a nation to deal with perplexing new problems, both foreign and domestic, that emerged after World War II. On the domestic scene, the nation was faced with the immediate problem of dismantling the enormous war machine that had been created, and one of the most pressing questions concerned what might be done about the millions of servicemen who were being mustered out of the armed forces and returning to civilian pursuits. The colleges and universities played a significant role in helping to solve this problem, as they were later to respond to the government's need for specialized research services and still later to the government's antipoverty programs. In the realm of foreign affairs, other problems were to grow out of the altered position of the United States in the family of nations. The collapse of the Grand Alliance, the realignment of nations, the reluctance of our people to assume the

13. Federal Funds for Education and Related Activities: Fiscal Years 1986-91, in Millions of Dollars

Total Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

39,745 17,050 11,066 2,620 9,009

40,972 17,536 10,078 2,820 10,539

43,216 18,565 10,419 2,982 11,251

47,929 19,724 13,014 3,180 12,010

50,440 21,525 13,399 3,383 12,132

54,638 24,436 13,702 3,671 12,829

SOURCE: Digest of Education Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, 1991. 'Figures for 1991 are estimated. To the extent possible, data represent outlays rather than obligations. Due to rounding, details may not add to totals.

26

HIGHER EDUCATION IN TOE UNITED STATES

burdens and responsibilities of world leadership, the beginning and sharpening of what was to become known as the Cold War, the shock of Sputnik and subsequent Russian successes in the space race—all these were to coalesce in such a way as to lead to an entirely new relationship between the federal government and higher education, a relationship that would be vastly more complex, involve many more dollars, and in which direct contacts would be far more frequent and numerous than had been the case before. This new and altered relationship grew directly out of a series of decisions to use colleges and universities to help in solving the nation's most pressing problems and can be traced in the major pieces of educational legislation: The G.I. Bill (1944). There was no real precedent in the American experience for this practical program aimed at encouraging veterans to begin or return to college. In 1949, the program's peak year, there were two and one-half million students enrolled in American colleges and universities under the G.I. Bill. So great was its success, not only with the individuals concerned but also with the institutions and with the Congress, that it was subsequently extended to cover veterans of other conflicts. Clearly, the G.I. Bill helped forge a strong new bond between the government and institutions of higher education. National Science Foundation (NSF). Created in 1950, NSF has played an important role in improving education in the sciences and in the distribution to colleges and universities of research funds made available by the federal government. National Defense Education Act (1958). A landmark in federal legislation pertaining to higher education, this act included among its most important features the creation of a student loan program, support for intensified foreign language training, and the inauguration of a program of fellowships for graduate study. College Housing Loan Program. Created as part of the Housing Act of 1950 and now transferred to the Higher Education Act, this

program provided loan guarantees and direct loans for the construction of college housing facilities. New loan commitments of $38 million in 1991 and $30 million in 1992 were authorized from the program's revolving funds. Higher Education Facilities Act (1963). In an effort to meet the demands of a rapidly growing student population for additional classrooms and laboratories, this legislation provided for grants as well as loans to institutions for the construction of graduate and undergraduate academic facilities. Economic Opportunity Act (1964). Although designed primarily to combat poverty wherever it existed in the United States, this act directly affected higher education in a number of ways. It not only involved colleges and universities in the administration and operation of such programs as Head Start, Upward Bound, Vista, and Job Corps, but also made available a combination work-study program for economically deprived college students, which later was transferred to the Office of Education. Higher Education Act (1965). The most comprehensive piece of higher education legislation in recent years, this important act established federal scholarships for needy undergraduate students and made provision for government insurance on private loans to students. In addition, it authorized the National Teacher Corps and included special titles dealing with developing institutions, libraries, and community services. This legislation was comprehensively amended or reauthorized in 1968, 1972, 1976, 1980, and 1986. In 1972, the Basic Educational Opportunity Grant program (now called Pell Grants) was first authorized, and the Higher Education Facilities Act, the International Education Act, and parts of the National Defense Education Act were transferred to the Higher Education Act. In addition to this series of comprehensive legislative revisions, portions of the Higher Education Act have been amended by numerous other statutes. In 1967 HEA was amended by the Education Professions Development Act to improve the quality of teaching. In 1978, the Middle Income Student

14. Federal Funds for Education and Related Programs, by Level of Education or Activity, Agency, and Program: Fiscal Years 1986-91 in Thousands of Dollars 1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

19911

Department of Education Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

17,740,051 7,551,973 8,444,924 1,674,171 68,983

16,879,827 7,554,487 7,438,674 1,825,754 60,912

18,326,916 8,098,436 8,247,103 1,938,998 42,379

21,671,232 8,869,300 10,640,044 2,071,574 90,314

23,198,575 9,681,313 11,175,978 2,251,801 89,483

24,912,441 11,192,216 11,168,541 2,450,220 101,464

Department of Agriculture Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

5,041,317 4,428,143 16,877 322,599 273,698

5,189,779 4,562,093 16,877 330,866 279,943

5,481,976 4,806,766 27,799 342,523 304,888

5,793,616 5,104,502 27,799 347,021 314,294

6,258,734 5,528,950 31,273 352,511 346,000

6,965,449 6,186,460 32,302 382,687 364,000

Department of Commerce Higher education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

64,613 2,207 62,406

38,896 2,061 36,835

38,553 2,420 36,133

47,586 2,765 44,821

50,712 3,312 47,400

40,400 3,700 36,700

Department of Defense Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

3,354,588 903,493 1,068,300 1,382,795

3,695,617 861,393 1,079,768 1,754,456

3,461,345 988,265 573,400 1,899,680

3,746,031 1,059,259 746,464 1,940,308

3,392,089 1,097,876 625,313 1,668,900

3,512,898 1,175,824 643,974 1,693,100

Department of Energy Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

2,181,391 21,385 18,051 2,141,955

2,256,799 12,061 19,225 2,225,513

2,385,966 12,931 22,609 2,350,426

2,563,978 12,851 15,062 2,536,065

2,523,865 15,563 25,502 2,482,800

2,653,830 16,350 41,980 2,595,500

Department of Health and Human Services Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

5,098,910 1,455,315 274,581 59,306 3,309,708

5,882,270 1,555,542 283,551 59,770 3,983,407

6,273,185 1,651,324 277,684 62,060 4,282,117

6,611,926 1,703,515 287,238 71,912 4,549,261

7,088,620 1,937,572 337,186 77,962 4,735,900

8,023,658 2,552,125 404,682 87,251 4,979,600

Department of Housing and Urban Development Research programs at universities and related institutions

342 342

463 463

51 51

186 186

100 100

200 200

Level, agency, and program

(continued)

Government and Higher Education

27

14. Federal Funds for Education and Related Programs, by Level of Education or Activity, Agency, and Program: Fiscal Years 1986-91 in Thousands of Dollars (continued) Level, agency, and program

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991х

Department of Interior Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

454,273 308,089 109,744 36,440

485,922 344,183 108,386 33,353

528,409 379,645 113,661 35,103

542,466 379,381 123,529 39,556

624,547 445,267 135,480 43,800

626,815 429,383 165,632 31,800

Department of Justice Elementary/secondary education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

72,191 39,684 27,412 5,095

79,815 44,531 26,293 8,991

83,405 50,679 26,361 6,365

88,129 58,523 23,906 5,700

99,217 65,997 26,920 6,300

119,231 82,652 30,979 5,600

Department of Labor Elementary/secondary education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

1,976,960 1,976,619 341

2,258,631 2,258,199 432

2,272,228 2,266,700 5,528

2,277,556 2,271,966 5,590

2,512,987 2,505,487 7,500

2,592,715 2,584,215 8,500

Department of State Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

23,401 0 23,371 30

24,288 0 23,856 432

38,671 4,120 33,308 1,243

45,848 4,422 40,157 1,269

50,906 2,167 47,539 1,200

50,646 9,108 40,338 1,200

Department of Transportation Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

66,214 60 44,074 1,865 20,215

75,360 55 47,226 2,895 25,184

65,134 50 44,998 3,153 16,933

90,840 40 63,559 4,415 22,826

78,578 46 46,025 1,507 31,000

75,885 65 49,038 1,582 25,200

Department of Treasury Elementary/secondary education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

41,257 25,085 15,982 190

19,279 0 19,110 169

32,768 0 32,768 0

39,511 0 39,100 411

41,688 0 41,488 200

46,927 0 46,527 400

Department of Veterans Affairs Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

1,055,948 251,782 803,166 1,000

1,002,109 235,297 764,561 2,251

966,549 196,159 768,090 2,300

8%,435 168,865 725,270 2,300

757,476 155,351 599,825 2,300

826,590 126,345 697,945 2,300

1,368 1,368

3,368 3,368

4,110 4,110

4,800 4,800

8,472 8,472

8,960 8,960

198,929 154,627 44,302

240,827 186,175 54,652

242,650 193,115 49,535

227,864 182,839 45,025

229,671 170,371 59,300

213,936 167,536 46,400

6,582 4,632 1,950 0

5,445 5,323 30 92

6,468 5,327 1,141 0

6,145 5,145 825 175

93 93 0 0

93 93 0 0

69,718 69,718

67,465 67,465

58,053 58,053

64,517 64,517

79,800 79,800

91,200 91,200

Estimated Education Share of Federal Aid to the District of Columbia Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other research programs and related institutions

101,844 79,160 14,351 8,333

126,942 98,092 17,310 11,540

122,366 103,400 14,566 4,400

103,764 85,510 14,207 4,047

104,940 86,579 14,637 3,724

100,844 85,079 12,054 3,711

Harry S. Truman Scholarship Fund Higher education programs and related institutions

2,441 2,441

2,717 2,717

2,815 2,815

2,851 2,851

2,883 2,883

3,102 3,102

Library of Congress Other education programs and related institutions

166,130 166,130

160,835 160,835

160,505 160,505

177,954 177,954

189,827 189,827

215,094 215,094

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

490,948 1,900 489,048

787,391 2,250 785,141

899,897 2,400 897,497

978,778 2,300 976,478

1,095,500 3,300 1,092,200

1,238,600 3,800 1,234,800

National Endowment for the Arts Elementary/secondary education programs Other education programs and related institutions

5,188 4,060 1,128

5,394 4,099 1,295

5,550 4,350 1,200

5,655 4,462 1,193

5,577 4,641 936

6,500 4,975 1,525

National Endowment for the Humanities Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other education programs and related institutions

121,125 460 42,346 78,319

124,407 352 48,679 75,376

125,230 826 47,601 76,803

137,076 698 51,449 84,929

141,048 404 50,938 89,706

152,139 436 54,937 96,766

National Science Foundation Higher education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

1,147,273 74,151 1,073,122

1,270,415 85,494 1,184,921

1,329,520 97,466 1,232,054

1,472,835 130,187 1,342,648

1,579,284 161,884 1,417,400

1,801,814 213,414 1,588,400

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Research programs at universities and related institutions

27,472 27,472

29,176 29,176

25,676 25,676

25,690 25,690

20,300 20,300

22,200 22,200

ACTION Programs Other education programs and related institutions Agency for International Development Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions Appalachian Regional Commission Elementary/secondary education programs Higher education programs Other education programs and related institutions Environmental Protection Agency Research programs at universities and related institutions

28

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

14. Federal Funds for Education and Related Programs, by Level of Education or Activity, Agency, and Program: Fiscal Years 1986-91 in Thousands of Dollars (continued) Level, agency, and program

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

199 ll

6,191 6,191

6,545 6,545

5,393 5,393

5,880 5,880

5,779 5,779

7,113 7,113

United States Information Agency Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

170,514 148,483 20,531 1,500

179,653 162,897 16,756 0

183,206 160,447 22,759 0

185,521 164,807 20,714 0

201,547 181,172 20,375 0

216,021 193,403 22,618 0

Other Agencies Higher education programs Other education programs Research programs at universities and related institutions

57,779 0 56,788 991

72,541 0 67,631 4,910

89,418 13,200 71,715 4,503

113,836 13,852 97,418 2,566

96,666 5,529 90,637 500

112,833 8,191 103,842 800

Smithsonian Institute Other education programs and related institutions

SOURCE: Digest of Education Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, 1991. 'Figures for 1991 are estimated. To the extent possible, data represent outlays rather than obligations. Due to rounding, details may not add to totals.

Assistance Act modified the student aid provisions to allow middle-income as well as low-income students to qualify for federal assistance. National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act (1965). This act was adopted to promote progress and scholarship in the arts and humanities. It authorized research, training, and the publication of scholarly works in the humanities. National Sea Grant College and Program Act (1966). Authorized support to establish and operate sea grant colleges and programs for research and training related to development of marine resources. Health Manpower. Beginning in 1963, the Congress has enacted a series of laws to aid medical, dental, nursing, and other health schools and their students. This support, greatly expanded in 1971, was constrained by budget cuts in the 1980s, a pattern which is continuing into the 1990s. Although several new programs targeted at minority and disadvantaged students were initiated, overall funding in this area has achieved no real growth. Department of Education Organization Act (1979). A cabinet15. Research and Development in Colleges and Universities, Fiscal Year 1991 (Estimated), in Millions of Dollars Total federal obligations for research, development, and R and D plant by all performers (federal intramural research, industrial forms, colleges and universities, and others). $66,690 Research and development by colleges and universities by FFRDCS Research by colleges and universities by FFRDCS Basic research by colleges and universities by FFRDCS Applied research by colleges and universities by FFRDCS Development by colleges and universities by FFRDCS R & D plant by colleges and universities by FFRDCS Total by colleges and universities by FFRDCS Grand total

level department of education was established for the first time in U.S. history. Functions from the old Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, four other departments, and the National Science Foundation were transferred to the new department. This brief legislative summary illustrates the fact that while the federal government has long been interested in higher education, it has been only during the relatively recent past that federal aid to higher education has begun to assume massive proportions. Dimensions of Federal and State Support Federal funds have been provided for a number of purposes: student aid, research and development, community service programs, construction of dormitories and academic facilities, purchase of instructional equipment and material, improvement of libraries, and assistance to developing institutions. In addition to supporting traditional areas of study, federal programs also have been specifically focused on international education, health education, teacher training, and vocational education. Tables 13-15 outline the extent of federal appropriations to education. Table 16 presents an analysis of appropriations of tax money by state legislatures for the operating expenses of postsecondary institutions.

Federal Aid in Perspective 9,191 3,654 8,356 1,863 5,721 1,267 2,635 596 835 1,791 133 746 $26,871 $ 9,917 $36,788

SOURCE: Digest of Education Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, 1991. FFRDCS = Federally funded research and development centers.

The following generalizations about the evolution of federal aid to higher education in the United States appear to be defensible: 1. The existing pattern of federal aid has not been the result of any carefully-worked-out plan. There has been no comprehensive or coordinated program at the federal level or any agency or organization that allows the federal government to deal with higher education in a consistent manner. The federal government has an estimated 500 programs that affect higher education in some fashion. 2. Federal support over the years grew in response to real and identifiable needs. Each advance was related to a specific need (e.g., military needs or economic emergencies), and the definition of need has been steadily widened. 3. While federal aid has generally been in response to a specific need, there were, from the earliest days of the nation, expressions about the importance of education to the general welfare and recognition of the responsibility of government in fostering it. The use, expansion, and strengthening of the nation's resources (including our people), and the admission of the fact that our colleges and universities were in themselves a prime resource for accomplishing the objectives of government, were in time to be enunciated as a matter of national policy. 4. The federal government, from the very beginning, has included both public and private institutions in its programs. Con-

Government and Higher Education

gress has made no significant distinctions in its legislation between public and private higher education. 5. The use of federal funds for direct financial assistance to students developed as an outgrowth of the conviction that it was clearly in the national interest to provide each student the opportunity to seek the most advanced education his abilities would allow and that none should be denied this opportunity because of financial need. 6. In 1991, the federal government provided 75 percent of all financial aid to students, including the value of loans insured. Another seven percent was provided by the states and 28 percent came from institutional and other sources. The largest single source of aid was the Guaranteed Student Loan Program, which provided in excess of $12 billion to students, 45 percent of all available aid.

