Amber: Window to the Past 0810926520, 9780810926523, 0810919664, 9780810919662

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AMBER Window to the Past

AMBER Window to the Past

David A. Grimaldi

Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, in association with the American Museum of Natural History

TO THE LADIES IN MY LIFE: KAREN, REBECCA, AND LITTLE EMILY

Page 2: True scorpion. Dominican amber, 3x4". Private collection

Editor: Harriet Whelchel Designer: Maria Learmonth Miller

Page 6: Chest. Replica of seventeenth-century German design, made c. 1880 in Munich for Arnold Buffum by Fritz von Muller, director of the Academy of Art in Munich. Height 18 ". Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest of William Arnold Buffum, 02.86

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The body of the chest is of ebony and silver gilt, with "windows" of transparent amber medallions, cut in profiles and portraits, inserted. The amber has been called Sicilian but is most likely Baltic.

Page 7: Man carrying a burden. China, eighteenth century or earlier. Height 3.2". American Museum of Natural History (Anthropology). Drummond Collection, 70.3.2584 The figure is carved from a single piece of clear yellow amber, the base from another piece of similar color.

Grimaldi, David A. Amber: window to the past / by David A. Grimaldi. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8109-1966-4 (Abrams: doth) /0-8109-2652-0 (Mus. pbk) 1. Amber. 2. Amber art objects. I. Title. QE391.A5G76 1996 553.2'9-dc20 Copyright © 1996 American Museum of Natural History Published in 1996 by Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York A Times Mirror Company No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced without the written permission of the publisher Printed and bound in Japan

CONTENTS

Preface a n d A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s

AMBER IN NATURE

I1

Origins and Properties

12

Resins

14

Copal

16

Deposits of the World

21

T h e Era o f t h e D i n o s a u r s : M e s o z o i c A m b e r

21

Tertiary Deposits

38

Baltic A m b e r

47

Dominican and Mexican A m b e r

62

F r o z e n in t h e Act A n c i e n t C o m m u n i t i e s : R e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e A n c i e n t D o m i n i c a n A m b e r Forest

79 98

Intricate P r e s e r v a t i o n

117

Ancient DNA, Evolution, and Suspended Animation

126

P r o c e s s e d A m b e r , I m i t a t i o n s , a n d Forgeries

133

AMBER IN ART

143

Mesolithic P e r i o d t o t h e B r o n z e A g e

145

Amber a m o n g the Ancients

149

Medieval a n d R e n a i s s a n c e A m b e r

160

Seventeenth-Nineteenth-Century European Amber

166

The Amber Room

186

Asian A m b e r s

194

Selected B i b l i o g r a p h y

209

Index

211

Photograph/Illustration Credits

216

PREFACE AND

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

e i n g a scientist h a d b e e n a g o a l of m i n e ever since I w a s a child, b u t it was JD n o t until I w a s an u n d e r g r a d u a t e t h a t I realized o n e c o u l d actually do science for a living (albeit t h e m a i n r e w a r d b e i n g p e r s o n a l , n o t at all m o n e t a r y ) . I was i n t e r e s t e d in all a s p e c t s of n a t u r a l history, a n d d e e p l y so in fossils a n d insects. In my first y e a r as a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t at C o r n e l l , I m e t J a k e B r o d z i n s k y a n o t e d d e a l e r o f insects fossilized i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , w h o s h o w e d m e t h e variety o f life p r e s e r v e d in t h a t s u b s t a n c e . All o t h e r fossils j u s t s e e m e d r e n d e r e d flat in r o c k s . T h e fascination h a s g r o w n ever since, a n d I have a r d e n t l y collected a m b e r in various parts of N o r t h and Central America (including the Caribbean). As I l e a r n e d m o r e a b o u t a m b e r , I g r a d u a l l y c a m e to realize h o w few specialists t h e r e are a b o u t a m b e r i n g e n e r a l . A s a m u s e u m c u r a t o r , a n d s o m e w h a t o u t o f necessity, I h a v e b e e n involved in s t u d i e s on t h e chemistry, paleontology, and p r o v e n a n c e of a m b e r , a n d it h a s b e e n a delightfully eclectic p u r s u i t . T h e i n s p i r a t i o n for this b o o k c a m e f r o m a desire to p r o d u c e a lavishly illust r a t e d v o l u m e o n t h e e n t i r e s p e c t r u m o f a m b e r . T h e text, o f course, s h o u l d b e a c c u r a t e a n d i n f o r m a t i v e , b u t t h e i m a g e s s h o u l d s p e a k for themselves. A h i g h s t a n d a r d for p h o t o g r a p h s w a s set b y D i e t e r Schlee a t t h e M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e i n S t u t t g a r t . T h e s e b e a u t i f u l p h o t o g r a p h s , w h i c h w e r e published i n t h e S t u t t g a r t e r B e i t r a g e series, are o f w o n d r o u s fossil a n d mineralogical pieces o f a m b e r , b u t t h e b o o k l e t s are i n G e r m a n a n d n o t easily o b t a i n e d . W h e n t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y l a u n c h e d a n exhibit o n the n a t u r a l h i s t o r y a n d artistry of a m b e r , o p e n i n g in M a r c h 1996, it w a s a p r i m e o p p o r t u n i t y to p r o d u c e s u c h a b o o k , w h i c h w o u l d be a g u i d e for d e v e l o p i n g as well as e n j o y i n g t h e exhibit. Various b o o k s w r i t t e n o n a m b e r fulfill specific n e e d s . T h e g e n e r a l b o o k s b y P a t t y Rice a n d H e l e n F r a q u e t have texts t h a t are well r e s e a r c h e d a n d informative. Likewise, t h e r e are several a c a d e m i c b o o k s o n t h e p a l e o n t o l o g y o f a m b e r , s u c h as t h e o n e s by Sven L a r s s o n a n d G e o r g e Poinar. Yet, s o m e t h i n g w a s still n e e d e d t o k i n d l e t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n vis-a-vis c a p t i v a t i n g i m a g e s . Several scholarly w o r k s o n a m b e r i n a r t are i n f o r m a t i v e b u t are v e r y focused o n specific collections, such as Marjorie Trusted's catalogue of the collection of E u r o p e a n a m b e r s i n t h e Victoria a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m , D . E . S t r o n g ' s c a t a l o g u e o f t h e a n c i e n t a m b e r s i n t h e British M u s e u m , a n d Alfred R o h d e ' s g r e a t 1937 classic o n t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n d e c o r a t i v e arts. P e r h a p s t h e closest e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e i s Gisela R e i n e k i n g v o n Bock's 1981 b o o k , b u t 8 • Preface

it has m o r e black-and-white t h a n color p h o t o g r a p h s , is mostly about E u r o p e a n d e c o r a t i v e objects, a n d is available only in G e r m a n . A s m e d i u m s b o t h f o r objets d ' a r t a n d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x t i n c t o r g a n i s m s w i t h u n p a r a l l e l e d f i d e l i t y , a m b e r a n d resins fall i n t o t h e i r o w n c a t e g o r y o f s u b s t a n c e s . Science c a n s o m e t i m e s r e d u c e t h e m y s t i q u e of a subject. In t h e case o f a m b e r , c u r r e n t scientific i n q u i r y has actually a d d e d m o r e r o m a n c e t o a n a l r e a d y mystical s u b s t a n c e . A n A m e r i c a n fascination w i t h a m b e r h a s b e e n fueled b y v a r i o u s scientific discoveries t h a t have b e e n w i d e l y p o p u l a r i z e d , m a n y o f t h e m h a v i n g b e e n m a d e at the American M u s e u m of Natural History It is my hope that the present b o o k a n d the exhibit will h e l p t o m a k e t h a t fascination g r o w .

A b o o k like this c a n n o t b e d e v e l o p e d w i t h o u t t h e h e l p a n d c o o p e r a t i o n o f m a n y t a l e n t e d p e o p l e . It is a p l e a s u r e to t h a n k t h e following individuals for t h e i r help, especially (at t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) D e n i s F i n n i n a n d j a c k l y n Beckett i n t h e P h o t o g r a p h y S t u d i o a n d P r e s i d e n t a n d C h a i r m a n E m e r i t u s o f t h e A M N H , R o b e r t G o e l e t , for his p e r s o n a l g e n e r o s i t y i n sponsoring a m b e r research; and n u m e r o u s others w h o helped in a great variety o f w a y s : Dr. H e r b e r t A x e l r o d , E d Bridges, J o e P e t e r s , S a r a h C o v i n g t o n , J o e l Sweimler, D o n Clyde, B a r b a r a C o n k l i n , S a m Taylor, G e r a r d C a s e , J u l i a n Stark, Linda K r a u s e , H a n k Silverstein, Lisa Stillman, D o n n a E n g l u n d , a n d Bea Brewster. W i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f a n d t a l e n t a t t h e M u s e u m this w o r k w o u l d have b e e n m u c h m o r e difficult. M u c h o f m y scientific r e s e a r c h o n a m b e r h a s b e e n g e n e r o u s l y s p o n s o r e d b y a g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n . I a m also i n d e b t e d t o p e o p l e a t o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d v a r i o u s p r i v a t e individuals, especially E t t o r e a n d R e m o M o r o n e , for t h e i r g r a c i o u s s u p p o r t a n d h e l p i n s t u d y i n g t h e i r w o n d r o u s collection; D i e t e r S c h l e e - ( M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e , S t u t t g a r t ) ; S u s a n H e n d r i c k s o n ; A l e x a n d e r S h e d r i n s k y ( N e w York University Institute o f Fine Arts); a n d t h e c o n s e r v a t o r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s a t t h e M u s e u m o f Fine Arts, B o s t o n , w h o w o r k e d v e r y h a r d t o p r e p a r e t h e Buffum C o l l e c t i o n for this b o o k a n d t h e e x h i b i t i o n . T h e s u p p o r t o f Dr. A n n e P o u l e t a n d Janis Staggs at t h e M u s e u m of Fine A r t s is d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d . T h e r e are n u m e r o u s o t h e r s w h o a r r a n g e d for l o a n s o r c o n t r i b u t e d i n f o r m a tion: Faya C a u s i ( W a s h i n g t o n D.C.); A n d r e w Ross, R i c h a r d Fortey, a n d A n d r e w Clark ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) ; J o h n C o o p e r ( B o o t h M u s e u m , Brighton); Ivan S a u t o v ( E k a t e r i n i n s k y Palace M u s e u m , St. P e t e r s b u r g ) ; C r i s t i n a Piacenti ( M u s e o degli A r g e n t i , F l o r e n c e ) ; M a r j o r i e T r u s t e d (Victoria a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) ; V l a d i m i r Z h e r i k h i n a n d Yuri P o p o v ( P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l Institute, M o s c o w ) ; W i l l i a m C r e p e t a n d R u d o l f M e i e r ( C o r n e l l University); J u d i t h a n d M i c h a e l S t e i n h a r d t ; J a m e s W a t t , J o a n M e r t e n s , a n d Claire V i n c e n t ( M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f Art); S u s a n a P a n c a l d o , Shelby W h i t e , a n d L e o n Levy; and Laura Siegel ( R o b e r t H a b e r Gallery, N e w York). To all I o w e d e e p t h a n k s .

Overleaf: Portions of three contour or flight feathers. Length of amber 1.5". Private collection

Preface • 9

AMBER IN

NATURE

ORIGINS AND PROPERTIES

T

he w o r d amber can h a v e m a n y associations. It is n o t a m i n e r a l b u t is used a s a n d called a s e m i p r e c i o u s s t o n e . T h e oldest a n d m o s t c o n t i n u o u s use o f

it, in fact, is for a d o r n m e n t . A l t h o u g h it is a n c i e n t t r e e resin, a m b e r is n o t exactly fossilized. W e often t h i n k o f fossils a s b e i n g t h e r e m a i n s o f extinct o r g a n i s m s , like d i n o s a u r b o n e s , a n d i m p r e s s i o n s o f ferns, leaves, a n d insect w i n g s i n rocks. U n l i k e t h e s e k i n d s o f fossils, w h i c h are usually m i n e r a l r e p l a c e m e n t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e , a m b e r i s e n t i r e l y o r g a n i c ; its c o m p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e original resin h a s c h a n g e d little over m i l l i o n s o f years. E v e n t h e i n c l u s i o n s o f tiny o r g a n i s m s i n a m b e r are strikingly intact. T h e m o s t c o m m o n r e s p o n s e from p e o p l e w h o h a v e s e e n t h e i r first a m b e r fossil i s o n e a l m o s t o f disbelief t h a t s o m e t h i n g so old c o u l d be so beautifully p r e s e r v e d . Exquisite p r e s e r v a t i o n is a n a t u r a l p r o p e r t y o f c e r t a i n k i n d s o f resins, a l t h o u g h t h e p r o c e s s i s n o t u n d e r s t o o d v e r y well. H u n d r e d s of deposits of a m b e r occur a r o u n d the world, most of t h e m in t r a c e q u a n t i t i e s . O n e w o u l d f i n d a m b e r i n a n y place w h e r e t h e h a r d e n e d resin o f v a r i o u s extinct p l a n t s w o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d , b u t special c o n d i t i o n s are r e q u i r e d t o p r e s e r v e this s u b s t a n c e over m i l l i o n s o f years, a n d only occasionally has a m b e r s u r v i v e d i n q u a n t i t i e s large e n o u g h t o b e m i n e d . T h e r e exist o n l y a b o u t t w e n t y s u c h rich d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e d e p o s i t s v a r y g r e a t l y in a g e . It is a c o m m o n m i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t a m b e r is exclusively t h e fossilized resin of p i n e s ; in fact, a m b e r w a s f o r m e d by v a r i o u s conifer t r e e s (only a few of t h e m a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d t o pines), a s well a s b y s o m e t r o p i c a l b r o a d - l e a v e d trees. O r i g i n s o f specific a m b e r d e p o s i t s are p r e s e n t e d i n detail l a t e r i n this b o o k .

Most deposits of amber are in marine sediments. Buoyant in water, resin would have floated down rivers with logs and fallen trees and eventually become stranded and concentrated on the shores. Sediments gradually covered the hardened resin, logs, and branches. Over thousands to millions of years, the wood became lignite and the resin turned to amber.

12 • Amber in Nature

Geological time scale, showing the periods relevant to the formation of amber

A m b e r i s a l m o s t always p r e s e r v e d i n a s e d i m e n t t h a t f o r m e d t h e b o t t o m o f a n a n c i e n t l a g o o n o r river d e l t a a t t h e e d g e o f a n o c e a n o r sea. T h e specific gravity o f solid a m b e r i s o n l y slightly h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f w a t e r ; a l t h o u g h i t d o e s n o t float, it is b u o y a n t a n d easily c a r r i e d by w a t e r ( a m b e r w i t h air b u b b l e s is even m o r e b u o y a n t ) . T h u s , a m b e r w o u l d b e c a r r i e d d o w n r i v e r w i t h logs f r o m fallen a m b e r t r e e s a n d cast u p a s b e a c h drift o n t h e s h o r e s o r i n t h e s h a l l o w s o f t h e delta i n t o w h i c h t h e river e m p t i e s . O v e r t i m e , s e d i m e n t s w o u l d g r a d u a l l y b u r y t h e w o o d a n d resin. T h e resin w o u l d b e c o m e a m b e r , a n d t h e w o o d a b l a c k e n e d , charcoal-like lignite. A m b e r i s often p r e s e r v e d this w a y b e c a u s e , u n l e s s p r o t e c t e d , t h e surface o f a m b e r reacts w i t h o x y g e n i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d , over m a n y years, d e v e l o p s a n o p a q u e c r u s t . G i v e n e n o u g h t i m e , t h e e n t i r e p i e c e will c r u m b l e a w a y D e n s e , w e t s e d i m e n t s o f clay a n d s a n d are v i r t u a l l y d e v o i d o f o x y g e n a n d p r e s e r v e a m b e r e x t r e m e l y well. Today, m o s t a m b e r i s f o u n d b y s e a r c h i n g for lignite i n the s a n d s t o n e s , l o o s e shales, a n d m u d s t o n e r e m a i n s o f deltaic s e d i m e n t s . A rich a m b e r d e p o s i t is t h u s a c o m b i n a t i o n of f o r t u i t o u s factors i n v o l v i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e a m b e r , a p p r o p r i a t e burial, as w e l l as a forest n e a r b y t h a t p r o d u c e d large q u a n t i t i e s of t h e right k i n d of resin.

Amber in Nature •

13

Resins It is ironic t h a t s u c h a b e a u t i f u l a n d mystical s u b s t a n c e as a m b e r is also o n e t h a t is p r o b a b l y j u s t a b y - p r o d u c t of t r e e s d e f e n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t insects a n d disease. S o m e trees, like p o n d e r o s a p i n e , p r o d u c e massive flows o f resin w h e n b a r k b e e t l e s c h e w galleries i n t o t h e w o o d . Living relatives o f t h e v a r i o u s a m b e r t r e e s , especially f r o m t h e tropics, are c o p i o u s resin p r o d u c e r s . P e r h a p s this is r e l a t e d t o m o r e intensive insect a t t a c k s i n t h e tropics, b u t insect a t t a c k s are n o t t h e o n l y c a u s e s o f resin p r o d u c t i o n : h e a v y flows are also c a u s e d b y w o u n d s , s u c h as a s n a p p e d t r e e l i m b or g a s h e d t r u n k . As t h e resin wells to t h e surface, i t covers t h e w o u n d a n d h a r d e n s , t h u s a c t i n g a s a seal a g a i n s t f u r t h e r d a m a g e b y f u n g i a n d insects. B u t b e f o r e i t h a r d e n s , s m a l l insects, spiders, a n d even tiny v e r t e b r a t e s m a y b e c o m e m i r e d i n t h e resin a n d , eventually, e n c a p s u l a t e d a n d m u m m i f i e d . P r e s u m a b l y , t h e s a m e c h e m i c a l features o f t h e resin t h a t p r e s e r v e it over m i l l i o n s of y e a r s are t h e o n e s t h a t p r e s e r v e t h e tiny o r g a n i s m s in it w i t h such fidelity. Resins v a r y t r e m e n d o u s l y i n c o m p o s i t i o n a n d have different f r a g r a n c e s a n d c o l o r s , b u t t h e y all h a v e terpenes, w h i c h are t h e c o m p o u n d s t h a t b e c o m e l i n k e d a s t h e resin h a r d e n s i n t o a m b e r . S o m e t e r p e n e s are very volatile a n d dissipate q u i c k l y i n t o t h e air as t h e resin h a r d e n s ; o t h e r s r e m a i n as a virtually i n e r t p a r t o f t h e a m b e r . I t i s t h e " b o u q u e t " o f v a r i o u s t e r p e n e s t h a t r e n d e r s t h e distinctive a r o m a s o f resins a n d a m b e r s . T h e special p r o p e r t i e s o f resins h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a n d e x p l o i t e d for t h o u s a n d s of years. Ancient E g y p t i a n s u s e d s a n d a r a c (from Callitris a n d Tetradinus trees) a n d m a s t i c (from Pistacea) as a b a s e for p i g m e n t s t h a t w e r e p a i n t e d o n t o j a r s a n d t h e walls o f t o m b s . T h e g r e a t m a s t e r s h a r d e n e d t h e i r oil p a i n t s a n d c o a t e d t h e i r p a i n t i n g s w i t h liquid d a m m a r (a g e n e r i c Malay w o r d for all resins b u t g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o refer t o t h o s e f r o m S o u t h e a s t Asia). V a r n i s h e s a n d l a c q u e r s w e r e p r o d u c e d f r o m g r o u n d copal a n d a m b e r . Resins a n d a m b e r w e r e also s u r r o u n d e d b y a rich m e d i c i n a l m y s t i q u e . S o m e native N o r t h A m e r i c a n s u s e d resins f r o m c e d a r s , f i r s , a n d p i n e s for v a r i o u s ailm e n t s . T h e Maya even m e d i c i n a l l y u s e d resin f r o m Hymenaea trees, w h i c h w e n o w k n o w i s very similar t o the a m b e r f r o m Mexico a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic. J o h n C o o k , M.D., prescribes in his 1770 treatise, The Natural History of Lac, Amber, and

Myrrh: Many are the excellent virtues of Amber, especially when taken inwardly, in a cold state of the Brain, in Catarrhs, in the Headache, sleep and convulsive disorders, in the suppression of the menses, hysterical and hypochondriacal disorders, and in hemorrhages or bleedings.

C o o k ' s r e c o m m e n d e d d o s a g e w a s "60 o r 8 0 d r o p s for g r o w n p e r s o n s , t w o o r t h r e e t i m e s a day, in a n y liquid." C a d a w a l l a d e r C o l d e n , a d i s t i n g u i s h e d colonial 14 • Amber in Nature

physician i n A m e r i c a , extolled t h e v i r t u e s o f a n unlikely c o n c o c t i o n o f g r o u n d p i n e resin s t e e p e d i n w a t e r , called " T a r W a t e r . " Several s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y treatises w e r e w r i t t e n o n this o d d cordial a s a t r e a t m e n t a g a i n s t s m a l l p o x , u l c e r s , d i a r r h e a , a n d t h e "foulest d i s t e m p e r s " (syphilis). (In an age like o u r s , in w h i c h folk m e d i c i n e is r e v e a l i n g a w e a l t h of m e d i c a l insights f r o m tropical p l a n t s , s u c h r e m e d i e s s h o u l d n o t b e i m m e d i a t e l y dismissed.) F e w s u b s t a n c e s , t h o u g h , r i v a l t h e m y s t i c a l p o w e r s o f t h e m o s t f a m o u s resins, f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d m y r r h . F r a n k i n c e n s e is t h e resin f r o m Boswellia trees, especially t h e species carterii, papyrifera, a n d thurifera. T h e finest f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d p e r h a p s t h e o l d e s t h a r v e s t s are from s o u t h e r n Arabia. F r o m h e r e t h e H a d r a m i s w o u l d t r a n s p o r t t h e m a t e r i a l via c a m e l caravans a c r o s s t h e A r a b i a n sands t o Palestine a n d E g y p t , a n d o t h e r m e r c h a n t s w o u l d b r i n g i t t o G r e e c e a n d R o m e , w h e r e i t w a s especially p r i z e d . I n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . , 3,000 t o n s p e r year w e r e s h i p p e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , m o s t o f i t t o t h e R o m a n s . Its v a l u e t o t h e p e o p l e o f P a l e s t i n e i s reflected in its m e n t i o n in t h e Bible t w e n t y - t w o t i m e s . Its e x t r e m e l y rich, r e s i n o u s a r o m a m a d e i t t h e f i n e s t i n c e n s e available, a n d i t w a s b u r n e d ( s o m e t i m e s c o n t i n u o u s l y ) in t e m p l e s a n d e v e n u s e d as a base for p e r f u m e s . T h e v a l u e of frankincense vied w i t h t h a t of gold; it w a s offered to t h e infant Christ by t h e M a g i a l o n g w i t h g o l d a n d m y r r h ( M a t t h e w 2:11). M y r r h is f r o m s h r u b b y Commiphora trees, w h i c h are f o u n d in t h e s a m e r e g i o n s as are Boswellia. M y r r h , t o o , w a s u s e d as an i n c e n s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g c r e m a t i o n , a n d as a b a s e for p e r f u m e s , e v e n as t h e a n o i n t i n g oil of t h e H e b r e w s i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t : "Your G o d h a s set y o u above y o u r c o m p a n i o n s , b y a n o i n t i n g y o u w i t h t h e oil o f joy. All y o u r r o b e s are f r a g r a n t w i t h m y r r h a n d aloes a n d cassia" ( P s a l m s 4 5 : 7 - 8 ) ; a n d , " M y lover is to me a s a c h e t of m y r r h r e s t i n g b e t w e e n m y b r e a s t s " ( S o n g o f S o n g s 1:13). I t w a s u s e d b y virtually all o f t h e a n c i e n t p e o p l e s o f Asia M i n o r i n a n o i n t i n g a n d e m b a l m i n g t h e d e a d , i n c l u d i n g t h e c e l e b r a t e d m o r t i c i a n s o f a n c i e n t E g y p t . I n his 1770 treatise, J o h n C o o k offers a n a n e c d o t e o n t h e p r e s e r v a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f m y r r h : A bird, or any other small animal, or an insect, to be dipped several times successfully [sic] in the tincture of Myrrh it would soon be perfectly penetrated, or embalmed thereby, and converted into a kind of Egyptian mummy, capable of remaining entire for numerous ages.

Copal It is c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d t h a t h a r d e n e d resin t u r n s i n t o a m b e r at a specific age. A c t u a l l y t h e p r o c e s s is a c o n t i n u u m , from freshly h a r d e n e d resins to t h o s e t h a t are t r u l y fossilized, a n d n o single feature identifies a t w h a t age a l o n g t h a t c o n t i n u u m t h e s u b s t a n c e b e c o m e s a m b e r . Generally, m a t e r i a l t h a t i s several m i l l i o n y e a r s old a n d o l d e r is sufficiently cross-linked a n d p o l y m e r i z e d to be classified as a m b e r . M a t e r i a l t h a t is only, say, several t h o u s a n d years o l d is often r e f e r r e d to as copal, or subfossil resin. C o p a l s are so i n c o m p l e t e l y cross-linked t h a t a d r o p o f a l c o h o l o r o t h e r s o l v e n t m a k e s t h e surface t a c k y P u t close t o a h o t f l a m e , c o p a l will readily m e l t ; a m b e r will soften a n d b l a c k e n b u t n o t liquefy. T h e o l d e s t c o p a l d e p o s i t , f r o m M i z u n a m i , J a p a n , i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 33,000 years old. A s e x p e c t e d , M i z u n a m i c o p a l displays c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e t w e e n t h o s e o f a m b e r m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s old a n d c o p a l m e r e l y h u n d r e d s o f years old. C o p a l s will t a k e a h i g h polish, b u t since t h e y r e t a i n volatiles from t h e original resin that readily e v a p o r a t e , after a few y e a r s t h e surface b e c o m e s deeply c r a z e d , like a d r i e d lake b e d . T h e e x t e n t o f c r a z i n g d e p e n d s o n e x p o s u r e t o h e a t a n d air. A m b e r , t o o , will c r a z e , b u t n o t a s q u i c k l y o r d e e p l y a s copal. C o p a l c r a z e s s o deeply, in fact, t h a t this is a reliable w a y to distinguish m a t e r i a l in old c o l l e c t i o n s t h a t is called a m b e r b u t in fact is c o p a l . C o n f u s i o n s u r r o u n d s t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m copal, since s o m e scientists also u s e i t t o refer t o fossil resins o f c e r t a i n b o t a n i c a l origins. T h e m a j o r d e p o s i t s o f subfossil resins, o r copal, w e r e f o r m e d b y tropical l e g u m e t r e e s a n d t h e a r a u c a r i a n s (any o f a g e n u s o f conifer t r e e s i n d i g e n o u s t o S o u t h A m e r i c a a n d Australia), w h i c h are t h e t r u e " c o p a l t r e e s " o f c h e m i s t s . Resins f r o m t h e s e trees h a r d e n r a p i d l y u p o n e x p o s u r e to air, are distinctively h a r d , a n d have a h i g h e r m e l t i n g p o i n t t h a n o t h e r resins ( b u t n o t m o r e t h a n a m b e r ) . Yet a n o t h e r t e r m , resinite, w h i c h i s m u c h m o r e g e n e r a l a n d i n u s e p r i m a r i l y b y g e o l o g i s t s , refers t o any h a r d e n e d resin, w h e t h e r a m b e r o r c o p a l . M o s t c o p a l o c c u r s i n t h e t r o p i c s o r v e r y w e t t e m p e r a t e areas, g e n e r a l l y w h e r e t h e t r e e s t h a t f o r m e d t h e c o p a l still live. Since t h e t r e e species are e x t a n t , t h e s o u r c e o f t h e copals i s q u i t e c e r t a i n . T h e m o s t f a m o u s d e p o s i t s are t h o s e t h a t have b e e n c o m m e r c i a l l y e x p l o i t e d i n t h e p a s t for v a r n i s h e s ( n o w a l m o s t A huge Agathis tree in New Zealand, photographed in 1936. Trees such as this were the source of kauri gum.

entirely r e p l a c e d b y s y n t h e t i c resins), o n t h e N o r t h Island o f N e w Z e a l a n d a n d i n East Africa. C o p a l s f r o m t h e s e r e g i o n s w e r e also t h e s o u r c e o f n u m e r o u s forgeries in " a m b e r . " O n t h e N o r t h Island o f N e w Z e a l a n d live h u g e k a u r i t r e e s , t h e " s e q u o i a s " of N e w Z e a l a n d : Agathis australis a n d Dammara australis. M a s s e s of resin f r o m t h e s e trees o o z e o n a n d u n d e r b a r k (called kauri gum) a n d a c c u m u l a t e o n t h e forest floor. B u r i e d b y h u n d r e d s o r t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s o f fallen n e e d l e s , t w i g s , and branches, the subterranean kauri g u m is sometimes found w h e r e the kauri forests n o l o n g e r exist. A t t h e p e a k o f t h e k a u r i - g u m industry, p r i o r t o t h e t u r n

16 • Amier in Nature

o f t h e century, t r e e s w o u l d e v e n b e t a p p e d , a l t h o u g h this w a s d i s c o u r a g e d i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e b e h e m o t h s . T h o u s a n d s o f i t i n e r a n t " g u m d i g g e r s " traveled a m o n g the various "gumfields." Most of t h e m were Austrian immigrants, s o m e of t h e m poorer N e w Zealanders, and an occasional Maori. Export began a b o u t 1850; in 1856, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,440 t o n s w e r e e x p o r t e d , a n d by 1906, e x p o r t s r e a c h e d 275,319 t o n s . L u m p s o f k a u r i g u m t e n t o t w e l v e p o u n d s w e r e n o t u n c o m m o n , a n d t h e largest o n e r e p o r t e d w e i g h e d n e a r l y o n e h u n d r e d p o u n d s . M o s t copals derive f r o m l e g u m e t r e e s i n t h e C a e s a l p i n i o i d e a g r o u p o f families, especially t h e g e n u s Hymenaea. A r e l a t e d g e n u s of trees, w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n a m e Copaifera, i s t h e s o u r c e o f copals f r o m G h a n a , G u i n e a , a n d Sierra L e o n e in w e s t e r n Africa. Hymenaea copals o c c u r in Minais G e r a i s , Brazil; e a s t e r n D o m i n i c a n Republic; C o l o m b i a ; a n d East Africa. D e p o s i t s f r o m Santander, C o l o m b i a , are h a r v e s t e d for s o m e especially large pieces ( o t h e r s i n C o l o m b i a

