Ainu Archaeology as Ethnohistory: Iron technology among the Saru Ainu of Hokkaido, Japan, in the 17th century 9780860549772, 9781407350660

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: How the image of the Ainu was created
Chapter 2: Model-building for Ainu archaeology
Chapter 3: Chronology and archaeological data in Hokkaido and Tohoku
Chapter 4: Discussion of iron technology in the Hokkaido and Tohoku districts in relation to Ainu iron technology
Chapter 5: Iron technology and the steel production of the Saru Ainu, Hokkaido in the 17th century
Chapter 6: The examination of words for materials and other things in order to understand the Ainu cultural context
Chapter 7: The anatomy of yukara
Chapter 8: Conclusion: Ainu archaeology and ethnohistory
Appendix - 1 List of data: sites
Appendix - 2 List of data: Yukara
Glossary
References

Citation preview

Ainu Archaeology as Ethnohistory Iron technology among the Saru Ainu of Hokkaido, Japan, in the 17th century

Yuriko Fukasawa �?iSftT

BAR International Series 744 1998

BAR

PUBLISHING

Contents P reface 1T he p resen tA inu i d en t i ty 2I r on a nd t h ee me rgenc eo fA inu i d en t i ty 3T he s t ruc tu re o ft h eb ook 4A cknow ledgemen t s S ty le n o te Map o fJ apan Chap ter 1 : 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 4 -1 1 5 1 5 -1 1 5 -2 1 6 1 6 -1 1 6 -2 1 6 -3 1 6 -4 1 7

I n t roduc t ion Hokka ido u nde rt h e We s te rn -mode rn i sa t ion o fJ apan a nd f o r e ign i nf luenc e Hokka ido b e fo re t h e Me i j ie r a : E zo u nde rt h eJ apane se e conom ic e xpan s ion T he i mage o ft h eA inu i nE u rope S to len S ku l l s T he i mage o ft h eA inu i nJ apan R a c ia ld eba t e T he K o ro -pok -ku rd eba t e( A inu v s . K o ro -pok -ku r ) C on fu s ion i na cad em ic s t ud ie so ft h eA inu P hys ica lA n th ropo logy L ingu i s t ic c onfu s ion E thno log ica ld eba t e C on fu s ion r e la ted t oa nc ien th i s to ry C onc lu s ion

Chap ter 2 : 2 1 2 -2 2 3 2 3 -1 2 3 -2 2 3 -3

2 -4

Chrono logy a nd a rchaeo log ica l d a ta i n Hokka ido a nd T ohoku

I n t roduc t ion C h rono logy T he A inu c u l tu re i na r chaeo logy A inu a r cha eo logy T he ma t e r ia lc u l tu re o fA inu a r chaeo logy T he r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en t h eA inu c u l tu re a nd t h eS a t sumon c u l tu re T he S a t sumon c u l tu re T he ma te r ia lc u l tu re o ft h eT ohoku a r ea i nt h e8 t h -lO th c en tu r ie s C onc lu s ion

Chap ter 4 :

4 1 4 -2 4 -3 4 -3 -1

Mode l -bu i ld ing f or A inu a rchaeo logy

I n t roduc t ion R econ s ide ra t ion o ft h ep r e sen t mode l : C r i t ic i sm o ft h e" A inu e co sy s tem" p r e sen ted b y Wa tanab e B u i ld ing mode l sf o rA inu a r cha eo logy T he l o g ic b eh ind t h e mode l s : ap roh ib i t ion s ys t em i n as oc ie ty T he c u l t iva t ion -p roh ib i t ion mode l T he i r on -p roh ib i t ion mode l ( 1 )T he c a se o ft h eX iongnu ( 2 )T he c a se o ft h eJ i rchen ( 3 )T he c a se o ft h e Em i sh i ( 4 )T he c a se o ft h eA inu C onc lu s ion

Chap ter 3 : 3 1 3 -2 3 3 3 3 -1 3 3 -2 3 -4 3 5 3 -6 3 7

How t he i mage o f t he A inu w as c rea ted

D iscuss ion o f i r on t echno logy i n Hokka ido a nd T ohoku d is tr ic ts i n r e la t ion t o A inu i r on t e chno logy

I n t roduc t ion I r on t e chno logy a nd d i ff icu l t ies i nhe ren ti ni t ss t udy T he e v idence o fi r on t e chno logy a ts i t e s T he b a s ic e v idence f o ri d en t ify ing t h ei r on -wo rk ing s i te s ( 1 )R aw m a t e r ia lf o ri r on

i v i v v i v i v i i 1 1 1 2 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 7 8 10 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 5 1 5 1 6 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 4

2 8 2 8 2 8 2 9 2 9 3 0

4 -4 4 -4 -1 4 -4 -2

4 5 4 6 4 6 -1

4 -6 -2

4 7 4 8

( 2 )S e conda ry r aw m a t e r ia l : l i on p roduc t sa si r on s ou rc e ma t e r ia l ( 3 )C ha r coa l ( 4 )F u rna c e /hea r th ( 5 )T uye r e s ( 6 )C ra f tt o o l s ( 7 )S l ag ( 8 )H amme rs c a le s ( 9 )A dd i t ive s D i scu s s ion sb a sed o nt h ea r chaeo log ica le v id ence T he a r cha eo log i ca le v idenc ef r om t h ee xcava ted s i t e s 1 )I r ueka sh is i t e -7 5 )K i tazawa s i te D i scu s s ion A .T he H okka ido d i s t r ic t ( 1 ) Ap rov i s iona lc h rono log ica lo rde ro ft u ye r es B .T he T ohoku d i s t r ic t ( 1 )F u rnac e s T he l im i ta t ion so fa r cha eo log ica lo b se rva t ion b a sed o nt h ee v idenc ef r om t h es i t e s A pp roa ch f r om m e ta l lu rg ica la na ly s i s A na ly t ica lm e thod s ( 1 )C hem ica lc ompo s i t ion a na ly s i s ( 2 ) Me ta l logr aph ic a na ly s i s A na ly t ica lr e su l t sa nd d i scu s s ion s ( 1 )S l ag ( 2 )H amm e rs c a le ( 3 )I r on p r oduc t s ( 4 )L ump so fi r on m a t e r ia l Ah ypo the t ica lr e con s t ruc t ion o fi r on -wo rk ing i nn o r the rn J apan C onc lus ion F l ow d i ag ram

C hap ter 5 :

5 1 5 1 -1 5 2 5 2 -1 5 2 -2

5 3 5 3 -1 5 3 -2 5 3 -3 5 3 -4 5 3 -5 5 4 5 4 -1 5 4 -2 5 5 5 6

I n t roduc t ion T he A inu s i t e s i nN ibu tan i , B i ra to r i -cho H ow t h eA inu o b ta ined i r on m a t e r ia l : t h ed i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk V oyage o fC ap ta in M . G . V r ie st o aG o ld a nd S i lve rI s land n ea rJ apan i n1 643 A r cha eo log i ca le v idenc e ( 1 )l i on m a te r ia l ( a )M i sc elaneou si r on p roduc t s ( b )I r on p o t s E v id enc eo ft h ef o rg ing p r oce s s H ea r th s T uye r e s H amme rs c a le s S l ag C ha r coa l E v idence o ft h er ef in ing p roce s s Ad i f f e ren ts o c ia lc on tex t A ne xamp le o ft h eJ apane se s wo rdcr a f tt e chn ique T he e v idenc ef o rt h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fs e conda ry r aw m a t e r ia l C onc lu s ion

C hap ter 6 :

6 1 6 2 6 2 -1

I ron t e chno logy a nd t he s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce ss o f t he S aru A inu , Hokka ido i n t he 1 7 th c en tury

3 0 3 0 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 2 -33 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 8 4 9 -50

5 1 5 1 5 1 5 3 5 3 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 7 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 1 6 1 6 3 6 3 6 5 6 6

T he e xam ina t ion o f w ords f or ma ter ia ls a nd o ther t h ings i n o rder t o u nder s tand t he A inu c u l tura l c on tex t

7 3

I n t roduc t ion T he A inu l a nguage Ab r ie fh i s to ry o fA inu l i ngu i s t ic s t ud ie s ( 1 )A inu l a nguage s t ud ie sf r om t h e 1 8 th t ot h em id -19 th c en tu ry ( 2 )A inu l a nguage s t ud ie sf r om t h em id -19 th t ot h ee a r ly 2 0 th c en tury ( 3 ) A inu s t ud ie sa tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e2 0 th c en tu ry ( 4 )A inu l a nguage s t ud ie sa f te rt h e 1 960 s ( 5 )A inu l a nguage s t ud ie sa f te rt h e 1 980 s

7 3 7 3 7 3 7 3 7 4 7 4 7 4 7 5

6 3 6 4

T he A inu w o rd sf o rm e ta l s C onc lu s ion

C hap ter 7 : 7 1 7 1 -1 7 1 -2 7 1 -3 7 2 7 2 -1 7 2 -2

7 3 7 4 7 4 -1 7 4 -2 7 4 -3

7 4 -4 7 4 -5 7 4 -6 7 4 -7 7 4 -8 74 -9 7 4 -10

7 5

T he a na tomy o f y ukara

I n t roduc t ion Wha ti sy uka ra ? Y ukara i nt h eh i s to r ica lc on tex t T he p u rpo se o fy uka ra a na tomy A na ly t ica lm e thod s A na ly s i so fv ocabu la ry T he s t ruc tu ra la na ly s i s ( A )P a t t e rn so fe xp re s s ion ( B )I d ioma t ic e xp re s s ion s D a ta A inu s oc ie ty i nt h ey uka ra w o r ld: D i scu s s ion sa nd i n te rp re ta t ion s A lcoho l : s ake E xp r e s s ion o fs o c ia lc l a s se s S ub s is tence a c t iv i ty ( 1 ) C u l t iva t ion ( 2 )H un t ing ( 3 ) F i sh ing ( 4 ) Mea l s F am ine T r a d e T he J a pane se D i sa s t e r Wa r f a r e Ma r r iage a nd k i n sh ip G ende r ( 1 ) Man ( 2 ) Wom an ( 3 )T he r o le o fg ende r C onc lu s ion : Me ta la nd y uka r aa s as o c ia le xp re s s ion

C hap ter 8 : 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4

7 5 7 8

Conc lu s ion :

A inu a rchaeo logy a nd e thnoh i s tory

I n t roduc t ion I r on t e chno logy o ft h eS a ru A inu b e fo r et h e 1 7 th c en tu ry a nd i t ss o c ie ty Wha ti sh i s to r y t ot h eA inu? C onc lus ion : A inu a r cha eo logy a nd e t hnoh is to ry

Append ix -1

L is t o f d a ta :

s i tes

Append ix -2

L i s t o f d a ta : Yukara

7 9 7 9 7 9 8 0 8 0 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 9 8 9 8 9 9 0 9 0 9 0 9 1 9 1 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 7 1 05

G lossary

1 12

R ef erences

1 16

P reface

T h is b ook d esc r ibe s ac ou r se o fr e sea rch u nde r taken a tt h e D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge f o ra d isser ta t ion e n t i t led A inu a rchaeo logy a s e thnoh istory , wh ich w a s s ubm i t ted f o r t h e D eg ree o f Doc to r o f P h i losophy a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f C amb r idge i n F eb rua ry 1 995 , a nd a ccep ted i nJ une 1 995 . S ince t h i s i sa C amb r idge d i sser ta t ion , i ti sl im i ted t o8 0 ,000 w o rd s .

b u r ia l s , a nd i r on -wo rk ing h ear ths . I ti sa r chaeo log ica l ly s i gn if ican t i n t h a t o ne o f t he h ea r th s i s i d en t if ied b y t e ph roch rono log ica ls t ud ie sa sd a t ing f r om b e tween 1 663 a nd 1 667 .T hus , t h i sh ea r th i t se l fh a s c ons ide rab le a r chaeo log ica l v a lue a sa n a b so lu te d a te w i th in t h e c h rono log ica l o rde r o f t h eA inu ma te r ia lc u l tu re . T he re a r e s eve ra l r ea sons f o r f ocu s ing o n i r on w o rk ing t e chno logy i n t h e c on tex t o f A inu c u l tur e i n t h is b ook . F i r s t , t h e A inu c u l tu re h a s h i ther to b een t hough t o f a s l a rge ly a h un t ing , f i sh ing a nd g a ther ing s oc ie ty . E thnog raph ic a na log ies h ave emp loyed t h e A inu i ns t ud ies o f h un te r -ga the re r a dap t ive p rocesse s a nd s ub s i s tence e conom ie s( Wa tanabe 1 972 ) .

1 . The p resen t A inu i den t i ty T he A inu i nH okka ido , t h en o r the rnmo s ti s land o fJ apan , a r e n o t t r ea ted p o l i t ica l ly a s ad i s t inc t e thn ic g roup i n J apan t oday , a l though t hey a re c ommon ly t hough t t o b e a n a bo r ig ina l p eop le i n Hokka ido . T he A inu s ha re t h e w ay o f l i f e a nd l i v ing s t anda rd s o fc on tempo ra ry J apane se s oc ie ty . T hey s peak J apanese i n d a i ly c ommun ica t ion a nd t h e i r e duca t ion i st h e s ame a s t h eJ apane se . T hey h ave o s ten s ib ly b e en a lmo s tt o ta l ly i n t egra ted i n to t h e c i v i l isa t ion o f mode rn J apan .

T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , h oweve r , s ugge s t s s ome th ing mo r ec omp lex t h an ah un te r -ga the re rs oc ie ty ,a nd l e ad st ot h e h ypo thes is t h a t t h is l a be l l ing o f t h e A inu may b e a c on sequence o fh i s to r ica l , a cadem ic a nd p o l i t ica l d i s to r t ion ( c f . W i lmsen 1 989 ) . F o r e xamp le , t h e u se o f t h e A inu i n a na log ica l mode ls o fh un te r -ga the re r s a ppea r s t oh ave b een a pp l ied w i th n o c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e s equence o f s oc ia l c hange o ve r t i me a mong t h e A inu (Wa tanabe 1 972 , 1 990 ) . T he c h rono log ica l s equence o f A inu c u l tu re n eed s t o b e e s tab l i shed , e mp loy ing b o th h i s tor ica l a nd a r cha eo log ica l e v idence . I ti sn ece s sa ry t oa pp ly a rchaeo log ica l m e thod s t o A inu m a te r ia l c u l tu re i no rde r t or econs t ruc ti t s c h rono logy a nd s oc ia l c hange a nd s e t i ti n ah i s to r ica l c on tex t ( c f . T r igge r 1 980 ) .

Howeve r , t h e A inu h ave e s tab l ished a n a t ion -w ide a s soc ia t ion c a l led t h e U ta r i A ssoc ia t ion i no rde rt o ma in ta in t he i r t r ad i t iona l c u l tu re a nd t o r e ta in a s en se o f A inu s o l ida r i ty t h rough t h e h o ld ing o fo cca s iona lc e remon ie sa nd e ncou ragemen to fp rac t ice se xp re s s ing t h e i rc u l tu ra li d en t i ty . T he U ta r i A ssoc ia t ion d ef ine s a n A inu a s ap e r son w ho h a s A inu b lood , i sr ecogn ised a s a n A inu b y o the r p eop le a nd w ho wou ld l i ke t oe xp re s s h e r se lf /h imse lf a sa n A inu . T hey b e l ieve t h a t t hey a re t h e A inu . T he A inu l a nguage i sn ow t augh t a t l o ca l A inu l a nguage s choo ls b o th b y J apane se l i ngu i s t sa nd b yA inu who r emembe rt h el a nguage .

T he r e a son w hy i r on -wo rk ing t e chno logy w a s c ho sen a st h e s ub jec t f o r t h i s b ook i s t ha t i t i s p o ss ib le t o d i scuss t e chno logy a s af o rm o f s oc ia l e xp re ss ion ( c f . L emon ie r 1 983 ) a sw e l l a s at e chno -comp lex . T he i mpo r tance o fi r on i nt h e h i s to ry o fh umank ind i sd ue t oi t s s upe r io r q ua l i t ie s a nd c on sequen ti mpac to n t h e c u l tu ra l c on t ex ta s aw ho le . I t i s ,t h e r e fo r e ,n ece s sa ry t ou nde r s tand t h em ean ing o fi r on a nd t h e r o le o fi r on w i th in s oc ie t ies f r om ac u l tu ra l a s w e l l a sa m a t e r ia lp o in to fv i ew ( c f . H odde r 1 987 ) .

Ir ecogn i se t h e A inu a s t h e e t hn ic g roup o fp eop le w ho s t i l l h ave ac onsc iousne ss o ft h e i re t hn ic i ty a nd a t temp t t oc a r ry o n t h e i r c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion . T he refo re , Ip e rce ive t h a t A inu c u l ture i sn o t e x t inc t , b u t h a s b een a nd i ss t i l l c hang ing c on t inuous ly . 2 . I ron a nd t he emergence o f A inu i den t i ty T he p resen tu nde r s tand ing o fA inu c u l tu re i sb a sed o n A inu s t ud ies i n t h e p as t . T he i mage o f A inu c u l tu re h a s b een c r ea ted b yp rev ious r e sea r che r s .

T ak ing a ccoun t o ft h e a t temp t s men t ioned a bove , t h i s b ook w i l lt r y t op rov ide amo r e d e ta i led u nde r s tand ing o fb o th t h e e me rgence o f A inu c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty a nd o f s oc ia l c hange a mong t he A inu b y e xam in ing c u l tura l c on tac t a nd i n te ra c t ion b e tween t h eA inu a nd o u t s ide r si nt h ep a s t .

Wha t I wou ld l i ke t o p resen t i n t h is b ook i s a n a rchaeo log ica l c ha l lenge t oe xp la in t h e e t hnoh is to ry o ft h e A inu a nd t or eapp ra ise t h e A inu c u l tu re . T he c ha l lenge i s p o sed b y t h ee x i s tence o fi r on -wo rk ing h ea r th s i ne xcava t ed A inu v i l lage s d a ted b efo re 1 667 . Ow ing t o al a ck o fr e co rd s c once rn ing A inu s m i th ing i nJ apane se h i s to r ica ld ocumen t s , i th ad b een t hough tt ha t t h e H okka ido A inu d id n o tp rac t i se i r on t e chno logy . T h is v i ew p e r s is ted u n t i l i r on -wo rk ing h ea r ths i nt h eS a ru R ive ra r ea i nH okka ido w e re e xcava t ed b y t h e a u tho r , i nd ica t ing t ha t i r on -wo rk ing t e chno logy h ad e x is ted among t he Hokka ido A inu . T he e xcava t ions t ook p lace a tt h e I r ueka sh i s i te i n1 988 a nd a tt h e P ipaush i s i te i n 1 990 u nde r t he n ame o f B i ra to r i -cho I s ek i C ho saka i i n B i ra to r i -cho , H okka ido . B o th s i te s c l ea r ly i nd ica te A inu s e t t lemen t s a nd i nc lude p o s t h o les o f d we l l ings a s soc ia ted w i th ma te r ia ls a nd o rgan ic r ema in ss uch a sc u l t iva t ed s e ed s ,

A l though t h e A inu d o n o th ave aw r i t ten l a nguage , t h e i ro ra l t r ad i t ion , i n c lud ing e p ic f o rms , i s ar i ch i n fo rma t ion s ou rce f o ru nde r s tand ing A inu s oc ie ty . Y uka ra , a ne p ic f o rm o fo ra l t r ad i t ion , h ave b een r eco rded u s ing v a r ious me thods , i n c lud ing t a pe s a nd t r anscr ip t ion i n to b o th k ana ( t he J apane se s y l laba ry ) a nd t h e r oman a l phabe t . Howeve r , t h e u s eo fy uka ra a s as ou r ce o fi n fo rma t ion w i th r e ga rd t os oc ia l m ean ing h a s n o t y e t b een a t temp ted b y l i ngu i s t s . Is ha l l e xam ine t h i sa spe c to fy uka ra f o ru nde r s tand ing A inu s o c ie ty b a sed o n t h e a na tomy o f y uka ra . T h i s c an b e d one b y e x t rac t ing t h e e xp re ss ion o f s oc ie ty a s much a s p o s s ib le a mong y uka ra . T h is a pp roach i s e ssen t ia l f o r a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t , a nd t of i nd o u t t h e i rw ay o ft h ink ing a sw e l la st h e i r ma t e r ia lc u l tu re .

i v

P re face

3 . T he s t ruc ture o f t he b ook C hap te r 1d i scusse s t h e w ay i nw h ich t h ei mage o ft h eA inu h a s b een c rea ted . C hap ter 2 b u i lds mode l s f o r A inu a r cha eo logy .C hap te r 3c ons ide r s am e thodo log ica la pp roa ch t o t h e d a ta r e la t ing t o A inu a rchaeo logy . C hap te r 4a nd C hap te r 5d i scu ss t h e t e chno log ica l a spec t s o f A inu i r on w o rk ing .C hap te r 6a nd C hap te r 7d i scus s w o rd sa nd t h ee p ic t ype o fo ra l t r ad i t ion a s ameans o fu nde r s tand ing t h e s o c ia l c on tex t . C hap te r 8 c ons ide rs A inu a rchaeo logy a s e t hnoh i s to ry . T he c on ten t s o f t h e c hap te r s a r e s umma r ised b e low . Chapter c rea ted

1 ,

How

a n

i mage

o f

t he

A inu

w as

T he c u r ren t o u t s ide r 's i mage o f t h e A inu w a s c r ea ted a s a r e su l to fp reconcep t ions b a sed o n i n t e rac t ion b e tween s o c io p o l i t ica l a nd a cadem ic man ipu la t ion . I ti s i mpo r tan t t o r e cogn i se t h er o le o f Hokka ido , w he re t h e A inu l i ve , u nde r t h e We s te rn isa t ion o fJ apan i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . T h roughou t t h is p e r iod , i n fo rma t ion a nd k now ledge a bou t t h e A inu wh ich h ad a ccumu la ted i n t h e p rev iou s p e r iod w e re n o t s moo th ly t r ansm i t ted t o t he n ew e ra . F o r e xamp le , d ocumen t s a bou t t h e A inu wh ich w e re w r i t ten i nt h e 1 8 th c en tu ry h ave s t i l l n o t b een f u l ly e va lua ted i nA inu s t ud ie s . T h i s i so ne o ft h er e a sons f o rt h ep re sen ti mage o ft h e A inu . J apane se modern h i s to ry n eed s t ob e t a ken i n to a ccoun t i n o rde rt ou nde r s tand t h ee x i s t ing i mage o ft h eA inu .

a na ly t ica l r e su l t s o f ma te r ia l f r om t h e s i te s , b a sed o n a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica la na lyse s( e s sen t ia lt ot h er ecogn i t ion o f t h e p roce s ses u sed i ni r on t e chno logy ) , a r e d i scussed . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween H okka ido a nd T ohoku a si nd ica ted b y t h e r e su l t s i sa l so o u t l ined . I n p a r t icu la r , c ons ide ra t ion i s g iven t o t e chno log ica l d i f f erences wh ich may i mp ly d i f fus ion o f i r on t e chno logy t o t h e A inu , a nd a l so t o d i f f e r ence s i nd i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk s w h ich d raw a t ten t ion t o t e chno log ica ld i f f e r enc e sb e tween t h et wo a r ea s . Chap ter 5 , The s t ee l -product ion t he S aru A inu i n t he 1 7 th c en tury

t echno logy

o f

T he m a jo ra r chaeo log ica le v idence r e la t ing t ot h e A inu u sed i nt h i s b ook w a s o b ta ined f r om N ibu tan i v i l lage i nt h e S am R ive r a r ea o f Hokka ido ( s ee Map 5 1 i n C hap te r 5 ) . T h is a r ea i sc en t ra l t ot h e d i scus s ion a nd i n c ludes t h e A inu s i te s w h ich h ave y i e lded i r on techno log ica le v idence . T he w ay si n w h ich t h e A inu o b ta ined i r on a nd t h e l e ve l o f t e chno logy e mp loyed i ne ach p roce ss a r e d i scussed . T he t e chno log ica l p roce s s c an b e t r aced b ack t o t h e p rev ious c u l tu re , t h e S a t sumon , i nt e rm s o f t h e e x i s tence o f ar ef in ing p roce s s . T he s t age r e ached b yt h e S am A inu , w ho f ound i td i ff icu l tt o o b ta in s t ee l , o f fe r s i n t e res t ing p a ra l le ls w i th t h e s i tua t ion o f J apane se t r ad i t iona l s wo rd s m i ths a tt h e p re sen t t ime . T he e v idence , h oweve r , a l so i nd ica tes t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t ha t t h e S a ru A inu c ou ld h ave d eve loped me thods o fp roduc ing i r on a s ma te r ia ls ou rce f o rt h em se lves .

Chap ter 2 , Mode l -bu i ld ing f or A inu a rchaeo logy

Chapter 6 , An e xa m inat ion o f words f or ma ter ia ls a nd o ther t h ings i n o rder t o u nder s tand t he A inu c u l tura l c on text

I tc an b e s a id t ha t A inu s t ud ie s w e re a l so a f f ec ted b y p reconcep t ion s o fe t hn ic d i f f e rence sf r om t h eJ apane se p o in t o f v i ew t o man ipu la te t heo ry , t h e reby s e t t ing u p a n i napp rop r ia te mode l . L abe l l ing w h ich i s t h e r e su l t o f ' s c ien t if i c a cadem ic wo rk ' n eed s t ob e f i l te red o u t w i th in a c u r ren tt h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk , a nd a ccoun tn eed st ob et a k en o ft h es oc io -po l i t ica lf r amewo rk o f mode rn J apane se h i s to ry . Ac r i t ic i sm o ft h e p re sen t mode l i sp re sen ted , a nd t wo n ew mode ls , a' c u l t iva t ion -p roh ib i t ion mode l ' a nd a n ' i ron p roh ib i t ion mode l ' ,a r eb u i l tf o rA inu a r cha eo logy .

I n a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o f as oc ie ty , i ti s i n s t ruc t ive t oc ons ide r t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e t h ings a nd t h en ame sb y w h ich t h ey a r ec a l led , s i nce t h is l e ad st oa n u nde r s tand ing o ft h em ean ing o ft h e t h ing s w i th in as oc ie ty . B ea r ing t h is i nm ind , t h e w o rd s w h ich r e la te t oi r on a nd i r on t e chno logy i n A inu s oc ie ty a re e xam ined i n o rde r t o d e t e rm ine t h e i r mean ing a nd h ence u nde r s tand t h er o le o fi r on i nt h e c on tex to fA inu s oc ie ty . Chap ter 7 , The a na tomy o f Yukara

Chapter 3 , Chrono logy a nd b etween Hokka ido a nd Tohoku

c u ltura l

c on tac t

T eph roch rono logy i s av i ta l t oo l i nJ apanese a r chaeo logy f o r l o ca t ing ma ter ia l c u l tu res i n t ime . T he a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins o f t he A inu c u l ture f a l l w i th in t h e J apane se h i s to r ica l p er iod . E rup t ions o f v o lcanoe s a r e t h e refo re r e co rded a nd t h e i r p rec i se d a ta i sg ene ra l ly k nown . A inu a r chaeo logy w i th in t h e H okka ido s equence a nd t h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu re i n t he T ohoku s equence a r e d esc r ibed . C u l tu ra l c on tac t b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s may b e p red ica ted f r om t h e a r cha eo log ica le v idence w h ich i sd e sc r ib ed . Am e thodo log ica l a pp roa ch t oA inu a r chaeo logy i sd i scu s sed . Chap ter 4 , I ron t echno logy i n t he Hokka ido a nd Tohoku d istr icts : A inu i ron t echno logy i n c ontext T he w ay i nw h ich a rchaeo log is t sr e cogn i se a nd e va lua t ei r on t e chno logy f rom ma te r ia l e v idence i s d i scussed . T he

A n e p ic t y pe o fo ra l t r ad i t ion i n A inu s oc ie ty , y uka ra , a r e a na ly sed . I np a r t icu la r , t h e y uka ra o ft h eS a ru R ive ra r ea a r e i d en t if ied a s av a luab le s ou rce f o rr e con s t ruc t ing t h ec ha ra c t e r o f S a ru A inu s oc ie ty . T he s i gn if icance o f y uka ra f o r t h e s t udy o f ma t er ia l c u l tu re i sd i scus sed , s i nce t h i s i s as ub jec t w h ich t h ey i lum ina te i n many w ays . L oan wo rds f r om J apanese a r e a l so e xam ined i n o rde r t o h igh l igh t t h e r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween t h e t wo c u l tu re s a t ama te r ia l l e ve l . F u r the r , t h e s oc ia l m ean ing o f i r on a nd i r on t e chno logy i n S a ru A inu s oc ie ty c an b ei n f e r red f r om p a s sage si ny uka ra . Chap ter 8 , Conc lus ion : e thnoh istory

A inu

a rchaeo logy

a s

D i f f e r en t modes o fd a ta w h ich a r e e xp r ess ion so fh i s to ry a r e u sed i n t h is b ook . E ach r evea ls d i f feren t f ace t s o f e t hnoh i s to ry . A n e t hnoh is to ry o f t h e A inu c an b e d rawn b y u s ing t h e i r o wn e xp re ss ions — s uch a s A inu a r chaeo logy

P r e f a c e

a pp roa ched t h rough c on tex tua la r cha eo logy ,a nd y uka ra .T h i s c an b ec a l l ed t h ea r chaeo logy o f" A inupu r i" ,t h e" A inu w ay" .

M rT akayuk iS a to ( E sa sh i -cho Kyo iku i inka i ) D rN a than S ch iange r( Depa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy ) D rC o l in S hel ( Depa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ) D rL au rence Sm i th ( Depa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ) P ro f e s so rA n thony S nodg ra s s ( Facu l ty o fC la s s ics ) Mr T o sh ih i ro T amu ra ( Ch i to se -sh i K yo iku i inka i ) M rK ao ru T ezu l ca ( Hokka ido K a i taku K inenkan ) D rD iu ra T hoden v an V e lzen ( Depa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ) Ms Y um iT oku i( d ec eased ) (Ochanom izu U n ive r s i ty ) M rT e ru j iT oyo l ia ra ( Re sea rche ri na r chaeo logy ) Ms Y a suyo T subak izaka ( Hokka ido U n ive r s i ty ) Mr T o sh iak iT su ruma ru ( Sappo ro G a l cu in U n ive r s i ty ) D r Dona ld Wagne r( Needham R e sea rch I n s t i tu te ) D rT odd Wh i t e law ( Depa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ) Ms J ane Wi lk in son ( Roya l Mu seum o fS co t land ) Mr T ake sh i Y abunaka ( The A inu Museum S h i rao i ) M rG o ro Y amada ( Hokka ido K a i taku K inenkan ) P ro f e s so rI c h i ro Y amanaka ( Kyo to Un ive r s i ty ) P rof es so r Ma sa l cazu Y o sh izak i( Hokka ido U n ive r s i ty )

4 A cknow ledge men ts Iam mo s t g ra tefu l t o a l l t h e p eop le a nd i n s t i tu t ions w ho g ave me h e lp a nd a dv ice d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e r e sea rch p resen ted i n t h i s b ook , e spec ia l ly t o my s upe rv i so r a nd a dv ise r , D rG ina B a rne s a nd D rI a n H odde r , D epa r tmen to f A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge . I am e spec ia l ly g ra tefu l t o Mr K ao ru I t o , l a bo ra to ry o f me ta l lu rgy , N ippon S tee l C ompany f o r t h e a na lys i s o f my i r on ma te r ia la nd s l ag s amp le s . Iw ish t o t h ank , i n p a r t icu la r , t ho se w ho a l lowed me t o e xam ine i r on , s l ag a nd o the r ma te r ia l s i n t h e i r c o l lec t ions a nd Ia l so t hank t ho se who g ave me p e rm is s ion t o u se p ho tog raph sa nd t ou se d a ta f r om f o r thcom ing p ubl ica t ion s .

F ina l ly , Iw i sh t ot h ank my p a ren t s , S huhe i F uka sawa a nd T okuko F uka sawa , f o ra l l t h e i r s uppo r td u r ing t h e c ou r se o f my r e sea rch .

T hank sa r ed ue t o : Ak i ta -ken Ma izobunkaza iC en t r e Aomo r i -ken Ma izobunk n a iC en t re Hokka ido Ma izobunkaza iC en t r e I wa te -ken Ma izobunkaza iC en t r e B i ra to r i -cho I s ek iC ho saka i T he Museum o fA rchaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy C amb r idge T he N eedham R e sea rch I n s t i tu t eC amb r idge T he Mu seum o f Mank ind : B r i t i sh Museum Hokka ido K a i taku K inenkan

S ty le

Note

R oman i sa t ion R oman i sa t ion o f f o re ign w o rd s emp loys t h e P iny in s y s tem f o rC h ine se , t h e MaCune -Re i schaue rs y s tem f o rK o rean ,a nd amod if ied H epburn s ys tem f o r J apane se a nd A inu . I tw a s n o t , h oweve r , p o ss ib le t o i nc lude d iac r i t ic ma rk s o ve r J apane se a nd A inu w o rd s . T he re i st r emendous v a r ia t ion i n w r i t ing A inu i nr oman ised f o rms o fA inu d ue t ot h ef a c tt h a t A inu w o rd sa r eb a sed o n s y l lab le s . A s Ia ma na r chaeo log i s t , n o t al i ngu is t , Ih ave u sed t h e s pe ll ing u sed b y t h er e f e rence c once rned .

Mr S h igek iA k ino ( The A inu Museum S h i rao i ) D rH ideo A kanuma ( Iwa t eK en r i t su H a l cubu t su l can ) D r Mo no A kama t su ( Hokka ido K a i t aku K inenkan ) Mr T e t suya Amano ( Hokka ido U n ive r s i ty ) Mr Y un s ik C hoo ( Depa r tmen to fA rcha eo logy ) Mr K o j iD e r iha ( Hokka ido K a i taku K inenkan ) D rB r ian D u r ran s( Br i t ish Mu seum ) Mr K azum iF u j ish ima ( E sa sh i -cho K yo iku i inka i ) Mr Nobo ru F u j i ta ( Mo r i -cho K yo iku i inka i ) Ms K a t suyo H onda ( Re sea r che ri na r chaeo logy a nd h i s to ry ) Ms A o iH o soya ( Depa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ) Mr S h inya I s ogawa ( Kyo to U n ive r s i ty ) P ro fe s so r Ma r t in J one s ( Depa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ) Mr S imon K ane r( Depa r tmen to fA rcha eo logy ) Mr Mo to iK awauch i( B i ra to r i -cho I s ek iC ho saka i ) Mr H en ry K enny ( Depa r tmen to fA rcha eo logy ) Mr J oni lK im ( Seou l N a t iona l U n ive r s i ty ) Mr T o sh ih i ro K oha ra ( t hen o fS h izuna i -cho K yo iku i inka i ) Mr K en ich i ro K o sh ida ( Hokka ido Ma izobunkaza iC en t r e ) Mr Y a su sh iK ubo ( Ma t sumae -cho K yo iku i inka i ) Mr M izuho Ma t suzak i( Ka t suyamada te I s ek iC ho saka i ) Mr No r io M ino ( Hokka ido K a i taku K inenkan ) Mr K e i suk eM iu ra ( Aomo r i -ken Ma izobunkaza iC en t re ) Mr H i ro sh iM iya ( Yo ich i -cho K yo iku i inka i ) D r Ma r t in Mo r r i s ( Tokyo U n ive r s i ty ) Mr H i ro sh iN akagawa ( Ch iba N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty ) P rof e s so rT a ryo Obaya sh i( Tokyo J o sh iU n ive r s i ty ) Mr O sam iO kuda ( Sappo ro G aku in U n ive r s i ty ) P rofe s so rO t suka K azuyo sh i( Na t .E thno log ica l Museum ) D r Dav id P h i l l ipson ( Museum o fA rch . &A n th . )

N ame s I nt h e t e x t , J apane se p e r sona l n ame s a r e g i ven a cco rd ing t o t h e We s te rn s y s tem ; g iven n ame f i r s t , f o l lowed b y f am i ly n ame . T he A dm in i s t ra t ive d iv i s ion o fp lace n ame s a r ef o l lowed b y t h eJ apane se s y s tem : k en =p re f ec tu re , g un o rk o r i =c oun ty , s h i =c i ty , c ho o r mach i =t ownsh ip , mu ra = v i l lage . V ocabu la ry J apane se a nd A inu v ocabu la ry a r eg iven i ni t a l ic s .

v i

P reface

Map o f J apan

AN .

SEA OF O IC E IOTSK

f

Me . • •••

S akha l in ( Karafuto )

4

C h ina

SEA OF JAPAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

K orea

a

v i i

o n . • p

Chap ter How

1 -1

t he

i mage

o f t he

1 A inu

was

c rea ted

I n troduc t ion T he Me i j i g ove rnmen tw a s ma in ly d om ina ted b y i n d iv idua l s f r om t wo o f t h e d oma ins u nde r t h e S hoguna l g ove rnmen t : t h e S a t suma -Han a nd t h e C hoshu -Han . I tw a s ag ove rnmen t t h a tr u led i nt h en ame o ft h e T enno ( Empe ro r ) , t ow hom t h e l a s tT okugawa s hogun h ad c eded t h er i gh tt og over nu pon h i s a bd ica t ion .

I ti sv e ry i mpo r tan t t oc ons ide r t h e p o l i t ica l f r amewo rk o f J apane se h i s to ry b o th d u r ing t h roughou t t h e e x i s tence o f A inu c u l tu re a nd t ha t d u r ing wh ich s t ud ie s o fi th ave b een u nde r taken . Wi thou t t h is b ackg round , t h e A inu c u l tu re c anno tb e f u l ly u nde r s tood . T he p u rpo se o ft h i sc hap te ri st o s how h ow s oc io -po l i t ica lf a c to r sh ave a f f ec ted t h eh i s to ry o f t h e A inu a nd s t ud ies o f t h em a c ros s ar ange o f d i f f e ren t d i sc ipl ine s .

When t h e Ka i takush i ( adm in is t ra t ive h eadqua r te r s ) i n H okka ido w a s s e t u p u nde r t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t i n 1 869 , K iyo taka Ku roda a f te r s ome f a c t iona l s t rugg le s t ook u p t h e p o s t o f Governo r o f Hokka ido . H e w a s an a t ive o f t h e S a t suma -Han w h ich w a s l o ca ted i nK yushu a tt h e s ou ther n m o s te nd o fJ apan , a nd t h e re fo re h ed id n o tk now much a bou t t h en a tu ra l f ea tu re sa nd c u l tu re o fH okka ido . Ku roda i n v i ted H o rac eC ap ron f r om t h eU n i ted S ta te st oc ome a nd t o make a m a s te r p l an f o r H okka ido i n 1 871 . H o race C ap ron w a s t h e s e cond g over no r o f t h e D epa r tmen t o f A gr icu l tu re o f t h e U n i ted S ta te s , ap ionee r w ho c a r r ied o u t o pe ra t ion s i n" t he f r on t ie r s p i r i t" . H e c ame t oJ apan w i th 7 6 membe r s o f t h e H okka ido Ma s te r P lan P ro jec t , mos t o f whom w e re Ame r ican s( Uemu ra 1 990 :249 ) .

A l though t h eA inu h ave b een s t ud ied f o ro ve r ah und r ed y ea r s b y ar a nge o f e xper t s i n d i sc ip l ine s i nc lud ing e t hno logy , a n thropo logy , l i ngu is t ics , a rchaeo logy , h i s to ry , a nd s o c io logy , t h e c oncep t o f t h e A inu c an s h if t d epend ing o n t h e t i me a tw h ich t he A inu w e re c ons ide red t ob et h eA inu a s k nown a tp resen t . S tud ie s o f t h e A inu n eed t os t a t e c l ea r ly w ha tc r i te r ia t h ey a r e u s ing t oi d en t i f y t h eA inu . T he r en eed s t ob e ac l ea rd ef in i t ion i nt ho se s t ud ie so fw ha ts ca le t h ey u s e i nt i me a nd s pace , i no t he r wo rd s , w ha t t h ey c on s ide r t ob e t h e c onc ep to ft h e A inu . T hus , i nt h i s c hap te r Id i scus s h ow t h e i mage o ft h e A inu h a s e me rged w i th in t h eh i s to ry o ft h e A inu s t ud ie s .

A cco rd ing t o U emu ra ( 1990 ) , t h e re w a s ap rob lem i n d ec id ing a n a pp rop r ia te p lan f o r d eve lop ing H okka ido . A n t i se l , o ne o f t h e p ro jec t membe r s , w ho w a s B r i t i sh , p ropo sed a p lan b a sed o n B r i t ish c o lon isa t ion t h eo ry , i n o ppo s i t ion t oC ap ron , w ho h ad a l ready p ropo sed ap l an b a sed o n Ame r ican f r on t ie rc o lon i sa t ion t h eo ry . T he d eba te h inged u pon w he the r t ou se H okka ido o n t h e o ne h and a s ad ef ence z one a ga ins t R u s s ia , l e av ing Hokka ido a s af r ee e conom ic l a nd i n a cco rdance w i th t he p r inc ip les o f l a issez f a ire e conom ics , b u t w i th l i nks t o t h e ma in land ( t he B r i t ish v i ew ) , o r , o n t h e o t he rh and , t od eve lop t h is i s land a s al a nd o ff o od p roduc t ion a nd i ndependen te xp lo i ta t ion w i th av i ew t os e l f suff ic iency i nf ood r e sou rces ( t he Ame r ican v i ew ) . U l t ima te ly , i tw a sC ap ron w ho p re sen ted r epo r t sa nd o f f ic ia l l e t te r s t ot h e K a i takush i a nd made b luepr in t p lans , a f te r A n t i se l w a s s acked i n 1 875 . T he s e lf -suf f ic ien t t ype o f e xp lo i ta t ion ,b a sed o n Ame r ican f r on t ie rt h eo ry , w a sa dop t ed f o rt h e H okka ido ma s t e rp l an ( i b id . : 2 52 ) .

1 -2 Hokka ido , u nder t he Wes tern - modern isat ion o f J apan a nd f ore ign i nf luence s T he y ea r 1 868 c ons t i tu te s aw a te r shed w h ich i si mpo r tan t n o t o n ly i nt h eh i s to ry o ft h e A inu c u l tu re a nd A inu s t ud ies b u t a l so i n t h e h i s tory o f J apan a s aw ho le . I n 1 868 t h e Me i j i Ish in ( Res tora t ion ) o ccur red , w h ich e nded t h e T okugawa S hoguna l g over nmen t a nd e s tab l i shed t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t . T h is g rea t c hange i n t h e J apane se p o l i t ica l f r amewo rk c anno t b e i g no red . O ne o f t h e g rea te s t c hanges w a st h a tf o re igne r sw e re a b le t ov i s i tt h el a nd o fJ apan a ga in . J apan h ad b een ac losed c oun t ry f o r 2 29 y ea r s , s i nce 1 639 , w hen i tw a s c losed i n o rde r t o a vo id t h e i nf luence o f C h r i s t ian i ty . T h is i sc a l led ` s akoku ' , t h e p o l icy o f c l o sed c oun t ry — o ne o ft h e d i s t inc t ive p o l ic ie s o ft h e T okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t . I ts t ipu la ted t ha t f o re igne r s w ho l a nded i nJ apan w e re t ob e k i l led , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h e D u tch , w ho w e re p e rm i t ted o n ly o n t h e i s land o fD e j ima i n N aga sak i , w he r e t h ey h ad at r ad ing d epo t .J apane se w e re a l so n o ta lowed t ol e ave t h e i rc oun t ry . I ft h ey w en ta b road , t h ey w e r ef o rb idden t or e -en t e rt h ec oun t ry .

I ti sc l ea r t h e re fo re t h a te xp lo i ta t ion p roceeded i nH okka ido a l ong t h e l i ne s s ugges ted b y t h e Ame r icans , a nd many J apanese i mm ig ran t s w ho w an ted t oh ave t h e i r o wn l a nd w e r e s e n t t od efo re s t H okka ido . Among t h em w e re s h izoku

A l though i ti sn o t my i n ten t ion t o a s ses s t h e r o le o f t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t h e re , Iw ou ld l i ke t oe mpha s ise t h a t i ti s i mpo r tan t t o k now w ha t h appened d ur ing t h a t p e r iod i n H okka ido , w he re t he A inu l i ved . I th a sb een p o in ted o u tt h a t t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e J apanese a nd t h e A inu h a s h i s to r ica l p a ra l le ls w i th t h a t o f t h e E u ropean c o lon ise r s o f N o r th Ame r ica a nd t h e Ame r ican I nd ian ( Fawce t t 1 986 :43 , S tua r t 1 991 :27 ) . T he q ues t ion i sw he the r o r n o t H okka ido w a s aJ apane se c o lony . I ti sa l so n ecessa ry t oc ons ide r t h e n a tur e o f t h e J apanese a s s im i la t ion o f t h e A inu u nde r t h e Me i j ig overnmen t .

( s amura i o rb ush i ) 1,w ho b e longed t ot h e w a r r io r c l a ss a nd h ad f o rme r ly b een e mp loyed b ye ach d oma in ( Han ) u nde rt h e p r ev ious S hoguna l g over nmen t . T hey h ad l o s t t h e i r j ob s u nde r t h e n ew g ove rnmen td ue t ot h e b reakdown o ft h e o ld s y s tem . I tw a s v i ta l f o r t h e n ew g over nmen t t of i nd j ob s f o r t h em . O ne s o lu t ion w a s t oo pen u p H okka ido a nd e ncou rage 1 T hey w e re t h e h i ghe s t c l a ss i n ac a s te s ys tem w h ich c ons i s ted o f f o u r c l a sse s : t h e s amu ra i o r b ush i , t h e f a rme r s , t h e c r a f t speop le , a nd t h e me rchan t s , u nde r t h e S hoguna l g overnmen t .

1

1:H ow t h e i mage o ft h e A inu w a s c r ea ted

e x -samu ra it ob ecome p ionee rf a rme r s t h e re , u nde rt h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t( Ku roda 1 942 ) .

c r i t ic i sed J apane se w e t r i ce -c u l t iva t ion m e thods o n t h e g round s t h a t t h e re h ad b een n o p rog res s f o rs eve ra l h und red y ea r s , a nd b ecau se t h e re w a s n o r o ta t ion o f c rop s . I tw a s c ons ide r ed a n i n ef f ic ien t c u l t iva t ion me thod b ecause i t p roduced l e s s n u t r i t ious g ra in d esp i te h igh p roduc t ion c o s t s . H e , t h e r efo re , u rged t h a t J apanese i mm igran t s s hou ld e a t w hea ta nd p o ta toe sr a the rt h an r i ce . Mo reove r ,h ea dvo ca t ed a c hange i no t he r a r ea s o f t h e t r ad i t iona l J apanese l i f es ty le , s ugge s t ing t h a tJ apanese i mm ig ran t s t oH okka ido n eeded t o l i ve i n s t one h ou ses , u se t a b les a nd c ha i r s , a nd s o o n . U emu ra h a s h i gh l igh ted t h e f a c t t ha t a n e x t reme p o l icy o f We s te rn i sa t ion w a s i mp lemen t ed n o to n ly i nT okyo b u ta l so i n H okka ido a t t ha t t ime . A s t he r e su l t o f C ap ron 's s ugge s t ion , s e ed s w e re i mpo r ted f r om t h eU n i ted S ta te s , a nd e x ten s ive a g r icu l tu re ( f a rm ing ) a nd mechan i sed a gr icu l tu ra l t oo l s w e re i n t roduced t oH okka ido ( Hokka ido 1 989 ) . T he s ys tem e s tab l i shed h a s p e r s i s ted i n e s sen t ia l s i n Hokka ido d own t o t h e p resen t a nd c an b e s een i n mo s t p a r t s o f H okka ido t o day .