29

7. During the past decade, federal aid has failed to keep pace with inflation. However, state grants and institutional aid have grown significantly over this same period. 8. The increasing volume of federal support has in large measure resulted from the fact that the government found it necessary to turn to the colleges and universities for educated manpower and new knowledge. 9. Federal aid evolved as a voluntary association between the government and the institutions and was based on mutual selfinterest. Institutions expected and received financial support to subsidize research projects; to construct classrooms, laboratories, and dormitories; to increase their capacity for public service, to broaden and enrich the curriculum; to provide more and better scholarship and loan funds for students, and generally to increase both their prestige and their effectiveness. The government, on the

16. Appropriations of State Tax Funds for Operating Expenses of Higher Education, in Thousands of Dollars States

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

1980-81 $

384,848 127,161 280,446 187,567 3,178,707 263,984 209,800 63,811 718,509 431,929 137,573 94,146 1,001,248 445,850 309,039 259,859 307,572 398,325 62,622 367,701 322,498 757,770 489,955 261,409 342,685 67,348 166,155 62,107 32,919 520,275 162,015 1,644,361 660,645 61,822 685,292 271,180 250,443 788,141 84,111 344,492 51,134 341,087 1,464,881 155,611 30,459 511,737 467,717 167,717 511,067 70,504

Total 20,978,234 Weighted average percentages of gain

$

1988-89

1990-91

775,344 166,814 538,014 310,795 5,396,436 475,181 473,716 107,515 1,472,625 812,299 267,472 144,987 1,417,662 755,614 482,480 387,969 519,683 483,033 162,482 700,598 868,426 1,342,033 861,462 425,671 551,755 105,277 253,431 121,249 72,454 1,139,597 276,222 3,047,894 1,329,606 115,723 1,320,808 415,192 361,188 1,268,930 142,291 577,489 78,576 686,235 2,245,958 263,964 53,855 1,031,167 719,437 253,525 738,670 116,183

866,989 181,834 613,806 319,014 6,100,728 516,793 485,846 122,391 1,632,302 961,283 297,625 183,997 1,722,530 876,162 576,924 458,895 607,445 585,729 195,912 885,084 697,248 1,486,694 1,028,528 443,597 637,378 116,648 329,121 163,324 72,959 1,055,893 335,466 3,142,943 1,484,279 129,756 1,520,057 509,471 420,047 1,421,708 141,139 644,726 91,415 743,821 2,579,342 295,883 59,830 1,077,934 840,231 262,731 843,543 120,719

36,634,987

Percentage 2-year gain

Percentage 10-year gain

12 9 14 3 13 9 3 14 11 18 11 27 22 16 20 18 17 21 21 26 -20 11 19 4 16 11 30 35 1 -7 21 3 12 12 15 23 16 12 -1 12 16 8 15 12 11 5 17 4 14 4

125 43 119 70 92 96 132 92 127 123 116 95 72 97 87 77 97 47 213 141 116 96 110 70 86 73 98 163 122 103 107 91 125 110 122 88 68 80 68 87 79 118 76 90 96 111 80 57 65 71

12

95

40,887,720

SOURCE: State Tax Funds for Operating Expenses of Higher Education (Edward R. Hines, National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges 1990-91).

30

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

other hand, expected and received a number of benefits. It was, for example, able to get a large amount of its own work done through university research. It also wanted and received an increased supply of the trained manpower necessary to both the economic well-being and security of the nation. In addition, the government received assistance from the campus in fulfilling its commitments abroad, and while it is true that many of these programs were not necessarily formulated with the primary goal as an educational program, they became an established part of the federal-institutional relationship. Federal aid, in the last analysis, came about as a matter of

necessity rather than a matter of convenience, and it has grown to its present dimensions not only because of agreement that education directly serves the national interest but also because of a persistent belief that a strong educational establishment is an essential element of national purpose. The result is a mosaic of programs rather than a seamless— and therefore vulnerable—plan. For this reason, the changes required in the 1990s by new federal priorities and severe budget cuts in some areas should be accommodated without serious damage to the basic design that has emerged over nearly fifty years.

7 The Foreign Student in the United States Richard Krasno, President and Chief Executive Officer Institute of International Education The number of foreign students at U.S. colleges and universities reached an all-time high of 407,529 in the 1990-91 academic year—a 5.3 percent increase over the previous year's total of 386,851 and the first time foreign student enrollment in U.S. higher education has ever exceeded 400,000.

17. Foreign Student and Total U.S. Enrollment, Selected Years, 1954-55 to 1990-91 Year 1954/55 1959/60 1964/65 1969/70 1974/75 1979/80 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 1990/91

Foreign Enrollment

Total Enrollment

% of Total Enrollment

34,232 48,486 82,000 134,959 154,580 286,343 342,113 343,777 349,609 356,187 366,350 386,850 407,529

2,499,800 3,402,300 5,320,000 7,978,400 10,321,500 11,707,000 12,467,700 12,387,700 12,410,500 12,808,487 13,322,576 13,824,592 13,975,408

1.4 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.5 2.4 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.9

'Reported total enrollments from 1954/55 to 1982/83 are from the National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C. The reported total enrollments since 1983 are from Fall Enrollment, New York: College Board. Source: Institute of International Education, Open Doors 1990/91.

Our higher education system is a national resource that attracts students from all over the world. Foreign students help to "internationalize" our campuses, exposing our students to different cultures, and establishing international links among future leaders of the U.S. and their international counterparts. As an export, U.S. higher education materially adds to our balance of payments. People all over the world benefit from education obtained in the United States that is put to work for the benefit of humanity. The foreign student data published in the Institute of International Education's annual statistical report, Open Doors 1990/91, is based on a survey of 2,879 accredited U.S. postsecondary institutions, which HE conducts each year with grant support from the U.S. Information Agency (USIA).

Business Now Most Popular Field of Study Business was the most popular field of study for the second consecutive year, replacing engineering, which had ranked first for 40 years. The number of foreign business/management students studying in the U.S. in 1990/91 was 79,670, up 5 percent from last year, with numbers in engineering essentially flat at 73,620. The next most popular fields: math/computer sciences (36,840) and physical and life sciences (35,280).

China Is Leading Place of Origin Despite restrictions instituted by China in 1989 on degree study abroad, enrollment by Chinese students increased by almost 19

percent over last year's figure, making China the leading place of origin for the third year in a row. Japan is the second leading sender and the country with the highest percentage increase (nearly 23 percent).

Large Increase in Students from East Asia, Eastern and Western Europe Asian students (229,830) accounted for 56 percent of the total number of foreign students in the United States. Nine of the top ten places of origin were in Asia. The top five places, China (39,600), Japan (36,610), Taiwan (33,530), India (28,860), and Korea (23,360), alone accounted for 40 percent of the world total. There were also substantial increases in the number of students from Europe and Oceania (Western Pacific). Europe is now the home region of the second largest group of foreign students (49,640), surpassing Latin America (47,580). The number of students from Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East declined in 1990/91.

Number of Students from Eastern Europe Up 42 Percent Recent developments in Eastern Europe spurred growth in the heretofore limited number of students from that region, up 42 percent to 4,800 from the previous year's 3,400. Most Eastern European growth has been from the Soviet Union, with significant increases from Poland and Hungary as well. By comparison, Western European totals were up over 5 percent to 44,900. It is an encouraging sign that the number of students from countries making the transition to democratic pluralism and marketoriented economies is rising. Their experience at U.S. colleges and universities will help to provide them with the knowledge they need to manage the profound changes taking place.

Significant Statistics African and Middle Eastern Students Are a Smaller Proportion of Total. Middle Eastern students were 30 percent of the total as the 1980s began, and were just 8 percent of students in 1990/91. African students were 12 percent of foreign students at the beginning of the 1980s, and 6 percent today. Declines from virtually all Arab states, Iran, and Nigeria account for much of the decrease. Foreign Graduate Students Now 45 Percent of Total. The number of graduate students increased 7 percent to 182,130, with over one-third (65,600) pursuing doctorates. East Asians are the major engine of growth in graduate study. Graduate enrollment has almost caught up to slower-growing undergraduate enrollment, which totalled 189,900 (47 percent). In 1990/91, 48,910 foreign undergraduates studied for a two-year associate's degree and 140,990 worked toward a bachelor's degree. The remaining 8 percent of foreign students were enrolled in preacademic English language programs, practical training, or other nondegree study. California, New York, and Texas Are Top States. Perennial leading state California reported 55,168 foreign students, followed by New York (40,558) and Texas (26,205). Nearly 60 percent of all foreign students were concentrated in the top 10 states.

32

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

18. Foreign Students by State or Territory and Percentage Change, 1989-90 to 1990-91 Foreign Students State

1989-90

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Guam Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Total

1990-91

Percent Change

4,513 364 6,763 1,710 54,178 4,681 4,636 1,003 9,487 20,364 5,980 4,190 1,150 16,816 7,575 6,735 6,009 2,543 5,535 902 6,952 20,840 13,555 5,446 1,941 6,620 770 1,918 783 1,262 9,608 1,399 38,350 5,764 1,341 13,856 5,989 6,403 15,803 1,858 2,381 758 4,247 24,170 4,862 1,206 6,970 6,858 1,417 6,438 527 473 633 319

4,806 373 6,824 1,708 55,168 5,287 4,979 1,067 9,709 20,700 6,319 4,770 1,225 17,771 8,061 7,079 6,335 2,705 5,040 1,047 7,865 22,320 14,366 5,882 2,094 7,349 774 2,232 964 1,323 9,889 1,460 40,558 5,911 1,352 14,798 6,297 6,192 17,571 1,883 2,620 776 4,317 26,205 5,040 847 7,487 7,625 1,653 6,881 549 558 700 218

6.5 2.5 0.9 -0.1 1.8 12.9 7.4 6.4 2.3 1.6 5.7 13.8 6.5 5.7 6.4 5.1 5.4 6.4 -8.9 16.1 13.1 7.1 6.0 8.0 7.9 11.0 0.5 16.4 23.1 4.8 2.9 4.4 5.8 2.6 0.8 6.8 5.1 -3.3 11.2 1.3 10.0 2.4 1.6 8.4 3.7 -29.8 7.4 11.2 16.7 6.9 4.2 18.0 10.6 -31.7

386,851

407,529

5.3

institutions with 3,886 foreign students and was the secondranking institution after Miami-Dade. The University of Texas at Austin (3,867), Boston University (3,633), and University of Wisconsin at Madison (3,565) completed the top five. Foreign Students Chose Private Institutions at Higher Rate than U.S. Students. Over 34 percent of foreign students, but only 20 percent of U.S. students, enrolled in private institutions. Foreign students do not fit the U.S. student norm in another respect: only 14 percent of foreign students study at two-year institutions, while 42 percent of U.S. students enroll at 2-year schools. Female Foreign Students Continued to Increase in Number. In 1990-91, 36 percent of all foreign students were women, the highest percentage ever and a continuation in a trend of steady growth throughout the eighties.

The Institute of International Education Established in 1919, IIE is the largest not-for-profit U.S. higher educational exchange agency. IIE conducts its annual census with USIA grant support and the advice of the International Education Data Collection Committee, consisting of the representative of IIE, the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (AACRAO), and NAFSA: Association of International Educators.

For Further Information Foreign students coming to the United States should carefully investigate the range of opportunities available. More than 3,000 U.S. colleges and universities offer an unparalleled diversity of learning options at all levels of higher education. A wide choice can be confusing. Comprehensive reference works that bring together much information about U.S. higher education can be very helpful in planning a U.S. academic program. In addition to widely-used reference works on U.S. higher education prepared with U.S. students in mind, there are guides prepared especially for the foreign student: Publications available from IIE Books, Institute of International Education, 809 United Nations Plaza, New York NY 100173580: English Language and Orientation Programs in the United States. Describes English language and academic orientation programs offered by colleges, universities, and organizations in the United States. 1992. Funding for U.S. Study: A Guide for the Foreign Nationals. Over 600 award programs open to foreign nationals who wish to study or perform research in the United States. 1989. Open Doors 1990/91: Report on International Education Exchange. A statistical report based on institutional surveys of the number of foreign postsecondary students studying in the United States. Contains tables, graphs, and explanatory text. Annual. Profiles 1989190: Detailed Analyses of the Foreign Student Population. Reports the more detailed information on foreign students made available through a biennial survey that complements and expands upon Open Doors. Biennial.

SOURCE: Institute for International Education, Open Doors 1990/91.

Educational Advising Centers Overseas

Enrollment at Two-Year Institutions Grows by 10 Percent. Numbers of foreign students at two-year community and junior colleges totalled 57,720, up from 52,400 the previous year. California and Florida were the two states with the highest proportion of community college students (26 percent and 16 percent of their total foreign student enrollments respectively). Miami-Dade Community College, again as in many previous years the institution with the most foreign students nationwide, reported 5,757. Enrollments at Four-Year Schools Up 5 Percent to 349,800. The University of Southern California topped the list of four-year

Throughout the world, U.S. higher educational advising centers have been established to assist young men and women who want to study at American colleges and universities. Overseas educational advising centers are administered by the U.S. Information Service (USIS), as well as by binational organizations and higher educational exchange agencies such as AMIDEAST and the Institute of International Education. Services at these centers vary. Many maintain libraries of basic reference works on U.S. study, catalogs of U.S. colleges and universities, and information on financial assistance. Some serve as testing centers for standardized admissions tests and the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).

Foreign Student in the United States

33

19. Institutions with 1,000 or More Foreign Students, 1990-91 Total Foreign Students

Total Enrollment

Foreign Student Percentage of Total Enrollment

10

Miami-Dade Community College, FL University of Southern California, CA University of Texas, Austin, TX Boston University, MA University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI University of Pennsylvania, PA Columbia University, NY Ohio State University, Main Campus, OH University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL University of California, Los Angeles, CA

5,757 3,886 3,867 3,633 3,565 3,122 3,077 3,021 2,967 2,921

51,396 27,465 49,617 28,001 40,905 20,130 19,009 54,094 34,858 35,331

11.2 14.1 7.8 13.0 8.7 15.5 16.2 5.6 8.5 8.3

20

University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL Texas A&M University, Main Campus, TX University of Maryland-College Park, MD Harvard University, MA University of Houston, TX Northeastern University, MA George Washington University, DC Purdue University, Main Campus, IN University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI

2,636 2,627 2,497 2,462 2,409 2,406 2,385 2,378 2,317 2,308

53,433 24,083 41,171 34,837 17,250 33,116 33,673 16,820 35,647 36,306

4.9 10.9 6.1 7.1 14.0 7.3 7.1 14.1 6.5 6.4

30

Michigan State University, MI New York University, NY Arizona State University, AZ University of California, Berkeley, CA State University of New York at Buffalo, NY Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ Cornell University, NY Iowa State University, IA Indiana University at Bloomington, IN California State University, Los Angeles, CA

2,281 2,279 2,215 2,200 2,195 2,192 2,178 2,171 2,131 2,123

42,785 32,837 42,592 30,638 27,643 32,943 18,743 25,884 35,453 21,596

5.3 6.9 5.2 7.2 7.9 6.7 11.6 8.4 6.0 9.8

40

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA University of Florida, FL University of Hawaii at Manoa, HI Stanford University, CA University of Arizona, AZ Temple University, PA University of Iowa, PA University of Missouri-Columbia, MO University of Kansas, KS

2,103 2,095 2,053 2,017 2,000 1,997 1,960 1,925 1,873 1,870

9,628 38,864 34,198 18,847 13,441 35,735 30,530 28,045 24,972 28,909

21.8 5.4 6.0 10.7 14.9 5.6 6.4 6.9 7.5 6.5

50

University of Washington, WA University of Illinois at Chicago, IL Wayne State University, MI University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA City University of New York, Baruch College, NY New Jersey Institute of Technology, NJ University of Miami, FL Oklahoma State University, Main Campus, OK Northern Virginia Community College, VA Brigham Young University, UT

1,776 1,743 1,740 1,701 1,681 1,669 1,665 1,664 1,645 1,621

33,306 24,511 33,872 24,499 15,851 7,670 13,904 19,239 35,195 30,766

5.3 7.1 5.1 6.9 10.6 21.8 12.0 8.6 4.7 5.3

60

City University of New York, City College, NY Howard University, DC State University of New York at Stony Brook, NY Oregon State University, OR Syracuse University, Main Campus, NY The University of Toledo, OH Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA Virginia Polytechnic Inst. & State University, VA San Francisco State University, CA University of Pittsburgh, Main Campus, PA

1,598 1,581 1,577 1,534 1,510 1,494 1,483 1,464 1,459 1,454

12,443 11,050 15,647 15,974 16,721 24,771 25,282 23,484 29,340 28,120

12.8 14.3 10.1 9.6 9.0 6.0 5.9 6.2 5.0 5.2

University of North Texas, TX American University, DC Santa Monica College, CA California State University, Long Beach, CA Ohio University, Main Campus, OH

1,431 1,404 1,360 1,353 1,345

27,161 11,764 22,031 34,000 17,500

5.3 11.9 6.2 4.0 7.7

Rank

Institution

(continued)

34

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

19. Institutions with 1,000 or More Foreign Students, 1990-91 (continued) Rank

Institution

Total Foreign Students

Total Enrollment

Foreign Student Percentage of Total Enrollment

70

Texas Southern University, TX University of Oregon, Main Campus, OR University of Chicago, IL University of the District of Columbia, DC Western Michigan University, MI

1,313 1,278 1,268 1,263 1,259

9,441 17,983 11,098 11,990 26,995

13.9 7.1 11.4 10.5 4.7

80

University of Utah, UT University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK University of Texas, El Paso, TX University of California, San Diego, CA University of Georgia, GA University of California, Davis, CA University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Wichita State University, KS University of Texas at Arlington, TX New York Inst, of Tech., All Campuses, NY

1,254 1,249 1,227 1,224 1,224 1,215 1,201 1,201 1,185 1,177

24,311 19,246 16,520 17,805 28,395 23,910 24,013 16,668 24,783 11,315

5.2 6.5 7.4 6.9 4.3 5.1 5.0 7.2 4.8 10.4

90

University of Cincinnati, OH Utah State University, UT Hawaii Pacific University, HI Kansas State University, KS Yale University, CT Florida International University, FL Eastern Michigan University, MI North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC Georgetown University, DC Montgomery College, Rockville, MD

1,179 1,167 1,166 1,162 1,160 1,142 1,117 1,109 1,108 1,108

36,000 13,719 5,557 21,137 10,998 21,999 25,024 26,683 11,525 13,953

3.3 8.5 21.0 5.5 10.5 5.2 4.5 4.2 9.6 7.9

1,105 1,102 1,101 1,076 1,073 1,047 1,043 1,041 1,034 1,018

11,927 8,557 11,684 8,377 29,430 26,443 30,338 25,613 7,707 9,300

9.3 12.9 9.4 12.8 3.6 4.0 3.4 4.1 13.4

100

Drexel University, PA Case Western Reserve University, OH Northwestern University, IL University of Rochester, NY University of Kentucky, KY University of Connecticut, CT San Jose State University, CA University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC Tufts University, MA City University of NY, LaGuardia Cmty. Coll., NY

1,010 1,004 1,004 184,665

12,345 16,480 20,795 2,505,590

8.2 6.1 4.8 7.4

Georgia Institute of Technology, GA University of California, Irvine, CA Colorado State University, CO Total

11.0

SOURCES: The Annual Census of Foreign Students in the United States, and The College Handbook 1992, The College Entrance Examination Board, New York, 1991.