Opposite: Large piece of copal from Santander, Colombia, containing beetles. Two surfaces are polished flat. Height 4.5". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

o c c u r n e a r Medellin a n d a l o n g t h e M a g d a l e n a River i n M a r i q u i t a P r o v i n c e ) . M a n y o f t h e s e impressive p i e c e s c o n t a i n t e r m i t e s w a r m s a n d o t h e r insect inclusions a n d are sold t o a m a t e u r c o l l e c t o r s a s " P l i o c e n e a m b e r " ( a b o u t t w o million years old), even t h o u g h c a r b o n - 1 4 d a t i n g indicates it is o n l y several h u n d r e d years old, like all t h e o t h e r Hymenaea copal d e p o s i t s . Similarly, a clear Hymenaea copal f r o m e a s t e r n D o m i n i c a n Republic is sold as D o m i n i c a n a m b e r ; t r u e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r c o m e s f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n m o u n t a i n s a n d i s light y e l l o w t o d e e p red. W h e n t h e p e o p l e s o f Asia M i n o r w e r e t a p p i n g f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d

Section of a copal tree (Hymenaea verrucosa)/rom Zanzibar, off the coast of Tanzania. Between the bark and the heartwood is almost pure resin. The heartwood contains beetle galleries impregnated with resin. Diameter 4.8". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

m y r r h t r e e s for i n c e n s e , c o p a l a n d freshly h a r d e n e d Hymenaea resin w e r e b u r n e d a s a n i n c e n s e b y native p e o p l e s o f C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a . T h e M a y a b u r n e d i t i n special i n c e n s e p o t s , a n d t h e Y a n o m a m o s o f s o u t h e r n V e n e z u e l a still collect t h e resin for i n c e n s e . T h e only African species of Hymenaea, H. verm cosa (previously g i v e n its o w n g e n u s , Trachylobium), o c c u r s f r o m S o m a l i a to T a n z a n i a , Z a n z i b a r Island, M a d a g a s c a r , a n d t h e islands of t h e Seychelles a n d M a u r i t i u s , s o m e 1,000 miles off t h e East African coast. A r o u n d t h e t u r n of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , H. verrucosa copal w a s t h e basis for a very lucrative industry: I n 1898, s o m e 512,600 p o u n d s w e r e e x p o r t e d t o G e r m a n y for h i g h - g r a d e v a r n i s h e s . Fresh pieces of t h e copal are a v e r y p a l e , clear yellow, just like t h e N e w W o r l d Hymenaea copals. T h e American M u s e u m of Natural History has a large collection o f copal f r o m Z a n z i b a r , rich w i t h insect inclusions. I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o m e o f the East African c o p a l m a y b e u p t o t w o m i l l i o n y e a r s old, b u t this is v e r y unlikely. Amber in Nature • 19

DEPOSITS OF THE WORLD

The Era of the Dinosaurs: Mesozoic Amber T h e oldest " a m b e r , " p e r h a p s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y called a fossil resin, w a s h a r d l y r e c o g n i z e d a s s u c h w h e n i t w a s first discovered. Occasionally f o u n d lining s o m e fine vessels from t h e t r u n k s of Myeloxylon or o t h e r c a r b o n i f e r o u s p t e r i d o s p e r m s (tree or s e e d ferns) are m i c r o s c o p i c a l l y fine, black hairlike fibers t h a t are actually resins s o m e 320 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, a l t h o u g h t h e y are physically a n d c h e m i c a l l y unlike a n y o t h e r fossil resin k n o w n , e v e n t h e a m b e r s . T h e s e c o n d - o l d e s t fossil resin exists in m i c r o s c o p i c q u a n t i t i e s in 260-million-year-old P e r m i a n l i m e s t o n e n e a r t h e C h e k a r d a River, i n t h e w e s t e r n p i e d m o n t o f t h e Ural M o u n t a i n s . F r o m t h e Triassic p e r i o d o f E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a derive d a r k red, highly brittle a m b e r s , f o r m e d p e r h a p s from extinct cycads like Pterophyllum. T h e s e Triassic resins, a l t h o u g h c o n s i d e r e d t r u e a m b e r s , are also c h e m i c a l l y u n l i k e t h e y o u n g e r a m b e r s f o r m e d f r o m conifers a n d f l o w e r i n g t r e e s . O n e o f t h e Triassic d e p o s i t s is f r o m N i e d e r o s t e r r e i c h , Austria, a b o u t 60 m i l e s s o u t h w e s t of V i e n n a . A n o t h e r , t h e R a i b l e r S a n d s t o n e F o r m a t i o n in Schliersee, Bavaria, is a b o u t 220 t o 230 million y e a r s old. B y this t i m e , large v e r t e b r a t e s a n d m o s t o f t h e m o d e r n o r d e r s o f flying insects h a d a p p e a r e d . N o t surprisingly, m i c r o s c o p i c r e m a i n s o f o r g a n i s m s are f o u n d i n t h e Schliersee a m b e r , b u t t h e y are o f primitive o r g a n i s m s , s u c h a s b a c t e r i a , p r o t o z o a , fungal spores, a n d u n i d e n t i f i e d p l a n t spores. A n insect i n a m b e r this o l d w o u l d b e s e n s a t i o n a l . O n e o f t h e biologically m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g c h a p t e r s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f E a r t h is t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d , 140 to 65 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . It w a s at t h e e n d of t h e Cretaceous that the dinosaurs died out. More important, it was during the C r e t a c e o u s t h a t t h e r e o c c u r r e d explosive r a d i a t i o n s o f t h e f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s , o r a n g i o s p e r m s , a n d m a n y m o d e r n families o f insects. Today, t h e insects a n d f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s are s u p r e m e r u l e r s o n l a n d : t h e y c o m p r i s e t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f all life f o r m s , a s well a s m o r e b i o m a s s a n d m o r e a n a t o m i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l novelties t h a n all o t h e r o r g a n i s m s c o m b i n e d . W i t h o u t t h e m , t h e w o r l d w o u l d b e u n r e c o g n i z a b l e . A f u n d a m e n t a l belief a m o n g b i o l o g i s t s h a s b e e n t h a t t h e

Fossil cone from the Upper Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous (c.140 million years old), studded with amber. It was found in the Karzhantav Range, Chimkent region of southern Kazakhstan. The original cone must have been filled with resin. Length of cone .9". Paleontological Institute, Moscow

evolution o f f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s a n d insects closely affected e a c h o t h e r . A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s s o m e r e c e n t s k e p t i c i s m ( t h a t m o d e r n g r o u p s o f insects evolved b e f o r e flowering plants), m o s t e v i d e n c e indicates t h a t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a t least c e r t a i n

Opposite: Major amber deposits of the world

kinds o f insects—like s o m e b e e t l e s , flies, a n d c e r t a i n l y t h e b e e s , m o t h s , a n d Amber in Nature • 21

A small stud of amber above the branch of an extinct Metasequoia tree that may have produced it. This fossil, from the Jurassic period of Russia, is about 160 million years old. Length 2.6". Paleontological Institute, Moscow

b u t t e r f l i e s — w a s linked w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a n g i o s p e r m p l a n t s , a n d vice versa, a n d t h a t this t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d . Fossils i n C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r h a v e b e e n a p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e a l i n g w i n d o w for u n d e r s t a n d i n g this relationship. E v e n t h o u g h a n g i o s p e r m s w e r e diversifying d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s , t h e l a n d s c a p e a t this t i m e w a s p r o b a b l y d o m i n a t e d b y cycads a n d conifers. All o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s are c e r t a i n l y c o n i f e r o u s , for a r b o r e s c e n t (treelike)

Opposite: Plate from O. Warburg, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Vegetation des Siid und Ostasiatischen Monsungebietes, 1900, showing leaves, cones, and cone scales of the conifer Agathis. Araucarian trees such as Agathis are considered important sources of the ambers from the Mesozoic Era.

a n g i o s p e r m s p r o b a b l y h a d n o t evolved u n t i l t h e late C r e t a c e o u s ; p r i o r t o this, t h e y w e r e h e r b s a n d b u s h e s . I n fact, for m o s t o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t s t h a t have b e e n c h e m i c a l l y s t u d i e d , t h e a m b e r i s t h o u g h t t o have b e e n f o r m e d b y a n a r a u c a r i a n or a r a u c a r i a n l i k e t r e e . T h e A r a u c a r i a c e a e is o n e of six families in t h e C o n i f e r a e (three o t h e r , large families b e i n g t h e Pinaceae [pines, larches, s p r u c e s , a n d h e m l o c k s ] , C u p r e s s a c e a e [cedars, cypresses, j u n i p e r s ] , a n d T a x o d i a c e a e [sequoias a n d b a l d cypresses]). T h e r e are o n l y t w o g e n e r a o f a r a u c a r i a n s living today, c o m p r i s i n g t h i r t y - o n e species, t h r e e o f t h e species b e i n g a m o n g t h e t e n tallest t r e e s in t h e w o r l d ( b e t w e e n 70 a n d 90 feet tall). T h e family is relict, confined n o w t o p o r t i o n s o f t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . Fossils o f Araucaria f r o m t h e J u r a s s i c t o t h e Tertiary, h o w e v e r , are s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h e family is a g o o d c a n d i d a t e for t h e b o t a n i c a l o r i g i n s of m a n y C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s since, today, a r a u c a r i a n s p r o d u c e c o p i o u s a m o u n t s o f resin t h a t b e c o m e s s t r o n g l y h a r d e n e d s o o n after e x p o s u r e t o air, w h i c h p r e s e r v e s i t well.

22 ' Amber in Nature

I n t h e a b s e n c e o f m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n conifer resins, h o w e v e r , i t s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h a t a n y C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t i s definitely o f a r a u c a r i a n o r i g i n . For e x a m p l e , t h e 75-million-year-old a m b e r f r o m t h e F r u i t l a n d F o r m a t i o n i n t h e San J u a n Basin, N e w M e x i c o , i s o n e o f t h e r a r e cases w h e r e t h e a m b e r has a definitive o r i g i n , since it is f o u n d a m o n g a n d e m b e d d e d in logs a n d s t u m p s of the a m b e r tree, and it is Taxodiaceae. T h e r e is a w o e f u l lack of p l a n t megafossils a c c o m p a n y i n g m o s t a m b e r d e p o s i t s , i n c l u d i n g C r e t a c e o u s o n e s . I n c l u s i o n s o f p l a n t f r a g m e n t s i n a m b e r can p r o v i d e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l o r c o n f i r m i n g e v i d e n c e o f t h e t r e e o f its o r i g i n , b u t s u c h i n c l u s i o n s are m u c h r a r e r i n C r e t a c e o u s t h a n t h e y are i n T e r t i a r y a m b e r s . For e x a m p l e , t h e r e are n o c o n e s o r conifer flowers k n o w n for any C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r , a l t h o u g h w o o d fragments and portions of needles and twigs occur in s o m e . All o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s are v e r y brittle a n d highly fractured. Special A forest in New Zealand. With the exception of the Maori native in the forest, this is what a Cretaceous forest might have looked like some 90 million years ago, with tree ferns, cycads, and araucarian trees.

p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s are usually r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to g r i n d a n d polish a piece for a c e r t a i n v i e w o f a n i n c l u s i o n , o r e v e n t o k e e p t h e piece from d i s i n t e g r a t i n g . C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r i s n o t o r i o u s for b e c o m i n g c r u m b l y w h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e for several years. It is b e s t p r e s e r v e d a n d p r e p a r e d by e m b e d d i n g it in a s y n t h e t i c resin.

24 • Amber in Nature

Europe

a l t h o u g h Cretaceous a m b e r is found near Vienna and in Salzburg, Austria, it is t h e 100-million-year-old a m b e r of F r a n c e t h a t is b e t t e r

k n o w n a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e a b u n d a n t . O c c u r r i n g i n t h e Paris a n d A q u i t a n i a n basins of n o r t h w e s t e r n France, near Bezonnais, Durtal, and Fouras, it resembles i n b o t h c o m p o s i t i o n a n d k i n d s o f i n c l u s i o n s t h e 90-to-94-million-year-old a m b e r from c e r t a i n d e p o s i t s i n N e w Jersey. C l o u d i n e s s o f t h e a m b e r i s d u e t o m i c r o s c o p i c b u b b l e s , a n d p y r i t e ("fool's g o l d " ) has i n t r u d e d i n t o c r a c k s a n d e v e n s o m e o f t h e insect inclusions. T h e p y r i t e h a s a l l o w e d h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n X-raying o f s o m e insects, since i t i s m u c h d e n s e r t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a m b e r a n d h a s r e p l a c e d the original insect i n faithful detail. A s i n m o s t C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s , t h e fossilized insects w i t h i n are tiny, less t h a n o n e - t e n t h o f a n i n c h l o n g o n a v e r a g e , a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g o n e s , like t h e t e r m i t e s a n d l a c e w i n g s , are q u i t e large. T h e insects are n o t plentiful. I n t h e F r e n c h a m b e r , for e x a m p l e , o n e p o u n d o f r a w a m b e r yields a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y insects a n d insect p a r t s . C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r f r o m C a n a d a , b y c o n t r a s t , yields a b o u t t w i c e this n u m b e r of inclusions.

. North America T

A

T h e m o s t abundant sources of Cretaceous a m b e r in N o r t h A m e r i c a a r e Alaska, several localities i n C a n a d a , a n d N e w Jersey.

In 1955, a g r o u p f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y of California, Berkeley, c o l l e c t e d a m b e r f r o m t h e s h o r e s o f t h e Kuk, O m a l i k , a n d several o t h e r rivers o n t h e n o r t h e r n A l a s k a n C o a s t a l Plain. T h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l value o f t h e A l a s k a n m a t e r i a l i s l i m i t e d b e c a u s e it is s t r a n d e d on river s h o r e s ; as a result, t h e pieces are small a n d heavily w e a t h e r e d , a n d a specific age is i n d e t e r m i n a t e . T h e largest d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r f r o m C a n a d a have y i e l d e d a n exciting a r r a y o f insects a n d o t h e r i n c l u s i o n s . T h e f i r s t d e p o s i t t o b e intensively s t u d i e d , a s early a s 1891, w a s a t C e d a r L a k e , M a n i t o b a . T h e a m b e r w a s s o a b u n d a n t (for a C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t ) t h a t in t h e early 1900s n e a r l y a t o n w a s c o l l e c t e d for v a r n i s h . I n t h e 1930s, F r a n k C a r p e n t e r , t h e g r e a t p a l e o e n t o m o l o g i s t f r o m H a r v a r d , collected several h u n d r e d p o u n d s a t C e d a r Lake. A n o t h e r large c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e a m b e r , m u c h m o r e closely s t u d i e d t h a n H a r v a r d ' s , i s i n O t t a w a . Since t h o s e collections w e r e m a d e , C e d a r L a k e h a s b e e n d a m m e d , i n u n d a t i n g t h e d e p o s i t s . I t h a s always b e e n s u s p e c t e d t h a t t h e C e d a r Lake a m b e r w a s r e d e p o s i t e d f r o m a distant s o u r c e . A m b e r d e p o s i t s f r o m M e d i c i n e H a t , A l b e r t a , i n t h e F o r e m o s t F o r m a t i o n ( a b o u t 7 5 t o 7 8 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) are c h e m i c a l l y v e r y similar t o the C e d a r Lake a m b e r . T h o u g h p r e s u m a b l y n o t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e C e d a r L a k e amber, t h e M e d i c i n e H a t a m b e r m a y b e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s a n d o f t h e s a m e botanical o r i g i n . M o s t recently, rich d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n G r a s s y L a k e , A l b e r t a , have yielded n u m e r o u s tiny fossils, i n c l u d i n g a b i r d f e a t h e r in o n e p i e c e . Aphids are the m o s t c o m m o n insects i n this a m b e r , a n d a m o n g t h e m o s t interesting are a pseudoscorpion, a praying mantis, and the oldest k n o w n m o s q u i t o . T h e U n i t e d States h a s several C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t s , a l t h o u g h o n l y i n N e w Jersey i s a m b e r f o u n d i n a p p r e c i a b l e q u a n t i t i e s . T h e f i r s t insect d i s c o v e r e d f r o m

N o r t h A m e r i c a n a m b e r , a caddis fly, Dolophilus praemissus C o c k e r e l l , w a s identified in 1916 in a m b e r f r o m Coffee Sand, T e n n e s s e e ; ironically, no r e c e n t collections h a v e b e e n m a d e o f this a m b e r . A significant a m b e r d e p o s i t also o c c u r s i n t h e Black C r e e k F o r m a t i o n ( a b o u t 7 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s old) n e a r

Opposite: Crude amber embedded in marcasite, a form of pyrite,from New Jersey. Length of largest piece 5.1". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Goldsboro, N o r t h Carolina. A m b e r from near Paden (Tishomingo County), Mississippi, i n t h e U p p e r M c S h a n F o r m a t i o n o f t h e E u t a w G r o u p ( a b o u t 9 0 million y e a r s old), is f o u n d in s m a l l p i e c e s s o m e t i m e s up to 1.5 i n c h e s l o n g . T h i s a m b e r i s associated w i t h fossilized w o o d o f C u p r e s s a c e a e , P i n a c e a e , a n d T a x o d i a c e a e , so it is p r o b a b l y n o t d e r i v e d from an a r a u c a r i a n t r e e . T h e a m b e r is yellow t o d a r k b r o w n , m o s t l y cloudy, a n d h a s b e e n f o u n d t o c o n t a i n a h o s t o f fungal s p o r e s a n d h y p h a e b u t n o insect a s o f yet. A m b e r f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c C o a s t a l Plain o f t h e e a s t e r n U n i t e d States h a s

Above: Variations in New Jersey amber: a large drop-shaped piece; opaque and oxidized pieces (center of top row and left column); and various transparent pieces. Length of largest piece 3.6". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

b e e n k n o w n for m o r e t h a n 150 years, t h e first r e p o r t o f i t b e i n g i n 1821. T h a t r e p o r t d e s c r i b e d a p i e c e f o u n d in clay n e a r t h e s h o r e of C a p e Sable, M a r y l a n d , containing w h a t w a s believed t o b e a gall m a d e b y scale insects. A m b e r h a s also b e e n f o u n d o n C a p e C o d , L o n g Island, a n d S t a t e n Island. Historically, l a r g e deposits on Staten Island w e r e d i s c o v e r e d in o p e n pits m i n e d for clay in b r i c k

Amber in Nature • 27

m a n u f a c t u r e . T h e s e h u g e pits are n o w e r o d e d i n a n d c o v e r e d w i t h w o o d l a n d . T h e a m b e r w a s p u r p o r t e d l y s o plentiful t h a t w o r k e r s w o u l d pile i t i n barrels during the winter and b u r n it to keep warm! A m b e r o c c u r s i n similar a b a n d o n e d clay pits i n C r e t a c e o u s e x p o s u r e s o f N e w Jersey, w h e r e t h e m o s t a b u n d a n t N o r t h A m e r i c a n d e p o s i t s are f o u n d . C h e m i c a l analysis identifies t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r a s a r a u c a r i a n ; h o w e v e r , t w i g s i n t h e a m b e r a n d t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e o f lignite found w i t h t h e a m b e r ( s o m e t i m e s t h e a m b e r i s f o u n d i n t h e fossilized w o o d ) indicate C u p r e s s a c e a e . A m b e r d e p o s i t s v a r y f r o m 6 5 m i l l i o n t o n e a r l y 9 5 m i l l i o n years old, a l t h o u g h a n u n u s u a l T e r t i a r y fossil "resin," w i t h a c o n s i s t e n c y like solid, h a r d plastic, is Wood found with amber from New Jersey, presumably of the amber trees themselves. Length of longest piece 10". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

k n o w n f r o m N e w Jersey. D e r i v e d f r o m t h e w i t c h - h a z e l a n d s w e e t - g u m family ( H a m a m e l i d a c e a e ) , it is c o m p o s e d of a m a t e r i a l like p o l y s t y r e n e a n d is similar to siegburgite, k n o w n f r o m E u r o p e since t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century. T h e t r u e , r e s i n o u s C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r f r o m N e w Jersey i s clear r e d t o yellow. In s o m e deposits, 70 percent of the material is turbid, being clouded with small b u b b l e s a n d p a r t i c l e s o f debris s w e p t off t h e b a r k a s t h e resin s t r e a m e d d o w n the tree trunk. A m b e r a n d o t h e r fossils f r o m t h e N e w J e r s e y C r e t a c e o u s are r e v e a l i n g n e w i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e flowering, literally, o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d . T w o o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t insect fossils are k n o w n f r o m t h e N e w Jersey a m b e r . O n e i s a v e r y p r i m i t i v e ant, Sphecomyrmafreyi ("Frey's w a s p a n t " ) , d e s c r i b e d in 1966 by H a r v a r d e n t o m o l o g i s t s . A l t h o u g h o l d e r fossil ants have b e e n d e s c r i b e d since t h e n , this is still t h e o l d e s t definitive a n t . T h e ants are a successful g r o u p today, w i t h a b o u t 14,000 living species, a n d t h e y are pivotal c o m p o n e n t s o f s o m e e c o s y s t e m s , s u c h a s t r o p i c a l r a i n forests. T h e o t h e r fossil is a b e e , Trigona prisca, w h i c h , incredibly, b e l o n g s to an e v o l u t i o n a r i l y r e c e n t g r o u p , t h e stingless b e e s , o r m e l i p o n i n e s . T h i s b e e fossil w a s u n e a r t h e d i n a n old M u s e u m collection; c h e m i c a l analyses c o n f i r m e d i t w a s a u t h e n t i c N e w Jersey a m b e r , a s t h e label i n d i c a t e d (specifically, f r o m Kinkora, N e w J e r s e y ) . Since t h e p i e c e w a s n o t precisely d o c u m e n t e d , however, a d a t i n g m o r e exact t h a n 6 5 t o 8 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s o l d h a s n o t b e e n possible. N o n e t h e l e s s , s u c h a n a n o m a l o u s l y a d v a n c e d insect o f this a g e raised controversy, especially since it h a d s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e e v o l u t i o n of f l o w e r i n g plants. Since all b e e s f o r a g e o n p o l l e n a n d nectar, s u c h a n a d v a n c e d b e e i n t h e C r e t a c e o u s w o u l d i n d i c a t e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n t i q u i t y for t h e a n g i o s p e r m s . D e s p i t e t h e c h e m i c a l analyses, s o m e scientists r e m a i n skeptical a b o u t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e s p e c i m e n . I n t h e 1990s, n e w e x c a v a t i o n s i n N e w Jersey, f r o m t h e s a m e C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t s t h a t yield m u c h o f t h e a m b e r , have revealed a s t u n n i n g a r r a y o f 90-million-year-old flowers. T h e y are p r e s e r v e d , n o t i n a m b e r , b u t i n clay. T h e

The oldest known bee, Trigona prisca, fossilized in New Jersey amber. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

flowers are tiny a n d m a d e e n t i r e l y o f c a r b o n , p r o b a b l y t r a n s f o r m e d this w a y w h e n forest fires "charcoalified" w h a t lay b e n e a t h t h e forest leaf litter. Preser- ' v a t i o n is perfect: s t a m e n s , a n t h e r s , p o l l e n , s t i g m a s , petals, g l a n d s , a n d t h e cells t h a t m a k e t h e m u p are all visible. I n m a n y cases t h e s e flowers are b e t t e r p r e s e r v e d

28 • Amber in Nature

These tiny carbonized flowers and a beetle head (lengths of each about. 1"), preserved in clays with the New Jersey amber, were Right, above: Detrusandra, a relative of magnolias, is much simpler photographed with a scanning electron microscope. L. H. Bailey and was perhaps wind pollinated. Hortorium, Cornell University Right, below: Head of a cupedoid beetle revealing intricate sculpturing. Left: Ericalean flower shown intact (above) and "dissected " (below). This mode of fossilization is the closest equivalent to preservation in It has petals, round sepal glands along the petals, and nectaries at amber. These and similar fossils complement those preserved in the the bases of the stamens, which were presumably used for attracting New Jersey amber, which is of similar age. insect pollinators, such as bees. Amber in Nature • 29

Famous ant, Sphecomyrma freyi, fossilized in New Jersey amber. It is one of the most primitive of known ants. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University

t h a n e x a m p l e s i n T e r t i a r y a m b e r s . M a n y o f t h e flowers are f r o m plants surprisingly a d v a n c e d evolutionarily, b e l o n g i n g t o t r o p i c a l families a n d o t h e r g r o u p s , w h i c h m a y explain s u c h a n a d v a n c e d b e e i n N e w Jersey a m b e r . For e x a m p l e , t h e r e are flowers o f laurels ( L a u r a c e a e ) , C h l o r a n t h a c e a e , tiny magnolia-like flowers, a n d f r o m p l a n t s r e l a t e d t o t h e h e a t h s (family Ericaceae) a n d t h e witchh a z e l family, H a m a m e l i d a c e a e . Pollen i n t h e ericalean flowers w a s h e l d t o g e t h e r

Opposite, above: Tiny bird feather in New Jersey amber. The oldest known birds are about 50 million years older than the one that dropped this feather. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

in c l u m p s by t h r e a d s of a v i s c o u s s u b s t a n c e . T h i s is strictly a feature of flowers t h a t are p o l l i n a t e d b y insects, w h i c h s e r v e t o m a k e t h e c l u m p s o f p o l l e n a d h e r e to t h e h a i r s of an insect like Trigona. O t h e r s have g l a n d s t h a t s e c r e t e scents to a t t r a c t insects. T h e h a m a m e l i d a c e o u s fossil flowers have n e c t a r i e s n e a r t h e petals, w h i c h are o t h e r h a l l m a r k s o f flowers p o l l i n a t e d b y insects. Besides a v a r i e t y of small o r g a n i s m s in t h e a m b e r , t h e n e w excavations o f a m b e r i n N e w Jersey have f o u n d o t h e r insects t h a t b e l o n g t o living g e n e r a .

Opposite, below: The oldest known mushroom, in New Jersey amber. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

A t least s o m e species o f insects h a d close relatives t h a t e x t e n d e d b a c k nearly 100 m i l l i o n years. W e are g r a d u a l l y l e a r n i n g t h a t t h e N e w Jersey b e e i s n o t a n o m a l o u s l y old: t h e C r e t a c e o u s i s a n o m a l o u s l y y o u n g .

30 • Amber in Nature

Japan

^

m

o

n

S

s e a s n

o r e d e p o s i t s i n Kuji, J a p a n , c a n b e f o u n d 85-million-year-

old a m b e r , f r o m t h e T a n e i c h i a n d K u n i t a n F o r m a t i o n s . T h e a m b e r o c c u r s w i t h m a r i n e fossils like m o s a s a u r t e e t h a n d a m m o n i t e s (extinct relatives o f t h e n a u t i l u s ) a n d c o m e s i n a r e m a r k a b l e v a r i e t y o f colors a n d opacity, m u c h of it an a p p e a l i n g c a r a m e l color. It is t h e oldest a m b e r in t h e w o r l d f r o m w h i c h objects h a v e b e e n c a r v e d , o n e r e a s o n b e i n g t h e large size o f s o m e pieces. O n e p i e c e , f o u n d in 1927 n e a r Kuji, w e i g h s 44 p o u n d s ; a n o t h e r , f o u n d in 1941 ( a n d n o w i n t h e N a t i o n a l Science M u s e u m i n T o k y o ) , w e i g h s 3 5 p o u n d s . B o t h o f t h e s e large pieces are o p a q u e y e l l o w i s h o r a n g e . E v e n o l d e r a m b e r ( a b o u t 120 m i l l i o n y e a r s old) h a s b e e n f o u n d i n C h o s h i , J a p a n . All t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s h a v e s o m e insects; o n e p i e c e f r o m Kuji h a s p o r t i o n s of a bird feather.

32 • Amber in Nature

Variations in the 85-million-year-old Kuji amber from Japan. Length of largest piece 3 ". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology), courtesy of Kuji Amber Museum

Opposite: Collecting late Cretaceous amber from Kuji, Japan

Amber in Nature • 33

Collecting Cretaceous amber from the Taimyr Peninsula, northern Siberia Above: En route to Romanikha, eastern Taimyr. Larches here are the northernmost forests. Middle: Baikura-neru Bay, on the edge of Lake Taimyr in the center of the peninsula. This site has yielded most of the fossiliferous amber. Below: Yantardakh (Amber Mountain), eastern Taimyr. Digging amberiferous lignite out of a "lens" embedded in a wall of sand and clay Opposite: Screening and washing the amber at Yantardakh. The person on the left is examining pieces for inclusions with a hand lens.

34 • Amber in Nature

Siberia

P

r o r j a D r

y t h e largest d e p o s i t o f C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d c o m e s

f r o m t h e T a i m y r P e n i n s u l a i n n o r t h e r n Russia. T h e o l d e s t r e p o r t o f this a m b e r w a s m a d e a s early a s 1730. O f t h e four m a i n d e p o s i t s o n o r n e a r t h e T a i m y r Peninsula, o n e , a b o u t 8 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, i s f r o m t h e K h a t a n g a D e p r e s s i o n , also t h e site o f t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t forests (larches). I n b o t h w e s t e r n a n d c e n t r a l T a i m y r are 100-million-year-old d e p o s i t s f r o m t h e C e n o m a n i a n e p o c h , D o l g a n i a n a n d B e g i c h e v F o r m a t i o n s . A n o t h e r i s f r o m t h e Arctic I n s t i t u t e Island, j u s t off t h e w e s t c o a s t of T a i m y r . Scientists at t h e P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e i n M o s c o w h a v e s p e n t d e c a d e s e x c a v a t i n g a n d s c r e e n i n g this a m b e r for t h e c o u n t l e s s tiny o r g a n i s m s fossilized in it.

„, „ The Middle East

T h e o l d e s t a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d c o n t a i n i n g insects a n d o t h e r ° l a r g e r o r g a n i s m s c o m e s f r o m t h e M i d d l e East, specifically

L e b a n o n , a l t h o u g h s i m i l a r a m b e r o c c u r s i n Israel a n d J o r d a n . T h e a m b e r i s chemically similar in all of t h e s e a r e a s a n d is from t h e N e o c o m i a n age ( L o w e r C r e t a c e o u s , a b o u t 120 t o 130 m i l l i o n y e a r s old). T h e largest a m o u n t s o f a m b e r are f o u n d a t D a h r al-Baidha, b e t w e e n B e i r u t a n d D a m a s c u s , a n d a r o u n d Jezzine. O n l y t w o c o l l e c t i o n s o f L e b a n e s e a m b e r exist, o n e a t t h e M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e , Stuttgart, the o t h e r being the Acra Collection, part of w h i c h is a t t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History. Screening and preparing inclusions in Cretaceous a m b e r s is extremely tedious b e c a u s e o f t h e m a n y fractures. T h e A c r a s s p e n t several d e c a d e s processing a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 p o u n d s o f r a w a m b e r a n d a c c u m u l a t e d a w o n d e r f u l collection o f m o r e t h a n a t h o u s a n d fossiliferous pieces. I n t h a t collection are m a n y exciting earliest g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s o f v a r i o u s a r t h r o p o d s , such as t e r m i t e s a n d t h e oldest definitive m o t h s ( i n c l u d i n g a caterpillar).