I nt h i s s en se , H okka ido m igh t b e s een a s ac o lony f r om t h e We s tern p o in t o f v i ew , a nd t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e J apanese a nd t h e A inu c an b e s een a s p a ra l le l w i th t h a t b e tween f r on t ie rE u ropeans a nd Ame r ican I nd ian s . H oweve r , t h e wo rd ' c o lony ' d id n o t e x i s t , a s t h e re w a s n o c onc ep t f o ri te i the r i nJ apane se o ri nC h ine se , a cco rd ing t o N i tobe ( N i tobe 1 911 ) . T he w o rd ' c o lony ' w a si n t roduced b y ab ook e n t i t led " The t h eory o f i s o la t ion p o l icy" w r i t ten b y K aemp f e r , a nd t r an s la ted b yT adao S h izuku i n1 741 . I nt h i s b ook t h e wo rd ` v o lkp lan t ing ' w a st r ans la ted i n to J apanese a s ` s hoku -m in ' ( "p lan ted p eop le" o r " peop le p l an t ing" ) . I nt h e f i r s t D u tch Japane se d i c t iona ry i n J apan , " Edo H a ruma " , p ub l i shed i n1 796 , t h ew o rd ' c o lony ' w a s t r an s la t ed a s ` k a i k oku ' ( l i te ra l ly ' open c oun try ' : i . e . ac oun t ry t h a tw a s b e ing, o pened u p ) , a nd ` v o lkp lan t ing ' w a s t r ans la ted a s s hoku .L a te r , b y t h e t ime o ft h e E ng l i sh Japane se d i c t iona ry p ubl i shed b y Ho n i n1 862 , a nd 1 867 , t h e w o rd ' c o lony ' w a s t r an s la ted a s ` s hoku -m in ' ( Ku roda 1 942 ) . T hu s , t h e w o rd i s n ow ` s hoku -m in ' i nJ apane se . Wha tn eed st ob ee xam ined i s t h e s e t o fc ond i t ion s u nde r w h ich t h e c oncep t o f amodern n a t ion s t a te f i l te red i n to t h e c onsc iou sne s s o ft h e t r ad i t iona l J apanese . Wi thou tc on s ide ra t ion o fs uch c oncep t s , w h ich a r e u sed i n ad i f f e ren th i s to r ica lc on tex t , i ti sm is lead ing t od r aw a n a na logy b e tween t h e J apane se a nd t h e A inu a nd t h e E u ropean c o lon i se r sa nd t h e Ame r ican I nd ian .

I n 1 876 , t h e A inu t r ad i t iona l h un t ing me thod , u s ing p o i soned a r rows ,w a sp roh ib i t ed ; i n s tead r i f le sw e re r en ted t o t h em . T he t a t too ing o f A inu women a nd t h e w ea r ing o f e a r r ings b y A inu men w e re a l so p roh ib i ted b y t he Me i j i g overnmen t ( Hokka ido 1 989 ) . I n t he s ame y ea r , i tw a s p roh ib i ted t oc a r ry t h et r ad i t iona lJ apane se s wo rd , wh ich h ad b een a s ymbo l o f B ush i u nde r t he T okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t [ t h is p roposa l was made b y f ore ign r ep resen ta t ive si no rde rt or educe t h e d ange ro fa s sa s s ina t ion b y J apanese ' s amura i ' ( wa r r ior s o r v a ssa ls ) e x t reme n a t iona l i s t s ] . T he T okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t h ad r e fused t o y i e ld t o t h is f o re ign p ressu re b u t t he Me i j i g overnmen t d id i t ] ( D ick ins 1 894 , H okka ido 1 989 ) . F u r the rmo re , t h e p rac t i se o f b lacken ing t h e t e e th , g ene ra l a mong J apanese w omen a tt h a t t ime , w a s p roh ib i ted b y t h e Me i j ig ove rnmen t , a sw a s t h ed i s t inc t ive t r ad i t iona lh a i r s ty le o fJ apane se m en . I ti se v iden t t h a t i tw a s n o to n ly t h e A inu b u ta l so t h e J apane se w ho w e re f o rced t og i ve u pa spec t s o f t h e i r o wn t r ad i t iona l l i f es ty le a t t ha t t ime . T h is i sa l so a t ime w hen J apan s t a r ted t ou se t h e s o la rc a lenda r [ wh ich h ad b een a dop ted i n1 872 ] i n s tead o ft h el una rc a lenda r( Hokka ido 1 989 ) .

T he re a r e mo re c omp lex s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s t oi n te r re la te w i th t h e t h ree d i f f e ren tc oncep t s i nt e rm s o ft h e We s t , J apan , a nd t h e A inu i nt h e Me i j ip e r iod .T h is w a se xp re s sed a s : ...e a s tern s avagery a nd w es te rn c i v i l i sa t ion m e t i n t h is h u t , s avage ry g iv ing a nd c i v i l i sa t ion r e ce iv ing , t h e y e l low s k inned I t o t h e c onnec t ing l i nk b e tween t h e t wo , a nd t h e r ep re sen ta t ive o f ac i v i l i sa t ion t o w h ich o u r own i sb u ta n" i nf an to fd ays" ( B i rd 1 880 ) . I s abe l la B i rd , aB r i t ish woman e xp lo rer , e xp ressed t h is f e e l ing w hen s he w a s i na n A inu 's h u t i na n A inu v i l lage . S he w en t t o Hokka ido a ccompan ied o n ly b y o ne J apane se i n te rp re te r , I t o , i n 1 878 . T h i s w a s o n ly 1 0 y ea r s a f te rJ apan h ad o pened t h ec oun t ry t of o re igne r s .

T he re fo re , w ha tn eed s t ob e t a ken i n to a ccoun ti st h e r o le o f H okka ido d u r ing t h ee s tab l i shmen to f amode rn n a t ion s t a t e — as t ruc tu re c ha rac te r ised b y t he c en t ra l isa t ion o f a dm in is t ra t ive p owe r — i nJ apan . I ti sv e ry i mpor tan t t o u nde r s tand h ow p o l i t ica l d i scon t inu i ty a nd t h e r e s truc tu r ing p roce s s a t t h a t t ime h a s h ad a n e no rmous a f f ec t o n t h e h i s to ry o ft h e A inu . I no the rw o rd s , t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e J apane se a nd t h e A inu h ad a l ready b een e s tab l ished i na c e r ta in manne r b efore t he i mpac t o f t h e Wes tern modern i sa t ion o f J apan . T o f i nd o u t t he n a ture o f t h a t r e la t ionsh ip a nd t ou nde r s tand u pon w ha t t h a t r e la t ion sh ip w a s b a sed o n , i ti sn ecessa ry t o l ook f u r the r b ack , u s ing a l o nge r te rm h i s to r ica lf r amewo rk .

T he n o t ion o f Wes te rn c i v i l isa t ion a s s upe r io r t oJ apane se w a s c ommon ly a ccep ted a nd i ndeed i mp l ic i t i n t h e Me i j i g overnmen t 's d e term ina t ion t o a bso rb Wes tern ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd t e chno logy . I n t h is r ega rd , t h e a na logy o f t h e A inu v i s -a -v is t h eJ apane se a nd t h e Ame r ican I nd ian s v i s -a v i s t h eE u ropeans i sn o tp rec ise , s i nce We s te rn i nf luence h ad a f fe c ted t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t . T he f o l low ing e v idence a l so i nd ica tes t he i mpo r tance o f c ons ide r ing t h e p o l i t ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e We s ta nd J apan u nde r t h ep o l icy o f t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t . A cco rd ing t oU emu ra ( Uemu ra 1 990 ) , i tw a s s ugge s ted ( i n t h er epo r t sa nd o ff ic ia ll e t t e r s s ubm i t ted t ot h eK a i takush ib y C ap ron ) t h a tt h et r ad i t iona ll i f e s ty le o ft h eJ apane se n eeded t o b ec hanged i nt h ec a se o ft h o se w ho i mm ig ra ted t oH okka ido b ecau se J apanese w e tr i ce -c u l t iva t ion w a s n o ta pp rop r ia t e u nde r t h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ions p reva i l ing t h e re . C ap ron

1 -3 Hokka ido b efore t he Me i j i J apanese e cono m ic e xpans ion

e ra : E zo

u nder

H okka ido w a sc a l led E zo i s land b efo re t h e Me i j ie ra , a nd t h e p eop le w ho l i ved t h e re w e r e a l so c a l led t h e E zo . T hey w e r e t h e A inu . T ou nde r s tand t h es i tua t ion i nE zo l a nd , c ond i t ion s

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1 : H ow t h e i mage o ft h e A inu w a s c r ea ted

t h e c on t rac ted t r ad ing -pos t s ys tem , b ecause t h e c on t rac t b e tween s amura i a nd me rchan t s a l lowed t h e l a t te r t ot r ade w i th t h eE zo [ A inu ] a tt h et r ad ing p o s t s .

i nJ apan u nde r t h e T okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t i nt h e 1 7 th -18 th c en tu r ie sn eed t ob ee xp la ined . T he T okugawa S hoguna lg ove rnmen tw a si n s t i tu t ed i n1 603 , w hen I e ya su T okugawa b ecame s hogun a s t h e f i r s t g ene ra t ion o fT okugawa . T h is f e uda l s y s tem w a s c a l led t h e B aku H an s y s tem , wh ich c ons is ted o ft h eT okugawa s hogun ( Bakuf u )a so ve r lo rd a nd u nde rh im o ve r2 65 d a imyo ( ah ead f am i ly o fH an )w ho r u led e ach h an . T he t e rm Wan ' ( i tc an b e t r an s la ted a s ' doma in ' o r ' f i ef ) r e f e r s t ot h e a r ea t h a t e a ch d a imyo p osse ssed a nd r u led . T he re w e r e t wo c l a sses o f d a imyo :f uda id a imyo a nd t o zama d a imyo . T he f o rme r w e re t h o se w ho h ad d ec la red t h e i r a l leg iance t ot h e T okugawa b e fo r e t h ed ec i s ive b a t t le o fS ek igaha ra i n1 600 , a nd f ough t o n t h e T okugawa s i de i n t h is b a t t le ; t h e l a t te r w e re t ho se w ho d ec la red t h e i r a l leg iance t o t h e T okugawa a f te r t h e b a t t le ,a nd b ecame t h eo u te ro ri ndependen tl o rd s .

Among t h e se me rchan t s , t ho se w ho c ame f r om Om i ( now p re sen t ly i nS h iga -ken ) w e re e spec ia l ly p owe r fu l ; t h ey made s y s tema t ic i n road s i n to E zo i s land , w i th s pec ia l p e rm i s s ion f r om t h e Ma t sumae -Han . T he Om i me rchan t s e xpo r ted p roduc t s f r om E zo t oT suruga a nd O saka i n Honshu a nd N aga sak i i n K yushu ; a nd t h ey b rough t t o t h e Ma t sumae e ve ryday n ece s s i t ie s i n c lud ing r i ce . T h i s s ea r ou t e t h ey u sed a l ong t h eJ apan s ea c oa s t w as c a l led t h e B enza i t r ade r ou te , f r om t h en ame B en za i -s en , g iven t ot h e s h ip st h ey u sed . T he p o r t s o fF ukuyama ( t he p re sen t Ma t sumae ) , H akoda te , a nd E sa sh i i n E zo [ Hokka ido ] w e re p rospe rous a t t h a t t ime ( Yamakawa 1 983 ) . Om i me rchan t s i n t roduced n ew f i sh ing me thod s a nd s t a r ted s y s tema t ic f i sh ing u s ing t h e A inu a s l abour . Unde r t h e c on t rac t w i th t h e Ma t sumae , t h ey h ad t o l ook a f te r a nd p ro tec t t h e A inu w ho b e longed t o t h e i r B asho , p rov id ing t h em w i th f ood a nd p l ace s t oa ccommoda t e t h em ( Takaku ra 1 942 ) . T hey w e re p r ima r i ly c oncer ned w i th t h e p u r su i t o f p rof i t s ,h oweve r ,a nd c on sequen t ly t h eE zo [ A inu ] w e re u sed a sc heap l a bou ra nd w e re w o rked a lmo s tl i ke s l ave s . T he E zo [ A inu ] w e re c olec ted f r om v i l lages , a nd w e re f o rced t ol i ve n ea r t h e B asho ( i b id . ) . T he wo rk wa s mo s t ly i n tens ive f i sh ing . T he E zo [ A inu ] w e re r e s t ra ined f r om l e av ing d u r ing c e r ta in s ea sons , mos t ly t h e s umme r , a nd o n ly a l lowed t o r e turn t o t h e i r v i l lages w hen t h e s ea son w a s o ve r . T he d emand s made o ft h em a nd t h et r ea tmen tt h ey r e ce ived v a r ied , d epend ing u pon t h e B asho a nd t h e i nd iv idua l me rchan t s r unn ing t h em . I n t h is r e spec t , t h e A inu w e re s t rong ly i n vo lved i nJ apane se c omme rc ia l c ap i ta l i sm i nt h e 1 8 th -19 th c en tur ies b efo re t h e Me i j i e ra . I no the r wo rd s , A inu s oc ie ty w a s a l ready a f f ec ted a nd s oc ia l ly r ep roduced b y J apane se i nf luence ,a nd h ad b een t a ken i n to t h eJ apane se f r amewo rk .

T ax t ob e p a id t ot h e r u le r w a s b a sed o n t h e c rop -g row ing c apac i ty o fe ach d oma in . N o rma l ly t h i s w a sa s se s sed i nr i ce . S ince t h e u n i t o fa sse s smen t w a s t h e k oku , t h is w a s c a l led t h e ` k oku d aka ' s y s tem .R ice g a the r ed a st a xh ad b een t r ea ted a s af o rm o f c u r rency i n h i s tor ica l J apan s i nce t h e 7 t h c en tu ry AD . T he l a rges t d oma in u nde r t h e T okugawa S hoguna l g overnmen t w a s t h a t o f t h e Ma eda -Han i nK aga ( t he p re sen t I s h i l cawa -ken ) w i th 1 , 030 ,000 k oku ( 1k oku = a bou t 5b ushe ls o r 1 80 l i t res ) . T he l owe s t w a s t ha t o f t h e Ma t sumae -Han i nE zo ( t he p resen t H okka ido ) w i th 1 0 ,000 k oku i n1 719 ( Ka iho 1 989 ) . T he Ma t sumae f am i ly b ecame t h e Ma t sumae -Han among t ozama d a imyo w hen t h e Ma t sumae -f am i ly w a s r e cogn i sed a s i t s a u tho r i sed r u le r i n E zo b y t h e T okugawa s hogun i n 1 604 . T he Ma t sumae h ad d om ina t ed t h eJ apane se t e r r i to ry o fO sh ima p en in su la i n E zo s i nce 1 590 , a l though t h e i r a nce s to r s , t h e K ak izak i f am i ly , h ad l i ved t h e r es i nce a round t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD ( s ee F ig . 1 1 ) . T he Ma t sumae -Han , h oweve r , w a s au n ique a nd e xcep t iona l h an u nde r t h e T okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t i nt e rms o f t h e r u l ing s y s tem a nd t a xe s , b ecause i ti ss a id t h a t r i ce d id n o t g row i nt h e t e r r i to ry o f Ma t sumae u nde r t h e p reva i l ing c l ima t ic c ond i t ions . T r ibu te t o t h e S hogun f r om t h e Ma t sumae -Han t ook t h e f o rm n o t o f t h e p roduc t s o f t h e i r t e r r i tory , b u t o f ma r ine r e sou rces a nd e xo t ic i t em s w h ich w e r e p rocu r ed i nt r ade w i th t h eE zo [ A inu ] , i n c lud ing b ea r s k in s , w ings o fe ag le s , a nd s oo n .

T he E zo [ A inu ] w ho w e re emp loyed b y t h e B asho u nde rt h e Ma t suma e -Han l o s tt h e i rj obs w hen t h eB asho -U keo i s y s tem w a s b roken u p b y t h e K a i takush i o f t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t , a sd i d t h es amura iw ho h ad b een e mp loyed b ye ach h an .T he Me i j i g overnmen t i n s is ted t ha t b o th t h e r edundan t E zo [ A inu ] a nd t h e s amura i s hou ld b ecome f a rme r s , t oo pen u p H okka ido t oi n ten s ive a nd u l t ima te ly mechan i sed a g r icu l tu re l i ke t ha t s een i n mos t p a r t s o f Hokka ido t oday . Now , H okka ido i sv e ry s im i la r t o E ng land , t h e n o r th o f U n i ted S ta te s a nd t h e s ou th o f C anada , w i th v i ews o f e x tens ive g r e en f i e ld s ,p o ta to f i e ld sa nd c or nf i e ld s , a nd many c ow sa nd s heep .

T he Ma t sumae -Han w a sa l so u n ique i nt h e me thod o fg i v ing s t ip end s t ot h e s amura i ( va ssa ls ) w ho b e longed t oi t .S ix ty u pp e r s amura i r ece ived t h e r i gh t t oe s tab l ish a nd c on t ro l t r ad ing p o s t s( i . e .a k ina iba )i nE zo i s land i n s tead o fr e ce iv ing as t ipend f r om t h e Ma t suma ef am i ly .

B ecause o f t h e i mpac t o f Wes tern -modern i sa t ion i nJ apan , t h e A inu i nH okka ido w e re i n teg ra ted i n to J apan p ol i t ica l ly w i thou t t he ir i n ten t ion . Howeve r , t hey w e re a l ready i n teg ra ted i n to J apan e conom ica l ly b efo re t h e Me i j i p e r iod w he the r t h ey l i ked i to r n o t . U nde r t h er e s t ruc tu r ing p roc es s f r om t h e Ma t sumae -Han t o t he Ka i takush i , t h e re w a s c ompe t i t ion among f a c t ions w h ich , d e s i rous o f i n c rea s ing t h e i r p o l i t ica l p owe r , c ons ide red f o rm ing r e la t ions w i th m e rchan t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f o rme r Ma t sumae -Han a nd i t s e conom ic s ys tem ( Ma ruyama 1 973 ) . Wha t w a s u nfo r tuna te f o r t h e A inu a nd f o r A inu s t ud ies w a s t h a t t h e p eop le w ho h ad w o rked c l ose ly w i th t h e A inu u nde r t h e T okugawa

A k ina iba ( l a te rc a l led b asho ) w e re p l ace s w he re t h ey t r aded m a r ine r e sou rces s uch a ss a lmon , t r ou t ,a ba lone , t a ng le w eed a nd o t he r g ood s w i th t h e E zo [ t he A inu ] . P ro f i t f r om t r ade b ecame t h e i rs t ipend . H oweve rt h e se s amura iw e re n o tg ood a t mak ing a p rof i t . I t w a s n o t l ong b efo re me rchan t s u nd e r took t h i s e ve ryday o pe ra t ion b y p ay ing a n a g reed s um t ot h es amura ii nr e tu rn f o rc on t ro lo ve rt h ea k ina iba . A f t e r 1 741 , mos t o f t h e t r ad ing p os t s w e re h e ld b y m e r chan t s .T h i s s ys tem i sc a l led t h eB a sho -U keo is y s tem , o r

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1:How t h e i mage o ft h e A inu w as c r ea t ed

S hoguna l g overnmen tw e re o us ted f r om t h e i rp o s i t ions . F o r e xamp le ,T ake sh i ro Ma t suu ra ,w ho w a so ne o ft h ei n spec to r s o fE zo i s land a nd w a s t h ep e r son w ho g ave E zo t h e n ame o f H okk a ido i n1 869 ,t r ave l led w ide ly a round t h ei s land i no rde r t o make i n spec t ions a nd a l so w ro te much a bou t E zo , n o t o n ly c oncern ing t h e g eog raphy b u ta l so a bou tt h e A inu . H is w r i t ings i n c lude t r ave l d i a r ie s a nd a g rea t e t hnograph ica l s t udy o ft h e A inu d ur ing t h e 1 8 th c en tury , s ome o fw h ich I c i te i n t h is b ook . T hese w o rk s d eserve a t ho rough r e e va lua t ion , h av ing b een e n t i re ly i gno red b y t h en ew o ff ice r s o ft h e Me i j i g ove rnmen ta nd i n suff ic ien t ly a pp rec ia ted e ven i n mo re r e cen tA inu s t ud ie s .

t h e l o ca l A inu , d i s sen ted f r om t h ej udgemen ti nC ounc i la nd r e que s ted t h e E ng l ish M in is te r t op un i sh t h e c r ime a nd t o p ay c ompen sa t ion , a nd a l so a sked f o r t h e r e tu rn t ot h e A inu o fa l l t h e s ku l l s t ot h e A inu w h ich h ad a l ready b een s en t t o B r i ta in . T he E ng l i sh M in is t e ra g reed t ot h i sr e ques ta nd p a id c ompen sa t ion o f at h ousand s i lve r c o ins t o5 4 A inu ( Ko ida 1 987 , D ick in s 1 894 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h eb i og raphy o fS i rH a r ry P a rke s ,w ho w a st h e E ng l i sh M in i s te r i n J apan a t t ha t t ime , i tw a s men t ioned t h a t : T owa rd s t h e c l o se o f 1 865 s eve ra l B r i t ish s ub jec t s r e s iden ta tH akoda t ew e re a ccused b y t h e Gove rno ro f d esec ra t ing A inu g r ave s f o r t h e p u rpo se o fp rocu r ing s ku l l s — d oub t le s s t os a t isfy t h e s c ien t if ic c r av ings o fs ome E u ropean c r an io log i s t . T hey w e r et r ied b e fo re t h e C on su l C ap ta in Howa rd V yse , a nd a cqu i t ted o n t h e g round t h e c ha rge w a s n o tp roven . T he a s se s so r s , w ho u nde r t h e o rde r i n C onsu l r egu la t ing c r im ina l j u s t ice i nJ apan s a t w i th t h e C on su l , d i s sen ted f r om t h e j udgemen t , a nd t h e c a se w a s r e f e r red t o t h e M in i s te r a s C onsu l -Gene ra l , w ho f ound t h e a ccu sed g u i l ty — a st h ey u ndoub ted ly w e re — a nd s en tenced t h em t o ay ea r 's i mpr isonmen t i n t h e Hong K ong g ao l . H e a l so o rde red a t housand s i lve r i c h ibuns , w o r th s ome th ing o ve r o ne s h i l l ing e ach b u t i n p u rcha s ing v a lue v e ry much mo re , t ob e d i s t r ibu ted a mong t h ea gg r ieved A inu , e ach o fw hom r e ce ived a n e qu iva len ti nc o in s o fs ome t wen ty -seven s h i l l ing s , a f o r tune t o t h e p oo r A inu , w h ich t h ey d oub t less t h ough tr a the re a s i ly o b ta ined ( D ick in s 1 894 : 6 7 ) .

1 -4 T he i mage o f t he A inu i n Europe ` A inu ' a s a n e t hn ic n ame i sf a i r ly w e l l k nown i nE u rope . A cco rd ing t oA dam i ( Adam i 1 991) , 122 p ieces o fl i t e ra tu r e i n E u ropean l a nguages w e re w r i t ten o n t h e A inu b e tween 1 565 a nd 1 988 . T hese w e re w r i t ten i n 1 3 l a nguages : E ng l i sh , G e rman , R uss ian , F rench , P o l ish , S pan i sh , I t a l ian , Du tch , H unga r ian , L a t in , Swed ish , D an i sh , a nd P or tugue se . I ti sa ppa ren tf r om t h em t h a tt h e t e rm ` A inu ' w a si n t roduced t oE u rope a se a r ly a s 1 819 i na n a r t ic le w r i t ten i nG e rman b y J ohann S evern V a te r , e n t i t led " A ino s a uch A inu" ( i b id . ) . I n i t ia l ly , t h et e rm w a si n t roduced a s ` A . ino ' . I n many t i t le so f a r t ic les i nA dam i f r om t h i s e a r ly p e r iod t h e n ame i sw r i t ten a s ` A ino ' . T he f i r s t E uropean who made a s t udy o f t h e A inu w a s P h i l ipp F ranz v on S iebo ld , w ho c ame t oJ apan i n1 823 a sa med ica ld oc to rw i th D u tch t r ade r sa nd w a sa l lowed t os t ay o n t h e i s land o fD e j ima i n Naga sak i ,J apan , u nde rt h e S hoguna l g over nmen t( he s t ayed i nJ apan b e tween 1 823 a nd 1 829 , a nd r e -en te red a ga in b e tween 1 859 a nd 1 862 ) . H e u sed t h e t e rm A inu i n h i s a r t ic le ` Mc eu r s e t u sages d es A ino s ' i n t h e " Journa l A s ia t ic" ( S iebo ld 1 828 i n Adam i 1 991) . S iebo ld w a s t h e f i r s tt os ugge s tt h a tt h e A inu w e re p eop le w ho w e re t h e a bo r ig ina li nhab i tan t so fJ apan , a n i d ea m en t ioned i nh i s f amous b ook " N ippon" ( S iebo ld 1 854 ) . U nfo r tuna te ly , h e w a sd epo r ted f o ra t temp t ing t os mugg le map so fJ apan o u to f t h e c oun t ry , b u t h e managed t ot a ke many J apane se b ook s b ack t o E urope , i n c lud ing a r e co rd o f t h e A inu l a nguage ( Te rada 1 981 ) .T h i sb ook l a t e rb ecame as ou rce f o rs t ud ie so f t h e A inu , a nd e spec ia l ly t h e A inu l a nguage , s uch a s " Übe r d en B au d e rA ino -Sp rache" b y A ugus t P f izma ie r , p ub l i shed i n1 851 ( K inda ich i 1 960 ) . 1 -4 -1

S to len

D ick ins q uo te s al e t te r f r om P a rke s t o Mr Winche s te r , C on su la tS hangha i , i nw h ich P a rke s h imse l fn o ted t h a t : V yse h a sm ad e ag r ea tb o tch o f ad i sg rac efu lc a se t h a t h a s o ccu r red a tH akoda te , i nw h ich t h ree E ng l i shmen . . have g one i n to t h ec oun t ry a nd r i f led A inu t omb so f s ku l l a nd s ke le ton s . V yse t r ied t h em en , b u th e s i ta ted e i the rt oc omm i to ra cqu i t , a nd t h er e f e r red t h ec a se t o m e f o r d ec is ion . A f te rwa rds , w hen a l l d oub t w a s c l ea red u pb y t h ec on f es s ion o ft h ep r i sone r s ,h ea ga in a pp l ied t om et os en t enc e t h e men ( i b id . 1 894 :67 ) . Ip re sume t h a t t h e " Eu ropean c ran io log i s t" mus t h ave b een B r i t i sh , o the rw i se P a rke s , a s t h e B r i t i sh M in i s te r i nJ apan , w ou ld n o t h ave p a id t h e 1 000 s i lve r c o in s , e ven t hough t h e c r im ina l s w e re B r i t i sh s ub jec t s . A cco rd ing t ot h e J apane se d ocumen t ( Hokka ido 1 989 ) , t he t h ree B r i t ish men w e re m embe r so ft h eC onsu la te ( i nd iv idua l n ames a r eg iven ) . T h i s i n c id en th app ened d u r ing t h ep e r iod w hen P a rke sw a ss t ay ing a tH akoda te b e tween S ep tembe r a nd Novembe r 1 865 . T he f i r s tc a se o ft h e f th appened a t Mor iv i l lage i nS ep tembe ra nd t h es e cond c a se i nO to sh ibe v i l lage i nO c tobe r( Ko ida 1 987 ) . I si tj u s tc o inc idence t h a tb o th c a se s h app ened w h i le P a rke s w a sa tH akoda t e?

S ku l ls

E a r ly E u ropean i n te res t i n t h e A inu i sc onf i rmed b y a n a s ton ish ing i n c iden t i n w h ich A inu s ku l ls w e re s t o len , b y t h ree E ng l ishmen , f r om A inu c eme ter ies i n t h e v i l lage s o f Mor i a nd O tosh ibe , n ea r H akoda te , i n 1 865 ( Hokka ido 1 989 ) . T h i s i n c iden t i si mpo r tan tn o to n ly f r om t h e p o l i t ica l p o in to fv i ew b u t a l so f r om t h e r a c ia l p o in to fv i ew t h a t t h e s ku l ls l e dt ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e A inu a s aw h i te r a ce i n E u rope .

S i rH a r ry P a rke sw a s af e l low o ft h eE thno log ica l S oc ie ty o f L ondon , t o w h ich h e h ad b een e l ec ted i n 1 862 . I n t h e T ransac t ions o ft h e E thno log ica l S oc ie ty o fL ondon , v o l . V I ( 1868 ) , t h e r e i sa n a r t ic le e n t i t led ' Desc r ip t ion o f a n A ino S ku l l ' b y G eo rge B usk , w ho w a s a l so a f e l low o f t h e s oc ie ty , h av ing b een e l ec ted i n 1 863 , a nd w ho w a s V ice P res iden t i n 1 868 . G eo rge B usk c ou ld h ave b een t h e

H akoda t e w a s o pened t of o re igne r s i n 1 859 a nd w a s o ne o f t h ree J apanese p o r t s wh ich h ad a l ready b een o pened t o f o re igne r s b efo re 1 868 . T he H akoda te -Bugyo ( t he o f f ic ia l d i rec t ly i n c ha rge o f E zo i s land u nde r t h e T okugawa S hoguna l g overnmen t ) w hom t h e i n c iden t w a s r epo r ted b y

4

1:How t h e i mage o ft h e A inu w a s c r ea ted

1 5 T he i mage o f t he A inu i n J apan

" Eu ropean c r an io log is t " w ho r ece ived t h e s t o len A inu s ku l l s f r om J apan a nd w ro te t h is a r t ic le . I fs o , P a rkes a nd B u sk mu s th ave k nown e ach o t he r a tt h a t t ime . Iwonde rw he the r o rn o tP a rke sk new o ft h ep lan t oa cqu i re t h es ku l l s .

1 5 -1 R ac ia l d ebate T o ag r ea t e x ten t t h e s cho la r s w ho i n i t ia ted A inu s t ud ie s i n J apan w e re f o r e igne r s w ho h ad b een i nv i ted b y t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t t o i n t roduce Wes te rn t hough t a nd s c ien t if ic t e chno logy t o t h e J apane se . T h i s c ons t i tu te s y e t a no the r a spec to ft h e We s te rn -mode rn i sa t ion o fJ apan a nd t h er o le i n i to ff o re ign i nf luence . T hu s , t h e se f o re ign s cho la r s n o to n ly i n i t ia ted A inu s t ud ie s b u t a l so made a g rea t c on tr ibu t ion t o a n th ropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l t hough t i n g enera l i n J apan . O ne o f t h em w a s E dwa rd Mor se ( 1838 -1925 ) , w ho a r r ived i n J apan i n 1 877 . H e i s r emembe red f o r t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e Omo r i s he l l m idden , t h e f i r s t s c ien t if ic e xcava t ion t o t a ke p lace i n J apan . T h is i s r ega rded a s r e p re sen t ing t h eb eg inn ing o fa r chaeo logy i nJ apan . A no the r f o re ign p i onee r w a s N e i l Go rdon Munro , w ho a r r ived i n J apan i n1 893 . H e w a s n o ta n i nv i ted s cho la r , b u t amed ica l d oc to rw ho w o rked a tt h eg ene ra lh o sp i ta li nY okohama . H e i n t roduced t h e t e rm ' Pa laeo l i th ic ' t oJ apane se a r chaeo logy . L a te r h e d ed ica ted h i s l i f e t o t h e s t udy o f t he A inu a nd w o rked a s am ed ica ld oc to ra mong t h e A inu u n t i lh i sd ea th i n N ibu tan i ,H okka ido ( Te rada 1 981) .

B u sk 's a r t ic le w a s r ead i n Ma rch 1 867 a nd , a cco rd ing t oa r epo r tf r om t h e H akoda t e -Bugyo t ot h eT okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t i n Apr i l 1 867 , t h ree b oxes o f A inu s ku l l s a nd b one s w h ich h ad a l ready b een s en t t o B r i ta in w e re b e ing r e tu rned ; t h ey w e re r e ce ived f r om G owe r o f t h e C ounc i l . T hu st h i s ma t te rw a sr e so lved ( Hokka ido 1 889 ) . A s Imen t ioned e a r l ie r , A inu s t ud ie s a nd t h e A inu c u l tu r e c anno tb e f u l ly u nde r s tood w i thou t t h ep o l i t ica l f r amewo rk . I n t h i s c a se , i ti sn o tewo r thy t ha t t h e H akoda te -Bugyo , t h e S hogun 's r ep resen ta t ive , a c ted o n b eha lf o f t h e A inu a nd d ef ended t h e i r i n tere s t s a ga ins t t h e B r i t ish . I ti sd oub tfu l w he the r t h e s ame a c t ion w ou ld h ave b een t a ken u nde r t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t . T he r e spec t ive p o l ic ie s o ft h e H akoda te B ugyo ( a no f f ic ia l o ft h e T okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t ) , t h e Ma t suma e -Han ( ad oma in w i th in t h eB aku -Han s y s t em ) , a nd t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t a f te r 1 868 w e re e ach t o ta l ly d i f f e ren t a s r ega rds t h e A inu . I ti s , t h e refo re , i mpo r tan t t o u nde r s tand a nd d i f fe ren t ia te t h e p o l ic ie s o f e ach o f t h e se J apane se a u tho r i t ie s .

A n th ropo log ica l a nd a r cha eo log ica l s t ud ie s w e re n o tc l ea r ly d i f f e r en t ia ted a tt h e o u t se t , a nd , i n deed , i tw a s a s ar e su l to f d eba t e o n t h e A inu t h a t ac l ea r d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h em g r adua l ly c ame t ob e d rawn . I n o the r wo rd s , t he s t udy o f a r chaeo logy , a n th ropo logy , a nd e thno logy i n J apan w a s d eve loped ma in ly t h rough s t ud ie s o ft h e A inu i n Hokka ido . A inu s t ud ies p layed s o i mpor tan t ar o le w i th in t h e d eve lopmen to fJ apane se a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy t h a t t h ey c on s t i tu te as i gn if ican t p a r t i nt h e h i s to ry o fJ apane se a r cha eo log ica l t h ough t .

G eo rge B usk 's a r t ic le , ' De sc r ip t ion o f a n A ino S ku l l ' , i s v e ry s i gn if ican t , b ecause i n i th e s ugges ted t h a t , u pon e xam ina t ion , t h e s ku l l a ppea red t ob e s im i la r t oE u ropean s ku l l s ( Bu sk 1 868 :109 ) . R .N . J ohn m en t ioned t h is i n1 873 , s ay ing : " t hey r e semb le t h e E u ropean r ace , n o t o n ly i nt h e i r f e a tu re sa nd g ene ra lc on tou r , b u ti nt h e i re xp res s ion" a nd s o o n ( J ohn 1 873 :248 ) . L a te r , i n1 909 , A lf red C ou r t Haddon s t a ted i nh i s b ook " The R ace o f Man" ( Haddon 1 909 , 1 929 ) t h a t t he A inu w e re a w h i te r ace : " an a nc ien t mesocepha l ic g roup o f w h i te c ymo t r ich i" ( Haddon 1 929 :95 ) . H i ss t udy w a st h en t r ans la ted i n to F rench b y A . V an G ennep a s " Les R aces H uma ine s" ( 1927 ) . AF rench a n th ropo log is t , G eo rge Mon tandon , a l so r epea ted H addon 's v i ew ( Mon tandon 1 931) , a nd t h e n o t ion t h a tt h eA inu w e re aw h i t er a ce s p read a l o ve rE u rope .

A tt h eh ea r to ft h ed i scus s ion w a s ad eba te a bou tw he the rt h e A inu r e p re sen t ed t h ed e scendan t so ft h ea bo r ig ina li n hab i tan t s o ft h eJ apane se a r ch ipe lago o rn o t . T he re w e re t wo d i f f e ren t v i ew s , o ne r e ga rd ing t h e A inu a s a bo r ig ina l a nd t h e o the r a r gu ing t h a tt h ey w e re n o t . H e in r ich v on S iebo ld , as on o f P h i l ipp F ranz v on S iebo ld , a r r ived i nJ apan i n1 871 a nd c a r r ied o u tr e sea rch i no rde r t o s uppo r t h i s f a the r 's i d ea t h a t t h e A inu w e re t h e a bo r ig ina l n a t ive s o fJ apan . I n 1 879 h e s ugge s ted t ha t t h e re w e re t wo r a c ia l t ypes i n J apan a nd t ha t t h is w a s r ef lec ted i n t wo d i f f e r en tt y pe so fa r chaeo log ica ls i te , o ne o ft h em b e ing A inu ( S iebo ld 1 879 , T e rada 1 981) . A n a l ter na t ive v i ew wa s t h a t t h e A inu w e re n o t a bo r ig ina l i nJ apan , a nd t h a t a n e a r l ie r r a ce , " p r e -A inu p eop le" , h ad i n hab i ted J apan b efo re t h em . T h is i dea o r ig ina ted w i th E dwa rd Morse . Bo th i n t e rp re ta t ion s , h oweve r , s ugge s ted t ha t t h e a nce s to r s o ft h e mode rn J apanese w e re n o t r e la ted t o t h e a bo r ig ina l i n hab i tan t so fJ apan .

T he A inu t h us c ame t ob er ega rded i nE u rope a s aC auca so id p eop le .T h is i d ea w a s man ipu la ted w hen G e rmany a nd J apan b ecame a l l ies i n 1 936 . I tw a s a rgued t h a t t h e A inu w e re t h e f o re fa t he r so ft h eJ apane se a nd , s i nce t h ey w e re aC auca so id p eop le , t h eJ apanese t o o w e re o r ig ina l ly aC auca so id p eop le l i ke t h e G e rman ic r ace s . T he refo re , t h e t wo s hou ld f o rm a n a l l iance . T h is i s a l ud icrous i d ea , b u t t he F rench a n th ropo log is tG eo rge Mon tandon w a se xecu ted a tt h ee nd o f Wo r ld Wa r Ib ecau se h eh ad s i ded w i th t h eN az i s( Obaya sh i , p e r sona lc omm . ) . I ti s 1 24 y ea r s s i nce G eorge B usk 's s i gn if ican t p ape r . H oweve r , i ts eems t ha t an o t ion o ft h i sk ind s t i l l s u rv ive s i n E u rope . F o r e xamp le , t h e i s sue o f t he F rench j ourna l A rchaeo log ia p ub l ished i n May 1 992 h ad ac ove rp age t h a t r e ad " Le p eup lemen tp a ru ne r a ce b l anche i l ya 1 3000 a n s" a nd " Le sA inou sd uJ apon" ( Le ro i -Gou rhan , A . 1 992 :54 ) .

1 -5 -2 T he Koro -pok -kur d eba te ( A inu v s . Koro -pok -kur ) T he r a c ia l d eba te b roke o u t a mong J apanese s cho la r s s oon a f t e r t h e A n th ropo log ica l S oc ie ty o fT okyo w a s e s tab l i shed i n1 884 . B y t h i s t ime t h e d eba te w a s f i rm ly g rounded u pon t h e e v idence o fd a ta f r om H okka ido . Dwe l l ing p i t s d ug i n to

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1:How t h e i mage o ft he A inu was c r ea ted

t h e g round s u r face w e re f ound n ea r S appo ro i nH okka ido . Who we re t h e o ccup ie r s o f t h ese dwe l l ing p i t s? We r e t h e A inu t he a bo r ig ina l i nhab i tan t s o fJ apan o r n o t? A s im i l ar t ype o f d we l l ing p i t h ad a l ready b een f ound o n t h e ma in i s land o fJ apan . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e J apane se a nd t h eA inu n eed ed c l a r if ica t ion .

D e sp i te b e ing av e ry l og ica l p e r son a nd af o rm idab le s cho la r w ho a lway s d efea ted h i s o pponen t s , T subo i b ecame i n c rea s ing ly i s o la ted , a nd t h e g rea t d eba te e f f ec t ive ly e nded w i th h i s s udden d ea th i n1 913 . A f te rh i sd ea th , t h ec onsensu s v i ew t h a tt h eA inu w e re a bo r ig ina l t oJ apan p r eva i led ( Te rada 1 981) . I t i s i n teres t ing t o n o te t ha t t h e o n ly q ues t ion c on s ide red a tt h a t t ime w a s w he the r t h e a bo r ig ine s o fJ apan w e re t h e A inu o rt h e K o ro -po rk -ku r . No t h ough t w a s g iven t ot h e n o t ion t h a t t h e a bo r ig ina l i nhab i tan t s o fJ apan mus t i n c lude t h ea nce s to r so ft h ep r esen td ay J apane se ,w ho a r en o t A inu .

S hozaburo Wa ta se s ugge s ted i n 1 886 t h a t t h e p eop le w ho h ad l i ved i nd we l l ing p i t s w e re p eop le c a l led t h e ` Ko ro -pok k u r ' , who h ad i n hab i ted H okka ido b efo re t h e A inu (Wa ta se 1 886 ) . ` Ko ro -pok -ku r ' i sa nA inu w o rd m ean ing p eop le w ho l i ve u nde rb u t te rb u r s ( Pe tas i te s -Japon icus ) , a nd s ma l l l i ke a d wa r f . T hey a r e men t ioned i nt h eA inu o ra lt r ad i t ion . H e reby , a n i n te rp re ta t ion o ft he A inu o ra l t r ad i t ion b ecame e n tang led w i th t he d eba te a bou tr ac ia lo r ig in s .

H oweve r , w ha t w a s mo s t s i gn if ican t a bou t t h e d eba te w a s t h a t i th igh l igh ted t he d i ff icu l t ie s o f i n te rp re ta t ion t ha t a r chaeo logy i so f ten ap rey t o when a n a t temp t i s made t o c o rre la te a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l w i th l i ngu is t ic a nd r ac ia l e v idence . T h i s d eba te , h av ing o ccur red a se a r ly a s t h e 1 9 th c en tury , l e d t oJ apane se a r chaeo logy f ocus ing o n c o l lec t ing d a ta a nd e s tab l i sh ing t h e c h rono logy o f ag iven ma te r ia l c u l tu re f i r s ta nd n o t a t temp t ing t op lace much e mpha s is o n r a c ia l i n te rp re ta t ion , o r t os pecu la t ive i n te rp re ta t ion i n t h e a b sence o fs u f f ic ien td a ta . I no the r wo rd s , s ome s cho la r sh ad r e a l ised t h a tt h ed eba te w a sb a sed o n s ol i t t le d a ta t h a ti tw as d i f f icu l tt od i scu ss i tmean ingfu l ly . T h i s l e d t ot h es epa ra t ion o f a r chaeo logy f r om a n th ropo logy i n J apan i n 1 895 . T he A r cha eo log ica lS oc ie ty w a sf ounded i n1 896 i no rde rt of ocu s o n c o l lec t ing d a ta a nd e s tab l ish ing t h e c h rono logy o f t h e m a t e r ia lc u l tu re . Ak now ledge o fw ha tJ apanese a r chaeo logy h ad l e a rned t h rough t h e K o ro -pok -ku r -deba te may make i t e a s ie r t ou nde r s tand t h e c ha rac te r a nd t r ad i t ion o fJ apanese a r cha eo logy d own t ot h ep r esen t .

A cco rd ing t ot h eA inu o ra lt r ad i t ion ,t h e re w e re p eop le c a l led K o ro -pok -ku rb e fo re t h e A inu c ame , l i v ing w he r e t h e A inu a r e n ow . T hey w e re v e ry s ma l l a nd l i ved i nd we l l ing p i t s . T hey u sed s t one t oo ls a nd p o t tery w h ich t h e A inu d o n o t u se . T he re w a st r ade b e twe en t h em a nd t h eA inu ,b u tt h ey d i d n o t l i ke t ob e s e en , s o t h ey c ame i nt h e e ven ing a nd s howed t h e i rg ood st h rough a n e n t rance o rw indow b efo r ee xchanges t ook p lace . O ne d ay s ome y oung A inu m en d ec ided t of i nd o u t wha t t h e K o ro -pok -ku r w e re l i ke a nd t h ey c augh t t h e h and o fo ne o ft h em a s i ta ppea red a t aw indow t oe xchange g ood s f o r t r ade . T he Ko ro -pok -ku rt u rned o u t t ob e ay oung w oman who w a s s ma l l a nd t a t tooed a round h e r mou th a nd h and s . S he c r ied s o i nce ssan t ly t h a t t h e y oung A inu m en l e t h e rg o . S he w en tb ack t oh e rv i l lage a nd t o ld h e rp eop le h ow t h e A inu h ad i n su l ted h e r . H e rp eop le b ecame a ng ry a nd l e f t t h e i rv i l lage t og oe l sewhe re ( Te rada 1 981 ) .

H oweve r , t h i s c ha rac te r is t ic o f J apane se a r chaeo logy w a s c r i t ic ised i n 1 975 w hen t he a nnua l mee t ing o f t he A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty w a s h e ld a t S apporo , H okka ido , b ecau se , d e sp i te t h e s e t t ing , t h e re w a s n o th ing o n t h ea genda r e la t ing t ot h e A inu c u l tu re ( Fu j imo to 1 983 ) . A l though t h e re w a s s t i l l ab ig g ap b e tween t h e a rchaeo log ica l d a ta a nd a r a c ia li n te rp re ta t ion , s ome o ft h ea r chaeo log i s t si nH okka ido , s uch a s Yo sh izak i ( Asa i e ta l . 1 972 ) , h ad a v i s ion o f a n i n te rp re ta t ion o f A inu c u l ture a nd S a t sumon c u l tu re b a sed o nt h ea r cha eo log ica ld a ta a va i lab le a tt h a tt ime .

T he i dea t h e refo re g a ined c u r rency t h a t t h e d we l l ing p i t s i n H okka ido h ad b een o ccup ied b y t h e K o ro -pok -ku r a nd t h a t t h es t one t o o l sa nd p o t tery h ad b e en made a nd u sed b y t h em . T he t a t too so ft h eA inu w omen w e re a l so c on s ide r ed t ob ea n i m i ta t ion o ft h e Ko ro -pok -ku rc u s tom . Ad eba te a bou t w he the r t h e o ccupan t s o ft h e d we l l ing p i t s w e re t he A inu o r Ko ro -pok -ku r b egan b e tween S hogo ro T subo i a nd M i t su ta ro S h ira i , b o th f ounde rs o f t h e An th ropo log ica l S oc ie ty o f T okyo . T subo i s uppo r ted t h e i d ea t ha ti ti sp o s s ib le t oc on s ide rt h a tt h ed we l l ing p i t s w e r e o ccup ied b y t h e Koro -pok -ku r b efo r e t h e c om ing o f t h e A inu , whe rea sS h i ra iw a sa ga in s tt h ei d ea . H ec on s ide r ed t h a t t h e A inu o ra l t r ad i t ion l a cked c r ed ib i l i ty a nd h e ld t h a t t h e A inu mus tb ea bo r ig ine s .

T hus , t h is b ook i s sue s ac ha l lenge t oJ apane se a r chaeo logy t o b ecome much w ide r i n i t s i n te rp re ta t ions o f t he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , w h ich r a ise s p rob lem s c ommon t o w o r ld a r cha eo logy . I ta im s t oc on t r ibu t e t oa n u nde r s tand ing o ft h ee t hnoh i s to r ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eA inu c u l tu re f r om a na r cha eo log ica lp o in to fv i ew .

L a ter , t h e i d ea t ha t t he K o ro -pok -ku r w e r e a n i mag ina ry p eop le w as s uppor ted b y Y osh ik iyo Kogane i , a nd h e c r i t ic ised T subo io nt h eb a s i so fp hy s ica la n th ropo log ica la nd a r chaeo log ica ld a ta ( Kogane i 1 904 ) .

F ur thermo re , a l though o u r u nde rs tand ing o f A inu c u l ture t o day i s much mo re a dvanced t han i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry a nd t h e b eg inn ing o f t he 2 0 th , many q ues t ions r ema in u nan swe red i nt h ed eba t e a bou tw ha te xac t ly t h e A inu e n t i ty i s .

A s t he d eba te c on t inued , t h e i d ea t h a t t h e A inu w e r e a bo r ig ina l c ame t ob e a ccep ted b y mo s t r e sea rche r s o f t h e p e r iod . P ar t icu la r ly i nf luen t ia l i ns way ing o p in ion w a s t h e e v idence s ugges ted b y R yuzo T o ni , o ne o f T subo i 's s t uden ts . A s ar e su l t o f f i e ld w o rk o n t h e K u r i l I s lands ( Ch ish ima ) , T o ni r epo r ted t h a t t h e A inu h ad l i ved i n d we l l ing p i t sa nd p roduced p o t te ry u n t i lr e cen t ly . Mo r eove r , h ea rgued t h a tt h e Ko ro -pok -ku ro ra lt r ad i t ion d i dn o te x i s ti n t h a tr eg ion .