Below is a list of overseas offices which offer advising services. It is recommended that individual advising centers be checked for the availability of desired services. If a country is not listed, requests can be made of the U.S. Embassy for the location of the nearest center. The 1991-92 Directory of Overseas Educational Advising Centers is available in hard copy, as well as on either 5lA" or З'/г" diskette from: The College Board; Office of International Education; 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20036. Algeria (213) Student Counselor (APAO), Service Culturel, B.P. 549 (Alger-Gare), 1600 Algiers Tel. (2) 60 66 52 Argentina (54) Educational Advisor, Fulbright Commission, Viamonte 1653—2 Piso, 1055 Buenos Aires Tel. (1) 41-1494, 814-1956, 814-3562 Fax (1) 814-1377

Australia (61) Educational Information Officer, Australian-American Educational Foundation, G.P.O. Box 1559, Canberra ACT 2601 Tel. (6) 2479331, 2479332 Fax (6) 2495252 Educational Advisor, USIS, American Consulate, 16 St. George's Terrace, 13th Floor, Perth, WA 6000 Tel. (9) 228-1808 Fax (9) 325-3569 Educational Advisor, USIS, American Consulate, 553 St. Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3000 Tel. (3) 510-4643 Fax (3) 690-2585 Educational Advisor, USIS, American Consulate, Hyde Park Tower, 36th Floor, Park & Elizabeth Streets, Sydney, NSW 2000 Tel. (2) 283-2203 Fax (2) 264-1719

Foreign Student in the United States

35

20. Facts From the 1990-91 International Student Census All Foreign Students Leading Places of Origin China Japan Taiwan India Korea Canada Malaysia Hong Kong Indonesia Pakistan Other

10.4 7.8 (1.1) (10.5) (3.1) 1.9 5.5

229,830 49,640 47,580 33,420 23,800 18,950 4,230

Miami-Dade CC U of Southern California U of Texas at Austin Boston University U of Wisconsin at Madison University of Pennsylvania Columbia University Ohio State U, Main Campus U of Illinois, Urbana U of California, Los Angeles

7.2 2.5 4.0 2.4 21.1 13.7

182,130 140,990 48,910 17,590 9,140 8,770

Male Female

260,730 146,800

2-Year institutions 4-Year institutions

57,720 349,809

Public institutions Private institutions

267,607 139,922

Leading institutions

Academic Level Graduate Bachelor's Associate Intensive English Nondegree Practical Training Fields of study Business/Management Engineering Math/Computer Sciences Physical/Life Sciences Social Sciences Fine/Applied Arts Health Sciences Humanities Education Agriculture

Numbers 55,168 40,558 26,205 23,320 20,700 17,771 17,571 14,798 14,366 9,889 407,500

Numbers 39,600 36,610 33,530 28,860 23,360 18,350 13,610 12,630 9,520 7,730 183,700

World regions Asia Europe Latin America Middle East Africa North America Oceania

Leading states California New York Texas Massachusetts Florida Illinois Pennsylvania Ohio Michigan New Jersey 5.3

Percent change 18.6 22.7 8.3 10.0 7.6 2.7 (3.5) 12.5 1.4 9.3 (•5)

5.4 0.3 1.7 7.2 7.8 9.1 7.9 4.0 9.5 (2.8)

5,757 3,886 3,867 3,633 3,565 3,122 3,077 3,021 2,967 2,921

79,670 73,620 36,840 35,280 30,810 19,040 16,560 15,840 12,280 8,080

Total Foreign Students in U.S. Colleges and Universities: 407,529 Total Foreign Students in Intensive Preacademic English Language Programs: 34,703 Publication available from College Board Publications, Department R54, Box 886, New York, NY 10101-0886: The College Handbook Foreign Student Supplement 1992. Facts for foreign students applying to undergraduate and graduate programs, including enrollment, TOEFL and other required tests, application deadlines, foreign student services, housing, costs, and financial aid. Annual.

Austria (43) Student Counselor, Austrian-American Educational Commission, (Fulbright Commission), Schmidgasse 14, A-1082 Vienna Tel. (222) 31-55-11 (ext. 2629) Fax (222) 487765 Bahamas Educational Advisor, USIS/American Embassy, P.O. Box N-8197, Nassau Tel. 809-322-4268, 322-4269 The College of the Bahamas, Thompson Blvd., P.O. Box N-4912, Nassau Tel. 809-323-8550 (ext. 280) Bahrain (973) Educational advisor, American Embassy, P.O. Box 26431, Manama Tel. 273300 (ext. 1451) Fax 270547

Bangladesh (880) Student Counseling Section, USIS, American Center, Jiban Bima Bhavan, 4th Floor, 10, Dilkusha C.A., Dhaka-1000 Tel. (2) 246000, 246001, 234480, 833184 Fax (2) 83-4909, 88-3648, 83-3987 Barbados Educational Advisor, USIS, c/o U.S. Embassy, P.O. Box 302, Bridgetown Tel. 1-809-436-4950 (ext. 421) Fax 1-809-429-5316 Belgium (32) Educational Advisor, Commission for Educational Exchange between the U.S., Belgium, and Luxembourg, Avenue de la Toison d'Or/Gulden Vlieslaan, 79, B-1060 Brussels Tel. (2) 537-08-59 9am-noon, 537-07-06 l-5pm Fax (2) 537-68-33

36

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Belize (SOI) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, P.O. Box 286, Belize City Tel. (2) 77161, 77162, 77163 (ext. 206) Fax (2) 30802 Benin (229) Educational Advisor, Centre Culturel Americain, B.P. 2012, Cotonou Tel. 30-03-12 Bermuda Educational Advisor, Overseas Educational Advisory Center, The Bermuda College, P.O. Box DV356, Devonshire, DVBX Tel. 809-292-5205 Bolivia (591) Educational Advisor, Oficina de Becas/USIS, Casilla 425, La Paz Tel. (2) 329886, 325660 Fax (2) 392635 Educational Advisor, Centra Boliviano Americano, Casilla 20623, La Paz Tel. (2) 351627, 342583 Educational Advisor, Centra Boliviano Americano, Casilla 1399, Cochabamba Tel. (42) 22115, 21288, 22518 Fax. (42) 22115 Educational Advisor, Centra Boliviano Americano, Casilla 510, Santa Cruz Tel. (3) 342299, 347955 Fax (3) 350188

Eduational Advisor, Instituto Cultural Brasileiro-Norte Americano, Rua Riachuelo, 1257 2 andar-sala 201, 90.010 Porto Alegre, RS Tel. (51) 225-2255 (ext. 127) Educational Advisor, USIS-Consulado Geral dos E.U.A., Rua Gonsalves Maia, 163, 52.050-Recife, PE Tel. (81) 231-7065, 241-7213 Fax (81) 222-4880 Chief, Office of Educational Advising, Fulbright Commission, Av. N. S. de Copacabana, 690/12 andar, Copacabana, 22.050-Rio de Janeiro, RJ Tel. (21) 236-3187, 292-7117 (ext. 2640) Fax (21) 255-4398 Educational Advisor, Sector of Scholarships & Advising Services, Instituto Brasil-Estados Unidos, Av. N. S. de Copacabana, 690-10 andar, Copacabana, CEP 22.050-Rio de Janeiro, RJ Tel. (21) 255-8332 (ext. 222) Educational Advisor, Associacäo Cultural Brasil-Estados Unidos, Av. Sete de Setembro, 1883, CEP 40.120-Salvador, BA Tel. (71) 2474411 Educational Advisor, Instituto Cultural Brasil-Estados Unidos, Rua do Sol, 247, 65.020-Säo Louis, MA Tel. (98) 2228583 Departamento de Consultas Educacionais, Associacäo Alumni, Rua Visconde de Nacar 86, Morunbi, 05.685 Säo Paulo, SP Tel. (11) 842-3866 Fax (11) 842-0052 Educational Advisor, Instituto Brasil-Estados Unidos, Rua Madeira de Freitas, 75, 29.050 Vitoria, ES Tel. (27) 227-4153

Botswana (267) Educational Advisor, USIS/American Embassy, P.O. Box 90, Gaborone Tel. (31) 353982, 353983, 353984 Brazil (55) Educational Advisor, Casa Thomas Jefferson, SEP-Sul, EQ 706-906, 70.390 Brasilia, DF Tel. (61) 243-6588 (ext. 15) Educational Advisor, Centra Cultural Brasil-Estados Unidos, Av. Padre Eutiquio, 1309, 66.020-Belem, PA Tel. (91) 223-9455, 223-9987 Educational Advisor, Instituto Cultural Brasil-Estados Unidos, Rua da Bahia, 1723, 30.160 Belo Horizonte, MG Tel. (31) 226-7633 Educational Advisor, Centra Cultural Brasil-Estados Unidos, Rua Amintas de Barros, 99, Caixa Postal 3328, 80.060—Curitiba, PR Tel. (41) 233-3422 Educational Advisor, Secäo de Referencia/Biblioteca Universitaria, UFSC-Trindade, 88.049-Florianopolis, SC Tel. (482) 339378 Educational Advisor, Instituto Brasil-Estados Unidos, Rua Solon Pinheiro, 58, 60.050-Fortaleza, CE Tel. (85) 221-3599 Educational Advisor, Instituto Cultural Brasil-Estados Unidos, Av. Joaquim Nabuco, 1286, 69.013-Manaus, AM Tel. (92) 232-5919

Brunei (673) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, P.O. Box 29991, Bandar Seri Begawan Tel. (2) 29670 Fax (2) 25293 Bulgaria (359) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, 1 A. Stambolski Blvd., Sofia Tel. (2) 88-48-01 thru 05 (ext. 242/245) Fax (2) 88-48-06 Educational Advisor, Cyril and Methodius International Foundation, 17 Oborishte St., 1504 Sofia Tel. (2) 467-229 Fax (2) 446-027 Burkina-Faso (226) Educational Advisor, Centre Culturel Americain, 01 B.P. 539 Ouagadougou 01, Ouagadougou Tel. 30-70-13 Fax 30-89-13 Burma see Myanmar, Union of Burundi (operator-assisted calls only) American Cultural Center, B.P. 810, Bujunbura Tel. 233-12

Foreign Student in the United States

Cameroon (237) Educational Advisor, American Cultural Center, B.P. 817, Yaounde Tel. 23-04-16, 23-14-37 Fax 23-07-53 Canada Educational Advisor, U.S. Embassy, 150 Wellington St., 3rd Floor, Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5A4 Tel. 613-238-5335, 238-4470 (ext. 312) Fax 613-563-7701 ATTN: Library Cape Verde, Republic of (238)

37

Dalian Foreign Languages Institute, Zhongshanqu Janshan Lu Jiefangjie #111, Dalian, Liaoning Province Educational Advisor, Study Abroad Training Department, Guangzhou Foreign Languages Institute, Beijiao Huangpodong, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province Educational Advisor, Study Abroad Information Service, Bureau of Higher Education of Guangzhou Province, Xiniu Lu, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province Educational Advisor, Shanghai Educational Information Center for International Exchanges, 410 Ti Yu Hui Road (E), Shanghai Tel. (21) 5442187

Educational Advisor, American Embassy, C.P. 201, Praia Tel. 614253 Fax 611355

Educational Advisor, Study Abroad Training Department, Xi'an Foreign Languages Institute, Wujiafen, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province Beijing National Library, Wenjin Jie # 7 , Beijing

Central African Republic (operator-assisted calls only)

Overseas Education Advising Center, Jilin Provincial Library, Xinmin Street 10, Changchun, Jilin 130021 Tel. 0431-882934 Sichuan Provincial Library, Dongfeng Lu #222, Chengdu, Sichuan Province Guangzhou Municipal Library, Zhongshan Si Lu # 4 2 , Guangzhou, Guangdong Province Tel. (20) 333885 Educational Advisor, Heilongjiang Provincial Library, Fendou Lu, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province

Educational Advisor, USIS, B.P. 48, Avenue David Dacko, Bangui Tel. 61-47-66, 61-47-91 Fax 61-44-94 Chad (operator-assisted calls only) Educational Advisor, Service Culturel et de Presse (USIS), Ambassade des Etats Unis d'Amerique, B.P. 3, N'Djamena Tel. 51-40-09, 51-62-33 Chile (56) Opportunidades Para Educacion en Norteamerica, Institute Chileno-Norteamericano de Cultura, Casilla 9286-Santiago Tel. (1) 6985999 Fax (2) 6981175 Director, Institute Chileno-Norteamericano de Cultura, Casilla P, Antofagasta Tel. (83) 223150 Director, Institute Chileno-Norteamericano de Cultura, Casilla 612, Concepcion Tel. (41) 225506 Fax (41) 222102 Student Advisor, Institute Chileno-Norteamericano de Cultura, Casilla 1297, Valparaiso Tel. (32) 254684 Fax (32) 222102 Student Advisor, Institute Chileno-Norteamericano de Cultura, Casilla 1297, Valparaiso Tel. (32) 254684 Fax (32) 254684 China (86) Chinese Service Center for Scholarly Exchange, Information Division, Beijing Language Institute, Xueyuan Lu #15, Beijing 100083 Tel. (1) 2017531 (ext. 501, 502) Educational Advisor, Center for International Education Information, Chengdu University of Science and Technology, Xingnanmenwai Moziqiao, Chengdu, Sichuan Province Tel. (028) 581554 (ext. 2540) Educational Advisor, Study Abroad Training Department, Sichuan Foreign Languages Institute, Shapingba, Chongqing, Sichuan Province, 630031 Educational Advisor, Study Abroad Training Department,

Room 226, 1st Building, Shanghai Municipal Library, Nanjing Xilu #325, Shanghai 200003 P.R. Tel. (21) 327-3176 (ext. Rm. 226) Liaoning Provincial Library, Shenyang Lu Erudan Wenxingly # 5 , Shenyang, Liaoning Province Hubei Provincial Library, Wuluo Lu #45, Wuchang, Hubei Province Colombia (57) Educational Advisor, Comision Fulbright, Apartado Aereo 034240, Bogota Tel. 2877831, 2871643, 2324326 Fax 2873520 Educational Advisor, Centra Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 2216, Armenia, Quindio Tel. (967) 456397 Educational Advisor, Centra Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 2097, Barranquilla, Atlantico Tel. (95) 8324724 Fax (95) 459-464 Educational Advisor, Centra Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 466, Bucaramanga, Santander Tel. (71) 57717 Fax (71) 53-374 Educational Advisor, Centra Cultural Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 4525, Cali, Valle Tel. (93) 611-345 Fax (93) 684695 Educational Advisor, Centra Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 2831, Cartagena, Bolivar Tel. (953) 641714 Educational Advisor, Centra Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 391, Manizales, Caldas Tel. (968) 845984, 831074 Fax (968) 845582