These fossilized organisms in Lebanese amber, 125 to 130 million years old, represent the oldest amber in the world containing insects and other macroscopic forms of life. Most are less than . 1" long. Acra Collection Above: Polyxenid millipede Right: Mites and pseudoscorpion Below: The oldest known caterpillar Opposite, above: Male sandfly Opposite, below: Small cockroach

W e are c e r t a i n t h a t t h e m o t h s are t r u e l e p i d o p t e r a n s b e c a u s e t h e a m b e r h a s p r e s e r v e d e v e n t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e tiny scales o n t h e w i n g s . T h e c a t e r p i l l a r h a s t h e tiny spiggotlike s p i n n e r e t a t t h e tip o f its h e a d , w h i c h a l m o s t certainly w o u l d n o t be p r e s e r v e d in a fossilized i m p r e s s i o n in rock. M o s t c o m m o n i n L e b a n e s e a m b e r are m a l e scale insects, m i d g e s , parasitic w a s p s , a n d p s o c o p t e r a n b a r k lice. Rarities i n c l u d e p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s , m i l l i p e d e s , a n d s t i n g i n g w a s p s . T h e o l d e s t D N A ever r e c o v e r e d w a s from a w e e v i l in this collection. 36

' Amber in Nature

Tertiary Deposits A m o n g the dozens of major a m b e r deposits scattered around the world, most are f r o m t h e T e r t i a r y p e r i o d , w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m 6 5 million y e a r s a g o t o t h e p r e s e n t . E v e n w i t h i n this p e r i o d , m o s t d e p o s i t s derive from t h e E o c e n e , a few f r o m t h e O l i g o c e n e a n d M i o c e n e ages, a n d even fewer from t h e o t h e r ages i n t h e Tertiary. T h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s , c o l o r s , a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e a m b e r s are e x t r e m e l y varied, unlike t h e earlier C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s , which are m o s t l y a brittle, t r a n s p a r e n t y e l l o w t o r e d ( p e r h a p s reflecting m o r e u n i f o r m b o t a n i c a l o r i g i n s ) .

Above: Excavating the largest piece of amber in the world, in Sarawak. It is now on display at the Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart.

Chunk of amber from Sarawak. Very opaque and blackish, it is from the same locality as the piece of amber above. Height 4.4". American Museum of Natural History (courtesy of Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart)

38 • Amber in Nature

Left: Giant Shorea curtisii tree on Brunei. Note two men in the tree, about midway up on the left. Burmese legend holds that Gaudama died and perhaps was even born in a grove of Shoreas:

Leaves, flowers, and fruit of Shorea aptera. Extinct species of Shorea or some other dipterocarp tree apparently gave rise to the amber from Sarawak in Malaysia and Arkansas in the United States.

Amber in Nature • 39

^

T h e largest p i e c e o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , d e r i v i n g f r o m t h e l o w e r t o midM i o c e n e N y a l a u F o r m a t i o n o f S a r a w a k , Malaysia, w a s discovered o n

D e c e m b e r 3 , 1991. I t w e i g h s m o r e t h a n 150 p o u n d s a n d , t o t r a n s p o r t i t t o t h e M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e i n S t u t t g a r t , G e r m a n y , w h e r e i t i s n o w o n display, i t h a d t o b e s a w e d i n t o several s e c t i o n s . T h e a m b e r itself i s similar t o d e n s e coal, i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h t h e fossil resin. U p o n p o l i s h i n g , v a r i o u s c o l o r s o f t h e S a r a w a k a m b e r b e c o m e a p p a r e n t : w h i t e , pink, o r a n g e , g r e e n , even violet, a l t h o u g h a clear y e l l o w i s r a r e . M i c r o s c o p i c r e d d i s h - b r o w n d r o p l e t s i m p a r t t h e p i n k i s h opacity. T h e M e r i t - P e r l a area, w h e r e t h e p i e c e w a s recovered, i s m i n e d for coal, a n d a m b e r i s f o u n d a m o n g s o m e o f t h e coal s e a m s . Bright, yellowish a m b e r o c c u r s i n s o m e s e a m s , i n pieces 1 t o 4 0 c e n t i m e t e r s i n d i a m e t e r . T h e a m b e r f o u n d s o far h a s c o n t a i n e d c e n t i p e d e s , spiders, beetles, ants a n d w a s p s , a n d v a r i o u s flies. T h e D i p t e r o c a r p a c e a e family i s t h e a p p a r e n t tree s o u r c e o f this a m b e r . M a n y species o f d i p t e r o c a r p s g r o w i n Asia, w h e r e they-are v a l u a b l e Amber mines in northern Burma, c. 1930

t i m b e r trees because of their girth, straight trunks, and resinous w o o d , which h e l p s p r e v e n t t e r m i t e infestation.

40 • Amber in Nature

Historically, t h e b e s t k n o w n Asian a m b e r i s burmite, f r o m t h e H u k a w n g valley o f n o r t h e r n B u r m a ( n o w M y a n m a r ) . I t w a s r e p o r t e d i n E u r o p e a n scientific l i t e r a t u r e as early as 1836, a l t h o u g h m i n i n g h a d b e e n d o n e h e r e for at least a m i l l e n n i u m . B y t h e 1930s, m a n y o f t h e a m b e r m i n e s , a t least n e a r M a i n g k w a n

The largest piece of transparent amber, which is very deep red, from Burma (Myanmar). It weighs 33.5 pounds and is 19.5" long. Natural History Museum, London

a n d t h e village o f S h i n g b a n i n t h e H u k a w n g valley, c o n s i s t e d o f h u n d r e d s o f a b a n d o n e d pits o v e r g r o w n b y d e n s e j u n g l e . A t t h a t t i m e , t h e largest w o r k i n g s w e r e a t K h a n j a m a w , w h e r e 150 K a c h i n s , Shans, a n d S h a n - C h i n e s e w e r e d i g g i n g 500 to 600 pits. M o s t of t h e pits w e r e 30 to 40 feet d e e p , occasionally 50 feet, d e p t h b e i n g c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a d e e p s a n d layer a n d w a t e r , w h i c h seeps in at 40 feet. To k e e p pit walls f r o m collapsing, e l a b o r a t e s c r e e n s of b a m b o o poles supported by w o o d e n posts were needed. Today, b u r m i t e h a s a l m o s t l e g e n d a r y a p p e a l , i n p a r t b e c a u s e t h e d e p o s i t s are no longer m i n e d and the supply is generally unavailable. (This m a y be because the m i n e s are e x h a u s t e d ; i n f o r m a t i o n o n C h i n e s e a m b e r m i n i n g i s sketchy.) T h e appeal i s also d u e t o b u r m i t e ' s p r o p e r t i e s . F r o m t h e few scientific c o l l e c t i o n s o f i t existing (the b e s t b e i n g a t t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) , w e k n o w

Amber in Nature • 41

t h a t i t w a s h i g h l y f o s s i l i f e r o u s . F o u r t e e n local varieties w e r e r e c o g n i z e d , m o s t o f t h e m a r i c h , t r a n s p a r e n t r e d w i t h s t r o n g u l t r a v i o l e t f l u o r e s c e n c e . B u r m i t e i s also h a r d e r t h a n m o s t o t h e r a m b e r s a n d i s excellent for c a r v i n g . I n fact, m u c h o f i t w a s e x p o r t e d t o Y u n n a n , i n s o u t h e r n C h i n a , t h e n t o Beijing, for c a r v i n g v a r i o u s objets d ' a r t . T h e largest s p e c i m e n of t r a n s p a r e n t a m b e r in t h e w o r l d is a deep-red p i e c e o f b u r m i t e w e i g h i n g 33.5 p o u n d s , i n t h e m i n e r a l o g y d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n . D i s c o v e r e d i n 1860, i t w a s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e m u s e u m i n 1940. Interestingly, t h e r e i s n o historical m e n t i o n o f a m b e r from L i a o n i n g Province, C h i n a , for u s e i n c a r v i n g o r n a m e n t a l objects. A m b e r h e r e o c c u r s w i t h coal i n t h e G u c h e n z g i F o r m a t i o n o f F u S h u n . I t t o o exists i n large pieces a n d i s highly fossiliferous. B u r m i t e a n d F u S h u n a m b e r w e r e b o t h f o r m e d i n t h e E o c e n e , a n d t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s are u n k n o w n .

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d e p o s i t o n t h e c o n t i n e n t w i t h t r u e a m b e r c o m e s from s o u t h e a s t e r n Nigeria near Umuahia, in the A m e k i Formation of the Eocene. T h e a m b e r is d a r k r e d , t r a n s p a r e n t t o o p a q u e . N o b i o l o g i c a l inclusions are k n o w n , n o r i s t h e plant source.

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o v e r w h e l m i n g size o f t h e Baltic d e p o s i t s , Sicilian a m b e r h a s

its o w n allure. A m b e r f r o m t h e S i m e t o River o f Sicily, n e a r C a t a n i a , a n d t h e Salso River (called simetite) is r e n o w n e d for its varied, d e e p c o l o r s : red, b l u e , a n d s m o k y g r e e n . A r n o l d Buffum, w h o extolled t h e v i r t u e s o f Sicilian a m b e r i n his b o o k The Tears of the Heliades, a m a s s e d a w o n d e r f u l c o l l e c t i o n of E u r o p e a n a m b e r o b j e t s d ' a r t i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century, w h i c h are i n t h e M u s e u m o f Fine Arts, B o s t o n . O t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s o f s i m e t i t e , b u t o f m i n e r a l o g i c a l s p e c i m e n s , are a t t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History. A l t h o u g h s o m e pieces are i n d e e d t h e d e e p r e d t h a t Buffum described, t h e r e are n o pieces w i t h distinctive g r e e n a n d b l u e h u e s i n t h e B o s t o n c o l l e c t i o n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e these colors h a v e faded. Sicilian a m b e r i s y o u n g e r ( O l i g o c e n e t o M i o c e n e ) t h a n the Baltic a m b e r , a n d t h e d e p o s i t s are m u c h smaller. S i m e t i t e is c o l l e c t e d only rarely today, a l t h o u g h it is h a r d to i m a g i n e t h a t an e x h a u s t e d supply is t h e r e a s o n , for t h e r e n e v e r w a s o r g a n i z e d o r m e c h a n i z e d m i n i n g o f i t like t h a t d o n e for a m b e r o n t h e S a m l a n d P e n i n s u l a o f t h e Baltic Sea. O b s c u r e b y E u r o p e a n a m b e r s t a n d a r d s i s rumanite, f r o m t h e C a r p a t h i a n Mountains of Romania. Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits of Romanian a m b e r h a v e b e e n f o u n d . T h e t r u e T e r t i a r y r u m a n i t e has p r o p e r t i e s a n d c o l o r s similar t o s i m e t i t e a n d c o m e s largely f r o m a r e a s s u r r o u n d i n g Colti, i n B u z a u District. Elsew h e r e in the Carpathians, in the Lvov and Ivano-Frankovsk regions, near the t o w n o f V e r k h n i i Sinevidnyi, are E o c e n e d e p o s i t s o f succinite. S i m e t i t e a n d m o s t r u m a n i t e lack succinic acid, a n d t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r s i s u n c e r t a i n .

42 ' Amber in Nature

.. , . North America

A l t h o u g h o v e r s h a d o w e d by t h e vast d e p o s i t s of t h e Baltic b

}

r

region, N o r t h American deposits from b o t h the Cretaceous and t h e T e r t i a r y p e r i o d s are still q u i t e varied. S o m e d e p o s i t s are s u r p r i s i n g l y rich. T h e n o r t h e r n m o s t a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d o c c u r s i n early E o c e n e d e p o s i t s o f Axel H e i b u r g a n d E l l e s m e r e islands, i n t h e C a n a d i a n Arctic. T h e a m b e r f o r m e d i n the permafrost and can include remarkably well-preserved tree stumps, cones, a n d o t h e r plant fossils, as w e l l as t h e fossils of extinct catfish, s n a p p i n g t u r t l e s , a n d p l a g i o m e r i d m a m m a l s r e l a t e d t o early p r i m a t e s , e v i d e n c e o f t h e s u b t r o p i c a l

Cones and branches of the relict, living pine Pseudolarix kempferi. Fortymillion-year-old cones of an extinct Pseudolarix from the northernmost islands of Axel Heiburg and Ellesmere have amber with large amounts of succinic acid. Thus, Pseudolarix may be the kind of tree that gave rise to Baltic amber, whose botanical origins have been controversial.

Amber in Nature • 43

Right: Landscape on Axel Heiburg Island in the Arctic Circle, where 50million-year-old forests are preserved in the permafrost with amber

Amber from Axel Heiburg Island, with a fossilized cone in the center, perhaps from the kind of tree that produced the amber. Most of the amber is heavily weathered. Length of cone .8". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

44 • Amber in Nature

Variety in the 40-million-year-old amber from central Arkansas. Some pieces have been polished, revealing transparency; others are completely opaque. Length of largest piece 1.7". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 45

r e m a i n s b e n e a t h t h e f r o z e n d e s o l a t i o n . T h e a m b e r itself i s n o t s o well preserved, m u c h of it h a v i n g an oxidized, p o w d e r y , d e e p crust, w i t h a small c o r e of t r a n s p a r e n t y e l l o w a m b e r . A m b e r f r o m fossilized Pseudolarix t r e e s f o u n d h e r e c o n t a i n s succinic acid i n a m o u n t s similar t o t h a t f o u n d i n Baltic a m b e r , w h i c h m a y r e l a t e t h e s e t r e e s t o t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s o f Baltic a m b e r . T h e largest N o r t h A m e r i c a n d e p o s i t o f a m b e r i s f r o m t h e E o c e n e C l a i b o r n e Formation of Malvern County, Arkansas. T h e a m b e r is in t w o locations, one a n expansive pit m i n e d for clay t o m a n u f a c t u r e bricks, t h e o t h e r a n a b a n d o n e d clay pit. I n t h e active m i n e , pieces u p t o t h r e e i n c h e s l o n g can b e f o u n d o n t h e surface of a d a r k clay i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h lignite. If t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t u m is e x p o s e d , it is possible to collect several p o u n d s off t h e surface in o n e day. T h i s a m b e r is v e r y distinctive for its w e a t h e r e d r i n d a n d d e n s e i n t e r n a l flow lines, w h i c h are also w e a t h e r e d . I n t a c t a m b e r i n t h e c o r e o f a piece can b e r e d t o yellow; t h e y e l l o w a m b e r i s m o r e often m a d e slightly cloudy b y m i c r o s c o p i c b u b b l e s . M y r i a d a r t h r o p o d s are p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r , b u t finding t h e m r e q u i r e s diligence b e c a u s e o f t h e o p a c i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l . C h e m i s t r y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e i s i n t h e D i p t e r o c a r p a c e a e , w h i c h i s i n t r i g u i n g since n o t r e e s i n t h e family g r o w n o w i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . A m u c h s m a l l e r b u t i n t e r e s t i n g d e p o s i t of Tertiary a m b e r is f o u n d in t h e m i d - E o c e n e T i g e r M o u n t a i n F o r m a t i o n n e a r Seattle, W a s h i n g t o n , i n a small, s t e e p e x p o s u r e i n heavily w o o d e d s t a t e p r o p e r t y . T h e a m b e r , a d a r k , t r a n s p a r e n t red, is e x t r e m e l y brittle a n d fractures easily w h e n extracted from t h e clay substrate. A l t h o u g h n o insects have b e e n f o u n d i n it, t h e m a n y plant fibers i n t h e a m b e r are s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o n t h e b a r k o f c e d a r s i n t h e C u p r e s s a c e a e , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a m b e r w a s f o r m e d f r o m a t r e e i n t h e s a m e family.

46 • Amber in Nature

Baltic Amber T h e largest d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e o n e s e x p l o i t e d t h e l o n g e s t , derive f r o m t h e s h o r e s o f t h e Baltic Sea i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e . A m b e r also w a s h e s u p o n t h e s h o r e s o f e a s t e r n E n g l a n d a n d Scotland. Baltic a m b e r h a s a n exceptionally rich h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t t r a d e , s u p p o r t e d b y guilds o f a m b e r c r a f t s m e n a n d s t u n n i n g w o r k s o f art. I t e v e n f i g u r e s i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y .

. _ . Location and Geology

T h e t r u e Baltic a m b e r is f o u n d on or n e a r t h e s h o r e s o f t h e e a s t e r n Baltic Sea, p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h e S a m l a n d

Peninsula. T h e p e n i n s u l a , a m e r e 400 s q u a r e m i l e s in size, h a s p r o d u c e d 90 p e r c e n t o f all t h e a m b e r i n E u r o p e . B o t h its n o r t h e r n b a y (Kurisches Haff) a n d s o u t h e r n bay (Frisches Haff) are nearly entirely closed off to t h e Baltic Sea. Beaches o n the side o f t h e p e n i n s u l a facing t h e sea are n a r r o w , w i t h s t e e p , vertical cliffs. A m b e r w a s h e d u p o n t h e b e a c h e s , especially after s t o r m s , h a s b e e n h a r v e s t e d for at least t e n m i l l e n n i a . A few h u g e pieces h a v e b e e n f o u n d ;

Samland Peninsula, Baltic coast

Amber in Nature • 47

Opposite: Section of Baltic amber encrusted with barnacles, with one end cut and polished. Pieces like this demonstrate that Baltic amber was in marine water after being eroded from sediment. Length 3.4". American Museum of Natural History (Earth and Planetary Sciences)

Plate from Nathanael Sendelio's 1742 monograph on Baltic amber, Historia Succinorum Corpora aliena involventium et Naturae Opere. ...He depicts plant, wood, and insect inclusions, as well as several pieces with seaweed. Marine organisms became attached to some pieces of amber that were deposited by seawater.

Amber in Nature * 49

o n e , w e i g h i n g 21.5 p o u n d s ( n o w i n t h e H u m b o l d t M u s e u m , Berlin), w a s d i s c o v e r e d i n 1890 a t t h e m o u t h o f t h e O d e r River. A m b e r i s s t r a n d e d o n o t h e r Baltic s h o r e s as well a n d , occasionally, e v e n t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s of E n g l a n d . In N o r t h J u t l a n d , D e n m a r k , for i n s t a n c e , 3,000 p o u n d s w e r e c o l l e c t e d this w a y in 1800, a n d , after several s t o r m y y e a r s b e t w e e n 1822 a n d 1825, o n e D a n i s h m e r c h a n t c o l l e c t e d 686 p o u n d s a t R i n g k j o b i n g ( o n e piece p u r p o r t e d l y w e i g h e d 2 7 p o u n d s ) . T h e r e c o r d , t h o u g h , g o e s t o t h e S a m l a n d Peninsula; d u r i n g o n e day Large piece of Baltic amber, left unpolished to show the natural fissures, with a necklace of polished amber beads. Length 9.8". American Museum of Natural History (Earth and Planetary Sciences)

i n 1862, 4,400 p o u n d s w e r e c o l l e c t e d off b e a c h e s i n t h e t o w n o f P a l m n i c k e n (now Yantarny). It is n o t coincidental that the m o s t productive a m b e r mine in h i s t o r y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h a t t o w n a b o u t t e n y e a r s later. A m b e r h a d b e e n collected largely f r o m t h e S a m l a n d b e a c h e s u p u n t i l t h e midn i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n t w o p e o p l e m a d e a m a j o r i m p a c t o n massive-scale

Such a large piece of amber would have been prized by artisans for sculpting a figure or other decorative piece.

m i n i n g o f a m b e r . I n 1850, K o n i g s b e r g ' s Society for Physical E c o n o m y h i r e d geologist George Zaddach, w h o described h o w the amber was concentrated in layers of t h e blau Erde ("blue e a r t h , " actually g r e e n i s h a n d f o r m e d by g l a u c o n i t e )

50 • Amber in Nature

Two pieces of Baltic amber with surfaces polished. One piece is a mottled, opaque yellow-orange with deep pits. The other is mostly transparent with milky swirls on the interior. Length of larger piece 4.4". American Museum of Natural History (Earth and Planetary Sciences)

Amber in Nature • SI

The Palmnicken amber mine, c. 1985

d a t i n g b a c k to t h e E o c e n e e p o c h , 40 m i l l i o n years ago. T h e blau Erde e v e r y w h e r e w a s 16 feet b e l o w sea level, a n d s o m e 130 to 150 feet b e l o w t h e topsoil. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , this layer w a s s u b m e r g e d o n t h e floor o f t h e Baltic Sea a n d r e a c h e d t h e S a m l a n d P e n i n s u l a a t o n l y a few l o c a t i o n s , o n e b e i n g P a l m n i c k e n . W h a t w a s w a s h e d u p o n t h e s h o r e s w a s m e r e l y cast off from the b e d o f t h e sea; a m u c h r i c h e r s o u r c e r e m a i n e d t o b e t a p p e d . I n 1854, e n g i n e e r W i l h e l m S t a n t i e n f r o m M e m e l b e g a n d r e d g i n g o p e r a t i o n s for t h e a m b e r , 3 5 feet d o w n f r o m t h e floors o f t h e Haffs. B y 1865, t h e m i n i n g firm o f Stantien a n d Becker w a s o p e r a t i n g t w e n t y - t w o s t e a m b a r g e s a n d e m p l o y i n g a b o u t o n e t h o u s a n d p e o p l e . I n 1868, t h e y c o l l e c t e d a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d a m o u n t o f a m b e r : 185,000 p o u n d s . B y 1870, Stantien and Becker b e g a n open-pit mining, and the famous Palmnicken m i n e w a s o p e n e d in 1875. In its first year, P a l m n i c k e n g e n e r a t e d 450,000 p o u n d s of a m b e r , a n d its yield i m p r o v e d steadily until 1895, w h e n t h e u n b e l i e v a b l e a m o u n t o f 1.2 m i l l i o n p o u n d s w a s e x t r a c t e d . O n e Felix D a h n d e s c r i b e d P a l m n i c k e n , w h e r e t h e r e w o r k e d " h u n d r e d s o f m e n , w o m e n , a n d children, i n all i m a g i n a b l e c o s t u m e s , i n t h e o d d e s t o f attires, s h i e l d i n g t h e m s e l v e s against t h e s h a r p , w h i s t l i n g w i n d s , d i g g i n g v i g o r o u s l y a n d s w i n g i n g t h e i r shovels t o t h e l a n g u i d strain of s o m e s o m b r e melody." 52 • Amber in Nature

B y 1930, a m b e r e x t r a c t i o n a t P a l m n i c k e n w a s largely m e c h a n i z e d . H u g e c o n v e y e r s d u m p e d b u c k e t s o f blau Erde i n t o o p e n freight cars. T h e t r a i n s t h e n c a r r i e d t h e e a r t h over t o g r a t e s , w h e r e i t w a s spilled t o t h e s p r a y h o u s e b e l o w a n d b l a s t e d w i t h h i g h - p r e s s u r e h o s e s ; s m a l l p i e c e s floated o u t of a slurry, l a r g e r pieces w e r e collected b y h a n d . O u t o f t h e h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f p o u n d s e x t r a c t e d yearly, n e a r l y 9 0 p e r c e n t w a s o f p o o r quality a n d s u i t a b l e o n l y for c h e m i c a l processing; t h e r e m a i n d e r w a s u s e d for c a r v i n g s a n d j e w e l r y o r c o n t a i n e d fossilized i n c l u s i o n s . T h a t 9 0 p e r c e n t w a s d r y distilled i n h u g e i r o n r e t o r t s , w h i c h yielded 6 0 t o 6 5 p e r c e n t a m b e r c o l o p h o n y ( a h i g h - g r a d e v a r n i s h ) , 1 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t a m b e r oil ( u s e d i n m e d i c i n e s , casting, a n d t h e h i g h e s t g r a d e varnishes), a n d 2 p e r c e n t distilled acids (used for m e d i c i n e s a n d dyes). P a l m n i c k e n i s still t h e m o s t prolific a m b e r m i n e i n t h e w o r l d .

~ Features

A b o u t 90 p e r c e n t of Baltic a m b e r has a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n of succinic ° r

acid ( u p to 8 p e r c e n t ) , f r o m w h i c h t h e n a m e succinite is derived. Agricola ( G e o r g B a u e r ) i s said t o h a v e b e e n t h e f i r s t t o isolate succinic acid f r o m Baltic a m b e r , a r o u n d 1546. S o m e Baltic a m b e r , a yellow, friable a m b e r called Miirber Bernstein, lacks succinic acid a n d h a s alternatively b e e n n a m e d Gedanite. O t h e r , r a r e r Baltic a m b e r s , also l a c k i n g succinic acid, are stantienite a n d beckerite, b o t h o f w h i c h are o p a q u e , dull b r o w n , o r black. Glessite, t h e r a r e s t f o r m , i s yellow a n d softer t h a n succinite. E v e n w i t h i n succinite t h e r e exist v a r i o u s classes, d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e size of n u m e r o u s b u b b l e s in t h e a m b e r . Foamy a m b e r is c a u s e d by a froth of l a r g e r b u b b l e s , w h i l e bone a m b e r is m a r k e d by m i c r o s c o p i c b u b b l e s . B o n e a m b e r i s w h i t e t o yellowish o p a q u e , like ivory, a n d w a s e a g e r l y s o u g h t for p a r t i c u l a r p o r t i o n s o f c a r v i n g s , s u c h a s inlays. Pieces h a v i n g b u b b l e sizes b e t w e e n t h o s e o f f o a m y a n d b o n e a m b e r are called f l o m , o r g o o s e - g r e a s e , a n d bastard a m b e r . Bastard a m b e r is c l o u d e d by milky swirls a n d is t h e m o s t c o m m o n o f t h e o p a q u e varieties. W h y s o m e a m b e r s are o p a q u e a n d o t h e r s are n o t i s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . T h e fact t h a t s o m e Baltic a m b e r lacks succinic acid s u g g e s t s t h a t several different k i n d s o f t r e e s m a y h a v e g i v e n rise t o t h e Baltic a m b e r .

Botanical Origins

Exactly w h a t t r e e o r t r e e s gave rise t o t h e a m b e r f r o m t h e ° Baltic r e g i o n h a s l o n g b e e n a m a t t e r o f c o n t r o v e r s y a n d 1

confusion (possibly r e s o l v e d j u s t r e c e n t l y ) , a n d s t u d y o f b o t a n i c a l i n c l u s i o n s in Baltic a m b e r h a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d history. In 1836, t h e G e r m a n b o t a n i s t H. R. G o e p p e r t d e s c r i b e d t h e Baltic a m b e r t r e e as Pittites succinifer. T h e t r e e was identified f r o m m i c r o s c o p i c features o f w o o d f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e amber, w h i c h , G o e p p e r t believed, also s h o w e d similarities t o p i n e s . I n fact, a n o t h e r b o t a n i s t l a t e r a s s i g n e d t h e Baltic a m b e r t r e e t o t h e g e n u s o f t r u e p i n e s , Pinits. O t h e r e v i d e n c e in favor of a p i n e or pinelike o r i g i n are t h e m a n y c o n e s and n e e d l e s in t h e a m b e r . Baltic a m b e r , h o w e v e r , lacks abietic acid, w h i c h chemically distinguishes p i n e resin. T h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s s t a t e s t h a t Baltic

A cone in Baltic amber. Length of cone .6". Private collection

a m b e r w a s f o r m e d f r o m a n a r a u c a r i a n o r a t r e e like o n e , b u t a r a u c a r i a n resin d o e s n o t have t h e succinic acid t h a t is so distinctive of m o s t Baltic a m b e r . In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e are few a r a u c a r i a n fossils i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e , a n d a p p a r e n t l y n o n e i n Baltic a m b e r .

Opposite: A small flower (diameter .6") in a much larger piece of Baltic amber. Private collection

A r e c e n t discovery t h a t s h e d s c o n s i d e r a b l e light on t h e o r i g i n s of Baltic a m b e r i s t h a t s o m e living t r e e s i n t h e p i n e family, w h i c h b e l o n g t o t h e g e n e r a Keteleeria a n d Pseudolarix, do i n d e e d p r o d u c e succinic acid. T h e latter is of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t since resin in 40-million-year-old Pseudolarix c o n e s f r o m Axel H e i b u r g Island in t h e C a n a d i a n Arctic also c o n t a i n s succinic acid. Pseudolarix t o d a y is f o u n d in Asia, a n d o n e species, Pseudolarix amabilis, is very n a r r o w l y r e s t r i c t e d t o s o m e m o u n t a i n s i n e a s t e r n C h i n a (the o t h e r t w o species h a v e h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f succinic acid). T h e fact t h a t 40-million-year-old trees t h a t p r o d u c e d succinic acid existed o n ( w h a t are n o w ) t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t islands s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t Pseudolarix c o u l d h a v e b e e n in Scandinavia at t h e s a m e

54 • Amber in Nature

t i m e , a n d t h e n c e in t h e Baltic r e g i o n . T h e Pseudolarix h y p o t h e s i s is also b o l s t e r e d b y t h e fact t h a t m a n y o f t h e o t h e r p l a n t a n d insect species fossilized i n t h e Baltic a m b e r are closely r e l a t e d t o species n o w living i n Asia, Australia, a n d e v e n Chile.