1 -6 . Confu s ion i n a cade m ic s tud ies o f t he A inu I th a sb een s a id t h a t I tb ecome s i n c rea s ing ly c l ea r t ha t t h e c o r re la t ion o f a rcha eo log ica l a nd l i ngu is t ic e v idence w i th t ha t p rov ided b y p hys ica l a nthropo logy a nd t he e nv i ronmen ta l s c iences i st h e o n ly p a th l e ad ing t o

6

1:H ow t h e i mage o ft h e A inu w a s c r ea ted

l a nguage a nd t h e C e l t ic l a nguage i nr e spec to fp la ce n ame s : p e tsu ' i n t h e A inu l a nguage a nd ` p er th ' o r ' f i r th ' i n t h e G a e l ic l a nguage a r e p hone t ica l ly s im i la r . Mo reove r , t h e m ean ing o f t h e se w o rd s , b o th i n t h e A inu a nd t h e G ae l ic , i n d ica te t h e s ame g eo log ica l l o ca t ion o ft h e mou th o f ar i ve r ( Na i to 1 992 ) . I ft h e r ange o f t h e A inu i sd ef ined b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e p lace n ame p e tsu , i tw ou ld s t i l l b e u n rea sonab le t oi n c lude I r e land a nd S co t land .

r e l iab le r econs truc t ion s o f t h e c u l tu re a nd e t hn ic p roce s se so ft h ep a s t . H oweve r , t h em e re ly m echan ica l c o r re la t ion o f o pe ra t iona l a nd c oncep tua l e n t i t ies d eve loped i n e ach o f t hese d isc ip l ines i s me thodo log ica l ly u naccep tab le ( Do lukhanov 1 989 :267 ) .

1 -6 -1

P hys ica l

L ingu i s t s s ay t h a t al a nguage e x i s t s b ecau se o ft h e e x i s tenc e o f s peake rs . Howeve r , t he l anguage i t se lf d oes n o t n e ce s sa r i ly r e la te d i rec t ly t ot h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re o f ap eop le o rt h er a ce t ow h ich t h ey b e long ( A sa i 1 979 ) .

An thropo logy

T he p resen t i n terp re ta t ion o f t h e A inu i n p hys ica l a n th ropo logy i st h a t t h ey b e long t ot h e Mongo lo id f am i ly . T h i s a ff i l ia t ion i si nd ica ted b y g ene t ic f a c to r s , i np a r t icu la r t h e s t udy o fp ro te in a nd a ne nzyme t y pe i nt h eb l ood a nd a l so b yt h eb l ood t ype ( Han iwa ra 1 993 ) .

1 -6 -3 E thno log ica l d ebate O u r i mage o f t h e A inu i sc ond i t ioned b y t h e f a c t t ha t i n mo s t m useum s A inu a r t ifac t s a r e e xh ib i t ed among t h o se o f n o r the rn p eop le s l i ke t h e O roqens a nd t h e G i lyak s . T h i s i mage i s ac onsequence o ft h e s t udy o f t h e A inu e t hno logy , a nd r ef lec t s t h e f a c tt h a t t h e i r ma te r ia l c u l tu re , l i fe s ty le , a nd c u s tom s a r e v e ry s im i la r t ot h o se o fn o r the rn p eop le s . T he A inu a r ec ons ide red t ob e an o r thern p eop le n o to n ly b ecau se o f t h e i r ma te r ia l c u l tu re b u t a l so b ecause o f t h e i r men ta l c u l tu re ; f o r e xamp le , an o tab le A inu c us tom i st h e h o ld ing o fb e a rf e a s t s , e spe c ia l ly b ea r f e a s t s w h ich i nvo lve r a i s ing a c ub . H un t ing a nd f i sh ing a r e c ommon ly d escr ibed a s c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e so fA inu c u l tu r e .

Acco rd ing t o t he p hys ica l a n th ropo log is t Dodo , mo rpho log ica l s t ud ie s b a sed o n t h e m ea su remen t o f s ku l l s a na ly sed b yt h ree -d imen s iona lr ep re sen ta t ion o fp r inc ipa lc o o rd ina te a na lys i s b a sed o n t h e d i s tance e s t ima te s u s ing t h e mean m ea su re o fd ive rgence (MMD ) a nd n ea re s t -ne ighbou r a na ly s i s , i nd ica te t ha tt h e s ku l l so ft h eA inu s how s im i la r i ty t ot h e e xcava ted s ku l l s o ft h eJ omon 2 p eop le ( Dodo 1 991 ) . Howel sa l so h a ss a id : " when w ea sk ,p e rc on t ra ,w he the rt h e A inu w e re l i ke t h e J omon p eop le , t h e a nswe r s e em s t ob e y e s ; b u tA inu a ff i l ia t ion s s eem t ob es ou the rn , n o tn o r the rn , a s s ome o ther c ons ide ra t ions w ou ld s ugges t" ( Howe l ls 1 986 ) .

T o w ha t p e r iod d oe s t h is i mage o f t h e A inu , a nd a l l t h e c u l tu ra l f a c to r sa s soc ia ted w i th i t ,a pp ly? A l though t h e A inu h ave n ow b een a s s im i la ted c omp le te ly i n to t h e J apane se p opu la t ion , t h ey a r e s a id s t i l l t o e x is t a nd t h e i r h i s to ry i s s uppo sed t ob ec on t inuous . I fs o , t h en w ha ti st h e c oncep to f t h e A inu i nA inu e t hno logy? H ow d oes i td ef ine t h e A inu? L e tu st a k ea ni lu s t ra t ion f r om o u t s ide t h ea cadem ic f i e ld a nd c on s ide r t h e e t hn ic movemen t t ha t a ro se i n t h e 1 970 s . A t t h a t t ime t h e A inu s a id t h a t a l though t h ey w e re n o l o nge r h un te r s , g a the re r s , a nd f i she rmen , t ha t k ind o f i mage w a s p e rpe tua ted a nd l e d t or a c ia l d i sc r im ina t ion a ga in s t t h em i n s oc ie ty . T h i s i sn o t a n e t hno log ica l p rob lem b u t as oc ia l p rob lem i n mode rn J apane se s oc ie ty t ha t mus t b e s o lved . H oweve r , i ti sa l so c aused b y t h e f a c t t ha tt h e e thnograph ic p r e sen ti sn o tc l ea r ly d ef ined i nA inu e t hno logy .

As ca le w h ich i su sed t om ea su re i no rde rt oi d en t i fy d i f f e r en t c a tego r ie s i np hy s ica l a n th ropo logy i sn o t t h e s ame a s t h a t o n t h e c u l tu ra l l e ve l . I no t he r w o rd s , t a lk ing a bou tt h e l e ve l o f DNA a nd t a lk ing a bou t t h e l e ve l o fc u l tu re s a r e t o ta l ly d if fe ren t t h ings s i nce t h e se f i e ld s u se d i f f e ren t s ca les o f i den t if ica t ion . T hu s , t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e A inu a s ar a c ia l g roup o n t h eb a s is o fp hys ica l a n th ropo logy i sn o t t h e s ame a s t ha t o ft h e A inu a sa n e t hn ic g roup o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e se c u l tu ra l l e ve l . T he refo re , t h e J omon c u l tu re a nd t h e A inu c u l tu re a r e d i f f e ren t a nd i ts hou ld n o t b e a s sumed t ha t t h e A inu c u l tu re i ss im i la rt ot h eJ omon c u l tu re . 1 -6 -2

L ingu ist ic

c onfus ion

T he a r ea i n hab i ted b y t h e A inu i nt h e p a s t i si n d ica ted b y s t ud ie s o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f p lace n ame s i n t h e A inu l a nguage ,p a r t icu la r ly t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e w o rd sp e t su a nd n a i ( K inda i ich i 1 962 , Y amada 1 976 ) . T h is a r ea i n c lude s T ohoku , H okka ido , S akha l in ( Ka ra fu to ) , a nd t h e K ur i l I s land s ( Ch i sh ima ) . A l though m any s cho la r s t h ink t h is i n te rp re ta t ion s eems p l au s ib le , i tn eed s t o b e e xam ined c a refu l ly , s i nce t h e l i ngu is t ic s t udy h a s n o t s o f a r b een r e la ted t oe v idence f r om t h e ma te r ia lc u l tu ra l.

T he refo r e , t h e re mu s t b e a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e c oncep t o f t h e A inu w h ich , a s Is ugges t ed a bove , c ons ide r s t h ep rob lem o ft h e i r i mage , a nd a ccoun t mus t b e t a ken o f t h e p e r iod i n w h ich t h is i mage w a s c r ea ted a nd t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e a r ea w he re i tw a sr e sea r ched , s i nce r e g iona ld i f f e renc e sa mong t h e w ide ly d i spe r sed A inu a re g r ea t . F o r t h i s r ea son , c u l tu ra l c hange a mong t h e A inu n eed s t o b e e xam ined w i th in i t s h i s to r ica lf r amewo rk . 1 -6 -4 C onfus ion r e la ted t o a nc ien t h i story

F o r e xamp le , i ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h e C e l t ic c u l tu re a nd t h e A inu c u l tu r e a r e r e la ted , a l though ap hono log ica l s t udy i n l i ngu is t ic s i nd ica te s s ome s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e A inu

T he w o rd < ! J r .7A > , a s i tw a s w r i t ten , w a s p ronounced e b i su o re m ish i i na nc ien t t ime s . T he wo rd w a s a l so w r i t ten a s e zo i n med ieva l t imes . Em ish i i n a nc ien t t ime s w a s d escr ibed i n t h e C h ron ic les o f J apan ( N ihon S hok i ) , c omp i led i n7 20 AD a st h e o ff ic ia lh i s to ry o ft h ec oun try . I n ac hap te ro n t h er e ign o fK e iko T enno ( Empe ro r K e iko ) , t h e Em i sh ia r ed e sc r ibed a sb a rba r ians , w ho w ea rc l o th ing made

2A J apane se a r chaeo log ica l t e rm wh ich d e f ine s t h e p e r iod o f J omon p o t te ry , f r om 1 0 ,000 B P u n t i l Y ayo i p o t te ry a ppea r s a round 2 00 BC . T he p eop le who p roduced J omon p o t te ry a r e c aled t h e J omon p eop le a nd t h e i r c u l tu r e i sn amed t h e J omon c u l tu re .

7

1 : H ow t h ei mage o ft h e A inu w a s c r ea ted

a r ea h ad e xpanded t oi n c lude I z awa jo a nd S h iwa jo , a nd a t t h a tt ime t h ea r ea f a r the rn o r thwa rd sw a st h ea r ea o ft h eN on R i t su -Ryo s y s tem . T he p eop le w ho l i ved i nt h is Non -R i t su R yo a r ea a nd w ho r e fused t oo bey t he R i t su -Ryo s y s tem w e re c a l led Em i sh i b y t h e R i t su -Ryo p eop le . T akaha sh i ( Takaha sh i 1 982 )h a sp o in ted o u tt h a tt h ew o rd ' Em ish i ' w a s u sed w i th in t h e R i t su -Ryo s y s tem a s ap o l i t ica l t e rm . My i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h i s i st h a t Em ish i w a s r e cogn ised b y t h e R i t su -Ryo p eop le , t hose w ho w e re p a r t o f t h e R i t su -Ryo s y s tem , a sd i s t ingu i sh ing t h o se w ho l i ved o u t s ide R i t su -Ryo t e r r i tory a s N on -R i tsu -Ryo p eop le , who d i d n o t w an t t o f o l low t h e R i t su -Ryo s ys tem . Once Non -R i t su -Ryo p eop le h ad b een a b so rb ed i n to t h e R i t su -Ryo s y s tem , t h e t e rm u sed t or e f e r t ot h em c hanged f r om ` Em ish i ` t oV ushu ' o r ‘ i shu ' ( i b id . ) ; a nd w hen t h e R i t su -Ryo s y s tem c o l lap sed , t h e w o rd Em i sh id i sappea red f r om J apane se h i s to ry .

o ff u r s ,a nd who d r ink t h eb lood o fa n ima ls , a sa l so r e co rded b y T akenouch i -no -sukune who c ame b ack f r om a t o ur o f i n spec t ion i nt h eE a s tb eyond t h eb o rde ro fK e iko ' st e rr i to ry . H ei n fo rmed K e iko T enno ( Empe ro rK e iko ) : " In t he E a s te rn w i ld s t h ere i s ac oun t ry c a l led H idakam i -no -kun i . T he P eop le o ft h is c oun t ry , b o th m en a nd w omen , t i e u p t h e ir h a i r i n t h e f o rm o f a ma l le t , a nd t a t too t h e i r b od ies . T hey w e re o f f i e rce t empe r , a nd t h e i rg ene ra l n ame i s Em i sh i . Mo reove r , t h e i rl a nd i sw ide a nd f e r t i le . We s hou ld a t tack t h em a nd t a ke i t " ( As ton 1 972 :200 ; NB . Ih ave c o rrec ted t h e s pe l l ing o f t h e J apanese n ame s , H idakam i -no k un i , a nd Em ish i ) . T he s ame c ha rac te r < > ,now p ronounced " ezo" , a ppea r s i n med ieva l d ocumen t s . I n J apanese h i s to ry t h e i s land o fH okka ido i t se l fw a s c a l led E zo b efo re 1 869 . I ti s u ncer ta in whe ther o r n o t t h e A inu p eop le w ho l i ve i n H okka ido a tp re sen ta r et h ed i rec td e scendan t so ft h e Em i sh i o ft h ea nc ien tt ime s .

T hus , t h e Em ish i a r e d ef ined a s t ho se p eop le w ho l i ved i n t h e Non -R i t su -Ryo a r ea , a nd t h e t e rm c anno tb e s a id t or e f e r t o ap a r t icu la r r a ce o r a n e t hn ic g roup a s i tc hange s i n c oncep to ve r t ime . O n t h e o t he rh and , t h e t e rm ` A inu ' i sa n e t hn ic n ame , a nd Ir e cogn i se t h e A inu a s ad i s t inc t e t hn ic g roup w ho s t il e x i s t t o day .

T h is h a sb een t h es ub jec to fe t e rna ld eba te ,g ene ra t ing p ape r s b y many s cho la r s . T ho se who s uppo r t t h e i d ea t h a t Em ish i w e re t h e A inu a r e t h e h i s to r ian T e ik ich i K ida ( K ida 1 980 ) , t h e l i ngu is t Kyousuke K inda ich i ( K inda ich i 1 960 ) , H idezo Y amada ( Yamada 1 976 ) , a nd Ma sak i Kudo ( Kudo 1 992 ) a mong r e cen ts cho la r s . O n t h e o t he rh and , t h e i d ea t h a t t h e Em ish i w e re n o t t h e A inu i ss uppo r ted b y K o tondo H a sebe ( Ha sabe 1 917 ) , a n a n th ropo log is t . T he d eba t e s t i l lc on t inues a nd n od ef in i t ive c onc lu s ion h a sb een r eached .

T he refo re , t h e t e rms Em i sh i a nd A inu a r e u sed t or e f e r t o d i f f e ren tc oncep t s . T he d eba t eo ve rt h e Em i sh ia nd t h eA inu h a s b een c onduc ted u nde r c i rcums tance s i n wh ich t h e se d i f f e ren tc onc ep t sh ave b een c on f used . 1 -7

Conc lus ion

A inu s t ud ie s s t a r ted w i th t h e a s sump t ion o rp reconcep t ion t h a t t h e A inu w e re ap u re e t hn ic g roup w h ich h ad p re se rved i t s o wn e t hn ic i d en t i ty a nd h ad b een l i t t le i n f luenc ed b y t h e J apane se o ra ny o t he rp eop le w hen Hokka ido w a s i n t eg ra ted i n to J apanese h i s to ry i n 1 869 . T h is i mp re s s ion wa s l a rge ly a m isconcep t ion c aused b y ma jo ra dm in is t ra t ive d i scon t inu i ty b a sed o n t h e p o l i t ica l f r amewo rk wh ich a ccompan ied t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e Me i j i g overnmen t a nd a l so b y t h e a r r iva l o ff o r e ign s cho la r s w ho s t a r ted t oe xp lo re Hokka ido . Mo reove r , t h i s w a s ap e r iod w hen an ew s c hoo l o f t h ough t i n a n thropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy b a sed o n a Wes tern s c ien t if ic f r amewo rk w a s i n t roduced a nd h ad j us t b egun . Wha t w a s d i scoun ted o r d e l ibe ra te ly a bandoned w a s t h e i n fo rma t ion w h ich h ad b een a ccumu la ted d u r ing t he p r ev iou s e r aa nd t h ep roce s so fa s se s s ing i tp rope r ly .

A cco rd ing t oJ apanes e h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s , a f t e r t h e T a ika R efo rm ( 645 ) t h e s t a te -sys tem b ecame mo re s y s tema t ica l ly a s soc ia ted w i th a n ew d epa r tmen ta l s ys tem o f c en t ra l g ove rnmen ti nvo lved w i th t h e a dm in i s t ra t ion o ft h e s ma l le s t u n i to fl o ca l d iv is ion . I n7 01 , t h e T a iho C ode , e qu iva len t t o t h e R oman L aw c odes i nE u rope , w a s i s sued a nd g ove rned a dm in i s t ra t ive p rac t ise . T h is c ode c ons is ted o ft wo p a r t s : t h e R i t su a nd t h e R yo ( Regu la t ions a nd C ode s ) , a nd t h e s y s tem o f g ove rnmen t a s soc ia ted w i th i ti sc a l led t h e R i t su -Ryo s ys tem . U nde r t h e R i t su -Ryo s ys tem t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te s e t u p k oor i ( c oun t ies ) s uccess ive ly t owa rd s t h e n o r th ( Nor the rn H onshu ) . T h is s t a te w a s c oncer ned a bou t i t sn o r the rn b o rde r a nd t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f i t s a u thor i ty t h e re . T hus , i tb u i l t t h ef r on t ie ra dm in i s t ra t ive h eadqua r te r so fD ewa -no -sa l cu ( 708 AD ) , T aga jo ( 724 AD ) , a nd Ak i ta jo ( 723 AD ) , w i thou t mak ing ag rea tm i l i ta ry e f fo r t . D ewa -koo r i , Mogam i -koo r i , a nd M iyag i -koor i w e re a l so i ncorpo ra ted i n to t he a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem a tt he b eg inn ing o f t h e 8 t h c en tury . T hen i nt h ee a r ly 9 th c en tu ry I z awa jo ( 802 AD ) ,a nd S h iwa j o( 803 AD )w e re b u i l t , a nd t h eo ku -r oku g un ( t he o u te rs i x c oun t ies ) — c ompr is ing E sa sh i , I zawa , Waka , H ienuk i , S h iwa , a nd I wa te — w e re e s tab l ished . T h is p e r iod o f e xpans ion b e tween t h e e a r ly 8 th c en tury a nd e a r ly 9 th c en tu ry c ons t i tu ted t he g rea tes t u pheava l i n t h e a nc ien t h i s to ry o ft h e T ohoku r eg ion , ow ing t ot h e r e s is tance o f t h e p eop le w ho l i ved i nt h e a r ea ( s ee F ig . 1 2 ) .

A l though c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th a nd i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e A inu a nd o the r s i nt h e p a s t w a s n o ted b y T o ni a s e a r ly a s 1 917 ( To ni 1 9 17 ) , i tmus tb ee mpha s ised t h a tt h eA inu w e re d ef ined w i thou tc ons ide r ing t h eg r ea ti n f luences e xe r t ed u pon t h e i r c u l tu re b yt h ep o l icy o ft h e Ma t suma e -Han ( doma in ) i n t h e 1 8 th c en tu ry , e xemp l if ied b y t h e B asho -U keo i s y s tem . U n le ss t h is i st a ken i n to a ccoun t , t h e c oncep t o f t h e A inu a nd t h e i rc u l tu r e mus ti n ev i tab ly b ed i s to r t ed . D u r ing t h e l o ng c en tu r ies o f t h e A inu p er iod , w h ich c on t inues u p t o t h e 2 0 th c en tu ry , i ts hou ld n eve r b e f o rgo t ten t h a t c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th a nd i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e A inu a nd o ther p eop le t ook p lace . I n p a r t icu la r , i f c u l tu ra l c on tac t s b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e J apane se a r e i g no red a nd t h eh i s to r ica l c hange i nJ apane se c u l tu re i t se lf i s

T he b o rde ri nt h e 8 t h c en tury w a s al i ne c onnec t ing T aga jo ( on t h e P a c if ic s i de ) a nd Ak i ta jo ( on t h e J apan S ea s i de ) ; l a ter , b y t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 9 th c en tu ry , t h e R i t su -Ryo

8

1 : How t h e i mage o ft h e A inu w a s c r ea ted

1 2 th -16 th c en tu r ie s )a nd ' Moder nA inu p e r iod ' ( t he 1 7 th -19 th c en tu r ie s ) a r e u sed i nt h e s t udy o f A inu a r chaeo logy . T he p eop le w ho p roduced t h e A inu ma te r ia l c u l ture w h ich s u rv ive s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd w e re t h e i mmed ia t e a nc es to r so ft h ep re sen tA inu .

n o t t a k en i n to a ccoun t , t h e A inu c u l tu re c anno t b e f u l ly u nde r s tood . T herefo re , I e xam ine t he A inu c u l ture f r om t h e a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v i ew i n o rde r t o d i scu ss c u l tu ra l c on ta c ta nd t h e t r ansfo rma t ion o ft h em a te r ia l c u l tu re , s i nce t h e re i sn oh i s to r ica l d ocumen ta t ion w i th in t h e A inu c u l tu re i t se lf . Ic oncen t ra te e spec ia l ly o n i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e J apane se . I n t h is d i scus s ion , t e rm s s uch a s ' med ieva l 'a nd ' modem ' ,w h ich a r ev a l id i nJ apane se h i s to ry a r e u sed t or e f e r t o t h e A inu , b ecau se t h e A inu c u l tu re i n a r cha eo logy i ss e tw i th in t h e m ed ieva l a nd mode rn J apane se h i s to r ica lf r amewo rk .T he ' Med ieva lA inu p e r iod ' ( a round t h e

F ig . 1 1

T he A inu c u l tu re i na na r chaeo log ica l s en se w a sf o rmed a sa r e su l t o f ah i s to r ica l p rocess i nvo lv ing c on tac t a nd i n te rac t ion w i th o ther c u l tu res . Ic ons ide r t ha t o n ly a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h ep roce s so ff o rma t ion o ft h eA inu c u l tu re t h rough t h e h i s to r ica l s equence c an l e ad u s t ot h e a n swe r t o t h eq ue s t ion , "Wha ts hou ld b ec ons ide r ed a sA inu?" .

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The 8 th c entury

The 7 th c entury

9

Chap ter Mode l-bu i ld ing

2 -1

f or

2 A inu

a rchaeo logy

R ega rd ing s o c ia lc hange i nA inu s oc ie ty , Wa tanabe s ay s :

I ntroduc t ion

T he t r ans i t ion t o a gr icu l ture among t h e H okka ido A inu wa sr ecogn i sed a st h ef i r s ts t age w h ich o ccur red r ecen t ly ( b efore t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t ) . Howeve r , t h i s c hange among t h e H onshu A inu t ook p lace av e ry l ong t ime a go a nd h ad a l ready r eached t h e s e cond s t age i nt h e a nc ien t p e r iod . I n b o th c a se s , i ti sc on s ide red t h a tt h et r ans i t ion t ot h e s e cond s t age i n vo lved a s t r uc tu ra lc hange w i th in A inu s oc ie ty w h ich c an b e r e cogn i sed b y t h e c hange i n men 's r o le a s t h ey b ecame c u l t iva to r s . T h i s c hange c an b e m on i to red b y o bserv ing t h ed ec rea se i nh un t ing a c t iv i ty a s a n i nd ica to r o f m en 's t r ad i t iona l a c t iv i ty ; t h e refore , t h e t r end c an b e t e s ted a r chaeo log icaly ( i b id . :231 ) .

I n t h i s c hap te r , Ic r i t ic ise a n i napprop r ia te mode l w h ich c aused much m isunder s tand ing o f t he A inu c u l ture , b y man ipu la t ing t heory w i thou t r ea l i ty a nd w i thou t c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e h i s to r ica l c on tex t . I n i t s p lace , Is ha l l b u i ld a n a l te rna t ive mode l t o e nab le a mo re s ub s tan t ia l d i scu s s ion o fA inu a r cha eo logy . 2 -2 Recons iderat ion o f t he p resent mode l : C r it ic is m o f t he "A inu e cosyste m" p resen ted b y Watanabe T he " A inu e co sys tem" p re sen ted b y Wa tanabe i n 1 972 w a s b a sed o ne t hnog raph ic d a ta a bou tt h eA inu w h ich h ec olec ted b yi n terv iew ing A inu i n fo rman t sb e tween 1 951 a nd 1 954 . H e d e sc r ibe s t h e t r ans i t ion t oa gr icu l tu re i nt h e A inu c u l tu re a s b e ing i n t wo s t ages , a nd t h is i s u sed t o e xp la in t h e a gr icu l tura l t r ans i t ion mode l f r om h un te r -ga the re r s t o c u l t iva to r s .I nt h ef i r s ts t age ,m en a r ed e sc r ibed a sh un te r sa nd w omen a sg a the re r sa nd c u l t iva to r s . I nt h e s e cond s t age , men b ecome c u l t iva to r s a nd women c a r ry o n t h e s ame r o le a s g a the re r sa nd c u l t iva to r s( o rb a s ica l ly c u l t iva to r sa nd d ome s t ic wo rke r s ) . Wa tanabe d esc r ibed t h e t wo s t age s o f t h e A inu t r ans i t ion t oa gr icu l tu re a s f o l lows ( my t r an s la t ion f r om t h e J apane se ) :

T he l o g ic b eh ind t h is mode l i s t ha t s oc ia l c hange c an b e e mbod ied i nt h ec hange o f men 's r o le — i nt h a t men h un te r s b ecame m en c u l t iva to r s . I tl e da l so t o Wa tanabe 's h ypo the s i s t h a t c u l t iva t ion w a s a n i n nova t ion b y r e t i r ed h un te r s a mong t h em en ( Wa tanabe 1 987 ) . I no rde r t oa s se s s t h i s t wo -s tage mode l , Is ha l l e xam ine t h e w ay i nw h ich t h e A inu men a s h un te r s b ecame c u l t iva to r s a f t e rt h e Me i j ig ove rnmen t 's a gr icu l tu ra lp romo t ion p o l icy .

T he f i r s t s t age w a s t h e p er iod b e fo re t h e Me i j i g overnmen t 's p romo t ion o f at r ans i t ion t o a gr icu l ture f o r t he A inu . I t i nvo lved a n i n t roduc t ion o fc e rea l p roduc t ion b y t h e s e ed s ca t te red me thod u s ing ad igg ing s t ick . A t t h is s t age , c u l t iva t ion w a s ma in ly u nde r taken b y w omen , a nd i tc an b e r ega rded a sa n e x tens ion o f ap a r t ia l p lan t -co l lec t ing ( ow ing t o as ha rp d ec rea se o f w i ld l i l ies a s f a r inaceous f ood s ) . T hus , t h e re w a s n o c hange w i th in A inu s oc ie ty w h ich w as r e ga rded a ss oc ia lc hange .T he s e cond s t age was t he p er iod a f ter t he Me i ji g overnmen t 's p romo t ion o f at r ans i t ion t o a g r icu l tu re f o rt h e A inu ( 1899 ) ,a nd i n vo lved a n i n t roduc t ion o f r i dge a nd f u r row me thod s o f c u l t iva t ion w i th a h oe . A t t h is s t age , c u l t iva t ion a l so b ecame a t a sk u nde r taken b y men . T h i s l e d t oc hange n o to n ly i nt h e r o le o f men b u t a l so i n t h e s exua l d iv i s ion o f l a bou r ( men a s h un te r s a nd w omen a s c u l t iva to r s ) i n t r ad i t iona l A inu s oc ie ty . T h i sa l so l e d t oc hange i nt h e i r h ab i ta t ion i no rde r t oa dop t c u l t iva t ion f i e lds . T he reby t h e ir t r ad i t iona l s t ruc ture o f v i l lage a nd k insh ip r e la t ions d i s in tegra ted . T herefo re , i n t h is s t age , t h e o ccur rence o f s t ruc tura l c hange c an b e r e cogn ised w i th in t h e A inu s oc ie ty (Wa tanabe 1 990 :230 ) .

A f te r 1 877 , w hen t h e t i t le d eeds f o r l a nd i n Hokka ido w e re i s sued b y t h e Me i j i g overnmen t , a nd p a r t icu la r ly f o l low ing e nac tmen to ft h e H okka ido Na t ive P eop le P ro tec t ion L aw i n 1 899 , o ne o f t h e p o l ic ie s o f t he Me i j i g ove rnmen t w a s t h e p o l icy o f t r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l ture ( s ee C hap te r 1 )i no rde rt o a s s im i la t e t h eA inu i n to J apanese s oc ie ty . A cco rd ing t o A r t ic le 1 o f t he Hokka ido Na t ive P eop le P ro tec t ion L aw , " Na t ive p eop le w ho a re e ngaged i n a g r icu l tu re a nd w ho w i sh t ob e s o e ngaged a re t ob e g i ven l a nd i nH okka ido u p t o amax imum o f 5 cho ( 49 ,500m 2)p e r f am i ly , w i thou tc ompensa t ion" . A g r icu l tu ra l t oo ls a nd s e ed , a s w e l l a s l a nd , w e re g i ven f r ee t o t h e A inu . I ts hou ld b e n o t ed ,h oweve r , t h a tA r t ic le 3o ft h e s ame L aw s t a te s t h a t" I f t h e g i ven l a nd h a s n o t b een c u l t iva ted f o r 1 5 y ea r s a f t e r t h e y ea ri nw h ich i tw a so b ta ined , i ti st ob ec onf i sca ted " .I nf a c t , much l a nd w h ich w a sg i ven t ot h e A inu w a sl a te rc onf i sca ted u nde r A r t ic le 3 . T h is i mp l ies t ha t t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t p o l icy o fp romo t ing a g r icu l tu re among t h eA inu d id n o tt u rn A inu m en i n to c u l t iva to r s . F o r e xamp le , a cco rd ing t o as imp le c a lcu la t ion b a sed o n a d o cumen tw h ich r e co rd sl a nd g ran ted t ot h eA inu i nS h izuna i c ho , H okka ido , t h e a r ea l a te r c onf i sca ted w a s / 1 41cho -8 tan 2 3bu ( 4 ,448 ,075 .9m 2) ,o u t o f t h e t o ta l a r ea o f l a nd g iven a moun t ing t o5 71cho -6 tan -8une -23bu ( 5 ,716 ,875 .9m 2) .T h i s s how s t h a t a lmo s t 8 0% o f t h e l a nd w a s c onf isca ted w i thou t h av ing b een c u l t iva ted . I n1 980 , 8 1 y ea r sa f te r t h ee na c tmen t o f t h e H okka ido N a t ive P eop le P ro tec t ion L aw , t h e

1 0

2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a r chaeo logy

r ema in ing p o r t ion o f l a nd g iven w a s o n ly 4 1cho . T h is amoun t s t o o n ly 7% o f t he l and w h ich w a s g iven u nde r A r t ic le 1o ft h e Hokka ido Na t ive P eop le P ro tec t ion L aw ( Pon F uch i 1 992 :219) . T h is f ac t i n c ludes many c omp lex p rob lem s , s o t ha t i ti sn o t a s s imp le a s t h is c a lcu la t ion . Howeve r , t h e se f i gu res s u re ly s uff ice t oi nd ica te t h a t A inu men d i dn o tb e come c u l t iva to r sd e sp i te t h ei n te rf e rence o ft h e Me i j ig ove rnmen t . T he re fo re , Wa tanabe 's mode l o ft h e A inu e co sy s tem — i nvo lv ing a t r ans i t ion t o a gr icu l tu re i n t wo s t age s b y t h e A inu , a s ar e su l t o f t h e Me i j i g overnmen t 's i n te r f e rence b a sed o nt h eA inu m en 's r o le — s imp ly d oe sn o t wo rk .

l o g ic t h a t w omen a r e i n capab le o f i nnova t ing a ny th ing ; t h i s c anno tb et e s ted .U s ing a n u n te s tab le mode lm ake si td i ff icu l t t of o rmu la te s ubs tan t ive h ypo the se s r ega rd ing d i scus s ion o f t h e t r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l tu re . I n o the r wo rd s , a n u n te s tab le mode l l e ad s o n ly t oe mp ty t h eo ry . T he refo re , s epa ra te f r om t h i s k i nd o f mode l , amode l n eed s t ob e b u i l t b a sed o n t h e s e t t ing u p o fq ue s t ions t oe xp la in t h e p roc es s o fc hange a nd make l og ica l s t a temen t s w h ich c an b e d iscussed s ubs tan t ive ly . T he s i gn if icance o f t h e s oc ia l mean ing a bou t g ende r r o le s i n as oc ie ty n eed s t ob e c ons ide red . T o b u i ld a s i gn if i can t mode li st ol e ad t oe nhanced p e rcep t ion o f as oc ia l s t r uc tu re ;i f amode li sn o tb a sed o n s ub s tan t ive a rgumen t so r i sb a sed o n p r econcep t ions , t h en i tw i l l l a ck s i gn if icance a s a na r cha eo log ica lt h eo ry . A rchaeo logy a s as c ience s hou ld b e b a sed u pon f a c t s w h ich make i tp oss ib le t o e xp la in a nd u nde r s tand s oc ie ty , i n c lud ing e n t i ty a so ne o fi t sc omponen t f a c to r s .

T he f a c ti st h a tA inu men b ecame c heap d ay l a bou r , s uch a s u n sk i l led w o rkmen , c a r r ie r s , p o r te r s , a nd woodcu t te r s a tt h e s ea sho re o r i n moun ta ins a nd f o res t s , o r c heap m ig ran t w o rke r s , i no rde rt oo b ta in c a sh t ol i ve o nb ecause t h ey w e re u nab le t os u rv ive o n ly b y c u l t iva t ion a f t e rt h e i n t e r f e renc e o f t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t . I no t he r w o rd s , t h ey w e re d rawn i n to t h e c a sh e conomy . Mo reove r , t h ey o f ten b ecame u nemp loyed e i the rb e cause t h e re w e re n oj obs a va i lab le t ot h em o rb e cau se t h ey w e re n o t a b le t oc a r ry o n h un t ing , d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t J apanese me rchan t s w e re p roh ib i ted f r om b uy ing o r e xchang ing g oods f o ra n ima l s k in s a tA inu v i l lage s ( 1875 ) , wh i le , o n t h e o the r h and , t h e A inu w e re p roh ib i ted f r om c a tch ing s a lmon ( 1883 ) ,a nd h un t ing d ee r( 1899 )b yt h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t( Hokka ido 1 989 ) .T he c hange si nt h ec ha rac t e ro f A inu s oc ie ty a f te r t h e i n te r f e rence o ft h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t w e r e ar e su l to fi n teg ra t ion i n to t h ef r amewo rk o ft h e modem n a t ion s t a te p o l i t ica l ly , e conom ica l ly , a nd s oc ia l ly , w he the r t h e A inu i n tended i to rn o t .

F rom t h e a bove , i ti s n ece ssa ry t o c ons ide r h ow t h e t r ansforma t ion o f A inu c u l ture i s t o b e p erce ived a nd e xp la ined a s ap roce s s w h ich l e ad s t os ub s tan t ive d i scu ss ion . T he re fo r e , amo re a pp rop r ia te mode l n eed s t ob e e s tabl i shed b a sed u pon e v idence , i no rde rt oe xp la in t h ep roc es so fs oc ia l c hange w i th in A inu s oc ie ty . I n t h i s c a se , a n a r chaeo log ica l mode l c r ea ted i nc on junc t ion w i th h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s a nd e t hnog raph ic e v idence c an g i ve t h e mo s tf r u i t fu lr e su l ts . 2 -3 . B u i ld ing mode l s f or A inu a rchaeo logy 2 -3 -1 T he l og ic b eh ind t he mode ls : ap roh ib i t ion s ys tem i n as oc ie ty

F rom t h e a bove d i scu ss ion , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e t wo -s tage mode l o f t h e t r ans i t ion t oa gr icu l tu re i n A inu c u l tu re d oe s n o th ing t o e xp la in t he e n t i ty o f c u l t iva t ion w i th in A inu c u l tu re , n o rc an s oc ia l c hange c onnec t ed w i th c hange s i nt h e r o le o f men i nt h e t r an s i t ion t oa gr icu l tu re b e s ub s tan t ia ted . F u r the r , i td oe s n o te xp la in a ta l l t h er o le o fc u l t iva t ion a sa s ubs i s tence a c t iv i ty , a nd t h e r o le o fw omen a sc u l t iva to r s i n A inu s oc ie ty . T he refo re , t h ei d ea o f as oc ia lc hange f r om h un te r s -ga the re r s t o c u l t iva to r s i n A inu s oc ie ty n eed s t ob e r econs ide r ed i n t e rm s o fi t s s oc ia l mean ing , a nd an ew mean ing n eed s t ob e f ound w i th in a h i s to r ica l f r amewo rk . Mo reove r , s i nce t h e s oc ia l c hange i nA inu s oc ie ty w h ich o ccur red a s ar e su l t o f t h e i n t e r f e rence o f t h e Me i j i g ove rnmen t w a s n o t ac hange f r om h un te r -ga the re r s t oc u l t iva to r s , i ti sn o t a pp rop r ia te t o b u i ld ag ene ra l ised e vo lu t iona ry mode l , b a sed u pon s uch a s oc ia l c hange w i th in A inu s oc ie ty , t o e xp la in t h e s oc ia l c hange s u nde r ly ing t h e t r ans i t ion t oa gr icu l tu re i na ny o t he r s oc ie ty . B ecause , t he mode l i t se lf d oes n o t i nvo lve s ub s tan t ia ted d i scuss ion s o f t h e s oc ia l c hanges . T hu s t h e A inu e co sys tem i sn ol onge ra n a pp rop r ia te mode l t oe xp la in t he t r ans i t ion t o a g r icu l ture i n A inu s oc ie ty . T o d i scus s s oc ia lc hange s a t i sf ac to r i ly i nA inu c u l tu re , t h ep roce s so fi t s h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t n eeds t o b e u nde rs tood a nd a f r amewo rk mus tb e s e t u p b a sed u pon u nde r s tand ing s uch a p roce s s ; s ub sequen t ly , t h e mean ing o fs oc ia lc hange n eed s t o b ec on s ide red w i th in t h a tf r amewo rk . F ur the rmo re , t h e l og ic b eh ind t h is mode l , i nw h ich r e t i red men h un te r s a r e s een a s i n nova to r s o fa g r icu l tu re , l e ad s t oa

Iw ou ld l i ke t o d i scus s h ow a mode l s hou ld b e b u i l t f o r s t udy ing A inu c u l tu r e f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l p o in t o f v i ew . A mode l mus t b e b u i l t w h ich makes p os s ib le a l og ica l i n t e rp r e ta t ion o ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu r e . Ap roh ib i t ion s y s tem i s ac ha rac te r is t ic p henomenon i n a s oc ie ty , o r a n e s sen t ia l p henomenon w h ich e x is t s w i th in a h uman g roup . A p roh ib i t ion s ys tem o ccurs when p recond i t ioned a c t sa r er e cogn i sed i n as oc ie ty .I ti sn ece s sa ry t ou nde r s tand ' s oc ia lp r econd i t ion ' a st h e s oc ia lp henomenon t h a t t h e a c t w h ich n eed s t ob e p roh ib i ted i sr e cogn ised b y p eop le o r g roup s o f p eop le a s o rgan isa t ions . F o r e xamp le , " LLL a c t i sp roh ib i ted" m eans t h a t t here a r e p eop le w ho p rac t i se L i d , a c t i n as oc ie ty , a nd L i d , a c t mus t b e r e cogn i sed b y p eop le i n as oc ie ty . I fL i d , a c t o r ap e r son w ho p rac t ise s a c t d o n o t e x is t i n as oc ie ty , i td oe s n o t n eed t o b e p roh ib i ted b y p eop le ; t h e n eed t op roh ib i t t h e L i d , a c t w ou ld n o ta r i se . A p roh ib i t ion s ys tem i nvo lv ing t h e i mpo s ing o f l e ga l c on t ro l s , o r r e s t r ic t ions a nd l aw s , o ccu rs a lways a f ter t h e r e cogn i t ion o f t h e a c t o r t h e p rac t is ing o f a c t s w i th in a s oc ie ty . T h i s i mp l ies t h a t t h e e x i s tence o ft h e p roh ib i t ion o f ac e r ta in k i nd o fa c ti s ar e su l to ft h es oc ia lr e cogn i t ion o ft h e a c t , w h ich l e ad s t ot h ei mpo s i t ion o ft h e p roh ib i t ion . I no the r w o rd s , t o u nde r s tand t h e s oc ia l p henomenon o f h ow t h e p roh ib i t ion c ame t ob e made i n as oc ie ty i st o u nde r s tand s oc ia lp r econd i t ion s . I ta l so n eed st ob ek ep ti nm ind t ha ta ny k i nd o fp roh ib i t ion s y s tem i sa lways a s soc ia ted w i th a c t s t h a t b r each o rv i o la te t h a tp roh ib i t ion .