38

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Educational Advisor, Centra Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 8734, Medellin, Antioquia Tel. (4) 251 4416 Fax (4) 251 3326 Educational Advisor, Centra Colombo-Americano, Apartado Aereo 735, Pereira, Risaralda Tel. (963) 336465 Commonwealth of Independent States see Russia, Ukraine Comoros see Madagascar Congo, People's Republic of the (operator-assisted calls only) Educational Advisor, American Embassy Brazzaville, B.P. 1015, Brazzaville Tel. 83-26-42, 83-42-64 Fax 83-63-38 Costa Rica (506) Educational Advisor, Educational Advising Center, BNC, Apartado 1489-1000, San Jose Tel. 53-3736, 25-9433 (exts. 220, 221, 251) Fax 24-1480 Croatia (38) Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, Brace Kavurica 2, 41000 Zagreb Tel. (41) 444-800 (ext. 24) Fax (41) 440-235 Educational Advisor, Zagreb American Center, AMCONGEN Box 5080, Zagreb Tel. (41) 444-800 Fax (41) 440-235 Cuba (operator-assisted calls only) Educational Advisor, USINT, Swiss Embassy, Calzada entre L&M, Vedado Seccion, Havana Tel. 32-0551 (ext. 230)

Denmark (45) Educational Advisor, Commission for Educational Exchange between Denmark and the USA, Raadhusstraede 3, DK-1466 Copenhagen К Tel. 33 12 11 31 Fax 33 32 53 23 Djibouti, Republic of (253) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, B.P. 185, Djibouti Tel. 35-39-95 Dominican Republic Educational Counseling Office (ECO), Instituto Cultural Dominico-Americano, Avenida Abraham Lincoln 21, Santo Domingo Tel. 809-533-8652 Centra Cultural Dominico-Americano, Avenida Estrella Sadala, La Rinconada, Santiago de los Caballeros Tel. 809-582-6627 Ecuador (593) Educational Advisor, Fulbright Commission, Casilla 17-03-826, Quito Tel. (2) 230-119, 549-845 Fax (2) 569-072 Comision Fulbright, Casilla 10237, Guayaquil Tel. (4) 302-392 Egypt, Arab Republic of (20) AMIDEAST, 6 Kamel El Shinnawy Street, Garden City, Cairo Tel. (2) 355-3170, 355-2946, 354-1300 Fax (2) 366-2946 AMIDEAST, Branch Advising Services, 3 Pharaana Street, Alexandria El Salvador (503)

Educational Advisor, Commission for Educational Exchange between the U.S.A. and Cyprus, 2 Egypt Avenue, Nicosia Tel. (2) 449757 Fax (2) 369151

Educational Advisor, USIS/American Embassy, 25 Avenida Norte, No. 1230, San Salvador Tel. 26-7100 Fax 25-9984 Centra Cultural Salvadoreno, Metro Centra, Avenida Sisimiles, San Salvador Tel. 266556

Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (42)

Equatorial Guinea (operator-assisted calls only)

Educational Advisor, American Embassy, Trziste 15, 125 48 Prague 1-Mala Strana Tel. (2) 536-641 (ext. 2367) Fax (2) 534-285

Educational Advisor, American Embassy, Apartado 597, Malabo Tel. 2406, 2507

Cyprus (357)

Educational Advisor, Fulbright Commission, Central European University, Taboritska 23, 130 00 Prague 3 Educational Advisor, IREX, Narodni trida 3, 111 42 Prague 1 Tel. (2) 228-638 Fax (2) 228-587 Educational Advisor, AIA-Academic Information Agency, House of International Relations, Senovazne nam.24, 110 00 Prague 1 Tel. (2) 267-010 Educational Advisor, SAIA-Slovak Academic Information Agency, Hviezdoslavovo nam. 14, 813 29 Bratislava Tel. (7) 333-010 Fax (7) 335-827

Estonia (7) American Embassy, Hotel Palace, Tallinn Tel. 0142-444-761 Fax 358-49-306-817 (do not use country code) Ethiopia (251) Public Affairs Office, Educational Advisor, American Embassy, P.O. Box 1014, Addis Ababa Tel. (1) 55-06-66 (ext. 308), 55-00-07 Fiji (679) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, P.O. Box 218, Suva Tel. 314-466 (ext. 167) Fax 300-081

Foreign Student in the United States

Finland (358) Educational Advisor, America Center Library, Kiavokatu 10A, P.O. Box 256, 00101 Helsinki Tel. (0) 176-599 Educational Advisor, FUSEEC, Mechelininkatu 10 A, 00100 Helsinki Tel. (0) 449-415 Fax (0) 449-590 France (33) Educational Advisor, Franco-American Commission for Educational Exchange, 9 Rue Chardin, 75016 Paris Tel. (1) 45-20-46-54 Educational Advisor, Assn ESEU-Student Center, 39 rue Ste-Colombe, 33000 Bordeaux Tel. (56) 44-44-41 Educational Advisor, American Consulate G6neral, 7 Quai General Sarrail, 69454 Lyon Tel. (78) 52-09-17 Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, 12, Boulevard Paul Peytral, 13286 Marseille Cedex 6 Tel. (91) 54-92-00 Fax (91) 55-09-47 American Consulate General, 15 Ave. D'Alsace, 67082 Strasbourg Tel. (88) 35-31-04 Fax (88) 24-06-95 French Caribbean Dept. (596) French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Martin Educational Advisor, Consulate General of the U.S.A., B.P. 561, Fort-de-France 97206 Tel. 63-13-03 Fax 60-20-80 Gabon (241) Public Affairs Officer, USIS, Centre Culturel Americain, B.P. 2237, Libreville Tel. 74-33-31, 74-33-32 Fax 74-55-07 The Gambia (220) Educational Advisor, USIS/American Embassy, P.O. Box No. 19, Banjul Tel. 92856, 92858 (ext. 181) Fax 92475 Germany, Federal Republic of (49) Educational Specialist, American Embassy-USIS, Deichmanns Aue 29, 5300 Bonn 2 Tel. (228) 339-2064 Fax (228) 334102 Exchanges Specialist, Amerika Haus, Hardenbergstrasse, 22-24, D-1000 Berlin 12 Tel. (30) 819-7661 (ext. 7) Fax (30) 317945 Educational Advisor, U.S. Embassy—Berlin Office, Neustaedtische Kirchstr. 4-5, D-1000 Berlin 80 Tel. (30) 25-12-061, 220-27-41 Fax (30) 25-10-237 Educational Advisor, Amerika Haus, Apostelnkloster 13-15, D-5000 Cologne 1 Tel. (221) 249188 Fax (221) 24 45 43

39

Exchanges Specialist, Amerika Haus, Staufenstrasse 1, D-6000 Frankfurt am Main 1 Tel. (69) 72-01-07 Fax (69) 72 02 05 Exchanges Specialist, Amerika Haus, Tesdorpfstrasse 1, D-2000 Hamburg 13 Tel. (40) 41171-0 (ext. 276) Fax (40) 44-47-05 Exchanges Specialist, Amerika Haus, Postfach 440, D-3000 Hanover 1 Tel. (0511) 32-72-84, 32-72-86 Fax (0511) 32-16-34 Exchanges Specialist, Amerika Haus, Karolinenplatz 3, D-8000 Munich 2 Tel. (89) 59-53-67 Fax (89) 55-35-78 Exchanges Specialist, Amerika Haus, Friedrichstrasse 23 A, D-7000 Stuttgart 1 Tel. (711) 22 98-30, 2-29-83-17 Fax (711) 2298339 Ghana (233) Cultural Affairs Officer, USIS, P.O. Box 2288, Accra Tel. (21) 229179, 229829 (ext. 47) Fax (21) 776008 Greece (30) Educational Advisor, U.S. Educational Foundation in Greece, 6 Vasilissis Sofias Blvd., Athens, 10674 Tel. (1) 7241-811 Fax (1) 7241-812 available 9am-5pm EST only Fulbright Advisor, American Center, 34 Mitropoleos Street, 546 23 Salonica Tel. (31) 264-025 (ext. 5) Fax (31) 270 754 Grenada Educational Advisor, U.S. Information Service, American Embassy, P.O. Box 54, St. George's Tel. 809-444-1173 through 1178 (ext. 234) Fax 809-444-4820 Educational Advisor, Westmoreland School, Tempe, St. George's Tel. 809-440-2548 Guatemala (502) Institute Guatemalteco-Americano, Ruta 1, Via 4, Zona 4, Guatemala City Tel. (2) 318-626 Fax (2) 32 1549 Guinea (224) Educational Advisor, USIS/American Embassy, B.P. 12-5, Conakry Tel. (4) 44-15-20 through 24 Guyana (592) Educational Advisor, USIS/American Embassy, 31 Main Street, Georgetown Tel. (2) 54900 (ext. 251) Fax (2) 63636 Haiti (509) Educational Advisor, Haitian-American Institute, Rue St. Cyr/Rue Capois, Port-au-Prince

40

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Tel. 22-1504, 22-5726 Fax 22-8704

Tel. (11) 3328944 Fax (11) 332-9718

Honduras (504)

Educational Advisor, U.S. Educational Foundation in India, Sundeep, 4 New Marine Lines, Bombay 400 020 Tel. (22) 256511, 294242 (ext. 197)

Institute Hondureno de Cultura Interamericana (IHCI), 2a. Avenida, Entre 5a. у 6a. Calle No. 520, Comayaguela Tel. 37-7539, 22-0703 Fax 31-2909 Centra Cultural Sampedrana, 3 Calle N.O., 3 у 4 Avenidas, San Pedro Sula Tel. 53-3911, 53-3768, 57-2084 Hong Kong (852) ПЕ, G.P.O. Box 10010, Hong Kong Tel. 528-3251 Fax 865-7033 Hungary (36) Educational Advisor, American Library, Bajza ter 31, H-1062 Budapest Tel. (1) 114-4122 (ext. 117, 118) Fax (1) 153-4274 Educational Advisor, Eötvös Lorand University, Piarista koz 1, 1st Floor, Rm. 44 AFII, H-1052 Budapest Tel. (1) 118-0966 (ext. 137) Fax (1) 118-5699 Educational Advisor, International Student Center, Budapest Technical University, Müegyetem-rkp. 3, K.I. 50, H - l l l l Budapest Tel. (1) 166-7758 Fax (1) 158-2637 Educational Advisor, Szabo Ervin Library, Szabo Ervin ter 1, H-1371 Budapest Tel. (1) 138-4933 Fax (1) 118-5914 Educational Advisor, Library, Kossuth Lajos University, Egyetem t6r 1, Rm. 202, H-4010 Debrecen Tel. (52) 10-443, 16-666 (ext. 180) Fax (52) 12-336 Educational Advisor, Central Library, University of Miskolc, Egyetemvaros, H-3515, Miskolc Tel. (46) 61-416 Fax (46) 69-554 Educational Advisor, Central Library, Medical University of P6cs, P.O. Box 99, H-7643 Pecs Tel. (72) 24-122 (ext. 1422) Educational Advisor, Central Library, Jözsef Attila University, Dugonics ter 13, H-6720 Szeged Tel. (62) 24-022 Fax (62) 11-998 Educational Advisor, Central Library, University of Veszprem, Egyetrem t6r 10, H-8200 Veszprem Tel. (80) 22-022 (ext. 285) Fax (80) 26-016 Iceland (354) Educational Advisor, Iceland-U.S. Educational Commission, Box 752, 121 Reykjavik Tel. (1) 20830 Fax (1) 29529 India (91) Educational Advisor, U.S. Educational Foundation in India, 12 Hailey Road, New Delhi 110001

Educational Advisor, U.S. Educational Foundation in India, Flat # 2 , Park Mansion, 57 Park Street, Calcutta 700 016 Tel. (33) 291108, 291098 Educational Advisor, U.S. Educational Foundation in India, American Consulate Building, Anna Salai, Madras 600 006 Tel. (44) 472617, 473040 Fax (44) 8250240 Indonesia (62) Educational Advising Service, USIS, American Embassy, Jl. Medan Merdeka Selatan 4, Jakarta 10110 Tel. (21) 571-1503, 571-1506 Fax (21) 571-1495 Educational Advising Service, Perhimpunan Persahabatan, Indonesia-America Medan, Jl. Diponegoro 23, Medan Tel. (61) 27140, 27150 Fax (61) 519711 Educational Advising Service, Perhimpunan Persahabatan, Indonesia-America Surabaya, Jl. Dharmahusada Indah Barat 1/3, Surabaya Tel. (31) 597200 Iraq (Operations have been temporarily suspended) Ireland (353) American Embassy, USIS, 42 Elgin Road, Ballsbridge, Dublin 4 Tel. (1) 668-777 (ext. 266, 267) Fax (1) 689946 Israel (972) Educational Advisor, U.S.-Israel Educational Foundation, P.O.B. 26160, Tel Aviv 61162 Tel. (3) 652131, 662042, 662043 Fax (3) 972-3-662016 Italy (39) Educational Advisor, Commission for Educational and Cultural Exchange between Italy and the U.S.A., Via Castelfidardo, 8,1-00186 Rome Tel. (6) 481-97-42 Fax (6) 481-56-80 Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, USIS, Lungarno Amerigo Vespucci, 46,1-50123, Florence Tel. (55) 216-531, 294-921 Fax (55) 288-338 Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, USIS, Banca d'America e d'ltalia Bldg., Piazza Portello 6, 1-16124 Genoa Tel. (10) 292-685, 292-517 Fax (10) 268-346 Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, Via Bigli, 11/A, 1-20121 Milan Tel. (02) 795-053 (ext. 36) Fax (02) 781-736 Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, USIS, Piazza della Repubblica, 1-80122 Naples Tel. (81) 660-966, 680-982 Fax (81) 664-207

Foreign Student in the United States

Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, USIS, Via Vaccarini, 1,1-90143 Palermo Tel. (91) 34-35-32 (ext. 57) Fax (91) 34-72-67 Educational Advisor, Associazione Italo-Americana Trieste, Via Roma, 15, 1-34139 Trieste Tel. (40) 630-301 Educational Advisor, c/o Opera Universitaria, Via Pietro Giuria, 17, 1-10125 Turin Ivory Coast (225) Educational Advisor, American Cultural Center, USIS, 01 BP 1866, Abidjan 01 Tel. 32-09-79 (ext. 367), 44-07-45, 44-05-97 Jamaica Student Counselor, U.S. Information Service, American Embassy, Mutual Life Center, 2 Oxford Road, Kingston 5 Tel. 809-929-4850 through 59 Japan (81) Educational Information Service, The Japan-United States Educational Commission, Sanno Grand Building, Room 207, 14-2, 2-Chome, Nagato-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokoyo 100 Tel. (3) 3580-3235 Fax (3) 3580-1217 Jerusalem (972) AMIDEAST, P.O. Box 19674, East Jerusalem via Israel 91190 Tel. (2) 286-710 Fax (2) 286-868 Jordan (962) AMIDEAST, P.O. Box 1249, Amman Tel. (6) 624495, 623241 Fax (6) 656-241 AMIDEAST, Branch Counseling Services, Yarmouk University, Irbid Tel. (2) 271100 Kenya (254) Educational Advising Center, P.O. Box 45869, Nairobi Tel. (2) 339417, 226112 Fax (2) 340838 Educational Advisor, Educational Advising Center, P.O. Box 45869, Nairobi Tel. (11) 315101 Korea (82) Fulbright Student Advisory Service, Korean-American Educational Commission, Kohap Bldg. Suite 403, 89-4 Kyongun-dong, Chongno-gu, Seoul 110-310 Tel. (2) 732-7926 Fax (2) 736-2718 Educational Advisor, American Cultural Center, #24, 2-ka, Daechung-dong, Joong-ku, Pusan 600-092 Tel. (51) 243-1403 Fax (51) 244-9006 Kuwait (965) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, USIS, P.O. Box 77 Safat, 13001 Kuwait Tel. 242-4151 (ext. 266) Fax 1-212-959-1299

41

Latvia (7) American Embassy, Hotel Ridzene, Riga Tel. 0132-325-964 Fax 871-150-7503 (do not use country code) Lebanon (operator-assisted calls only) AMIDEAST, P.O. Box 70-744, Antelias Tel. 411-676, 411-615, 410-438 AMIDEAST, P.O. Box 135-155, Beirut Tel. 345-341, 340-137 Lesotho (266) American Cultural Center, P.O. Box 573, Maseru Tel. 312335, 314820 Fax 310-116 Liberia (231) U.S. Educational and Cultural Foundation in Liberia, P.O. Box 1011, Monrovia Tel. 222-657 Fax 222-784 Lithuania (7) American Embassy, Hotel Draugyste, Room 1307, Vilnius Tel. 0122-661-777 Fax 873-150-6776 Luxembourg, Grand Duchy of (352) American Studies Center, Centre Universitaire de Luxembourg, 162A avenue de la Faiencerie, L-1511 Luxembourg, Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Tel. 463904 Fax 461990 Madagascar (operator-assisted calls only) Educational Advisor, American Cultural Center, B.P. 620, c/o American Embassy, Antananarivo Tel. 202-38 Malawi (265) Cultural Affairs Specialist, American Cultural Center, P.O. Box 30373, Lilongwe 3 Tel. 731-072, 731-655 Fax 731536 Malaysia (60) Malaysian-American Commission on Educational Exchange (MACEE), 355 Jalan Ampang, 50450 Kuala Lumpur Tel. (3) 457-1180, 457-0980, 457-4658, 457-4659 Fax (3) 457-6196 Malaysian-American Commission on Educational Exchange (MACEE), 112-B Madras Lane, Penang Tel. (4) 375-360 Mali (223) Ambassade Americaine, B.P. 34, Bamako Tel. 22-54-70, 22-36-78 (ext. 215) Malta (356) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, USIS, P.O. Box 535, Floriana Tel. 621-240, 627-080 Marshall Islands, Republic of the (692) Educational Advising Center, College of Micronesia-Majuro, P.O. Box 1258, Majuro 96960