~ " Inclusions

Given t h e m o u n t a i n s of Baltic a m b e r e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e P a l m n i c k e n mine alone, one can only imagine the thousands of pieces that

w e r e found containing interesting inclusions. T h e a m b e r collection of Albertus Universitat i n K o n i g s b e r g a b s o r b e d t h e a m b e r collection o f t h e S t a n t i e n a n d Becker firm, w h i c h i n 1914 t o t a l e d s o m e 70,000 pieces. H a r v a r d ' s M u s e u m o f C o m p a r a t i v e Z o o l o g y h a s a s u p e r b collection of 16,000 fossiliferous pieces, m a n y b r o u g h t over from E u r o p e i n 1867 b y H e r m a n n H a g e n , a brilliant e n t o m o l o g i s t f r o m K o n i g s b e r g w h o b e c a m e a p r o f e s s o r a t t h e H a r v a r d m u s e u m . T h e Konigsb e r g collection w a s b y far t h e largest i n existence a n d , b y all a c c o u n t s , w a s

Amber in Nature • 55

A famous specimen: larva of the owl "fly," Neadelphus protae, in Baltic amber, in which all of the intricate processes and hairs are preserved. Like the related ant lions, these larvae impale their prey with their huge mandibles and then suck them dry. Hagen Collection, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University

56 ' Amber in Nature

d e s t r o y e d by fire in W o r l d W a r II. Actually, o n l y p o r t i o n s of it w e r e lost, b e c a u s e d u r i n g t h e w a r the collection w a s divided a m o n g v a r i o u s localities for safekeeping, o n e place b e i n g t h e Institut fur P a l a o n t o l o g i e i n G o t t i n g e n , w h e r e p a r t o f t h e collection still resides. G e r m a n scientists d e v e l o p e d t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f a m b e r fossils for several r e a s o n s . O n e , o f c o u r s e , w a s t h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e richest a m b e r d e p o s i t s in t h e w o r l d . T h e o t h e r w a s t h e i r p e r f e c t i o n of optics, specifically in m i c r o s c o p e s . Since 1800, h u n d r e d s o f specialized scientific p a p e r s have d e s c r i b e d m y r i a d o r g a n i s m s i n t h e Baltic a m b e r . S o m e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m o n o g r a p h s , particularly t h e b o t a n i c a l o n e s , are i l l u s t r a t e d i n lavish detail w i t h c o p p e r p l a t e e t c h i n g s , h a n d p a i n t e d w i t h w a t e r c o l o r s . For G . C . B e r e n d t ' s lovely 1830 m o n o g r a p h o n t h e flora o f t h e Baltic a m b e r , h e h a d s t u d i e d m o r e t h a n 2,000 pieces w i t h plant inclusions. H u g o C o n w e n t z ' s botanical m o n o g r a p h s o f 1886 a n d 1890 are t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e , w i t h a s t u n n i n g delicacy t h a t m o d e r n scientific illustration c o u l d n e v e r h o p e t o a c c o m p l i s h . C o n t i n u i n g t h e p r e s t i g i o u s G e r m a n t r a d i t i o n i s D i e t e r Schlee a t t h e M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e , S t u t t g a r t , h o m e t o the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e collection o f a m b e r s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a n d a h u g e collect i o n o f fossiliferous p i e c e s , f r o m t h e Baltic, D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , a n d L e b a n o n . Sven L a r s s o n ' s 1978 b o o k , The Paleobiology of Baltic Amber, s u m m a r i z e s nearly 150 y e a r s o f scientific w o r k o n Baltic a m b e r . D a t i n g m e t h o d s are far t o o i m p r e c i s e t o c o n f i r m i f all Baltic a m b e r i s 4 0 million y e a r s old, b u t w e k n o w t h a t succinite can b e a s y o u n g a s 2 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, w h i c h i s t h e age o f t h e h u g e d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r f r o m c o a l m i n e s i n Bitterfeld, G e r m a n y ( t h e s e m i n e s are n o l o n g e r active, b u t t h e y did yield extensive collections o f fossils, n o w a t t h e H u m b o l d t M u s e u m in Berlin). If t h e fossilized o r g a n i s m s did exist all at t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e g r e a t diversity o f tiny a n i m a l s , plants, a n d f u n g i a l l o w s a v e r y t h o r o u g h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t a m b e r forest. S u c h a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d l a t e r for t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest, w h i c h c o n t a i n s tropical species n o t u n l i k e o n e s living on H i s p a n i o l a t o d a y (see p a g e 101). P e r h a p s a result of b e i n g 10 m i l l i o n s y e a r s older, w h e n sea levels a n d c h a n g i n g c l i m a t e s h a d m o r e effect, t h e Baltic a m b e r b i o t a w a s distinctively s u b t r o p i c a l . T h e g a m u t o f diversity i n t h e Baltic a m b e r i n c l u d e s b a c t e r i a , slime m o l d s (actually, t h e y are c o l o n i a l p r o t o z o a ) , t r u e m o l d s , parasitic fungi, h i g h e r f u n g i (like m u s h r o o m s ) , lichens, m o s s e s , ferns, cycads, conifer c o n e s , flowers of nearly a h u n d r e d species o f p l a n t s , a n d h u n d r e d s o f species o f a r t h r o p o d s . Stellate p l a n t h a i r s ( t r i c h o m e s ) are m o r e c o m m o n i n t h e Baltic t h a n i n m o s t o t h e r a m b e r s . Since o a k f l o w e r s o c c u r i n t h e a m b e r , t h e s e t r i c h o m e s are often a t t r i b u t e d t o o a k s , even t h o u g h t r i c h o m e s are w i d e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s . N o t surprisingly, m a n y o f t h e insects are f o r m s w h o s e living relatives are f o u n d o n d e a d a n d d e c a y i n g t r e e t r u n k s a n d u n d e r b a r k . S w a r m s o f insects infested i n j u r e d a n d r o t t i n g w o o d , p e r h a p s t h e result o f " s u c c i n o s i s , " C o n w e n t z ' s h y p o t h e t i c a l disease t h a t led t o t h e d e m i s e o f t h e forest a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s u c h p r o d i g i o u s a m o u n t s o f resin. Besides stellate p l a n t hairs,

Piles of crude amber being bagged at the Bitterfeld amber mine. Now closed, it had yielded an exceptional amount of amber.

58 • Amber in Nature

Opposite: A plate from Hugo Conwentz's 1890 monograph on Baltic amber flora, Monographic der baltischen Bernsteinbaume, showing flower inclusions and leaf impressions in the amber

a n o t h e r distinctive feature o f Baltic a m b e r i n c l u s i o n s i s t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n . Insects i n Baltic a m b e r , m u c h m o r e t h a n i n a n y o t h e r a m b e r , have a m i l k y c o v e r i n g (Schimmel) over at least a p a r t of t h e body. T h i s m i l k i n e s s is an e m u l s i o n of microscopic bubbles caused by decomposition. C o l l e c t o r s o f Baltic a m b e r are n o t i m m u n e f r o m t h e o b s e s s i o n for v e r t e b r a t e r e m a i n s typical of m o s t a m b e r d e p o s i t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is also a v e n e r a b l e h i s t o r y o f forgeries i n E u r o p e (see p a g e s 140-41). T h e o n l y w h o l e , possibly a u t h e n t i c v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i m e n in Baltic a m b e r w a s a Nucras succinea, a s m a l l lizard r e l a t e d t o o n e s living n o w i n Africa, w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y w a s lost w i t h s o m e of t h e K o n i g s b e r g collection. S m a l l tufts of m a m m a l h a i r a n d a few small single feathers o c c u r in Baltic a m b e r , a n d r e c e n t l y t h e tails of a lizard a n d a r o d e n t w e r e found. O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t s i n t o e v o l u t i o n t h a t t h e s t u d y o f Baltic a m b e r fossils has m a d e c o n c e r n s e x t i n c t i o n s . For m a n y o f t h e n o w e x t i n c t p l a n t s a n d insects in this a m b e r , t h e closest living relatives are f o u n d in t r o p i c a l or s u b t r o p i c a l Asia, Australia, o r s o u t h e r n S o u t h A m e r i c a . For e x a m p l e , t h e small parasitic plant Trigonobalanus t o d a y g r o w s in S o u t h e a s t Asia. T h e p l a n t Trianthera in Baltic a m b e r is closely r e l a t e d to Eusideroxylon f r o m B o r n e o a n d S u m a t r a . A r c h a e i d spiders a n d m a n y c h i r o n o m i d m i d g e s have t h e i r closest living relatives i n N e w Z e a l a n d , Australia, o r C h i l e . W h y s o m e g r o u p s o f o r g a n i s m s w e r e o n c e widespread and b e c a m e extinct t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of their range is uncertain.

A plate from H. R. Goeppert and G.C. Berendt's 1845 monograph on the flora of the Baltic amber, Die Bernstein und die in ihm befindlichen Pflanzenreste der Vorwelt, depicting details of cones and flowers, with the actual size of the specimen by comparison

Dominican and Mexican Amber S u p p l a n t i n g t h e p o p u l a r i t y of Baltic a m b e r , at least in N o r t h A m e r i c a , is t h e a m b e r f r o m C h i a p a s , M e x i c o , a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic. T h i s m a y b e d u e t o its p r o x i m i t y t o t h e U n i t e d States a n d t h e availability o f r a r e fossiliferous pieces, b u t a m a j o r factor c e r t a i n l y is t h e exquisite p r e s e r v a t i o n of i n c l u s i o n s , p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t o f a n y a m b e r . I n t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c a n d M e x i c o , a m b e r w a s well k n o w n t o t h e native p e o p l e s . C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s a p p a r e n t l y received gifts An unusually large piece of Mexican amber, with one surface unpolished and showing deep natural grooves. Length 6.5". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

of a m b e r from the Taino people w h e n he landed on the n o r t h e r n shore of the D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c . I n M e x i c o , a m b e r w a s c a r v e d a n d u s e d for i n c e n s e b y t h e Maya, a n d s o m e i n d i g e n o u s u s e o f i t still exists. Mexican a m b e r h a s b e e n k n o w n t o N o r t h A m e r i c a n a n d E u r o p e a n scientists since a b o u t 1890, w h e r e a s D o m i n i c a n a m b e r w a s n o t scientifically k n o w n until a b o u t t h e m i d - 1 9 4 0 s .

62 • Amber in Nature

Clear yellow Mexican amber containing dark bubbles and two small amblypygids, a kind of arachnid. Length of amber 3.1". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 63

M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s w e r e b o t h f o r m e d f r o m extinct species o f Hymenaea trees, a l t h o u g h t h e o n l y o n e yet d e s c r i b e d (definitively n a m e d ) is Hymenaea protera f r o m t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic. Well b e f o r e it w a s n a m e d , scientists h a d d i s c o v e r e d t h a t this D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t r e e i s m o r e closely related to t h e o n e African m e m b e r of t h e living species in this g e n u s (H. verrucosa, a s o u r c e o f African c o p a l ) t h a n t o a n y N e w W o r l d species. T h e M e x i c a n a m b e r t r e e is a p p a r e n t l y m o s t closely r e l a t e d to t h e living H. courbaril, w h i c h is w i d e s p r e a d i n s o u t h e r n M e x i c o a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n , all t h e w a y d o w n t h r o u g h S o u t h A m e r i c a . Identifications o f t h e s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r s are b a s e d o n c h e m i s t r y a n d o n t h e w h o l e a n d p a r t i a l flowers a n d leaves i n t h e a m b e r . D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n d e p o s i t s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s , h a v i n g b e e n f o r m e d f r o m a r o u n d t h e m i d - O l i g o c e n e ( a b o u t 3 0 m i l l i o n years ago) t o t h e early

Hymenaea courbaril leaves, flowers, and seedpod. This is a living relative of the extinct trees that gave rise to Mexican and Dominican ambers.

Opposite: Hymenaea courbaril tree, Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands

64 • Amber in Nature

Detail of the small crab in the amber piece at right. Width of crab .2"

Right: Section of amber from Chiapas, Mexico, with a small crab, possibly of the family Grapsidae, in it. An exceptionally rare fossil, this is the only known crab preserved in amber. Private collection

Opposite, above: Large centipede in Mexican amber. Length of amber 2 ". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Opposite, below: Male ant in a piece of Dominican amber. Length of amber .6". The ant has a metallic shine and is deep red because the body cavity is pyritized. Some amber pieces that have inclusions exposed to the surface are affected this way by dissolved minerals in the surrounding matrix. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

66 • Amber in Nature

Amber in Nature • 67

M i o c e n e ( a b o u t 20 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) . Very little basis exists for s o m e claims that D o m i n i c a n a m b e r is 40 m i l l i o n y e a r s old. F o u r t e e n species o f Hymenaea are f o u n d t o d a y t h r o u g h o u t t h e C a r i b b e a n , t r o p i c a l S o u t h A m e r i c a , a n d , curiously, t h e w e s t e r n half o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a ( s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e e a s t e r n half by a c e n t r a l spine of m o u n t a i n s ) . In t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , Hymenaea t r e e s are called algorrobo, a n d t h e resin is peruvia (in C o s t a Rica, Hymenaea is guapinol, or s t i n k i n g t o e ) . Leaves a n d t h e large, h a r d s e e d p o d s are s t u d d e d w i t h tiny p o c k e t s o f resin, w h i c h c h e m i c a l l y defend t h e t r e e from caterpillars, weevils, a n d o t h e r h e r b i v o r o u s insects. Hymenaea p r o d u c e s p r o d i g i o u s q u a n t i t i e s o f resin f r o m its t r u n k s and b r a n c h e s , s o m e t i m e s a c c u m u l a t i n g i n large "stalactites." Very large pieces o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are s o m e t i m e s f o u n d : o n e p i e c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 17.5 p o u n d s is in a s h o p in S a n t o D o m i n g o ; a n o t h e r , o f 15.8 p o u n d s , i s i n H a m b u r g , G e r m a n y . Amber mining in Republic

the Dominican

B o t h M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r o c c u r i n similar settings a n d are m i n e d in similar w a y s by locals. G e n e r a l l y t h e a m b e r is f o u n d b e c a u s e a l a n d s l i d e

Opposite, clockwise from left: Miner in an open pit at the Los Cacaos mines, Dominican Republic

a l o n g a s t e e p slope in t h e m o u n t a i n s e x p o s e s veins of black lignite. If t h e lignite c o n t a i n s a m b e r , i t i s g r a d u a l l y e x t r a c t e d b y d i g g i n g along t h e vein w i t h picks a n d shovels. In a rich s e a m , several p o u n d s of a m b e r can be e x t r a c t e d in a day. W h e n

The famous La Toca group of mines, near the ridge of a steep slope. Ramon "Rubio" Martinez, a famous amber dealer, is in the foreground. Open pits and huts at the Los Cacaos mines. These mines are acclaimed for the blue amber they yield. Three men working in a deep pit at the Los Cacaos mines

t h e veins e x t e n d d e e p i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n , t h e diggings evolve i n t o t u n n e l s , s o m e t i m e s 100 to 200 feet l o n g . T h i s is especially t r u e in Mexico; in t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , t u n n e l s are d u g o n l y i n t h e L a T o c a g r o u p o f m i n e s ( m o s t o t h e r d i g g i n g s are b r o a d , d e e p pits). W a t e r a c c u m u l a t e s i n the t u n n e l s a n d m u s t b e b a l e d o r p u m p e d o u t . E v e n so, t h e t u n n e l s s o m e t i m e s collapse, a s h a s h a p p e n e d i n t h e D o m i n i c a n L a Toca m i n e s . After d i g g i n g , t h e m i n e r t a k e s t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o bright s u n l i g h t , w a s h e s it, a n d c h i p s a small p i e c e off o n e e n d to e x p o s e a clear w i n d o w . If t h e w i n d o w reveals a n y special, large o r g a n i s m inside, it is reserved for special b a r g a i n i n g w i t h a m b e r dealers. In t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic, the dealers c e n t e r e d in Santiago and Santo D o m i n g o have corps of polishers, some of t h e m children, w h o r e m o v e t h e r i n d f r o m t h e c r u d e a m b e r a n d polish it, g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w i n g t h e n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s . T h o u s a n d s o f pieces are processed e a c h w e e k i n t h e larger a m b e r s h o p s , all s o r t e d a c c o r d i n g t o size a n d w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e r a r e inclusions o r n o t . Small, b a r r e n pieces are u s e d for necklaces, b r a c e l e t s , a n d e a r r i n g s . I n M e x i c o , t h e g r i n d i n g a n d p o l i s h i n g i s m o r e o f a c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y , b u t even h e r e t h e c h o i c e s t , r a r e s t fossil pieces m a k e t h e i r w a y t o a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t o f a m a t e u r collectors and m u s e u m s . Scientific s t u d y o f t h e o r g a n i s m s h a s revealed, p a r t i c u l a r l y for D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , a n e x c e e d i n g l y rich extinct b i o t a , o u r k n o w l e d g e o f w h i c h i s based o n c o l l e c t i o n s o f D o m i n i c a n fossils i n t h e M u s e u m fiir N a t u r k u n d e i n Stuttgart, t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , a n d t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History. T h e p a l e o n t o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t a t t h e University o f California, Berkeley, has a n intensively s t u d i e d c o l l e c t i o n of M e x i c a n a m b e r fossils. T h e r e also exist several s u p e r b p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s o f D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n a m b e r fossils.

68 • Amber in Nature

Overleaf, left: Chunk of Dominican amber in its siltstone matrix. Length of amber 2.1". American Museum of Natural History (Earth and Planetary Sciences)

Overleaf, right: An unusual piece of Dominican amber with the opaque, milky swirls more commonly seen in Baltic amber. Length 4.6". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 69

Amber mining in the Dominican Republic

U n l i k e t h e Baltic a m b e r , M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r rarely o c c u r s i n milky, o p a q u e f o r m s ; it is u s u a l l y v e r y t r a n s p a r e n t . Insect a n d o t h e r inclusions in D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n a m b e r also r a r e l y are o b s c u r e d by a milky s u b s t a n c e , a l t h o u g h o r g a n i s m s i n M e x i c a n a m b e r are frequently distorted b y c o m p r e s s i o n .

Opposite: Two pieces of Dominican amber with unusual inclusions. The long piece contains wood (length 2.3 "); the smaller one has opaque milky clouds. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

A m b e r f r o m M e x i c o i s c o n c e n t r a t e d a r o u n d t h e t o w n o f Simojovel, i n t h e s o u t h e r n s t a t e o f C h i a p a s . D o m i n i c a n a m b e r c o m e s from o n e o f a b o u t t h i r t e e n g r o u p s o f m i n e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 m i l e s n o r t h w e s t o f Santiago, arising f r o m t h e La T o c a F o r m a t i o n at least 1,500 feet h i g h in t h e Cordilleira S e p t e n t i o n a l , a n d t w o o t h e r m i n e s c o n s i d e r a b l y n o r t h o f this g r o u p , n o t far from P u e r t o Plata. S o m e m i n e s are r e n o w n e d for t h e i r distinctive colors, a l t h o u g h c o l o r i s h a r d l y c o n s i s t e n t . S o m e a m b e r f r o m t h e L o s C a c a o s m i n e i s the b l u e s t o f p r o b a b l y a n y k n o w n . A m b e r f r o m P a l o A l t o i s f a m e d for its clear yellow h u e a n d t h a t f r o m t h e L a T o c a m i n e s for its d e e p r e d color, a l t h o u g h b o t h c o l o r s o c c u r i n b o t h m i n e s . Occasionally, m i n e r s f i n d p i e c e s o f smoky, g r e e n i s h a m b e r . S u c h c o l o r s are f o u n d i n M e x i c a n a m b e r a s well. A light, a l m o s t clear fossil resin (copal) in the D o m i n i c a n Republic, often s o l d a s a m b e r , c o m e s f r o m t h e e a s t e r n t o w n s o f Bayaguana, C o t u i , C o m a t i l l o , a n d Sierra de A g u a . As in all copals, it b e c o m e s heavily c r a z e d in several years. O n e scientific s t u d y e s t i m a t e d this c o p a l t o b e 1 5 million y e a r s old, b u t c a r b o n d a t i n g h a s revealed t h a t at least s o m e of it is o n l y several h u n d r e d y e a r s old.

72 • Amber in Nature

This page: A piece of Dominican amber lighted completely from behind (above), and with long-wave ultraviolet and some reflected white light (below). Under ultraviolet light, the fluorescing amber appears very dense, and visible are many more flow lines than are seen in transmitted light. The piece contains some termites. Length of amber 2.9". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Opposite, above: A leaflike pattern of pyrite, or "fool's gold," lying on a fractured surface in Dominican amber. Length of amber 1.3". Private collection

Opposite, below: A piece of deep red Dominican amber, part of it highly polished, the remainder with a natural surface of deep fissures. Length 3.8". Private collection

74 • Amber in Nature

Opposite and left (running in columns): Reconstruction sketches showing how the piece below was formed

Fern in 25-W-30 million-year-old Dominican amber. The fern is curled up, and "stalactites" of amber are hanging from it. Length of amber 2.2 ". Private collection

Amber in Nature •

77

FROZEN IN THE ACT

An a n t b e n e a t h a p o p l a r f o u n d , An a m b e r tear has covered r o u n d ; so s h e t h a t w a s in life d e s p i s e d , in d e a t h p r e s e r v e d , is h i g h l y p r i z e d .

I n t h e b r i g h t t e a r P h a e t h o n ' s sister s h e d a b e e is seen, as in its n e c t a r , d e a d . Its m a n y toils h a v e e a r n e d a g u e r d o n h i g h , in s u c h a t o m b a b e e m i g h t w i s h to die. —Martial, Epigrams (Books vi.xv; iv.xxxii)

J

n t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e , a fossil is f o u n d t h a t reveals s o m e t h i n g of its life h i s t o r y a n d h a b i t s . T h e f a b u l o u s i c h t h y o s a u r s f r o m W i i r t t e m b e r g ,

G e r m a n y , are p r e s e r v e d in a slate so fine t h a t o n e c a n see t h a t t h e y g a v e live b i r t h t o t h e i r y o u n g a n d , s o m e t i m e s , can d i s c e r n w h a t t h e y a t e . Fish f r o m t h e S a n t a n a l i m e s t o n e of Brazil ( a b o u t 110 m i l l i o n years old) are p r e s e r v e d in r e m a r k a b l e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o n c r e t i o n s , w i t h t h e m u s c l e b u n d l e s entirely r e p l a c e d b y m i n e r a l s w i t h t h e i r s h a p e still intact. Occasionally o n e i s f o u n d r e p l e t e w i t h t h e little b o d i e s o f t h e s h r i m p t h a t i t d i n e d u p o n . F o r o r g a n i s m s as delicate as insects, " f r e e z i n g " a p r e h i s t o r i c m o m e n t r e q u i r e s e x c e p t i o n a l p r e s e r v a t i o n , w h i c h a m b e r p r o v i d e s . A m b e r s have p r e s e r v e d t h e v a r i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f s o m e insects, p r e y a n d p l a n t h o s t s , p a r a s i t e s , c o m m e n s a l s , as well as e x h i b i t i o n s of defensive a n d social b e h a v i o r . M o s t o f t h e e x a m p l e s will b e t a k e n f r o m t h e 25-to-30-million-year-old D o m i n i c a n a m b e r b e c a u s e t h e diversity o f its inclusions allows t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t forest. D i s p e r s a l of a species is n e c e s s a r y if o p p o s i t e sexes are to m e e t a n d r e p r o d u c e . I n s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e ability t o g e t a r o u n d i s l i m i t e d , a s w i t h a n a r t h r o p o d t h a t lacks w i n g s , n o v e l s o l u t i o n s are r e q u i r e d . O n e o f t h e m o s t

Fossils in this section are preserved in 25-to-30-million-year-old amber from the Dominican Republic, unless otherwise noted.

interesting is phoresy, or h i t c h i n g a ride on a n o t h e r a n i m a l . P h o r e s y is c o m m o n in m i t e s t h a t disperse f r o m , say, m u s h r o o m to m u s h r o o m on a fly P h o r e t i c mites o n v a r i o u s flies are p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r , b u t p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s are s o m e sweat b e e s (halictids) w i t h d o z e n s o f tiny m i t e s still l a t c h e d o n for

Opposite: A damselfly, slender relative to dragonflies. Length of amber 1.8". Private collection

one last, fateful ride. Amber in Nature • 79

Opposite, above: Membracid treehopper. The part of its body just behind the head is prolonged into a spine with three thorns. Length of amber 1.4". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Opposite, below: Leaf beetle (family Chrysomelidae) that exuded a stream of noxious bubbles in an attempt to defend itself from the resin. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Above: Stick insect, orphasmid. Length of amber 3.4". Private collection

Amber in Nature • SI

T h e m o s t c u r i o u s e x a m p l e o f p h o r e s y i n a m b e r involves p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s , tiny r e n d i t i o n s o f s c o r p i o n s w i t h o u t t h e stinger. M a n y p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s live u n d e r b a r k o r a m o n g c r a c k s i n b a r k , w h e r e t h e y feed o n m i t e s a n d o t h e r tiny a r t h r o p o d s . S o m e t i m e s o n e is f o u n d w i t h a claw c l a m p e d o n t o a b r a c o n i d w a s p o r tipulid flies, b u t i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h e y are a t t a c h e d m o s t often t o w o o d - b o r i n g platypodid (ambrosia) beetles. We k n o w today that s o m e pseudo s c o r p i o n s live i n t h e galleries m a d e b y w o o d - b o r i n g beetles. W h e n t h e p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s d i s p e r s e , t h e y l a t c h o n t o t h e first b e e t l e t h a t c o m e s a l o n g , w h i c h m a y t a k e t h e m t o a n o t h e r t r e e like t h e original.

Right: Wood-boring platypodid beetles, with the sawdust plugs that they pushed out of their tunnels in wood. The beetles were probably attacking a Dominican amber tree. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Below: Wood-boring platypodid beetle, with a pseudoscorpion latched onto it with one of its claws. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Opposite: Pseudoscorpion. Length of amber A". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

82 • Amber in Nature

Swarm of termites. The winged termites were caught on the bottom of a large flow of resin, which was engulfed by an even larger flow. Length of amber 3 ". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Insects have a p l e t h o r a of strategies for r e p r o d u c t i o n ; s o m e are even c a p t u r e d i n a m b e r . A m o n g t h e s h o r t - l i v e d (usually a q u a t i c ) insects, s u c h a s m a n y g n a t s , m o s q u i t o e s , m i d g e s , a n d mayflies, t h e m a l e s a g g r e g a t e i n t o s o m e t i m e s h u g e

Opposite: Swarm of tiny long-legged flies (family Dolichopodidae). Length of amber 2.2". Private collection

s w a r m s . T h o u s a n d s , o r m i l l i o n s , o f m a l e s fly a b o u t i n o n e s p o t , i n t o w h i c h females fly t o b e c o m e m a t e d , t h u s i n s u r i n g t h a t t h e sexes r e n d e z v o u s d u r i n g t h e i r brief life span. C o p u l a t i o n m a y take h o u r s , as in t h e case of a b i b i o n i d m i d g e , Plecia nearctica, t h e "love b u g . " Male s w a r m s , or p o r t i o n s of t h e m , in D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are m o s t c o m m o n l y o f scatopsid m i d g e s , b u t e x a m p l e s o f e m p i d i d flies, d o l i c h o p o d i d flies, m y c e t o p h i l i d m i d g e s , tipulid flies, a n d t e r m i t e s also appear. T e r m i t e s w a r m s c a u g h t i n a m b e r usually have a j u m b l e o f w i n g s a m o n g t h e b o d i e s , since t e r m i t e s easily s h e d t h e i r w i n g s after l a n d i n g . O c c a sionally a m a t i n g p a i r of m i d g e s is c a u g h t in t h e resin. O n e p i e c e of Baltic a m b e r even c o n t a i n s a pair of m a t i n g spiders. T h e o l d e s t m a t i n g pair, of a n y k i n d of animal, are sciarid m i d g e s in 125-million-year-old L e b a n e s e a m b e r . Amber in Nature • 85

From top to bottom: Mating crane flies. Length of amber 1.2 ". Private collection Detail of coupled pair above Midge trailing a string of her eggs. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

86 • Amber in Nature

M a n y flies reflexively lay e g g s w h e n t h e y die, w h i c h explains w h y s o m e female flies i n a m b e r h a v e eggs j u s t b e h i n d t h e m . T h i s i s s e e n i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r m o s t c o m m o n l y i n t h e little d r o s o p h i l i d fruit flies b u t also w i t h s o m e m i d g e s , s u c h as t h e c h i r o n o m i d t r a i l i n g a s t r i n g of h e r eggs. O c c a s i o n a l l y a d e c a y i n g insect o r o t h e r u n i d e n t i f i e d d e c a y i n g tissue h a s c l u m p s o f fly eggs o n it, w h i c h n e v e r q u i t e h a t c h e d b e f o r e resin e n g u l f e d t h e m . O n e exquisite a s p e c t o f insect eggs i n a m b e r i s t h a t t h e i n t r i c a t e g e o m e t r i c s c u l p t u r i n g o f t h e eggshell is still a p p a r e n t . In o n e case, a y o u n g l a r v a w a s c a u g h t e m e r g i n g f r o m its egg. In several o t h e r cases, loosely w o v e n silken c o c o o n s of spiders still h a v e t h e e m b r y o s o r n e w l y h a t c h e d s p i d e r l i n g s w i t h i n . Various k i n d s o f l a r v a e o c c u r i n a m b e r , b u t t h e choice s p e c i m e n s are o f a larva i n s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n , s u c h a s w i t h silken cases. B a g w o r m , o r psychid m o t h , caterpillars c a r r y a r o u n d t h e m a b a g o f silk, t o w h i c h h a s b e e n s e w n m a n y bits o f leaves a n d t w i g s o f t h e p l a n t t h e y w e r e feeding u p o n . I t c a m o u f l a g e s t h e m e x t r e m e l y well, b u t i t did n o t

Wood gnat emerging from its pupal case. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Overleaf, left: Metalmark butterfly (family Riodinidae). Length of amber 2 ". Private collection

Overleaf, right: Large inchworm moth (family Geometridae). Length of amber 2.2". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 87

p r e v e n t a few f r o m b e i n g e n g u l f e d in resin m i l l i o n s of y e a r s a g o . T i n e i d m o t h c a t e r p i l l a r s do a similar t h i n g on a s m a l l e r scale, a n d g e n e r a l l y t h e y u s e t h e i r o w n frass (insect feces) for c o n c e a l m e n t . T h e o n e s p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r w e r e probably g r a z i n g u p o n the w o o d y polypore (bracket) fungi that g r e w on the Dominican a m b e r tree. Social insects h a v e c o l o n i e s o f h u n d r e d s t o h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f individuals, divided i n t o castes for defense, egg-laying, a n d w o r k i n g . S o m e t i m e s t h e w o r k e r s are s u b d i v i d e d i n t o n u r s e s a n d m a j o r a n d m i n o r w o r k e r s . O n e j u s t n e e d s t o see t h e h u g e t e r m i t e m o u n d s o n a n African s a v a n n a , o r a n a r m y a n t s w a r m i n a S o u t h A m e r i c a n j u n g l e , t o a p p r e c i a t e h o w social insects are a m o n g Opposite: Paper wasp. Length of amber .8". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

t h e m o s t ecologically i m p o r t a n t g r o u p s o f a n i m a l s , a n d g e n e r a l l y t h e m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s insects. I n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h e social insects are a n t s (the m o s t c o m m o n o f all t h e inclusions), t e r m i t e s , stingless bees, a n d , rarely, p a p e r w a s p s . V a r i o u s castes are p r e s e r v e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e b i z a r r e w o r k e r s of Zacryptocerus, w h i c h p l u g t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e c o l o n y w i t h t h e i r flat h e a d s . T o e n t e r , a n a n t

Ants caught while attempting to carry their larval brood to safety. Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart

m u s t t a p p r o p e r l y w i t h its a n t e n n a e . A n o t h e r w e i r d caste i s t h e n a s u t e soldier o f s o m e t e r m i t e s . N a s u t e s h a v e h e a d s s h a p e d like a b o t t l e , from w h i c h t h e y s p r a y a sticky s u b s t a n c e at i n t r u d e r s . Of c o u r s e , p o r t i o n s of c o l o n i e s a r e

90 • Amber in Nature

Portion of an Azteca ant colony. This piece contains about two hundred ants. Length of amber 1.5". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

o c c a s i o n a l l y e n g u l f e d b y resin, s o m e t i m e s w i t h h u n d r e d s o f a n t s ( o n e p i e c e i n t h e S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m c o n t a i n s a b o u t 2,000 ants). Very rarely a p i e c e is f o u n d i n w h i c h t h e w o r k e r s w e r e c a u g h t t r y i n g t o c a r r y the b r o o d t o safety. T h e o n l y p o r t i o n s o f t h e a c t u a l n e s t are several cells from the p a p e r w a s p s . H o w e v e r , t h e m i d d e n s a n d r e m a i n s o f t e r m i t e a n d a n t nests w i t h t h e i r original o w n e r s a b o u n d in amber. T h e m i d d e n s o f t h e a n t c o l o n i e s p r o v i d e excellent clues a s t o w h a t t h e c o l o n y w a s f e e d i n g u p o n , s u c h a s a s s o r t e d b o d y p a r t s o f o t h e r insects. Every social insect c o l o n y t o d a y h a s " g u e s t s , " s o m e w a n t e d , s o m e n o t . S o m e are parasites; o t h e r s — t h e inquilines—merely live off t h e scraps in t h e n e s t . In D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , t h e r e are nicoletiid silverfish, c e r t a i n tiny staphylinid, l i m u l o d i d , a n d