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2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a r chaeo logy

B y u nde r s tand ing t h e l o g ic o f as oc ie ty , a nd a pp ly ing t h i s l og ic t oe xp la in t h e s t ruc tu r ing o fs oc ia l r ea l i ty w i th in A inu c u l tu re , i ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le t oe xp la in s oc ia l p henomena i n A inu s oc ie ty . F u r the r , s oc ia l p henomena m ay b e e xp la ined a nd c an b e i n te rp re ted mo re a pp rop r ia te ly b y a na lys ing t h e i n te r re la t ed p os i t ions o f e ach i n terac t ing c u l tu re w i th in a s oc ia l a nd h i s to r ica lc on tex t .I n te rac t ion b e tween n e ighbou r ing s oc ie t ie s n eed st ob et a ken i n to a ccoun ti no rde rt oc l a r i fy i n te r re la t ion s b e tween c u l tu res w h ich s t and f a ce t o f a ce . F o r e xamp le , i n te rac t ion b e tween t he Ma t sumae a nd A inu s oc ie ty c an b e e xam ined i nt h is w ay . T he refo re , Ip ropo se " t he p roh ib i t ion mode l o f c u l t iva t ion" a nd " t he p roh ib i t ion mode lo fi r on" i no rde rt oe xp la in s oc ia l c hange i nA inu s oc ie ty . T hen ,s oc ia lp recond i t ion sn eed t ob ec ons ide red t ou nde r s tand h ow p roh ib i t ions c ame t ob e i mpo sed o n as oc ie ty . I fs uch s oc ia l p recond i t ions d id n o te x i s t , i tw ou ld n o tb e n ece s sa ry t o p roh ib i t t h em . S oc ia l p r econd i t ions a r e r e cogn ised a s s oc ia l p henomena . T hus t h e s oc ia l p recond i t ion f o r p roh ib i t ing c u l t iva t ion i st h e s oc ia l p henomenon i n w h ich c u l t iva t ion i sr e cogn ised w i th in as oc ie ty g ene ra l ly , a nd t h e s oc ia l p recond i t ion f o rp roh ib i t ing i r on o re dged t o o ls i st h e s oc ia l p henomenon i nw h ich i r on t o o l s o r i r on w eapon s a r e r ecogn ised w i th in a s oc ie ty g ene ra l ly . T hese s oc ia l p henomena a r er e cogn i sed b yt h ep eop le w ho n e ed t op roh ib i t t h em ; t h ea c to fp roh ib i t ion i st h en e xecu ted a s ap roh ib i t ion s ystem . T he p roh ib i t ions i mpo sed o n t h e A inu b y t h e Ma t sumae w e re d e r ived f r om t h e s oc ia l p henomena o fA inu s oc ie ty wh ich w ere r ecogn ised b y t h e Ma t sumae . T h is i mp l ies t h a t c u l t iva t ion a nd t h e u se o f i r on i nA inu c u l tu r e a l ready e x is ted a nd w e re i ndeed w ide ly d i ssem ina ted t h roughou tA inu s oc ie ty , a nd w e r e a l ready r e cogn i sed b y t h e Ma t sumae , o therw ise t he i mpo s i t ion o f p roh ib i t ion s b y t h e Ma t sumae w ou ld h ave b een s upe r f luous . I ta l so i n d ica te sh ow s er ious ly t h e Ma tsumae r e ga rded t h ese s oc ia l p henomena w i th in A inu s oc ie ty . 2 -3 -2

The

c u l t ivat ion -proh ib i t ion

mode l

T he c u l t iva t ion -proh ib i t ion mode l h ypo thes ises t ha t c u l t iva t ion i nA inu c u l tu re i so ne c u l tu ra lf a c to ra s ap rac t ica l " nego t ia t ion" ( c f . S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 987 :72 ) w h ich w a s t r an sfo rmed a s ar e su l t o fh uman a gency , b e ing p reven ted b y i n ten t iona l i d eo log ie s , i ns p i te o fi t s e x i s tence a nd e x ten s ion i nA inu c u l tu re s i nce t h es ucceed ing S a t sumon c u l tu re . T hus , t h e A inu c u l tu re c anno t b e f u l ly e xp la ined w i th in t h e f r amework o f t h e e x i s t ing mode l , s uch a s ' a s oc ie ty o f h un te r -ga ther e r s ' o r ' as oc ie ty o f c u l t iva to r s ' , a nd i ti sn o t a pp rop r ia t e t ou se s uch af r amewo rk t oe xp la in i t .I ti sr a the r p oss ib le t o u nde r s tand i ta s " p rac t ica l n ego t ia t ion" w i th in A inu s oc ie ty a s ah i s tor ica l p roce s s . C u l t iva t ion i nt h e A inu c u l tu re w a s t r ansfo rmed a s ar e su l t o f " soc ia l r ep roduc t ion" w i th in A inu s oc ie ty t h rough i n t e ra c t ion b e tween t r ad i t ion a nd n ego t ia t ion w h ich w a s f o rced o n A inu s oc ie ty b ya n o u t s ide a gency .T hus ,t h ed e ta i l so ft h i sp roce s sn eed t ob ee xp la ined . F rom t h is p o in t , t h is mode l i si n tended t o e nhance o u r p e rcep t ion o ft h e s oc ia l p henomenon i nA inu s oc ie ty a nd t o make p oss ib le a n a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o f i t . Is ha l l

d i scu ss t h e c u l t iva t ion -p roh ib i t ion mode l f r om t he a bove p o in to fv i ew , b a sed o n J apanese h i s to r ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic d ocumen t sd a t ing f r om t h e 1 8 th -19 th c en tu r ie s . Ah i s to r ica ld ocumen td a ted 1 786 , w h ich i s ar epo r t made b y a no ff ice ro ft h eT okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t , G en roku ro S a tou , s t a ted : " I t i si lega l t o c u l t iva te c e rea l s i n t he E zo i s land [ Hokka ido ] f r om o ld t imes" ( Hokka ido h i s to r iog raphy v o l . 71 969 :333 -334 ) . My i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h is s t a temen t i s t h a ti ti sr e ve r se -p roof t ha tc e rea l c u l t iva t ion w a sp rac t ised i n t h e E zo i s land f r om o ld t imes . T he re i s n o p o in t i n p roh ib i t ing c u l t iva t ion i fi th ad n o tb een p ra c t i sed b y t h eE zo [ A inu ] . T hus , t h is i mp l ie s t ha t c e rea l c u l t iva t ion w a s p r ac t i sed b e fo re l e ga la c t ion w a s t a ken . S a tou g oe so nt os ay : i nt h e p rev iou s y ea r , r i ce w a s c u l t iva ted b y t h e E zo [ A inu ] s omewhe re i nt h e u ppe r a rea o ft h e I s h ika r i R ive r , a nd r i ce g rew c ons ide rab ly w e l l . H oweve r , t h i s f a c t wa s h ea rd b yt h e Ma t sumae , maybe t h rough me rchan t s , a nd s eed s a nd u nhuled r i ce w e re t a ken a way b y t h e Ma t suma e a nd t h e r umou r s ays t h a t t h e E zo [ A inu ] w ho p l an ted i tw i l lb ep un i shed w i th af i ne ( i b id . ) . I ti ss u rp r is ing t h a t r i ce g rew w e l l i n t h e u ppe r a rea o f t h e I s h ika r i R ive r i nH okka ido . I fs o , t h e me thod s o fc u l t iva t ion w ou ld b e q ue s t ioned . H oweve r , i n aC h ine se h i s to r ica l d ocumen t , t h e c ommen ta ry o f Z hou l iw r i t ten b y Z heng X uan , aC on f uc ian s cho la r , d u r ing t h el a t e rH an p e r iod a round 2 00 AD , r i ce c u l t iva t ion i sd escr ibed , e mp loy ing a s eed s c a t t e r ing m e thod o n w e t land ( N ish i j ima 1 983 ) . I ts a id t h a ti f c u l t iva ted l a nd i sc ove red b y w a te r a s ar e su l t o f p rev ious h eavy r a in w h ich d rowns t h e w eed s , w hen i th a s d r ied u p , w eed s a r e mown , a nd t h en r i ce c an b e g rown u s ing t h e s e ed s c a t te r ing m e thod . I nt h is c a se , i td oe sn o tn eed ac omp l ica ted p ro ce s ss uch a sc on s t ruc t ing w e tr i ce p addy -f ie ld s . T he a r ea o f t h e u ppe rI s h ika r i R ive r i s aw e t land , d ue t ot h e o ve r f low ing o f t h e r i ve r , e ven n owadays . T hus , i ti sp o s s ib le t o i mag ine t h a t r i ce w a s g rown o n t h e w e t l a nd b y t h e s eed -sca t te r ing m e thod . T he r epo r tc on t inue s : .. t h e re a r en op addy -f ie ld so rf i e ld s ; h oweve r , t h e E zo [ A inu ] who i nhab i t a moun ta in a r ea ( i . e . i n land ) c u l t iva ted a l i t t le o f s o me m i l le t s t e rmed ` munsh i ro ' a nd ` p iyapa ' . A l though t h e r e a r e n o c u l t iva t ion t oo ls , t he E zo [ A inu ] s c a t te red s eed s among t r ee s ; t h ey h a rve s t q u i te w e l l a nd t h e p roduc t s a re t h e f ood o f t h e E zo [ A inu ] . I n t h is a rea , t h e E zo [ A inu ] p osses s mo r ta r sa nd p e s t les ( i b id . ) . A cco rd ing t o t h ese d ocumen ts , i tc an b e s een t ha t t h e Ma t sumae h ad s ome r ea son f o r p reven t ing t h e A inu f r om e ngag ing i nc u l t iva t ion b y i mpos ing a f i ne . I ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e re w a s ap roh ib i t ion b y t h e Ma t sumae . A cco rd ing t oa no the r s ou rce , t h e E zo -s osh i ( Mogam i 1 786 ) , " a [ Ma t sumae ] l aw i n t h e a r ea , s t a te s t h a t s eeds o f p lan t s c anno t b e b rough t i n to E zo [ Hokka ido ] , s o c u l t iva t ion s k i l ls a r en o tk nown" ( Yo sh ida 1 965 :45 ) . T hus , b r ing ing s e ed s i n to H okka ido w a sa l so p roh ib i ted b y t h e Ma t suma e . F u r the rmo re , e t hnog raph ic e v idence i nt h e f o rm o f at r ave l r e co rd w r i t t en b yT ake sh i ro Ma t suu ra ( Ma t suu ra 1 857 )s t a te s :

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2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a rchaeo logy

...b eans , k idney b ean s , m i l le t s , g l u t inous m i l le t s ,a nd b a rnya rd m i l le ta r ec u l t iva ted b yt h e E zo [ A inu ] n ea rt h e i rh ou se s , a nd c u l t iva t ion i s women 's w o rk . .. T he E zo [ A inu ] d o n o t p osse s s h oes , s o w ha t t h ey u se a s at oo l f o r c u l t iva t ion i s af e l l ing a xe w i th a w ooden h and le i n s tead o f ah oe . T h is i sb ecau se t h e Ma t sumae 's p o l icy i s t ha t c u l t iva t ion i s p roh ib i ted t ot h e E zo [ A inu ] , s o t h e Ma t sumae p eop le d o n o t g ive a ny h oe s t ot h e E zo [ A inu ] . I n t h e a r ea o f T su ish ika r i , t h e E zo [ A inu ] c u l t iva te o n ly t h e J apane se r ad ish , a nd w hen I a sked t h em " why d on ' ty ou c u l t iva te c e rea ls?" , t h e a n swe r w a s " t he re a r e n o s e ed s a nd h oe s , a l though w e w ish t o c u l t iva te s uch c e rea ls" ( Ma t suu ra 1 857 : mode rn v e r s ion b y Ma ruyama 1 973 :24 , 7 2 ) . I ti sc l ea r t ha t t h e Ma t sumae h ad ap o l icy o f p roh ib i t ing c u l t iva t ion among t h e A inu a nd t h a t t h ey a l so r e s t r ic t ed t h e s upp ly o fa gr icu l tu ra l t o o l s . Ma t suu ra c on t inue s : i nt h ea r ea o fT o t sukube t suha ra ,c u l t iva t ed f i e ld s a r e l o ca t ed a way f r om t h e i rh ouse s , s omewhe re i nh idden p l ace s ,b ecau se t h ey a r ea f ra id o fb e ing s een b y t h e Ma t sumae ( t he c rop s w ou ld h ave b een c onf i sca ted h ad t h ey b een d i scove red ) . K idney b eans , b eans , m i l le t s , a nd b a rnya rd m ile t sa r ec u l t iva ted w i th p roces sed f e l l ing a xe s ( i b id . :72 ) . F rom t h i ss t a temen t , i ta ppea r s t h a tc u l t iva t ion w a sp ra c t ised i ns e c re t among t h e A inu , a nd c u l t iva ted f i e ld s w e re a ta d i s tance f r om t h eh ou se sa nd v i l lage s . T he s e lec t ion o f f i e ld s f o r c u l t iva t ion b y t h e A inu w as a p uzz le f o r J apane se o b se rve r s , w ho w e re n o t a wa re o f t h e i r s i tua t ion . F o r e xamp le , Mogam i n o te s t h a t " ...a l though t h e r ea r ef i e ld sn ea rt h e i rh ouse s , t h ey a lway sa bandon t h em ; t h en t h ey g o t o av a l ley i nd i s tan t m oun ta ins a nd c u l t iva te" ( Mogam i 1 808 ; c i ted i nT akaku ra 1 933 ) . I ti sa l so m en t ioned i nE zo s angyo z use t su t h a t t h e r e a son f o r s uch i ra t iona l a c t iv i ty i sn o tk nown : " i ti sn o tc l ea rh ow t h ey s e lec tl a nd f o r c u l t iva t ion f r om t h es u r f ace a sw eo b se rve ; h oweve r , t h eE zo [ A inu ] a r et hough t fu la nd d on o tb ehave r a sh ly ,s ot h e re mu s t b e s ome u nde r ly ing r a t iona le , t hough w ha t i ti sh a s n o t y e t b een k nown" ( c i ted i nT akaku ra 1 933 : 3 24 ) . T he r e a son w hy t h e A inu s e lec ted l a nd a t ad i s tance f r om t h e i r h ouse s a nd w en t d eep i n to t h e moun ta ins f o r c u l t iva t ion i se a sy t o u nd e r s tand i ft h ey d i dn o tw an tt ob es e en b yt h e Ma t suma e . I ti sv e ry i n te re s t ing t oc ompa re t h ea bove s t a temen t s , d a t ing f r om t h e 1 8 th -19 th c en tur ies , w i th e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s w r i t ten i n t he 2 0 th c en tury a f ter t he Me i j i -per iod t r an s fo rma t ion , t hough s ome o ft h em r e f lec te a r l ie ra ccoun t s . A cco rd ing t o t h ese r e cen t e t hnog raph ie s , A inu c u l t iva t ion w a sd e sc r ibed i nt e rm ss uch a st h ef o l low ing : " a l though t h e re a r e f e r t i le f i e ld s a round t h e i r h ou se s , ...as e lec t ion o f t h e A inu 's c u l t iva ted l a nd i ss ome t ime s a t ad i s tance o f 3 -4 r i ( 1 1 .7 -15 .5km )" ( Ar imo to 1 916 :357 ) ; o r " i t i so f ten mo re t h an 1r i( 3 .9 1 cm ) d i s tan t , l o ca ted d eep i nt h e f o re s t" ( Na ra 1 928 :192 ) . V a r ious i n te rp re ta t ion s t h a t h ave b een m ade o n t h e b a s is o ft h ese s t a temen t s a r e : 1 )t h a t t h e A inu c ho se t h e c u l t iva t ion o f l a nd a l ong r i ve r s w h ich a r e l o ca ted a mong

13

moun ta in s ; i ti sn o t n ece ssa ry t o h ave a f i e ld n ea r t h e i r h ou se , o r2 )t h a tt h e A inu d id n o tc a re w he re t h e i rc u l t iva t ion f i e ld s w e re l o ca t ed , o r 3 ) t h a t t h e i r s e lec t ion w a s r e la ted t o s o i l c ond i t ions , p a r t icu la r ly t h e s o f tnes s o f t h e s o i l b ecau se t h ey d id n o t h ave a g r icu l tu ra l t oo l s . T h is i lus t ra te s t h a t a n a c t ion c anno t b e i n terp re ted w i thou t u nde r s tand ing t h e i n ten t ion so ft ho se w ho c a r ry i to u t( Hodde r 1 982 ) . E ven i fa c t s a r e p roh ib i ted , i ft h e d eg ree o f n ecess i ty f o r c omm i t t ing s uch a c t ions i ss uff ic ien t ly h igh i n as oc ie ty , t h e re a r e a lways p eop le w ho w i l l v io la te t h e p roh ib i t ion . A l though c u l t iva t ion w a s p roh ib i t ed b y t h e Ma t sumae , s ome o ft h eA inu d e spe ra te ly n eeded t oc u l t iva te i no rder t o make a l i v ing : " a 1 4 -yea r -o ld g i r l i st h e o n ly o ne w ho c an s uppor t t h e f am i ly b y f i sh ing a nd g a the r ing , s o i ti sn eces sa ry f o r u s t o c u l t iva te i n o rde r t o s u rv ive , r ega rd les s o f wha t w e a r e t o ld b y t h e Ma t sumae" , a nd t h e re i s as ma l l f i e ld i nf r on to f t h e ir h ouse a nd b eans , m i l le t , a nd b a rnya rd m i l le t a r e c u l t iva ted . ( Ma t suura 1 857 : moder n v e r s ion b y Ma ruyama 1 973 :74 -75 ) F u r the re v idence i nd ica t e s t h a tt h e Ma t suma e man ipu la ted t h e A inu i d eo log ica l ly t op reven tt h em f r om c u l t iva t ing c rop s : a nA inu s a id : "Ma t suma e 's p eop le t h rea tened u s t h a ti fy ou s ow s e ed s i nt h ef i e ld s , t h en t h eg od s o ft h eE zo l a nd g e ta ngr y a nd e p idem ic d i sea se s w i l l s p read a l l o ve r t h e E zo l a nd , s o t h a t t h e d escendan t s o f t h e E zo [ A inu ] w i l l d i e o u t c omp le te ly" , o rt h ey s a id t ot h e E zo [ A inu ] : ". ..i fy ou w an t t od i e f r om a n i lnes s c au sed b y b e ing c u r sed a s ar e su l to fc u l t iva t ion , t h en y ou s hou ld d o i t ,a nd i fy ou r ea l ly w ish t oc u l t iva t e f i e ld s i n i m i ta t ion o f S hamo [ J apanese ] , t h en y ou s hou ld s have y ou r b ea rd s i mmed ia te ly l i ke t h e N ish ipa [ t he ma s te ro r S hogun i nJ apane se ] i n E do [ p re sen t T okyo ] , a nd s peak J apanese . T he n ames o fE zo [ A inu ] w ho s peak J apane se w i l l b e w r i t ten d own o n as hee t o f p ape r a nd b u rn ti nf r on to fB en tensama [ aJ apane se g od o r s p ir i t ] , t hen y ou w i l l d ie i mmed ia te ly" ( i b id . :73 ) . T hese s t a temen t s , i mp ly ing i d eo log ica l man ipu la t ion o fA inu s oc ie ty , i nd ica te t h e s t reng th o f t h e Ma t sumae a t t i tude t o A inu a t temp t s a tc u l t iva t ion a nd h ow s e r iou s ly t h ey t r ied t o p r even tc u l t iva t ion a mong t h e A inu . I tc an a l so b eu nde r s tood t h a t , f o rt h e A inu , c u l t iva t ion w a s i mpor tan t f o r s urv iva l . Af u r the r i n te res t ing f a c t i st h a t , o ve r 1 00 y ea r s l a te r , t h i s i d eo log ica l man ipu la t ion b y t h e Ma t sumae i sr ef lec ted i nt h e c ommon i d eo logy o ft h e S akha l in A inu , a s Wa tanabe r e vea l s f r om h i se t hnog raph ic d a ta . H es a id: Among t h e S akha l in A inu , i tw a s s a id t h a t i f l a nd w a sc u l t iva ted r a sh ly ,t h en t ho se w ho d id i t wou ld g e t i l , a nd t h e ir a c t ion wou ld b r ing m isfo r tune u pon t h e ir d escendan t s . S o , i ti s n ece ssa ry t ou nde r s tand t h e b a s ic men ta l i ty o f h un ter -ga the re r s (Wa tanabe , c onver sa t ion i n A nza i &o the r s 1 990 :61) .

2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a r chaeo logy

b een c u l t iva ted , a nd t ha t 2s k i l led w omen w e r e i n vo lved i n h a rve s t ing i t , t h en o n ly 5 -8 d ays w o rk wou ld h ave b een r equ i red t o h a rve s t e nough t o f e ed t h e 5p e r sons i n t h e a ve rage h ou seho ld ( S egawa 1 989 :81 ) . T h i s c a lcu la t ion s ugges t s t h a t b a rnya rd m i l le t c ou ld e a s i ly h ave b een t h e ma in f ood o f t h e A inu , w i thou t a ny n eed t o c u l t iva te al a rge a r ea .

I t wou ld b e i mpos s ib le t ou nde r s tand t h e b a s ic men ta l i ty o f t h eh un te r s -ga the re r si fh i sd a ta w e re b a sed o n as t o ry d e r ived f r om Ma t sumae 's man ipu la t ion p ropaganda a s d e sc r ibed a bove . H oweve r , t hese d a ta wou ld b e v e ry u sefu l f o r c l a r if y ing h ow s uch man ipu la t ion h ad a f f ec ted t h ep e r iphe ra l z one o f t h e A inu c u l tu re . B y s ea rch ing f o r t h is k ind o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta , wh ich m igh t a l ready h ave b e en c o l lec ted e l sewhe re i nt he p a s t , i t may b e p o ss ib le t ot r ace b ack t h e d i f fus ion o fi d eo log ica l man ipu la t ion . T he s en tence f r om t h ea bove p a ragraph w h ich may r a ise t h e q ue s t ion o fg ende rr o le sf o rc u l t iva t ion i s : " i fy ou r ea l ly w i sh t o c u l t iva t e f i e ld s i n i m i ta t ion o f S ha m [ J apane se ] , t h en s have y ou r b ea rd s i mmed ia te ly l i ke t h e N i sh ipa [ ma s te r o r S hogun i n J apane se ] i n E do [ p re sen t T okyo ] , a nd s peak J apane se" . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t h e p h ra se " shave y ou r b ea rd i mmed ia te ly" wou ld o n ly make s ense i nt h ec on tex to f a na ud ience o fA inu men . I th a s b een t hough t t h a t " cu l t iva t ion i n t h e A inu c u l tu re i s women 's w o rk , a s ap a r t o f d ome s t ic w o rk i n s ma l l -sca le f i e ld s w i th d igg ing s t ick s" ( Haya sh i 1 969 , Wa tanabe 1 990 ) . I ft h is w a st h ec a se , wha tw a s t h e mo s ta pp rop r ia te r ea son f o r t h e Ma t sumae 's p roh ib i t ion p o l icy , i nvo lv ing b o th t h rea t s a nd a t temp t s t o c on t ro l t he A inu i d eo log ica l ly? T he Ma t sumae w ou ld n o th ave n eeded t op reven tj u s ts ma l l sca le w omen 's w o rk .T he p res su re a pp l ied b y t h e Ma t suma er a the r i mpl ies t h a tb ecause t h e w omen 's r o le a sc u l t iva to r s w a s s o s i gn if ican t i n A inu s oc ie ty t ha t c u l t iva t ion n eeded t o b e p roh ib i ted . I ta l so i mp l ie s t h a t i n te rp re ta t ions made a bou t A inu c u l t iva t ion b a sed o n r e cen t e t hnograph ic d a ta a r e t h e r e su l t o f s oc ia l r ep roduc t ion w i th in t h e A inu c u l tu re w h ich w a s a f f ec t ed b y t he p roh ib i t ion o fc u l t iva t ion f r om t h e 1 7 th t ot he m id 19 th c en tu r ie s . A s t udy b a sed o n t he h i s to r ica l r eco rds g i ves t h e a r ea o f c u l t iva ted f i e ld s i na n A inu v i l lage i nd ica te st h a tt h ea ve rage a r ea o f c u l t iva ted f i e ld p e r h ouseho ld d ec rea sed f r om 6 8 .0 t s ubo ( 224 .4m 2)t o3 3 .3 t s ubo ( 109 .89m2)b e tween 1 800 a nd 1 858 i nt h e T okach i a r ea . T h i s i sd e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h e T okach i a r ea i sl o ca ted i nt h e s ou th -ea s to fH okka ido , s ome d i s tance f r om t he Ma t sumae . T he a rea o f c u l t iva t ion t h us a lmo s t h a lved i n t he p er iod u nde r c ons ide ra t ion ( Ha tano 1 981 :180 ) . T h is p rov ides s t rong e v idence t h a t ad ec rea se i n t h ea rea u nde rc u l t iva t ion w a st a k ing p l ac ei nA inu s oc ie ty a t t h a t t ime .

T he r e a son w hy t h e Ma t sumae p roh ib i ted c u l t iva t ion among t h e A inu i s" p re sumab ly t h a t , i ft h eE zo [ A inu ] w o rked h a rd a tc u l t iva t ion ,t h ep roduc t so ff i sh ing wou ld d ec r ea se ; t h en ,a s ar e su l t , t r ade f o r me rchan t s w ou ld a l so b e r e duced , t h en t h e t a x y i e ld f o r t h e Ma t sumae wou ld b e r educed a s w e l l" ( Mogam i , mode rn v e r s ion b y Y o sh ida 1 965 :45 ) ;o r , t h e o n ly w ay t os u rv ive f o rt h e Ma t sumae u nde rt h eB aku -Han s ys tem w a s " t o f o rce t h e A inu t ol a bou r" ( Ka iho 1 991 :80 ) , b ecause t h e Ma t sumae 's i n come w a s l a rge ly b a sed o n t h e i ra b i l i ty t o c on t ro l t h e b asho i nE zo l a nd . I n a dd i t ion , t h e Ma t sumae 's t r ibu te t o t h e T okugawa S hoguna l g ove rnmen t wa s i n t h e f o rm o fe xo t ic g ood s w h ich w e re o b ta ined t h ough t h e A inu . I f t he e x is tence o f t h e Ma t sumae u nde r t h e S hoguna l g ove rnmen t w a s b a sed o n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f A inu l abou r , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e f i sh ing i n dus t ry , w i th in t h e B a sho -Ukeo i s y s tem , t h en t h e p roh ib i t ion o f c u l t iva t ion a mong t h e A inu w a s a imed a ta cqu i r ing A inu w omen 's l a bou ra sw e l l a s t h a t o f t h e men . C onsequen t ly , t h i s i mp l ie s t h a t c u l t iva t ion i n A inu s oc ie ty b e fo re t h e p roh ib i t ion mu s t h ave b een mo re s i gn if ican ta nd e x ten s ive t h an i ss ugge s ted b yi n t e rp re ta t ion s b a sed o n r e cen t e t hnog raph ic d a ta ( s ee C hap te r 3f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica le v idence ) . F rom t he a bove d i scuss ion i t i s c l ea r t ha t f or a n u nde r s tand ing a nd e xp lana t ion o f t h e e n t i ty o fA inu c u l tu re , n e i the r h uman a gency a nd i n ten t ion s n o rf a c to r s w h ich w e re a f f ec ted b y s uch a na gency c an b e i gno red . I tm ake su s mo re a wa re o ft h e s i gn if icance o ft h e h i s to r ica lp roce s s a nd s oc ia l c hange , r a ther t h an t h e e cosys tem , i n t h e A inu c u l tu re . N eed le s st os a y ,e t hnog raph ic d a ta wh ich h ave b een c olec ted f r om i n fo rman t sn eed t ob e e xam ined w i th in t h e i r s oc ia l a nd h i s tor ica l c on tex t s . F ur the rmo re , t he i n forman t s o n whom e t hno log is t s r e ly f o r t h e i r i n fo rma t ion n eed t ob e u nde r s tood w i th in t h ec on tex to ft h ep e r iod a nd c ond i t ion si n wh ich t h ey l i ve . 2 -3 -3 The i r on -proh ib i t ion mode l

A cco rd ing t o ac a lcu la t ion f o r ag iven c u l t iva ted a r ea o f b a rnya rd m i l le t , i tw a ss t a ted t h a t" i no rde rt of e ed o ne p e r son f o r ay ea ro n b a rnya rd m i l le t , a n a r ea o f5 00m2 n eed s t ob e c u l t iva ted , s o , f o r ah ou seho ld o f 5p e r son sf o r ay ea r ,a na r ea o f3 000m2 w ou ld s uff ice t os upp ly t h e i rn eed s" ( B ira tor im ura s o to h akkasonsh i , c i ted i n T aka l cu ra 1 933 :328 ) . I ti sa l so e s t ima ted ,b a sed o nt h ea bove c a lcu la t ion , t h a t : b a rnya rd m i l le tp roduce s4 50 l i t re sp e r 1 000m2. A l though b a rnya rd m i l le t w ou ld n o th ave b een t h e s o le i t em i nt h e d i e t , 1 350 l i t res i sr equ i red i no rde r t of e ed o ne p e r son f o r ay ea r . As k i l led woman h a rve s t ing f o r 6h ou r s b y p ick ing e a r s o f b a rnya rd m i l le t c an g a the r 9 0 l i t res o f b a rnya rd m i l le t , c ove r ing a na r ea o f2 00 -300m 2. A ssum ing 3 000m 2 o f b a rnya rd m i l le t t oh ave

l i on , a s i nd ica ted b y B i sma rck 's s t a temen t t h a t " i ron i sa s t a te" ( B i sma rck ,s peech i n1 862 ) ,h as a lway sb een c on s ide red t ob e r e la ted t o as t a te o r an a t ion i na l l a ge s a nd c oun t r ies . H oweve r , r e cen t e thnoh is to r ica l a nd a r chaeome ta l lurg ica l s t ud ie s o f t h e I nu i t i nG reen land s ugge s t t h a t t h ey w e re a n e t hn ic g roup t h a tp roduced i r on p roduc t s f r om m e teo r ic i r on a nd c a r r ied o u ta ne x tens ive t r ade i ni r on p roduc t sd e sp i te t h e l a ck o f ad eve loped s t a t e s y s tem a nd t h e b e l ief t h a tt h ey h ad n o i r on t e chno logy ( Buchwa ld & Mo sda l 1 985 ) . T he r o le o f i r on i n h uman h i s to ry i ss o i mpo r tan t , a nd i t s v a lue i ss o g rea t a s as upe r io r r aw m a te r ia l , t ha t e verybody d es i res t o p o s se s s i t . T he i r on -p roh ib i t ion mode l i sb a sed o n ap o l icy a cco rd ing t o w h ich i r on , s uch a n i mpo r tan t ma te r ia l s f o rh uman b e ings , i s p roh ib i ted f r om b e ing t r aded . I ti sd es igned t op e rce ive t h e

14

2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a r chaeo logy

s ubs tan t ive p henomenon t h a tt ho se p eop le w ho p o sse s s i r on a r ea f ra id o ft h e o u t f low o fi r on , a nd t op e rce ive t h e w ay s i n w h ich p eop le w ho d o n o t p o sse s s i r on o b ta in i t .T he i r on p roh ib i t ion p o l icy i so pe ra ted b y p eop le w ho p o s se s i r on i n o rde r t o c on tro l d i f f eren t p er iphera l e thn ic g roups o r p opu la t ions . Howeve r , b y t h e t ime t h e p roh ib i t ion p o l icy w a s i mp lemen ted , i r on h ad a l ready s p read t ot h e p eop le w ho w e re t h ough n o t t o p osses s i t . Mo reove r , t h i s mode l a l so t a ke s i n to a ccoun tt h ep henomenon o fi r on o u t f low s i ns p i te o ft h ee x i s tence o fa ni r on -p roh ib i t ion p ol icy .

w a si n f e r io ra nd u n su i tab le . T hey a l so a sked f o r ar e tu rn f r om t h e p o l icy o f ac en t ra l i sed g overnmen t monopo ly t o t h e p o l icy o fe a r l ie rt i me s( Ga le 1 931 ) . A l though o ne o ft h ec en t ra l t op ic so ft h ed i scou r ses w a sh ow t ow o rk o u tt h eb e s tp o l icy f o rd ea l ing w i th t h eX iongnu , t h e e mpha s i sw a so ne a s ing t h e f i nanc ia lp rob lems c aused b y t h e X iongnu , r a the r t h an o n t h e s upp ly o fw eapons w h ich w e re s uppo sed t ob er e qu i red n ea rt h eb o rde rw i th t h eX iongnu .

F ur the r , Is ha l l i nc lude i n t h is p roh ib i t ion mode l t he t e chno log ica la spec t so fi r on , s i nce b o th i r on p roduc t ion a nd i r on u se a r e a ssoc ia ted w i th t e chno logy . T he t e chno logy w h ich p roduces i r on f r om t he r aw ma ter ia ls o f i r on , t h e t e chno logy w h ich p roduc es i r on p roduc t s , a nd t h et e chno logy w h ich p roce s se si r on a r ea l lr e levan th e re . T hus t h i s mode l a l lows u s t op e rce ive t h ese p henomena a nd t o make a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s f r om t h e a bove p o in t o fv i ew .T he se p henomena c an b es e en f r equen t ly i nh i s to ry , s o t h a t i ti sp os s ib le t o g ive s ome e xamp le s o n w h ich t o b a se t h i s mode lo ft h eu se o fi r on -p roh ib i t ion a s am e thod o f c on t ro l l ing o the r p e r iphe ra l e thn ic g roup s o r p opu la t ions . I r on p l ayed a v ery i mpo r tan t r o le i n t h e i n te rac t ion a nd c u l tu ra lc on tac tb e tween d i f f e ren te t hn ic g roup si nE a s tA s ia . H e re Is ha l ld i scuss t h e f o l low ing c a se s t ud ie s : t h eX iongnu , t h e J ürchen , t he Em ish i , a nd t h e A inu . I n s p i te o f t he d i f f e r en th i s to r ica la nd s oc ia lc on tex ti ne ach o ft h e se c a se s ,i t i ss t i l l p o s s ib le t ob u i ld a n i r on -p roh ib i t ion mode l . ( 1 ) T he c ase o f t he X iongnu T he i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e H an d yna s ty a nd t h e X iongnu , w ho w e r e n or thern b a rba r ians f r om t h e C h inese p o in t o f v i ew , h ad al ong h i s to ry . T he H an p o l icy w h ich c on t ro l led t h e X iongnu w a s d esc r ibed i n H an d ocumen t s . O ne o f t h e mo s t i n t e res t ing d ocumen t s f o r u nde r s tand ing n o t o n ly t h e H an p o l icy f o r t h e X iongnu b u ta l so t h e e conom ic p o l icy o f t h eH an d yna s ty , wh ich w a sa l so l i nked w i th a nd a f f ec ted t h e c on t ro l o ft h eX iongnu , c once rn s t h e s a l ta nd i r on i n dus t r ie s , w h ich w e re c en t ra l ised g ove rnmen t monopo l ie s u nde r t h e F o rme rH an d yna s ty .

K ageyama ( 1984 )p o in t s o u tt h a tt h is m igh tb e i n te rp re ted a s i n d ica t ing t ha t t h e i r on monopo ly w a s r e la ted o n ly t oi r on a g r icu l tu ra l t o o l s w h ich w e re p roduced b y t h e i r on c a s t ing t e chn ique , b u tn o tt oi r on w eapon s , w h ich w e re made o fs t ee l a nd p roduced b y t h e f o rg ing t e chn ique . H e d i scusse s t h e t e chno log ica l d i f f e rence s b e tween i r on a g r icu l tu ra l t o o l s a nd i r on w eapons , n o t ing t h a t t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic o fC h ine se i r on t e chno logy w a s t h a t t h e c a s t ing t e chn ique wa s d eve loped a round t h e 7 t h -6 th c en tu r ies BC , e a r l ie r t h an t h e p rac t ice o f s t ee l f o rg ing , w h ich d eve loped a r ound t h e 3 rd -4 th c en tu r ies BC . T he ma in r e a son w hy i r on c ame u nde rs t a te c on t ro l w as t h a t t h e s t a te w an ted t oa cqu i re f r om p r iva te e n te rp r ise t h e g rea t p rof i t s , w h ich a s soc ia ted w i th t h e h igh d emand f o r i r on a gr icu l tu ra l t o o l s b y f a rme r s , w ho h ad i n c rea sed i nn umbe r d ue t oe conom ic a c t iv i ty o n t h el a nd a f t e rt h eE ra o f Wa r . T he p roduc t ion o f i r on w eapon s , t h e refo re , m igh t a l ready h ave b een c on t ro l led b y t h e s t a t e b e fo re t h e i r on monopo ly w a s s e t u p . I ti sn a tu ra l t o a s sume t h a t w eapons wou ld b e c on t ro l led b y t h e s t a te b ecause o ft h e i r n a tu re a nd p u rpo se . A cco rd ing t ot h e H an S hu , " i t i ss a id t h a t b ronze w eapons w e re p roduced u nde r t h e s t a te" ( Han S hu , v o l . 7 6 ) . T h is s ugge s t st h a ti r on w eapons w e r ea l so p roduced u nde ra eg is o f t h e s t a te .

T he d i scour se so ns a l ta nd i r on i s ar e co rd o ft h ed eba t ea bou t s t a te c on t ro l o f c ommerce a nd i ndus t ry i n a nc ien t C h ina w h ich w a sp re sen ted b y H uan K 'u an , as cho la ro fH suan t i 's t ime ( 7 3 -49 BC ) . T he d eba te i ss a id t oh ave t a ken p l a ce i n8 1 BC i nt h eS h in -Yuan e ra o ft h e Empe ro rC hao ( 86 -81 BC ) .

I n a dd i t ion t o t h e i r on monopo ly a s a means o f f i nanc ia l s uppor t , i r on a s p roh ib i ted g ood s f o r b a rba r ians , a nd t h e p roh ib i t ion o ft r ade i ni r on p roduc t sa r ed e sc r ibed i nt h e Han S hu a nd t h e H o H an S hu . A cco rd ing t ot h e l aw o f t h e H an , w eapons a nd i r on w e re p roh ib i ted g ood s t h a tw e re n o t t ob e t a ken i n to b a rba r ian t e r r i to ry . U nde r Emp re ss L u ( 187 -180 BC ) , " me ta l , e sp ec ia l ly i r on , i r on p an s , a nd a g r icu l tu ra l t oo l s w e r ep roh ib i t ed g ood s f o ra l l t h eb a rba r ian s ( i nc lud ing t ho se o f t h e N o r th , We s t , a nd S ou th )" ( Yü 1 967 ) . " Acco rd ing t o t h e p roh ib i t ion , i ti sn o t a l lowed t oe xpo r t w eapon s , g ra in , h o r se s ,o xen , a nd s heep" . A l l t h ei t ems w e re p roh ib i ted g ood s m en t ioned s eve ra l t ime s i n t h e H an i mpe r ia l e d ic t s ( i b id . 1 29 ) . Mo reove r , t h eH an S hu s ay s : " i n t h eb a rba r ian ma rke t , o ff ic ia l s a s w e l l a sc ommon p eop le a r e n o t a l lowed t oc a r ry w eapon sa nd i r on b eyond t h ef r on t ie rb a r r ie r s" ( Han S hu ,v o l . 5 0 ) . T hus , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e i r on -p roh ib i t ion p o l icy w a s a pp l ied t ot h e X iongnu b y t h e H an d yna s ty . T he p roh ib i t ion s w e re e nac ted p r ima r i ly o n a ccoun t o fp o l i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry c on s id e ra t ion sr a the rt h an o ne conom ic g round s .

A p ro longed a rgumen t e nsued b e tween t h e L o rd G rand S ec re ta ry o f t he Han g ove rnmen t , t h e s t a tesman a nd e conom is t S ang Hung Y ang , w ho d efended h i s p o l ic ie s a ga in s tt h ed emand so ft h er e commended s i x ty r e p re sen ta t ive s o ft h e L i t e ra t i a nd Wo r thy c l a s se s . T hey w e re s ummoned t o p re sen tc r i t ic i sm st ot h ee f f ec tt h a tt h eg ove rnmen t monopo ly

O ne o ft h ep o l ic ie st h eH an o pe ra t ed i no rde rt ow in o ve rt h e X iongnu w a s t oo pen ma rke t s f o r t r ade n ea r t h e b o rde r a nd e xchange g ood sa nd a gr icu l tu ra lp roduc t s w h ich t h e X iongnu d e spe ra te ly w an ted t oh ave , a s i ts ays : " t he X iongnu v e ry m uch l i ked H an f ood" ( Han S hu , v o l . 9 4 , &S h i j i , v o l . 10 ) . P eace b e twe en t h em w a sm a in ta ined i nt h i s w ay .

S cho la r s h ave b a sed t h e ir s t ud ies o f t h e s a l t a nd i r on monopo l ie s o n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f ad ocumen te n t i t led T he d i scour se so ns a l ta nd i r on . T he a im o ft h e se s t ud ie sh a sb een t ou nde r s tand t h eH an d yna s ty h i s to r ica l ly ,e conom ica l ly , a nd p o l i t ica l ly . T he r o le o f i r on a t t h e t ime o f t h e H an d yna s ty c an b ee l uc ida ted b y s t udy ing t h is h i s to r ica ld o cumen t .

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2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a rchaeo logy

T he H an me rchan t s who w e re i nvo lved i n t h i s t r ade a r e d e sc r ibed i nr eco rd s o ft h ee conomy a nd g eog raphy o fN o r th C h ina ( Sh i j i , v o l . 1 29 ) . I n t h is t r ade , me rchan t s d ea l t n o t o n ly w i th g oods wh ich w e re p erm i t ted b u t a l so w i th p roh ib i ted g ood s a s c on t raband , d e sc r ibed a s" kan lan c h 'u w u" ( Sh i j i , v o l . 10 ) a nd " l an -ch 'u t s 'a i w u" ( Sh i j i , v o l . 1 20 , a nd Han S hu v o l . 5 0 ) . Y ü ( 1967 )d i scu s se st h ee x i s tence o ft h ec on t raband t r ade , s t a t ing t h a t t h e b a rba r ian s c ou ld o b ta in w eapons a nd i r on p ans n e i the r f r om t h e H an g overnmen t a s " g if t s" n o r f r om t h e b a rba r ian ma rke t s a s e xchange g oods , t h e mos t l i ke ly c hanne l t h rough wh ich s uch t h ings w en t a l l t h e w ay f r om i n te r io r C h ina a nd g o t b eyond t h e b o rde r w a sp robab ly c on t raband t r ade ( Yü 1 967 :130 ) .

w a s c ons ide red t ha t t h is d id n o t b enef i t t h e c oun try , a nd s hou ld b e s t opped , b y c lo s ing t h e c r o s s -bo rde rr oad s a nd s e t t ing u p i n te rp re te r si n o rde r t oa sk v i s i to r s w ha t r ea son t h ey h ad f o r e n te r ing t h e c oun try . ( M ing , v o l . 1 59 ) . T he g ove rnmen td ec ided n o tt oe xpo r ti r on a nd c a t t le .

Howeve r , a t ap lace b eyond t h e n o r the rn f r on t ie r , al a rge n umbe ro fi r on w eapon sa nd i mp lemen t sh ave b een r e cove red , a nd i d en t if ied a so fH an o r ig in .T he se i n c lude s wo rd s ,d oub le e dged s wo rd s , a xe s , s pade s , k n ive s , e t c . Y ü m en t ioned t h a ta R uss ian a r chaeo log is t , R udenko , h a s p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e b a rba r ian s n o to n ly o b ta ined i r on f r om C h ina b u ta l so k new h ow t os me l t i r on a nd f o rge i r on i mp lemen t s . H oweve r i ti s r a the rd i ff icu l tt od i s t ingu i sh t h eH an i mpo r t sf r om t h en a t ive p roduc t s among s uch f i nd s ( i b id . :168 ) . I n t h i s c onnec t ion , a rchaeo log ica l f i nds c an b e mo s t f r u i t fu l ly s t ud ied i n c on junc t ion w i th l i te ra ry s ou rce s i n o rde r t ot e s t t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion mode l .

( 2 ) The c ase o f t he J ürchen T he M ing d yna s ty ( 1368 -1644 ) e xecu t ed a n i r on -p roh ib i t ion p o l icy a ga ins t ap er iphe ra l e t hn ic g roup , t h e J ü rchen , f r om t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry t h rough t o t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry . T he re w e re t h ree g roups o fJ ü rchen p eop le . O ne w a s t h e Y e ren J ü r chen , who d id n o t c u l t iva te ; t h e i r s ubs is tence w as b a sed o n h un t ing -ga the r ing . T he s e cond w a s t h e H a ix i J ü rchen , w ho s e t t led a nd c u l t iva ted t h e g round . T he t h i rd w a s t h eJ i anzhou J ü rchen , w ho w e re a lmo s t t h e s ame a s t h e C h inese i nw ha t t h ey a t ea nd w o r e . I n 1 439 , t h eM ing Empe ro rd ec ided t op roh ib i tt h e e xchange o fi r on b ecause o fa no ff ice r 's w o rd t h a t b a rba r ians ( i nc lud ing t h e J ü rchen ) b r ing b a ck f ab r ic s , c a t t le , a nd c oppe r a nd i r on p roduc t s f r om o u r ma rke t s t o t h e i r h ome t e r r i to ry t o mee t a l l t h e n eed s o f t h e i r t e r r i to ry . T he b a rba r ians p roce s sc oppe ra nd i r on a nd u se t h em a s s ource ma te r ia ls . T he re fo r e , w e s hou ld c ea se t o e xchange g ood s w h ich a r e made f r om i r on a nd c oppe r ( M ing ; E iso -S i l lok , v o l . 5 4 ) . T he Empe ro ra ccep ted t h i sp ropo sa la nd o rde red ap roh ib i t ion o fi r on t r ad ing i nt h e ma rke t s , s ay ing " i fa nyone b reache st h e r u le , t h e i r a c t ion w i l l b e p un i shed" ( M ing ; E iso -S i l lok , v o l . 5 4 ) . Howeve r , t h e p o l icy o fp roh ib i t ion w a s n o t e f fec t ive s i nce , 3 0 y ea r s l a te r i n 1 476 , p roh ib i t ion w a s o rde red a ga in i n r e sponse t or epo r t st ha t much e xchange o fi r on i ss t i l l c a r r ied o n b y t h e a rmy a nd p eop le w hen t h e Ko reans a nd b a rba r ian s c ome t og i ve t r ibu te t ot h e M ing . I t

T he i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e Ming a nd t h e J ü rchen s t a r ted a round 1 403 , a s at r ibu te r e la t ionsh ip i nt h e u sua l C h ine se w ay . I n 1 406 , af r on t ie r h eadqua r te r s o f f ice w a s s e t u p a nd h o r se m a rke t s w e re o pened . T he n umbe r o fJ ü rchen c om ing t ot h e ma rke t r anged f r om 1 0 p eop le a tt h e s ma l les t t ot h e l a rges t a s many a s 2 -3000 p eop le . T he J ü rchen r ece ived a g rea t a moun t o f i r on f r om t h e Ming b y e xchang ing i tf o r h o r se s , w h ich t h ey h ad o b ta ined f r om t h e Mongo l ian s . T he J ü rchen p eop le w en t t o t h e c i ty o f t h e M ing w i th t r ibu te g ood s o fh o r se s , s ab le , a nd g inseng . I nt h i s w ay t h e J ü rchen o b ta ined i r on f r om t h e M ing . T he Ming d yna s ty t a xed g ood s a tt h e r a te o f a n i r on p o t f o r o ne b un o f s i lve r i n o rde r t o r e ce ive al a rge a moun to fe xchange t a x f r om t h eJ ü rchen . T he M ing d yna s ty k new t h a t t h e J u rchen u sed i r on a nd f e l t t h rea t ened b ecause t h eJ ü rchen w e re b ecom ing p owe r fu l .T he M ing m an ipu la ted t h is f a c t i no rde r t oe xe r tc on t ro l o ve rt h e J ür chen p o l i t ica l ly b y c on t ro l l ing i r on e xchange . T h i s w a s t h er ea son f o ri n s t i tu t ing t h e i r on -p roh ib i t ion . N o t o n ly t h e M ing d yna s ty b u t a l so a no the r n e ighbou r ing c oun t ry — t h e K o rean d yna s ty — t r ied t oc on t ro l t h ef l ow o f i r on t ot h e J ü rchen . T he J ü rchen a l so h ad i n te rac t ions w i th K o rea i no rde rt oe xchange t h e i rg ood s f o ri r on . A cco rd ing t o K o rean h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s k nown a s t h e n jo S i l lok , i ti s s a id t h a t i tw a sn o t t oo u rc oun t ry 's b ene f i t t ha ta ny i r on g ood s a r e g o ing t o t h e J ü rchen t e r r i to ry ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 2 76 ) . C a t t le a nd i r on g oods h ad b een e xchanged f o r s ab le f u r , wh ich t he J ürchen b rough t i n ; h oweve r , c a t t le s a nd i r on g ood sa r e f l ow ing o u t t o t h e i r t e r r i tory ; t h is n eed s t o b e p roh ib i ted ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 5 2 ) . o r , t h e re i s as t a temen t t ha t i no rde r t op roh ib i t t h e e xchange o f i r on f o r s ab le f u r , t he K o rean g ove rnmen t p roh ib i ted t h e w ea r ing o fs ab le f u r c oa t s w h ich c aused p rob lem s ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 2 5 ) . Mo reove r , G i f t so rp resen ts o ff u rc oa t sa r ep roh ib i ted , a nd a l so p roh ib i ted i st h e r e ce ip to ft r ibu te i ns ab le f u r f r om 5 v i l lages i n b o rde r a r ea . I fa nyone r e ce ived o rp e rm i t ted r ece ip to fs uch f u r s , t h ey w ou ld b e p un ished s eve re ly ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 2 76 ) .

F rom t h e a bove i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e Ko rean d yna s ty a l so h ad e xecu ted a n i r on -p roh ib i t ion p o l icy . T he K o reans r ea l i sed h ow s e r ious t h e s i tua t ion w a s when a ny k i nd o f i r on g ood s c ou ld b e p roce ssed i n to i r on w eapons . O nce t he J ü rchen b ecame p owe r fu l , t h en t h ey w ou ld b ecome at h rea ta nd p eace w ou ld b ea tr i sk .

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2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a r chaeo logy

F rom a round 1 474 , s ab le f u rb ecame s o p opu la r a nd s uch a p rec ious i t em t ha t e ve rybody i n K o rea w an ted t oh ave i t . S ab le c oa t s w e re worn e spec ia l ly b y t h e R oya l f am i ly a nd a r is toc racy , a nd t h ey w e r e v e ry p l ea sed t or e ce ive t h em a s t r ibu te o rg i f t s . U nde rt h e se c i rcum s tance s , o ne c ou ld n o tg o o u t w i thou t as ab le c oa t b ecau se i tw a s t o o s hamefu l ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 2 9 ) . T he J ü rchen d ec ided o n ap o l icy t h a t s ab le s k in s s hou ld n o t b e e xchanged f o r a ny th ing b u t i r on ( Y ip S i l lok , v o l . 2 28 ) . G a r r i sons o fJ ü rchen o n t h eb o rde rw e re i nc ha rge o fd ea l ing w i th t h is e xchange b e tween t h e J ü rchen a nd t h e K o rean s . T hen s ab le b ecame v ery v a luab le a nd b rough t h i gh p rof i t s . T he K o rean g overnmen t d ec ided t op roh ib i t t h e w ea r ing o f s ab le c oa t s a nd t h e p ay ing o f t r ibu te i ns ab le , w i th s eve re p ena l t ies f o rb reak ing t h er e gu la t ion s . Ano the rp o l icy a imed a to b ta in ing i r on w a st od ea li n Ko rean c ap t ives ( KO S i l lok , v o l . 2 82 ) . K o rean c ap t ive s w e re r e tu rned i n e xchange f o r i r on o b jec t s . O ne c ap t ive w a s e qu iva len tt ot h i r ty c a t t le , o ne h o r se , a n i r on h e lme t , t e n i r on p an s , t e n a g r icu l tu ra l t oo ls , t e n h oe s , t e n a xe s , f i ve b ra s s b ow l s , a nd f i ve b ra s s h ub s ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 2 82 ) . T hu s i ti s c l ea rt h a t many i r on o b jec t se n t e red J ü rchen t e r r i to ry .

A l though i r on t oo l s w ere i n i t ia l ly i n t roduced t o J ü rchen s oc ie ty f r om t h e M ing t h rough t h e med ium e xchange , a ta n e a r l ie r p e r iod t h e J ü rchen d id n o t k now h ow t o u se i r on . A cco rd ing t oh i s to r ica l d ocumen t s ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 5 7 ) , t h e i r on i ndus t ry a mong t h e J ü rchen g radua l ly d eve loped i nt h e l a t e 1 5 th c en tury . Ad ocumen to f1 475 d e sc r ibe s ab lack sm i th a nd c r a f t speop le w ho p roduced b ows i n av i l lage . A cco rd ing t o ad ocumen t o f 1 483 , when t h e J ürchen ( J ianzhou a nd Y e ren ) w e re i nv i ted t o c ou r t , t hey w ere a sked s eve ra l q ues t ion s . " How d o y ou make g ree t ings w hen men r ece ive t h e i r w ive s?" "Men b r ing s ome g i f t s t ot h e w if e 's f am i ly ." "Wha t a r e t h e g i f t s?" "Men b r ing w eapons t o t he w if e 's f am i ly ." "Wha ta r et h ew eapons made o f ?" " They a r e made o f i r on ." " How d o y ou make i r on?" " I ron i s made o n g round h ea r th s ." " A re t h e r ea ny s m i ths?" " The re a r e many ." A cco rd ing t oL i ( L i 1 984 ) , t h e J ü rchen d id n o tk now a bou t l i an t ie ( w rough t i r on ) . T hey o n ly k new s e i te tsu , w h ich w a s t h e t e chn ique o fr ep roce ss ing i r on g ood s . T he p roce ss o ft h e r e p roduc t ion o f i r on g oods w a s p rogres s ing a tt ha t t ime i n J ü r chen s o c ie ty ,b u tt h ey d id n o tk now h ow t op roduce l i an t ie d i rec t ly f r om i r on o re . S e i te tsu i mp l ies t ha t r ep roduc t ion r e l ied o na va i lab il i ty o f ma te r ia l f r om t h eM ing a nd f r om t h e K o r ea ( i b id . ) . T he t e chn ica l p roce ss o f t h i s s t age w a s e s tab l i shed i n t h e i r s oc ie ty a l though i tw a s s t i l l t h e p roces s ing s t age . Ko rean d ocumen t s i n d ica te t h a tt h e r e w e re a l ready b la ck sm i ths i nt h e J ü rchen t e r r i to ry . A cco rd ing t o t h e Ko rean d ocumen t s o f 1 494 , " t he re w e re 7 0J ü rchen p eop le a tF unne i ; i n1 480 , t h ey e s caped f r om K o rean t e r r i to ry , b u t i n 1 481 s ome o f t h em w en t b ack t o K o rean t e r r i to ry , w he re a n umbe r o f t h em s t ayed , a nd t h e p eop le w ho s t ayed s t a r ted t o p roduce w eapons" . T h is c l ea r ly i nd ica tes t ha t t h e J ü rchen w e re b l ack sm i ths , a nd a l so i mp l ies t h a tt h e i r -i r on t e chn iques w e re v e ry a dvanced , d ue t o t h e i n f luence o f t h e M ing a nd t h e K o rean s( i b id . ) .