42

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Tel. (9) 3291, 3394 Fax (9) 692 2 3538

Tel. (7) 726-230 Fax (7) 724-000 after business hours

Mauritania (operator-assisted calls only)

Educational Advisor, American Language Center, 4 Rue Tanja, Rabat Tel. (7) 761-269, 767-103, 766-121 Fax (7) 767-447

Educational Advisor, American Embassy, American Cultural Center, B.P. 222, Nouakchott Tel. 52660 thru 63 Mauritius (230) Educational Advisor, USIS, American Embassy, President John Kennedy Street, Port Louis Tel. 208-2347 Fax 208-9534 Mexico (52) Institute of International Education (HE), Londres 16, 2nd Floor, 06600 Mexico, D.F. Tel. 905-211-0042 (ext. 3500) Fax 905-539-0909 Educational Advisor, Instituto Mexicano-Norteamericano de Relaciones Culturales, Vicente Guerrero 616, 3100 Chihuahua, Chihuahua Tel. (14) 12 61 65 Educational Advisor, Instituto Cultural Mexicano-Norteamericano de Jalisco, Enrique Diaz De Leon, 44170 Guadalajara, Jalisco Tel. 255838, 251671 Educational Advisor, USIS, American Consulate, Guadalajara, Jalisco Tel. 17-68-93, 25-27-00 (ext. 426) Fax 905-36-17-6893 Educational Advisor, Instituto Mexicano-Norteamericano de Relaciones Culturales, Blvd. Navarrete у Monteverde, Valle Hermoso, 83260 Hermosillo, Sonora Tel. 407-81, 422-40, 42-340 Educational Advisor, Instituto Franidin de Yucatan, Calle 57 Num. 474-A, 97000 Merida, Yucatan Tel. (99) 21-5996 Instituto Mexicano-Norteamericano de Relaciones Culturales, Hidalgo 768 Pte., Apdo. Postal 2602, 64000 Monterrey, Nuevo Leon Tel. (83) 40-15-83 thru 87, 45-28-53 Educational Advisor, Instituto Mexicano-Norteamericano de Michoacan, A.C., Guillermo Prieto #86, 58000 Morelia, Michoacan Tel. (451) 2-19-86 Instituto Mexicano-Norteamericano de Relaciones Culturales, Hidalgo Nte. 160, 2500 Saltillo, Coahuila Tel. 3-70-12 Centra Cultural Mexico Americano, A.C., Colon 310 Nte., C.P. 89000 Tampico, Tamaulipas Tel. 23167, 25584 Instituto Mexicano-Norteamericano de Relaciones Culturales, Edificio Marcos, 4o. Piso, Calle Rodriguez 351 Sur, 27000 Torreon, Coahuila Tel. (17) 12-20-96 Fax (17) 17-49-68, 17-24-68 Educational Advisor, Instituto Franklin de Veracruz, Azueta 1229 esq. Diaz Miron, 91700 Veracruz, Veracruz Tel. 32-2794, 32-2772 Morocco (212) Educational Advisor, AMIDEAST, 25 Bis Patrice Lumumba, Apt. No. 8, Rabat

Educational Advisor, Moroccan-American Commission for Educational and Cultural Exchange, 3 Rue Tiddas, Rabat Tel. (7) 7641-09 Educational Advisor, American Language Fraternite, Casablanca Tel. 27-77-65, 27-52-70 Educational Advisor, American Language Mouaz, B.P. 2136, Fes Tel.(6) 248-50 Educational Advisor, American Language Kadissia, Kenitra Tel. (1) 668-84 Educational Advisor, American Language Moulin de Gueliz, Marrakech Tel. (4) 472-59 Educational Advisor, American Language Maerakate Zelaka, Tetouan Tel. (96) 3308

Center, 1 Place de la

Center, 2 Rue Ibn

Center, 2 Blvd. El

Center, 3 Impasse

Center, 1, Rue

Mozambique (258) Educational Advisor, USIS, Av. Mao Tse Tung, Maputo Tel. (1) 491918 Fax (1) 491918 Myanmar, Union of (operator-assisted calls only) American Embassy, 581 Merchant Street, Rangoon Tel. 82055 (ext. 825) Namibia (264) Educational Advisor, USIS, P.O. Box 5750, Ausspannplatz, Windhoek Tel. (61) 229 801 Fax (61) 32476 Nepal (977) Educational Advisor, U.S. Educational Foundation, P.O. Box 380, Kathmandu Tel. (01) 410881, 414598 Fax (01) 419963 Attn: USEF/N Netherlands (31) Educational Advisor, Netherlands-America Commission for Educational Exchange, Herengracht 430, 1017 BZ Amsterdam Tel. (20) 6275426, 6275421 Fax (20) 6207269 Netherlands Antilles (599) Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, P.O. Box 158, Curagao Tel. (9) 613066 Fax (9) 616489 New Zealand (64) Educational Advisor, New Zealand-U.S. Educational Foundation, P.O. Box 3465, Wellington Tel. (4) 472-2065 Fax (4) 472-2065

Foreign Student in the United States

Educational Advisor, American Center, U.S. Consulate General, 29 Shortland Street, Auckland Tel. (9) 733-135 Fax (9) 366-0870 Nicaragua (505)

Peru (51)

The American-Nicaraguan School, P.O. Box 2670, Managua Tel. (2) 70111, 70112, 70113 Niger (227) Educational Advisor, USIS, American Embassy, B.P. 11201, Niamey Tel. 71-31-69, 71-29-20 Nigeria (234) Educational Advisor, USIS, P.O. Box 554, Lagos Tel. (1) 633-395, 634865, 634869 (ext. 13) Educational Advisor, USIS, P.O. Box 2060, Kaduna, Kaduna State Tel. (062) 201-070 Norway (47) U.S. Educational Foundation in Norway, Nedre Vollgate 3, 0158 Oslo 1 Tel. (2) 41-42-55, 41-54-93 Educational Advisor, U.S. Information Office—Tromso, P.O. Box 171, 9001 Tromso Tel. (83) 83745 Fax (83) 89908 Oman (968)

Educational Advisor, Institute Cultural Peruano Norteamericano, Apartado 555, Arequipa Tel. (54) 24-3201 Fax (54) 23-7731

Educational Advisor, Embassy of the United States of America/USIS, P.O. Box 50202, Madinat Qaboos Tel. 698989 (ext. 203) Fax 699-771 Pakistan (92) Educational Advisor, U.S. Educational Foundation in Pakistan, P.O. Box 1128, Islamabad Tel. (51) 821563, 825346 Fax (51) 821563 Educational Advisor, Pakistan-American Cultural Center, 11-Fatima Jinnah Road, Karachi Tel. (21) 531836, 510661 Educational Advisor, The American Center, 20-Fatima Jinnah Road, Lahore Tel. (42) 306991 thru 95 Fax (42) 226636 Educational Advisor, The American Center, 1-C, Chinar Road, University Town, Peshawar Tel. (521) 41463 Panama, Republic of (507) Educational Advisor, Embassy of the United States, P.O. Box 6959, Panama 5 Tel. 27-1777 (ext. 284) Fax 27-4515 Papua New Guinea (675) Educational Advisor, American Embassy (USIS), P.O. Box 1492, Port Moresby Tel. 211-455, 211-594, 211-654 Paraguay (595) Student Counselor, Centre Cultural Paraguayo-Americano, Avenida Espana 352, Asuncion Tel. (21) 24-831, 24-772

43

Educational Advisor, Institute Cultural Peruano Norteamericano, Apartado 304, Miraflores, Lima 18 Tel. (14) 46-0831 Fax (14) 33-1801

Institute Cultural Peruano Norteamericano, Apartado 34, Chiclayo Tel. (74) 23-1241 Fax (74) 22-7166 Educational Advisor, Institute Cultural Peruano Norteamericano, Apartado 287, Cuzco Tel. (84) 23-3541 Educational Advisor, Institute Cultural Peruano Norteamericano, Esq. Husares de Junin у Venezuela, Trujillo Tel. (44) 24-5832 Fax (44) 23-2512 Philippines (63) The Executive Director, Phillippine-American Educational Foundation (PAEF), P.O. Box 151, Manila Tel. (2) 818-68-92 Fax (2) 5221802 Educational Advisor, U.S. Information Service, SSS Building, Pres. Osmena Blvd., Cebu City Tel. (32) 7-48-25 Fax (32) 210-346 Educational Advisor, U.S. Information Service, J.P. Laurel Ave., Bajada, Davao City, 8000 Davao del Sur Tel. (82) 7-20-13, 6-35-33 Fax (82) 6-28-58 Poland (48) Educational Advising Center, Office for U.S.-Polish Educational Exchanges, ul. Nowy Swiat 4, 00-497 Warsaw Tel. (2) 628-7950 Fax (2) 628-7943 Branch Public Affairs Officer, American Consulate, Ul. Stolarska 9, 31-043 Krakow Tel. (12) 227793, 229764 (ext. 140) Fax (22) 28-93-26 Branch Public Affairs Officer, American Consulate, Ul. Chopina 4, 00-721 Poznan Tel. (61) 595-86, 598-74 Portugal (351) Educational Advisor, Luso-American Educational Commission, Ave. Elias Garcia, 59-5, P-1000 Lisbon Tel. (1) 767976 Fax (1) 768921 Qatar (974) American Embassy, USIS, P.O. Box 2399, Doha Tel. 321279, 321207 Romania (40) American Embassy/Educational Advisor, Stradä Snagov, 26, R-70136 Bucharest Tel. (0) 10-40-40 Fax (0) 11-04-74

44

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Russia (7) Educational Advisor, All-Union State Library of Foreign Literature (VGBIL), ul. Ulianovskaia, 1, Moscow 109240 Tel. (096) 297-28-29 Educational Advisor, Central City Library im. Maiakovskii, Fontanka 44ra Lavrova St. 15, St. Petersburg 191025 Tel. 311-2247 Rwanda (250) Educational Advisor, Ambassade des Etats-Unis, В.P. 28, Kigali Tel (7) 5601, 5602 (ext. 232) Saudi Arabia (966) Educational Advisor, U.S. Embassy/USIS, P.O. Box 865, Riyadh, 11421 Tel. (1) 488-3800 (ext. 186) Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, P.O. Box 81, Dhahran Airport Tel. (3) 891 3200 Fax (3) 891 8212 Educational Advisor, American Consulate General, P.O. Box 149, Jidda Tel. (2) 667-0800 Fax (2) 660-6367 Senegal (221) Cultural Affairs officer, American Cultural Center, B.P. 49, Dakar Tel. 23-59-28 Fax 22-29-91 Seychelles (248) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, Box 251, Victoria, Mahe Tel. 25256 Fax 25189 Sierra Leone (232) American Embassy, Corner Walpole and Siaka Stevens Streets, Freetown Tel. (22) 26481 Singapore (65) Student Advisor, USIS/Student Advising Service, American Embassy, 30 Hill Street, Singapore 0617 Tel. 224-6243 Fax 224-3239 Slovenia (38) Educational Advisor, American Center, Cankaijeva 11, 61000 Ljubljana Tel. (61) 210-284, 210-190 Fax (61) 210-284 Somalia (operator-assisted calls only) Educational Advisor, USIS/American Embassy, P.O. Box 574, Mogadishu Tel. 39971, 39975 (ext. 257) South Africa, Republic of (27) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, Southern Life Building, 239 Pretorius Street, Pretoria 0002 Tel. (12) 285-100 (ext. I l l ) Fax (12) 26-6495

Student Advisor, USIS Cape Town, 2nd Floor, Scott's Bldg., 10 Plein Street, 8001 Cape Town Tel. (21) 419-4822 Fax (21) 461-3603 Educational Advisor, American Cultural center, Durban Bay House, 333 Smith Street, 4001 Durban Tel. (31) 3055068 Fax (31) 3042847 Student Advisor, USIS Johannesburg, 3rd Floor, African Life Bldg., I l l Commissioner Street, 2001 Johannesburg Tel. (11) 29-3451 Fax (11) 29-6591 Soviet Union see Commonwealth of Independent States Spain (34) Educational Advisor, Fulbright Commission, Paseo General Martinez Campos 24, 1, 28010 Madrid Tel. (1) 308-2436 (ext. 34) Fax (1) 308-5704 Educational Advisor, Instituto de Estudios Norteamericanos, Via Agusta 123, 5th Floor, 08006 Barcelona Tel. (3) 209-2711 (ext. 34), 209-9725 Fax (3) 202-0690 Sri Lanka (94) Executive Director, United States Educational Foundation in Sri Lanka, c/o U.S. Embassy, 210 Galle Road, Colombo 3 Tel. (1) 697834, 697835 Sudan (operator-assisted calls only) Educational Advisor, USIS, American Embassy-Khartoum, P.O. Box 699, Khartoum Tel. 40876 through 79 Suriname (597) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, P.O. Box 1821, Paramaribo Tel. 75051 Fax 10025 Swaziland (268) Educational Advisor, American Embassy, P.O. Box 199, Mbabane Tel. 42445, 42059 Fax 45846 Sweden (46) Educational Advisor, Commission for Educational Exchange Between the United States and Sweden, Vasagatan 15-17, 4th Floor, S - l l l 20 Stockholm Tel. (8) 106515, 106450 Fax (8) 14 10 64 Educational Advisor, Sweden-America Foundation, Box 5280, S-102 46 Stockholm Tel. (8) 114611 Switzerland (41) Educational Advisor, U.S. Information Service, P.O. Box CH-3001 Bern Tel. (31) 437-237 Fax (31) 437 366 Educational Advisor, Schweizerische Zentralstelle für Hochschulwesen, Seidenweg 68, CH-3012 Bern Tel. (31) 24 23 50 Fax (31) 248611

Foreign Student in the United States

Exchange Student Advisor, Swiss-American Students' Exchange, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (SFIT), ΕΤΗ-Zentrum, CH-8092 Zurich Tel. (1) 256-2086 Fax (1) 2520192 Syria (963) AMIDEAST, P.O. Box 2313, Damascus Tel. (11) 334-801 Taiwan (886) Educational Advisor, Foundation for Scholarly Exchange, 1-A Chuan Chow St., Taipei Tel. (2) 301-1147 Fax (2) 305-8743 Tanzania (255) Educational Advisor, U.S. Information Service, P.O. Box 9170, Dar es Salaam Tel. (51) 37160, 37101 Fax (51) 37202 Thailand (66) Cultural Affairs Office, USIS, 125 S. Sathorn Road, Bangkok 10120 Tel. (2) 286-0900-9 (ext. 273) Fax (2) 287-2102 Institute of International Education, G.P.O. Box 2050, Bangkok 10501 Tel. (2) 253-9615, 254-3839 Fax (2) 254-3839 Educational Advisory Division, P.O. Box 95 B.M.C., Bangkok 10000 Tel. (2) 230-1329, 230-1330 Fax (2) 236-5275, 236-8286 Education Abroad Division, Office of the Civil Service Commission, Pitsanuloke Road, Bangkok 10300 Tel. (2) 281-9452, 281-9453 Fax (2) 280-0382 USIS, 24 Rajdamnoen Road, Chiangmai 50000 Tel. (53) 214-120, 211-377 Fax (53) 211-377 Togo (228) Centre Cultural Americain, Box 852, Lome Tel. 21-29-91 thru 94 (ext. 273, 274, 275) Fax 21-79-52 Trinidad & Tobago Educational Advisor (USIS), 7-9 Marli Street, Port-of-Spain Tel. 809-622-6272, 622-6371/6 (ext. 2703, 2705) Fax 809-628-7944 Tunisia (216) Educational Advisor, AMIDEAST, B.P. 351, Tunis 1002 Tel. (1) 790-559, 790-563 Fax (1) 791-913 Turkey (90) Educational Advisor, Commission for Educational Exchange Between the United States and Turkey, Sehit Ersan Caddesi No. 28/4, 06680 Cankaya, Ankara Tel. (4) 128-48-24, 127-13-60 Fax (4) 1681560 Educational Advisor, Commission for Educational Exchange Between the United States and Turkey, Durmen Sokak No. 3/11, Gumussuyu, Taksim, Istanbul