92 • Amber in Nature

p a u s s i n e b e e t l e s , all s u p e r b l y a d a p t e d for living u n d e t e c t e d a m o n g (or a t least t o l e r a t e d b y ) a n t s i n t h e i r colony. A n d t h e r e are t h e parasites of the ants, t o o , s u c h as t h e b i z a r r e t w i s t e d - w i n g e d parasites, a n d v a r i o u s scuttleflies o f t h e P h o r i d a e family. T h e social insect colony, t h e n as now, is a c o s m o s of e c o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . M a n y p r e d a t o r y b e e t l e s , l a c e w i n g s , r o b b e r flies, s u c k i n g b u g s , spiders, a n d even m a n t i s e s a n d damselflies have b e e n t r a p p e d i n a m b e r , b u t a p r e d a t o r c a u g h t in t h e act w i t h its p r e y is r a r e . S o m e t i m e s a p i e c e c o n t a i n s s p i d e r w e b s w i t h t h e v i c t i m (generally a tiny, frail g n a t ) s n a g g e d on a t h r e a d . N e v e r h a s a p i e c e b e e n f o u n d w i t h t h e spider still r e s i d e n t . O n e p i e c e i n t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y h a s a j u m p i n g (salticid) s p i d e r g r a p p l i n g w i t h its m i l l i p e d e prey. A f a m o u s p i e c e of Baltic a m b e r h a s a Ptilocerus assassin (reduviid) b u g i n it, a l o n g w i t h t h e h u s k s o f t h e a n t p r e y t h a t t h e b u g s u c k e d dry. Living relatives o f this b u g t o d a y lure a n t s f r o m t h e i r nests w i t h t h e s c e n t f r o m a special g l a n d , t h e n t h e y

Top: A mantis look-alike: mantispid lacewing in Dominican amber. Length of specimen .9". Private collection

Above: A rare adult praying mantis in Dominican amber. Private collection

Left: A praying mantis, attacked by ants, carried them to its resinous tomb. Length of amber 1.2". Private collection

Amber in Nature • 93

Opposite: Dominican amber with two amblypygids (whip scorpions) and various small insects in it. Width of amber 3 ". Private collection

Detail of amblypygid in the piece opposite (and on the jacket front), showing insect prey still caught in its spiny, basketlike jaws

Jumping spider embracing its millipede prey. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 95

Above: Spider. Length of amber 1.6". Private collection

Parasitic fly, Stylogaster, with a rapier egg-laying appendage. Living species of this genus today parasitize cockroaches. Private collection

96 • Amber in Nature

i m p a l e t h e a n t w i t h t h e i r s h a r p b e a k s . A similar b u g i s f o u n d i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , b u t it p r o b a b l y fed on t h e stingless b e e s , Proplebeia dominicana, t h a t w e r e v e r y c o m m o n i n t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest. T h e foreleg o f e a c h b u g h a s a large d r o p l e t , w h i c h it m u s t h a v e u s e d as a sticky s n a g for t h e b e e . T h e parasitic insects are, likewise, v e r y c o m m o n i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , especially t h e v a r i o u s m i n u t e w a s p s . ( E n t o m o l o g i s t s refer t o insects t h a t live o n a n d eventually kill a n o t h e r , h o s t insect as a parasitoid, to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m f r o m t r u e p a r a s i t e s , w h i c h d o n o t kill t h e i r h o s t s . ) F e w direct e v i d e n c e s o f p a r a s i t e s a n d p a r a s i t o i d s exist i n a m b e r . M i t e s a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e o f p a r a s i t e f o u n d o n insects. W a t e r m i t e s are f o u n d o n t h e a d u l t s o f s o m e a q u a t i c insects, s u c h a s caddis flies a n d c h i r o n o m i d m i d g e s . S o m e tiny m o t h s h a r b o r e r y t h r a e i d m i t e s , a n d small d r o s o p h i l i d flies o c c a s i o n a l l y have large m a c r o c h e l i d m i t e s ( p r o p o r t i o n a l i n size t o a h u m a n w i t h a w a t e r m e l o n a t t a c h e d ) . T h e m o s t g r u e s o m e are t h e n e m a t o d e w o r m p a r a s i t e s ; i n o n e p i e c e o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r from the Stuttgart m u s e u m , a h u g e m e r m i t h i d n e m a t o d e can be seen e m e r g i n g f r o m its m i d g e h o s t ; t h e n e m a t o d e m u s t have t a k e n u p m o s t o f t h e h o s t ' s body.

Above: Tiny twisted-winged parasite (order Strepsipteran) of ants. Only .5 mm long, it is remarkably similar to a present-day species. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Several pieces o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r h a v e l e a f h o p p e r n y m p h s w i t h a large b l a c k sac a t t a c h e d n e a r t h e a b d o m e n . T h i s i s a d r y i n i d w a s p larva (adult d r y i n i d w a s p s also are in t h e a m b e r ) . A p e r s o n a l favorite is a D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s p e c i m e n containing tangled strands of spider webbing. Dangling along the strands is a r o w o f seven tiny c o c o o n s ; t h e w a s p l a r v a e t h a t s p u n t h e s e c o c o o n s p a r a s i t i z e d t h e spider o n w h o s e w e b t h e c o c o o n s are n o w p r e s e r v e d . A d u l t w a s p s e m e r g e d

String of tiny cocoons suspended from a spider web. The cocoons are from wasp larvae tHat parasitized the spider that spun the web. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

f r o m all b u t t h r e e o f t h e c o c o o n s .

Amber in Nature • 97

Ancient

Communities:

Reconstructing the Ancient Dominican Amber Forest

Pretty! in a m b e r to observe the forms O f hairs, o r s t r a w s , o r dirt, o r g r u b s , o r w o r m s ! T h e t h i n g s , w e k n o w , are n e i t h e r rich n o r r a r e , B u t w o n d e r h o w t h e devil t h e y g o t t h e r e . — Alexander Pope, Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot

P r e s e r v a t i o n in a m b e r is as b i a s e d as a n y o t h e r k i n d of fossilization, particularly w h e n it c o m e s to size. Large insects generally have the s t r e n g t h to free t h e m s e l v e s f r o m sticky sap, so it is v e r y r a r e to find large beetles, dragonflies, g r a s s h o p p e r s , a n d t h e like i n a m b e r . I n fact, t h e l o n g e s t insects discovered i n a m b e r are d a m s e l Small menagerie of 217 insects, spiders, and plants. The "spray" of tiny insects is collembola, or springtaib. The flowers and stems are from an acacia. Length of amber 1.5". Private collection

flies ( a b o u t t w o - a n d - a - h a l f i n c h e s l o n g ) t h a t c o u l d n o t free t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e resin b e c a u s e t h e y are s o delicate a n d t h i n . Likewise f o r p l a n t s : o n l y t h o s e flowers a n d leaves small e n o u g h t o b e b l o w n a b o u t i n the w i n d a n d e n c a p s u l a t e d by a s t r e a m of resin are t h e o n e s t h a t are p r e s e r v e d . This lilliputian bias in fossilization i s m a d e u p for, t h o u g h , b y t h e lifelike detail p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r

98 • Amber in Nature

a n d t h e s h e e r diversity of tiny o r g a n i s m s . It is well d o c u m e n t e d t h a t , at least for insects, t h e n u m b e r of species i n c r e a s e s tenfold for a tenfold d e c r e a s e in b o d y size. A n d t h e m o r e species t h a t are p r e s e r v e d , t h e m o r e c o m p l e t e i s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e a m b e r forest. A fascinating insight is revealed by d i s c o v e r y of a m b e r pieces w i t h a m e n a g e r i e p r e s e r v e d inside, f o r m i n g a t r u e s n a p s h o t of a tiny p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . S o m e o f t h e s e pieces display s t r i k i n g diversity. O n e i n t h e S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m , for e x a m p l e , h a s i n i t s o m e t w o h u n d r e d i n d i v i d u a l a r t h r o p o d s b e l o n g i n g t o t w e n t y - t w o families. T h e m o s t direct signs o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest are t h e a s s o r t m e n t o f flowers, s t e m s , leaves, seeds, a n d e v e n t e n d r i l s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r . Living o n t h e t r u n k s o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r tree, a s h a p p e n s now, w e r e m o s s e s , Liverworts, a n d t h e occasional m u s h r o o m . Living a m o n g t h e a m b e r t r e e s w e r e m i m o s o i d trees like acacias. Flowers of t h e families B o m b a c a c e a e (balsa a n d b a o b a b family), E u p h o r b i a c e a e ( e u p h o r b s , s u c h as cassava a n d poinsettia), H i p p o c r a t a c e a e , L e g u m i n o s a e (pea family), M e l i a c e a e ( m a h o g a n y family), M y r i s t i c a c e a e ( n u t m e g family), a n d T h y m e l i a c e a e h a v e all b e e n identified i n t h e a m b e r . Inference o f t h e a n c i e n t a m b e r forest c a n b e m a d e b a s e d o n t h e m y r i a d insects p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r . A d u l t a n d i m m a t u r e insects o c c u p y v a r i o u s n i c h e s i n f r e s h w a t e r (and, occasionally, in b r a c k i s h a n d salt w a t e r ) , soil, a n d d e c a y i n g

~ Map of the piece opposite

w o o d ; as parasites of o t h e r insects and of vertebrates; and feeding on the entire

Amber in Nature • 99

a r r a y of f u n g i , flowers, a n d leaves. S o m e insects are d e d i c a t e d to a p a r t i c u l a r A menagerie piece, only 1.1" in diameter, containing sixty-two whole or partial insects representing five orders and fourteen families. Some of the inclusions are covered with mold. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

k i n d o f p l a n t ; for e x a m p l e , m o n a r c h b u t t e r f l y caterpillars c o n c e n t r a t e o n m i l k w e e d s , o t h e r s are g r e a t g e n e r a l i s t s . If an insect in a m b e r h a s living relatives f e e d i n g exclusively on a p a r t i c u l a r g e n u s of t r e e , we c a n be fairly certain that t h e e x t i n c t species fed on an e x t i n c t species of t h e t r e e . For e x a m p l e , we are fairly c e r t a i n t h a t f i g t r e e s lived i n t h e a m b e r forest, even t h o u g h w e have n o direct e v i d e n c e . T h e s e t r e e s are r e n o w n e d , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , for the "flying b u t t r e s s e s " t h a t h e l p s u p p o r t t h e i r g a r g a n t u a n p r o p o r t i o n s , i n contrast w i t h

Opposite: Reconstruction of the ancient Dominican amber forest. The numerous life-forms preserved in this amber allow a detailed re-creation of what the forest probably looked like, including the inhabitants of the forest floor, living under bark and in the amber trees and on the plants growing near the amber trees. Everything in the reconstruction is either supported by actual fossils in Dominican amber or inferred on the basis of host plants for plant-feeding forms of insects.

t h e m i n u s c u l e insects t h a t p o l l i n a t e t h e m . Living i n t h e f i g s (which are a c t u a l l y an u n u s u a l k i n d of inflorescence called a synconium) are agaonid w a s p s a b o u t a m i l l i m e t e r l o n g . E a c h species of fig h a r b o r s a specific species of w a s p , a n d t h e w a s p s are f o u n d n o w h e r e else. D o m i n i c a n a m b e r has fossilized several o f these fig wasps. A l t h o u g h w e h a v e n o direct fossil r e c o r d from the C a r i b b e a n , w e also k n o w t h a t p a l m s w e r e i n t h e D o m i n i c a n forest, b a s e d o n the t h a u s m a s t o c o r i d p a l m b u g s a n d certain k i n d s of weevils in t h e a m b e r . Ultimately, a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y o f t h e a r r a y o f p l a n t b u g s , p l a n t h o p p e r s , leafhoppers, whiteflies, scale insects, leaf b e e t l e s , a n d m o t h s i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r will reveal w h a t this 25-millionyear-old forest w a s like. A s o f n o w , w e k n o w that o p e n areas o c c u r r e d i n a t least s o m e p a r t s of t h e forest, n o t o n l y b e c a u s e of a few g r a s s spikelets f o u n d in D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , b u t also since t h e r e are lygaeid b u g s in it as well. Bromeliads

100 • Amber in Nature

Opposite: Hymenaea leaf, from the amber tree. Length of amber 2.1". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Above: Hymenaea flower, from the tree that formed the amber. Length of amber 1.6". Private collection

Below: Winged seed. Private collection

Amber in Nature •

103

Petal from a Hymenaea flower, in Mexican amber. Length of amber 1.3 ". American Museum of Natural History

Small flower with a thorny stem, its pollen spreading into the onceliquid resin. Length of inclusion .9". Private collection

104 •Amber in Nature

were nestled a m o n g the branches of the D o m i n i c a n a m b e r trees themselves. A species of b u t t e r f l y in D o m i n i c a n a m b e r (a m e t a l m a r k ) a n d its caterpillars p r o b a b l y fed u p o n t h e b r o m e l i a d s . Living i n t h e little p o n d s t h a t a c c u m u l a t e i n the center of the bromeliads, no doubt, w e r e mosquitoes, predacious diving b e e t l e s , a n d p e r h a p s e v e n t h e s m a l l frogs f o u n d p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r . T h e w o o d o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t r e e w a s infested w i t h v a r i o u s insects. T h e m o s t c o m m o n sign of this is frass, or t h e tiny pellets of insect feces. Frass is in all a m b e r t h a t c o n t a i n s insects, a n d , at least for D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , it is n o t at all u n c o m m o n t o f i n d d o z e n s o f frass pellets, w h i c h p r o b a b l y r a i n e d d o w n i n t o t h e resin f r o m an o p e n i n g in an a d j a c e n t insect n e s t , in a single p i e c e . M o s t frass in Dominican a m b e r appears to have c o m e from termites. We can even surmise t h a t t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest l a n d s c a p e w a s d o t t e d w i t h large c a r t o n n e s t s o f Nasutiterm.es t e r m i t e s . C o l o n i e s o f t h e s e t e r m i t e s t o d a y b u i l d i n t r i c a t e o b l o n g nests—attached to tree t r u n k s or h a n g i n g from b r a n c h e s — t h a t have a c o m p o sition like brittle p a p i e r - m a c h e . A s d o m o s t t e r m i t e s , t h e n a s u t e w o r k e r t e r m i t e s c o n s t r u c t t h i n galleries, i n this case m e a n d e r i n g all over t h e t r e e t o t h e g r o u n d , t h r o u g h which they and the soldiers m a r c h unexposed. C o l o n i e s a n d n e s t s t h a t w e r e less c o n s p i c u o u s , b u t w h i c h p r o b a b l y h a d a m u c h g r e a t e r e c o l o g i c a l i m p a c t t h a n t h o s e o f any o t h e r social insects, w e r e t h o s e o f t h e g i a n t Mastotermes t e r m i t e s . T h e extinct species f r o m D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , M . electrodominicus, h a d w i n g e d r e p r o d u c t i v e s n e a r l y a n i n c h - a n d - a - h a l f l o n g . A similar extinct species, M. electromexicus, exists in M e x i c a n a m b e r . T h e o n l y living species in this g e n u s is in Australia. T h e A u s t r a l i a n species c o n s t r u c t s large s u b t e r r a n e a n c o l o n i e s , g e n e r a l l y a t t h e b a s e o f t h e t r e e s w h o s e w o o d t h e y are c o n s u m i n g , a n d t h e y are v o r a c i o u s . A n o t h e r e n e m y of the D o m i n i c a n a m b e r tree was a plethora of w o o d b o r i n g a n d b a r k b e e t l e s , also called a m b r o s i a b e e t l e s . N u m e r o u s species i n t h e families P l a t y p o d i d a e a n d Scolytidae o c c u r i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r . T h e b e e t l e s t o d a y excavate t u n n e l s a n d galleries t h r o u g h o u t h e a r t w o o d , o r i n t o t h e surface o f t h e h e a r t w o o d j u s t u n d e r t h e b a r k (bark b e e t l e s ) . S a w d u s t p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e t u n n e l excavations i s p u s h e d o u t t h r o u g h t h e t u n n e l e n t r a n c e a n d c o m p r e s s e d i n t o c i g a r - s h a p e d p l u g s . S u c h p l u g s are p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r a l o n g w i t h t h e beetles. T h e b e e t l e s a t t a c k a living o r injured t r e e b u t d o n o t actually kill i t b y t h e i r b o r i n g . A f u n g u s specific to e a c h species of b e e t l e is i n o c u l a t e d i n t o t h e w o o d , w h e r e i t g r o w s t o c a r p e t t h e galleries. T h e b e e t l e s feed o n this f u n g u s (their " a m b r o s i a " ) , a n d i t i s t h e f u n g u s t h a t kills t h e t r e e . W e k n o w t h a t s o m e trees t o d a y s e c r e t e excessive a m o u n t s o f resin t o t r a p b e e t l e s i n v a d i n g t h e i r wood; t h e beetles in a m b e r are evidence that t h e s t r a t e g y w o r k s , at least s o m e w h a t . Similarly, i t has b e e n t h o u g h t t h a t t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r w a s p r o d u c e d i n s u c h large a m o u n t s t o offset m a s s i v e o u t b r e a k s o f b a r k a n d w o o d - b o r i n g b e e t l e s . J u d g i n g f r o m t h e i n c r e d i b l e v a r i e t y o f little b r o w n b e e t l e s , f u n g u s g n a t s , certain k i n d s o f r a r e l y c o l l e c t e d a c a l y p t r a t e flies, a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r k i n d s o f termites, all associated t o d a y w i t h r o t t i n g w o o d a n d t h e f u n g i t h a t d e c o m p o s e

Stem and leaflets of an acacia plant. Length of amber 2.2". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Opposite, above: Liverwort. Length of amber 2.3". Private collection

Opposite, below: Small mushroom. Length of amber 1.5". Private collection

106 •Amber in

Nature

it, t h e a n c i e n t forest m u s t have b e e n littered w i t h d e a d a n d d y i n g trees, s t u m p s , a n d logs. T h e full a r r a y o f life f o r m s d w e l l i n g u n d e r t h e loose b a r k o f d e a d and dying a m b e r trees included mites, predatory beetles, aradid bugs, earwigs, bristletails a n d silverfish, c e n t i p e d e s , p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s a n d t r u e s c o r p i o n s , a n d f e a r s o m e - l o o k i n g a m b l y p y g i d s . Resin s t r e a m i n g o u t o f t h e t r e e s m u s t h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d i n s u c h m a s s e s t h a t g l o b s d r o p p e d t o t h e g r o u n d , engulfing o r g a n i s m s living a m o n g t h e leaves a n d soil, s u c h a s springtails ( C o l l e m b o l a ) , pill b u g s (isopods), v a r i o u s m i l l i p e d e s , b u r r o w i n g b u g s ( C y d n i d a e ) , a n d a n a s s o r t m e n t o f tiny snails. E v e n e a r t h w o r m s a n d a m o l e cricket h a v e b e e n discovered preserved in the amber. W e f i n d e v i d e n c e o f f r e s h w a t e r a d j a c e n t t o t h e forest: p e r h a p s s t r e a m s f l o w e d t h r o u g h , as i n d i c a t e d by t h e damselflies (Anisoptera) in a m b e r , as well as several species of mayflies ( E p h e m e r i d a ) , a s t o n e fly ( P l e c o p t e r a ) , p o n d s k a t e r s ( G e r r i d a e ) , a n d a n a s s o r t m e n t o f a d u l t caddis flies ( T r i c h o p t e r a ) a n d m i d g e s w h o s e l a r v a e are a q u a t i c . O f t h e d o z e n s o f b e e t l e families i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , f o u r are a q u a t i c , a n d for o n e o f t h e s e (the H e l o d i d a e ) , even t h e a q u a t i c l a r v a X-ray positive of the gecko lizard in the piece at right and on page 110, showing tiny bones in the legs and feet. The vertebrae are jumbled; the lizard broke its back in several places, perhaps while struggling to free itself from the resin. The leaf is not detected by X rays.

is p r e s e r v e d . T h e m o s t highly p r i z e d s p e c i m e n s i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are t h e s m a l l a n o l e a n d s p h a e r o d a c t y l g e c k o lizards a n d small Eleuthrodactylus frogs. T o d a y in t h e C a r i b b e a n are h u n d r e d s o f species o f t h e s e k i n d s o f lizards a n d frogs, m o r e t h a n all o t h e r k i n d s of land v e r t e b r a t e s . T r a c e s of vertebrates such as feathers, hair, a n d s l o u g h e d reptilian skin also o c c u r i n t h e a m b e r . O n e o f t h e f e a t h e r s h a s b e e n identified on t h e basis of its m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e as definitely from a w o o d p e c k e r ,

10S • Amber in Nature

Small anolis lizard, partially skeletonized. The piece was cracked and glued back together by workers in the Dominican Republic. The light section is a substitute piece. Length of amber 2.2 ". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

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109

Opposite: Small gecko lizard, Sphaerodactylus, near a leaf section that has been chewed, probably by a leaf cutter bee. Length of amber 1.7". Private collection

A complete frog and, above it, a decayingfrog, Eleuthrodacrylus, part of whose backbone is easily visible. Surrounding the decayingfrog are dozens of fly larvae. How such a piece was formed is perplexing, although one thought is that a predator dropped its frog prey into resin. Length of amber 2.3 ". Private collection

Reptilian skin shed by a snake or large lizard. Length of amber .8". Private collection

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Tiny fly, Meonura, which probably parasitized birds in the Dominican amber forest

q u i t e similar t o t h e A n t i l l e a n piculet. S o m e h a i r h a s b e e n identified a s p e r h a p s from a sloth, a l t h o u g h few d i a g n o s t i c features exist to s u p p o r t t h a t c o n c l u s i o n . O t h e r t h a n a fragment of a g r o u n d sloth skull from C u b a , a n d a few o t h e r fragm e n t s f r o m P u e r t o Rico, n o o t h e r O l i g o - M i o c e n e l a n d v e r t e b r a t e s f r o m t h e

Opposite: Detail of small feather (length .25") in amber, showing barbs and barbules. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

islands are k n o w n . All t h e o t h e r s are fossils o f m o n k e y s , sloths, r o d e n t s , a n d t h e like f r o m c e r t a i n p e r i o d s i n t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , s o m e 20,000 y e a r s old a n d y o u n g e r . Yet D o m i n i c a n a m b e r reveals t h a t v e r t e b r a t e s did r o a m t h e a m b e r forests, a n d i t w a s a f a u n a n o t unlike w h a t o c c u r s t h e r e today. A s w i t h t h e flora, w e h a v e b o t h direct a n d indirect signs o f its p r e s e n c e . M o r e varieties o f b l o o d s u c k i n g a r t h r o p o d s a p p e a r i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h a n t h e r e are k i n d s o f v e r t e b r a t e s , w h i c h a t t e s t s t o a v e r y diverse v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a . In a few cases, we c a n even m a k e s o m e specific inferences as to w h o s e b l o o d the a r t h r o p o d s fed u p o n . T h e m i n u t e Forcipomyia a n d Culicoides n o - s e e - u m s fed Amber in Nature •

113

Above: Detail of a remarkable piece of amber containing a small swarm of phlebotomine sandflies with mammalian hairs and debris, perhaps from the nest of the mammal. The females are bloated, probably with the blood of the mammal whose hairs are in the amber. Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart

Right: Tick. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

114 • Amber in Nature

Left: Female mosquito. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Below: An exceptionally rare flea. Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart

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o n m a m m a l s a n d birds, a s did t h e m o s q u i t o e s a n d p h l e b o t o m i n e s a n d flies. A u n i q u e p i e c e i n t h e S t u t t g a r t c o l l e c t i o n c o n t a i n s n u m e r o u s f i n e hairs, debris ( p e r h a p s f r o m t h e m a m m a l ' s n e s t ) , a n d a small s w a r m o f p h l e b o t o m i n e m i d g e s . M o s t o f t h e p h l e b o t o m i n e s are females, a n d s o m e are b l o a t e d . T h e y p r o b a b l y are r e p l e t e w i t h t h e b l o o d o f t h e m a m m a l w h o s e h a i r i s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r . S o m e m o s q u i t o e s a n d p h l e b o t o m i n e s m a y have fed o n l a r g e r reptiles a n d a m p h i b i a n s . A species of c o r e t h r e l l i d b i t i n g m i d g e in t h e a m b e r p r o b a b l y fed on t h e Eleuthrodactylus frogs also p r e s e r v e d in t h e a m b e r . Similar m i d g e s today, in fact, are c o l l e c t e d b y a t t r a c t i n g t h e m t o r e c o r d i n g s o f frog calls. T h e species o f Stenotabanus horseflies a n d Amblyomma ticks m o s t likely fed on m a m m a l s . For at least o n e r a r e s p e c i m e n , a tick is p r e s e r v e d in a piece w i t h t w o hairs, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e tick a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y fed o n a m a m m a l . T h e few fleas i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r m a y h a v e fed on birds. O n e tiny little fly in t h e a m b e r , Meonura, m a y have fed o n birds, p e r h a p s t h e s a m e w o o d p e c k e r species w h o s e f e a t h e r s w e r e identified, since living species of Camus flies (their close relatives) h a v e a p r e d i l e c t i o n for w o o d p e c k e r s .

126 • Amber in Nature

Intricate Preservation

T h e Spider, Flye, a n d a n t , b e i n g t e n d e r , dissipable s u b s t a n c e s , falling i n t o a m b e r , are t h e r e i n b u r y e d , f i n d i n g t h e r e i n b o t h a D e a t h , a n d T o m b e , p r e s e r v i n g t h e m b e t t e r f r o m C o r r u p t i o n t h a n a Royall M o n u m e n t . —Francis Bacon

A 1982 s t u d y p u b l i s h e d in t h e j o u r n a l Science r e p o r t e d on o r g a n e l l e s a n d o t h e r s u b c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e s f r o m a bit of tissue in a 40-million-year-old f u n g u s g n a t i n Baltic a m b e r , e x a m i n e d w i t h a n e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e . I t w a s w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d a s o p e n i n g t h e d o o r for f u t u r e r e s e a r c h o n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a m b e r fossils, i n c l u d i n g a n c i e n t D N A . Incredibly, s u c h a result h a d b e e n r e p o r t e d a l m o s t e i g h t y years earlier, u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l light m i c r o s c o p y a n d histology. T h a t 1903 r e p o r t , by Nicolai K o r n i l o w i t c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y w a s p u b l i s h e d in a local j o u r n a l , a n d in Russian, s o i t r e m a i n e d a l m o s t totally o b s c u r e . K o r n i l o w i t c h r e p o r t e d t h a t d r i e d tissue t a k e n f r o m insects i n Baltic a m b e r p o s s e s s e d b a n d i n g p a t t e r n s typical o f m o d e r n m u s c l e tissue. T r u l y g r e a t ideas a n d results i n science are often t o o far a h e a d o f t h e i r t i m e . N o o n e k n e w o f t h e existence o f D N A i n K o r n i l o w i t c h ' s t i m e , b u t t h e 1982 s t u d y a t least p r o m p t e d t h e q u e s t i o n , I f i n t r a c e l l u l a r m e m b r a n e s and organelles could be preserved, why not chromatin, and even D N A ? (As will be discussed later, t h a t s t u d y did slowly s t i m u l a t e i n t e r e s t in e x t r a c t i n g a n c i e n t D N A f r o m a m b e r fossils, b u t i t w a s a t e c h n o l o g i c a l b r e a k t h r o u g h t h a t s e r v e d as t h e real d r i v i n g force.) Since 1982, several c o m p r e h e n s i v e studies h a v e revealed even m o r e c o n s i s t e n t a n d u n e x p e c t e d l y lifelike p r e s e r v a t i o n of soft i n t e r n a l tissues of insects a n d p l a n t s in a m b e r . A n insect s p e c i m e n c a n n o t b e " e x h u m e d " f r o m a m b e r b y m e l t i n g a w a y t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a m b e r , since a m b e r will m e l t o n l y u n d e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d p r e s s u r e s s o h i g h t h a t t h e y d e s t r o y t h e i n c l u s i o n s (in a n o r m a l a t m o s p h e r e a m b e r b u r n s a n d s o f t e n s b u t d o e s n o t liquefy). E x h u m a t i o n i s d o n e b y u s i n g a very fine saw, v i e w e d u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e , to c i r c u m s c r i b e a g r o o v e a r o u n d t h e s p e c i m e n s . W h e n t h e g r o o v e i s close e n o u g h t o t h e inclusion, t h e t w o h a l v e s are carefully p r i e d a p a r t , g e n e r a l l y s e p a r a t i n g a l o n g t h e b o d y w a l l o f t h e insect o r plant p a r t . A l t h o u g h o n l y t h e m o s t c o m m o n inclusions i n a m b e r are u s e d for this w o r k , o p e n i n g a c o m m o n stingless b e e i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r b r i n g s a s e n s e o f mystery, n o t u n l i k e t h e u n w r a p p i n g o f a n E g y p t i a n m u m m y . I n t h e case o f the b e e , h o w e v e r , w e c a n p e e r i n t o r e m a i n s t h a t are 2 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, n o t 6,000 years, a n d t h e d e g r e e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n w o u l d h a v e inspired e v e n E g y p t i a n morticians. Ancient E g y p t i a n s h a d t o e v i s c e r a t e a n d " d e b r a i n " cadavers for m u m m i f i c a tion, since t h e s e o r g a n s w o u l d b l o a t a n d o t h e r w i s e d e c o m p o s e ( t h e v i s c e r a a n d vital o r g a n s w e r e p r e s e r v e d in special c a n o p i c j a r s w i t h spirit fluids like w i n e ) . Amber in Nature • 117

Stingless bee, Proplebeia dominicana, the pollen baskets on its hind legs filled with pollen and resin that it harvested. These bees are common in Dominican amber. American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Insects in a m b e r , h o w e v e r , often h a v e t h e digestive t r a c t a n d b r a i n lying neatly in p l a c e ; e v e n t h e m e m b r a n o u s t r a c h e o l e s , w h i c h are t h e f i n e t u b e s that m e a n d e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e o r g a n s delivering o x y g e n , r e m a i n intact. Insects have n o l u n g s , b u t s t r o n g fliers (like b e e s ) h a v e air sacs for residual s t o r a g e of air. T h e delicate air-sac m e m b r a n e s i n s o m e a m b e r b e e s lie c r u m p l e d , like a n o p e n e d s h e e t t h a t slowly fell to t h e floor. A p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f o r m a t i v e lesson in a n c i e n t a n a t o m y c o m e s from t h e m u s c l e s o f insects i n a m b e r . Insects, i n fact, have a m o n g t h e m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d m u s c u l a t u r e o f a n y a n i m a l s , w i t h m i n u s c u l e m u s c l e s p o w e r i n g , for e x a m p l e , t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e n e c k , t h e t o u c h o f a n a n t e n n a , o r the flick o f a tiny t o n g u e . I n s o m e cases, t h e s e m u s c l e s are f r o z e n i n t h e i r original positions. T h e f i n e s t r i a t i o n s t h a t K o r n i l o w i t c h d e s c r i b e d s o l o n g ago are t h e r e , t o o . W h e n m u s c l e s c o n t r a c t , f i l a m e n t s o f actin a n d m y o s i n p r o t e i n s slide past e a c h o t h e r . W h e r e t h e e n d s o f t h e f i l a m e n t s align, b a n d s are f o r m e d . U n d e r 20,000 t i m e s m a g n i f i c a t i o n , t h e b a n d s are o b v i o u s . B e t w e e n t h e f i n e b u n d l e s o f m u s c l e tissue, t h e myofibrils, c a n be s e e n fingerprint p a t t e r n s : t h e s e are t h e mitochondria, t o o tiny for K o r n i l o w i t c h t o h a v e s e e n . M i t o c h o n d r i a are t h e " p o w e r h o u s e s " o f t h e cell, g e n e r a t i n g m o s t o f its e n e r g y . Internally, t h e m i t o c h o n d r i a h a v e a n intricate 118 • Amber in Nature

Scanning electronmicrographs of fossils "exhumed" from Dominican amber Above left: Right half of a stingless bee. Note the sheets of intact muscle in the thorax. Above right: Left half of bee at left Below left: Detail from bee above, of the head, showing scales on the tongue, muscles in the head, and the brain Below right: Detail from bee above, of the thorax, showing crumpled air-sac membranes

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These two pages: Scanning electronmicrographs of fossils "exhumed "from Dominican amber, featuring detaibfrom the bee shown on pages 118-19, of a clump of pollen (opposite) and an individual grain (above). The pollen was ingested by the bee.