A s w e h ave s een , t h e re w e re p recond i t ions f o r t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion p o l icy o f t h e M ing a nd t h e K o rean d yna s t ie s b e fo r e t h ee xecu t ion o fi r on -p roh ib i t ion p ol icy . A l though t h e p roh ib i t ion p o l icy made t h ings d i f f icu l t i n J ü rchen s oc ie ty a nd d e layed t h e d eve lopmen t o f J ü rchen p roduc t ion a nd t h e i r s t anda rd o fl i v ing , t h e re a r e i n d ica t ion s t ha t t h e re wa s c on t raband t r ade i nt h i s c a se a s w e l l . I tw a s s a id b y aJ ü rchen l e a the r t r ade r t h a t " p rev iou s ly , s uch i r on g ood s w e re h idden i no rde rt oe xchange t h em ,b u tn owaday s t h e re i so pen e xchange n o to n ly o fa g r icu l tu ra l t o o l s b u ta l so o f w eapons" ( Y i jo S i l lok , v o l . 5 2 ) . T h is r e f lec ted t h e r e s igned a t t i tude o f Ko rea i nt h a t t h e re w a s n o w ay t os t op i r on f l ow ing i n to J ü rchen t e r r i to ry . T he i r on -p roh ib i t ion w a s t h ep o l icy o ft h eM ing a nd t h eK o rean s , i td i dn o tn ece s sa r i ly f o l low t ha t i r on d id n o t f l ow i n to t h e J ü rchen t e r r i to ry . F o r e xamp le ,p roh ib i t ion o fi r on e xpo r t sb yt h eM ing s pe c if ica l ly r e f e r red t oi r on w eapons b u td i dn o t i n c lude i r on a g r icu l tu ra l t oo l s s uch a sh oe sa nd s pade s .

T he J ü rchen a l ready p o s sessed t u ye re s . T h is i mpl ie st ha th i gh t empe ra tu re s c ou ld b ep roduced i n s ide t h eh ea r ths , w h ich l e d t ot h e p roduc t ion o fh igh q ua l i ty i r on i nl a rge q uan t i t ies . T he d ocumen t s a l so r e co rd t ha t r ed h o t i r on w a s i mmed ia te ly d ipped i n to w a te r . T h is i mp l ies t ha t t h e h ea t t r ea tmen t t e chn ique w a s u sed i n o rde r t o e nhance t h e h a rdne ss a nd s ha rpne s so ft h ep roduc t s . T he J ü rchen i r on i ndu s try c ou ld b e d e sc r ibed a sa n a rmamen ts i ndus t ry , p roduc ing a rmour a nd h e lme t s f o r w a r s a ga in s t e x te rna l e nem ie s a nd f o r i n ter na l w a r s( i b id . ) .

I ti sq u i te c l ea r t ha t ac e r ta in a moun t o f i r on f l owed i n to J ürchen t e r r i to ry . T he J ü rchen p rocessed t h e i r on i n t h e f o l low ing w ay : b roken i r on p an sw e re me l ted d own a nd t h en t he i r on w a s r ep roduced t om ake i r on g ood s a nd w eapon s . T he refore , t h e d emand f o r i r on i n J ü rchen s oc ie ty w a s s a t isf ied f r om w i th in t ha ts oc ie ty .

I nt h e 1 6 th c en tu ry , u nde r Nu rhac i 's l e ade r sh ip , t h e p ace o f d eve lopmen to ft h eJ ü r chen i r on i n dus t ry a cce le ra ted . I n1 599 , N u rhac i o rde red t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f i r on s and o res a nd t h e o pen ing o fm ine s . N u rhac i w a s i nH e tu -a la a tt h a t t ime , a nd t h e m in ing t own w a s w i th in 4 00 km o f H e tu -a la . J ürchen t e r r i to ry w a s n o t o n ly r i ch i nr aw ma te r ia l s s uch a s i r on o r e a nd c oa l , b u t a l so m any o f t h e J ü rchen w e re s k i l led s m i th s w ho h ad a l ready ma s te red t h et e chn ique so fu s ing t u ye re sa nd o fq uench ing ( i b id . ) .

I ti s v e ry i n te res t ing t o c ons ide r t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e J ürchen i r on i ndus t ry u nde r t h e i r on -p roh ib i t ion p o l icy . H is to r ica l d ocumen t s i nd ica te t h a t , d e sp i t e i r on -p roh ib i t ion , t h e d eve lopmen to ft h e i r on i n dus t ry i nJ ü rchen s oc ie ty w a s a n e xamp le o f as ucces s s t o ry . T he J ü rchen w e r e f o rced t o i n i t ia te d eve lopmen t s w i th in t h e i r o wn s oc ie ty i no rde r t o a l lev ia te t h is s e r ious l a ck o fi r on . T h is l e d t ot h e p roduc t ion o fi r on i no rde rt os a t isfy c onsume rd emand f o ri r on t ou se i n e ve ryday l i f ea nd w a r .

A cco rd ing t oK o rean h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s o f 1 594 , ar epo r t o f a messenge r w ho w en t t o H e tu -a la , t he re we re 1 6 c r a f t speop le w ho p roduced a rms , 5 0 c ra f t speop le f o ra r row s , 3 0c r a f t speop le f o rb ow s , a nd 1 5 b l ack sm i ths . T hese w e re a l l

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f o re igne r s ,b u tn o tC h ine se o r Ko rean s ; t h ey w e re b a rba r ians o f t h e No r th ( i .e . t h e J ü rchen ) . S pec ia l ised c raf t speop le a l ready e x i s ted a nd t h ey u nde r s tood h ow t op roduce i r on f r om i r on o re . T hus , t h eJ ü rchen i r on i ndus t ry h ad d eve loped f r om t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry t ot h e e a r ly 1 7 th c en tu ry a s t h e t e chn ique r e ached t h e l eve l o f p roduc ing a nd s m i th ing i r on , w he rea s b efo re i ti nvo lved o n ly r ep rocess ing i r on f r om u sed i r on o b jec t s( i b id . ) .

t h e refo re c a l led t h e R i t su -Ryo s ys tem , a nd t h e s t a te o ft h a t t imes i sc a l led t h eR i t su -Ryo s t a te ( s ee C hap t e r 1 ) . B y s t udy ing o f t h e R i t su -Ryo r egu la t ion s i ti sp o ss ib le t o g a in a n i n s igh t i n to t h e p er iphe ra l s i tua t ion a nd t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween t ho se p eop le who l i ved o n t h e p e r iphe ry a nd b eyond t h eb ounda r ie s .

N u rhac ir e ga rded i r on p roduc t ion a si mpo r tan ta nd t r ea ted t h e b l ack sm i th sv e ry w e l l . A cco rd ing t o ar e co rd o f1 601 , w hen a b a t t le b e tween Ko rea a nd t h eJ ü rchen h ad t a ken p lace i nt h e n or th o fK o rea , an umbe ro fK o reans i n c lud ing s k i l led s m i th s w e re c ap tu red . A t t h a t t ime i nJ ü rchen t e r r i to ry , t h e re w e re n o t e nough i r on g ood s s uch a s i r on b a l l s , a rms , a xe s , a nd s i ck les . O nce s m i th s e n te red J ü rchen t e r r i to ry , N u rhac i w a s v e ry p lea sed a nd w e lcomed t hem , g iv ing t hem g i f t s , i n c lud ing c a t t le a nd h o r se s . I n g ene ra l , N urhac i t r ea ted K o rean s m i ths v e ry w e l l a nd t h e J ü rchen s m i ths e ven b e t te r . T hus , d eve lopmen to ft h e i r on i ndus t ry w a sg i ven p r io r i ty i n J ü rchen s oc ie ty ( i b id . ) . A cco rd ing t o t he K o rean e yew i tne ss r epor t o f 1 620 , t h e re w e re a l l k ind s o f c ra f t speop le f o r s i lve r , i r on , l e a the r , a nd w ood ; i np a r t icu la r , t h e t e chn ique s o ft h e b l ack sm i th s w e re e xce l len t . A cco rd ing t os oc io -h i s to r ica lr e sea rch c onduc ted i nt h i sa r ea i n1 980 , af anne rs a id t h a tb e fo re 1 949 al a rge q uan t i ty o fr aw i r on w a s f ound a nd w as c a r r ied a way i n t wo c a r t s . F u r the rmo re , a f te r 1 949 i nt h es ame a r ea , much r aw i r on a nd i r on s l ag w a s f ound . T he se ma te r ia l r ema in s , i n c lud ing i r on i n go t s , i r on s wo rd s , i r on t o o l s , i r on h e lme t s ,a nd i r on f i l es i n aw ide r a nge o fv a r ie ty a nd q ua l i ty , a l l o fw h ich c an n ow b e s een i n t h e museum , i nd ica te t ha t t h e l e ve l o f t h e i r on t e chn ique a mong t h eJ ü rchen w a sv e ry a dvanc ed ( i b id . ) . T he f a c t i st ha t i n 1 619 t h e h i s to r ic w a r o f S a r fü l e d t oa c hange o fd yna s ty i nC h ina , w i th t h eM ing b e ing r ep la ced b y t h e C h ing , who w e re i n f a c t t h e J ü rchen p eop le l e d b y Nu rhac i ( Kawauch i 1 992 ) . T he ir p owe r w a s f u l ly s uppo r ted w i th i r on w eapon s made b yt h eJ ü rchen p eop le . T he J ü r chen i r on i n dus t ry p rog res sed u nde rN u rhac i 's r u le a nd h i s p o l icy . A l though t h e M ing d yna s ty a nd t h e K o rean s h ad i n tended t oc on t ro l t he J ü rchen t h rough t h e p roh ib i t ion o f i r on , t h ee nd r e su l tw a s r a the r t h eo ppo s i te o ft h e i ri n t en t ion s a nd p u t t h em i n ad i ff icu l t p o s i t ion . T he p roh ib i t ion p o l icy c aused t h e J ü rchen t o d eve lop t h e i r o wn i r on i ndus t ry t o s a t isfy t h e d emand f o r i r on , i n s tead o f r e ly ing o n t h e i r on w h ich t h ey p rev iou s ly o b ta ined f r om t h eM ing a nd K o rean s .

Among t h e r egu la t ion s i n t h e R i t su -Ryo , i nv o lume 1 0 o f t h e R yo , A r t ic le 2 7 f o r w eapons u nde r " t he r u le o fb ar r i er s a nd m arke ts" ( I noue e ta l . 1 976 ) s ay s : " a r rows , b ow s a nd w eapon s a r en o ta l lowed t ob e e xchanged w i th f o re igne r s . I t i s p roh ib i ted t o p lace s me l t ing i n s ta l la t ion s i n t h e E a s t d i rec t ion a nd t h e No r th d i rec t ion" . A ccord ing t o t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h is r u le b y I noue a nd o t he r s , t h is i s ar u le t o " p roh ib i t e xchange o f w eapon s w i th f o re igne r s a nd t h e l o ca t ion o fs me l t ing i n s ta l la t ions i nt h eE a s td i rec t ion a nd t h e No r th d i rec t ion" ( i b id . ) . " The E a s t p e r iphe ry a nd t he N o r th p er iphe ry" m eans t h e p e r iphe ra l a rea f a c ing t h e Em ish i . I t a l so s ays " a round w ha t i sc a l led Mu t su a nd Dewa , e t c ." a cco rd ing t ot h e " O ld n o te" ( i . e . a nno ta t ion ) . T he " O ld n o te" ( i . e . a nno ta t ion ) s ays f o r s me l t ing i n s ta l la t ion s " i ns ta l la t ion s i n w h ich i r on i s s me l ted" ( i b id . 4 42 ) . A cco rd ing t o t h e " Anak i" ( i .e . a nno ta t ion ) , " to p roh ib i t i r on s me l t ing i n s ta l la t ion si n c lude so fc ou r se t h et r ans f e ro fi r on t e chno logy a nd e xchange o f ma te r ia l made o f me ta l" ( i b id .4 42 ) . T hu s , i t i sc l ea r t h a t t h e re w a s a n i r on -p roh ib i t ion p o l icy a ga in s t t h e Em ish i , p roh ib i t ing s me l t ing i n s ta l la t ion s i n t he E a s t a nd No r th p e r iphe r ie s . T h is i mp l ies t ha t t h e re mus t h ave b een s ome r e a son t o k eep s me l t ing t e chn iques a way f r om t h i s p e r iphe ra l z one o f t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te . My i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h i s s t a temen t i st ha t i t s e x is tence o bv ious ly i nd ica te s t h a t much i r on ma te r ia l mu s th ave p a s sed b eyond t h eb ounda ry o f t h e s t a te . Ia ssume t h a t ' sme l t ing i n s ta l la t ion ' h e re i mp l ie s i r on s me l t ing f u rnaces a nd t h ea s soc ia ted wo rk shop a rea , a nd a l so i n c lude s c r a f t speop le . T he s oc ia l p recond i t ion wh ich l e d t o t h e i n s t i tu t ion o f t h e i r on -p roh ib i t ion p o l icy i n t he R i t su R yo s t a te c an b e s een a s as oc ia l p henomenon : n ame ly t h a t i r on s me l t ing f ur na ce s w e r ea l ready i ne x i s t ence a nd i r on w a s a l ready b e ing p roduced b e fo re t h e r u le c ame i n to e x i s tence . H oweve r , t h e re mus t h ave b een s ome p rob lem wh ich w a s p a r t icu la r ly c onnec ted w i th t h e s me l t ing i n s ta l la t ion s . T h i s i n conven ienc e mus th ave l e d t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te t oi n s t i tu te t h er u le . T he p roh ib i t ion o f i r on -sme l t ing i n s ta l la t ions a l so i mp l ie s t h a tt h e re a r er aw ma te r ia l sf o rp roduc ing i r on n ea rt h eb o rde r w i th t h e Em i sh i . I t wou ld b e u nnece ssa ry t oi n s t i tu te s uch a r u le w he re t h e re w a s n o r aw ma ter ia l f o r i r on ; b es ide s , i ti s i mpo s s ib le t op roh ib i t t h e e x is tence o f r aw ma ter ia l a s a n a tu ra lr e sou rce . H oweve r , an a tu ra lr e sou rce i nt h e a r ea n ea r t h e b o rd e r w i th t h e Em i sh i c an b e s ha red e qua l ly w i th t h e Em ish i . F rom t h e a bove , i ti sp os s ib le t o a s sume t h a t t h e p u rpo se o ft h er u le made b y t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te wa se i the rt o c on t ro l t h e t e chno logy w h ich made i tp o s s ib le t o p roduce i r on , o r t op r even t t h e p l unde r o f i r on w h ich wa s p roduced n ea r t h e b o rde r . T hus , i tw ou ld b e ap rob lem f o r t h e R i t su R yo s t a te i ft h e Em ish ia cqu i red t h ei r on sme l t ing t e chno logy o f t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te , a nd a l so i ft h e i r on p roduced w a s p lunde r ed b y t h e Em i sh i , a l though r aw ma te r ia ls f o r i r on w e re f o und i nt h eE a s ta nd t h e No r th p e r iphe r ie s .

( 3 ) The c ase o f t he Em ish i A cco rd ing t oJ apanese h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s , a f te r t h e T a ika R efo rm ( 645) t h e s t a te -sys tem b ecame mo re s y s tema t ica l ly a s soc ia ted w i th a n ew d epa r tmen ta l s ys tem o f c en t ra l g overnmen ti nvo lved w i th t h e a dm in is t ra t ion o ft h e s ma l le s t u n i t s o fl o ca l d iv i s ion . I n7 01 , t h eT a iho C ode ( equ iva len ti n s ome w ays t o R oman L aw i n E u rope ) w a s s e t u p a nd i mp lemen ted a sa dm in is t ra t ive p rac t ice .T h i sc on s i s t ed o ft wo p a r t s , t h e R i t su a nd t h e R yo ( Regu la t ion s a nd C ode ) , a nd i s

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2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a r chaeo logy

( 4 ) T he c a se o f t he A inu S ince t h e i r on t e chno logy p roh ib i t ion w a s i n s t i tu ted b y t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te , s oc ia l p henomena s uch a s i r on t e chno logy p a s s ing t ot h e Em i sh io ri r on b e ing p lunde red b y t h e Em i sh i mus t h ave b een p e rce ived b y t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te . I ft h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te d id n o t s t op t h e se p henomena , t h ey w ou ld c ause v e ry s e r ious p rob lem s . T hus a s as oc ia l p recond i t ion f o r t h e i r on t e chno log ica l p roh ib i t ion , i r on t e chno logy , o r i r on m u s th ave p a s sed t ot h e Em ish i .

A l though Im en t ioned e l sewhe r e ( Fuka sawa 1 989 :251) my a s sump t ion , o n t h e b a s is o ft h e a nc ien th i s to r ica l d ocumen t s d i scu ssed a bove t h a ti r on w a sp roh ib i ted i nt h eA inu c u l tu re , Iw a s u nab le t o f i nd s pec i f ic d e ta i ls o f l e g i s la t ion t o t h is e f f ec ti nt h eo ff ic ia l r e co rd s o ft h e Ma t suma e -Han ( doma in ) , w h ich c h ron ic le t h eh i s to ry o ft h e Ma t suma ef am i ly u nde rt h e T okugawa -Shoguna l g ove rnmen t i nt h e 1 7 th -18 th c en tu r ies . H oweve r , Id id f i nd as t a temen t i n at r ave l d i a ry w r i t ten b y K o shoken F u rukawa ( 1788 ) : " t he re i s ar u le made b y t h e Ma t sumae t h a t i tw a s f o rb idden t og ive a ny k ind o f i r on t o t h eE zo [ A inu ] , w i thou tp e rm is s ion ;d on o te xchange o rt r ade a ny k i nd o fe dged t o o li n c lud ing t ho se o fi r on a nd s t e e l ; t h e se a r e s t r ic t ly f o rb idden" ( Furukawa 1 788 , moder n v e r s ion b y O f u j i 1 964 ) . T hu s Ic on f i rmed t h a t t h e re w a s ap roh ib i t ion p o l icy o pe ra ted b y t h e Ma t sumae . Mo reove r , If ound t h e f o l low ing s en tence i nt h eh i s to r ica ld ocumen t s : " i n o ld t ime s , t h e re w e re many e dged t o o l s , a rms , a nd w eapons , a nd a l so many o the r t oo l s . T he se s eemed t o h ave b een g radua l ly b rough ti no ne a f te ra no the rf r om J apan . A f te ra n u p r i s ing b y t h eE zo [ i . e . S hakusha in 's r e vo l ti n1 669 ] , a l l t h ee dged t oo l s w e re c omp le t e ly t a ken a way b y t h e Ma t sumae" ( Ka if umaru E zo Monsho 1 688 , c i ted i nK odama 1 971 :459 ) . I ti s , t hu s , c l ea r t h a t many i r on t oo l s a nd w eapon s e x i s ted i n A inu s oc ie ty b efo re S hakusha in 's r evo l t i n 1 669 ; h oweve r , a f te r t h i sr e vo l tt h e Ma t suma ee xecu ted t h ei r on -p roh ib i t ion p o l icy w i th r e ga rd t ot h e A inu w h ich p roh ib i ted t h e g i v ing o f a ny i r on p roduc t st ot h e A inu .

I ft h es o c ia lp henomenon w a s t h a tt h e Em i sh iw an ted t oh ave i r on p roduc t s , t h en t h e Em ish i mu s th ave k nown a l ready h ow t o p roce s s i r on ; wh i le i fi tw a s t h e t e chno logy , t h en t h e Em ish i mus t h ave p os ses sed i r on s me l t ing t e chno logy a l ready b y t h e 8 t h c en tury , s i nce t h eR i t su -Ryo w a si n s t i tu ted a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 8 th c en tu ry . I tf o l lows t h a t t h e Em ish i c ou ld h ave ma s te red i r on s me l t ing t e chno logy a s e a r ly a st h e8 t hc en tu ry . A s Ih ave men t ioned i nt h e c a se o ft h eJ i i rchen , c r a f t speop le w e re c ap tu red i no rde r t ot r ansm i t t e chno log ica l p roce sses ; t hus , as im i la r s i tua t ion c ou ld h ave o ccu r r ed i nt h e Em i sh i c a se . F o re xamp le , v o lume 6o ft h e R yo , c on ta in ing " t he r u le o fl i v ing a nd h ab i ta ti nt h eE a s td i rec t ion" s ay s " peop le w ho l i ve o n t h e p er iphe ry a round t h e E a s t , t h e No r th , a nd t h e We s td i rec t ions , s hou ld a l l l i ve i n ‘ s aku ' ( h i l l f o r t s )" ( i b id . : 3 38 ) . T h i sr u le w a si n s t i tu ted u nde r" l iv ing o nt h ep er iphe ry , a gr icu l tur e , a nd r epa ir o fh i l lf or t sd ue t ot h e ir s ecur i ty" a nd t o e n su r e t h a t l i f e o n t h e p e r iphe ry s hou ld b e s ecu re . T h i s i mp l ie st h a tt h e re mus th ave b een r e a sons f o ri n secu r i ty , s uch a sk idnapp ing . F ur the rmo re ,c on t raband e xchange o ccu r red a l so i nt h is c a se , a s i n t h e o the r c a ses . I n 7 87 , t h e R i t su -Ryo g overnmen t p roh ib i t ed t r ade w i th t h e Em ish i i nt h e f o l low ing t e rm s : " i t i sf orb idden b o th f o r g overnmen t o f f ice r s a nd f a rme rs t o e xchange a ny g ood s w i th t h e Em i sh i" ( Ru i ju s anda i k yaku , c i ted i nT akaha sh i T aka sh i 1 986 :172 ) . T he e x is tenc e o f t h is r enewed p roh ib i t ion p resuppo se s t h a t c on t raband e xchange h ad b een c a r r ied o u t n o t o n ly b y f a rmer s b u t a l so b y g ove rnmen t o f f ice r s . B es ides t h is , t h ere w e re " p ieces o f c o t ton t u rned i n to t h e Em ish i 's c lo thes , i r on a rmou r p roce s sed i n to t h e Em ish i 's a g r icu l tu ra l t o o l s" ( i b id . 1 73 ) . T h i s i mp l ies t h a t t h e Em ish i w an ted t oa cqu i r e a g r icu l tu ra l t oo l s , i r on a rmou r , a nd c l o th . Wha t t h e g ove rnmen t o f f ice r s a nd f a rme r s w an ted f r om t h e Em i sh i w a s h o r se s a nd n uh i ( t he w o rd c an b e t r an s la ted a s ' s laves ' o r ' s e rvan t s ' — a c oncep t w h ich n eed s t ob e d ef ined w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f J apane se a nc ien t h i s to ry b u t w i l l n o t b e c on s ide r ed i n t h i s b ook ) . F rom t h is h i s tor ica l d ocumen t , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e Em ish i h ad a l ready o b ta ined i r on a nd a l so t h e t e chn ique f o r p roces s ing i r on p roduc t s . T he a bove d i scu ss ion c an b ec o r r e la ted a nd e va lua ted w i th t h e a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e T ohoku a r ea o f n o r the rn Honshu . I np a r t icu la r , t h er e cen td i scove r ie so fi r on s me l t ing , r e f in ing , a nd f o rg ing s i te s i nt h e n or ther n a r ea o f A k i ta -ken a nd a l so I wa te -ken d a t ing f r om a round t h e 8 t h c en tury , a nd t h ea s soc ia ted s t ud ie sb a sed o n a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica la na ly s i s , c o r robo ra t e my a rgumen t .T he se f i nd sw i l lb ed i scuss ed d e ta i l i nC hap te r4 .

T he p roh ib i t ion p o l icy o f t h e Ma t sumae w a s p romp ted b y S haku sha in 's r e vo l t . I ti sa s sumed a s as oc ia l p recond i t ion t h a t t h e A inu u sed many i r on w eapon s i nt h i s r evo l t , s o t h e Ma t sumae p e rce ived t h e re w a s ad ange rous s i tua t ion i nt h e i n c rea se o f A inu p owe r b a sed o n t h e i n c rea sed u se o f i r on p roduc t s a nd i r on w eapon s w h ich w e re s upp l ied t ot h e A inu b y t r ade . T h i s s oc ia l p henomenon , a cco rd ing t ow h ich i r on p roduc t s ,o rs ome a s soc ia ted t e chno logy ,h ad b een e x t end ed t o A inu s oc ie ty , i s n o t c on t rad ic ted b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e S a r u a r ea b e fo re 1 667 , w h ich i nd ica tes t h e e x is tence o f i r on -wo rk ing h ea r th s i n t h e c on tex t o f A inu s i t e s , a sd i scu s sed i nC hap t e r5 . F u r the r , F u rukawa s ays : a l though i t w a s s t r ic t ly f o rb idden b y t h e Ma t sumae t o g i ve i r on ma te r ia l t o t h e E zo [ A inu ] , many i r on p roduc t s , i n c lud ing c a rpen te r s ' t o o l s , h ad b een p a s s ing t ot h e E zo [ A inu ] f o r al o ng t ime . S uch p roduc t s w e re a lway s o fl ow q ua l i ty b u t w hen t h e E zo [ A inu ] r e ce ived t h em t h ey t r ansfo rmed t h em i n to o ne s o f h i ghe r q ua l i ty . I ti sd i ff icu l t t ob e l ieve t h i s s t o ry , b u t Ih ea rd i tf r om p eop le w ho l i ved i n t h e Ma t sumae t e r r i tory , s o Ir e co rd t h i s f a c t ( Fu rukawa 1 788 , modern v e r s ion b y O fu j i 1 964 :166 ) . T h i s h i s to r ica l d ocumen ti sv e ry i mpo r tan tf o ru nde r s tand ing t h e A inu s oc ia l p henomenon o fi r on t e chno logy w i th in A inu c u l tu re . T he q uo ta t ion e nded : " I t i sd i ff icu l t t ob e l ieve t h i s s t o ry b u t Ih ea rd i tf r om t h e p eop le w ho l i ved i n t h e Ma t sumae t e rr i to ry s o Ir e co rd t h is f a c t " . T ha t F u rukawa h ea rd t h is i n Ma t suma e i sr ea l is t ic . Mo reove r , f r om t h e

1 9

2 :Mode l -bu i ld ing f o r A inu a r chaeo logy

s t a temen t t ha t " a l though i tw a s s t r ic t ly f o rb idden b y t h e Ma t sumae . ...many i r on p roduc t s , i n c lud ing c a rpen te r s ' t oo ls , h ad b een p a ss ing t ot h e A inu f o r al o ng t ime" , i tc an b ei n f e r red t h a tc on traband e xchange h ad o ccu r red f r equen t ly a nd t h a t t h e re w e re p eop le w ho d id s uch t h ing s i ns e c re t i n s p i t e o f t h e p roh ib i t ion p o l icy . I r on i s am a te r ia l w h ich h a s a lway sf l owed i nt h is w ay .

p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e t e chno logy w i th wh ich t h e A inu c u l tu re w a s a l ready e qu ipped w a s c on t inued o n a sma l l -sca le , o r maybe i ns e c re t , w i th i r on a cqu i red t h rough t he c on t raband t r ad e . F rom t h e a bove f ou r e xamp les , i ti sc l ea r t ha t t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion mode l i ss i gn if ican t f o r p e rce iv ing c e r ta in s oc ia l p henomena b y a na lys ing t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween d i f fe ren t e t hn ic g roup s a nd c en t ra l a nd p er iphe ra l p eop les i no rde r t o u nde r s tand b o th c u l tu ra l c on tex t s . T he re fo re , t h is mode l c an b e s i gn if i can t f o r a rchaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion i n o rde r t o e xp la in t he p rocess o f s oc ia l c hange b y a na lys ing a r cha eo log ica l d a ta a nd t h en o b ta in ing a n u nde rs tand ing o f s ub s tan t ive s o c ia lp henomena .

F ur the r , t h e p ha se " when t h e A inu r ece ived t h em t h ey t r ansformed t hem i n to o nes o f h igher q ua l i ty" c an b e i n te rp re ted a s mean ing t ha tt h e A inu c ou ld a l r eady t r an s fo rm d u l l , b lun t , a nd l ow q ua l i ty i r on o b jec t s i n to h i ghe r q ua l i ty i r on , s uch a s s t ee l . T hus t h e re w e re A inu b l ack sm i ths w ho h ad g rea tk now ledge o fi r on t e chno logy . A l though F urukawa d id n o tb e l ieve t h is s t ory t h a th e h ad h ea rd i n Ma t sumae , h e h one s t ly r e co rded t he s t ory a s i tw a s , e ven m en t ion ing h i s o p in ion t h a t h e , a s ar ep resen ta t ive o f t h e J apane se a tt h a t t ime , d id n o tb e l ieve t h e s t o ry . I ft h e i r on p roduc t s made b y t h e A inu h ad b een o fl ow q ua l i ty , a st h e J apanes e e xpec ted , t hen n o o ne w ou ld h ave t a lked a bou t t h e q ua l i ty o f i r on ma te r ia l made b y t h e A inu . I ti sl o g ica l t os uppo se t h a t t h e o n ly r ea son t h is s t o ry h ad b ecome a r umou r a mong t h e p eop le i n Ma t sumae i st h a t t h e A inu w e re a b le t ot r an sfo rm l ow q ua l i ty i r on i n to i r on o fh i ghe rq ua l i ty ( f o r mo r e d e ta i led a r cha eo log ica ld i scuss ion o ft h i si so f f e red i nC hap t e r5 ) .

2 -4

C onc lus ion

Ih ave b u i l t t h e p roh ib i t ion mode l o f c u l t iva t ion a nd t h e p roh ib i t ion mode l o f i r on f o r A inu a rchaeo logy i n o rde r t o i n t e rp re ta r chaeo log ica ld a ta a nd t oc onf i rm s ubs tan t ive s oc ia l c hanges w i th in A inu c u l tu re b y s e t t ing u p a mode l w h ich p e r ce ive ss oc ia lc hange a s as oc ia lp henomenon .

T he re fo re , t h e p roh ib i t ion o n g i v ing i r on t ot h e A inu c an b e i n terp re ted a s a me thod o f c on t ro l l ing t h e A inu . I r on t e chno logy i nt h e A inu c u l tu re d ec l ined a f te r t h e p roh ib i t ion p o l icy o f t h e Ma t sumae a s c ompa red w i th p rev iou s t ime s , l e ad ing t o c hanges i n A inu s oc ie ty . Howeve r , t h e re i sa

2 0

T he n ex t c on s ide ra t ion w i l l b e h ow t oa pp roach t h e ma t te r a r cha eo log ica l ly i n o rde r t oe xp la in a nd t ou nde r s tand t h e s ub s tan t ive n a ture o f A inu s oc ie ty t h rough i t s ma te r ia l c u l tu r e . T he m e thodo log ica l a pp roach t ot h i s q ues t ion n eed s t ob ed i scus sed i nr e la t ion t oA inu a r chaeo logy . Howeve r , i t r a ise s q ue s t ion s t ob e s o lved i nA inu a r chaeo logy a s w e l l a s i na r chaeo logy i ng ene ra l .

Chap ter Chrono logy

3 -1

a nd

a rchaeo log ica l

I n troduc t ion

d a ta

i n

Hokka ido

a nd

T ohoku

t h e u ppe r l a ye r o f t h e a sh f r om T a rumae i n 1 739 i sc a l led T a rumae -a ( Ta -a ) . T he v o lcan ic a sh f r om U su -san ( 737m ) i n 1 663 i sc a l led U su -b2 ( Us -b2 ) . T he a sh f r om Komaga take ( 1 ,133m ) i n1 640 i sc a l led K omaga take -d2 ( Ko -d2 ) , a nd t h e 1 694 a sh i sc a l led K omaga tak e -c2 ( Ko -c2 ) .

H av ing e s tab l ished t h e mode l s f o r A inu a r cha eo logy i nt h e p r ev iou sc hap te r , Iwou ld l i ke n ow t of o cu so na r chaeo log ica l d a t a T he a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w h ich Ie xam ine i nt h i s s t udy w a s o b ta ined f r om e xcava t ion s i nH okka ido a nd T ohoku . I nt h i s c hap t e r Id i scuss t he c h rono log ica l s equence w i th in w h ich e x cava ted s i te sc an b ec o r re la ted a nd d a ted b yv o l can ic a sh ;t h e v o lcanoes e rup ted i nh i s to r ica l t ime s a nd t h e e xac t d a te o f e ach a sh f a l l c an b e d e te rm ined . D i scu s s ion o f t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re i sb a sed u pon t h e se c h rono log ica l s equence s . At a b le f o r t e ph rochrono logy a nd t h e c h rono log ica l s equence o f T ohoku a nd Hokka ido i sg i ven a tt h ee nd o ft h i sc hap te r( s ee T ab le 3 1) . T he e xcava t ed A inu s i t e s a r e c o r re la t ed b y t h e v o lcan ic a sh wh ich f e l l i n 1 667 . T he re i s p o ten t ia l f o r u nde r s tand ing t he A inu c u l tu re b efo re 1 667 , i nt h e f i r s th a l f o f t h e 1 7 th c en tury . I ti s mos t s i gn if ican t t h a t t h is p e r iod p r eda t e st h ei nf luenc eo ft h eB a sho -U k eo is y s tem d i scus sed i n C hap t e r 1 .H ence t h is w a s at ime b e fo re t h eA inu c u l tu re w a s i nf luenc ed b yc omme r c ia lc ap i ta l i sm . I ti sv e ry i mpo r tan tt ot a ke i n to a ccoun tc u l tu ra lf a c to r s s uch a s c u l t iva t ion a nd t h e me ta l i ndu s t ry w hen c ons ide r ing c u l tu ra l c hanges i n A inu s oc ie ty i n t e rms o f t h e mode l s w h ich Ib u i l ti nt h ep rev iou sc hap t e r . 3 -2

3

Chrono logy

T he r e i sn od oub t t ha td a t ing i st h e mo s ti mpo r tan ta sp ec to f a rchaeo logy , whe the r i ti sa b so lu te o r r e la t ive . I n J apan , w h ich i s av o lcan ic c oun t ry , t h em e thod o ft e ph roch rono logy h a s b een s t ud ied f o r al o ng t ime i na r cha eo logy ; i th a s b een d eve loped a nd a pp l ied t o t a ke a dvan tage o f t h e v o lcan ic e v idence . A rea s h ave b een c o r re la ted b y t h e s ucce s s ion o f v o lcan ic a sh d epos i t s , s o t h a t i ti sf a i r ly e a sy t ou nde r s tand c h rono log ica l r e la t ionsh ip s a nd t oc o r re la te t h e e x i s tence o f p um ice o r v o lcan ic a sh a s v e ry u se fu l k ey l a ye r s w i th in s t ra t ig raph ic l a ye r sa ts i te a nd t oc o r re la te a mong s i te s . S uch p um ice o r v o lcan ic a sh s t ud ie s i n vo lve q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s a nd a r e c a r r ied o u tb y v o lcan ic g eo log i s t s . V a r iou s a spec t s , s uch a s g rav i ty , c hem ica l c omponen t s , a nd a n i ndex o f r e f rac t ion e t c . i n l abo ra to r ies , a s w e l l a s mo rpho log ica l f e a tu r e sa nd o b serva t ion i nt h ef i e ld , a r ee xam ined i no rde rt o i d en t if y t h e s ou rce v o lcano a nd t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o ft h e s ame k ind o fa sh a c ro s ss pace .

I ti sv e ry s i gn if ican t t ha t t h e d a t ing o f e ach a sh l aye r i s i d en t i f ied a tt h e s i te , s o t h a t s t ruc tu res a tt h e s i te wh ich a r e s andw iched b e tween v o lcan ic a sh wh ich o r ig ina ted i n d i f f e r en te r up t ion sc an b ei d en t i f ied a nd t h ed u ra t ion o ft ime a t w h ich t h e se e x i s t ed c an b ed e t e rm ined . T he re i sa l so a n i mpo r tan td epo s i to fv o lcan ic a sh w h ich c an b e c o r re la ted i n b o th H okka ido a nd t h e T ohoku a rea o f H on shu ( Mach ida 1 986 ) . I te r up ted f r om t h e C hangba ishan ( Baegdusan ) v o lcano , l o ca ted o n t h e C h inese -No r th Ko rean b o rde r . T he a sh f r om t h is l a rge -sca le e rup t ion i s c a l led B a egdus an -Tomakoma ia sh ( B -Tm )a nd i sf ound w ide ly s p r ead o ve r a n a r ea o f5 0 I cm 3 i n c lud ing n o r the rn J apan a nd t h e S ea o f J apan ( s ee F ig 3 -2 ) . T he d a te o f t h e e rup t ion h as b een e xam ined b y s t ra t ig raph ic o b serva t ion s a nd s ome r ad ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ions . I ti sa l so s uppor ted b y c hrono log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om n o r th J apan , i nd ica t ing t ha t B -Tm a sh o ccu r red b e tween 9 15 AD a nd 1 334 AD ( Mach ida e ta l . 1 981) . R ecen t a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd i t s s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ions w i th t h e o ve r ly ing 9 15 AD T owada a sh f r om n o r the rn T ohoku s ugge s tt h a tt h ee rup t ion o ccu r red s ome t ime i nt h e 1 0 th c en tu ry ( Mach ida 1 986 ) . I n n o r ther n T ohoku , a sh l a ye r s wh ich h ave b een i d en t if ied i n c lude t h a to fT owada -a ( To -a ) a sh , w h ich i sd a ted t o9 15 ; A k i ta Y ak iyama a sh , w h ich w a s f ound c ove r ing a d i tch a t S h iwa Jo ( bu i l ti n8 03 AD ) a nd i sd a ted t o8 07 , o n t h e b a s is o f ah i s to r ica ld ocumen t ;I z awa a sh , wh ich c ove r st h er ema ins o f I z awa Jo ( bu i l t i n 8 02 AD ) a nd w a s d epos i ted a t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e9 t hc en tury ( I noue a nd Y amada 1 982 ) . T he d a t ing o fa r chaeo log ica ls i te s i sc o r re la ted w i th e v idence w h ich i sc ro s s -checked w i th t h e s t ra t ig raph ic o bse rva t ions a s soc ia ted w i th t h i sa sh a nd a l so w i th h i s to r ica ld ocumen t so f b e tween t h e 8 th a nd 1 0 th c en tur ie s r e la t ing t o T ohoku , H on shu . 3 -3 T he A inu c u l ture i n a rchaeo logy 3 -3 -1

A inu a rchaeo logy

No h i s to r ica l d ocumen ta t ion w a s r eco rded b y t h e A inu t h em se lve s b ecau se t h ey h ad n o w r i t ten l a nguage . T ang ib le e v idence a va i lab le f r om t h em c on s i s t s s o le ly o ft h e i r ma te r ia l c u l tu re a s a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , i nc lud ing a r t ifac ts a nd s t ruc tu re s . I ti sa pp rop r ia te t oa pp ly a r chaeo log ica l me thod s i no rde r t os e t u p ac h rono logy o ft h e i r ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd r e cons t ruc t t h e i r s oc ie ty . T he re h ave b een s ome a t temp t s b y a r cha eo log is t s t od ef ine t h ec oncep to ft h e A inu c u l tu re f r om t he a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew a nd t o p lace t h e a r cha eo log ica lc u l tu re s i nH okka ido i n ac h rono log ica lo rde r . N o tab le w o rk h a s b een d one b y U tagawa ( U tagawa 1 988 ) , K o sh ida ( Ko sh ida 1 988 ) , K ono ( Exp lana t ion p ane l a tU ta r i a s soc ia t ion , S appo ro ) , a nd N i sh imo to ( N ish imo to 1 989 ) .

T eph ro chrono logy i n H okka ido , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e s ou th w es ta r ea o f Hokka ido a nd t h e n o r the r n a r ea o fT ohoku , w i l l b e e xp la ined f o ru nde r s tand ing o fc h rono log ica l s e quence o f t ho se a r ea s ( Toku i 1 989 :197 ) . T he re a r e t h ree ma in v o lcan ic moun ta ins i n t he s ou th -wes t o f H okka ido , a nd a sh h a s e rup ted f r om t hem i n t h e p a s t ( s ee F ig . 3 1 a ,b , a nd c ) . T he se e r up t ions c an b e i d en t if ied t ot h e e xac t y ea r , h av ing b een r e co rded i n J apane se h i s tor ica ld ocumen t s . O ne o ft h e b ig v o lcan ic moun ta ins w h ich h a s e r up ted an umbe ro ft i me s i nh i s to ry i sT a rumae -san ( 1 ,024m ) . T he v o lcan ic a sh f r om T a rumae i n1 667 w a sf ound t oc ove r af a i r ly l a rge a r ea u pt h e e a s t s i de o f Hokka ido . T h i s i sc a l led T a rumae -b ( Ta -b ) , a nd

2 1

3 :C h rono logy a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nH okka ido a nd T ohoku

W i th in t h ea r chaeo log ica l s equence o fc u l tu re s i nH okka ido , t h e eme rgence o f t h e A inu c u l tu re i sr ecogn ised a f te r t h e d i sappea rance o f S a t sumon p o t te ry , a l though i ti ss t i l l n o t c e r ta in w hen t h e S a t sumon p er iod t e rm ina ted o n a ccoun t o f r eg iona ld i f f e rence s . I ti sc ons ide red t oh ave e nded a bou tt h e 1th o r t h e 1 2 th c en tury ( K ikuch i 1 980 , M iu ra 1 991 ) . T he S a t sumon c u l ture , w h ich p recedes t h e A inu c u l tu re i n a r chaeo log ica lt e rms , i se qu iva len tt ot h ep r e -med ieva lp e r iod i nJ apane se h i s to ry . T he A inu c u l tu re i na r chaeo logy i ss e t w i th in t h em ed ieva l a nd moder np er iod o fJ apane se h i s to ry . T h i s p e r iod isa t ion i s v a l id i n J apane se h i s to ry a nd i ti s a pp l ied a pp rop r ia te ly t ot h eA inu a sw e l l ,b ecause i tw ou ld b e d i f f icu l t t o d iscus s t h e A inu w i thou t t ak ing a ccoun t o f c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th t h e J apane se c u l tu re a nd i t s h i s to r ica l c hange . T he p eop le w ho p roduced t h e A inu c u l tu re w e re t h e i mmed ia te a nces to r s o ft h e p re sen t A inu . A inu a r cha eo logy s eeks t h e s i gn if icance o f c u l tura l c hange s a nd c u l tu ra l c on ta c t st h rough h i s to r ica lc hange a nd a t temp t st or e con s t ruc t A inu s oc ie ty . 3 -3 -2 T he mater ia l c u lture o f A inu a rchaeo logy

p roce s sed g oods a nd t h e p roce ss ing o f ma t e r ia l , b u t Is ha l l d i scu s s t h i s p o in ti nC hap te r 5 . Ma te r ia l o f t h e A inu 's own mak ing i st h a t ma te r ia l w h ich o r ig ina ted w i th in t h e A inu c u l ture o r w a s t r an sm i t ted a sa t r ad i t ion f r om t h ep rev ious c u l tu re , a nd i n c lud e s , f o re xamp le , c l ay p o t s w i th i n s ide h ook h and les , s ma l l c l ay b a l ls , t u ye r e s , m ak i r i ( sma l l k n ive s ) , k i te ( f i sh ing t oo l s ) ,m arekku o rm ar ec ( f i sh ing t oo ls ) , b one t oo l s , h ook s , p ipa ( c u l t iva t ion t o o l s ) , a nd p i( weav ing t oo ls ) . W i th in t h e c a t ego ry o f ma te r ia l i mpor ted b y t h e A inu , t h e re i s ad i f f e rence b e tween i mpor ted g ood s t h a tt h e A inu k ep ta s t r ea su re a nd t h eg ood sw h ich t h ey u sed i nt h es ame c on tex ta s i n t h e c u l ture f r om w h ich t hey o r ig ina ted . F o r e xamp le , g ood s w i th t h e s ame u se w e re i r on p o t s w i th i n s ide h ook h and le s , i r on p o t s w i th h ang ing h ook s , ac oa r se t ype o fc h ina w a re , p o rce la in , b ead s , a nd k i seru ( p ipe s ) ; o b jec t s k ep t a s t r ea su r ei n c lud el a cque red w a r e s . T he c onc ep to ft h e A inu c u l tu re i na r chaeo logy i sd ef ined b y t h ea s semb lage o ft h ese a r t ifac t s a nd t h e i rc u l tu ra lc on tex t . I t n eed s t ob e e xam ined w he the r s ome a r t ifa c t s c an b e t r a ced b a ck t ot h ec u l tu re w h ich e x i s ted b efo re t h e f o rma t ion o ft h e A inu c u l tu re .

R e la t ive ly n ume rou s A inu s i te s s uch a s c hash i ( i . e . ap l ace w h ich i sd i v ided b y aman -made s t ruc tu re s uch a s ad i t ch o r c onven ien t ly l oca ted o n ah ighe r l e ve l g eo log ica l ly ; i t s f unc t ion i s s t i l l d eba tab le a s i th ad mu l t ip le f unc t ions ) , b u r ia l s ,a nd s he l l mound sh ave b een f ound . T he r e c en tl a rge s ca le e xcava t ions a tc hash i a nd s e t t lemen t s h ave r evea led A inu ma ter ia l s uch a s h ouses w i th c en t ra l h ea r th s , f o rg ing h ea r ths , h eap s o f s ma l l p ebb le s , a n ima l r ema in s , a nd o t he r o rgan ic r ema ins s uch a s m i l le t , b a rn -ya rd m i l le t ( J apane se m i l le t ) , a nd r i ce . T he se d a ta c an b e u sefu l f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e v i l lage a nd f o r r e cons t ruc t ing t h e s oc ia l s i de o fA inu c u l tu re , a l though t h ey a r e i n suf f ic ien t t oa l low c omp le te r e cons truc t ion . V o lcan ic a sh ( Ta rumae -b ; T a -b ) , w h ich f e l li n1 667 a nd c ove red af a i r ly l a rge a r ea u p t h ee a s t s i de o fH okka ido w a s f ound e spec ia l ly i nt h ea r ea o fC h i to se a nd H idaka .