Tel. (1) 144 11 05 Fax (1) 149 75 81 Educational Advisor, Amerikan Kutuphanesi, P.O. Box 404, 35213 Izmir Tel. (51) 218874 Fax (51) 635040 c/o USIS IZMIR Uganda (256) Public Affairs Officer, USIS, P.O. Box 7186, Kampala Tel. (41) 230507, 233231 Ukraine (7) Educational Advisor, Kiev State University, Main (Red) Building, Faculty of International Relations and International Law, Vlodymyrs'ka Street 64, Kiev 252017 Tel. 472-7089 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics see Commonwealth of Independent States United Arab Emirates (971) Educational Advisor, USIS, American Embassy, P.O. Box 4009, Abu Dhabi Tel. (2) 336567 Fax (2) 391802 Educational Advisor, USIS, U.S. Consulate, P.O. Box 9343, Dubai Tel. (4) 374-882 United Kingdom (44) The Fulbright Commission, Educational Advisory Service, 6 Porter Street, London WIM 2HR Tel. (71) 486-1098 Fax (71) 224-4567 American Consulate General, 14 Queen Street, Balfast BT1 6EQ, Northern Ireland Tel. (232) 328239 Fax (232) 248482 Uruguay (598) Educational Advisor, Comision Fulbright, Paraguay 1217, Montevideo Tel. (2) 91-41-60 Fax (2) 92 16 21 Venezuela (58) Director, Educational Guidance Service, Asociacion Venezolano-Americana de Armistad, Apartado 60835, Caracas Tel. (2) 951-03-86, 951-02-14, 951-03-56 Fax (2) 951-0786 (begin message AVAA Gouverneur) Asesoria Estudiantil, Centro Venezolano-Americana del Zulia (CEVAZ), Apartado 419, Ed. Zulia, Maracaibo Tel. (61) 911980 Fax (61) 921098 Educational Advisor, Asociacion Norteamericano-Venezolana de Merida Prolongacion Av. 2, Esq. Calle 43 No. 1-53, Merida Tel. (74) 44-35-75, 44-61-44 Western Samoa and Cook Islands (685) Educational Advisor, Peace Corps Resource Center, Peace Corps Private Mail Bag, Apia, Western Samoa Tel. 22345, 22346 Fax 20450

45

46

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Yemen (967) AMIDEAST, P.O. Box 1088, Sana'a Tel. (2) 216-975 Fax (2) 216-975 after business hours Yugoslavia (38) Educational Advisor, American Center, Cika Ljubina 19, 11000 Belgrade Tel. (11) 645-655 Fax (11) 620-691 (USIS) Educational Advisor, Yugoslav-American Commission for Educational Exchange, Trg Marksa i Engelsa 1, 11000 Belgrade Tel. (11) 338183, 331597 Fax (11) 343406 Educational Advisor, American Embassy, Box 5070, Belgrade Tel. (11) 645-655 (ext. 121, 202) Fax (11) 646-924 Educational Advisor, American Center, Kranjcevica A-3, 71000 Sarajevo Tel. (71) 213-170 Fax (71) 218-729 Educational Advisor, American Center, Gradski Zid, Blok IV, 91000 Skopje

Tel. (91) 224-514 Fax (91) 232-632 Educational Advisor, American Center, Bulevar Oktobarske Revolucije 100, 81000 Titograd Tel. (81) 32-438, 32-539 Fax (81) 34-946 Zaire (243) Educational Advisor, USIS-American Embassy, 310 Ave. des Aviateurs, B.P. 8622, Kinshasa 1 Tel. (12) 25734 Educational Advisor, United States Information Service, B.P. 1196, Lubumbashi Tel. (11) 222324 Zambia (260) The American Center, P.O. Box 32053, Lusaka Tel. (1) 227993, 227994 (ext. 125) Zimbabwe (263) Educational Advisor, U.S. Information Service, P.O. Box 4010, Harare Tel. (4) 728950, 728957 through 59 Fax (4) 729965

II Professional Education in the United States

Professional Education in the United States

Professional education in the United States is evaluated and accredited by specialized accrediting agencies recognized by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation. The large majority of these associations, many of which accredit professional programs in independent schools and colleges as well as those which are part of universities, are also recognized by the Department of Education's Office of Postsecondary Education (Division of Eligibility and Agency Evaluation). This section of American Universities and Colleges provides a description of the accreditation activities in each professional field represented by a specialized accrediting agency recognized by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation. Most agencies have listed their regionally accredited members as of the 1991-92 academic year; for complete institutional descriptions of the colleges and universities, see Part III of this book. Nonregionally accredited free-standing independent schools which have specialized accreditation are briefly described in this section. Information on these schools can be obtained by contacting the accrediting agency at the address given. Most specialized agencies accredit their members through a process involving several steps. Before achieving full accreditation, applicant institutions are awarded prior status called by various names and carrying differing meanings: for example, some agencies call their candidates for accreditation "preaccredited," some say they are "provisionally accredited," some are "probationary," some are accredited for a reduced term dependent upon the results of an evaluatory visit. The applying institutions or programs may or may not have operating professional offerings and may or may not have graduated a class. For some agencies, candidate members almost automatically become fully accredited; for others, candidacy is a tentative status. Because of these inconsistencies, Part II of American Universities and Colleges lists only fully accredited degree-granting institutions and programs. Degrees are abbreviated in Part II as follows: С (certificate), A (associate), В (baccalaureate), Ρ (first-professional), Μ (master's), D (doctorate). For other abbreviations, see p. xvii.

One program, for students immediately after secondary school, generally takes five years (though its length ranges from four to eight years). Some schools allow transfer students with appropriate prerequisites into these programs. Another course of study for the baccalaureate in architecture, which may take three to four years, enrolls students who have already earned a degree in another discipline. Master's degrees in architecture can also be earned in more than one way. One program follows an undergraduate architecture degree involving varying numbers of liberal arts courses with a two-year graduate sequence leading to the professional degree. Another, for students with a previous degree in another discipline, culminates in the Master of Architecture after three plus years of graduate study. Another variation is the work-study program where students alternate periods of academic work with practical experience in an architect's office. Several schools of architecture also offer special studies in fields like urban design, city planning, landscape architecture, interior design, architectural history, building technology, and construction administration. Institutions offering accredited professional degrees in architecture at the baccalaureate and master's levels are listed below. For full institutional descriptions, see Part III of this book. Alabama Auburn University (Auburn) В Tuskegee Institute Μ Arizona Arizona State University Μ University of Arizona В Arkansas University of Arkansas at Fayetteville В California

Architecture National Architectural Accrediting Board 1735 New York Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006 The National Architectural Accrediting Board, founded in 1940 by an agreement of the American Institute of Architects, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, and the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards, accredits 96 professional degree programs in architecture at the baccalaureate and master's levels. The licensing or registering of architects is controlled by individual state architectural registration boards, not by the federal government or by any national professional organization. Eligibility for the licensing examination varies from state to state but usually requires both graduation from an accredited school of architecture and three or more years experience in a registered architect's office. At most schools the basic professional degree is the Bachelor of Architecture. Admission to this program requires completion of secondary education, but the way the program is set up varies.

California California University University University

Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo Β, Μ State Polytechnic University, Pomona Β, Μ of California, Berkeley Μ of California, Los Angeles Μ of Southern California В

Colorado University of Colorado at Denver Μ Connecticut Yale University Μ District of Columbia Catholic University of America Β, Μ Florida Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University Β, Μ University of Florida Μ University of Miami В Georgia Georgia Institute of Technology Μ Savannah College of Art & Design В

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PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Hawaii

New York

University of Hawaii at Manoa Β, Μ

Illinois Illinois University of Technology Β, Μ University of Illinois at Chicago Circle Β, Μ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Μ

Columbia University Μ City College В Cooper Union В Cornell University В New York Institute of Technology В Pratt Institute В Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Β, Μ State University of New York at Buffalo Μ Syracuse University Β, Μ

Idaho University of Idaho В

Indiana

North Carolina

Ball State University В University of Notre Dame В

North Carolina State University at Raleigh Β, Μ University of North Carolina at Charlotte В

Iowa

North Dakota

Iowa State University Β, Μ

North Dakota State University В

Kansas

Ohio

Kentucky

Kent State University Β, Μ Miami University Μ Ohio State University Μ University of Cincinnati В

University of Kentucky В

Oklahoma

Kansas State University В University of Kansas В

Louisiana Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College В Louisiana Tech University В Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College В University of Southwestern Louisiana В Maryland University of Maryland at College Park Μ Morgan State University Μ Massachusetts Harvard University Μ Massachusetts Institute of Technology Μ Michigan Lawrence Institute of Technology В University of Detroit В University of Michigan Μ Andrews University В Minnesota University of Minnesota Β, Μ Mississippi Mississippi State University В

Oklahoma State University Β, Μ University of Oklahoma Β, Μ Oregon University of Oregon Β, Μ Pennsylvania Carnegie-Mellon University Β, Μ Drexel University В Pennsylvania State University (University Park) В Temple University В University of Pennsylvania Μ Rhode Island Rhode Island School of Design В Roger Williams College В South Carolina Clemson University Β, Μ Tennessee University of Tennessee at Knoxville В Texas Rice University Β, Μ Texas A&M University Μ Texas Tech University В University of Houston Β, Μ University of Texas at Arlington Μ University of Texas at Austin Β, Μ

Missouri Washington University Μ Drury College В

Utah

Montana Nebraska

Hampton Institute В University of Virginia Μ Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Β, Μ

University of Nebraska—Lincoln Μ

Washington

New Jersey New Jersey Institute of Technology В Princeton University Μ

University of Washington Μ Washington State University В University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee Μ

New Mexico

Puerto Rico

University of New Mexico Μ

University of Puerto Rico (Rio Piedras) Μ

Montana State University В

University of Utah Μ Virginia

Art and Design

Art and Design

Colorado University of Denver Β, Μ

National Association of Schools of Art and Design 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, No. 5 Reston, Virginia 22090 The National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD), organized in 1944, is composed of institutions and individuals committed to the highest goals and traditions in art and design education. Through its annual meeting, NASAD provides a forum for discussion of the broad considerations and aims of the field whose programs it accredits. NASAD membership is open to all postsecondary institutions that offer educational programs in the visual arts. Art studies are offered by many institutions for many purposes. Professional schools of art design provide, either independently or as units within colleges or universities, highly specialized preparation for careers in the visual arts or design. Generally, in such schools students take two-thirds to three-fourths of their credits in studio courses while earning baccalaureate or master's degrees in fine arts. The latter is the terminal degree in studio art. Many departments of art design offer visual art or design majors as components of humanities or liberal arts programs. These programs do not attempt to provide complete professional training for careers in the studio arts but instead cultivate a broad understanding of art. Students in such programs generally take from one-third to one-half of their credits in studio art and art history courses. Graduates with these majors may earn baccalaureates and master's degrees in arts; some continue their studies for doctorates in fields such as art history, art education, and other nonstudio specialties. The same institutions also often offer programs in art education whose graduates may earn certification to teach art in elementary and secondary school. In addition, there are art institutions for vocational training which provide training exclusively in the practical techniques of commercial art and design. After two or three years of work in such programs, students usually earn certificates. NASAD-accredited institutions in the United States are listed below. For full institutional descriptions of schools offering the baccalaureate degree and above, see Part III of this book. Degreegranting nonregionally accredited schools offering NASAD-approved programs are shown by an asterisk (*) following the name. Alabama Auburn University (Auburn) Β, Μ California American Film Institute Center for Advanced Film Studies (*) Art Center College of Design Β, Μ California College of Arts and Crafts Β, Μ California Institute of the Arts C, Β, Μ California State University, Chico Β, Μ California State University, Dominguez Hills Β, Μ California State University, Fullerton C, Β, Μ California State University, Hay ward Β, Μ California State University, Long Beach Β, Μ California State University, Los Angeles Β, Μ California State University, Sacramento Β, Μ California State University, San Bernardino В California State University, Stanislaus С, В Humboldt State University Β, Μ Otis Art Institute of Parsons School of Design Β, Μ San Diego State University Β, Μ San Francisco Art Institute Β, Μ San Francisco State University Β, Μ San Jose State University Β, Μ Sonoma State University В University of the Pacific В

Connecticut University of Bridgeport С, A, В University of Connecticut В University of Hartford Β, Μ District of Columbia Corcoran School of Art В Howard University Β, Μ Florida Ringling School of Art and Design С, В Georgia Atlanta College of Art В Georgia State University Β, Μ University of Georgia В, M, D Illinois Bradley University Β, Μ Illinois Institute of Technology Β, Μ Illinois State University В, M, D Northern Illinois University В, M, D The School of the Art Institute of Chicago С, Β, Μ Southern Illinois University at Carbondale Β, Μ University of Illinois at Chicago Β, Μ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign В, M, D Indiana Indiana State University Β, Μ Indiana University—Purdue University at Indianapolis Β, Μ Saint Mary's College В University of Notre Dame Β, Μ Iowa Drake University С, Β, Μ University of Northern Iowa Β, Μ Kansas University of Kansas В, M, D Louisiana Louisiana State University Β, Μ Louisiana Tech University Β, Μ Tulane University Β, Μ Maine Portland School of Art В University of Maine at Orono В University of Southern Maine В Maryland The Maryland College of Art and Design (*) Maryland Institute College of Art Β, Μ Morgan State University Β, Μ Massachusetts Art Institute of Boston (*) Massachusetts College of Art Β, Μ Montserrat College of Visual Art В Salem State College В School of the Museum of Fine Arts (*) Southeastern Massachusetts University Β, Μ Swain School of Design (*) University of Massachusetts Β, Μ Michigan Center for Creative Studies С, В Cranbrook Academy of Art Μ

51

52

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Grand Valley State College В Hope College В Kendall School of Design В University of Michigan Β, Μ Western Michigan University Β, Μ Minnesota Mankato State University Β, Μ Minneapolis College of Art and Design В Moorhead State University В St. Cloud State University Β, Μ St. Olaf College В Mississippi Belhaven College Delta State University Β, Μ Jackson State University Β, Μ Mississippi State University В Mississippi University for Women В Mississippi Valley State University В University of Mississippi Β, Μ University of Southern Mississippi Β, Μ

Pennsylvania Beaver College В Bucks County Community College (*) Carnegie-Mellon University Β, Μ Mary wood College Β, Μ Moore College of Art С, В Pennsylvania State University В, M, D Philadelphia College of Art Β, Μ Temple University Β, Μ Rhode Island Rhode Island College Β, Μ Rhode Island School of Design Β, Μ South Carolina Winthrop College В South Dakota University of South Dakota В

Kansas City Art Institute В Washington University Β, Μ

Tennessee East Tennessee State University Β, Μ Memphis College of Art В Memphis State University Β, Μ University of Tennessee, Knoxville Β, Μ

Montana

Texas

Eastern Montana College В Montana State University Β, Μ

Texas Tech University В, M, D University of Texas at San Antonio Β, Μ

Missouri

New Jersey

Virginia

Jersey City State College В Montclair State College В

James Madison University Β, Μ Virginia Commonwealth University Β, Μ

New York

West Virginia

Alfred University (State University of New York College of Ceramics) Β, Μ Cooper Union School of Art С, В Fashion Institute of Technology A, В Junior College of Albany (*) New School for Social Research, Parsons School of Design C, Α, Β, Μ Pratt Institute, Β, Μ Rochester Institute of Technology Α, Β, Μ School of Visual Arts Β, Μ Skidmore College В State University of New York, Buffalo Β, Μ State University of New York, Fredonia В Syracuse University Β, Μ

West Virginia University Β, Μ

North Carolina East Carolina University Β, Μ North Dakota University of North Dakota Β, Μ Ohio Art Academy of Cincinnati (*) Bowling Green State University Β, Μ Cleveland Institute of Art Β, Μ Columbus College of Art and Design В Kent State University Β, Μ Oberlin College Β, Μ Ohio State University В University of Akron A, В University of Cincinnati В, M, D Oregon Pacific Northwest College of Art В

Wisconsin Milwaukee Institute of Art and Design (*)

Business Administration American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business 605 Old Ballas Road, Suite 220 St. Louis, Missouri 63141-7077 The American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), an organization of institutions devoted to higher education for business administration, was formally established in 1916. Its membership encompasses not only educational institutions in the United States and Canada, but also business, government, and professional organizations, all seeking to improve and promote higher education for business and working to solve problems of mutual concern. Through its accrediting function, the AACSB provides guidelines to educational institutions in program, resource, and faculty planning. The AACSB's accreditation activities further its principal goal, namely the improvement of collegiate education for business administration and accounting. The AACSB's Accreditation Council is composed of approved postsecondary institutions offering instructional programs at the baccalaureate and/or master's level(s). Within the corporation, the Accreditation Council has sole jurisdiction over all matters pertaining to accreditation standards, procedures, admission, and probation or suspension. Its accreditation standards are published in the AACSB Accreditation Council Policies, Procedures, and Standards. Regionally accredited institutions in the United States offering

