Al-Riddah and the Muslim Conquest of Arabia 9781487579920

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AL-RIDDAH AND THE MUSLIM CONQUEST OF ARABIA

AL-RIDDAH AND THE MUSLIM CONQUEST OF ARABIA

by

ELIAS SHOUFANI

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS THE ARAB INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH AND PUBLISHING

© 1973 The Arab Institute for Research and Publishing First Published 1973 in Canada and the United States by University of Toronto Press, Toronto and Buffalo Reprinted in 2018 ISBN 0-8020-1915-3 ISBN 978-1-4875-8099-5 (paper) Printed in Lebanon

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION The Problem Of The Riddah . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

Chapters

I.

Muhammad's Control In Arabia . . . . . .

10

II.

The Election Of Abu Bakr . . . . . . . . . . .

48

III.

The Character And Extent Of The Riddah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

IV.

The Riddah And The Arab Conquest .

107

V

The Success Of Abu Bakr . . . . . . . . . . .

150

VI.

INDEX............................

171

INTRODUCTION THE PROBLEM OF THE RIDDAH BY THE TERM RIDDAH, Muslim historiography denotes the "defection" of the tribes in Arabia from Islam after the death of the prophet Mu}:iammad; and by the term Hurub al-Riddah, war of apostasy, it denotes the war which Abu Bakr, the first caliph, waged against the Arabs in the Arabian peninsula to bring them under the control of the Islamic state in Medina. The application by Muslim historians of these terms to movements in Arabia following the prophet's death emanated from their conviction that Mu}:iammad had converted most of Arabia to Islam during his lifetime and that the Arabs fell away from the religion after his death and, therefore, had to be fought and reconverted. This view of Muslim historians has been contested by modern students of Islamic history, especially in the West. In view of the diversity of opinions with regard to the extent of Mu}:iammad's control over Arabia and the immediate relevance of this question to the understanding of the Riddah, I have attempted in the first chapter to examine this problem and to determine, on the basis of a re-examination of the sources, the extent of Mu}:iammad's success in his efforts to spread the domination of Islam over Arabia. Other aspects of the problem of the Riddah to which students of early Islamic history have addressed themselves have been the question of the character and extent of that movement and its relation to the Arab conquest movement. The 1

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INTRODUCTION

underlying assumption in traditional accounts concerning the Riddah is that it was a religious movement and that the wars of al-Riddah were separate from those of expansion, which are known as futu&. This assumption also has been contested by modem historians. In chapters III and IV, I have dealt with these two questions, seeking to clarify the issues involved. Finally, much has been said about the Arab conquest movement's success in the territories of the Byzantine and Persian empires. I thought it only appropriate to devote chapter II to the constellation of forces which brought Abu Bakr to the seat of power and chapter V to the factors which contributed to his success in conquering Arabia. MAJOR EVENTS DURING THE CALIPHATE OF ABU BAKR 1

It has been commonly accepted that Mu~ammad, the prophet of Islam, died on Rabi' I, 13, 11 A.H./June 8, 632 A.D., at the house of his beloved wife 'A'ishah, daughter of his closest associate and successor, the first caliph of Islam-Abu Bakr. 2 And, although a point of chronic dispute among Muslim sects, it has been generally accepted among students of Islamic history that the prophet did not leave any instructions for succession to his political position in the Muslim community of Medina. 3 Thus it was that the death of its spiritual and political leader confronted the young Muslim community with a dangerous crisis: a crisis which was caused by the rivalry among the various groups within that community for the succession to the prophet's political position. It is a well1The chronological arrangement of this survey is based mainly on Leone Caetani's Chronographia Islamica, Paris, 1912. An extensive list ofreferences is given in this chronography to support Caetani's conclusions. 1 Caetani, Chro., I, 109; Sir William Muir, The Caliphate, Its Rise, Decline and Fall, revised edition by T.H. Weir, Edinburgh, 1924, p. I; Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in History, 1958 (Grey Arrow Edition), p. 47. 8 Caetani, Chro., I, 109; Lewis, op. cit., p. 50; C.H. Becker, "The Expansion of the Saracens," The Cambridge Medieval History, II, p. 332.