3 -4 The r e lat ionsh ip b etween a nd t he S a t sumon c u l ture

T he b a s ic ma ter ia l c u l tu re w h ich d ef ine s t h e a r chaeo log ica l c oncep to ft h e A inu c u l tu re w a s d iv ided i n to t wo c a tego r ie s b y H i ro sh i U tagawa . One i s" ma te r ia l o f t h e A inu ' s own mak ing" a nd t he o the r i s" ma te r ia l o fJ apane se mak ing a nd d i s t r ibu t ed t ot h en o r the rn a r ea " ( U tagawa 1 989 ) . H oweve r , I wou ld l i ke t o s ugges t af u r the r c a tego ry : t ha t o f ma te r ia l w h ich w a s mod if ied b y t h e A inu ; t h is It e rm t h e " ma t e r ia l o f t h e A inu ' so wn p roces s ing" . H ence Ic a tego r i se t h ree t y pes o f b a s ic ma t er ia l c u l tu re wh ich d ef ine t h e c oncep t o f A inu c u l tu re . T he r e a re t wo r ea sons w hy Ih ave c rea ted a t h i rd c a tego ry , " ma te r ia l o f t h e A inu 's own p roces s ing" . O ne r e ason i st h a tt he c u l tu ra l c on t ex t i nw h ich e ach a r t i f ac t w a s u sed i ss i gn if ican t . T he s econd r ea son i st h a t t h e t e chn ica l c on tex t — t ha t i s , t h e p roce ss ing t e chno logy u sed i n t h e A inu c u l tu re — i ss i gn if ican t . I ti si mpo r tan t t ou nde r s tand a r chaeo log ica l ly t h e se c u l tu ra l f a c to r si nt h eA inu c u l tu r e . Ma t e r ia l o ft h e A inu 's own p roces s ing i st h a t ma t er ia l w h ich l o s t i t s o r ig ina l mean ing w hen u sed i n t h e A inu c u l tura l c on tex t a nd w as t r ansfo rmed b y A inu t e chn ique s . F o r e xamp le ,t h et amasa i( neck lace ) u se sa no rnamen tw h ich w a s o r ig ina l ly a w a -kyo ( J apanese m ir ro r ) ; c o ins a l so b ecame o rnamen t si nt h e A inu c u l tu re , a nd t h e t o po f ah oe b ecame a c h ise l , a nd s o o n . I ti sn ece ssa ry t o d ea l s epa ra te ly w i th

2 2

t he

A inu

c u l ture

T he c u l tu ra l c hange f r om t h e S a t sumon t ot h e A inu h a s l o ng b een a p rob lem , d ue t o t h e f ac t t ha t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r e ach c u l tu re i sv ery d i f f e ren t . F o r e xamp le , t h e t ype o f h ouse s t ruc tu re i sv ery d i f fe ren t : t h e re i s as qua r e s haped d we l l ing p i tw i th o ven a nd c h imney i nt h e S a t sumon c u l tu r ea nd as qua re -shaped h ouse b u i l to nt h eg round s u r f ace l i ke ah u ti nt h e A inu c u l tu r e . T he a r chaeo log ica lr eco rd d oe s n o tc l ea r ly s how c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e A inu c u l tu re a nd t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re . Mo reover , t he re i s n o a r chaeo log ica l e v idence r e co rded s o f a r wh ich c an b e d a ted t ot h e 1 4 th a nd 1 5 th c en tu r ie s . A s t h e s t udy o f t h e S a t sumon p rogres ses , i ti s g radua l ly b e ing u nde r s tood t ha t h igh ly s ugges t ive l i nks i n ma t e r ia l c u l tu re d o e x i s t b e tween t h e S a t sumon a nd t h e A inu . T h i s ma te r ia l i se spec ia l ly r e la ted t o f i sh ing e qu ipmen t , a sm o s t s e t t lemen t s i te s o f t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re a r e f ound b e s ide r i ve r s . F o r i n s tance , i mp lemen t s c a l led m ar ekku o rm arec ( f i sh ing t o o l s ) i nt h e A inu c u l tu re h ave b een f ound i n av ery s im i la r f o rm i n t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re ( t he S akushuko ton i s i te , t h e T oyo tom i s i te , e t c . ) . T esh i i s at y pe o f f i sh t r ap made i n ar i ve r ,c ons is t ing o fp os t s s e ti n al i ne a c ro s s ar i ve r i no rde rt oc a t ch a nad romou s f i shes ( s a lmon a nd t r ou t ) i nt h e A inu c u l tu re . As t ruc tu re w h ich h a s e xac t ly t h e s ame f o rm a s at e sh i t r ap w a s f ound a t as i te o f t h e S a t sumon c u l tu r e ( t he S akushuko ton i s i te ) . A t t h is s i te , amarec , m en t ioned a bove , w a sa l so f ound . I ti ss ugge s ted t ha tt h i s f i sh ing me thod , u sed i n t h e A inu c u l ture , c an b e t r aced b ack t o t h e S a t sumon c u l tu r e , a nd i t s e x is tence i si nd ica ted b y t h e p re sence o ft h e t e sh ia nd m ar ec a s as e t( Yokoyama 1 990 ) . T he p roce ss o fc hang ing f r om t h e d we l l ing p i t t ot h e s u r f ac e h ouse c an b e s e en b y a na lys ing t h e o ve r lapp ing s t ruc tu res w h ich w e re f o und a tt h e S a t sumae s i t e . T he d wel ing p i t i n

3 :C h rono logy a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nH okka ido a nd T ohoku

t he S a t sumon c u l tu re i s v e ry s im i la r i n t ype t o t ha t a s so c ia ted w i th t h e H a j i c u l tu re i n T ohoku : a n o ven a nd c h imney o ccur i n ar ec tangu la r d we l l ing . Many o rgan ic r ema in s , c ompr is ing c u l t iva ted p roduc t s s uch a s m i l le t , J apanese m i l le t , I nd ian m i l le t , b uckwhea t , a nd b eans a r e f ound w i th in t h ed we l l ing p i t .

Many i r on p roduc t s h ave b een f ound i n e xcava t ions o f S a t sumon s i te s ( K ikuch i 1 979 , Amano 1 983 , S egawa 1 989 ) . T he se i r on p roduc t si n c lude k n ive s ,a r rowhead s , s wo rd s ,a xe s , s i ck les , s pades , d r i l ls , n eed les , o rnamen t s , p i ece s o f i r on , p i ece s o fi r on p o t , a nd f i sh ing h ook s . T he e s t ima ted q uan t i ty o fi r on i nt h e S a t sumon c u l tu re m igh tb e c a lcu la ted f r om t h e n umbe r o f d we l l ing p i t s a nd t h e amoun t o f i r on e ach h ou seho ld p o s se s sed . I th a sb een c a lcu la t ed t h a ta lmo s t9 0k g o f i r on w a s c onsumed p e r y ea r i n t h e S a t sumon c u l tur e , a f i gu re w h ich c onver t s i n to 3 600 s ma l l k n ives ( mak ir i ) a nd 1 00 a xe s( Amano 1 989 ) .

T he S a t sumon c u l tu re i sc ha rac te r i sed b yt h ed i sappea rance o f s t one t o o l sa nd t h ei n c rea s ing u se o fi r on p roduc t s . Mo s ti r on p roduc t s h ave b een r e cove red f r om b u r ia l s a s g rave g ood s . Among t h ese b u r ia l g ood s , s i ck le s , h oe s , a nd s pades ( wh ich i nd ica te c u l t iva t ion ) a r e f ound . I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h is f a c tw hen c on s ide r ing t h ec ha rac te ro ft h e S a t sumon c u l tu r e . I ns p i t eo fr e sea rch o n c u l t iva t ion i nt h e A inu c u l tu re c a r r ied o u t b y Y osh ish ige H aya sh i ( Haya sh i 1 969 ) , c u l t iva t ion a sa c u l tu ra l f a c to r o f t h e A inu h a s n o t b een s i gn if ican t ly a sses sed , a nd i th a s b een t hough t t h a t t h e A inu c u l ture i s d ef ined r a the rb y t h ed i sappea rance o fc u l t iva t ion t h an b y i t s e x is tence . Howeve r , t h e c u l t iva t ion p roh ib i t ion mode l , d i scu s sed i nC hap te r2 ,i sc or robo ra t ed b y t h er e su l t s f r om a r e cen te xcava t ion a tt h eP ipaush is i te ,w h ich r e vea led t h a tt h e c u l t iva ted m i l le t f ound a t t h i s 1 7 th -cen tury A inu s i te w a s e xac t ly t h es ame t ype o fc u l t iva ted m i l le tw h ich w a sf ound a t t h e e nd o ft h e S a t sumon c u l tu re ( t he O kawa s i te ) , ( Yamada a nd T subak izaka , f o r thcom ing ) . T h is c an b e i n terp re ted a s d emon s t ra t ing t ha tc u l t iva t ion c on t inued f r om t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re u n t i l a tl e a s t t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry i n t h e A inu c u l tu re . T h is i nd ica te s t ha t c u l t iva t ion a s ac u l tu ra l f a c to r w a s i n ten t iona l ly s upp r es sed b yt h eJ apane se .

T he i n c rea sed u se o f i r on i n t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re c an b e d emon s t ra ted b yt h ee x i s tence o fe v id ence f o ri r on t e chno logy i nt h e f o rm o fh ea r ths , t u ye r e s , s l ag , a nd b y -p roduc t s o ft h e f o rg ing t e chn ique s uch a sh amme r ing s ca le f ound a ts i te s . I t i sr e cogn ised t h a t t u ye re s i n t h e S a t sumon b ea r t h e s ame d eco ra t ive p a t te rn a so n t h e S a t sumon p o t t e ry ( t he H o rona ipo s i te ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t o s ee c h rono log ica l c hange i n t uye re s w i th in t h e S a t sumon , a nd t u ye res u sed i nt h e l a te r s t age o f t h e S a t sumon ( t he Okawa s i te ) i st ypo log ica l ly v e ry s im i la r t ot h e t u ye res w h ich w e re f ound a t a n A inu s i te o f 1 7 th c en tu ry d a te ( t he P ipaush is i te ) . A mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o f t h i s w i l l b e g i ven i nC hap te r 4 .A t t h e s i te s o f Okawa a nd P ipau sh i , t h e s ame t ype o f c u l t iva ted m i l le t ( Ech inoch loa u t i l i s.Nanbu -b i e ) w a s f ound , a sn o ted a bove . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t t h e re i s ap o ss ib i l i ty o f c on t inu i ty i n r e spec t o f i r on t e chno logy , a sw el a st h ee x i s tence o fc u l t iva t ion . 3 -5 T he S a tsu mon c u l ture T he S a t sumon c u l ture i s d ef ined b y t h e e x is tence o f S a t sumon p o t te ry . T he f o rm o fS a t sumon p o t te ry e xh ib i t s a c omb ina t ion o ft wo d i f f e ren tt y pe s o fp o t te ry : o ne r e ta ins t h e t r ad i t ion o f H a j i p o t te ry a s r ega rd s v esse l s hape a nd t e chn ique s o f manufac tu re , w h i le t h eo t he rr e ta in s t h eZ oku J omon p o t te ry t r ad i t ion a sr e ga rd s d eco ra t ion , h av ing l i ne s , p a ra l le l l i ne s , a nd g eome t r ic a nd i n c ised p a t te rns . T h i s mean s t h a tt h e se c u l tu re si nf luenced e ach o the r .

C u l t iva ted m i l le t ( Ech inoch loa u t i l is.Nanbu -b i e ) w a s f ound a s t h e r e su l to ff l o ta t ion a tt h e s i te s o fO kawa a nd P ipaush i . T he f l o ta t ion t e chn ique i nJ apan h a s b een d eve loped s i nce 1 971 ( Tokyo to Kyo iku i inka i , c f . t h e s i te r epo r t s o f Naka zanya : 1 973 , Maeha ra : 1 975 , a nd S h inba sh i : 1 977 ) , b eg inn ing i mmed ia te ly a f te r t h e p ub l ica t ion o f H iggs 's Paleoeconomy ( H iggs 1 971 ) . I ti sn ow u sed o n many e xcava t ion s i n mo s tp a r t so fJ apan , p a r t icu la r ly i nH okka ido , a nd p rov ide su sw i th many i n te res t ing r e su l t s .

T he e me rgence o fS a t sumon p o t te ry o ccu r red a round t h e 8 t h c en tu ry ( K ikuch i 1 989 ) . I ti sv e ry s im i la r t oH a j i p o t te ry , n o t o n ly i n s hape a nd me thod o f manuf ac tu re b u t a l so i n t h e p re sence o f as e to fv es se l s l i ke p o t s ,j a r s , p edes ta led b ow l s , a nd u nfoo ted b ow l s . T h i s a s semb lage i n d ica tes s t rong H a j i i nf luence , s i nce a s im i la r s e t o ccur s i n H a j i p o t te ry . T he s im i la rs t r uc tu r eo fd we l l ing sa l so d emon s t ra te si n f luence .

Many o r gan ic r ema ins , c omp r is ing c u l t iva ted p roduc t s s uch a s m i l le t , b roomco rn m i l le t ( Pan icum m i l iaceum ) , I nd ian m i l le t ( Ho lcus s orghum ) , f ox ta i l m i l le t ( Se tar ia i t a l ica B eauv . ) b uckwhea t , b a r ley , a nd b eans , h ave b een f ound w i th in e xcava ted S a t sumon dwe l l ing p i t s , d emons t ra t ing c u l t iva t ion ( C rawfo rd a nd Y o sh izak i 1 987 ) . T he r e su l t s f r om t he e xcava t ion a t t h e P ipaush i s i te , a n A inu s i te o f 1 7 th c en tu ry d a te ,r evea led as im i la rk i nd o fc omp lex o fc u l t iva t ed s eeds o f t h e S a t sumon c u l ture : f i nds i nc luded m i l le t , b roomco rn m i l le t ( Pan icum m i l iaceum ) , I nd ian m i l le t ( Ho lcu ss o rghum ) , f ox ta i lm i l le t( S e tar ia i t a l ica B eauv . ) , a nd b eans ( l egum inosae ) . B uckwhea ta nd b a r ley w e re n o t f ound y e t ,h oweve r( Yamada a nd T subak iza l ca , f o r thcom ing ) .

I nt h ep e r iod o ft h e S a t sumon c u l tu re , a l ong t h e l ow land s o f t h e I s h ika r i R ive r t h e re w e re b u r ia l s c a l led t h e " Hokka ido K ofun" t ype ( I sh izuk i 1 962 ) . T hey c ons i s t o f mounds , b u t t h e c en t ra l p a r to f t h e mound i sj u s t ab u r ia l p i t o f as qua re s hape . I tw a s p o in ted o u t t h a t t h i s t y pe o f b ur ia l i sv ery s im i la r t o t h e t y pe f ound i n t h e n o r th p a r t o f t h e T ohoku a r ea , i nt h el a s ts t age o ft h e K o fun p e r iod ( a round t h e7 t h -8 th c en tu r ie s ) , a nd t h e b u r ia l g ood s w h ich w e re f ound i nb o th t y pe s o f b u r ia l a r e v ery s im i la r , t o o ( I sh izuk i 1 966 ) . T hey i n c lude i r on p roduc t s s uch a ss i ck le s , w arab i te to ( i . e . s wo rd s w i th f e rn -f rond shaped h and le s ) a nd k n ive s . F ur the rmo r e , i n t h e l ow land s o f t h e I s h ika r i R ive r t h e r e i sa no the r t ype o f b u r ia l c ha ra c te r i sed b y o n ly ab u r ia l p i t a nd n o mound b u t e xac t ly t h e s ame t y pe o fb u r ia lg ood s , i n c lud ing Z oku Jomon p o t te ry . T he a ff in i t ie s o ft h ep eop le w ho w e re b u r ied i nt h e se

T he e v idence f r om o ra l t r ad i t ion , as t ory o fO k iku rum i , h a s b een v i r tua l ly i gnored . T he s t o ry n a r ra te s t h a t O k iku rum i s t o le s e ed so fm i l le t w hen h e c ame d own t oo u r w o r ld f r om t h e h o ly l a nd . T he refo re , m i l le t s w e re c u l t iva ted f r om t h e t ime o f t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e A inu w o r ld . A nd a l so i n A inu b e l ief , m i l le t sa r e s ymbol i sed a s ma r i ta l f ood sa nd a r e l i nked t o ag ene s i s my th ( Ya ha ta 1 956 ) .

2 3

3 :C h rono logy a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nH okka ido a nd T ohoku

b u r ia ls a nd w ha t k ind o fc u l tu res t h ey b e longed t oa r e s t i l l p rob lema t ic .

s i te ) a n u p r ive r d i s t r ic t ( t he S amu l cawa s i te ) , a nd t h e l owe r r e ache s ( t he K ann inzawa s i te ) o ft h e Yone sh i ro R ive r , a tt h e f oo t o f M t . I wa l c i i n T suga ru d i s t r ic t , A omor i -ken ( t he Moku sawa s i te , t h eO h i rano s i te ) , a nd t h ec oa s to fI wa t e -k en ( t he Wanda i s i te , t h eK am imu ra s i te ) . T he se s i te s a re l o ca t ed i na r ea s b eyond t h e R i t su -Ryo s ys tem . T h i s m eans t h a t i r on p roduc t ion w a s b e ing p rac t ised b y p eop le w ho l i ved o u t s ide t h e R i t su -Ryo s y s tem .

F rom a l l t h ese a spec t s , i ti sp o ss ib le t ou nde r s tand t h a t t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re a nd t h eH a j i c u l tu re o fT ohoku h ad s t rong c u l tu ra lc on tac ta nd i n f luenced e ach o t he r . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f S a t sumon p o t te ry c ove r s t h e w ho le o f H okka ido e xcep t t h e S h i re toko p en insu la , a nd t h e n o r th p a r t o f T ohoku ( Yokoyama 1 990 ) , e spec ia l ly d own t o t h e Y one sh i ro R ive r ( Ak i ta -ken ) o n t h e J apan S ea s i de a nd t h e Mabuch i R ive r ( t he b o rde rb e tween A omo r i -ken a nd I wa te k en )o nt h eP a c if ic O cean s i de . 3 -6 The mater ia l c u l ture o f t he T ohoku a rea i n t he 8 th -lO th c en tur ies T he d i f fus ion o f Ha j i w a re i n t h e T ohoku r eg ion o ccur red d ur ing t he s t age o f n on -whee lmade H a j i , w h ich i s c ha ra c te r ised b y i n c ised l i nes a tt h e n eck o f t h e H a j i v e s se l s hape . I ti sc a l led t h e f i r s t t ype o f S aku ra i ( equ iva len t t o Kokubun j i l owe r t ype i n s ou thern T ohoku ) i n t h e c h rono log ica l s equence e s tab l i shed b y K iyoh iko S aku ra i ( Saku ra i 1 979 ) . T he e x is tence o f t h e p o t tery , w h ich h a s ma rk so fu nhu l led g ra in o n t h eb o t tom ,a nd a l so t h ep re sence o fc a rbon i sed r i ce , i nd ica te t h a tt h es ubs is tence b a se i n vo lved r i ce c u l t iva t ion . S a t sumon p o t te ry i sa l so a s soc ia ted w i th t h ese H a j i s e t t lemen t s . I n H okka ido , S a t sumon s e t t lemen t s a re ma in ly c omposed o f S a t sumon p o t te ry w i th s ome a s soc ia ted H a j i wa re ; o n t h e o ther h and , i n T ohoku , t h e s e t t lemen t s w e re c omposed ma in ly o f H a j i w a re , b u t s ome s i te s h ad a s soc ia ted S a t sumon p o t te ry a sw el . T he e x i s tence o f S a t sumon p o t te ry ma rked w i th u nhu l led g ra in o n t h e b o t tom ( t he Y omog ida -Oda te s i te , t h eT su i j ikan s i te ) i n d ica te t ha t t h i s S a tsumon p o t te ry w a s p robab ly made i n T ohoku b ecause e v idence f o r r i ce c u l t iva t ion h a s n o t b een f ound i n Hokka ido . A l though t h e e x is tence o f r i ce w a s k nown i n H okka ido , i ti su n l ike ly t h a tS a t sumon p o t te ry w i th ma rk s o f u nhu l led g ra in o n t h eb o t tom w a sp roduced t h e re a nd b rough t i n to T ohoku . A cco rd ing t o t h e r e su l t s o f r e cen t e xcava t ion s , s e t t lemen t s i te s c on s i s t ing o f 1 5 -16 d we l l ings h ave b een f ound a nd , a mong t h o se , t wo t ype so fs e t t lemen tc an b er e cogn i sed f r om a na lys is o ft h e s t ruc tu re o ft h e d we l l ings . O ne t ype i n d ica t e s s eden tary s e t t lemen to fl o ng d u ra t ion , a nd t h eo the ri n d ica t e s s hor t term s e t t lemen t . T he s ho r t term s e t t lemen t c an b e i n te rp re ted a s b a sed o n n on r ice c u l t iva t ion , b u t c e rea l c u l t iva t ion i si nd ica ted b ecau se m i l le t s , r ape , a nd s h iso a r e f ound , a sw e l la s as ma l la moun to fr i ce ( M iu ra 1 991 ) . T he p e rcen tage o f i r on a r t ifac t s among a l l t h o se r e cove red f r om s e t t lemen t s i tes b y e xcava t ions i n Ak i ta -ken i s a s f o l lows : 2 5% o fa l l a r t if ac t s f r om t h e 8 t h -9 th -cen tu ry s i te s a r e i r on , 7 8% o fa l l a r t i fa c t s f r om t h e 1 0 th -c en tury s i te s a r e i r on , a nd 9 0% o fa l l a r t i fac t s f r om t h e 1 th -cen tu ry s i te s a r e i r on . A cco rd ing t o ap ropo r t iona l i n c rea se t h rough t ime , t h e u ses o fi r on a r t ifac t s s how s t h a t t h ep ropo r t ion o fc u l t iva t ion t oo ls i sv e ry h igh ( Kumagaya 1 989 ) . T he se r e su l t s may b e e xp la ined b y t h e f ac t t h a t an umbe r o f i r on -wo rk ing s i t e s h ave b een f ound , i nc lud ing n o t o n ly f o rg ing s i tes b u t a l so p roduc t ion s i tes . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fi r on p roduc t ion s i t es i n T ohoku c ove r st h ea rea o fc en t ra l Ak i ta -ken ( t he S a l canoue -E

2 4

T he se f u rnace sa r e c l a s s if ied a ss em i -unde rg round s ha f t type ( s ee G lo s sa ry ) , w h ich a r e f ound mo s t ly i nt h en o r th -ea s tp a r t o fJ apan . S ome d i f f e rences a mong t h e s i te sc an b e s een ,s uch a st h en umbe r so ff u rnaces a nd a s soc ia ted f a c il i t ie s . S a t sumon p o t te ry w a s f ound a t t h e Mokusawa s i te ; h oweve r , t h e S a t sumon s i te si nH okka ido w h ich h ave p roduced e v id ence o f i r on p roduc t ion h ave o n ly t h e f o rg ing h ea r th , f o rg ing e qu ipmen t s uch a s t u ye re s , a nd b y -p roduc t s o f t he f o rg ing t e chn ique , s uch a s s l ag a nd h ammer ing s ca le . T he re a r e n o r e co rd s o fi r on p roduc t ion s i te si nt h e S a t sumon p rope r . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e s ca le o f p roduc t ion a nd o pera t ion w e re d i f f e r en ta nd c ou ld r e f lec td i f f e ren ts oc ia lc on tex t s i nt h ea r ea . As oc ie ty w h ich n eed s i r on a s ap roduc t ion s ys tem a nd a s oc ie ty w h ich n eed s i r on a s ap roce ss ing s y s tem c ons t i tu te v e ry d i f f e ren t s o c ia l c on tex t s . I tf olow s t h a t t he S a t sumon c u l tu r e a nd t h e H a j i c u l tu re e xh ib i td i f f e ren t s oc ia l c on t ex t s , a l though t h e r e s ome c ha rac ter is t ics w e r e s ha red . A mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion a nd e xam ina t ion i sg iven i nC hap te r4 . 3 -7

C onc lus ion

T ak ing a ccoun to ft h eb ackg round o f t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re i n T ohoku a nd H okka ido i n t e rms o f c u l tu ra l c on tac t a nd t r ansfo rma t ion o f t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re , d a ta f rom r e cen t e xcava t ion sm ay b e u sed t oc ha l lenge p rev iou s v i ews o fA inu c u l tu re a sw el a st h et h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk . T he e me rgence o f t h e A inu c u l tu re i sr e cogn ised a f te r t h e d i sappea rance o fS a t sumon p o t tery . S uch a na pp roach t ot h e c oncep t o f c u l tu re f o rm s t h e b a s is o f much a rchaeo log ica l t hough t i n J apan , s i nce t h e d i sappea rance o f p o t te ry i n a r chaeo logy i mp l ie s t h a t t h e c oncep t o f c u l tu re , w h ich i s e l abo ra ted b ya l lk i nd s o fi n fo rma t ion i n c lud ing a r t if a c t sa nd s t ruc tu re s a s soc ia ted w i th t h a tp o t tery , h a sc hanged . T hu s , a n a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re i s ac u l tu ra l i d en t i ty wh ich c an b e r e cogn i sed f r om t h e d i s t inc t ive f ea ture s o f a rchaeo log ica l m a t e r ia ls uch a sp o t t ery ( Ch i 1de 1 956 ) . H oweve r , t h i s d ef in i t ion o f c u l tu re h a s b een s h if ted t oa c oncep t o f c u l tu re w h ich i n c ludes t he c ommon c ode o f a p eop le b a sed o n t h e i n ten t ions o fh uman a gency w ho a c ted a nd p r esen ted t h a t a c t ion w i th in a s oc ie ty ( Hodde r 1 982 ) . U nde r t h e se c i r cum s tance s , Ic ons ide r t h a t t he c oncep t o f c u l tu re o f t h e S a t sumon a nd o f t h e A inu i nt he c on tex t o f H okka ido a r chaeo logy t ob e i nq ues t ion a nd t ha t t h e r e i sa n eed t or e con s ide ri tw i th in ac u r ren tt h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk . I t h e refo re a t temp tt oc hange t h is i d ea i no rde rt oc rea te an ew i n t e rp re ta t ion o f t h e c oncep t o f t h is c u l tu ra l d i s t inc t ion i n C hap te r8 . B y l o ok ing a tt h is a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , wh ich i n d ica tes s ome c on t inu i ty f r om t h e S a t sumon t o t h e A inu , i tm ay b e p o s s ib le t od ef ine t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re a s ap ro to type o ft h e A inu c u l tu re .

3 :C h rono logy a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nH okka ido a nd T ohoku

F ig . 3 1-a

Ad i s t r ibu t ion map o fT a rumae -b ( Ta -b : 1 667 ) ( a f t e rT oku i 1 989 :199 ) .

0

F ig . 3 1-b

2 0

k m

Ad i s t r ibu t ion map o fT a rumae -a ( Ta -a :1739 )a nd K omaga take -c2 ( Koc2 :1694 )( a f te rT oku i 1 989 :20 1 ) .: T a -a a nd K o -c2 a r ef o und . :T a -a i sf o und . :K o -c2 i sf o und . *i nd ica t e s moun ta in s . 1 . Komaga take ,2 .T a ruma e san , 3 .T okach idake ,4 .A sah idak e , 5 . Meakandake

. 7 7

25

1 0 -0

3 :C h rono logy a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nH okka ido a nd T ohoku

F ig . 3 1-c

Ad i s t r ibu t ion m ap o fU su -b ( U s -b : 1 663 )( a f te rT oku i( 1 989 :202 ) . F igu r e sr e f e rt ot h et h ickne s so ft h i sp um ic e .

; \ F ig . 3 -2

0

2 0k m

Ad i s t r ibu t ion m ap o fB aegudus an -Tomakoma ia s h( B -Tm )( a f te r Ma ch ida 1 986 ) .

3 :C h rono logy a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nH okka ido a nd T ohoku

T ab le 3 -1

T ephrochrono logy a nd t he c hrono log ica l s equence s o f T ohoku a nd Hokka ido 2 0C

Tohoku

I

Hokka ido

J apane se

J a pane se

M EI J I 1 9C

G O V E R N M E N T(1868 ) I

Wa j in

E zo is land

I

1 8C

A inu

Wa j in

I T e rn amae -a ( 1739 )

E zo O sa t su s i te ( A inu ) B ib i8s i te ( A inu )

1 Komaga take -c2 ( 1694 ) 1 7C

I TARZ I MAE -b ( 1667 )

Y ukanbo sh is i t e ( A inu )

I

P ipau sh is i te ( A inu )

W Ub ( 1663)

I

I r ueka sh is i te ( A inu ) Y uo ia nd P o romo is i t e ( A inu )

1 6C

I K am inokun is i t e( Wa j in ) (A inu )

1 5C

I S lüno r is i t e( Wa j in )

1 4C

I S unada t es i t e( Wa j in )

1 3C

S aka izek is i te

I

O kawa s i t e( S a t sumon )

I

A ona es i te ( S a t sumon )

I 1 2C

Nam ioka -Jo

1C

F uruda te s i t e

S a t sumae s i t e( Sa t sumon )

I

S ueh i ro s i t eI H35 ( Sa t sumon ) Y omog ida s i te ( Ha j i&Sa t sumon ) I

S ueh i ro s i t eI H93 ( Sa t sumon )

Moku sawa s i te ( Ha j i&Sa t sumon ) I

S a t sumae s i te -36 ( Sa t sumon )

l i c i l c i a tousan -Tor nako e r nc i i -c ish (1 0c -11 c ) 1 0C

A sah iyama s i t e

I

K umanodo s i te

I

Towada -a -ash ( 10c -11c )

1

Ak i tayak iya m t aa - pun ice ( 9c -10c ) 1 l i zawa -ash ( 9c )

9 C

1

S h iwa Jo (R )

N aga se s i t e (NR )

I zawa Jo (R )

S ek izawagu ch is i te

R an sh ima s i t e( Sa t sumon ) N aka j imama t su s i te ( Sa t sumon )

8 C

T aga -Jo ( R i t su -Ryou s t a t e )

27

Chap ter D iscuss ion o f i ron Tohoku d istr ic ts i n

4 -1

4

t echno logy i n t he Hokka ido a nd r e la t ion t o A inu i ron t echno logy

I ntroduc t ion

4 -2 I ron t e chno logy i t s s tudy

T h is d i scus s ion o f i r on me ta l lu rgy i sp laced w i th in t h e c on tex t o f o ne o f t h e t h ree c a tegor ies o f A inu ma te r ia l c u l tu re w h ich Id ef ined i nC hap te r3 ,t h ec a t ego ry o f ma t e r ia l w h ich w a s mod if ied b y t h e A inu ; t h is It e rmed " ma t e r ia l o f t h e A inu ' so wn p roce ss ing " .

a nd

d if f icu l t ies

i nheren t i n

T o s t udy t e chno logy wh ich r e f lec t s t h e e conom ic a nd s o c ia l s t ruc tu re , o ne n eed s t ou nde r s tand t h e w ho le s t ruc tu re o ft h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re , i n c lud ing t h e p roces s o f r aw ma te r ia l — p roduc t ion — c onsump t ion . A t e chno logy f unc t ions b e tween r aw ma te r ia l a nd p roduc t ion , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion f unc t ion s b e tween p roduc t ion a nd c onsump t ion w i th in ma te r ia l c u l tu re ( c f . L e ro i -Gourhan 1 964 ) . Mo reove r , a p roce ss ing t e chno logy c an b e e ncoun te red i n t h e u se o f s e conda ry ma te r ia l f o rr ep roce ss ing t o make n ew o b jec t sf o r c on sump t ion . F rom t h is p e r spec t ive o n t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu r e , t h e p re sen t s t udy t a kes i n to a ccoun t p roces s ing t e chno logy f r om t h ea spec t so ft e chno logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion .

T he t e chn ica l c on tex t— t h a t i st h e p roce ss ing t e chno logy u sed i nt h e A inu c u l tu re — i ss i gn if ican t . I ti si mpo r tan t t o u nde r s tand a r chaeo log ica l ly t h e se c u l tu ra l f a c to r s i nA inu s oc ie ty . U n t i l r ecen t ly , t he re w a s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o r w he the r o r n o t me ta l t e chno logy e x i s ted i n A inu c u l tu r e , a l though i r on ma te r ia ls d o e x is t wh ich w e re o b ta ined t h rough d i rec t a nd i nd i rec t c on tac t s w i th o the r c u l tu re s . T he se ma t er ia ls w e re t h u s t h ough t t ob ep resen t i nt h e A inu c on tex ta s ar e su l to ft r ade . B ecause o ft h i s ,a nd a l so b ecau se o ft h el a ck o fh i s tor ica ld ocumen t sw h ich r e f e rt oA inu m e ta l t e chno logy , o rb ecau se o ft h e l a ck o fa ny r ea la s ses smen to f i t s e x is tence , i th ad b een t hough t t ha t t h e A inu d id n o t p rac t ise m e ta l t e chno logy d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h e re i sa l r eady s ome e v idence f o r me ta l t e chno logy i n t h e f o rm o f i r on p roduc t s , s l ag , t uye re s a nd s oo n i nt h e p reced ing S a t sumon c u l tu re i nt h eH okka ido c h rono log ica ls equenc e , a sd i scu s sed i nC hap te r3 .

T he r ea son w hy i r on t e chno logy i so fs uch s i gn if icance f o r i nd ica t ing s oc ia l a spec t s o f s oc ie ty i st ha t i tr ef lec t s a c omp lex c omb ina t ion o f t h e t e chno log ica l , e conom ic a nd s oc io log ica lf a c to r s w h ich Imen t ioned a bove . A l though i r on t e chno logy i s as oc ia l f a c to r wh ich i so f s i gn if icanc e a sa n i nd ica to r o f c er ta in a spec t s o f c u l tu r e , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o r e cons t ruc t t h i s at e chno logy f r om t h e a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a va i lab le a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h is r e sea rch . Two a spec t s o fh i s tor y s hou ld b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t . One i si r on t e chno logy a s ac omp le te p roces s i n as y s tem , f r om w h ich i t i sp o s s ib le t or e cons t ruc t t h e p rog res s o fo rt h e d i ve r s i ty o f t h eh i s to ry o ft e chno logy . T he o the r i sl o ca l i sed u n iquene s s , w h ich i s ar e su l to f ac omb ina t ion o ft h e a va i lab il i ty o fr aw ma ter ia l , a nd t h e a dap tab i l i ty a nd man ipu la t ion o f t h e t e chno log ica l p rocess , f r om wh ich i t i s p os s ib le t o r e con s t ruc tt h ec u l tura ls i de o fh i s tory ( I ida 1 982a ) .

T he d a ta i n t h is s t udy , w h ich w e re p rov ided b y t h e e xcava t ion i nt h e S am R ive rv a l ley c a r r ied o u tb y t h e a u tho r a tN ibu tan i v i l lage , B i ra to r i -cho , H okka ido , i n 1 988 a nd 1 990 , h ave l e d t o ar e cons ide ra t ion o f t he p rev ious i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e A inu c u l tu re . Iw ou ld l i ke t oe xam ine t h e q ue s t ion o fh ow a nd w hen me ta l t e chno logy e n te red t h e A inu c u l tu r e a nd a l so t r y t o r econs t ruc t t h e A inu m e ta l t e chno logy f r om t he r e su l t s o f me ta l lu rg ica l a na lyse s , d i scu ss ing t h em i nr e la t ion t oA inu s oc ie ty .

A s ar e su l t o ft h e c omb ina t ion o f t h e a bove a spec t s , ag r ea t d i ve r s i ty o f t e chn ique s i su sed i ni r on -p roduc t ion a round t h e w o r ld w h ich may s t i l l n o t b e f u l ly k nown . T he refo re , i r on t e chno logy n eed s t o b e e xam ined b y d ea l ing w i th t h o se a spec t s w h ich f o rm a n i n te r face b e tween t e chno logy a nd l o ca lc u l tu re .

F o r t h is r e a son , Ih ave t oe xpand my f i e ld o f s t udy i nt ime a nd s pace i no rde r t ou nde r s tand t h e t e chno log ica l c on tex t w i th in t h eh i s to r ica lc on t ex ta nd t h e c h rono log ica ls equence a nd t h e c u l tu ra l c on tac t b e tween t h e A inu a nd o u t s ide r s . T hus , t h e p r eced ing S a t sumon c u l tu re ( f rom a pp rox ima t e ly t h e 8 t h c en tu ry t ot h e 1 th -12 th c en tu r ies ) i nH okka ido a nd t h e J apane se c u l tu re f r om t h e 8 th c en tury t ot h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tu r ies i nT ohoku a r e t a ken i n to a ccoun ti nt h ed i scu s s ion . I nt h i sc hap t e r , Id i scus sh ow Ia pp roach i r on t e chno logy a nd t h e d i ff icu l t ie s o f r e con s t ruc t ing i r on t e chno logy , a nd a l so t h e p e r iphe ra lf a c to r s a f f ec t ing A inu i r on t e chno logy . Ih ave a l so a t temp ted t oc r ea te ah ypo the t ica l r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk b a sed o n t h e p re sen t u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s t udy o fi r on t e chno logy a nd i t s i n te rp re ta t ion a tt h ee nd o f t h is c hap te r ( s ee F low d iagram 4 -1) . A l though F low d i agram 4 1 a s soc ia ted w i th t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy , t h e ma in d i scu s s ion o fA inu i r on t e chno logy i si nC hap te r5 .

Mo reove r , b e cause o ft h e g r ea td ive r s i ty o fi r on t e chno logy , t h e re a r ea l so d if e ren tf r amewo rk sf o rs t udy w h ich a r eb a sed o n t h e t r ad i t ion a nd h i s to ry o fi r on -p roduc t ion . I np a r t icu la r , t e rms a nd d ef in i t ion s w h ich a r e u sed i nm e ta l lurgy d o n o t c o r re la te d i r ec t ly b e tween c oun t r ies . F o r e xamp le , c a s t i r on c ou ld n o t b ep roduced i nE u rope u n t i l t h e 1 4 th c en tu ry , d ue t o t h e s t ruc ture o f t h e f u rnaces u sed , wh i ls t i n C h ina a c a s t ing m e thod w a su sed a se a r ly a s6 00 BC ( Ha ra 1 988 ) .T o u nder s tand t h e c u l tu ra l s i de o f h i s to ry , i t s t e chno log ica l p roce s s n eed s t ob ee xp la ined a sp rec ise ly a sp o ss ib le . It r y t o e xp la in J apanese t e rms b y E ng l ish t e rms i n u s ing p a ren the ses , t h e wo rds w i th in t h em i nd ica t ing E ng l i sh t e rm ino logy . H oweve r , i ti sv ery c onfu s ing t h a t t h e t e rm s u sed i nE ng l i sh d o n o t s eem t o c o r re la te w e l l w i th t e rm s u sed i nJ apane se i r on t e chno logy ; t h i s i sb ecau se t h e t e rm s a nd d ef in i t ions u sed i n J apan a r e b a sed o n J apanese i r on t e chno logy , a nd a rchaeo log ica l i n terp re ta t ions o f i r on t e chno logy i nJ apanese a r chaeo logy a r e d i f f e ren tf r om t h o se

2 8

4 :D i scu ss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i nt h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

T he g eograph ica l a r ea s t ud ied , w h ich p rov ide s e v idence r e su l t ing i nt h e a dvanc e o ft h e s t udy , i st h e w es te rn p a r to f J apan , s i nce t h e d en s i ty o f e v idence s uch a s i r on o b jec t s f r om t omb sa nd t a tara s i te si sh ighe rt h an i nt h ee a s ter np a r t o fJ apan . I nc on t ra s t , i nt h ea r ea o ft h ep resen t s t udy , w h ich c ove r s Hokka ido a nd T ohoku i nn o r th -ea s te rn J apan , t h e re a r e n o t many s i te s i d en t if ied a si r on -p roduc t ion s i te s ( t he se a r el o ca t ed o n ly i nT ohoku ) ,a l though t h e re a r e many s i te sa t w h ich a r tefac t s a s soc ia ted w i th i r on -p roduc t ion , s uch a s t u ye re s ( s ee G lo s sa ry ) , h ave b een f ound . T h is may i mp ly t h a te v idence r ema ins t ob ed i scove red i ne a s ter nJ apan .

o fb o th C h ina a nd t h e We s t . T he refo re , t r ad i t iona lt e rm s a nd d ef in i t ions w h ich may b e d i ff icu l t t o e xp re ss i nE ng l ish w i th in t h e w e s ter n f r amewo rk w i l l b e u sed t oe xp la in t h e i r on t e chno logy i nt h i s s t udy . F o r e xamp le , i n t he J apane se c a se , when t e chno log ica l a spec t sa re t a ken i n to a ccoun tf o rr e cons t ruc t ion o ft h ei r on p roduc t ion p roce ss w i th in a n a rchaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l f r amewo rk , t he i dea s a nd t e rm ino logy r e la t ing t o t h e t r ad i t iona lt e chno log ica lp roce s s ,t a tara i r on -p roduc t ion , a r e c ommon ly u sed e ven t hough moder n Wes tern m e ta l lu rgy w a s i n t roduced i n t he 1 9 th c en tury a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l J apane se m e thod wa sc omp le te ly r e p la ced b yi tf o ri n du s tr ia l p roduc t ion . T h i s c hange w i th in J apanese i r on t e chno logy a l so c auses d i f f icu l t ie s i n J apane se a rchaeome ta l lurgy b ecause t h e t r ad i t iona l me thod i s n o l onge r p rac t ised . F u r the rmo re ,e a r l ie ra nc ien tt ype so fi r on t e chno logy ,s t ud ied a r cha eo log ica l ly f r om w h ich t h e t a tara m e thod m igh th ave d e r ived , c an b e e xpec ted t ob e mo re d i ff icu l t t or e con s t ruc t t h an t h e t r ad i t iona l t a tara me thod . Moder n J apanese m e ta l lu rg is t ss t i l lh ave d i ff icu l t ie si nr e con s truc t ing f uly t h e p roce s so ft h i st r ad i t iona la nd e a r l ie ra nc ien ti r on t e chno logy i nJ apan .

U nde r t h ese c i rcum s tance s , Iw ou ld l i ke t od i scuss h ow t h e q ue s t ion c an b e a pp roached i n o rde r t o u nde rs tand i r on t e chno logy i nJ apan . 4 -3 T he e v idence o f i r on t e chno logy a t s i tes A l though i ti sn o ta lway se a sy t oi n te rp re tp i ece so fe v idence f r om e xcava t ion s , t h e e x is tence o f as e t o f d a ta s uch a s a h ea r th ,t u ye re s ,s l ag , h amme rs ca le , e t c .c an b er ecogn ised a s r e su l t ing f r om s ome f o rm o f a c t iv i ty r e la t ing t o i r on t e chno logy , a s t h e w ho le p roces s o f i r on -p roduc t ion i s k nown a tp re sen t , s uch a s s me l t ing , r e f in ing , c a s t ing , a nd f o rg ing .T he se f ou rd i f f e r en tp roce s se s may b er e ga rded a st h e b a s i so ft h e i r on -p roduc t ion p roc e s s( Tab le 4 1 ) .

T he r econ s truc t ion o ft h e i r on t e chno logy o ft h e p reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ica lp e r iod s i nJ apan h a sb een c onduc ted s i nc e t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 2 0 th c en tury , e spec ia l ly o n t h e b a s i s o f i r on a r tef ac t s s uch a s t h e J apane se s wo rd a nd r aw ma te r ia l s uch a s i r on i n go t s wh ich w e re f ound i nt omb s . T he t a tara m e thod , w h ich w a s t he t r ad i t iona l i r on -p roduc t ion me thod u s ing i r on s and i nt h e 1 8 th c en tury ,h a sb e en s t ud ied i no rde r t or e cons t ruc tt h ep roces so fi r on -p roduc t ion ( l ida 1 982 b ) .

Sme l t ing i sa n i r on -p roduc t ion p roce ss , p roceed ing f r om t h e r aw ma te r ia l o fi r on , s uch a si r on o re a nd i r on s and , t oi r on . R e f in ing i s af i n ing p roce s s w h ich p roduce s s t ee l . C a s t ing i sa n i r on -p roduc t ion me thod w h ich i sc a r r ied o u tb yp ou r ing i r on i na n mo l ten s t a te i n to amou ld . F o rg ing i sa n i r on s hap ing me thod w h ich i sc a r r ied o u t b y h amme r ing s o f te r i r on .

S ince 1 957 , u nde r t he a eg is o f t h e T a ta ra S tudy S oc ie ty , w h ich i sa n i n te rd isc ip l ina ry s oc ie ty e s tab l ished t os t udy t r ad i t iona lJ apanese s me l t ing me thod s ,r e sea rch h a si n vo lved m e ta l lu rgy , h i s to ry a nd a rchaeo logy . H oweve r , t h e t e rm a r chaeome ta l lu rgy , wh ich i nJ apan i sb a sed o n as c ien t if ic a na ly t ica la pp roach i np o s te xcava t ion a r chaeo log ica l s t udy , h a sn o tb een c on s ide red p a r to fa r chaeo log ica l s t udy , s ot h a t mo s t a na ly t ica l wo rk h a s b een u nde r taken b y m e ta l lurg ica l s c ien t is t s w ho w o rk i nt h e f i e ld o ft h eh i s to ry o fm e ta l lu rgy o r who a re i n te res ted i n i t s h is tory . A l though a r chaeome ta l lu rgy i sp a r to fa rcha eo logy , w h ich s hou ld t a ke t h is a spec t s e r ious ly i n to a ccoun t , t h e a rchaeo log ica l a pp roach d oes n o t f u l ly i n tegra te t he p rocess o f a rchaeome ta l lurgy i n to J apanese a rchaeo logy . ' A rchaeo log ica l ' h e re means r e su l t s f r om e mp i r ica l , mo rpho log ica la nd t ypo log ica l s t ud ie so f ma te r ia la s soc ia t ed w i th o the r a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s . O n t h e o the r h and , ` a rcheome ta l lu rg icar h e re means s t udy b a sed o nt h er e su l to f m e ta l lu rg ica l a na lys is s uch a s c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion a nd m e ta l lograph ica le xam ina t ion . T he re fo r e ,c omp rehen s ive a nd s y s tema t ic i n te rd isc ip l ina ry s t ud ie s o f a r chaeome ta l lurgy n eed t ob e f u l ly e xp ressed i nJ apane se a r chaeo logy . I n t h e d i scuss ion o f my a pp roach , t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l a spec t s w i l l b e d ea l t w i th s epa ra te ly . T he r ea son t h e d i scuss ion i so rde red i nt h i s w ay i st h a t i t d emons tra tes t he s ign if icance o f c ar ry ing o u t a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l a na lys is f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica ls i te sa nd e v idence .

I ts hou ld b ep o s s ib le t or e cogn ise t h ek i nd o fe v idence w h ich i st h e r e su l t o fc a r ry ing o u t e a ch o f t h e se p rocesse s i ni r on t e chno logy . E v idence f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s c an b e d i scus sed a nd c ompa red w i th t h e se p roce sse s i n o rde r t o r e cons t ruc tt h e t e chno logy w h ich m igh th ave b een c a r r ied o n a tt h e s i te . I ts hou ld b e p o ss ib le a t l e a s t t o i n te rp re t t h e e v idence a si nd ica t ing t h a to ne s i te c ou ld b e as me l t ing s i te o ra no the rc ou ld b e af o rg ing s i te , e t c . T he b a s ic r equ i remen t s o f t h e p roces s o f i r on -p roduc t ion i n c lude n o t o n ly t h e e v idence w h ich may b e e xpec ted t o s u rv ive a ts i te s , b u t a l so a r chaeo log ica l ly i n v is ib le a spec t s t h a t h ave t o b e c ons ide red s uch a s w a te r , a i r , l abou r a nd t r anspo r t f o r d i s t r ibu t ion , w h ich h ave t o b e t aken i n to a ccoun t . Howeve r , Is ha l l c oncen t ra te p a r t icu la r ly o n t h e d i rec t e v idence o b ta ined f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i n t h i s s t udy . 4 -3 -1 The b as ic e v idence i ron -work ing s i tes

f or

i dent ify ing

t he

T he b a s ic e v idence f o r t h e p roc e s s o fi r on -p roduc t ion i sa s f o l low s : r aw ma te r ia l s f o r i r on , s uch a s i r on o re a nd i r on s and . S e conda ry r aw ma t er ia l s a r ei t em s s uch a si r on i n go t s , i r on b a r s , al ump o f i r on , p ie ce s o f i r on , n a i l s , a nd s o o n . F ue l i s ma te r ia l s uch a s c ha rcoa l o r c oa l . A l though I c oncen t ra te p a r t icu la r ly o n t h e e v idence o f t h e t ype o f t h e h ea r th p r esen t , f u rnace t y pe s i n c lude t h eT a ta ra f u rnace , b ox

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4 :D i scu s s ion o f i r on t e chno logy i nt h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

t ype f u rnace , s em i -unde rg round s ha f t t ype a nd f o rg ing t y pe wh ich Ic a l l ah o le in the -g round t ype . T uye re s , w h ich n orma l ly o ccu r a s i ncomp le te i t ems , i . e . a s s ha rd s o f t uye re s , a r e c oun ted . C ra f t t oo ls i n c lude mou ld s , c r uc ib le s , a nv i l s , h amme r s , t ongs , w he t s tones a nd s o o n . B y -p roduc t s c omp r ise ma te r ia l s uch a s s l ag , i n c lud ing t h e f l owed t y pe ,

T ab le 4 1

t a p s l ag , a nd a b o t tom -of -bow l -shaped s l ag a nd h amme r s ca le . A dd i t ive s s uch a s s he l l a nd a sh a re a l so i n c luded . T he se b a s ic r e qu i remen t sa se v idence f o rt h ep roces so fi r on p roduc t ion a r el i s ted i nT ab le 4 -1 . T h i s i nd ica te sw he re t h e se f a c to r s a r e p r esen t o r a b sen t i ne ach me ta l lu rg ica l p roce s s , a nd t h ey a r en ex tc on s ide red i n d iv idualy i nd e ta i l .