Business Administration

AACSB-approved programs in business at the baccalaureate and master's levels are listed below. For full institutional descriptions, see Part III of this book. Alabama Auburn University (Auburn) Β, Μ Auburn University at Montgomery Β, Μ University of Alabama (University) Β, Μ University of Alabama in Birmingham Β, Μ University of Montevallo В University of South Alabama Β, Μ Arizona Arizona State University Β, Μ Northern Arizona University Β, Μ University of Arizona Β, Μ Arkansas Arkansas State University Β, Μ University of Arkansas at Fayetteville Β, Μ University of Arkansas at Little Rock Β, Μ University of Central Arkansas Β, Μ

Florida Florida Atlantic University Β, Μ Florida International University Β, Μ Florida State University Β, Μ Rollins College Μ University of Central Florida Β, Μ University of Florida Β, Μ University of Miami Β, Μ University of North Florida Β, Μ University of South Florida Β, Μ Georgia Clark Atlanta University Μ Emory University Β, Μ Georgia Institute of Technology Β, Μ Georgia Southern College Β, Μ Georgia State University Β, Μ University of Georgia Β, Μ Valdosta State College В West Georgia College Β, Μ Hawaii

California

University of Hawaii at Manoa Β, Μ

California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo В California State University, Bakersfield Β, Μ California State University, Chico Β, Μ California State University, Fresno Β, Μ California State University, Fullerton Β, Μ California State University, Hay ward Β, Μ California State University, Long Beach Β, Μ California State University, Los Angeles Β, Μ California State University, Northridge Β, Μ California State University, Sacramento Β, Μ Loyola Marymount University Β, Μ San Diego State University Β, Μ San Francisco State University Β, Μ San Jose State University Β, Μ Stanford University Μ University of California, Berkeley Β, Μ University of California, Irvine Μ University of California, Los Angeles Μ University of the Pacific В University of San Diego Β, Μ University of San Francisco Β, Μ Santa Clara University Β, Μ University of Southern California Β, Μ

Idaho

Colorado Colorado State University Β, Μ Fort Lewis College В University of Colorado-Boulder Β, Μ University of Colorado-Colorado Springs Β, Μ University of Colorado-Denver Β, Μ University of Denver Β, Μ Connecticut University of Bridgeport Β, Μ University of Connecticut Β, Μ Yale University Μ

Boise State University Β, Μ Idaho State University Β, Μ Illinois Bradley University Β, Μ DePaul University Β, Μ Illinois State University Β, Μ Loyola University of Chicago Β, Μ Northern Illinois University Β, Μ Northwestern University Μ Southern Illinois University-Carbondale Β, Μ Southern Illinois University-Edwardsville Β, Μ University of Chicago Μ University of Illinois at Chicago Β, Μ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Β, Μ Western Illinois University Β, Μ Indiana Ball State University Β, Μ Indiana State University Β, Μ Indiana University Β, Μ Indiana University-Northwest Β, Μ Indiana University, South Bend Β, Μ Indiana University, Southeast В Indiana University Purdue University, Fort Wayne Β, Μ Purdue University Β, Μ University of Notre Dame Β, Μ Iowa Drake University Β, Μ Iowa State University Β, Μ University of Iowa Β, Μ Kansas

University of Delaware Β, Μ

Kansas State University Β, Μ University of Kansas Β, Μ Wichita State University Β, Μ

District of Columbia

Kentucky

American University Β, Μ Georgetown University Β, Μ George Washington University Β, Μ Howard University Β, Μ

Murray State University B,M University of Kentucky Β, Μ University of Louisville Β, Μ Western Kentucky University В

Delaware

53

54

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Louisiana

Nevada

Louisiana State University Β, Μ Louisiana Tech University Β, Μ Loyola University, New Orleans Β, Μ McNeese State University Β, Μ Nicholls State University Β, Μ Northeast Louisiana University Β, Μ Southeastern Louisiana University Β, Μ Tulane University Β, Μ University of New Orleans Β, Μ

University of Nevada, Las Vegas Β, Μ University of Nevada, Reno Β, Μ New Hampshire Dartmouth College Μ New Jersey

Maine

Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey-New Brunswick В Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey-Newark Β, Μ Seton Hall University Β, Μ

University of Maine at Orono Β, Μ

New Mexico

Maryland

New Mexico State University Β, Μ University of New Mexico Β, Μ

Loyola College in Maryland Β, Μ University of Baltimore Β, Μ University of Maryland Β, Μ Massachusetts Babson College Β, Μ Bentley College Β, Μ Boston College Β, Μ Boston University Β, Μ Clark University Β, Μ Harvard University Μ Massachusetts Institute of Technology Β, Μ Northeastern University Β, Μ University of Lowell Β, Μ University of Massachusetts at Amherst Β, Μ Suffolk University Β, Μ Michigan Central Michigan University В Eastern Michigan University Β, Μ Michigan State University Β, Μ Oakland University Β, Μ University of Detroit Mercy Β, Μ University of Michigan-Ann Arbor Β, Μ University of Michigan-Flint Β, Μ Wayne State University Β, Μ Western Michigan University Β, Μ Minnesota St. Cloud State University Β, Μ University of Minnesota Β, Μ

New York Alfred University В Canisius College Β, Μ Bernard M. Baruch College Β, Μ Clarkson University Β, Μ Columbia University Μ Cornell University Μ Fordham University Β, Μ Hofstra University Β, Μ New York University Β, Μ Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Β, Μ Rochester Institute of Technology Β, Μ St. John's University Β, Μ State University of New York at Albany Β, Μ State University of New York at Binghamton Β, Μ State University of New York at Buffalo Β, Μ Syracuse University Β, Μ University of Rochester Μ North Carolina Appalachian State University Β, Μ Duke University Μ East Carolina University Β, Μ North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University В University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Β, Μ University of North Carolina at Charlotte Β, Μ University of North Carolina at Greensboro Β, Μ Wake Forest University Β, Μ West Carolina University Β, Μ North Dakota

Mississippi Millsaps College Β, Μ Mississippi State University Β, Μ University of Mississippi Β, Μ University of Southern Mississippi Β, Μ Missouri Saint Louis University Β, Μ University of Missouri-Columbia Β, Μ University of Missouri-Kansas City Β, Μ University of Missouri-St. Louis Β, Μ Washington University Β, Μ Montana Montana State University В University of Montana Β, Μ Nebraska Creighton University Β, Μ University of Nebraska-Lincoln Β, Μ University of Nebraska at Omaha Β, Μ

University of North Dakota В Ohio Bowling Green State University Β, Μ Case Western Reserve University Β, Μ Cleveland State University Β, Μ John Carroll University Β, Μ Kent State University Β, Μ Miami University Β, Μ Ohio State University Β, Μ Ohio University Β, Μ The University of Akron Β, Μ University of Cincinnati Β, Μ University of Dayton Β, Μ University of Toledo Β, Μ Wright State University Β, Μ Oklahoma Oklahoma State University Β, Μ University of Oklahoma Β, Μ University of Tulsa Β, Μ

Construction Education

Oregon Oregon State University Β, Μ Portland State University Β, Μ University of Oregon Β, Μ University of Portland Β, Μ Pennsylvania Carnegie-Mellon University Β, Μ Drexel University Β, Μ Duquesne University Β, Μ Lehigh University Β, Μ Pennsylvania State University Β, Μ Shippensburg University В Temple University Β, Μ University of Pennsylvania Β, Μ University of Pittsburgh Β, Μ Villanova University Β, Μ Rhode Island

55

Norfolk State University В Old Dominion University Β, Μ University of Richmond Β, Μ University of Virginia Β, Μ Virginia Commonwealth University Β, Μ Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Β, Μ Washington and Lee University В Washington Eastern Washington University Β, Μ Gonzaga University Β, Μ Pacific Lutheran University Β, Μ Seattle University Β, Μ University of Washington Β, Μ Washington State University Β, Μ Western Washington University Β, Μ West Virginia West Virginia University Β, Μ

University of Rhode Island Β, Μ South Carolina Clemson University Β, Μ College of Charleston В University of South Carolina Β, Μ Winthrop College Β, Μ South Dakota University of South Dakota Β, Μ Tennessee East Tennessee State University Β, Μ Memphis State University Β, Μ Middle Tennessee State University Β, Μ Tennessee Technology University Β, Μ University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Β, Μ University of Tennessee at Knoxville Β, Μ Vanderbilt University Μ Texas Baylor University Β, Μ East Texas State University Β, Μ Lamar University Β, Μ University of North Texas Β, Μ University of Texas-Pan American Β, Μ Southern Methodist University Β, Μ Stephen F. Austin State University Β, Μ Texas A&M University Β, Μ Texas Christian University Β, Μ Texas Tech University Β, Μ University of Houston-Clear Lake Β, Μ University of Houston-University Park Β, Μ University of Texas at Arlington Β, Μ University of Texas at Austin Β, Μ University of Texas at El Paso Β, Μ University of Texas at San Antonio Β, Μ

Wisconsin Marquette University Β, Μ University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire В University of Wisconsin—La Crosse Β, Μ University of Wisconsin—Madison Β, Μ University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee Β, Μ University of Wisconsin—Oshkosh Β, Μ University of Wisconsin—Whitewater Β, Μ Wyoming University of Wyoming Β, Μ

Construction Education American Council for Construction Education 901 Hudson Lane Monroe, LA 71201

Vermont

The American Council for Construction Education (ACCE) has, since 1976, been accrediting construction education programs. Twenty-seven programs currently hold full ACCE accreditation. Numerous colleges and universities currently offer programs leading to the baccalaureate and associate degrees in construction, construction management, construction science, and building construction. The ACCE accredits only programs in regionally accredited postsecondary institutions which have graduated at least one class of construction education students. Approved curricula normally include work in basic sciences; humanities; mathematics; social sciences; business administration; fundamentals of structural, mechanical, and electrical systems; and construction methods, procedures, and management. Applicants to construction programs should be graduates of accredited secondary schools. Typical construction programs begin with two years spent in studying general liberal arts and sciences; the last two years are devoted to more specialized courses in the field. Regionally accredited institutions offering programs in construction education accredited by ACCE are listed below. For full institutional descriptions, see Part III of this book.

University of Vermont Β, Μ

Alabama

Virginia

Auburn University

Utah Brigham Young University Β, Μ University of Utah Β, Μ Utah State University Β, Μ

College of William and Mary Β, Μ George Mason University Β, Μ James Madison University Β, Μ

Arizona Arizona State University

56

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Dietetics

California California California California California

State State State State

Polytechnic University University, Chico University, Long Beach University, Sacramento

Colorado

The American Dietetic Association Council on Education Division of Education Accreditation/Approval 216 West Jackson Boulevard, Suite 800 Chicago, Illinois 60606-6995

Colorado State University Florida Florida International University University of Florida Idaho Boise State University Illinois Bradley University Indiana Purdue University Kansas Kansas State University Louisiana Louisiana State University Northeast Michigan Louisiana University

The Council on Education Division of Education Accreditation/ Approval of The American Dietetic Association accredits 61 coordinated baccalaureate and master's degree programs in dietetics which combine academic and clinical experience. All coordinated dietetics programs, based in regionally accredited institutions, must be in compliance with established Association standards. Graduates who successfully complete the program may apply for active membership in the Association and may take the registration examination for dietitians. Institutions offering Association-accredited programs are listed below. For full institutional descriptions, see Part III of this book. Alabama Auburn University (Auburn) University of Alabama California California State University, Los Angeles Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science Loma Linda University University of California, Berkeley Connecticut

Eastern Michigan University

Saint Joseph College University of Connecticut

Nebraska

Delaware

University of Nebraska New Jersey

University of Delaware District of Columbia Howard University

Kean College of New Jersey

Florida

North Dakota

Florida International University University of Florida

North Dakota State University

Georgia

Ohio

Georgia State University

University of Cincinnati

Idaho

Oklahoma

University of Idaho

University of Oklahoma Oregon Oregon State University South Carolina Clemson University

Illinois Chicago State University University of Illinois at Chicago Indiana

Texas

Indiana State University Purdue University

Texas A&M University

Iowa

Utah

Iowa State University

Brigham Young University

Kansas Kansas State University

Washington University of Washington Wisconsin University of Wisconsin-Madison

Kentucky Spalding University University of Kentucky

Engineering and Engineering Technology

Maryland Hood College Massachusetts Framingham State College Michigan Andrews University Eastern Michigan University Wayne State University Minnesota College of St. Benedict University of Minnesota (St. Paul) Mississippi University of Southern Mississippi Missouri University of Missouri-Columbia New York Rochester Institute of Technology State University College at Buffalo Syracuse University North Carolina University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill North Dakota North Dakota State University University of North Dakota Ohio Ohio State University The University of Akron Youngstown State University Oklahoma University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center Pennsylvania Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Immaculata College Marywood College Mercyhurst College Seton Hill College University of Pittsburgh Villa Maria College of Health Sciences of Gannon University Texas Texas Christian University University of Texas at Austin University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston University of Texas-Pan American Utah Brigham Young University Utah State University University of Utah Washington Eastern Washington University Washington State University Wisconsin Mount Mary College University of Wisconsin-Madison Viterbo College

57

Engineering and Engineering Technology Accreditation Board for Engineering and Engineering Technology 345 East Forty-Seventh Street New York, New York 10017

Engineering The Engineering Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Engineering Technology (ABET) accredits first-professional degrees at either the basic baccalaureate or the advanced master's level, with the institutions determining which of their programs qualify for evaluation as first-professional. Accreditation in engineering and its many specialties is voluntary and initiated at the request of the institutions. Acceptable engineering curricula include work in basic sciences and mathematics beyond trigonometry; engineering sciences, analysis, design, and systems; and social sciences and humanities. ABET accredits only curricula that have graduated a class in engineering. Although curricula in the basic fields of engineering are available in most ABET-accredited colleges, universities, and schools of engineering, some specialties are taught in relatively few institutions. Students wishing to specialize in small branches of the field should investigate curricula offered by specific schools before making application. Secondary school academic work of generally high quality, which includes courses in mathematics and physical sciences, is required for admission to undergraduate engineering programs. The typical four-year engineering curriculum requires students to spend their first two years studying the basic sciences—mathematics, physics, and chemistry—and the humanities, social sciences, and English. Students devote their last two years chiefly to advanced study in science and to engineering courses relevant to their specialties. Basic engineering programs require at least four years to complete. However, the intensity of the curricula, the sequential nature of many courses, and the prerequisites required force most students either to take overload schedules or to attend one or two summer sessions to finish in four years. A few institutions offer five-year programs leading to the baccalaureate. In addition, most engineering schools participate in dual-degree programs with liberal arts colleges where students spend three years in the college and two in the engineering school, graduating with baccalaureates from both institutions. Many engineering schools operate transfer programs with associate-level institutions, allowing students to complete their first two years of study in the two-year college. Many institutions offer five- or six-year cooperative education plans where students alternate periods in engineering school and in jobs in government or industry. While a baccalaureate is the generally accepted requirement for engineering positions, increasing numbers of jobs now require advanced education. Graduate degrees are desirable for beginning teaching and research positions and are generally helpful for professional advancement. Some recently developed specialties are available to students only after they have completed baccalaureate programs in related engineering disciplines. All states and the District of Columbia require licensure of engineers whose work affects life, health, or property. About 300,000 engineers were registered under these laws in 1980. Registration requirements generally include graduation from an accredited institution, at least four years of work experience, and the passing of a state examination. Some examining boards accept substantial work experience in lieu of a baccalaureate. Regionally accredited institutions offering ABET-accredited programs at the baccalaureate and the master's levels are listed below. For complete institutional descriptions, see Part III of this book.