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m a z e of m e m b r a n e s , which is the fingerprint pattern. Because the muscles in insects m u s t p o w e r t h e w i n g s t o b e a t h u n d r e d s o f t i m e s p e r s e c o n d , insect flight-muscle tissue, t h e n a s n o w , h a s m o r e m i t o c h o n d r i a t h a n any o t h e r k i n d o f tissue k n o w n . Insects are n o t t h e o n l y o r g a n i s m s to be p r e s e r v e d so well in a m b e r . Anthers are t h e c l u b at t h e a p e x of a l o n g filament, w h i c h p r o d u c e t h e p o l l e n in a flower. A n t h e r s o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t r e e n o d o u b t littered t h e g r o u n d , p r o b a b l y t h e w a y t h o s e o f living Hymenaea t r e e s d o today, a n d m a n y o f t h e m b e c a m e s t u c k a n d i m m e r s e d i n resin. E x h u m e d f r o m D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , a n t h e r s s h o w a few p o l l e n g r a i n s a n d a c u r i o u s c a r p e t of s h o r t , fine cells: a p o l l e n g r a i n d e v e l o p e d a t t h e e n d o f e a c h o n e o f t h e s e cells. T h e o u t e r c o a t o f p o l l e n (exine) is intricately a n d g e o m e t r i c a l l y s c u l p t u r e d , w i t h a different p a t t e r n for m a n y g r o u p s o f p l a n t s . Exine i s also v e r y resistant t o decay, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t exines fossilized i n s e d i m e n t s are c o m m o n l y u s e d t o s t u d y t h o u s a n d s o r e v e n millions o f y e a r s o f c h a n g e . Oddly, exines o f p o l l e n i n a m b e r are n o t well p r e s e r v e d . In at least a few cases, t h o u g h , c l u m p s of p o l l e n a t t a c h e d to stingless b e e s in Dominican amber were preserved with remarkable fidelity. They were so c o m p l e t e l y p r e s e r v e d , i n fact, t h a t t w o t y p e s o f p o l l e n f r o m o n e b e e w e r e d i s c e r n i b l e , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e b e e fed f r o m t w o k i n d s o f flowers. P l a n t tissues p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r h a v e n o t b e e n extensively s t u d i e d , b u t i n several cases, small leaves i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r w e r e e x h u m e d . T o t h e n a k e d eye, t h e surface of t h e e x h u m e d leaf is c r a c k e d a n d c r u m b l y , like a d r y riverbed. U n d e r h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n , t h o u g h , t h e c o l u m n a r cells o f t h e e p i t h e l i u m are still n e a t l y s t a c k e d . N o d o u b t , i f t h e cells w e r e s e c t i o n e d i n t o m i c r o n - t h i c k slices for c l o s e r study, o r g a n e l l e s like c h l o r o p l a s t s (the m i t o c h o n d r i a l equivalent in plants) w o u l d b e f o u n d . O n e o f t h e m o s t c u r i o u s i n s t a n c e s o f a m b e r p r e s e r v a t i o n c o n c e r n s the p l a t y p o d i d a n d scolytid b a r k b e e t l e s . As d i s c u s s e d earlier, t h e s e beetles are also called a m b r o s i a b e e t l e s b e c a u s e t h e y i n o c u l a t e i n t o t h e i r w o o d e n galleries a f u n g u s t h a t t h e y feed u p o n . T h e f u n g u s i s f o u n d n o w h e r e else except i n t h e s e galleries a n d in specialized p o c k e t s in t h e b o d y of t h e beetle (called mycangia). T h e species o f f u n g u s i s specific t o t h e species o f b e e t l e . Bark beetles e x h u m e d f r o m D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s h o w m y c a n g i a , r e p l e t e w i t h spores and f i l a m e n t s o f their symbiotic fungus. An aspect of a m b e r p r e s e r v a t i o n t h a t is j u s t as intriguing as what is p r e s e r v e d , is how s o m e t h i n g is p r e s e r v e d . T h e r e is often virtually no s h r i n k a g e of soft tissues a n d n o t r a c e s o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n , a t least i n D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n a m b e r s . (Baltic a m b e r , i t h a s b e e n r e c e n t l y discovered, d o e s n o t p r e s e r v e i n t e r n a l tissues as well as D o m i n i c a n or M e x i c a n a m b e r does, a n d this is u n d o u b t e d l y d u e t o its u n i q u e c h e m i s t r y . Baltic a m b e r d o e s s h o w s o m e d e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d s h r i n k a g e , b u t n o t always. C h e m i c a l l y a n d botanically similar fossil a n d subfossil resins, like copal f r o m East Africa a n d C o l o m b i a , t h e o r e t i c a l l y s h o u l d s h o w at least similar p r e s e r v a t i o n a l f i d e l i t y , a l t h o u g h this h a s n o t yet b e e n tested.) 21 • Amber in Nature

Pages 123-25: Scanning electronmicrographs of fossib "exhumed' from Dominican amber Above: Small leaf its surface appearing dried and cracked like a parched lake bed Below: Epithelial cells of the leaf above, perfectly stacked

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Above: Wood-boring ambrosia beetle, showing the special pocket for transporting its symbiotic fungus Opposite: Detail of pocket from above, still containing the symbiotic fungus

P r e s e r v a t i o n of a tiny o r g a n i s m by t h e o r i g i n a l , fluid resin m u s t have b e e n v e r y q u i c k t o a c c o u n t for t h e v i r t u a l lack o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e favored h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t a v e r y volatile fluid in t h e resin, p e r h a p s a t e r p e n e , s e e p e d rapidly t h r o u g h t h e b o d y walls a n d i n t o t h e tissues, f i x i n g t h e m . W a t e r m u s t have b e e n e x t r a c t e d i n this p r o c e s s , since D N A can b e n a t u r a l l y p r e s e r v e d only b y d e h y d r a t i o n . P e r h a p s t h e r e d d i s h o r c l o u d y h a l o often f o u n d a r o u n d inclusions i n a m b e r a r e a q u e o u s r e m a i n s , s e q u e s t e r e d b y t h e s u r r o u n d i n g resin. But m e r e d e h y d r a t i o n w o u l d leave t h e tissues l o o k i n g s h r u n k e n a n d shriveled: t h e y m u s t have b e e n fixed, as in e m b a l m i n g . A n t i b i o t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e resin i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p r e s e r v a t i o n a l factor. W h e n a small o r g a n i s m b e c o m e s e n c a p s u l a t e d b y f l o w i n g resin, p r o c e s s e s o f

124 • Amber in Nature

fixation, d e h y d r a t i o n , a n d sterilization b e g i n immediately. Since t h e resins h a r d e n quickly, a h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d t o m b is s o o n formed. In a p i e c e of a m b e r in t h e S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m , t h e b r a n c h e s o f a l i v e r w o r t are p r e s e r v e d w i t h b u b b l e s o f liquid. T h e l i v e r w o r t e x t e n d s i n t o a large b u b b l e , w h e r e bits o f its s t e m a n d leaves float f r e e ( n o t unlike t h e " s n o w " i n o n e o f t h o s e s n o w s t o r m p a p e r w e i g h t s ) . I f t h e w a t e r i n t h e b u b b l e w e r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y sterile, t h e bits o f p l a n t w o u l d be at least partially d e c o m p o s e d . W h a t e v e r t h e exact m e c h a n i s m o f p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a m b e r , a t least s o m e resins preserve m u c h f i n e r details a n d m o r e c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a n a n y o t h e r k i n d o f fossil. In o r d e r to s h o w c a s e s u c h a u n i q u e m o d e of p r e s e r v a t i o n , a special t e r m — "ambalming"—can be coined. Amber in Nature •

125

Ancient DNA, Evolution, and Suspended Animation

I f t h o u c o u l d s t b u t speak, little fly, h o w m u c h m o r e w o u l d w e k n o w a b o u t t h e past! —Immanuel Kant

Biologists w h o discover, n a m e , describe, a n d classify v a r i o u s o r g a n i s m s are called s y s t e m a t i s t s , o r t a x o n o m i s t s . P e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e science p r e c e d e d virtually all o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f biology, o r b e c a u s e Victorian t a x o n o m i s t s m e r e l y p i g e o n h o l e d species, s y s t e m a t i c s h a s often b e e n p e r c e i v e d as a science o u t p a c e d by b i o c h e m i s t r y , physiology, a n d t h e like. T h i s w a s m o s t t r u e o f p a l e o n t o l o g y , w h e r e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f f o r m s i n r o c k r e q u i r e d , a t best, a m i c r o s c o p e . H o w t e c h n i c a l a field is s e e m s to r e l a t e directly to h o w scientific t h a t field is believed t o b e , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l b a s e s b e h i n d it. Systematics i s h a r d l y s h o r t i n c o n c e p t s , for i t s e e k s t o e x a m i n e e v o l u t i o n a r y relationships a m o n g species, a n d this is at t h e h e a r t of all biology. Traditionally, it has b e e n d o n e by a n a l y z i n g t h e a n a t o m y , o r m o r p h o l o g y , o f a n o r g a n i s m , s o a s t o define features t h a t link species, s u c h as six legs defining (in p a r t ) t h e insects. T e c h n i c a l a d v a n c e s in t h e 1980s a n d 1990s t h e n allowed t h e s e q u e n c i n g of a m i n o acids i n p r o t e i n s a n d t h e n u c l e o t i d e s i n D N A . D N A i s o f s u c h i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e it is t h e m o l e c u l a r basis of i n h e r i t a n c e . If a species a c q u i r e d a m u t a t i o n , a n d its d e s c e n d a n t s i n h e r i t e d t h e m u t a t i o n , t h e n all the c h a n g e s in a s e g m e n t o f D N A c o u l d b e u s e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y history o f t h a t l i n e a g e . T h e m i l l i o n s o f f u n g i , w o r m s , m i t e s , insects, a n d plants are still s t u d i e d m o r phologically, b u t t h e s t u d y o f t h e i r D N A h a s b e c o m e a fervent t o p i c . T h a t p a l e o n t o l o g y , t h e b a s t i o n o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l study, w o u l d b e c o m e m o l e c u l a r w a s inconceivable years ago. Extinct termite, Mastotermes electrodominicus, in Dominican amber. Length of amber 1.8". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology) A specimen similar to the one above yielded one of the first DNA sequences recovered from an amber fossil.

Fossils in a m b e r did a g r e a t deal to r e v o l u t i o n i z e the study of a n c i e n t D N A . After 1982, w h e n h i g h - m a g n i f i c a t i o n , e l e c t r o n - m i c r o s c o p i c s t u d y of tissue in an a m b e r fossil revealed n e w detail, scientists b e g a n t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e possibility o f e x t r a c t i n g D N A f r o m it. Early a t t e m p t s a t extracting and s e q u e n c i n g D N A from a m b e r fossils w e r e c o m p l i c a t e d by a c u m b e r s o m e p r o c e s s of " c l o n i n g " : t a k i n g a s e g m e n t of D N A , i n s e r t i n g it i n t o t h e g e n o m e of a bacterial colony, a n d literally g r o w i n g lots o f t h e D N A , w h i c h c o u l d t h e n b e s e q u e n c e d . B u t t o s t a r t , o n e n e e d e d m u c h m o r e D N A t h a n exists i n t h e pinhead-size p i e c e o f tissue o n e often g e t s from an insect in a m b e r . It w a s n o t until early in 1992 t h a t s e r i o u s efforts r e s u m e d t o o b t a i n D N A f r o m fossils i n amber. P r o b a b l y t h e e v e n t t h a t m o s t s p a r k e d interest i n a n c i e n t D N A f r o m a m b e r w a s t h e r e p o r t i n 1990 o f i n t a c t D N A f r o m 17-million-year-old fossil leaves, n o t i n a m b e r b u t f r o m clay s e d i m e n t s o f Clarkia, Idaho. I t h a d actually b e e n r e p o r t e d y e a r s earlier t h a t leaves fossilized at this site c o n t a i n e d v a r i o u s p r e s e r v e d c o m p l e x

126 • Amber in Nature

b i o m o l e c u l e s like c h l o r o p h y l l ( w h i c h m a k e s p l a n t s g r e e n ) a n d o t h e r p i g m e n t s . E v e n c h l o r o p l a s t s i n t h e cell ( w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e c h l o r o p h y l l ) w e r e p r e s e r v e d . B u t t h e p i g m e n t s d e g r a d e d rapidly u p o n e x p o s u r e t o air; s o m e leaves l o o k i n g originally like colorful fall foliage q u i c k l y b l a c k e n e d . Still, t h e s e w e r e no o r d i n a r y l e a f - c o m p r e s s i o n fossils. T w o l a b o r a t o r i e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y p u b l i s h e d s h o r t s e q u e n c e s o f D N A f r o m t h e s a m e c h l o r o p l a s t g e n e , o n e for a n extinct m a g n o l i a , t h e o t h e r for a n extinct b a l d cypress. T h e m a g n o l i a D N A w a s v e r y different f r o m living m a g n o l i a D N A ; i n c o n t r a s t , t h e b a l d c y p r e s s w a s v e r y s i m i l a r t o living relatives. D e s p i t e t h e r e m a r k a b l e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s e fossil leaves, h u n d r e d s o f a t t e m p t s w e r e r e q u i r e d for t h e few successful e x t r a c t i o n s . A p o r t a b l e e x t r a c t i o n l a b o r a t o r y h a d t o b e set u p a t t h e site t o p r o c e s s t h e specimens before they degraded. S e r e n d i p i t o u s p r e s e r v a t i o n i s o n e p a r t o f t h e Clarkia fossil success; t h e o t h e r part is the technique that was used, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). This t e c h n i q u e u s e s an e n z y m e f r o m t h e Thermophilics aquaticus b a c t e r i u m , w h i c h lives i n h o t springs. T h e e n z y m e i s h e a t e d w i t h s e g m e n t s o f D N A called primers t h a t are specific for a c e r t a i n g e n e , t h e f o u r building-block n u c l e o t i d e s of D N A (A, T , C , a n d G), a n d e x t r a c t e d a n c i e n t D N A ; t h e m i x t u r e i s t h e n c o o l e d . T h e r e s u l t i s large q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t D N A f r o m a b s o l u t e l y m i c r o s c o p i c a m o u n t s , e v e n f r o m a single s t r a n d o f D N A . S c r u p u l o u s l y c l e a n c o n d i t i o n s are r e q u i r e d , for t h e t e c h n i q u e is so sensitive t h a t c o n t a m i n a n t D N A is also easily amplified. (This caveat i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d t o claim t h a t r e p o r t s o f D N A from fossils are n o t a n c i e n t D N A a t all, b u t m o d e r n c o n t a m i n a n t D N A . T h e r e are w a y s t o a d d r e s s this p r o b l e m ; s e e , for e x a m p l e , p a g e 130.) T h e P C R t e c h n i q u e h a s r e v o l u t i o n i z e d b i o l o g y a n d e v e n forensics. I t w a s this t e c h n i q u e that allowed t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e o l d e s t i n t a c t D N A yet k n o w n , from a m b e r . L a t e r i n 1992, t w o i n d e p e n d e n t p a p e r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p u b l i s h e d DNA f r o m a t e r m i t e a n d a b e e in t h e 25-million-year-old a m b e r f r o m the D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c . G i v e n t h e c o n s i s t e n t l y f i n e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f this a m b e r and availability o f i n c l u s i o n s , t h e s e w e r e g o o d f i r s t c h o i c e s . A g r o u p f r o m the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y r e p o r t e d o n t h e D N A f r o m the large primitive t e r m i t e Mastotermes electrodominicus. A g r o u p f r o m t w o universities in California r e p o r t e d t h e D N A s e q u e n c e s from t h e c o m m o n stingless bee Proplebia dominicana. (The American M u s e u m of Natural History study had been completed and s u b m i t t e d for p u b l i c a t i o n t w o m o n t h s b e f o r e t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e California study, w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y w a s p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h earlier.) In b o t h cases, o n l y a few f r a g m e n t s o f D N A , o f 200 t o 300 n u c l e o t i d e s long, w e r e recovered. T h e s a m e g e n e in b o t h cases (called 18s r D N A ) w a s e x a m i n e d , b u t it w a s a m e r e fraction of t h e e n t i r e g e n e . S o m e g e n e s m a y h a v e , say, 10,000 n u c l e o t i d e s , a n d t h e e n t i r e t y o f D N A i n m a n y c o m p l e x o r g a n i s m s i s h o u s e d i n 10,000 o r m o r e g e n e s . E v e n t h o u g h t h e y w e r e s u c h m i n u t e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e g e n o m e s , t h e fact t h a t D N A c o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d this l o n g w a s i n s t a n t n e w s , particularly since t h e r e p o r t s c a m e i n t h e w a k e o f t h e b o o k Jurassic Park a n d j u s t p r i o r t o t h e f i l m . W h a t w a s 128 - Amber in Nature

n o t s o w i d e l y p o p u l a r i z e d w a s t h e scientific r e a s o n w h y a t least t h e t e r m i t e ' s D N A was of such interest. Mastotermes electrodominicus is a large, m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y p r i m i t i v e t e r m i t e w h o s e o n l y close living relative, M. darwiniensis ( n a m e d for t h e n a t u r a l i s t ) , thrives in Australia. A similar extinct species is f o u n d in Mexican a m b e r , a n d c o m p r e s s i o n fossil Mastotermes o c c u r i n r o c k s f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e . T h e large t e r m i t e s r e s e m b l e c o c k r o a c h e s n o t o n l y i n size b u t also i n v a r i o u s features: t h e y have a large p r o n o t a l p l a t e t h a t p a r t i a l l y shields t h e h e a d (the h e a d s o f r o a c h e s are entirely o r a l m o s t entirely c o n c e a l e d ) ; t h e eggs o f t h e living species are laid i n c l u m p s , like a r u d i m e n t a r y c o c k r o a c h e g g sac; a n d t h e w i n g s h a v e n u m e r o u s veins (in m o s t t e r m i t e s , t h e r e are v e r y few veins, a n d t h e s e are v e r y faint). So, a t least d u r i n g E o c e n e t o M i o c e n e t i m e s ( a b o u t 4 0 t o 2 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) , t h e g e n u s w a s v e r y w i d e s p r e a d . N o w i t i s relict, b e i n g r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e n o r t h e r n ,

Evolutionary relationships of termites, cockroaches, and praying mantises, based on DNA from living species and from the amber fossil termite. The extinct Mastotermes retains features of its roach ancestry, but it and its living relative are genetically all termite.

tropical areas of Australia a n d a few s p o t s in N e w G u i n e a (oddly, M. darwiniensis

Amber in Nature •

129

is a s e r i o u s pest, so w h y its close relatives b e c a m e extinct a r o u n d t h e w o r l d is an e n i g m a ) . Mastoterm.es c o u l d o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d a relict if all of t h e fossil a n d t h e o n e living species w e r e closely related. S y s t e m a t i s t s t r a d i t i o n a l l y g r o u p e d t h o s e species o n t h e basis o f features t h a t also are s e e n i n c o c k r o a c h e s , w h i c h evolved well b e f o r e t e r m i t e s evolved. T h i s w o u l d b e c o m p a r a b l e t o defining h u m a n s b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f hair, w h i c h evolved i n t h e earliest m a m m a l s , well before h u m a n s . T h u s , o n e q u e s t i o n w a s , A r e t h e living a n d fossil Mastotermes i n d e e d closely related, o r d o t h e y j u s t s h a r e a p r i m i t i v e m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e s e m b l a n c e ? T h e study of D N A would circumvent the morphological problem. Answering this q u e s t i o n h a d i m p l i c a t i o n s for e v o l u t i o n , specifically a b o u t e x t i n c t i o n s . T h e o t h e r q u e s t i o n involved t h e w i d e r evolutionary relationships of Mastotermes t o o t h e r k i n d s o f t e r m i t e s a n d t o r o a c h e s . B e c a u s e t h e y r e t a i n s o m a n y roachlike features, Mastotermes h a d often b e e n t h o u g h t o f a s " m i s s i n g l i n k s " b e t w e e n t h e t w o o r d e r s . I n this light, t e r m i t e s w e r e s e e n a s highly r e d u c e d , m y o p i c , w o o d e a t i n g , social c o c k r o a c h e s . D N A f r o m t h e extinct t e r m i t e r e v e a l e d t h a t i t a n d t h e living species are definitely all t e r m i t e , n o t at all " m i s s i n g links" w i t h c o c k r o a c h e s . An e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e d r a w n o n l y w i t h t h e D N A f r o m t h e living t e r m i t e s a n d r o a c h e s gave o n e a r r a n g e m e n t . W i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f D N A f r o m t h e fossil t e r m i t e , a slightly different a r r a n g e m e n t r e s u l t e d . Apparently, a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e b a s e d o n living D N A a l o n e c a n give a n i n c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e , b u t h e r e w a s t h e f i r s t g l i m p s e a s t o h o w i n c o m p l e t e t h a t p i c t u r e c o u l d b e . O t h e r u n e x p e c t e d results a p p e a r e d i n t h e D N A o f t h e extinct Mastotermes, b u t e n o u g h similarities b e t w e e n i t and the living species existed t o s h o w clearly t h a t t h e t w o species t r u l y w e r e closely r e l a t e d . T h e y did n o t j u s t s h a r e a p r i m i t i v e r e s e m b l a n c e . T h u s , p e r h a p s all fossil Mastotermes are closely r e l a t e d . If t h a t is t h e case, D a r w i n ' s Mastotermes in Australia, albeit a s e r i o u s p e s t , is i n d e e d an e v o l u t i o n a r y relict. (Further, t h e w a y this D N A m a t c h e s w i t h its close living relative is a g o o d test t h a t the D N A is authentically ancient.) I n J u n e 1993, n e w s p a p e r h e a d l i n e s d e c l a r e d , " D N A from the t i m e o f d i n o s a u r s discovered." T h e y w e r e b a s e d o n a r e p o r t , published i n t h e scientific j o u r n a l Nature, of D N A s e q u e n c e s f r o m a w e e v i l in 120-to-130-million-year-old a m b e r f r o m L e b a n o n . T h e r e p o r t w a s f r o m virtually the s a m e California g r o u p t h a t e a r l i e r h a d a n n o u n c e d D N A f r o m D o m i n i c a n a m b e r bees. Curiously, t h e scientific s t u d y w a s p u b l i s h e d on t h e day t h e film version of Jurassic Park o p e n e d . T h e D N A h a d b e e n t a k e n f r o m a single, small n e m o n y c h i d w e e v i l i n t h e a m b e r . Today, n e m o n y c h i d s feed m o s t l y o n conifers, even o n a r a u c a r i a n s , s o i t w a s p r o b a b l y feeding o n t h e t r e e t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e L e b a n e s e a m b e r . T h e scientists e x a m i n e d t w o f r a g m e n t s o f t h e s a m e g e n e (18s r D N A ) t h a t w a s s t u d i e d earlier for t h e t e r m i t e . A s e x p e c t e d , t h e fossil D N A w a s q u i t e p r i m i t i v e . W h a t fueled publicity w a s t h a t D N A this ancient, f r o m t h e age o f d i n o s a u r s , c o u l d exist. Of c o u r s e , t h e Jurassic Park p r e m i s e , of c l o n i n g extinct c r e a t u r e s f r o m t h e s e s n i p p e t s o f D N A , s e e m e d all t h e m o r e c o m p e l l i n g . 130 • Amber in Nature

Since t h e n , D N A h a s b e e n r e c o v e r e d , i n f i v e different l a b o r a t o r i e s , f r o m leaves, fruit flies, w o o d g n a t s , a lizard, leaf b e e t l e s , a n d a f u n g u s g n a t , all in D o m i n i c a n a m b e r . A p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e i n every t h r e e a t t e m p t s i s successful. S u c h incredible c o n s i s t e n c y o f D N A p r e s e r v a t i o n m u s t b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e desiccating p r o p e r t i e s o f resin. N o d o u b t , m a n y m o r e D N A e x t r a c t i o n s will b e m a d e f r o m a m b e r fossils, w h i c h h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s n o t o n l y for e v o l u t i o n a r y studies b u t also for scientific ethics.

Suspended

Animation?

T h e D N A t h a t i s p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r fossils i s s o h o p e lessly j u m b l e d i n t o tiny f r a g m e n t s t h a t , g i v e n p r e s e n t

t e c h n o l o g y , i t w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e n t i r e g e n o m e of, say, a n extinct t e r m i t e . T h e t a s k h a s b e e n l i k e n e d t o t h e scale o f r e c o n s t r u c t i n g Tolstoy's War and Peace o u t of t h e a l p h a b e t n o o d l e s in s o u p , w i t h o u t ever h a v i n g r e a d t h e b o o k . E v e n w i t h a n a l m o s t limitless s u p p l y o f tissue a n d fully i n t a c t D N A , t h e h u m a n g e n o m e p r o j e c t i s still r e q u i r i n g d e c a d e s o f w o r k b y h u n d r e d s of r e s e a r c h e r s . If, in fifty years, t h e t e c h n o l o g y exists to r e a d a n d a s s e m b l e t h e g e n o m e o f o u r extinct t e r m i t e , c o u l d t h e t e r m i t e t h e n b e r e s u r r e c t e d ? T h i s i s actually t h e m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d p a r t , since s o m a n y c o m p l e x levels o f o r g a n i -

Bubbles in Dominican amber, harbor of quiescent, ancient bacteria? Length of amber 1.8". Private collection

z a t i o n lie b e t w e e n t h e D N A s e q u e n c e a n d t h e w h o l e o r g a n i s m . H o w t h e D N A

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lies in a scaffolding of p r o t e i n s on t h e c h r o m o s o m e s ; h o w t h e t h o u s a n d s of g e n e s t u r n off a n d o n , a n d w h e n , are j u s t s o m e o f t h e q u e s t i o n s . Even i f all this w e r e possible, h u n d r e d s of years f r o m now, t h e u l t i m a t e q u e s t i o n is, S h o u l d it be done? P r e s u m a b l y b y t h e n , t h e c o n c e r n w o u l d n o t b e s o m u c h w i t h r e s u r r e c t i n g extinct c r e a t u r e s b u t w i t h h u m a n immortality. I n t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e r e are o t h e r c o n c e r n s . T h e r e m a r k a b l e p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a m b e r h a s g i v e n a t least o n e scientist a vision of "life in a m b e r . " If D N A is p r e s e r v e d , w h y c o u l d n ' t s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s like v i r u s e s , b a c t e r i a , p r o t o z o a , a n d f u n g i also b e p r e s e r v e d ? A t least s o m e f o r m s o f t h e s e h a v e s p o r e s a n d cysts t h a t r e m a i n d o r m a n t a n d e x t r e m e l y long-lived u n d e r the desiccated conditions a m b e r provides. In M a y 1995, t h e a p p a r e n t revival of a Bacillus b a c t e r i u m w a s r e p o r t e d to h a v e b e e n e x t r a c t e d a n d c u l t u r e d f r o m t h e c o m m o n stingless b e e i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r . Excellent p r e c a u t i o n s w e r e t a k e n t o i n s u r e against c o n t a m i n a t i o n , a n d t h e D N A o f t h e b a c t e r i u m w a s v e r y similar, b u t n o t identical, t o a n o t h e r k i n d o f Bacillus k n o w n t o live t o d a y i n b e e s . I f t h e results p r o v e t r u e , h o w w e v i e w t h e m o r t a l i t y o f o r g a n i s m s n e e d s t o b e revised. W i d e s p r e a d s k e p t i c i s m exists i n t h e scientific c o m m u n i t y , t h o u g h , a s t o w h e t h e r this b a c t e r i u m i s i n d e e d a n c i e n t . O n e p r o b l e m w i t h t r y i n g t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e b a c t e r i a a p p a r e n t l y revived f r o m a m b e r are a u t h e n t i c i s t h a t t h e living flora o f b a c t e r i a i s s o p o o r l y k n o w n t h a t o n e m a y n e v e r b e s u r e i f a positive result i s simply d u e t o s o m e u n k n o w n m o d e r n species c o n t a m i n a t i n g t h e c u l t u r e . In a t e a s p o o n of forest soil thrive t h o u s a n d s o f species o f b a c t e r i a , m o s t n e w t o science. W h a t a s s u r a n c e i s there, g i v e n t h e m o s t sterile a n d careful c o n d i t i o n s o f isolation, t h a t a w e i r d b a c t e r i u m is a u t h e n t i c a l l y ancient? Also, all of t h e D N A e x t r a c t e d t h u s far from o r g a n i s m s t r a p p e d in a m b e r is e x t r e m e l y fragmented. G i v e n this, h o w is it posssible that an e n t i r e g e n o m e (the D N A c h a i n i n a n o r g a n i s m ) c a n r e m a i n entirely u n b r o k e n ? A b a c t e r i u m w i t h a fragmented g e n o m e w o u l d n e v e r be viable. This w o r k raises q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e ethics o f c u l t u r i n g e x t i n c t m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . S o m e laborat o r i e s a r e e v e n t r y i n g t o i n s e r t f r a g m e n t s o f t h e ( p r e s u m a b l y ) extinct b a c t e r i a l D N A i n t o close living relatives. T h i s raises e v e n m o r e c o n c e r n than t h e c u r r e n t o n e o v e r r e c o m b i n a n t - D N A r e s e a r c h , since i t involves c o n s t r u c t e d m i c r o b e s whose pathogenic potential is u n k n o w n . Less e s o t e r i c a n d m o r e g e r m a n e t o t h e lover o f a m b e r i s the responsibility of scientists as s t e w a r d s of g r e a t c o l l e c t i o n s . If t h e extraction of tissues from amber, DNA, microbes, or whatever, b e c o m e s commonplace, what guidelines a n d safeguards are t h e r e t o p r e v e n t u n i q u e a n d rare pieces f r o m b e i n g h a r m e d o r e v e n d e s t r o y e d ? T h i s c o n c e r n b e c a m e m o s t p e r t i n e n t a s a result o f t h e s t u d y o n t h e L e b a n e s e a m b e r weevil. E x t r a c t i o n o f the tissues largely d e s t r o y e d t h e s p e c i m e n ( t h e pieces w e r e t h e n g l u e d b a c k t o g e t h e r ) , w h i c h i s all t h e m o r e u n f o r t u n a t e b e c a u s e i t w a s u n i q u e . E x p e r i m e n t s like this, regardless o f h o w p r o m i s i n g t h e result m a y b e , s h o u l d b e d o n e only o n fossils t h a t a r e c o m m o n . If a n y a s p e c t of a fossil is to r e m a i n available for study, it s h o u l d be t h e m o r p h o l o g y — a l l of it. 132 • Amber in Nature