T he b a s ic e v idenc ef o ri d en t i fy ing i r on -wo rk ing o ns i t e si nJ apan .

Numbe r si np a ren the se sr e f e rt ot h en umbe r s i nT ab le 4 -2 [ r ef e r r ing t ot h et y pe so fe v idence f o ri r on t e chno logy ] . Sme l t ing

F ac to r s ( 1 )R aw ma te r ia l

R ef in ing

C a s t ing

N i

1 1

F o rg ing

1

( 2 )S ec . R aw ma te r ia l ( 3 )F ue l ( 4 )T a ta ra f u rnac e

1 S ha f tf u rnac e H ea r th

1

1 1

1 1 1 1

1

( 5 )T uye r e s ( 6 ) C ra f tt oo l s

1 mou ld c ruc ib le s a nv i l h amme r s

f l owed t y pe ,t a ps l ag b ow l -bo t tom s l ag ( 8 )H amme rs c a le ( 9 )A dd i t ive s

1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1

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t ong s w he t s tone s ( 7 ) S lag

1

1 1 1

1 _

1 1 1

1

1 1 1 1 1

( 1 ) R aw m a te r ia lf o ri r on o the r h and , t h e re a r e s ome o the r i r on p roduc t s w h ich a l so m igh th ave b een u sed a s as ou r ce o fi r on ma t e r ia l ; t h e se w e re p robab ly m ade o f w rough t i r on a nd i n c lude s uch t h ings a s n a i l s ,a rmo rs c a les ,c l amp s , a nd m iscelaneou sp i eces o fi r on s uch a s s haped b a r s a nd p la tes . T he se m igh t h ave b een r e f ined a nd s ome made i n to s ma l l i r on p roduc t s s uch a s k n ive s , d agge r s , a nd f i sh h ooks . I n a n a r ea w he re i ti s d i f f icu l tt oo b ta in s me l ted i r on l o ca l ly , a ne x te rna l s ou r ce o f i r on ma te r ia l m igh t b e u sed p ieces o f i r on p roduc t s w h ich h ad b een i mpo r ted o r c o l lec ted f o r t h e r ewo rk ing o f i r on o b jec t s .

I n J apane se me ta l lu rgy , o re w a s ma in ly d iv ided i n to t wo c a tego r ie s a cco rd ing t ot h e s i ze o fo re , r ock t ype , a nd s a nd t ype . I n t h is b ook , t h e t e rm ' i ron o re ' m eans r ock o r ig in , a nd ' i ron s and ' mean ss a nd o r ig in . B o th i r on o re a nd i r on s and w e re u sed a sr aw ma te r ia l f o r p roduc ing i r on i nJ apan . O ft h ese , i r on s and w a s f r equen t ly u sed a s ar aw ma te r ia l .T h i s i st h e mo s tc ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu re o f i r on -p roduc t ion i nJ apan . I r on s and w a s c l a ss if ied i n to t h ree t y pe s — moun ta in i r on s and , r i ve ri r on s and ,a nd b ea ch i r on s and — a cco rd ing t ot h e e nv i ronmen t i nw h ich i tw a s f ound . I na nc ien tt ime s , i r on s and w a s o b ta ined ma in ly f r om r ecen tr i ve r a nd b ea ch d epo s i t s , w h i l s t moun ta in i r on s and wa s o b ta ined b y t h e s pec i f ic -g rav i ty me thod u s ing w a te r , c a l led / c an n ar t aga sh i( Hayama 1 992 ) .

T he p o s s ib il i ty o f ma te r ia lf o rr ewo rk ing d er ived f r om p i ece s o fc a s t i r on p o t s mus tb e c on s ide red a s w e l l . T he refo re , t h e o r ig in o fi r on ma t e r ia ln eed s t ob e i nves t iga ted .

( 3 )C ha rcoa l ( 2 ) S econda ry r aw ma te r ia l : I r on p roduc t s a s i r on s ou rce ma te r ia l

C ha rcoa la s af u e l i sa n i mpo r tan t f a c to r i na l l me ta l lu rg ica l p roce sse s : s me l t ing , r e f in ing , c a s t ing , a nd f o rg ing . T he re i s e v idence f o r c ha rcoa l p roduc t ion n ea r t h e i r on -p roduc t ion f u rnaces , s uch a s c ha rcoa l k i lns w h ich h ave many l o ca l v a r ia t ion s . T he c oncen t ra t ion o fc ha rcoa lo r ap i le o fc ha rcoa l a sf u e ln ea r t h e f o rg ing h ea r th i sa l so a n i mpo r tan t f a c to ri n t h e f o rg ing p roc es s . F rom t h es t udy o fc ha rcoa li ti sp o s s ib le

S econda ry r aw ma te r ia lc an b e d iv ided i n to t wo c a tego r ie s : o n t h e o ne h and , t h e re i sb a s ic ma te r ia l s uch a s i r on i n go t s , i r on b a r s , o r al ump o fi r on w h ich m igh t b e d i s tr ibu t ed a sa f o rm o fr aw ma te r ia lf o rp roduc ing i r on p roduc t s .O n t h e

3 0

4 : D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e f l okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t o t he A inu i r on t e chno logy

t od e te rm ine t h es pec ies o ft r ee u sed t op roduce i t ,a nd h ence i t s p lace o fo r ig in . S ys tema t ic i r on -p roduc t ion i n d ica t e s t h e s e lec t ion o fc ha rcoa l f r om ar e g ion , a nd i tm igh tb ep o ss ib le t os e es ome k i nd o ft r ade . I nt h ec a se o ft a ta ra s me l t ing ,p i ne c ha rcoa lw a sp a r t icu la r ly s e lec t ed ,a nd t h ea r ea w he re i tw a s p roduced i sk nown .

w i th i r on -wo rk ing a ts i te s i s as i gn if ican ti nd ica t ion o fi r on w o rk ing s i te s . H oweve r , p a r t icu la r t ype s o f t oo ls a r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c e r ta in s pec if ic p roce sse s . I ft oo ls s uch a sa nv i l s , h amme r s , t o ngs , r a sp s , a nd c h i se ls a nd w he t s tone s a r e f ound , t h e s i te m igh th ave b een f o r t h e p roce s s o ff o rg ing . I fi tw a s as i te r e la ted t ot h e p roces s o fc a s t ing i r on , mou ld s a nd c ruc ib le s w ou ld b ef ound .

( 4 )F u rna ce /Hea r th T he e v idence f r om f urnace o rh ea r th s i st h e mo s ti mpo r tan t i n forma t ion f o r u nder s tand ing i r on t e chno logy , a s a l l me ta l lu rg ica l p roces ses r equ i re e i the r af u rna ce o r ah ea r th . T he i r s t ruc tu ra l f unc t ion i sc l ea r ly d i f f e ren t , s o i ti se a sy t o d e te rm ine w h ich p roces s m igh th ave b een u sed : a tl e a s ti ti s p oss ib le t oi d en t ify whe the rs me l t ing o rf o rg ing t o ok p l ace .

A l though as e to ft h e se a r te f ac t s i su n l ike ly t ob ef ound a ta n a r chaeo log ica ls i te , s ome o ft h em h ave s u rv ived w e l l . ( 7 ) S l ag T o ag r ea t e ro rl e s se rd eg ree , s l ag i sa ne s sen t ia l ly u nwan ted b y -p roduc to fa l l me ta l lu rg ica lp roces ses : s me l t ing , r ef in ing , c a s t ing , a nd s m i th ing . A s s l ag i st h e r ema ins o f t h e f i na l s t age o f t h e i r on -p roduc t ion p roce ss , i t s p resence i mp l ie s d e f in i te ly t h a t a c t iv i ty c onnec ted w i th i r on t e chno log ica l p roc es se s t o ok p l ace . I tc an o f ten b e f ound mo re e a s i ly t h an t h e h ea r th i t se lf , w h ich n orma l ly c an b e f ound o n ly b y e xcava t ion . T he s hape o f s l ag a nd t h e morpho log ica l c ond i t ion o fs l ag , s uch a s ab o t tom -o f -bow l -shaped s l ag o ra f l owed t ype o f s l ag , a l so i nd ica tes p a r t icu la r s t age s o r m e thod so ft h ep roc e s so fi r on -p roduc t ion .

Howeve r , t h e p rocess o fr e f in ing m igh tr e qu i re b o th t ype s . T he d eg ree o f d eve lopmen t o f i r on t e chno logy f r om a p r im i t ive s t age t o amo re a dvanced s t age , o rc omp lex i ty o f t e chno logy c an b e s een i nt h e d i f f e r en t t y pe so fh ea r th : t h e l o ca t ion o f ah ea r th a t as i t e , w he the ri ti sw i th in ad we l l ing o ro p en f i e ld ,i n d ica te st h ec ha rac t e ro ft h es i t ea nd t h ed eg r ee o fs pec ia l isa t ion . T he s i ze o ft h eh ea r th a nd t h ef r equency o f i t s u se a r e g ood i nd ica t ions o f f unc t ion , f r om w h ich t o i n terp re t w he the r i t wa s u sed a s as me l t ing f u rnace , a me l t ing f ur nace ,r e f in ing f u rna ce ,r e f in ing h ea r th ,o rf o rg ing h ear th e t c .T he n umbe ro ff u rnac e s /hea r th si n d ica t e st h es ca le o fa c t iv i t ie s a nd s oh e lp s t od e te rm ine t h ef u nc t ion so fs i t e s . T he refo r e , t h e e v idence f r om f u rnaces /hea r th s i st h e mos t r e l iab le f o ri d en t ify ing t h ep roce s so fm e ta l lu rgy .

( 8 )H amme rs c a le s When i r on o rs t ee l i sh ea ted i na i r , i r on a nd o xygen r eac tt o f o rm ac oa t ing o f i r on o x ide o n t h e s u r face o f i r on ; t h is i s c a l led ' s ca le ' , w h ich i sn o rma l ly 0 . 5mm -1 .0mm i n s i ze . S ca le w h ich w a sp roduced d u r ing h amme r ing i nt h ep roc es s o ff o rg ing i sc a l led ' h amme r ing s ca le ' .

( 5 )T uye r e s T uye re s a r e a t tachmen t s t ob elows w h ich b l ow t h e a i r i n to f u rna ce so rh ea r th s . S ince a l l me ta l lu rg ica lp roce ss e sr e qu i re a i r , t uye r e sa r eu sed i na l l me ta l lu rg ica lp roce s se s : s me l t ing , r e f in ing , c a s t ing , a nd s m i th ing . T hey a r e t h e i t em mo s t f r equen t ly f ound i na rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s , s ot h ey a r e g ood i nd ica to r so ft h ee x i s tence o fa ny m e ta l lu rg ica lp roce s s , a l though t h ey a re u sua l ly f ound i n f r agmen t s . D if f e ren t s hape s o f t u ye re may i nd ica te u se i n d i f f e ren t p roce sses . C omp le te s hapes o ft uye re s c an b er e con s t ruc t ed b yr ef i t t ing t h e p iece s o f t uye res . C oun t ing t h e n umb e r o f d i agno s t ic p a r t so ft h et u ye r es i nd ica te st h en umbe ro ft u ye r e su sed .T he u sefu l l i f eo f at uyere d epend s o n t h e p roce s s c a r r ied o u t ; i f t h e p roce s s o f p roduc ing i r on w a s a s soc ia ted w i th a v e ry h igh t empe ra tu re , t hen t h er a te o fa t t r i t ion i sv e ry h i gh . I ti s p o ss ib le t oe s t ima te t he f r equency o fu se a nd t h e p er iod o f u se o ft h eh ea r th b y q ua l i ta t ive a na ly ses o ft u ye r e s , a nd i ti s a l so p o s s ib le t oe s t ima te t h e c omp lex i ty o ft h ei r on -wo rk ing p roce s s a tt h e f o rg ing h ea r th b y q uan t i ta t ive a na lyse s . F o r e xamp le , t u ye res c an b e made o f c l ay m ixed w i th ag ra s s t empe r i no rde r t o make t h em s t ronge r , i . e . l e s s s ub jec t t o t h erma l s hock , a nd t h is t h ick t ype o f t u ye re i n d ica te s t h e e x is tence o fa ni r on -wo rk ing t e chn ique w h ich r e qu i r e s ah i gh t empe ra tu r e .

H amme rs ca le sd ef in i t e ly i nd ica te o n ly e v idence o f af o rg ing o r s m i th ing p roce ss . A c oncen t ra t ion o f h ammer s ca le s i n s ide o r o u t s ide a d we l l ing i nd ica te e xac t ly whe re h amme r ing t o ok p lace w i th in as pace . T he d u ra t ion o f t h e h ammer ing p roce s s c an b e e s t ima ted b y t h e q uan t i ta t ive s t udy o fh amme rs c a le s . ( 9 )A dd i t ive s A dd i t ive ss uch a si r on s and , p i ece s o fi r on o re , s hel a nd a sh a r ea s soc ia ted w i th ac er ta in p roce ss o fi r on t e chno logy . I ti s as i gn if ican t i nd ica t ion w h ich i d en t if ie s t h e p roces s o fi r on t e chno logy . A l though t h e se a r e v e ry r a re ly f ound , s uch e v idence i nd ica t e s ad i s t inc t ive p roces s o fi r on t e chno logy , s u ch a sr educ t ion o rd eca rbu r i sa t ion . 4 -4 D iscuss ions e v idence

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4 -4 -1 T he a rchaeo log ica l e xcava ted s i tes

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T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a te xcava ted s i tes i sl i s ted i n T ab le 4 -2 . F rom t h i s , i ti sp o s s ib le t oi n t e rp re t t h ee x i s tence o f a c t iv i t ies r e la t ing t o i r on t e chno logy . T he t ypes o f e v idence r e f e r red t oa r e t h o se a l ready g i ven i nT ab le 4 -1 i n o rde r t oc on f i rm t h e b a s ic r e qu i remen t s o ft h e e v idence f o r i r on t e chno logy .

( 6 ) C ra f tt o o l s D if feren t t ypes o f c raf t t oo l s n eed t o b e u sed i n a l l me ta l lu rg ica l p rocesses : s me l t ing , r e f in ing , c a s t ing , a nd s m ith ing . T he e x is tence o f c ra f t t oo ls a nd t o o l s a s soc ia ted

3 1

4 :D i scuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t he Hokka ido a nd T ohoku d i s tr ic t s i n r e la t ion t o t he A inu i r on t e chno logy

B r ief s umma r ies o f t h e f i nd ings a te ach s i te a re g iven i n Append ix 1 , i n t he f o l low ing o rder : A . T he Hokka ido d i s t r ic t , a nd B .T he T ohoku d i s t r ic t .

T ab le 4 -2

T he a r chaeo log ica le v idence a te xcava ted s i te s .

( 1 ) R aw ma ter ia l f o r i r on , ( 2 ) S econda ry r aw ma te r ia l , ( 3 )F ue l , ( 4 ) F urnace /hea r th s t ruc ture , ( 5 )T uye re s , ( 6 )C raf tt oo ls , ( 7 ) S lag , ( 8 )H amme rs ca le , ( 9 ) Add i t ive s . T he s i te n umbe r s g iven h e re a r e u sed f o rc ros s ref e rence i nt h et e x t . H oweve rt h e se n umbe r sr e f e ro n ly t ot e chno log ica ls i t e s w h ich h ave b een i d en t if i ed a r chaeo log ica l ly ( i . e . t h eb a s ic e v idence w a sf ound a sd e ta i led i nT ab le 4 -1) .The s i t e sa r ed e sc r ibed u nde rt h e se n umbe r s i nA ppend ix -1 .

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4 :D i scuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t he H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

4 -4 -2

D iscuss ion

T he d i scuss ion i ss e t o u t a cco rd ing t o g eo log ica l a r ea i n o rde r t o e s tab l ish w he the r o r n o t i ti sp o ss ib le t os e e : 1 ) t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t t h rough t h e S a tsumon t o t h e A inu i n H okka ido , a nd 2 ) t h e p e r iod a t wh ich i t may b e c ons ide red t ha t t e chno log ica l d i f fu s ion f r om T ohoku i n to H okka ido t ook p lace ; mo reove r , 3 )t h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h e a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f i t s i n to t h e mode l o f t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion wh ich Id i scussed i nC hap te r2 ,i nr e la t ion t ot h e Em ish i i n T ohoku . S i te n umbe r s i n p a ren the ses r e f e r t o T ab le 4 -2 a nd d e sc r ip t ion sa r e g i ven i nA ppend ix 1 .

T he 3 r ds t age T uye re s w h ich w e re f ound a tt h e S a t sumae ( 6 ) a nd Okawa ( 1 3 ) s i te s a r e i n c luded i nt h i s s t age . T he t uye re s a r eb ig a nd c oa r se ,a nd t h ey h ave b e come t h icke r . T he 4 t hs t age : a pp rox ima te ly t h e 1 7 th c en tury ( befo re 1 667 ) T a rumae -b t e ph ra w a s d epo s i ted i n 1 667 . T h is s t age r un s f r om t h e e nd o f t h e S a t sumon , wh ich i s n o t c l ea r ly d e l inea t ed b u t w a s s ome t ime a round t h e l th -13 th c en tu r ie s t o t h e A inu p e r iod . T uye res wh ich w ere f ound a t t h e f o l low ing s i te s a r e i n c luded i n t h is s t age : I r ueka sh i ( 1 ) , P ipau sh i ( 2 ) ,a nd Y ukanbo sh i ( 3 ) . P ipaush i i sd a ted b e tween 1 663 a nd 1 667 b ecause t he i r on -work ing h ea r th w a s s andw iched b e tween U su -b t e ph ra w h ich wa s d epo s i ted i n 1 663 a nd T a rumae -b t e ph ra w h ich w a s d epos i ted i n 1 667 . T he s i te l o oks a s i fi tw a s a bandoned b ecause o f t h e e r up t ion ; f o re xamp le , t h eb eam f r om o ne o ft h eh ou ses w a s i n s i tu w i th in T a rumae -b t e phra . On t he o the r h and a t I r uek a sh i , w h ich w as a l so c omp le te ly c ove red b yT a ruma e -b t e ph ra , t h e s i te a ppea red f r om t h e o bse rva t ions d u r ing e xcava t ion , a s i f i th ad a l ready b een a bandoned w hen T a ruma e -b t e ph ra w a sd epo s i ted .

A . T he Hokka ido d is tr ic t ( 1 ) Ap rov i s iona lc h rono log ica lo rde r ing o ft u yer es T he c h rono logy o fS a t sumon p o t t ery i ss t i l ld eba tab le d ue t o t h e f a c tt h a tt h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft y po log ica l s t ud ies d epend s o n i nd iv idua l r e sea rche r s a nd r eg iona l d i f fe rence s . F o r t h is r ea son Ic anno tr e ly t oo much o n t h ep o t te ry c h rono logy . A l though Ih ad t hough t t ha ti t wou ld b ed i ff icu l t t os e t u pa c h rono log ica lo rde rf r om ma te r ia l l i ke t u ye re sb efo re h av ing s t ud ied a nd s een t h em , Id id i n f a c t s ee s ome v a r ia t ions amongs t t uyeres i n t he S a t sumon wh ich may b e c h rono log ica la nd /o rf unc t iona l .

S ummary o f t uyeres i n Hokka ido Ih ave a t temp ted t o e s tab l ish a p rov i s iona l c h rono log ica l o rde r o f t uye res b a sed o n s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence , ma in ly d epend ing o nt e ph roch rono logy , a nd o n t h es t y le o ft u ye re . I h ave t r ied t or e la te d we l l ings w h ich s how c l ea rs t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ionsh ip s ,b u t Ih ave n o tt a ken i n to a ccoun ta ny r e g iona l d i f f e rence s f o r t h e p re sen t . Id iv ide t h e S a t sumon i n to t h re e s t age s ; af our th s t age w ou ld b et h eA inu p e r iod . T he i s ts t age : B efo re t h e 1 th c en tury H aku to san t e ph ra e rup ted b e tween t h e l a te 1 0 th c en tu ry a nd t h ee a r ly l th c en tury . T h is s t age i n c lude s e ve ry th ing b e fo r e t h e H aku to san t e ph ra . T uye re s f ound a tt h e f o l low ing s i te s a r e i n c luded i nt h is s t age : R ansh ima ( 9 ) , S ueh i ro I P -89 ( 10 ) a nd A onae ( 15 ) . T uye re s f r om R an sh ima a nd S ueh i ro b o th h ave , r ema rkab ly , as im i la r t r ump e t s hape wh ich i sa l so f ound o n H a j i w a re : t h in a nd f i ne . A omae s i te a nd S ueh i ro I P -89 ( 10 ) dwe l l ings a r eb o th l o ca ted b e low t h e H aku tousan t e ph ra l a ye ra cco rd ing t os t ra t igr aph ic o b se rva t ion s . T he 2 nd s t age : t h e 1 th c en tu ry o nwa rd s T h is s t age c ompr ises t he p e r iod a f ter t he H a l cu tousan e rup t ion . T uyere s w h ich w e re f ound i n t h e dwe l l ings a t s eve ra l l o ca t ion s a tS ueh i ro ( 10 ) a r e i n c luded i nt h i s s t age : I H97 , I H93 , I H35 . F rom s t ra t ig raph ic o bserva t ions , S ueh i ro I H97 o ccu r s i mmed ia te ly a bove t h e H aku to san . S ueh i ro I H93 a nd I H35 o ccu r a bove S ueh iro I H9 7 . T he s hape o ft h e t uye res i sf a i r ly s ma l l b u t f i ne , a nd i ts e em s a s i ft h e se w e re made b y s omeone w ho k new h ow t o make S a t sumon p o t tery .

34

I ti sp o s s ib le t oo b se rve m o rpho log ica ld i f f e rence si nt u ye r e s o f t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re w h ich i nd ica te t ha t t he t uye re s b e came l a rge ra nd t h icke rt h rough t h e S a t sumon p e r iod . F o r e xamp le , t u ye re s a tH o rona ipo ( 17 ) , a nd M iyuk icho ( 7 ) a r e mo re s im i la r t h an t h ose f r om S a t sumae a nd Okawa . T he f o rme ro ne sa r e ar a the rc ompac tt ype made o ff i ne c l ay , a nd t h e l a t t e ro ne sa r e ar o ly -po ly s t y le t y pe w h ich w e re made o f c l ay w i th t empe ra nd b aked . A l though t h et u ye re a t Okawa i s i n t h e f i na l s t age o f t h e S a t sumon , w h ich i s d ef in i te ly w i th in t h e S a t sumon c on tex t , i ti sv e ry s im i la r t o o ne s a t P ipau sh i i na n A inu c on t ex t . T he c l ay o fb o th s eems t oh ave b een b aked . F rom t h e se o b se rva t ions , i tmay b e p o ss ib le t o s ay t h a t t h e re w a s s ome k i nd o f t e chno log ica l c onnec t ion b e tween t h eS a t sumon a nd t h e A inu .

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

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B . T he T ohoku d is tr ic t

4 -5 The l im itat ions o f a rchaeo log ical o b serva t ion b ased o n t he e v idence f rom t he s i te s

( 1 )F u rnace s A l though t h e re i s much e v idence f r om e xcava t ion s s uch a s t h e e x i s tence o f t uye re s a nd s l ag w h ich c an d ef in i te ly b e i n te rp re ted a s t h e r e su l t o f a c t iv i ty c onnec ted w i th i r on t e chno logy , t hese d a ta d o n o t p rov ide d e ta i ls o f t h e t e chno log ica lp roce s sw i th in w h ich t os e tt h e i rt e chno log ica l l e ve l , s uch a ss me l t ing r e f in ing a nd f o rg ing .

T he re a r e t wo d i f f e ren tc a tego r ie so ff ur na ce s t ruc tu re w h ich c an b ed i s t ingu ished i nt h eT ohoku d i s t r ic t : ar e c tangu la rb ox f u rna ce a nd as em i -unde rg round s ha f tf u rna ce ( s ee G lo s sa ry ) . T he se t wo t y pe so ff u rna ce c an a l so b ec l a s s if ied a cco rd ing t o t h e i n c l ine o ft h eb o t tom o ft h e f ur nace : as em i -unde rg round s ha f t f u rnace w i th a n i n c l ined b o t tom a nd ar e c tangu la rb ox f ur nace w i thou ta n i n cl ined b a se . T he se f e a tu re sr e la t et ot h e i r on t e chno logy a nd t h e f unc t iona ld i f f e rence so ft h ef ur nac e , s uch a s s t r eng th a nd d i rec t ion o ft h e w ind , a nd t h e l i qu id i ty o ft h e i r on i nt h e mo l ten s t a te .

A s Ih ave n o ted , t h e re a r e many f a c to r s i nT ab le 4 -1 w h ich o ve r lap w i th in t h e t e chno log ica l p roce s s , a nd o ne c anno t d ec id e b a sed o n ly o n t h e e v idence a va i lab le a ts i tes w he the r s me l t ing o r r e f in ing , a nd w he the r r ef in ing o r f o rg ing h ave b e en c a r r ied o u t .

At ype o fr e c tangu la r b ox f u rnace s e em s t oh ave a ppea red a round t h e7 t hc en tu ry ,a nd at ype o fs em i -unde rg round s ha f t f ur nace s eem s t o h ave a ppea red a round t h e 8 th c en tu ry o nwa rd s .

T o r e con s t ruc t t h e i r on t e chno logy c e r ta in ly r equ i re mo re d e ta i led s t udy i fw e a r e t ou nde r s tand h ow t h i s t e chno logy w a s u sed . T he refo re , a r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld b e a wa re o ft h e l im i ta t ions o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lo b se rva t ion o fd a ta .

I nt h eN on R i t su -Ryo a r ea , a round t h e8 t hc en tu ry , t h e re a r e r ec tangu la r b ox f urnaces a t t h e O segawa A s i te ( 60 ) ( Te ra sh ima 1 991) a l ong t h e K i takam i R ive r , i n t h e i n land a r ea ;o nt h eo t he rh and t h e re a r es em i -unde rg round f ur na ce sa t t h e K am imu ra ( 53 ) ( 1994 ) , R ozawa ( 5 6 ) ( Sa sak i 1 990 ) , a nd K adowak izawa ( 57 ) ( Sa sak i 1 990 ) s i te si nt h ec oa s ta la r ea o n t h eP ac if ic O cean s i de .T he Wanda is i t e( 54 )w h ich i sl o ca ted n ea r t h e K am imu ra s i te o n t h e P ac if ic O cean s i de , h a s a r e c tangu la r b ox f u rnac e p robab ly o f 9 t h -10 th c en tu ry d a te . A l l o ft h em a r eb e ing i n te rp re ted a ss me l t ing s i te s . O nt h eJ apan S ea s i de ,t h e re a r es em i -unde rg round f ur nac e sa t S akanoue E s i te ( 72 ) a l ong t h e Omono R ive r , a nd f u r the r n o r th , a l ong t h e Yonash i ro R ive r , a tt h e S amukawa ( 6 7 ) , R yugesawa ( 69 ) ,a nd K ann innzawa ( 6 8 ) s i te s .

I n a r chaeo logy p a r t icu la r ly , a l though a r chaeo log is t s a nd me ta l lu rg ica l s c ien t is t s c o -opera te t o u nde rs tand t h e t e chno log ica l p roce s s f r om t h e e v idence d e r ived f r om e xcava t ion s , t h e re i ss t i l l ag ap b e tween a r chaeo log is t s a nd m e ta l lu rg ica ls c ien t i s t sd ue t ot h e l a ck o fk now ledge o fe a ch o t he r 's s ub jec t . A r cha eo log is t s t e nd t ob ep a s s ive a nd a cc ep t t h e d a ta w h ich d e r ive f r om t h e me ta l lu rg i s t s ' a na lyses . H oweve r , a tt h e l e a s t i ti si mpo r tan t t or ead w ha t t h e d a ta r ep re sen tw i th in t h em echan i sm o fm e ta l lu rgy . Among m e ta l lu rg ica l s c ien t is t s , me thodo log ica l d eba te i s s t i l lo p en a nd d epend so nw h ich c hem ica lp roce s se sa r eg i ven p r io r i ty i n mak ing i n te rp re ta t ion s . D if f e ren t i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e s ame s i te d epend o n w ho a na lyses ma te r ia l f r om i t . T h i sk i nd o fd eba te n eed st ob er e so lved .

H oweve r t h e re a r e a l so s em i -unde rg round f u rnaces w i thou t i n c l ined b a se si nt h i sa r ea , a sa tt h eO da t eno s i te ( 70 ) . T he se s i te s a r e l oca ted i na rea s b eyond t h e b o rde r s o f t h e R i t su -Ryo s t a te . T h is means t ha t i r on -p roduc t ion w a s p rac t i sed b yp eop le w ho l i ved o u t s ide t h eR i t su -Ryo s y s t em . T he se f u rnace sa re c l a ss if ied a ss em i -unde rg round s ha f t type , w h ich a r e f ound mo s t ly i n t h e n o r th -ea s t p a r t o f J apan . S ome d i f f e rences among t h e s i tes c an b e s een , s uch a st h e n umbe r s o f f urnaces a nd a ssoc ia ted f a c i l i t ies . S a t sumon p o t te ry w a s f ound a tt h e Mokusawa s i te ( 36 ) ; h oweve r t h e S a t sumon s i tes i n Hokka ido w h ich s hows e v idence i r on p roduc t ion h ave o n ly t h e f o rg ing h ea r th , f o rg ing e qu ipmen t s uch a s t u ye res , a nd b y -p roduc t s o f t h e f o rg ing t e chn ique s uch a s s l ag a nd h amme r ing s ca le . T he re a r e n o r e co rd s o f i r on -p roduc t ion s i te s i nt h e S a t sumon p rope r . T h is i mp l ies t h a t t h e e x ten t o fp roduc t ion a nd o pe ra t ion i sd i f f e ren t a nd c ou ld d emons t ra te d i f f e ren t s oc ia l c on tex t s i n t h e a r ea . A s oc ie ty w h ich n eeds i r on a s ap roduc t ion s y s tem a nd a s oc ie ty wh ich n eeds i r on a s ap roce s s ing s ys tem a r e v e ry d i f f e ren t s oc ia l c on tex t s . T h is i mp l ie s t h a t t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re a nd t h e Ha j i c u l tu re e xh ib i td i f f e ren ts oc ia lc on tex t s , a l though t h e re a re s ome s im i la r i t ie s .

3 9

I ti si n te res t ing t o n o te t ha t , f o r e xamp le , t wo d i f f e ren t i n te rp re ta t ion s w e re r epo r ted a s ar e su l t o f t wo d i f f e ren t g roup s o fm e ta l lu rg i s t s a na lys ing t h e ma te r ia l s a tt h e s i te o f K i tazawa ( 7 5 ) . O ne s a id t h a tt h e s i te w a s as me l t ing s i te , a nd t h e o t he rs a id t h a t t h e s i te w a s ar e f in ing s i te ; b o th v e rd ic t s w e re b a sed o n a rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l a na lys i s . T h i s d eba te may l e ad t o f u r the r d i f f e ren t i n te rp re ta t ions o f t h e t r ade n e two rk o ft h a tp e r iod . A l though t h e a r chaeo log i s to ft h e K i ta zawa s i te p u t f o rwa rd t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o f ar ef in ing s i t e( N i iga ta -ken T oyou ra -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 992 :150 -151) , t h e r epo r t s hows e v idence o f c on fu s ion . T h i s , h oweve r , i s ag ood e xamp le o ft h e c u r ren t d eba te a bout i r on-work ing s i tes i n J apanese a r cha eome ta l lu rg ica ls t udy . 4 -6 Approach f rom meta l lurg ica l a na lys is 4 -6 -1

Ana ly t ica l

me thods

( 1 ) C hem ica l c ompo s i t ion a na lys is T he c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o ft h e i r on i sv ery i mpo r tan t ; i n p a r t icu la r , t h e a moun t o f c a rbon , s i l icon , s u lphu r , a nd p ho spho ru s g rea t ly a f fec t t h e m echan ica l p rope r t ie s o f t h e

4 :D iscu ss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t o t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

p roduc t . A cco rd ing t ot h e a moun to fc a rbon , i r on i sd iv ided i n to t wo d i f fe ren t c a tego r ie s , s uch a s s t ee l a nd c a s t i r on . T he re i s , h oweve r , w rough t i r on w h ich c on ta in s as ma l le r amoun t o f c a rbon t han s t ee l . T he amoun t o f c oppe r , manganese , t i tan ium , a nd p hosphorus c an h e lp i n d e te rm in ing t h ek ind o fr aw ma te r ia l st h a tw e r eu sed , s uch a s i r on o re o ri r on s and .

I r ueka sh i s i t e( 1 ) , P ipaush i s i te ( 2 ) , a nd Yu l canbo sh i s i t e ( 3 ) , i sg i ven i nC hap te r5 . Me ta l lu rg ica l a na lyses o f s l ag i no rde r t o s ee i t s c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion a nd m ic ro -s truc tu re p rov ide av a luab le s ou r ce o f i n fo rma t ion f o r a l l m e ta l lu rg ica l p roces se s . P a r t icu la r ly , i n t h eJ apane se c a se , w h ich may d i f f e rf r om o the rc a se s ,t h eu se o f i r on s and i sf r equen t , s o t ha t i nc lu s ions wh ich c on ta in t i t an ium -compound s c an b e i d en t if ied i nt he s l ag . S lag f r om t h e p roce s s o f s me l t ing i r on o re o the rw i se i n c lude s F eO , F e 2O3 , a nd s i l ica te ( S iO 2 ) g la ss , g ene ra l ly w i thou t t h e p r e sence o ft i t an ium -compound s . T he refo re , i ti sp o s s ib le t o d e te rm ine w he the rt h er aw ma t e r ia l u sed w a si r on o r eo ri r on s a nd .

T he c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o f s l ag i s a l so i mpo r tan t t o u nde r s tand t h e p roce s s o f i r on t e chno logy . T he a moun t o f c oppe r , manganese , t i tan ium , a nd p ho spho ru s i s u sefu l c omponen t s t o i d en t i fy wha t k ind o f r aw ma te r ia ls w e r e u sed . T he e x is tence o f s i l ica , a l um in ium , a nd magne s ium c an h e lp i nd e te rm in ing t ha t t h e se m igh t b e c on tam ina ted f r om t h e w a l lo ft h e f u rnace o ri mpu r i t ie s f r om i mpe r f ec t ly c l ean o re . I mpo r tan tt e chn ica l d e ta i l so ft h e i r on -p roduc t ion p roce s s w i l l eme rge f r om a mo re c a refu l s t udy o f t h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o fi r on p roduc t s ( Akanuma , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) .

T he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e K am imura ( 53 ) ( a round t h e 8 th c en tu ry ) , Moku sawa ( 36 ) ( a round t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry ) , a nd K i tazawa ( 7 5 ) ( a round t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry ) s i tes , i nd ica t e t h a t t wo d i f f e ren t p roces ses — s me l t ing a nd r ef in ing — may h ave t aken p lace . F o r e xamp le , i n terpre ta t ion o f t h e Moku sawa s i t eh a sc once rned w he the ri twa s as me l t ing s i te o r ar ef in ing s i te . I th a s b een i n te rp re ted a s as me l t ing s i te f o r p roduc ing i r on f r om i r on s and d ue t o t he f a c t t h a t mo rpho log ica lo b se rva t ion o ft h e s l ag i nd ica tes i tt ob e at a p s l ag . A cco rd ing t ot h ec hem ica l a na lys i s , t h e s l ag c on ta in sa h i gh p ropo r t ion o ft i tan ium ( T iO 2 ) , w h ich p robab ly h a s i t s o r ig in i n i r on s and . T he i r on s and may h ave b een t h e o r ig ina l r aw ma te r ia l f o r s me l t ing o r t he a dd i t ive i n a r ef in ing p roce s s . T he o r ig ina l i n te rp re ta t ion i st h a ti r on w a s s me l ted f r om i r on s and .

( 2 ) Me ta l log raph ic a na lys i s Me ta l log raph ic a na lys is s hows s t ruc tu ra l ly a nd a l so g i ve s e v idence o ft r ea tmen to ft h ei r on .T he m ic ro -s t ruc tu re c an b e v i ewed b y o p t ica l m ic ro scope o r S EM ( Scann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scope ) ,w i thou tc hem ica la na lys i s . T he m ic ro -s truc tu re o f t h e m ine ra log ica l c omponen t s c an b e o b se rved u nde r EPMA ( E lec t ron P robe M ic ro A na lyser ) . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween s t ee l a nd p i g i r on i sb a sed o n t h e amoun to fc a rbon w i th in s amp le s a s ac omponen t ; h oweve r , i ti sa l so au sefu l i nd ica t ion t oo b se rve l e debu r i te i nt h em ic ro s t ruc tu re w h ich e x is t s i n c a s t i r on . T he p resence o r a b sence o f t i tan ium c ompound si nd ica te w he the rt h er aw ma te r ia lw a si r on o r eo r i r on s and . I ft h e ma in c ompound c ons i s t s o f w u s t i te a nd f aya l i te i ns l ag s amp le s , i ti nd ica tes r educ ing c ond i t ion sa nd t ha t i tw a s made a t al ow t empera ture . A s l ag s amp le c on s is t ing ma in ly o f g l a ss a nd s i l ica c ompound s p robab ly i nd ica tes s l ag w h ich w a sr unn ing o u to ft h ef u rna ce , a nd t h e r educ ing c ond i t ion c an b ee s t ima t ed b a sed o n t h ea moun to f i r on o x ide p re sen t . I ft h e amoun t o fi r on o x ide , w h ich w a s d eox id ised a t al ow t empe ra tu re i sh igh , t h en s t ee l m igh t h ave b een p roduced . I f i ti s l ow a nd c ons is t s o f g l a ss c ompound s , t hen t h e t empe ra tu re w a s h igh a nd p ig i r on m igh t h ave b een p roduced ( Akanuma , p er sona l c ommun ica t ion ) .

H oweve r , i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t o make t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t i r on s and w a s u sed a sa n a dd i t ive f o rr e f in ing s en te t su ( s ee G lo ssa ry ) i no rde rt oc a r ry o u td eca rbu r i sa t ion a sp a r to ft h e p roce s s , s o t h a t t h e s l ag a l so c on ta ins ah igh p ropo r t ion o f t i t an ium ( T iO 2 ) . A kanuma ( 1991) i n te rp re t s t h e Moku sawa s i te a s ar e f in ing s i te , s ugge s t ing t h a ti r on s and w a s u sed i n t h er e f in ing p roce s s d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e s t ruc tu re o fi r on s a nd p a r t ic le so fl o ca lo r ig in i sd i f f e ren tf r om t h es t ruc tu re o f i r on s and p a r t ic les f ound i n t h e s l ag . I n t h e c ase o f t h e K i tazawa s i t e , t h e re a re a lmos t t h e s ame p rob lem s o n a ccoun t o f t h e p re sence o f c e r ta in t i tan ium -compound s i n s l ag a nd r e cove red a tt h e s i te . T hese d eba tes a l l a f f e c t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e e x is tence o f s en te tsu , a nd h ow i ti s d eca rbu r ised t o p roduce s t ee l . T h is l ead s a l so t o t h e d i scuss ion o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk f o r b o th t h e r aw m a t er ia l s a nd t h e r ef ined i r on a tt ha t t ime . S lag s amp l e No . 2 7 ( Tab le 4 -3 )f r om t h e H a r imada te s i te ( 65 ) , wa s i d en t if ied b y A kanuma ( Akanuma 1 993 ) a s i n t h e m idd le o f t h e t r ansfo rm ing p roce s s b y d eca rbu r isa t ion f r om s en te t su t o s t ee l a s i tc on ta ined t i tan ium -compound s . T h i s i st r u ly a l ump o fi r on r a the rt h an s l ag .

4 -6 -2 Ana ly t ica l r esu l ts a nd d iscuss ions ( 1 ) S lag ( t he r e su l t so ft h ea na lys i so fs l ag a r es hown i nT ab le 4 -3 ) : A l though t he t e chn ique i s s t i l l c on t rover s ia l , t h e e xam ina t ion o fs l ag f r om a n i r on -wo rk ing s i te i sp o ten t ia l ly v e ry u se fu l i nt h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e p roce s s e mp loyed a t t h e s i te . T he refo re , t h e i n i t ia l s t age o ft h ep resen ts t udy w a s t o s e ek s l ag w h ich h ad b een k ep t i n museums f r om o the r c on t empo ra ry e xcava t ions i no rde r t oc onduc tm e ta l lu rg ica l a na ly se s a nd c ompa re t h em w i th s l ag f r om t h e A inu s i te s . H e re , Id i scuss h ow t h e r e su l t s c an b e r ead i n o rde r t o i d en t ify w he the r s l ag w a s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e p roce s s o f s me l t ing , r e f in ing a nd f o rg ing . D iscus s ion w h ich f u r the r r e la tes t o A inu i r on t e chno logy , p a r t icu la r ly o n t h e

Mo reove r , o ne o ft h ep roces ses — t h a to fd eca rbu r i s ing c a s t i r on i n al i qu id s t a te t op roduce s t ee l— c an a l so b ei n d ica ted b y t h e p r esence o f i r on s and ; b u t i nt h i s c a se , af u rna ce i s n e eded b ecause t h em e ta l i sh ea ted , o x id ised a nd s t i r r ed i na f u rnace t or educ et h ec a rbon c on ten t .H ence t h ee x i s ten ce o fa f u rnac ea nd c r uc ib le i sr equ i red . A t t h e S a t suma e s i te ( 6 ) ( Sa t sumon p er iod ) , me ta l lu rg ica l e xam ina t ion o f t h e s l ag i nd ica ted t h a t t h e r ef in ing p roces s may h ave b een p rac t ised a t t h is s i te b ecause i r on s and p a r t ic le 4 0

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e Hokka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t o t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fs l ag ( Hokka ido ) . T he f o l low ing d a ta a r ec omp i led f r om t h ee xcava t ion r epo r t sl i s ted i nA ppend ix -1 . T he s i t en umbe r s g i ven h e r ea r e u s ed f o rc r o s s r ef e r ence i nt h et e x t . H oweve rt h e se n umbe r sr e f e ro n ly t o t e chno log ica ls i te sw h ich h ave b een i d en t i f ied a r chaeo log ica l ly ( i . e . t h eb a s ic e v idence w a sf o und a sd e ta i led i nT ab le 4 1) .T he s i te sa r ed e scr ibed u nde rt h e se n umb e r s i nA ppend ix -1 .

T ab le 4 3

N o . &S i te Name 11 r ueka sh iK -26 -3 1 " K -26 -4

T .Fe 1 0 .20 2 8 .05

F eO 6 .6 1 2 8 .46

1 1

" "

K -27 -9 L -27 -2

4 9 .13

5 4 .55 3 0 .4

1 1

" "

T -30 -6 T -34 -3

F e 20 5 4 .02 3 8 .31

S iO 2 1 4 .76 9 . 37 2 0 .64

A 1 20 3 8 . 77 8 . 45 4 . 61

C aO 0 . 30 0 . 73 3 . 34

T iO 2

Mn 0 . 34 0 . 32 0 . 22

P 0 . 0016 0 . 023

9 . 59 3 . 53

2 . 52 0 . 70

5 . 22 0 . 27

0 . 15

0 . 05 0 . 03 0 . 01 0 . 23 0 . 060

5 . 79 1 6 .57

0 . 85 4 . 06

'0 . 52 8 . 42

0 . 03 0 . 04 0 . 22

0 . 375 0 . 383 0 . 262 0 . 650 0 . 175

1 0 .25

2 . 07

1 . 28

0 . 15

0 .64 3 7 .00 0 . 99 1 4 .92 2 8 .9 5 . 90

0 . 97 3 . 18 0 . 74 3 . 97 5 . 43 1 . 61

0 . 45 4 . 18 0 . 66 '2 . 38 2 . 69 0 . 77

0 . 049 '0 . 117 0 . 066 0 . 30 0 . 27 0 . 11

0 . 021 -0 . 127 0 . 013 '0 . 052 -0 . 062 0 . 023

0 . 157 0 . 282 0 . 165 0 . 40 0 . 54 0 . 19

5 5 .6 3 4 .5 1 .10

1 2 .28 1 .96 3 . 59 2 . 83

1 .75

0 . 55

0 . 19

5 . 05

6 . 30 2 . 17 1 . 71

0 . 57 1 . 44

0 . 31 0 . 098 0 . 077 0 . 043

0 . 88 0 . 34 0 . 27

2 . 66 4 . 57 4 . 22 5 . 77 1 . 96 3 . 18 4 . 77 5 . 04

0 . 28 0 . 77 0 . 87

0 . 33 0 . 44

3 . 24

4 1 .73 5 7 .03 4 5 .26 4 5 .39 6 1 .43

2 5 .46 4 3 .19

6 8 .73 3 7 .36 7 1 .92 5 8 .3 4 2 .9

6 6 .18 3 6 .66 7 1 .36 5 9 .3 4 0 .4 5 9 .5 3 . 74

2 4 .82 1 2 .69 2 3 .55 1 7 .40 1 6 .43 3 1 .1 2 . 49

2 7 .7 6 2 .8 5 7 .8 4 3 .90 7 . 19

1 0 .64 1 6 .71 2 5 .2 4 . 86 2 . 27

2 0 .10 4 8 .00

8 .05 6 .97 1 .14 2 6 .30 1 .78

0 . 0 1 4 . 69 2 . 97 1 7 .24 2 . 63

4 5 .60 5 4 .8 5 5 .6 3 4 .6 5 1 .9

5 . 03 1 5 .60 1 7 .30 1 7 .38 2 1 .26 1 0 .77 1 9 .93

'2 2 .85 5 3 .9

2 5 .93 1 0 .73

3 2 .8 2 3 .48

9 . 64 6 . 33

7 . 27 3 . 16 4 .00 2 8 .31 3 . 66 1 9 .15 2 5 .02 3 4 .2 2 6 .8 1 3 .87 8 . 49

5 7 .2 1 3 .82 5 1 .1 1 8 .00 5 6 .5 1 3 .40 1 3 .82 3 . 54 6 . 70 3 2 .50 4 4 .20

8 . 97 2 0 .88 2 1 .54

9 . 15 5 9 .0 5 6 .6 6 8 .3 6 5 .1 3 2 .10 1 8 .00

2 7 .6 7 . 13 8 .69 2 7 .80 8 .48 5 8 .6 5 0 .3 5 7 .1 5 9 .6 2 2 .40 1 5 .20

2 . 48 6 . 72 4 .06 4 .41

5 . 59 1 6 .63 4 . 12 5 . 67 2 . 13 4 . 23

1 . 86 4 . 97 2 . 70 3 . 39 1 . 29 2 . 01

8 . 88 1 .40

1 . 98 2 . 80

0 . 200 0 . 57 0 . 30 0 . 23 0 . 15 0 . 15 0 . 510 0 . 750

4 5 .40 9 . 16

5 1 .60 7 . 56

4 . 52

5 5 .90

5 . 58 1 3 .10

OK W -5 '5 3 .10 OK W -6 '4 6 .40 1 6A t su sabu A SB1 1 2 .20 1 7Ho rona ipo A -90 4 4 .50

5 3 .70 1 8 .90 4 .64

1 8 .70 3 6 .50 1 0 .81

3 . 50 7 . 97

1 . 14 3 . 24

1 . 29 3 . 14 0 . 70

0 . 370 0 . 920 0 . 060

0 . 640

0 . 120

0 . 120 _0 . 360 0 . 570

5 1 .50

0 . 084

2 8 .85 2 .63 _1

6 . 51 3 5 .11 3 7 .82

1 . 55 0 . 32 2 . 73 2 . 01

0 . 400

2 7 .90 1 7 .9 1 2 9 .47

1 3 .60 0 . 80 6 . 16 7 . 47

2P ipau sh i G -12 -8 2P ipau sh i G -13 -5 -2 3Y ukan - 4 055 -83 3 bo sh i4 042 -1 3 " 4 055 -133 5K a t suya - UEN -1 5 mada te UEN -2 5

"

UEN -3

6 8 .0

5

"

UEN -5

4 .65 2 9 .0 6 0 .5 6 2 .6

5

"

5 5

"

UEN -6 UEN -7 UEN -11

6S a t suma e SAT -1

4 7 .30 8 . 78

6 6 6 6 6

" SAT -2 " SAT -20 " S T -1 " S T -2 " S T -3

6 6

" "

6 6

" S T -7 4 9 .4 "2 1H 1 18 ,2 6 .5

6

" M1B2S1

S T -5 S T -6

S h izuu raD S T -8 7M iyuk icho MIK1 8N ish ik i - ZW841 8c ho S E32H844 1 0S ueh i ro B -851 1 0 " B -852 1 0 " 8 u -852 1 3O kawa OK W -1 1 3 " OK W -2 1 3 " OK W -3 1 3 " OK W -4 1 3 1 3

8 .04 8 .07 1 0 .70 3 2 .5 1 .00 3 5 .9

7 . 75 9 . 55 4 7 .60

" "

3 3 K abuka i A 3 3 " B

3 5 .92 3 0 .44

3 7 .10 9 . 58

9 . 20

2 1 .80

4 1

1 . 29

0 . 88 1 . 04 0 . 55 0 . 90 0 . 43

0 . 96 0 . 77

1 . 14

0 . 160 0 . 140 0 . 18 0 . 12 0 . 097 '0 . 17 0 . 10 0 . 071 0 . 10 0 . 18 0 . 21 0 . 055 0 . 12 0 . 032 0 . 05 0 . 08 0 . 036 0 . 100 0 . 110 0 . 037

S

0 . 070 0 . 173 0 . 107 '0 .080 0 .025 0 .014 0 .001 0 .009 0 .002 0 .026 0 . 124 0 .020 0 .079 0 .074 0 .026 0 .051

0 . 0 13

0 .030

0 . 020 0 . 016 0 . 33 0 . 24 0 . 65 0 . 47 0 . 48

0 .023 0 .032 0 .011 0 .009 0 .045 0 .005 0 .020

0 . 36

0 .010

0 . 86 0 . 83 0 . 80 0 . 020 0 . 52 0 . 31 0 . 36 0 . 14 0 . 55 ,0 . 044 0 . 360

0 .008 0 .029

0 . 400 0 . 3 , 20 0 . 052 0 . 037

0 .050 '0 .020 _ . _

0 . 01

0 .008 0 .053 0 .017 0 .059 0 .068 0 .033 0 .004 0 .043 0 .042

0 .011

4 :D i scuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i nt h e Hokka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t o t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

T ab le 4 3c on t .