INTRODUCTION

3

known episode in the annals of Islam that no sooner did Mu}:lammad die that the An~ar, the Medinan Muslims, held a meeting to deliberate about a successor and proceeded to proclaim one of their members caliph. This was not acceptable to the Muhajirun, the immigrants from Mecca, who held the view that they were more entitled to the position. Among the Muhajirun, there was a faction of the prophet's kinsmen and their following who viewed themselves as the legitimate heirs to what "their man" had established. The frictions beween these three contending groups brought the community to the brink of fratricidal strife. 4 The prevalent view among the historians of this early period of Islam is that the full crisis was averted only by a resolute act undertaken by three prominent members of the early companions of the prophet-Abu Bakr, Abu 'Ubaydah, and 'Umar. The success of their resolution was facilitated by the jealousies among the tribes of Medina. 6 This view is based on the Sunni tradition that the three companions, as it is told, rushed to the meeting-place of the ~ar, put down the agitation, and carried away the assembled people to elect Abu Bakr caliph. This took place on the same day the prophet died. 6 On the following day, the proclamation of the new caliph was made public in the mosque where he delivered his traditionally well-known speech. 7 'Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the prophet, however, refrained from giving his oath of allegiance, bay'ah, to the new caliph. 8 Outside Medina, the death of the prophet, so the tradition asserts, caused profound commotion. In Mecca, in Hijaz, and in all Arabia for that matter, tribes were agitated, disorder •Caetani, Chro., I, 110; Lewis, op. cit., p. 50-51; Muir, op. cit., p. 2-3. •Muir, op. cit., p. 2-4; Caetani, Chro., I, 110; Lewis, op. cit., p. 51; see also H. Lammens, "Le triumverat AboiiBakr, 'Omar, et Aboii 'Obaida," MUSJ 4 (1910), 113-114. •Caetani, Chro., I, 110; Lewis, 51. 7 Caetani, Chro., I, I 10. 8 Muir, 5.

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INTRODUCTION

burst in various parts of the peninsula, and many tribes detached themselves from Medina by refusing to pay the tax, or by following other prophets. 9 This movement of severing whatever ties the tribes of Arabia had with Medina is known in the Muslim tradition by the name of Riddah, apostasy. 10 The subjugation of this movement was the main task which occupied Abu Bakr throughout most of his caliphate of about two years. The first task to be undertaken by the newly elected caliph, however, was to dispatch to its destination an expedition which was prepared by the prophet before his death. On his return from the last pilgrimage-J:Iijjat al-Wada', the prophet ordered his followers to prepare for a campaign to al-Balqa' on the Syrian border. Mul_iammad, however, died before the departure of the army and the expedition was suspended. Abu Bakr, reportedly, ordered that army to march on Syria, on the second day following his proclamation as caliph. In compliance with the prophet's word, the first caliph entrusted Usamah b. Zayd b. J:Iarithah, son of a previously adopted son of the prophet, with the command of that campaign. Usamah attacked southern Syria and, allegedly, returned with a large quantity of booty. 11 After the departure of Usamah and his army, the vast majority of the tribes in Arabia fell away from Medina. Only Mecca, Medina, and their surroundings remained loyal to Islam. The Muslim agents to the "apostatizing" tribes were forced to flee their posts and return hurriedly to Medina. Arabia revolted against Muslim Medina, and many tribes shifted position and followed rivals of Mul,iammad who laid Caetani, Chro., I, 111; Muir, 11. The technical Arabic term for apostasy is irtidiid. However, the term riddah gained currency and replaced irtidiid, and has been usually translated as apostasy or secession. See Lewis, op. cit .. , 50; Henri Laoust, Les schismes dans l' Islam, Paris, 1965, 2 ff. 11 Caetani, Chro., I, 109 & 111; Muir, 9; M. de Goeje, Memoir sur la conquete de la Syrie, Leiden, 1900, 17. 9