PROCESSED AMBER,

T

IMITATIONS,

AND FORGERIES

h e v i r t u e s o f a m b e r are many, b u t t w o m a i n l i m i t a t i o n s are t h a t i t g r a d u a l l y d e t e r i o r a t e s w h e n e x p o s e d t o h e a t a n d air, a n d forgeries are easily a n d

s o m e t i m e s convincingly m a d e . Various substances have b e e n used to imitate a m b e r i n d e c o r a t i v e objects, b u t t h e s e are n o t usually sold w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n . Generally, t h e i m i t a t i o n m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o c e s s e d a m b e r are q u i t e easy t o distinguish f r o m t r u e , u n a d u l t e r a t e d a m b e r . S o m e o f t h e i m i t a t i o n s u b s t a n c e s i n c l u d e cellulose a c e t a t e a n d n i t r a t e , acrylic resins, Bakelites ( t h e first s y n t h e t i c s u s e d ) , a n d n o w m o s t c o m m o n l y , p o l y e s t e r resin. Even h o r n a n d h a r d e n e d casein (the p r o t e i n i n milk) h a v e b e e n u s e d a s a m b e r i m i t a t i o n s . T h e i m i t a t i o n s are usually d i s c e r n e d b y t h e i r u n n a t u r a l c o l o r o r c o m p o s i t i o n , o r w i t h a h o t n e e d l e . W h e n a h o t n e e d l e i s t o u c h e d t o a m b e r o r copal, t h e smell i s r e s i n o u s ; i m i t a t i o n s will smell acrid, like b u r n i n g plastic or b u r n e d fruit (for t h e celluloids). A c o m m o n p r o c e s s for a m b e r j e w e l r y i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f " s u n s p a n g l e s , " w h i c h are disks a t different a n g l e s t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e disks are m a d e b y h e a t i n g a p i e c e o f a m b e r w i t h n u m e r o u s air b u b b l e s b u r i e d i n cans o f h o t s a n d . P o p p i n g h e a r d f r o m t h e h e a t e d c a n indicates t h a t t h e b u b b l e s have e x p a n d e d , c r e a t i n g a discoidal f r a c t u r e a r o u n d t h e m like t h e r i n g s a r o u n d t h e p l a n e t S a t u r n . All o f t h e s u b s t a n c e i s n a t u r a l , b u t i t h a s b e e n p r o c e s s e d t o give t h e d e s i r e d effect o f t h e s e highly reflective disks. T h i s t e c h n i q u e is closely r e l a t e d to clarification. M o s t a m b e r p i e c e s u s e d for d e c o r a t i v e objects, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y for t h e flat pieces g l u e d i n t o m o s a i c s a n d o n t o chests, w e r e clarified. B y h e a t i n g a m b e r i n oil v e r y gradually, t h e m i n u t e b u b b l e s n e a r t h e surface b e c o m e filled w i t h t h e oil, a n d the a m b e r b e c o m e s s o m e w h a t transparent, even in bony and bastard amber. D e s p i t e w h a t s o m e m a y c l a i m , this t e c h n i q u e c a n n o t m a k e a p i e c e o f b o n y o r b a s t a r d a m b e r c o m p l e t e l y clear, b u t it d o e s give a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a n s p a r e n c y to t h e surface. I n t h e t i m e o f Pliny t h e Elder, t h e oil t h a t w a s u s e d for clarification w a s t h e r e n d e r e d fat of a s u c k l i n g pig. N o w r a p e s e e d oil is u s e d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e its refractive index closely m a t c h e s t h a t of a m b e r . A n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i q u e for p r o c e s s i n g a m b e r h a s b e e n t h e pressing o f a m b e r t o c r e a t e ambroid. H e r e , t h e m a s s e s o f small, u n u s a b l e chips from a m b e r m i n i n g are fused in a v a c u u m w i t h s t e a m of at least 400° E T h e softened a m b e r i s t h e n p r e s s e d t h r o u g h a sieve, m i x e d t o g e t h e r , a n d h a r d e n e d into blocks. It can be dyed, u s u a l l y a d a r k red. A m b r o i d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by its flow lines, w h i c h b e c o m e m o r e a p p a r e n t w i t h age. T h e t e c h n i q u e w a s particularly useful for t h e m a s s p r o d u c t i o n o f s t a n d a r d small objects, s u c h a s Amber in Nature •

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Brooch made with a cabochon of amber having "sun spangles," set in silver. This modern piece from Poland exemplifies a typical use for this kind of amber. The amber is produced by careful heating, which causes internal bubbles to expand, creating the disks. Height 1.5". Private collection

Below: Ambroid, or "pressed " amber, made from Baltic amber. These pieces were intended for use in buttons and as mouthpieces for pipes. Length of longest piece 1.4". American Museum of Natural History

Opposite, above: Forgery with a lizard, made from cast kaurigum resin. Length of amber 6.7". Private collection

Opposite, below: Forgery with a paper wasp in polyester resin, sold in the Dominican Republic. Length of amber 1.3". Private collection

134 • Amber in Nature

Plate from Naihanael Sendelio's Historia Succinorum Corpora aliena involventium et Naturae O p e r e 1 7 4 2 . Several illustrations depict obvious forgeries; see, for example, the lizard marked 6 and numbers 19-22.

136 ' Amber in Nature

b u t t o n s a n d m o u t h p i e c e s for p i p e s . A t t h e t u r n o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e u s e o f p r e s s e d a m b e r for s m o k i n g i m p l e m e n t s w a s v e r y p o p u l a r , b e c a u s e a m b e r w a s c o n s i d e r e d h e a l t h i e r t h a n h o r n , b o n e , o r ivory, a n d i t w a s s m o o t h e r . Small inclusions, s u c h a s insects a n d p l a n t p a r t s , c a n b e e m b e d d e d i n t h e p r e s s e d a m b r o i d w h i l e i t i s soft, b u t t h e h e a t a n d p r e s s u r e g r e a t l y d i s t o r t t h e m , a n d t h e flow lines are always a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n s are u n n a t u r a l . T h e real interest i n a m b e r forgeries involves t h e inclusions o f small o r g a n i s m s p u r p o s e l y e m b e d d e d i n a n i m i t a t i o n s u b s t a n c e o r i n a cavity o f n a t u r a l a m b e r . Currently, a n d p r e s u m a b l y h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s ago, t h e m o s t s o u g h t a n d t h e r e f o r e m o s t expensive a m b e r objects c o n t a i n e d large insects a n d small v e r t e b r a t e s . Forgeries of t h e s e h a v e b e e n m a d e for at least six h u n d r e d years. P r o b a b l y all forgers deceive t h e i r b u y e r s s i m p l y for t h e m o n e y . For t h e few cases i n w h i c h scientists have b e e n fooled b y faked inclusions, t h e forger a l m o s t certainly did n o t intend to be misleading scientifically: t h e fake j u s t e n d e d up in a m u s e u m collection. Since i t i s n o t feasible t o m e l t a u t h e n t i c a m b e r t o insert inclusions, s o m e c o n v i n c i n g s u b s t i t u t e s m u s t b e u s e d . T h e first forgeries w e r e m a d e f r o m m e l t e d copal, a p r a c t i c e c o m m o n u p t o t h e early t w e n t i e t h century. E v e n Pliny d o u b t e d t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f lizards i n Baltic a m b e r ; h e believed t h e m t o b e c o p a l forgeries. East African c o p a l ( t h e k i n d o r i g i n a l l y u s e d ) w o u l d b e p u l v e r i z e d a n d m i x e d w i t h spirits, s u c h a s t u r p e n t i n e o r a l c o h o l , a n d t h e n h e a t e d u n t i l t h e c o p a l w a s dissolved. A s t h e s o l v e n t e v a p o r a t e d a n d t h e m i x t u r e b e c a m e thicker, i t c o u l d t h e n be p o u r e d i n t o a m o l d , i n t o w h i c h w a s placed, say, a large b e e t l e , s c o r p i o n , o r lizard. A t t h e p e a k o f t h e k a u r i - g u m t r a d e i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a p o p u l a r sideline w a s t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f fossil forgeries, m a n y still i n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e s e forgeries are v e r y u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d , c o n s i s t i n g o f u n n a t u r a l l y large a r t h r o p o d s a n d lizards, a n d u s u a l l y w i t h t h e i r a p p e n d a g e s far t o o n e a t l y a r r a n g e d . A t t h e v e r y least, c o p a l forgeries are easily s p o t t e d . T h e caveat is t h a t n o t all inclusions in c o p a l , i n c l u d i n g lizards, are forgeries. S o m e , s u c h a s o n e s i n t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m i n L o n d o n , m i s l e d a few Victorian t a x o n o m i s t s w h o t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e i n t r u e a m b e r . T h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y h a s a n extensive c o l l e c t i o n o f insects n a t u r a l l y p r e s e r v e d i n East African c o p a l . T h e B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n ' s M u s e u m h a s a r e c t a n g u l a r b l o c k o f c o p a l c o n t a i n i n g a small g e c k o lizard. T h e i m m e d i a t e a s s u m p t i o n w a s t h a t it is a fake, b u t close e x a m i n a t i o n revealed m i c r o s c o p i c p l a n t h a i r s a n d frail m i d g e s t h a t a forger w o u l d n e v e r have t h o u g h t t o i n c l u d e ; or, i f h e h a d , h e a t i n g t h e c o p a l m i x t u r e w o u l d have g r e a t l y d i s t o r t e d t h e m . T h e piece was probably cut a n d t r i m m e d from a large c h u n k of kauri g u m , in w h i c h a lizard h a d b e e n n a t u r a l l y t r a p p e d (or p u s h e d ! ) . O n e i r o n c l a d t e c h n i q u e of d i s c e r n i n g a c o p a l forgery relies on s o m e s o p h i s t i c a t e d c h e m i s t r y . C o p a l forgeries, even o n e m a d e a h u n d r e d y e a r s ago, c o n t a i n t r a c e s o f s o l v e n t t h a t have n o t e v a p o r a t e d , b u t t o d e t e c t this r e q u i r e s expensive i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . Forgeries in p o l y e s t e r resin h a v e largely r e p l a c e d copal forgeries, p e r h a p s because t h e t e c h n i q u e i s easier a n d , t o t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d eye, m o r e c o n v i n c i n g . Amber in Nature •

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Opposite: Forgery showing a small anole lizard set in a niche carved from Dominican amber. The niche was then filled with polyester casting resin. Note the curled hair and the pen outline around the lizard; otherwise, it would have been a very convincing forgery. Private collection

Two skillful forgeries in Baltic amber, both made by inserting an inclusion in a cavity in natural Baltic amber Above: Small frog and scallop shell embedded in a central hole bored into the piece. Length of amber 1.9". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology) Below: "Piltdown Fly, "forgery with the common latrine fly, Fannia scalaris, studied by the eminent entomologist Willi Hennig. The Natural History Museum, London

Amber in Nature • 139

Since a b o u t 1980, p o l y e s t e r forgeries have b e c o m e v e r y p o p u l a r i n t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c a n d M e x i c o . U n l i k e forgeries in c o p a l , d e t e c t i n g fakes in p o l y e s t e r resin is u n e q u i v o c a l . But, like c o p a l forgeries, t h e i n c l u s i o n s in p o l y e s t e r forgeries, g e n e r a l l y lizards, are u s u a l l y v e r y u n n a t u r a l . T h i s is c o n v e n i e n t , since small v e r t e b r a t e s a n d t h e like d r a w i m m e d i a t e s c r u t i n y b y d e a l e r s a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d b u y e r s ; it is t h e t h o u s a n d s of small inclusions t h a t do n o t . Forgers also unwittingly u s e large, c o m m o n insects (like m o d e r n h o n e y b e e s ) t h a t e n t o m o l o g i s t s easily s p o t a s fakes, b u t w h i c h a l a y p e r s o n m a y n o t . O n e c a n n o t rely o n d e t e c t i n g a forgery b a s e d o n t h e e x t r e m e clarity o f t h e s u b s t a n c e , for s o m e a m b e r , especially M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , c a n b e r e m a r k a b l y free o f debris. I n fact, forgers o f D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n " a m b e r " g e n e r a l l y s p r i n k l e d i r t i n t o t h e resin, b u t t o a n a m b e r specialist even t h e dirt i s s u s p i c i o u s l y u n n a t u r a l . Like a n e x p e r i e n c e d b a n k teller w h o c a n d e t e c t c o u n t e r feit c u r r e n c y b y t h e t e x t u r e o f t h e p a p e r , a n e x p e r i e n c e d a m b e r e x p e r t can also d e t e c t a p o l y e s t e r forgery b y t h e feel ( a n d c o l o r ) o f t h e p i e c e . T h e easiest a n d s u r e s t m e t h o d of d e t e c t i n g p o l y e s t e r forgeries for l a y p e o p l e is t h e h o t - n e e d l e test. T h e m o s t clever t e c h n i q u e i n amber-fossil forgeries i s o n e o f t h e o l d e s t a s well. F o r a t least four h u n d r e d years, E u r o p e a n s have b e e n m a k i n g fossil forgeries f r o m Baltic a m b e r , a n d t h e m a n y n a t u r a l flow lines a n d c r a c k s i n i t l e n d t h e m s e l v e s w o n d e r f u l l y to a special t e c h n i q u e . A p i e c e is split a l o n g t h e p l a n e of a c r a c k or fissure r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e a m b e r . A small cavity is c a r v e d o u t of a split surface, filled w i t h t h e forged i n c l u s i o n a n d w i t h resin, b a l s a m , or m e l t e d c o p a l , a n d t h e s a m e i s u s e d for fusing t h e t w o halves b a c k t o g e t h e r . T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e resin a n d a m b e r is generally so slight as to be undetectable, especially if o t h e r flow lines a n d fissures h e l p to c o n c e a l t h e e d g e s of the cavity. All o f t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d c h e m i c a l tests w o u l d reveal t h e piece t o b e authentic amber. T h e t e c h n i q u e is so clever t h a t it easily m i s l e a d s e v e n e x p e r t s . O n e case i n v o l v e d a p i e c e i n t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History. I t was a b o u t t w o i n c h e s l o n g , d a r k red, a n d w i t h a c r a z e d surface typical of old Baltic a m b e r pieces. Inside w a s a s t r e a m of resin, a n d inside of t h a t w a s a tiny frog a n d w h a t a p p e a r e d t o b e t w o large b u b b l e s . T h e p i e c e c a m e f r o m o n e o f t h e m o s t v e n e r a b l e p r i v a t e collections o f m i n e r a l s ever a s s e m b l e d (by C l a r e n c e B e m e n t ) , a n d t h e w h o l e lot w a s p u r c h a s e d for t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y by J. P. M o r g a n in 1900, for $100,000. E l a t i o n at t h e rediscovery of " B e m e n t ' s frog" q u i c k l y s u b s i d e d w h e n t h e p i e c e w a s e x a m i n e d closely: o n e o f t h e s m a l l " b u b b l e s " w a s actually a small scallop, w h i c h could n o t possibly have b e e n c a u g h t i n a m b e r . I t w a s t h e n discovered t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l s t r e a m o f resin w a s a c t u a l l y a b o r e h o l e f i l l e d w i t h m o d e r n resin a n d t h a t a slice h a d b e e n t a k e n off o n e e n d t o m a k e t h e h o l e a n d t h e n v e r y carefully fused b a c k o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l p i e c e . O n e surface o f t h e piece w a s left n a t u r a l l y r o u g h t o h e l p conceal t r a c e s o f t h e forgery. F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e p i e c e w a s d e t e c t e d before t h e r e c o u l d be a scientifically e m b a r r a s s i n g r e p o r t o n it. 140 • Amber in Nature

A n o t h e r case w a s n o t s o f o r t u n a t e . I n t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n , w a s a small p i e c e o f a m b e r c o n t a i n i n g w h a t l o o k s like a small housefly. It h a d b e e n a c q u i r e d by t h e m u s e u m in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f r o m a d i s t i n g u i s h e d G e r m a n scientist. M o r e t h a n s e v e n t y y e a r s later, a n o t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d G e r m a n scientist, Willi H e n n i g , s t u d i e d i t a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s p e c i m e n w a s a fly i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h e c o m m o n s e w e r fly, Fannia scalaris ( t h e r e are at least a h u n d r e d o t h e r species of Fannia, b u t n o n e are as c o m m o n ) . H e c o n s i d e r e d t h e possibility t h a t t h e s p e c i m e n w a s a forgery, b u t t h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o signs o f it, a n d s o h e d w e l l e d , i n his o r i g i n a l p a p e r , o n h o w an insect species can persist in e v o l u t i o n a r y t i m e . It b e c a m e a c i t e d e x a m p l e of e v o l u t i o n a r y stasis, u n t i l 1993, w h e n a r e s e a r c h e r at t h e British M u s e u m discovered it w a s a forgery. W e r e it n o t for t h e h e a t of a m i c r o s c o p e l a m p , w h i c h c a u s e d t h e piece t o c r a c k i n a c e r t a i n way, t h e s p e c i m e n m i g h t n e v e r h a v e c o m e u n d e r suspicion. It w a s s u c h a g o o d f o r g e r y t h a t it h a d s t u m p e d e v e n a scientist like H e n n i g , w h o w a s r e n o w n e d for his w o r k o n insects, i n c l u d i n g f l i e s i n a m b e r . It w a s m a d e in a w a y similar to t h a t of B e m e n t ' s frog, by e m b e d d i n g a fly ( p r o b a b l y f r o m a w i n d o w s i l l ) i n t o a cavity in n a t u r a l Baltic a m b e r . In a l l u s i o n to a f a m o u s h u m a n - f o s s i l forgery, t h e fake f l y h a s b e e n e u p h e m i s t i c a l l y d u b b e d " P i l t d o w n Fly"; i n this case, h o w e v e r , t h e forger a l m o s t certainly n e v e r i n t e n d e d to mislead a scientist.

Amber in Nature •

141

AMBER IN ART

The objects in this section are of Baltic amber, with the exception of the Asian pieces, most of which were crafted from burmite, or Burmese amber.

T

h e u s e o f a m b e r a s a n artistic m e d i u m i s a n a t u r a l o n e b e c a u s e i t can b e c a r v e d relatively easily, a n d it c o m e s in a v a r i e t y of w a r m colors. H o w e v e r ,

i t s p l i n t e r s a n d b r e a k s m o r e easily t h a n ivory, o n e s u b s t a n c e u s e d often w i t h a m b e r , w h i c h is w h y t h e detail in a m b e r c a r v i n g s is n o t as i n t r i c a t e as t h a t in ivories. T h e s m o o t h feel o f h i g h l y p o l i s h e d a m b e r a n d its w a r m t h m a k e i t especially p r i z e d for objects t h a t are h a n d l e d o r w o r n a g a i n s t t h e skin, s u c h a s

Page 142: Chessboard. Probably Danzig, late seventeenth-early eighteenth century. 14.5x14.5x1.6". Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest of William Arnold Buffum, 02.205

c h e s s pieces, r o s a r y b e a d s , a n d n e c k l a c e s . T h e pianist Frederic C h o p i n c a r r i e d a m b e r pieces w i t h h i m , t o relax his f i n g e r s over t h e m before a p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r L e o n a r d B e r n s t e i n ( w h o s e last n a m e m e a n s " a m b e r " i n G e r m a n ) had a conducting baton with an a m b e r handle. So cherished was a m b e r a m o n g t h e C h i n e s e a n d a n c i e n t Italic-speaking p e o p l e s t h a t t h e i r c a r v i n g s w o u l d

The playing squares are made of alternating thin pieces of transparent and opaque amber mounted to a wooden frame; the perimeter has twelve transparent amber "windows" and a mosaic of opaque ambers. The underside is lined with red velvet, and a small round, carved foot of amber marks each corner. The transparent squares have a scene inscribed in fine detail on the reverse side, each with a phrase in French. The scenes and phrases show against a gold foil backing onto which each transparent piece is mounted. The board is accompanied by thirtytwo chess pieces of relatively simple design, all with some turning and each made from several pieces of amber.

follow t h e n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s o f t h e piece. T h e y c o n s i d e r e d i t w a s t e f u l t o t r i m off excess a m b e r simply for t h e sake of m a k i n g a s y m m e t r i c a l c a r v i n g . In s o m e cases, this t e c h n i q u e w o u l d distort a b u s t or figure, while in o t h e r s t h e t o p o g r a p h y of t h e p i e c e dictated t h e actual subject, often yielding a v e r y p l e a s i n g asymmetry. T h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e fitting of a c a r v e d subject to t h e n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s of a p i e c e w a s c o m p l e t e l y o p p o s i t e t o t h e p r a c t i c e s i n s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d eighteenthc e n t u r y a m b e r w o r k s h o p s o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e , w h e r e s y m m e t r y w a s the e s s e n c e . L a r g e , e l a b o r a t e a r t w o r k s w e r e crafted b y u s i n g m a n y smaller a m b e r p i e c e s in m o s a i c s or as small tiles, often a t t a c h e d to a w o o d e n frame. T h e s t e m s o f s o m e chalices a n d candlesticks w e r e m a d e f r o m t e n o r m o r e pieces o f a m b e r , all intricately t u r n e d a n d h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a c e n t r a l , i n t e r n a l rod. T h e m o s t o r n a t e a n d c o n t r i v e d artistic a p p l i c a t i o n o f a m b e r can b e seen i n the small a l t a r s a n d c h e s t s m a d e i n a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l motif. I n m a n y cases, a m o s a i c o f a m b e r p i e c e s w o u l d b e a t t a c h e d a s a t h i n v e n e e r t o t h e w o o d e n frame. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , o x i d a t i o n is a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m w i t h w a f e r - t h i n pieces, and such s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y objects are g e n e r a l l y i n w o r s e condition t h a n m u c h o l d e r p i e c e s m a d e o f solid a m b e r . W i t h m a n y o f t h e ancient a m b e r s , t o o , t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n , i n d a m p , c o o l t o m b s , w a s ideal.

144 - Amber in Art

MESOLITHIC PERIOD TO THE BRONZE AGE

F

o r a t least t e n m i l l e n n i a , E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s h a v e a d o r n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h Baltic a m b e r . T h e o l d e s t artifacts are b e a d s a n d a m u l e t s f o u n d close t o

w h e r e t h e m o s t extensive a m b e r d e p o s i t s o c c u r even today. O n e c a n i m a g i n e t h a t i n a n area w h e r e t h e r e are l o n g w i n t e r n i g h t s , t h e s u n w a s a focal p o i n t o f existence a n d w o r s h i p . A s u b s t a n c e o f s u c h w a r m c o l o r a n d feel, like a m b e r , p r o b a b l y h a d special significance t o t h e early Baltic p e o p l e s . A m b e r w a s s u c h a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m o d i t y w i t h w h i c h t o t r a d e for c o p p e r a n d i r o n t h a t i t h a d a f u n d a m e n t a l influence o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e s . T h e oldest a m b e r artifacts, h o w e v e r , are f r o m E n g l a n d , n o t t h e Baltic. R o u g h b e a d s f r o m G o u g h ' s Cave i n C h e d d a r a n d Cresswell C r a g s , S t a r r Carr, d a t e d from 11,000 t o 9000 B.C. (Paleolithic), w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y crafted f r o m p i e c e s o f Baltic a m b e r t h a t w a s h e d o n t o t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s o f Britain. ( T h i s w a s a t i m e d e e p into t h e last Ice A g e , w h e n t h e British Isles w e r e still largely c o n n e c t e d t o t h e E u r o p e a n m a i n l a n d . ) Similar artifacts m u s t h a v e b e e n m a d e b y p e o p l e living n e a r t h e Baltic Sea a t t h e s a m e t i m e . M e s o l i t h i c (c. 4000 B.C.) a m u l e t s a n d b e a d s are k n o w n f r o m s o u t h e r n S c a n d i n a v i a b u t are c o n s i d e r a b l y r a r e r f r o m t h e e a s t e r n Baltic r e g i o n . Large-scale p r o d u c t i o n o f a m b e r artifacts w a s n o t e v i d e n t u n t i l t h e Early N e o l i t h i c (3400-3100 B.C.) N a r v a C u l t u r e . A find n e a r S a r n a t e in t h e e a s t e r n Baltic u n c o v e r e d a m b e r pieces w i t h flint a n d b o n e t o o l s , w h i c h w e r e p r o b a b l y u s e d t o w o r k t h e a m b e r . By t h e M i d d l e N e o l i t h i c ( 3 1 0 0 - 2 5 0 0

Pendants from the Mesolithic period of western Jutland, Denmark. Oval pendant decorated with lines of drilled holes, Maglemose Culture, c. 7000 B.C. Height 2.1". Stylized bear, probably Ertebolle Culture, c. 4500 B.C. Length 2.6". Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen, A52125 (oval), A520&9 (bear)

B.C.),

a m b e r w o r k i n g a n d t r a d e h a d b u r g e o n e d , especially i n t h e e a s t e r n Baltic. I n Sventoji, L i t h u a n i a , 850 a m b e r o r n a m e n t s f r o m this p e r i o d w e r e f o u n d , s o m e o f t h e m V-shaped b u t t o n s o f b o n e , jet, a n d a m b e r . A t W o l d e n b e r g , n e a r Berlin, t h e e l e g a n t a m b e r c a r v i n g o f a highly stylized h o r s e f r o m this p e r i o d w a s f o u n d . T h e Lake L u b a n a s r e g i o n , Latvia, r e p r e s e n t s t h e richest s o u r c e o f M i d d l e N e o l i t h i c a m b e r w o r k i n g s . E n o u g h pieces w e r e crafted for w i d e s p r e a d t r a d i n g t h r o u g h o u t Europe. Beads are k n o w n from the Middle Neolithic of Charavines, i n t h e alpine r e g i o n o f F r a n c e . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t distinctive t y p e o f artifact i n a m b e r is the double-headed ax bead, m o s t c o m m o n from s o u t h e r n Scandinavia and Mecklenberg. T h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d o f all N e o l i t h i c a m b e r finds w a s m a d e i n t h e 1850s n e a r Juodkrante (then Schwarzort), Samland Peninsula. D r e d g e d from the Kurisches Haff w e r e 434 artifacts, i n c l u d i n g b e a d s , b u t t o n s , small h u m a n "idols," a n i m a l s , and ax-shaped b e a d s w i t h h o l e s for s u s p e n d i n g a s p e n d a n t s . T h e y w e r e d e p o s i t e d in the collection of A l b e r t u s Universitat, K o n i g s b e r g , b u t , like t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s Amber in Art • 145

Horse, from Woldenberg (present-day Dobiegniew, Poland), c. 2000 B.C. Length approximately 4 ". Human figures, from Juodkrante (old Schwarzort), Lithuania, c.2000 B.C. Heights 2.6", 5.6". Collection Palanga Museum, Lithuania Among the earliest artifacts in amber, from the Mesolithic of northern Europe, these pieces were probably sewn onto a garment through the holes.

h u g e c o l l e c t i o n o f fossiliferous a m b e r , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s w e r e d i s p e r s e d t o o t h e r areas o f G e r m a n y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II. Similar artifacts have b e e n f o u n d i n P a l a n g a , L i t h u a n i a , i n situ i n p e a t b o g s o r g r a v e sites. T h o s e pieces are n o w i n t h e P a l a n g a M u s e u m , w h i c h i s largely d e d i c a t e d t o a m b e r . D u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d a n d t h e m u c h l a t e r Iron A g e , t h e British Isles are r a t h e r p e r i p h e r a l t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a m b e r i n its a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . T h i s is n o t t r u e , h o w e v e r , for t h e B r o n z e A g e ( 3 0 0 0 - 7 0 0

B.C.),

of w h i c h m o r e is

k n o w n i n G r e a t Britain t h a n i n c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e . D o c u m e n t a t i o n exists from

Reconstruction of an Upper Paleolithic homesite in the Ukraine. American Museum of Natural History (Hall of Human Biology and Evolution) Similar peoples crafted the earliest known artifacts from Baltic amber, or even from amber collected more locally, from the Dnieper Basin. The warm color and feel of amber must have given it a very special significance.