58

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Accredited Engineering Curricula

S

Alabama Auburn University Tuskegee Institute University of Alabama University of Alabama in Birmingham University of Alabama in Huntsville University of South Alabama

В

*

3

в

В

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Alaska в

University of Alaska, Fairbanks

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Arizona Arizona State University Northern Arizona University University of Arizona

В В

в в

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в в в

в в

в

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в в

в в в

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в в

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Arkansas Arkansas State University University of Arkansas Arkansas Tech

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в

в в в в в в

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California California Institute of Technology California Polytechnic State University, Pomona California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo California State University, Chico California State University, Fresno California State University, Fullerton California State University, Long Beach California State University, Los Angeles California State University, Northridge California State University, Sacramento California State University, San Francisco Civil, Electrical, Mechanical Harvey Mudd College Humboldt State University Loyola Marymount University Naval Postgraduate School Northrop University San Diego State University San Francisco State University San Jose State University Stanford University University of California, Berkeley University of California, Davis University of California, Irvine University of California, Los Angeles University of California, San Diego University of California, Santa Barbara University of the Pacific University of Santa Clara University of California, Santa Cruz University of Southern California West Coast University

В

в

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в

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в в в в в в

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Colorado Colorado School of Mines Colorado State University United States Air Force Academy University of Colorado at Boulder University of Colorado at Colorado Springs University of Colorado at Denver University of Denver

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в в в

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Engineering and Engineering Technology

59

Accredited Engineering Curricula (continued)

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Connecticut United States Coast Guard Academy University of Bridgeport University of Connecticut University of Hartford University of New Haven Yale University

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в в в

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в в в в в в

2 в в в в в

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1

1

Delaware University of Delaware

В

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в в в

в

в

в

в в в в в в в

в в в в в в в в

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District of Columbia Catholic University of America George Washington University Howard University University of the District of Columbia, Van Ness Campus

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1 2

1 1

в в в в

в в в в в в в в

в

в

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Florida Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Florida Atlantic University Florida Institute of Technology Florida International University Florida State University University of Central Florida University of Florida University of Miami University of South Florida

В В в В В

В

В

В

В

в

в

в в

в

В

2 в

Georgia Georgia Institute of Technology Mercer University University of Georgia

В

В

в

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Μ

в

1

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Hawaii University of Hawaii at Manoa

в

в

в

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в

в в

в

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Idaho University of Idaho

В

в

в

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Illinois Bradley University Illinois Institute of Technology Northern Illinois University Northwestern University Parks College of Aeronautical Technology Southern Illinois University at Carbondale Southern Illinois University—Edwardsville University of Illinois at Chicago Circle University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

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в

в

в в в в

в в

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в в в

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в

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В

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Indiana Indiana University—Purdue University at Indianapolis Purdue University Purdue University—Calumet Campus Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology Tri-State University University of Evansville University of Notre Dame Valparaiso University

в В

В

в

в

В

в в

в в

В

в

в в

в

в в в в в в в

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в

в в в в в в в

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Iowa Iowa State University University of Iowa

В

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в в

в в

в в

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60

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Accredited Engineering Curricula

— "a 2 S a "3

S

'S

-а




c. В С

fe

I G

1 —

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

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—

29

70

—

—

413

—

(ч

—

755

1,149 95

1945

1

90

—

—

—

107

—

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—

—

59

—

—

83

—

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551 117

—

88 24

—

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135

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80

—

291

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Β

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3,420

Β

χ

3,243

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2,012

0

176

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—

—

—

Β

χ

3,896

1,118

2,259

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213

100

180

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χ

10,416

5,271

4,634

577

654

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22

1,235

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89

2

D

χ

2,429

562

1,494

0

738

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62

404

197

129

3

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14,100 5,681

4,127 1,380

9,171 2,919

89

1,299 382

41

—

65

2,297 627

140

—

—

356 41

—

9,035 4,918 7,085 6,129 9,921 1,900 3,716 2,325 15,395

892 611 1,677 1,290 5,355 1,815 2,052 1,846 3,576

78

1,141 922 1,620 4,976 5,593

134 20 432

1,422 1,091 1,926 3,688 742 17,295 772 6,205 908 1,235 1,214 712 7,806 2,929 2,693 305

424 860 513 541 1,186 2,086 62 730 8,443 5,985 232 353 4,554 397 248 0 959 25 311 336 264 3,152 3,903 1,093 1,283 1,224 688 157 134

45 7 50

176 2,118 701 747 1,148 4,399 3,108

72 44 1,595 222 464 402 309 579 522 3,406 788 1,124

Β Μ Μ Μ Β D Β Μ D Μ Μ D Μ Μ Μ Β Ρ D Β Β Β D Β

χ

χ χ χ χ

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χ

χ χ χ χ

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χ

χ χ χ

χ χ

χ χ

χ

χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ

χ χ χ χ

χ χ χ

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χ χ χ χ χ χ

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666 53 25 26 56 —

— —

782 12 80 70 9 9 14 23 24 31 9 1 30 —

1 7 30 9

514 184 140 265 415 213 174 194 722

100 66

112 70 64 164 53 1,055 70 348 50 90 94 61 206 189 173 41 13 1,097 58 69 98 243 152

—

77 80

—

89 1,485 20 —

—

—

65 56 86

83 13 13

37 61

—

— —

43 75 80 86 65 65 89 87 80 88 71 58

1,520 833 864 743 1,003 596 471 304 2,267

6

179 199 197 481 98 2,329 132 659 112 244 164 103 471 638 314 133

92

—

10 — — — — — — — — —

3 — —

94

—

—

—

—

44 62 81 52 75

—

314 109 135 230 479 304

— — —

23

301

173

—

—

—

—

—

—

71 135 389 57

—

—

—

—

319 522

—

— —

6

1 — —

94

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2 166

—

—

—

—

—

777

—

—

—

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60 89 8 130

—

—

23 — —

16

—

70

2 — —

7

— —

—

68 67 19

—

—

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30 207

—

—

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—

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—

—

—

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152

—

—

— —

62

— —

14

8 —

1946

APPENDIXES

Control

8

Private

> 1

Stale and Institution University of South Carolina-Coastal Carolina University of South Carolina-Columbia University of South CarolinaSpartanburg Voorhees College Winthrop University Wofford College

ΐ

Ι

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I

3

В D

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В В Μ В

χ

χ

χ

χ

χ χ

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1

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Women

Teaching Staff 1991-92

1,625 9,252

54 1,149

241 963

71 79

—

3,265 527 5,018 1,100

1,739 527 1,254 2,582 665 408

50 2 133 9

155 31 379 85

—

—

84 94

—

1,925 2,734 1,465 718 452 1,090 1,596 154 2,863 896 661 949

563 1,098 403 211 145 171 418 87 966

67 11 20 2 28 7

65 55 33 65

—

—

140 99 67 53 34 71 78 18 137 29 27 35

2,492 8,674 8,423

1,339 3,651 2,927

470 3,093 3,181

283 218 121

105 440 435

171 3,797 932 1,122 148 235 163 148 794 1,010 686 563 95 136 381 914 971 3,602 4,708 216 612 107 138 535 615

20 86 139 3 0 9 40 4

15 194 185 35 39 134 112 42 38 174 650 83 23 77

4

4 8 29 50 43

Total Enrollment 1991-92

Men

3,983 26,093

1,349 8,896

ä S

1

Total Foreign Students 1991-92

Q 1

Full-Time Enrollment 1991-92

•8

1

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I

1

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3

1

5

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2

—

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433 2,959 261 65 737 303

I

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1,671

246

—

324 —

—

—

—

—

—

—

267

—

—

—

—

—

19 5

—

South Dakota Augustana College Black Hills State University Dakota State University Dakota Wesleyan University Huron University Mount Marty College National College North American Baptist Seminary Northern State University Oglala Lakota College Sinte Gleska College Sioux Falls College South Dakota School of Mines and Technology South Dakota State University University of South Dakota

Μ Μ Β Μ Β Μ Β D Μ Β Μ Μ D D D

χ χ χ

χ

χ χ

χ

χ χ

χ

χ χ χ χ

χ χ χ

955 1,636 486 327 223 375 671 27 1,161 371 188 473 249 342

—

17 6 —

0

—

61 23 85 66 — —

63 80 68 78

59 63 57 29 15 257

379 339 187 84 67 88 198

—

—

98 41 18 1 —

10 181

— —

—

—

— —

5

— —

— —

6

—

—

—

—

—

21 55

—

—

—

—

18

603 24 5 150

—

— —

1 14

2

— —

217 1,064 732

—

32 524 358 50 38 378 275 28 73 437 1,204 113 22 200

—

—

—

—

—

—

94 10 19 61 20 40

—

—

—

—

—

—

7 9 319 8

—

—

—

—

91

86 265 311

8 7 51

Tennessee American Baptist College Austin Peay State University Belmont University Bethel College Bristol University Carson-Newman College Christian Brothers University Crichton College Cumberland University David Lipscomb University East Tennessee State University Fisk University Free Will Baptist Bible College Freed-Hardeman University Harding University Graduate School of Religion Johnson Bible College King College Knoxville College Lambuth University Lane College Lee College LeMoyne-Owen College Lincoln Memorial University Maryville College Meharry Medical College Memphis College of Art Memphis State University Memphis Theological Seminary Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary Middle Tennessee State University Milligan College O'More College of Design Rhodes College Southern College of Optometry Southern College of Seventh-day Adventists Tennessee State University Tennessee Technological University Tennessee Temple University Tennessee Wesleyan College

Β Μ Μ Μ Μ Μ Μ Β Β Μ D Μ Μ Μ D Μ Β Β Β Β Β Β Μ Β D Μ D Ρ D D Μ Β Β Ρ Β D D Μ Β

χ

χ

χ χ

χ

χ

χ

χ χ χ

χ

χ

χ

χ χ χ χ

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χ

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χ

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χ

χ

χ

χ

χ

χ χ χ χ χ χ

χ

χ

χ

χ χ

χ

χ χ χ

χ

χ

χ χ χ

χ

χ

χ

195 6,292 2,821 581 475 2,118 1,730 322 632 2,257 11,946 838 281 1,247 150 434 543 1,225 1,040 562 1,648 1,279 859 827 542 257 20,449 189 405 15,673 764 144 1,429 382 1,532 7,362 8,160 947 631

49 362

284 215 1,198 390 381 267 275 1,540 1,057 377 667 347 294 542 210 6,045 6,686 107

—

12 115 4 3 30

1

68 3 196 52 60 9 497 6

18 22 64 31 15 44 63 51 72 53 246 50 865 13

8 6,108 675 119 618 745 127 225

15 152 9 18 0

40 851 69 9 103 46

567 682 4,769 2,954 3,550 389 383 226 215

54 270 201 44 21

102 295 373 62 34

328 5,717

—

—

—

67 63 76 50 61 47

69 2 —

23 1 8

—

—

—

—

74 75 60 29 68 —

—

133 —

6 —

—

—

—

—

57 36 50 46 60 90 —

59 77

— —

—

— — —

82

— —

100 65 64

—

48 61 21 56

—

10 1 2

—

—

35 1,858

—

—

96 89

1

120 13 146 48 205 91 170 103

—

— —

117 87 29 26 —

— — —

—

56

—

10

15

—

4

30 70

—

—

1,343 96 11 21 25 208 619 1,035 177 124

— — — — —

—

11 —

—

2

8

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

75

—

—

—

—

80 —

131 39 84

17 3 809 3

5 —

81 —

14 13

—

И 310 17

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

75

—

—

—

—

—

—

17 4

—

127 220 21

—

—

—

—

— —

Summary Data for Institutions

§

Control £ Μ Q

Private

I%! ίI υ

Slate and Institution

2

Total Enrollment 1991-92

Full-Time Enrollment 1991-92 Men Women

Total Foreign Students 1991-92

} Teaching Staff 1991-92

•5 1 ϊ Ε

* §

1947

1 £

S j» a

8 Jo ъ

1

1 1

»к

1

И

5О

i

I

с

1

44

—

202

_

12

30

68

—

223

—

111

—

18

92

37

278

286

—

—

—

942

12

509

Trevecca Nazarene College

Μ

χ

χ

1,761

Tusculum College

Μ

χ

χ

812

Union University

в

χ

χ

2,107

1,505 2,634 2,816 19,134

121

329

77

-

810

1,126

—

—

2,079

194

303

—

24

648

—

73

—

715

91

—

252

281

34

255

20

1

5 4

1,167 89

314

668

226

1

—

—

—

12

392

398

University of Tennessee at Μ

χ

University of Tennessee at Knoxville

Chattanooga

D

χ

7,888 25,512

University of Tennessee at Martin

Μ

χ

5,494

University of Tennessee at Memphis

D

χ

1,693

University of the South Vanderbilt University

D

χ

D

χ

William Jennings Bryan College

В

χ

2,502

1,693

926

1,181

813

537

31

121

95

—

9,581 478

4,768 183

4,171

95

—

216

26 7

2,350

χ

52

67

3,175

243

—

190

1,149

—

209 —

Texas Abilene Christian University

D

χ

χ

3,946

1,652

1,590

153

205

Amber University

Μ

χ

χ

2,737

388

484

19

41

Angelo State University

Μ

6,128

1,947

2,312

92

225

Arlington Baptist College

В

χ

2

19

Austin College Austin Presbyterian Theological

Μ

χ χ

16

D

χ

χ

Ρ

χ

Seminary Baylor College of Dentistry Baylor College of Medicine

χ

182 1,178

139 556

596

609

—

13

—

130

—

200

—

67

110

703

—

92

—

63

—

18

—

—

—

95

96

—

312

—

—

250

119

2

17

94

—

454

436

10

220

93

—

D

χ

1,042

609

1,353

χ

11,810

5,056

229

635

Concordia Lutheran College

χ χ

433 5,789

107

D В

χ

688

218

296

9

56

Corpus Christi State University

Μ

Criswell College Dallas Baptist University

Μ Μ

χ χ

χ χ

315 2,269

20

108 21 94

χ

132 1,184

46

30

652

2,240

1,399

60 317

Baylor University

Dallas Christian College

Β

Dallas Theological Seminary

D Β

DeVry Institute of Technology

χ

3,725

χ

χ

χ χ

70 —

1 ,275 168

—

28 816

—

16

15

37

3

94

20

—

14 —

94

—

9

152

8

—

—

2,283 76

109

378

—

—

— —

2

28 32

59 80

—

545

—

264

—

—

24

—

17

—

55

—

348

—

63

—

10

—

2 122

23 67

—

—

—

—

72

—

—

—

295

45

53

—

230

261

—

—

— —

East Texas Baptist University

Β

1,015

396

501

43

51

71

159

—

—

East Texas State University

D

χ

8,007

2,089

2,437

351

285

82

—

1,047

—

559

Μ

χ

1,363

90

240

4

61

87

—

237

—

—

χ

11

4

14

43

East Texas State University at Texarkana Episcopal Theological Seminary of the

Μ

χ

χ

68

34

24

3

12

Hardin-Simmons University

Southwest

Μ

χ

χ

1,801

569

685

Houston Baptist University

Μ Β

χ

χ χ

2,395 1,283

1,630 1,017

16 65

136 152

2

78

Β Μ

χ χ

χ

695 2,429

606 1,464

105 80

28 137

543 12,041

Howard Payne University Huston-Tillotson College Incarnate Word College Institute for Christian Studies

χ

Β

χ

χ χ

Jarvis Christian College

Β

χ

χ

Lamar University

D

Laredo State University LeTourneau University

Μ Β

Lubbock Christian University

Μ

McMurry University

Β

Midwestern State University Oblate School of Theology

Μ D

Our Lady of the Lake University Paul Quinn College

Μ Β

Prairie View A & Μ University Rice University St. Edward's University

Μ D

St. Mary's University Sam Houston State University Schreiner College South Texas College of Law Southern Methodist University Southwest Texas State University Southwestern Adventist College Southwestern Assemblies of God College Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary Southwestern Christian College Southwestern University Stephen F. Austin State University Sul Ross State University

χ χ

7,258

χ χ

1,055

χ

χ

1,497

399

524

χ

5,455 144

1,612 59

1,666 5

χ χ

2,811 517

307

1,124

χ

5,590 χ χ

Μ Μ

χ

4,216 χ χ

χ χ χ χ

χ

χ

—

—

—

—

18

—

75

14

253

—

36

—

58 54

9

—

157

—

—

608 125

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

65

—

76 213

—

—

10

100

—

42

—

17

—

—

1

61

—

—

1,010

—

205

—

96

26

314 151

5

166

375

535

62

471

82

94 65

—

—

1

143 1,086

263 382

57

79 71

391

459

23

93

58

8 110

118

65

11

179

220

67 68

42

566

—

—

—

—

230 44

— —

—

1,785 677

—

657

—

—

268 76

118

463 2,701 2,890 4,050

3,050

770

4,055 12,359

1,418

637 1,329

1 —

χ

Μ

Μ

5 532

χ

χ χ

D

17

1,386 1,562

χ

Β Ρ

51

18

6 16 10 246 65

949 1,713

135

8,967 261 255

190 25

751

—

8,746

3,384

25,889

9,887

3,282 11,053

136

28 120 52

—

_ —

—

—

—

—

119

1

13

598

92

—

133 200

63 81

—

286

67 63

—

98 86

— —

1,289

337

—

23

2,695

—

53

54

106

56

16

94

48 52

393

539

183 48

736 65

11

428 471 1,410 53 —

χ

χ

758

Β

χ

χ

597

258

220

6

20

D

χ χ χ

χ χ

3,359 244

610 96

106 28

117

90

—

—

36

χ

2,749 116 547

90 75

—

258 1,976

55

—

254

Β Β D

χ

1,231 12,687

4,754

634 5,746

26 33

20 97 514

Μ

χ

2,551

865

737

40

152

—

18

—

163

—

9 —

—

_

326 —

337

—

—

198

48

Μ

560

— —

—

245 442

—

—

_

701 520

59

778

74

5 — —

349

—

139

5 —

1948

APPENDIXES

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