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INTRODUCTION

5

claim to prophethood. 12 In the face of these revolts, which erupted in various parts of the peninsula, Abii Bakr stood resolute and decisive in his refusal to negotiate new agreements with the "rebels"---other than those they had already concluded with the prophet. The first caliph, despite the counsel of his associates to the contrary, decided to force the apostatizing tribes to surrender. For this purpose the caliph prepared an expedition against the apostates, led it himself first, and later entrusted Khalid b. al-Walid with its command. 13 The first military action against the apostatizing tribes to the north-east of Medina was taken by Abu Bakr. There, the tribes of Ghatafan and Tayyi' allied themselves with Asad under the command of the latter's chief, Tall:iah b. Khuwaylid, in an attempt to defend themselves against Medina. 14 The main camp of these allied forces was at al-Buzakhah, a spring of water in the territory of Asad-but there were other smaller camps. In the second half of Jumada II, 11 A.H./ September 632, Abii Bakr clashed with and defeated one of the smaller camps at Dhii al-Q~~ah, notheast of Medina. 15 After this battle the rebels from Ghataran fled and united with the main camp at al-Buzakhah, and Abii Bakr entrusted Khalid b. al-Walid with the command of the army and dispatched him against the main camp. Khalid, before engaging in battle with the allies, succeeded in detaching Tayyi' from the alliance and having them join his forces against the remaining Asad and Ghataran. With the help ofTayyi', Khalid fought and defeated the camp of al-Buzakhah and brought those tribes under the authority of Medina. 16 According to Caetani, the battle of al-Buzakhah took place in the month of 11Caetani, Chro., I, 111; Muir, 11; Arnold Hottinger, The Arabs, University of California Press, 1963, 34. 13 Caetani, Chro., I, 111; Muir, 19. uE. I., articles "TulaiJ:.iah" by V. Vacca; "Taiy" by H.H. Brau; "Asad" by H. Kindermann; "Ghatafiin" by J. W. Flick. 15Caetani, Ibid. 11Muir, 19-20; Caetani, Ibid.

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INTRODUCTION

Rajab-Sha'ban 11/0ctober 632.17 From al-Buzakhah, Khalid advanced in the land of Tamim, a large tribe-partly Christian and partly pagan-which inhabited the area between al-Yamamah and the mouth of the Euphrates. 18 Among the Tamim, a commotion that ended in fratricidal conflict was caused by the appearance, in the tribe, of the prophetess Sajal).. 19 When Khalid approached the land of Tamim, the largest part of the tribe hastened to tender its submission to the Muslim army. Malik b. Nuwayrah, chief of Yarbii', a branch of Tamim, however, hesitated and stood aloof. Khalid, therefore, staged a surprise attack on Yarbii' in the camp of al-Butal).. Malik was captured and put to death, apparently, on the orders of Khalid and despite the objection of many leaders in the Muslim army. 20 To the east of Medina, in al-Yamamah, and while Mul).ammad was at the height of his power, a man known in the Muslim tradition by the contemptuous diminutive name of Musaylimah, 21 from Maslamah, rose to leadership among the powerful tribe of Banii I:Ianifah-a section of Bakr b. Wa'il. 22 Musaylimah laid claim to prophethood, challenging that of Mul).ammad himself. Having subjugated Tamim to the authority of Medina, Khalid moved towards al-Yamamah and on the plain of'Aqraba' he encountered Musaylimah with his staunch supporters from Banii I:Ianifah. The Muslims won a great victory in that battle, costly in human lives, which took place, according to Caetani in Rabi' I, 12 A.H./May-June 633. 23 After the victory, Khalid concluded a peace treaty with those from Banii I:Ianifah who escaped the mass slaughter in what was to be known as the "Garden of Death," Hadiqat Caetani, Ibid. E.J., "Tamim" by G. Levy Della Vida; Muir, 23. 19E.l., "Sadjiih" byV. Vacca;Muir, 24; Caetani, Ibid. aocaetani, Chro., I, 112; Muir, 24-26. 11E.J., "Musailima" by Fr. Buhl; Muir, 27-28. 21E.J., "Hanifa b. Ludjaym" by W. Montgomery Watt. 23 Caetani, Chro., I, 121; Muir, 28-32. 17