146

'Amber in Art

a b o u t A . D . 1500 o f a m b e r p i e c e s s t r a n d e d o n t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s o f E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d . J u d g i n g f r o m its succinic-acid c o n t e n t , t h e m a t e r i a l o r i g i n a t e s f r o m t h e Baltic Sea. O n e e s t i m a t e i s t h a t n i n e t o t w e l v e p o u n d s o f a m b e r are s t r a n d e d e a c h year i n t h e British Isles; t h e r e are e v e n r e p o r t s o f pieces w e i g h i n g t w o p o u n d s . T h u s , t h e r a w m a t e r i a l for B r o n z e A g e a m b e r artifacts w a s available locally; C o n t i n e n t a l t r a d e w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y b u t p r o b a b l y o c c u r r e d . T h e early B r o n z e A g e (Bell B e a k e r p h a s e , o r W e s s e x C u l t u r e ) saw s o m e r e m a r k a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t s , w i t h a m b e r s p r e s e r v e d i n s i t u a t i o n s o f special social significance. C o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e t o b e t h e g r e a t e s t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d s o f a m b e r are t w o early B r o n z e A g e a m b e r c u p s , o n e f r o m C l a n d o n Barrow, t h e o t h e r f r o m H o v e . T h e latter, d a t e d at 1285-1193 B . C . , w a s f o u n d in 1821 in t h e g r a v e of a t u m u l u s m o u n d f i f t e e n t o t w e n t y feet h i g h a n d forty feet l o n g a t H o v e , n e a r B r i g h t o n , E n g l a n d . T h e c u p w a s b u r i e d w i t h t h e partially c r e m a t e d r e m a i n s o f a m a n laid in a h e w n l o g coffin. W i t h t h e c u p w a s a "celt" (battle-ax), w h e t s t o n e p e n d a n t , a n d a b r o n z e dagger. T h e c u p h a s a c r a z e d surface b u t o t h e r w i s e is in excellent c o n d i t i o n . M a d e f r o m a p i e c e o f clear r e d a m b e r , i t w a s c a r v e d a n d p o l i s h e d w i t h u n e x p e c t e d l y fine a r t i s a n s h i p a n d s y m m e t r y . It is small ( t h r e e a n d a half inches i n d i a m e t e r ) , w i t h a h a n d l e a n d e i g h t f i n e , c a r v e d rings e n c i r c l i n g t h e t o p . T h e Hove t u m u l u s cup may have b e e n used in ceremonies, perhaps by the ruler with w h o m it was buried. T h e Wessex C u l t u r e w a s a h i e r a r c h i c a l , m a l e - d o m i n a t e d society i n w h i c h a m b e r w a s particularly c h e r i s h e d . W o m e n w e r e b u r i e d w i t h n e c k l a c e s o f a m b e r

Hove tumulus cup. Diameter 3 J". Booth Museum, Brighton, England

Amber in Art • 147

Field sketch and written notes of the Bronze Age Hove tumulus mound, where the famous amber cup, perhaps the finest archaeological artifact of amber, was unearthed

b e a d s , a n d i m p o r t a n t m e n w i t h special artifacts o f a m b e r . A r c h a e o l o g i s t s have u n c o v e r e d a m b e r artifacts e v e n a m o n g t h e r u i n s o f S t o n e h e n g e . W e s s e x C u l t u r e a m b e r b e a d s m a y b e e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n revealing a link b e t w e e n t h e British Isles a n d M y c e n a e d u r i n g t h e B r o n z e A g e . I n particular, s p a c e r plates, u s e d to k e e p several s t r a n d s s e p a r a t e d in necklaces, w i t h a distinctive p a t t e r n o f b o r i n g s h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n b o t h M y c e n a e a n a n d W e s s e x burials. Did t h e M y c e n a e a n s actually i m p o r t a m b e r b e a d s f r o m t h e W e s s e x Culture? A similar e x c h a n g e t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e ' s I r o n Age. This w a s especially t h e case d u r i n g t h e H a l l s t a t t p e r i o d , 7 0 0 - 4 0 0 B . C . , w h e n the H a l l s t a t t C u l t u r e t r a d e d m o s t extensively w i t h t h e E t r u s c a n s . S o m e E t r u s c a n a m b e r artifacts f o u n d t h e i r w a y b a c k n o r t h , i n fact, i n burials o f ruling m e n f r o m w h a t i s n o w t h e b o r d e r o f Yugoslavia a n d Bosnia a n d H e r z e g o v i n a . H u n d r e d s o f a m b e r b e a d s w e r e i n c l u d e d i n m a n y b u r i a l s o f t h e t i m e , particularly t h o s e o f w o m e n . I t w a s d u r i n g this p e r i o d t h a t t h e f a m o u s a n c i e n t a m b e r r o u t e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d , c r e a t i n g a m a j o r n o r t h - s o u t h axis in a m b e r trade t h a t linked t h e Baltic w i t h t h e n o r t h e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T h e r o u t e s b e g a n a t t h e J u t l a n d c o a s t o r t h e S a m l a n d P e n i n s u l a , m o v e d d o w n t h e Elbe River n e a r H a m b u r g , d o w n t h e D a n u b e , t h r o u g h t h e B r e n n e r Pass o v e r t h e Alps, t o Aquileia a n d c e n t e r s a t t h e m o u t h o f t h e P o Valley. F r o m h e r e , a m b e r m a d e its w a y t o v a r i o u s c e n t e r s i n c e n t r a l a n d s o u t h e r n Italy a n d a r o u n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

148 • Amber in Art

AMBER AMONG

THE ANCIENTS

H i m the thunderer hurled F r o m the e m p y r e a n h e a d l o n g to the gulf O f t h e half-parched E r i d a n u s , w h e r e w e e p E v e n n o w t h e sister t r e e s t h e i r a m b e r t e a r s O'er Phaethon, untimely dead. —John Milton

5

u c h is Milton's brief version of o n e G r e e k legend on the origin of amber. P h a e t h o n , s o n o f t h e s u n g o d H e l i o s a n d o f C l y m e n e , asked t o drive a c h a r i o t

across t h e sky. H e l i o s w a r n e d h i m n o t t o w h i p t h e fiery h o r s e s , b u t P h a e t h o n did this anyway. T h e h o r s e s b o l t e d a n d c a m e t o o close t o E a r t h , r e s u l t i n g i n a drought. Earth complained to Zeus, w h o struck Phaethon dead with a thunderbolt, a n d his b o d y fell i n t o t h e E r i d a n u s . P h a e t h o n ' s sisters, t h e H e l i a d e s , a n d his mother, Clymene, w e p t over the b o d y so m u c h that they b e c a m e r o o t e d w h e r e they stood, their clothes t u r n e d to b a r k and their bodies t r a n s f o r m e d into poplar t r e e s . T h e tears t h a t d r o p p e d i n t o t h e E r i d a n u s h a r d e n e d i n t o d r o p s o f a m b e r . G a i u s Plinius S e c u n d u s , o r Pliny t h e Elder, t h e R o m a n s c h o l a r t o w h o m w e owe m o s t of o u r knowledge about ancient views of the natural world, scorned t h e "frivolities" o f a m b e r , b o t h its u s e i n R o m a n a d o r n m e n t a n d t h e a b s u r d G r e e k l e g e n d s a b o u t its origin: H e d i s c o u n t e d S o p h o c l e s ' tale t h a t a m b e r w a s p r o d u c e d i n c o u n t r i e s b e y o n d India, f r o m t h e t e a r s t h a t are s h e d for M e l e a g e r b y t h e birds called m e l e a g r i d e s , a n d t h e l e g e n d o f P l u t a r c h , t h a t a m b e r w a s f o r m e d f r o m t h e u r i n e o f t h e lynx, " l y n c u r i u m . " Ironically, Pliny h i m s e l f p r o p a g a t e d several m y t h s a b o u t a m b e r , o n e b e i n g t h a t i t c a m e f r o m India a n d Syria, w h e r e n o a p p r e c i a b l e q u a n t i t i e s exist. H e m i g h t h a v e b e e n referring t o large d e p o s i t s m i n e d i n B u r m a ( M y a n m a r ) since t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . , b u t his r e f e r e n c e t o pieces w i t h lizards is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y of East African c o p a l . In c h a p t e r s 11 a n d 12 of B o o k 37 of his Natural History, he also s t a t e d t h a t " u n d o u b t e d l y [ a m b e r ] is a p r o d u c t of t h e islands of t h e n o r t h e r n o c e a n , a s u b s t a n c e called glaesum by t h e G e r m a n s . " (Glaesum derived from glaes, or "glass"; o n e island in this n o r t h e r n o c e a n , t h e Baltic, t h e R o m a n s e v e n called Glaesaria.) Pliny c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t t h e actual river r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e m y t h i c a l E r i d a n u s i n t h e l e g e n d o f P h a e t o n w a s the P o i n n o r t h e r n Italy (called P a d u s i n Pliny's t i m e ) . B u t n o n a t u r a l a m b e r deposits have ever b e e n f o u n d i n this r e g i o n , a n d c o n f u s i o n m a y s t e m f r o m t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f Spina, a t t h e h e a d o f t h e P o , w h i c h w a s a vital f i f t h AmberinArt

•

149

Winged female head. Etruscan, 5th century B.C. Height 3.1". Private collection Carved from an amber piece that was originally a deep, transparent red, the surface of this, the largest and finest ancient head sculpted from amber, is now crazed and opaque but consolidated. The head exhibits hallmark features of Etruscan portraits from this period: large eyes with the upper and lower lids well defined, but no brow; straight nose and small mouth and chin. The hair is rendered in waves of parallel grooves across the forehead, and the ears are small and featureless. The wings, with eight feathers in each, have a thin base along the neck behind the ears. Between the wings and above the hair is uncarved (but polished) amber showing natural contours and pitting. The piece is precisely depicted and probably represents a divinity such as Demeter or Kore.

Opposite: Winged deity with a youth. Etruscan, c. fifth century B.C. Height 4.5". Private collection This work was carved from a homogenously opaque, reddish-brown piece of amber; a consolidant appears to have been used, making the surface slightly more shiny than it would be naturally. The hair of the deity is pulled back with a band and falls in fine braids down the back. The right wing is folded down under the right arm, with the right hand resting on the left thigh of the youth and the left hand wrapped behind his neck. The youth is distinguished from the deity by his relatively larger eyes, finer features, and smaller size. His right arm is raised, and the left arm rests on his lap. The youth appears to be sitting on the lap of the deity. The group may represent Eos (in Etruscan, Thesan), the Greek goddess of the dawn, carrying off one of her young lovers, perhaps Tithonos (Etruscan, Tinthun). The influence of the natural contours of the amber is evident, particularly in the margins around the youth's raised hand and the right side of the piece, for which no actual structure is rendered. The bulging chest of the deity and the depression in the breast of the youth reflect deformities in the amber. The large hole between the figures was bored, perhaps for suspending as a pendant, but the one in front of the deity's chest appears natural.

Amber in Art • 151

t o - s e c o n d - c e n t u r y B.C. E t r u s c a n t r a d i n g c e n t e r for a m b e r c o m i n g f r o m t h e north. Others speculate that the mythical Eridanus was a n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n river, s u c h a s t h e Elbe, n e a r t h e Baltic coast, b u t t h e a n c i e n t s h a d v e r y little direct k n o w l e d g e o f this area u n t i l t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . W h a t Pliny did n o t m e n t i o n w a s t h a t e v e n Aristotle r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n s i n a m b e r i n d i c a t e d a liquid o r i g i n , t h a t a m b e r w a s "petrified p o p l a r g u m . " M o r e d e t a i l e d a n c i e n t k n o w l e d g e a b o u t Baltic a m b e r c o m e s f r o m t h e De Germania ( A . D . 98), w r i t t e n by t h e R o m a n h i s t o r i a n C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s . T a c i t u s w a s t h e f i r s t t o w r i t e t h a t b e y o n d t h e l a n d o f t h e G o t h s lay t h e Aestii p e o p l e , w h o g a t h e r e d a m b e r (metallum sudaticum, o r " e x u d e d m e t a l " ) t h a t h a d b e e n w a s h e d u p b y t h e sea. T h e y sell it, h e said, b e c a u s e " R o m a n l u x u r y gives i t r e p u t e . " T a c i t u s w a s also t h e f i r s t t o c o n j e c t u r e t h a t t h e a m b e r forests w e r e r e m o t e f r o m w h e r e t h e a m b e r w a s f o u n d , a l t h o u g h h e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e a m b e r a n d its t r e e s were contemporaneous. Of great interest is that D i o d o r u s , o n e of the m a n y Greeks w h o had settled i n Sicily, m a d e n o m e n t i o n o f Sicilian a m b e r : i t p r o b a b l y w a s n o t b e i n g h a r v e s t e d d u r i n g a n c i e n t G r e e k , Italic, a n d R o m a n t i m e s . T h e Baltic c o a s t w a s virtually t h e sole s o u r c e for t h e a m b e r u s e d for artifacts t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e a n d even Asia M i n o r , e v i d e n c e d b y R o m a n artifacts a l o n g t h e a m b e r t r a d e r o u t e s a s well a s b y e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e distinctively h i g h succinic-acid c o n t e n t o f t h e

Opposite: Banqueting group. Etruscan or Etrusco-Italic, c. 500 B.C. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 17.190.2067 Perhaps the finest of all surviving ancient carved ambers in terms of style, size, and preservation, the group was sculpted to be viewed fiilly in the round. Fragments of a bronze pin are within, indicating that the tiny sculpture decorated a large brooch, probably for a deceased person. The male figure is reclining in the traditional pose of the banqueter, with a prone woman (most likely his wife) before him holding a small vase of oil in her right hand. At the foot of the couch is a small figure, probably a child. Resting on the woman's shoulder is a long-necked bird with its head reverted, a symbol of regeneration. In order to make maximum use of the material and the natural swells and shallows in it, the artisan has distorted positions and proportions.

a n c i e n t a m b e r pieces.

Pendant in the form of a siren. Italic, fifth century B.C. Length 4 ". Private collection, New York Mythical sirens, famous in antiquity for their ability to lure sailors to their death by the sweetness of their music, were frequently carved in amber, especially among the Italic peoples. This female head in profile features a long neck and hair that falls to the shoulders; she wears large disk earrings. Most of the flat surface is occupied by the siren's right wing, of which the primary and secondary feathers are distinct. Folded underneath is a leg in the form of a bird, with three curled talons. There is no carving on the back. A hole at the top suggests this is how the piece was suspended and worn, but no corresponding hole is on the other side (it may have been plugged). If worn in life, this pendant would have served as an evil-averting amulet; in death, it would be a guardian accompanying the deceased into the afterlife, doubtless in song.

Amber in Art • 153

Pendant in the form of a sphinx. Italic, 600-550B.C. Length2.8". Private collection, New York The head of the crouching sphinx is folded back, showing a profile, and the legs are folded beneath the body; a tail is curled up over the back, the mane is smooth, and the left wing is visible. The piece originally was worn as a pendant, with the body vertical and the head horizontal. Sphinxes like this one, the largest and finest Italic amber sphinx surviving from antiquity, would have served as an amulet to ward off evil in this and the afterlife.

Pendant of amber and gold. Etruscan, 7th century B.C. Maximum width 2.25". Private collection A small resting dog carved from amber is incorporated into a pendant made from a thin, gold setting that swivels on an oval loop, with a small tube at the top for suspending it. This pendant is unique; all other similarly shaped pendants are of silver and without figured decoration. Without backlighting, the amber appears opaque because of the surface oxidation (above); its natural translucency is revealed by strong backlighting (below). Both bezel and loop are embellished with granulation.

154 • Amber in Art

Pendant in the form of a monkey. Etruscan, seventh century B.C. Height 1". Collection Mr. and Mrs. Robert Haber, New York As early as the Egyptian Old Kingdom, monkey amulets were sexual charms in this life and the next. For the Etruscans, monkeys were a symbol of love and sexual Julfillment in the afterlife. This monkey was carved in a typical pose, with elbows resting on the knees and the long snout resting in the hands. Shallow parallel grooves were inscribed into the snout. It was strung through holes representing the ears. Monkey pendants of this type have been found in Vetulonia, Narce, and Veii.

Finger ring. Roman, second century A.D. Largest diameter 1.4". Private collection The ring was carved from a single piece of clear red amber; its surface is extensively crazed. A small oval plaque of carnelian inscribed with the profile of an eagle (a popular intaglio device from this period) is situated on the widest part of the ring. Amber rings were popular between the reigns of Nero and Septimius Severus.

Amber in Art • U'5

By t h e Middle B r o n z e Age, t h e "gold of t h e N o r t h " r e a c h e d t h e Mediterranean, w h e r e it was an i m p o r t a n t burial item. It was w o r k e d into beads and into m o r e e l a b o r a t e n e c k l a c e s ; o n e Shaft G r a v e t o m b a t M y c e n a e c o n t a i n e d h u n d r e d s o f s u c h b e a d s . O t h e r f i n d s f r o m e l s e w h e r e i n G r e e c e , C r e t e , t h e I o n i a n islands, Palestine, and Egypt indicate widespread trade of the material from the n o r t h ( a r e c e n t s t u d y e v e n s u g g e s t s t h a t a n u m b e r o f objects f r o m t h e t o m b o f T u t a n k h a m e n are o f a m b e r ) . B y t h e e n d o f t h e B r o n z e A g e , h o w e v e r , little a m b e r w a s r e a c h i n g t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . I t w a s n o t u n t i l n e a r l y f i v e h u n d r e d y e a r s later t h a t a m b e r w a s t o b e c o m e p o p u l a r o r o n c e a g a i n available i n large q u a n t i t i e s . D u r i n g t h e I r o n A g e i n G r e e c e a n d Italy, a m b e r w a s u s e d extensively i n j e w e l r y a n d d e c o r a t i v e objects. T h r o u g h o u t t h e Italian p e n i n s u l a , h u g e a m o u n t s o f t h e m a t e r i a l w e r e c a r v e d i n t o small f i g u r e s a n d b e a d s a n d u s e d t o d e c o r a t e p i n s . S o m e p i e c e s w e r e o f e n o r m o u s s i z e — o n e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y B.C. f i b u l a decoration is d o c u m e n t e d as weighing m o r e than two pounds. A m o n g the E t r u s c a n s a n d t h e early Latins, a m b e r w a s c a r v e d i n t o j e w e l r y e l e m e n t s a n d i n t o a m u l e t i c i m a g e s , i n c l u d i n g m o n k e y s , h o r s e s , n u d e females, a n d h e r a l d i c compositions of h u m a n s and animals. M a n y o f t h e early Italic a m b e r s are E t r u s c a n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e a m b e r p r e s e r v e d s o well i n dark, d a m p t o m b s , w h e r e i t a c c o m p a n i e d t h e d e a d a m o n g t h e extensive E t r u s c a n n e c r o p o l i s e s . T h e civilization o f E t r u r i a f l o u r i s h e d b e t w e e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 900 a n d 200 B . C . , i n t h e area o f Italy c e n t e r e d a r o u n d Tuscany. E t r u r i a w a s m o r e a l e a g u e of city-states t h a n a n a t i o n , b o u n d by c o m m o n rituals a n d a distinctive, still largely u n d e c i p h e r e d l a n g u a g e . Etruscans w e r e a p e o p l e o f c o n t r a s t s : p a s t o r a l b u t w i t h s o m e taste for b r u t a l sports and h u m a n sacrifice; extensive t r a d e r s w h o also h a d a g r e a t l y d e v e l o p e d agriculture and system of animal h u s b a n d r y T h e Etruscans exported iron and imported slaves a n d furs f r o m t h e Celts; p o t t e r y f r o m C o r i n t h ; o s t r i c h eggs, gold, and i v o r y f r o m C a r t h a g e ; a n d a m b e r f r o m t h e Baits. T h e t r a d i n g ship Giglio, w h i c h s a n k off t h e w e s t c o a s t o f Italy a b o u t 600 B . C . , w a s c a r r y i n g metals, pottery, flutes, a n d a m b e r . E t r u s c a n w o m e n h e l d u n u s u a l l y h i g h social status for t h e p e r i o d , a n d t h e y w e r e t h e chief u s e r s o f a m b e r objects. After a b o u t 600 B . C . , v e r y little a m b e r is d o c u m e n t e d in G r e e c e or Italy. For t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e c e n t u r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e classical period i n G r e e c e , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d i s n e a r l y b l a n k for b o t h t h e G r e e k s and t h e E t r u s c a n s . I n c o n t r a s t , o u t s i d e of t h e E t r u s c a n a r e a s of Italy, particularly in t h e s o u t h of t h e Italian p e n i n s u l a , objects e x c a v a t e d f r o m t o m b s s h o w t h a t a m b e r w a s a n i m p o r t a n t g r a v e f u r n i s h i n g . T h e t h o u s a n d s o f beads, f i g u r e d p e n d a n t s , a n d p i n d e c o r a t i o n s t h a t h a v e c o m e t o light i n m o d e r n t i m e s w e r e p r o d u c e d b y m a n y o f t h e p e o p l e s i n Italy: s o m e b y t h e E t r u s c a n s , o t h e r s b y i n d i g e n o u s Italics i n f l u e n c e d b y E t r u s c a n a n d G r e e k art, a n d still o t h e r s w e r e m a d e i n C a m p a n i a a n d i n t h e G r e e k c o l o n i e s o f s o u t h e r n Italy. T h e m a j o r i t y a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n w o r k e d b y t h e Italic p e o p l e s . Favorite subjects for t h e often massive p e n d a n t s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n c a n o n o f m a g i c a l subjects, i n c l u d i n g

female h e a d s , m y t h o l o g i c a l c r e a t u r e s s u c h a s satyrs, sirens, a n d s p h i n x e s , a n d real c r e a t u r e s o f African g e n r e : s c a r a b s , m o n k e y s , lions, a n d g a z e l l e s . T h e low-relief c a r v i n g t e c h n i q u e i s s t a n d a r d for t h e facial features o f t h e h e a d s : large, a l m o n d - s h a p e d eyes, s m a l l n o s e a n d m o u t h , a n d h a i r r e n d e r e d b y shallow, parallel g r o o v e s . E t r u s c a n s w e r e also a c c o m p l i s h e d g o l d s m i t h s ; t h e y d e v e l o p e d a distinctive g r a n u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i n t h e i r jewelry. T h e j e w e l r y s h o w s a n influence o f t h e w e s t e r n G r e e k s b u t w i t h a m o r e o r n a t e style. I n s o m e cases, small c a r v i n g s o f a m b e r w e r e set i n t o silver o r g o l d p e n d a n t s . T w o n e c k l a c e s a n d p a i r s o f e a r r i n g s m a d e i n replica o f E t r u s c a n g o l d w o r k are i n t h e A r n o l d Buffum c o l l e c t i o n a t t h e M u s e u m o f F i n e Arts, B o s t o n . E a c h p e n d a n t a n d e a r r i n g is a c a b o c h o n of Sicilian a m b e r set in gold, a l t h o u g h t h e pieces t h e m s e l v e s are n o t k n o w n t o b e m o d e l e d after a n o r i g i n a l object. D u r i n g the height of the R o m a n Empire, long-distance trading flourished. P r i z e d s u b s t a n c e s i n c l u d e d ivory f r o m E t h i o p i a , f r a n k i n c e n s e f r o m s o u t h e r n Arabia, p e p p e r f r o m India, silk f r o m C h i n a , a n d flaxen-haired slaves a n d a m b e r f r o m t h e Baltic r e g i o n . A b o u t A . D . 5 4 t o 60, N e r o d i s p a t c h e d a R o m a n officer t o f i n d t h e s o u r c e o f a m b e r ; h e r e a c h e d t h e Baltic coast a n d r e t u r n e d w i t h h u n d r e d s o f p o u n d s o f t h e s u b s t a n c e , s o m e p i e c e s w e i g h i n g several p o u n d s . R o m a n c o i n s from A . D . 138 t o 180 s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e G u l f o f D a n z i g testify t o t h e

Overleaf, left: Mask of Dionysus. Roman, first century A.D. Height 4.5". Private collection The piece is similar to one figured in D. E. Strong's Catalogue of the Carved Amber in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities (British Museum); both have the backside with a large round plug that was probably fitted into the mouth of a vase. This piece, however, is much larger, more elaborate, and its additional bunches of grapes indicate it is Dionysus.

Roman occupation of the A m b e r Coast. So c h a r m e d were the R o m a n s by a m b e r t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to Pliny, t h e y s o m e t i m e s p r i z e d a figurine c a r v e d from a p i e c e o f a m b e r m o r e t h a n a slave. O n e c a n o n l y i m a g i n e t h e cost o f t h e a m b e r portrait, perhaps a bust, of Augustus at Olympia, which was reported by the t r a v e l e r Pausanias. By t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D., t h e R o m a n s c o n t r o l l e d a veritable i n d u s t r y o f a m b e r c a r v i n g , w i t h p r o d u c t s r a n g i n g f r o m s m a l l N e w Year's t o k e n s o f a c o r n s a n d fruits t o e l a b o r a t e vessels for t h e tables o f t h e wealthy. T h e p r i n c i p a l c e n t e r o f m a n u f a c t u r e w a s a t Aquileia. S u r v i v i n g objects, m o s t o f t h e m f r o m graves o f R o m a n w o m e n , i n c l u d e toilet articles, rings, p e n d a n t s , knife h a n d l e s , m i r r o r h a n d l e s , s m a l l f i g u r e s a n d f i g u r a l g r o u p s , a n d small, h i g h l y c a r v e d c o n t a i n e r s a n d v a s e s . T h e l a t t e r are often d e c o r a t e d w i t h g r a p e v i n e s a n d p u t t i i n D i o n y s i a n t h e m e s . T h e b e s t o f t h e s e s m a l l vessels p r o v i d e a n idea o f t h e famed, large l u x u r y r e c e p t a c l e s o f a m b e r t h a t h a v e all d i s a p p e a r e d . T h e R o m a n s m a d e m u c h m o r e extensive u s e o f c l o u d y a n d o p a q u e a m b e r t h a n did t h e G r e e k s o r early Italic c u l t u r e s , b u t i t w a s c a r v e d a s sparingly a s t h e t r a n s p a r e n t pieces w e r e . Still, t h e m o s t h i g h l y p r i z e d t y p e o f a m b e r w a s t r a n s p a r e n t a n d o f t h e c o l o r t h a t Pliny d e s c r i b e d a s "like F a l e r n i a n w i n e . " P u r p o r t e d l y , R o m a n w o m e n often c a r r i e d w i t h t h e m small l u m p s o r stylized carvings o f p o l i s h e d a m b e r , s i m p l y for t h e e n j o y m e n t o f its t o u c h . B y t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D., t h e a m b e r t r a d e t o Italy w a s drastically eclipsed d u e t o t h e d e c l i n e

Overleaf, right: Small vase. Roman, second century A.D. Height 3.7". Private collection Carved from a single piece of amber that originally had some translucency and perhaps was dark amber to red in color, this vase now exhibits a slight ocher patina on the surface, due to nearly two thousand years of oxidation; otherwise, it is in superb condition. Represented in low relief are acanthus leaves and grapevines and tendrils that wrap along both sides, a signature Dionysian motif. A set of panpipes is carved in center bottom on one side. This piece is also similar to the one in Strong's British Museum catalogue, but that one has a pair of putti on each side and was probably suspended. This one probably stood free and contained an oil-based perfume; it gives an idea of the famed vesseb of imperial Rome described in ancient sources.

of the R o m a n Empire and warring Goths.

Amber in Art • 157

MEDIEVAL

AND

RENAISSANCE AMBER

T

h e h i s t o r y o f E u r o p e i s reflected i n Baltic a m b e r , a n d p e r h a p s n o historical p e r i o d i n v o l v i n g a m b e r i n E u r o p e i m p a r t s m o r e m y s t i q u e t h a n t h a t asso-

ciated w i t h t h e o r d e r o f t h e T e u t o n i c K n i g h t s , o r Deutschen Ritter. T h e T e u t o n i c K n i g h t s r e t u r n e d t o E u r o p e f r o m t h e C r u s a d e s i n 1211, a n d , i n 1225, C o n r a d , D u k e o f Masovia, m a d e a n a p p e a l t o t h e k n i g h t s for h e l p i n s u b d u i n g t h e Baits a l o n g t h e Baltic coast. B y 1283, t h e k n i g h t s w e r e a b s o l u t e r u l e r s o f Prussia, a n d Baltic a m b e r h a d b e c o m e a lucrative c o m m o d i t y for t r a d e w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g l a n d s . It w a s extensively t r a d e d to t h e s o u t h , a n d , as early as 1302, s h i p m e n t s of a m b e r w e r e sent to the newly formed guild of amber, P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r s ( M a k e r s o f L o r d ' s P r a y e r b e a d s ) , i n B r u g e s , w h e r e rosaries w e r e crafted. I n 1310, a n o t h e r a m b e r guild w a s established, i n Liibeck. B y 1312, t h e k n i g h t s h a d a s s u m e d a m o n o p o l y o n t h e t r a d e i n Baltic a m b e r . A n d t r a d e b u r g e o n e d : i n 1420, s e v e n t y guild m a s t e r s a n d t h r e e h u n d r e d a p p r e n t i c e s w e r e listed i n Bruges a l o n e . Interestingly, a m a j o r s t r o n g h o l d of t h e T e u t o n i c K n i g h t s at this t i m e w a s i n M a r i e n b u r g . Today, t h e T e u t o n i c castle i n M a r i e n b u r g ( n o w Malbork, P o l a n d ) is a m u s e u m c o n t a i n i n g a c o l l e c t i o n of m e d i e v a l a m b e r objects. T h e o r d e r strictly f o r b a d e t h e c o l l e c t i n g o f a m b e r s t r a n d e d o n the beaches, e x c e p t u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e B e a c h Master. P u n i s h m e n t w a s harsh a n d s o m e t i m e s i n c l u d e d h a n g i n g . O l d w o o d c u t s a n d e n g r a v i n g s s h o w licensed c o l l e c t o r s h a r v e s t i n g t h e a m b e r , w i t h g a l l o w s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . (Especially n o t o r i o u s for instantly h a n g i n g a n y o n e w h o pilfered a m b e r w a s A n s e l m u s o f L o z e n s t e i n , j u d g e o f S a m l a n d . H i s spirit i s said, b y local legend, t o w a n d e r t h e Opposite and following pages: Early views of amber and collecting on the Samland Peninsula, Baltic Sea

s h o r e of S a m l a n d c r y i n g in p e n a n c e : Oh, um Gott, Bernstein frei, Bernstein frei [ O h , b y G o d , free a m b e r , free a m b e r ] ) . B y t h e l a t t e r half o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e influence o f t h e T e u t o n i c

Opposite,

above:

Woodcut from

Olaus

Magnus, Historia de genitbus septentrionalibus earumque diversis, 1555

Knights h a d w e a k e n e d , b e g i n n i n g in p a r t w i t h t h e i r defeat in 1410 at T a n n e n b e r g b y t h e P o l e s a n d t h e L i t h u a n i a n s . B y 1466, t h e m a j o r Prussian cities w e r e allied w i t h P o l a n d , a n d , i n 1480, t h e k i n g o f P o l a n d g r a n t e d D a n z i g t h e r i g h t t o its

Opposite,

below:

EtchingfromJohanne

Amoc Comenii, Orbis Sensualium pied, 1730

o w n P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r guild, w h i c h w o u l d eventually b e c o m e t h e largest g u i l d of amber workers. I n 1525, A l b e r t o f B r a n d e n b u r g , t h e H o h e n z o l l e r n r u l e r a n d g r a n d m a s t e r o f t h e T e u t o n i c Knights, s e c u l a r i z e d t h e o r d e r u n d e r t h e d u c h y o f Prussia. H i s successor, J o a c h i m II, c o n v e r t e d t o L u t h e r a n i s m , a n d , i n t h e n e x t century, a n o t h e r H o h e n z o l l e r n ruler, J o h n S i g i s m u n d , c o n v e r t e d t o C a l v i n i s m , w h i l e h i s subjects r e m a i n e d L u t h e r a n . A l t h o u g h L u t h e r a n s d o n o t u s e r o s a r i e s , t h e

160 • Amber in Art

uccini Prusfici yfi ca