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INTRODUCTION

7

al-mawt. Following their defeat, Banii l:Ianifah sent a delegation to Medina to declare their complete surrender to the authority of the caliph of Islam. 24 From al-Yamamah, Khalid advanced with part of his army towards Ba}:lrayn, on the eastern coast of Arabia, to help al-'Ala' b. al-1:Iac_lrami, who was already engaged, on the orders of the caliph, in war with the rebels there. The rebels in Ba}:lrayn were in arms, under the command of one al1:Iutam, and a scion of the Lakhmid dynasty from al-Hirah by the name of al-Nu'man b. al-Mundhir al-Ghariir. 25 The revolt in Ba}:lrayn started after the death of al-Mundhir b. Sawa al-'Abdi. Al-Mundhir was previously the agent of the Persians in Ba}:lrayn who accepted the suzerainty of Mu}:lammad and had received the above-mentioned al-'Ala' as a resident in his court in the capacity of agent from Medina. 26 Although al-1:Iutam was routed in a surprise attack by al-'Ala', the war went on a few more years in Ba}:lrayn before that area surrendered completely to Islam. 27 Khalid's role in the war in Ba}:lrayn is not clear in the sources, but while he was there, he received orders from the caliph to march and join the forces of the tribe of Bakr b. Wa'il in invading Persian territories in Iraq.2s While Khalid b. al-Walid pursued his victorious career in central and eastern Arabia, other Muslim commanders, dispatched by Abu Bakr, were fighting other "apostates" elsewhere in Arabia. 29 To Yemen the caliph sent al-Muhajir b. Abi Umayyad to crush a movement against Islam which started during the prophet's lifetime. Headed by al-Aswad, who also laid claim to prophethood, this movement attracted a sizeable army of followers, which enabled him to wrest the Caetani, Ibid. Caetani, Chro., I, 122. 20 Muir, 33. 27 Caetani, Ibid. 18 C~etani, Ibid. 09 Muir, 33.

24

26

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INTRODUCTION

rule over $an'a' from the Abna' -the Persian ruling class in Yemen. 30 Al-Aswad's bad rule after having captured $an'a' caused strong resentment of him among the inhabitants and encouraged his rivals to conspire against him. With the help of his wife, the conspirators succeeded in entering his palace and murdering him in Rabi' I, 11 A.H./May-June 632. 31 After the assassination of al-Aswad, the Abna' returned to $an'a' and reassumed their leadership. But, a new conflict between the Abna' and the leaders of the Arab tribes in Yemen started. This conflict developed into a civil war, the result of which was the expulsion of the Persians from $an'a'. 32 In the wake of chaotic political conditions in Yemen, Abii Bakr dispatched al-Muhajir b. Abi 'Umayyah on an expedition aiming at the conquest of Yemen. Al-Muhajir succeeded in his mission: Qays b. Makshii}:l al-Mura.di, leader of the Arab movement agairu,t the Persians, was defeated, captured, and sent to Medina. Yemen was pacified and made to recognize the caliph's authority. 33 In south-eastern Arabia, 'Ikrimah b. Abi J ahl, commander of the Muslim army that was dispatched to quell the rebellion in 'Uman, defeated Laqit b. Malik-leader of the rebelsconquered and occupied Dabba, capital of 'Uman, and proceeded to Mahrah. In Mahrah, 'Ikrimah defeated Shikhrit, head of the rebels there, and subjugated that area. 34 From Mahrah, 'Ikrimah proceeded to join with al-Muhajir, who after pacifying Yemen went on to put down the rebels in l;Ia