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fs l ag ( Tohoku ) . T he f o l low ing d a ta a r ec omp i led f r om t h ee xcava t ion r e po r t sl i s ted i nA ppend ix -1 .

N o . &S i t e N ame rT .F e 3 6Moku sawaMS -1 2 3 .20 6 .10 3 6 " MS -2 2 9 .20 3 6 " MS -3 3 3 6 " MS -4 4 3 .30 2 5 .47 3 6 " 1 4 3 6 " 2 5 1 5 .33 2 1 .16 ' 3 6 " 3 6 3 6 " 4 -7 3 6 .80 2 4 .74 3 6 " 5 1 3 6 " 6 -2 3 5 .45 2 8 .48 3 6 " 7 3 1 .32 3 7K i t suneno80811 2 4 1 U ch ieb i sawa 1 6 2 .12 4 1 " 2 4 3 .11 4 1 " 3 5 9 .12 4 1 " 4 7 2 .37 4 2S umoda i - 1 2 4 .0 1 4 2 s h i r noya - 2 1 9 . 33 4 2 s uha ra 2 2 4 5 .16 4 2 " 3 1 4 . 72 4 2 " 3 2 4 5 .71 4 2 " 4 3 4 .08 4 2 " 5 4 1 .08 4 2 " 6 3 4 .19 4 2 " 1 0 3 8 .65 5 3Kam imu ra KM1 6 0 .40 5 3 " KM2 4 7 .90 5 3 " KM3 3 9 .20 5 3 " KM5 6 2 .00 5 3 " KM 10 4 6 .2 5 3 " KM11 5 7 .9 5 3 " KM12 4 9 .1 5 3 " KM13 4 4 .9 5 3 " KM14 4 2 .3 5 3 " KM15 -5 3 .4 5 3 " KM16 5 1 .6 5 3 " KM 17 5 0 .7 5 3 " KM18 5 0 .2 5 3 " 1 CM19 4 2 .3 5 3 " 1 CM20 5 9 .2 5 3 " KM2 1 5 8 .8 5 3 " KM22 4 5 .9

F eO ' 2 8 .60 3 1 .10 6 . 56 4 8 .00

F e 20

' 1 2 .4 1 8 .68

1 8 .13 1 .89 1 2 .88 4 1 .25 2 8 .56 2 0 .26 7 . 40 1 7 .42 8 . 58 2 9 .29 1 3 .35 8 . 17 3 0 .43 4 . 93 4 9 .84 3 9 .97

5 1 .60 4 4 .60 3 8 .80 2 5 .30 5 8 .5 6 8 .6 5 6 .0 5 7 .0 5 4 .1 5 7 .3 7 .6 -3 6 1 .1 6 1 _ .1 4 4 .9 6 6 .7 6 5 .9 5 5 .2

7 . 97 7 9 .79 4 1 .22 6 9 .13 1 0 .99 1 9 .49 4 . 26 3 0 .75 1 . 27 9 . 97 4 . 30 _ 1 4 .85 1 9 .34 1 6 .52 1 2 .50 4 . 72 0 . 57 2 9 .35 0 . 55 5 . 90 0 . 02 0 . 45 0 . 11 2 .4 -1 3 1 .7 3 . 87 3 . 5 . 6 1 0 .1 1 0 .1 1 0 .4 '3 . 96

S iO 2 2 7 .00 2 7 .10 1 2 .10 2 1 .10 2 . 97 6 . 88 1 6 .28 4 . 2 1 4 . 37 1 0 .50 1 2 .26 2 1 .20 2 . 03 1 5 .40 3 . 96 2 . 07 4 1 .67 6 3 .62 1 8 .99 6 2 .74 ,1 7 .56 2 5 .08 2 . 10 5 . 1 _ 2 4 . 6 1 1 4 .20 1 8 .10 2 7 .60 4 . 70 2 2 .2 1 3 .5 2 0 .4 2 3 .6 2 4 .3 1 6 .3 1 3 .1 1 7 .8 1 5 .4 2 4 .2 1 .0 1 3 .2 ' 2 5 .3

A 1 20 3 9 . 64 4 . 93 4 . 53 5 . 67 2 . 84 2 . 21 4 . 71 2 . 51 2 . 27 3 . 05 4 . 09 6 . 12 0 . 42 3 . 65 0 . 98 0 . 68 1 .24 1 3 .44 6 . 23 1 6 .31 ' ‚ 6 . 33 9 . 73 0 . 17 0 . 18 0 . 36 -5 . 96 ' 4 . 36 7 . 07 1 . 93 5 . 99 . 61 ,3 5 . 46 6 . 37 6 . 90 4 . 52 3 . 93 5 . 33 4 . 34 7 . 25 2 . 90 3 . 74 _6 . 43

42

C aO 5 . 66 2 . 87 2 . 40 1 . 84 7 . 35 3 . 65 '3 . 24 5 . 09 8 . 08 2 . 64 3 . 36 2 . 30 0 . 01 0 . 62 0 . 11 0 . 08 3 . 77 2 . 45 1 . 62 4 . 62 2 . 68 3 . 04 0 . 12 0 . 22 0 . 15 -2 . 59 '2 . 05 4 . 84 '0 . 41 1 . 93 '1 . 52 3 . 80 . 56 -1 2 . 45 1 . 38 1 . 42 2 . 29 3 . 16 1 . 81 1 . 62 0 . 93 '2 . 18

T iO 2 2 3 .30 1 9 .30 8 . 54 7 . 87 0 . 629 0 . 408 8 . 85 0 . 225 0 . 60 8 . 29 9 . 76 3 5 .96 0 . 02 5 . 58 0 . 26 0 . 21 1 . 24 1 . 20 3 . 25 0 . 82 7 . 08 1 .85 0 . 42 0 . 46 0 . 44 1 . 830 . 400 '1 2 . 480 0 . 530 1 . 63 1 . 43 2 . 20 . 89 -1 1 . 56 1 . 26 1 . 65 1 . 43 2 . 15 1 . 29 1 . 74 '0 . 76 2 . 41

Mn 1 . 240 1 . 030 0 . 380 0 . 510 0 . 162 0 . 195 0 . 76 0 .217 0 . 156 0 .67 0 . 75 0 . 91 0 . 03 0 . 36 0 . 04 0 . 05 0 . 21 0 . 25 0 . 20 0 . 04 '0 . 41 0 . 70 0 . 290 0 . 221 0 . 480 0 . 320 0 . 270 0 .480 0 . 148 0 . 58 0 .42 0 . 59 0 .49 0 .47 0 , 40 0 . 34 0 . 54 0 . 54 0 . 40 0 . 42 '0 . 21 0 . 67

P 0 . 170 0 . 110 0 . 230 '0 . 180

S 0 . 060 0 .049 0 . 065 0 . 043

0 . 095 0 . 118 0 . 087 0 . 190 0 . 185 0 . 034 0 . 060 0 . 120 0 . 06 1 ' 0 . 129 0 . 054 0 . 020 0 . 102 0 . 02 1 0 . 99 0 . 180 0 . 096 0 . 136 0 . 142 0 . 026 0 . 022 0 . 028 0 . 117 0 . 31 0 . 31 0 . 83 0 . 26 0 . 82 0 . 25 0 . 33 0 . 92 1 . 20 0 . 73 0 . 57 0 . 36 '0 . 38

0 . 036

0 . 03 0 . 040 0 . 015 0 . 055 0 . 065 0 . 726 0 . 657 0 . 129 0 . 020 0 . 064 0 . 013 0 . 033 0 . 037

0 . 02 1 0 . 024 0 . 0 17 0 . 007

'

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t he Hokka ido a nd T ohoku d i s tr ic t s i n r e la t ion t o t he A inu i r on t e chno logy

T ab le 4 3 c on t .

T he c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o fs l ag ( Tohoku )

No . &S i te N ame 5 2 Wanda i WD -1 5 2 " WD -2 5 2 " WD -3 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2

" " " "

WD -4 WD -5 WD -6 No .10

5 2 5 2 5 2

" " "

N o .11 No .12 No .13

5 2 5 2 5 2

" " "

No .14 No .15 No .16

T .Fe 4 1 .40 4 3 .50 4 2 .70 4 7 .00 4 0 .00 5 0 .40 4 5 .62 7 0 .16 6 9 .9 1 6 3 .89 6 4 .59 6 2 .24 5 8 .05 6 5 .82 4 9 .73 6 8 .9 1 2 9 .44 5 5 .91 5 5 .29

5 5 " S -2 5 5 " S -3 6 5 H a r imada t e 1 2 6 5 " 2 5 6 5 " 2 7 6 8K ann inzawa 1 6 8 " / 6 8 " 3 6 8 " 4 6 8 " 5 6 8 " 6 7 2 S akanoue E 1

5 4 .79 5 4 .10

" "

4 7 .40

4 0 .26 1 0 .74 5 6 .6 1

7 5 7 5

0 .001

0 . 803 0 . 963 0 . 086 0 . 548 .0 . 965

0 . 00 1

1 . 91 0 .00 1

0 . 436 2 3 .0 3 . 52 4 4 .3 2 0 .8 1 7 .88 '1 6 .26

. ,

5 7 .84 5 1 .82 0 .97 .5 5 1 .82 5 3 .27 .4 6 .38 4 8 .60 5 6 .75 5 0 .88 4 0 .40

2 3

" 7 -No8 " 8 -GX22

2 2 .40 2 1 .80 '2 0 .10 1 8 .80 1 . 45 ,0 .698

2' 3

T akou 7 5 K i ta zawa6 -No6

S if t 2 5 .80 2 2 .70

5 0 .00 5 0 .20 5 6 .20 1 .70 5 6 .50

7 4S h i ranagane - 1 7 4 d a te 7 4 "

F e 20

6 9 .99

5 2 " No .17 5 2 " No .19 K awa ida te 4 " 5 " 6 " 7 5 5 N a t sumo to S -1

7 2 7 2

F eO

i

8 . 05 5 . 98 7 . 20 6 . 26 5 . 52 5 . 52 0 . 349 0 . 092 -0 .095

1 3 .00

2 0 .18 2 8 .33 4 2 .05

3 . 51 4 . 64

2 . 600 2 . 510

0 . 350 0 . 350

5 . 10

3 . 790

'3 . 73 2 . 11 2 . 57 3 . 58 0 . 86 1 . 29

2 . 570 1 . 020 1 . 210 0 . 392 0 . 247 0 . 252

6 . 90 '5 . 69 3 . 23 4 . 80 5 . 54 . 009 .5 5 . 76 3 . 11

6 . 260 7 . 440 '7 . 01

43

0 .480 0 . 120 0 . 380 0 . 429 0 . 209

0 . 280 0 . 280 0 . 210 0 . 160 1 6 .0

0 .269 0 . 263 0 . 125 0 . 164

1 . 16 4 .26

0 . 275 0 . 383

0 . 341 0 . 396

3 . 21 1 2 .4

0 . 136 0 . 192 1 .22 0 . 327 0 . 230 0 . 674

0 . 159 '0 .066 0 . 007 0 . 086 0 . 050 0 .08

_3 . 86 0 . 081 0 . 087 0 . 116 0 . 019 0 . 14

0 .09 0 .05 ,0 . 54

0 . 13 0 . 09 0 . 13

0 . 965 1 . 32 2 . 27 1 . 23 1 . 10 0 . 68

4 .65

0 .470 0 .600

1 . 68 3 . 48 5 . 27

0 . 06 1 3 . 18 0 . 58 5 . 90 2 . 32 4 . 38

8 . 60 1 . 33 4 . 84 6 . 41 7 . 44 6 . 41 4 .44

2 8 .50 1 2 .45

P

0 .420

0 . 331 0 . 080 0 . 206

3 .26 _2 2 . 58

2 3 .57

Mn

1 . 85 0 . 36 1 1 . 90 1 . 10 2 . 72

-3 . 55 3 . 59

1 5 .03 1 9 .28 0 .27 .2 9 .28 . .1 1 8 .29 '2 4 .30 2 5 .40 1 7 .18 2 4 .20 2 7 .23

T iO 2

C aO

0 .060 0 . 022 0 . 177 0 . 081 0 . 231

'1 0 .50 4 . 56

7 .62 ,4 3 9 .48 6 0 .52 7 . 110

A l 2O 3

0 . 82 0 . 29 4 1 . 11

0 . 981 •0 . 320 1 2 .04

1 . 76 0 . 15 2 . 61

2 . 77 0 . 45 1 3 .30

0 . 35 0 .042 0 .62

0 . 11 0 . 093 .0 . 87

2 . 89 2 . 21 . 89 _2 2 . 61 3 . 03 0 . 75

1 3 .05 1 3 .36 1 3 .05 1 4 .44 1 2 .77 1 5 .22

0 . 65 0 . 64 0 .65 0 . 70 0 . 58

0 . 76 1 . 05 0 . 83 0 . 75

0 . 64 0 . 62 4 . 31

1 8 .00 1 5 .61

0 . 780

0 . 079

0 . 730 1 . 16

0 . 047 _0 . 064

S 0 . 029 0 . 028 0 . 028 0 . 030 0 . 087 0 . 028

,

1 . 05 , '

1 5 .31

3 . 38

1 5 .31

4 . 35 2 . 46 1 . 590 1 . 420 1 . 96

1 5 .36 '1 9 .59 1 6 .09 1 4 .82 2 3 .2

'

0 . 015 0 . 005

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t he Hokka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t o t he A inu i r on t e chno logy

w e re o b se rved i nt h e s l ag s amp le s . T h is w a s i n te rp re ted a s b e ing ar e su l to fd eca rbu r isa t ion u s ing i r on s and . A l though f u rnace s o ft h ek ind r equ i red f o rr ef in ing w e re n o t f ound a t t h is s i te , i ti ss ugges ted t ha t t h e r e f in ing m e thod w a s u sed ( O sawa 1 985 ) .

T he e x is t ence o fi r on s and p a r t ic le si nd ica te s t h a tt h er ef in ing p roce s sw a sc a r r ied o nb yr eac t ion o fi r on s and , a nd t h i sc an b ee v idence t h a td eca rbu r isa t ion h a s b een c a r r ied o u tb y t h e a dd i t ion o f i r on s and d ur ing t h e me l t ing p rocess . T h i s s ugge s t s t ha t t h e t e chn ique i sn o t a s s imp le a sj us t f o rg ing b u t a mo re a dvanced s t age c ha rac ter i sed b y s pec if ic t e chn ique s t op roduce s t ee l p roduc t s . I ti sv e ry i mpo r tan tt o u nde r s tand w he the ri r on t e chno logy h ad a l ready r eached t h e l e ve lo fs t ee l -p roduc t ion .

O n t h e o the r h and , a tt h e N i sh ik icho s i te ( 5 ) , me ta l lu rg ica l e xam ina t ion o ft h e s l ag i nd ica ted t h a ti tw a sf o rg ing s l ag b y t h e f a c tt h a ti tc on ta in s ma in ly s i l ica a nd magne t i te , a nd t h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion a na ly s is i nd ica tes 5 9% o f t o ta l F e , wh ich w a s h igh a nd 0 . 3% o f t i tan ium ( T iO 2 ) w h ich w a s l ow . A tt h e S ueh i ro s i te ( 10 ) ( Sa t sumon p e r iod ) , t h e r e su l t s i nd ica t ed t h a t i tw a s f o rg ing s l ag b y t h e f a c t t h a t s amp les c on ta in ma in ly s i l ica a nd magne t i te , a nd c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion a na lys is i nd ica te s6 5 .1 % o ft o ta lF e , w h ich w a s h igh , a nd 0 . 15% o ft i tan ium ( T iO 2 ) , w h ich w a s l ow ( O sawa 1 982 ) . A lso a tt h e Ho rona ipo s i te ( 17 ) ( Sa t sumon p e r iod ) , f o rg ing s l ag w a s i d en t if ied f r om t h e f ac t t h a t i tc on ta ined ma in ly s i l ica t ea nd magne t i te , a nd t h ec hem ica lc ompo s i t ion i nd ica ted 4 4 .50% o ft o ta lF e , w h ich w a sh igh , a nd 0 . 32% o f t i tan ium ( T iO 2 ) , w h ich w a sl ow ( Osawa 1 983 ) .

( 2 )H amme rs c a le ( t he r e su l t s o f t h e a na ly s i s o f h amme r s ca le a r e s hown i n T ab le 4 -4 ) Me ta l lu rg ica l e xam ina t ion w a sc a r r ied o u to n h amme rs c a le f ound a tt h eR an sh ima ( 9 )a nd S ueh i ro ( 10 )s i t es . D i scu s s ion o n t h e P ipau sh i s i te ( 2 ) a nd t h e Y ukanbo sh i s i te ( 3 ) w i l lb e g i ven i nC hap te r5 .

S lag a tt h e M iyuk icho ( 7 ) , Okawa ( 13 ) , a nd G enwa ( 14 ) s i tes h a s b een i den t if ied a s f o rg ing s l ag o n t h e b a s i s o f me talog raph ic a na lys is .

T ab le 4 -4

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fh amme rs ca le . T he f o l low ing d a ta a r ec omp i led f r om t h ee xcava t ion r e po r t sl i s t ed i nA ppend ix -1 . S hadow ing i nd ica te sd a ta a na lys ed s p ec ia l ly f o rt h i sb ook b y am e ta l lu rg ica la na ly s t , K . I t o .

P * MnO S i te n ame S a mp le n o T .Fe F e 2O 3 S iO 2 A 1 20 3 C aO T iO 2 F eO E i e i i, ; o i : • .• : • ) 1I • t l s c 3, 8 9 046 . . : , 01 2 10 3 28 1 : i. ' .er 0 70 4 :, d0 i ! li e ä i V 4 I ieg ‚e n ige .e :M i ge l ! :% 2K 6 575 M iee . ; : ' 1 , .. i e !. . . ( X. 3 5e . ! i K :fe : . . . . e ''« . - & ,7 . 2 P ipa nt h t ! ! : : : :2 : 6 7 1 . iin R ße : ,V ; : '.. : ,0 .68 0A 1 3 j.i . : d e. : . . 0 : 1S7 :e l ! : ; : : i e . : ; ; :U41 . 1 6 : : ' 7 2 , : = 1 ä : 4 :: " . .: CK inn iNN 7 üA irtg : : . : . : ' . . . .. i ...

P ia u sh i. ' 'Nene :e ;:H : ,6 2 .8e . 5 :

• ' ' ..M 7

'

3

Yukanbosh i 1

6 8 .04 -4 6 .82

4 5 .28

3 3 3

Y ukanbosh i 3 Y ukanbosh i 4 Yukanbo sh i 5

4 9 .88 2 9 .75

,

3 3

Y ukanbosh i 6 Y ukanbo sh i 8

6 7 .98 4 2 .60 6 9 .93 6 3 .26 1 .91 6 6 .60 6 7 .52 6 4 .20 - 5 5 9 .0 6 5 .56

2 6 .45 2 7 .89

. .

3 9 5 5 5 3 5 3

Yukanbo sh i 9 R an sh ima N a t sumo to K am imu ra 8 K am imu ra 9

6 6 .20 '6 4 .88 5 7 .36 7 2 .66 5 8 .52 6 8 .6 5 5 .8 6 8 .8 6 1 .8

2 2 .58

., . , :et0 IY :

2 8 .12 1 3 .42 3 7 .89 ' 1 . 50 5 .29 3 5 .7 4 .25 2 9 .4

4 . 34 - 0 . 94 0 . 02 0 . 91 < 0 .1 1 . 13 < 0 .1

» .

) : i.

; : :i : ; . : : . :A

0 . 028

2 .42

0 . 021

1 . 33 1 . 66

0 . 033 0 . 100 0 . 071 0 . 048 0 . 067 0 . 28 0 . 037 0 . 11 0 .23

8 . 87 4 .91 4 ,38 5 . 30 0 .07 0 .02 < 0 .1 < 0 .1

0 . 09 0 . 03 0 . 05 0 . 07

I r on p o t s a r e f r equen t ly f ound a t s i tes i n Hokka ido a nd T ohoku d a t ing f r om t h e 1th c en tury o nwa rd s . I ti sn o t k nown w he re t h ey w e re p roduced o r h ow t hey w e re d i s t r ibu t ed i nt h e n or th o fJ apan . T he refo r e , i ti ss i gn i f ican t t os t udy t h e r e su l t o fm e ta l lu rg ica l a na ly s is o n t h e ma te r ia l i no rd e rt ou nde r s tand t h es ou rce a nd d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk .

( 3 )I r on p roduc t s ( t he r e su l t s o f t h e a na ly s i s o f i r on p roduc t s a r e s hown i n T ab le 4 -5 ) A cco rd ing t ot h e p ropor t ion o fc a rbon w h ich i r on p roduc t s c on ta in , 1 . 7% c a rbon i sd ef ined a st h e d i v id ing l i ne b e tween s t ee l a nd c hu te t su i nJ apane se me ta l lu rgy ( N ish izawa e ta l . 1 979 ) . Me ta l lu rg ica l d i scuss ions i nJ apan a r e b a sed o n t h i s d ef in i t ion ; It h e refo re f olow t h is d ef in i t ion .

A l l i r on p o t s e xh ib i t e v idence o f l e debur i te i n t h e m e ta l lograph ic r e su l t s a nd h igh c a rbon a s ac hem ica l c omponen t . T hey a r e made o f c a s t i r on . Among c hem ica l c omponen t s ,p a r t icu la r ly c oppe r( Cu ) a nd p ho sphorus ( P ) ,o r t i t an ium ( T i ) a r e g ood i n d ica to r s t ou nde r s tand t h e o r ig ina l

44

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

i r on r aw m a te r ia l , w he the ri tw a sc oppe r -con ta in ing i r on o r e o rp ho spho ru s -con ta in ing i r on o r e . A cco rd ing t oA l canuma ( 1 989 :196 ) , i ft h e c a lcu la t ion b a sed o n p ho spho ru s / to ta l F e ( T .Fe ) i s mo re t han 0 . 1% , t h en t h e p ropo r t ion o f p ho spho ru s i sh i gh . Mo s t s amp le s h ave h i gh p ropo r t ion s o f p ho spho r u s , w h ich i nd ica te t h a t t h e o r ig ina l i r on o r e w a s p ho spho ru s -con ta in ing magne t i t e . O n t h e o t he r h and , i ti s i n te re s t ing t h a t t i tan ium i sn o t s i gn if ican t , a si th a s a lways b een t h ough t t h a t i r on s and c on ta in ing t i t an ium w a s t h e t r ad i t iona lr aw ma te r ia lf o ri r on p r oduc t si nJ apan .

A tt h e K a t suyamada t es i te ( 5 ) ( a round 1 5 th -16 th c en tu ry ) , a n on -me ta l l ic i n c lu s ion o fk o zane ( i ron l amelae f o ra rmou r ) i n d ica t e s n o e v idence o f t ian ium -compound a nd a l ow p ropo r t ion o ft ian ium t h u s i tw a s m ade o fi r on o r e . O n t h e o t he r h and , an on -me ta l l ic i n c lu s ion i nn a i l s a nd h a rpoon s i n d ica t e se v idence o ft i an ium -compound s , s o i tc an b e s a id t h a ti r on s a nd w a su s ed f o rt h ep roduc t ion o ft h er aw m a te r ia l f r om w h ich t h e se i r on p r oduc t sw e r em ade . Mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o n i r on p roduc t s a tt h e I r ue l ca sh i a nd Y ukanbo sh i s i t e sw i l lb eg i ven i nC hap t e r5 .

T he r e a r e s ome o the r i r on p roduc t s c on ta in ing l e s s t h an 1 . 7% c a rbon t h a t a r e made f r om s o f t s t ee l o r f o rged i r on p roduc t s ,s u ch a sd agge r s , n a i l s , f i sh ing h ook s ,h a rpoon sa nd m i sce l laneou sp i e ce so fi r on .

T ab le 4 5

3 3 5 5

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fi r on p roduc t s . T he f o l low ing d a ta w e r ea na ly sed b yH .A l canuma f o rt h ef o r thcom ing r e po r t s .

S i t en ame S amp le n o Y ukanbo sh i 9 566 -3 Y ukanbo sh i 9 566 -8 K a t suyamada t ek ozane K a t suyamada te T6 7

T .Fe 6 1 .24 6 2 .32 6 3 .38 9 6 .47

5

K a t suyamada te T 7 0

i g m

5

K a t suyamada te T 6 8

9 2 .89 6 1 .44

5

K a t suyamada te T71

S i 0 . 542 0 . 417

,

n d 0 . 06 1 ,

1 . 12 0 . 034 0 . 181 0 . 176

( 4 )L ump so fi r on ma t e r ia l ( t he r e su l t s o f t h e a na lys i s o f l ump s o f i r on a r e s hown i n T ab le 4 -6 ) As em ic i rcu la r s hape o f i r on m a t e r ia l , w e igh ing 5 kg a nd f ound a t K a t suyamada te s i te ( 5 ) ( a round t h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tu r ie s ) , w a s a na ly sed b y am e ta l lu rg i s t ( Akanuma 1 993 ) . I tc on ta in s l e s s t h an 1 . 7% c a rbon , s ugge s t ing t h a t i ti ss o f t s t ee l . A cco rd ing t ot e s t s f o r n on -me tal ic i n c lu s ion s i nt h i s s o f t s t ee l , t i t an ium -compound s w e re f ound , i n d ica t ing t h a t i r on s a nd w a s u sed i nt h ep roce s so fp roduc t ion o ft h e s t ee l . T he c omponen t s o f n on -me ta l l ic i n c lu s ion o f t h e s t ee l a r e s im i la rc omponen t st ot h os eo fn on -me ta l l ic i n c lu s ion o ft h e T6 8 , T7 0 , a nd T 7 1 s amp le s f r om t h e s ame s i t e , w h ich I m en t ioned j u s t a bove ( s ee a l so T ab le 4 -4 ) . I tm ay b e s a id t h a t t h e se i r on p roduc t s w e re m ad e f r om t h e s ame t y pe o f s t ee l a t t h e s i t e . H oweve r , i ti sn o t k nown w he the r t h e s em ic i r cu la rs hape o fs t ee l w a sp roduced a tt h es i t eo rn o t . I t m igh th ave b een p roduced t h e re ,a sa r cha eo log ica le v idenc e i n d i ca t e s c omp lex f e a tu re so fi r on t e chno logy a tt h i s s i t es u ch a sa n e x t rao rd ina r i ly l a rge t y pe o ft u ye re s a nd t u ye re s m ade o f s t one (s ) , a nd t h e e x is t ence o f ac r uc ib le . T he s em ic i rcu la r s hap e o f s t ee l c ou ld j u s t a s w e l l h ave b een b r ough ti n to t h e s i te t h rough t h ed i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk .

4 5

C u 0 . 226 0 . 014 0 . 010 0 . 0 15 0 . 0 14 0 . 008 0 . 0 12 0 . 0 11 0 . 0 14 0 . 0 14 0 . 0 15

C a 0 . 066 0 . 042 0 . 064 0 . 003 0 . 009 0 . 002 0 . 006 0 . 080 0 . 002 0 . 0 15 0 . 0 10

T i 0 . 007 0 . 009 0 . 003 0 . 018 0 . 056 0 . 006 0 . 0 19 0 . 06 1 0 . 008 0 . 088 0 . 065

Mn 0 . 010 0 . 015 0 . 005 0 . 00 11 0 . 003 0 . 001 0 . 011 0 . 011 0 . 001 0 . 004 0 . 004

P 0 . 085 0 . 095 0 . 14 1 0 . 035 0 . 030 0 . 017 0 . 024 0 . 027 0 . 027 0 . 008 0 . 015

S 0 . 073

Two o u t o f 3 0 i r on b a r s w h ich w e r e t o ge the r i n ab und le f r om N am ioka jo s i te ( a round t h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tu ry ) w e r e a na ly sed . T hey c on ta in 0 . 3 -0 .4% a nd 0 . 6 -0 .8% c a rbon , s o t h a t t h ey a r e s t ee l . T hey a l so i n d ica t e ah i gh p ropo r t ion o f p ho spho ru s .T i tan ium c ompound i n an on -me ta l l ic i n c lu s ion i n d ica t e s t h a t i r on s a nd w a s u sed i nt h e p roce s s . A l can tuna ( 1 993 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h i s c an b e i n t e rp re ted a s e v idenc e f o r t h e i n d i r ec t s t ee l -p roduc t ion m e t hod : t h a t i ss en te t su w h ich c on ta in sh i gh p ho spho ru s w a s u s ed a st h e ma te r ia l ,a nd i r on s a nd w a s u s ed f o r d e ca rbu r i sa t ion i no rde r t o make s t ee l . S a sak i ( 1 989 ) a l so m en t ion s as im i la r t y pe o f f i nd f r om F uku sh ima -ken , T ohoku ; a na lys i s s hows t h a t i ti s as o f t s t ee l . T he r e i s a n e xamp le i n C h ina w h ich m igh t b e i n t e re s t ing t on o te i nt e rm s o f t h e p roduc t ion p roce s s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h i s k i nd o f i r on b a r . A n e xamp le i sf i gu r e 1 3 , " ba ri r on p roduced b y t r ad i t iona lm e thod s i nH unan" i n Wagne r ( 1 985 ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t os ay t h a t t h e f i gu r e w h ich s hows i r on b a r s 3 x3x11cm i ns i ze w h ich l o ok v e ry s im i la r t oo ne s f r om N am ioka jo s i t e ( 3 4 ) . S uch i r on b a r s i nC h ina a r ep r oduced i nt h ei n d i r ec ts t ee l -p roduc t ion m e thod , t e rmed c hao i n C h inese , t r ans la ted ' f in ing ' . G ene ra l ly 3 0 -40 w rough ti r on b a r s a r e p roduced ( t he p ho tog raph o n p . 26 i n Wagne r 1 985 , s how s3 0 -40 i r on b a r s t o ge the ri n ab und le i n H unan ) . S im i la r i r on b a r s i nH enan i nC h ina i n d ica te t h e p ropo r t ion o fc a rbon i s0 . 34% a nd t h ec hem ica lc omponen t s o ft h ee xamp le a r ea sf o l low s : F e =9 8 .68% , S i =0 . 37% , P =0 . 16% ,a nd S=0 . 045% ( Wagne r 1 993 ) .

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t o t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

T ab le 4 -6

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o f al ump o fi r on . S hadow ing i n d ica t e sd a ta a na ly sed b yK . I t o ,a nd t h er e s tw e re a na lysed b y H . A kanuma ( 1993 ) .

S i te n ame , S amp le n o T .Fe : . : .: " : "—P ipau sh iRen : If l igeg ig : :: • :e i 6590 5 K a t suyamada te 3 4 3 4

4 -7

Nam ioka jo Nam ioka jo

F 3 F

F eO F e 2O 3 S iO A l 2O 3 C aO T iO • Z O >i ' g : : :nee i I et4W i0 0400. :. «0 . 483 g 68 '< 0 .01 < 0 .002 < 0 .001 0 .004

5 8 .76 —

0 . 412

6 3 .63

0 . 258

A h ypothet ica l r econs truc t ion o f i r on -work ing i n n or thern J apan

0 .0 12

0 . 098 0 .016

Mn

P

1 00 40 : : : )

C%

< 0 .01

0 .018

0 .001

0 .005

0 .283

< 1 .7 ' 0 . 3 -0 .4

0 .004

0 .002

0 . 162

0 .6 -0 .8

When t e chno log ica l a spec t s a re t aken i n to a ccoun t f o r r econs t ruc t ion o f i r on -produc t ion p rocesses w i th in a n a rchaeo log ica l a nd h is tor ica l f ramewo rk i n J apan , p a r t icu la r ly , a n a spec t o f t h e t e chno log ica l p roce s s o f t h e t a tara m e thod s i sc ommon ly t a ke i n to a ccoun t . T hu s , t h i s a spec ti st a ken i n to a ccoun to n t h ed iag ram .

D iagram 4 -1 ( pp .4 9 -50 )s how se xpec t ed a r chaeo log ica lf i nd s s uper imposed o n a f l ow d iagram o f a h ypo the t ica l r e cons t ruc t ion o fp o s s ib le p roce sse s o fi r on t e chno logy f o r i r on ma te r ia lp roduc t ion w i th in t h eJ apanese n e two rk a nd t h e A inu n e two rk , w i th s pec ia lr e f e rence t ot h eu nde r s tand ing o f d i s t r ibu t ion w ays t o A inu s oc ie ty f o r t h e A inu 's i r on t e chno logy .

I nt h i s d i scus s ion , Ia l so c ons ide r av a r ie ty o fp o s s ib le w ay s i nw h ich i r on may h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted t o ama rke t . T he re a r ef ou rs uch w ay sa sf o l low s : [ 1 ] C a s ti r on p roduc t ss uch a s i r on p o t s a r e p roduced a nd d i s tr ibu ted t o ama rke t . [ 2 ] I ti s p o s s ib le t od i s t r ibu te l ump s o rb ar s o fs en te t su t o ama rke t . [ 3 ] S t ee l i r on b a r s o r l ump s o fs t ee l c an b e d i s t r ibu ted t oa ma rke t . [ 4 ] F o rged i r on p roduc t s c an b e d i s t r ibu ted t o a ma rke t .

F or e xamp le , i f mou ld s a r e f ound a t as i te , t h en t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e con s t ruc t ion o fi r on t e chno logy f a l l sw i th in t h e c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e t e chno log ica l p roce s s o fc a s ti r on a s Ih ave men t ioned i nT ab le 4 1 . H oweve r ,i fs l ag i sf o und a ta s i te , t h e re a r e many p os s ib le p roce s se s o f i r on t e chno logy wh ich may b e r econ s truc ted . T he re fo re , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o c on s ide r t h e s l ag b o th w i th in t h e a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t , s uch a so the ra r cha eo log ica lf i nd s , i n c lud ing f u rnace ,h ea r th , t oo l s , r aw ma ter ia l a nd p roduc t s e t c . , a nd w i th in t h e t e chno log ica l c on tex t b a sed o n t h e m e ta l lurg ica l s t udy i n c lud ing c hem ica lc omponen t sa nd m ic ro -s t ruc tu r e ,i no rd e r t on a r row d own t h ep o s s ib i l i t ies a nd i d en t i fy mo r ep r ec i se ly t h e p roce s s o f i r on t e chno logy i nvo lved — f o r e xamp le , whe the r t h e s l ag w a s l e f t a s ar e su l t o f t h e p roce s s o f s me l t ing , r e f in ing , o r f o rg ing . T hen t h i s p roce s s c an b e i n te rp re ted w i th in as oc ia lc on tex ti no rde rt or e con s t ruc tt h e i r on t e chno logy a t t h a t s i te a nd t o g ive a r ea sonab le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e r o le o f t h e s i te w i th in t h e s oc ie ty t o w h ich t h es i t eb e longed .

I ti sv ery i mpo r tan t t o u nde r s tand t h e r ange o f p hy s ica l c ond i t ions o fi r on i t se lf , f r om r aw ma te r ia ls t op roduc t , a si t c hange s c ond i t ion d ur ing t h ep roce ss f r om as o l id s t a te t oa l i qu id s t a te b ym e l t ing a nd a ga in b ecomes s o l id d epend ing o n i t s t empera tu re . I t i s a l so i mpor tan t t o u nde r s tand t he c hem ica lr e ac t ion so ccu r r ing i nt h e s o l id s t a t e , g a seou ss t a te , a nd l i qu id s t a te . T he who le p roce ss o ccu r s a cco rd ing t ot h e c omb ina t ion a nd r ange o f c hem ica l r ea c t ions a nd p hys ica l p r inc ip le s . I nt h is s me l t ing p roces s , t h e f o rm o ff u rna ce r equ i red i so ne a c t ing a s ac on ta ine r wh ich h o lds l i qu id i r on , s uch a s a s me l t ing f u rnace . D if fe ren t d eg rees o ft h e p hys ica l s t a te o f i r on — f o ri n s tance , mo l ten o rh a lf -mo l ten , a cco rd ing t ot h e p ropo r t ion o f c on ta ined c a rbon — w h ich i s d ef ined b y me ta l lu rg i s t s a s t h e p roduc t , a nd s l ag , d ef ined a s t h e b y p roduc t ,a r ep roduced .

T he re fo re , i ti sp oss ib le t or e cons t ruc t af l ow d i ag ram o ft h e i r on -produc t ion p roce ss , b a sed o n t h e p roces s o f i r on p roduc t ion a s k nown a t p resen t . T hree s t ages c an b e i d en t if ied : s me l t ing , r e f in ing , a nd f o rg ing . I ti sp os s ib le t o s ee t h e k ind o f e v idence w h ich r e su l t s f r om c a r ry ing o u t e ach o f t h ese p roces ses i ni r on t e chno logy . T hen e v idence f r om a r cha eo log ica ls i te sc an b ed i scu s sed a nd c ompa red w i th t h ese h ypo the t ica l p roces se s i n o rde r t o r econs t ruc t t h e t e chno logy w h ich m igh th ave b een o pe ra t ing a tt h e s i te .

W i th r e spec t t o[ 1 ] , t h e mo l ten s t a t e o fl i qu id i r on i sc a l led z uku o rs en te tsu , a nd i ft h i s l i qu id i r on i sp ou red i n to a mou ld , i ti sc hu te tsu ( c a s ti r on ) . Ac a s t i r on p roduc t s uch a s a n i r on p o t i s p roduced a nd d i s t r ibu ted t o a ma rke t . A cco rd ing t o t h i s p rocess , s ome f o rm o f l a d le s uch a s a c r uc ib le m e l t ing p o ta nd af r ame wh ich c on ta in s l i qu id i r on , s uch a s ac l ay mou ld a re r equ i red . R ema ins o ft h e se a r tefac t s n eed t ob ef ound a t as i te f o rt h ei d en t if i ca t ion o fc hu t e t su .

B a s ic r equ i remen t s f o r s me l t ing a r e r aw ma te r ia l s s uch a s i r on o re a nd i r on s and , f u e l s uch a s c ha rcoa l o r c oa l , a nd a f urnace , a l though w a te r , a i r , l a bou r , a nd s ome o the r c ons ide ra t ion s s hou ld b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t . Ic oncen t ra te p a r t icu la r ly o nt h ee v idence o ft h et y pe o fh ea r th p r e sen t ,a nd t he p roduc t s a nd b y -p roduc t s , i n o rder t o i d en t ify t h e a va i lab le e v idence .

A l though i r on p o t s a r e f ound a t many s i tes i nT ohoku a nd H okka ido , i ti sn o t k nown y e t w he re t h ey w e re p roduced . A cco rd ing t ot h em ic ro -s truc tu re o ft h e i r on , t h e se i r on p o t s a r e d ef in i te ly c a s t i r on p roduc t s d ue t ot h e e x i s tence o ft h e

4 6

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i nt h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t o t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

H oweve r , i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t o make t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t i r on s a nd w a su sed a sa na dd i t ive f o rr e f in ing i no rde rt oc a r ry o u t d eca rbu r i sa t ion a s p a r t o f t h e p roce s s . I n t h is c a se , t h e s l ag a l so c on ta ins a h i gh p ropor t ion o f T iO 2 . Akanuma i n te rp re t s t h e Moku sawa s i te a s ar e f in ing s i te , s ugge s t ing t h a t i r on s and w a s u sed f o r t h e r ef in ing p roce ss d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o fi r on s and p a r t ic les o f l o ca l o r ig in i sd i f f e ren t f r om c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e s l ag . T he re i sa no the re xamp le a tt h eK i tazawa s i te ( 7 5 ) .

l e debur i te i nt h em ic ro -s t ruc tu re .T he c hem ic a l c ompo s i t ion i nd ica te s t h a t t h e r aw ma te r ia l w a s p o ss ib ly p ho spho rus c on ta in ing i r on ( Akanuma 1 989 ) . W i th r e spec tt o[ 2 ] , i r on i n ah a lf -mo l ten s t a te i sa l so c a l led s en te tsu . Al ump o f s en te tsu i si n t h e s o l id s t a te a f te r c oo l ing d own f r om t he h a l f -mo l ten s t a te a s p roduc t s a r e p roduced . I ti sp o s s ib le t od i s t r ibu te s u ch al ump o r ab a rt o ama rke t . T he r ef in ing s t age c an b e i d en t if ied b y many d i f fe ren t m e thod s w h ich may i nd ica te t h e s ca le o f p roduc t ion . F o r r ef in ing t h i s s en te tsu , ar e f in ing f u rnace i sr equ i red a nd r e f in ing s l ag i sp roduced b yt h i sp roce s s .

S en te t su i n as o l id s t a te b ecome s s t ee l t h rough ar ef in ing p roc e s s . I n t h i s p roce s s , al ump o f s en te tsu i sh ea t ed i na h o le in the -ground h ea r th , a nd ma te r ia lf o rd eca rbu r i sa t ion i s r e qu i red t ob e a dded . I ti s av e ry s imp le p roce ss , b u t i td oe s n o tp roduce a sl a rge a n a moun to fs t ee l a so the rm e thod s . I t n eed s much l a bou r , w h ich means i ti s al ow -produc t ion p roce s s .

As im i la rp roce s s f o r mak ing a n i r on p roduc tw i th i r on s and w a s s t i l l p ra c t i sed a round 1 958 i nC h ina (Wagne r 1 985 ) . I n C h ina , t h is p roce s s i st e rmed ` c hao ' , o r ' f in ing ' i nE ng l ish , w h ich i nd ica te s amo re s pec if ic p roce s st h an t h a ti mp l ied b y t h eg ene ra lt e rm sf o rt h er ef in ing p roce s s .

T he r ef in ing p roce s s r e qu i r e s ak now ledge o fh ow t oc on t ro l c a rbon i ni r on b ecause , a s ar e su l to ft h is p roces s , ad i f f e r en t s t a te o f i r on i sp roduced . A t p resen t , me ta l lu rg is t s d ef ine s t ee l a sh av ing l e s s t h an 1 . 7% c a rbon , a nd t h e d ef in i t ion o f s en te t su i s me ta lc on ta in ing mo re t h an 1 . 7% c a rbon .

T he r e f in ing p roce ss w h ich t r ansfo rm a l ump o f s en te tsu i n to s t ee l o rw rough ti r on c an b ed iv ided i n to f ou r d i f f e ren t k ind s o fp ro ce s se sa cco rd ing t ot h ek ind o fr e ac t ion b e tween t h e s t a te o f t h e i r on a nd t h e s t a te o f t h e a dd i t ive s : A ) a r e ac t ion b e tween s en te t su i n as o l id s t a te a nd o xygen i na i r i n ag a seous s t a te . B ) ar eac t ion b e tween s en te t su i n as ol id s t a te a nd i r on s and o ri r on o r e i n as o l id s t a t e . C ) ar e ac t ion b e tween c hu t e t su ( c a s ti r on )i n al i qu id s t a te a nd i r on s and o r i r on o re i n as o l id s t a te . D ) ar e ac t ion b e tween c a s ti r on i na p a s ty o rl i qu id s t a te a nd o xygen i na i ri n ag a seous s t a te .

W i th r e spec tt o[ 3 ] , i ti sp o s s ib le t op roduce s t ee ld i rec t ly b y t h e s me l t ing p roce s s , a nd t h i s i st e rmed t h e d i rec t me thod . S t ee l i r on b a r s o r l umps o f s t ee l c an b e d i s t r ibu ted t o a ma rke t . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n c ludes 3 0 i r on b a r s f o und i n ag roup f r om N am ioka jo s i te ( 34 ) ( Aomor i -ken ) , a nd as im i la r t y pe o fb a rf r om I i zaka -cho ( Fukush ima -ken ) , w h ich w e re i n te rp re ted a s b e ing p o s s ib ly s of t s t ee l ( Sa sak i 1 898 ) . T he l ump o f i r on o fs em ic i rcu la r s hape a nd 5k g i n w e igh tf ound a tK a t suyamada te s i te c on ta ined l e s st h an 1 . 7% c a rbon , s ugges t ing t h a t i ti sa l so as o f t s t ee l i r on l ump . T he s t ruc tu re o f i r on a r t ifac t s — i n c lud ing i r on a r rows , f i sh s pea r s , f i sh ing h ook s , a nd h a rpoons — i ss im i la r t ot h a t o f t h e s t ee li r on l ump , w h ich i nd ica t es t h a tt h ey may h ave b e en p roduced a tK a t suyamada te b yt h ef o rg ing p roce s s .

F rom t h e a bove r eac t ions , w hen t h e se a r e c a r r ied o u t i n r e ac t ions i nf u rnaces , t wo d i f f e ren t t y pes o f f ur nace f o rms c an b e c ons ide red d epend ing o n t h e r a nge o f t empe ra tu r e r e ached . When c i rcum s tance sa l low ah i gh t empe r a tu re t ob e a ch ieved , af u rna ce t ype w h ich h a s as t r uc tu re i n co rpo ra t ing a c on ta ine rt oh o ld l i qu id s en te t su i sn eeded ; i fn o t , ah o le in t h e -ground -hea r th t ype i sr e qu i red t oh ea t al ump o f s o l id s en te tsu . B o th t ypes p roduce r e f in ing s l ag , b u t t h e mo rpho log ica lf e a tu re so ft h es l ag a r ed i f f e ren td epend ing o n t h ed i f f e r en tr e a c t ions wh ich h ave t a ken p l ac e .

I ti sp os s ib le t o i n te rp re t t h e se e xamp les a s i nd ica t ing t h e e x i s tence o fs t ee l i r on b a r s i nT ohoku d ur ing t h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tu r ie s , a nd a l so i ti sp o ss ib le t oh ypo the s ise t h a t t h e se l ump s o fs t ee l m igh t h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted w i th in ac e r ta in n e two rk i ns oc ie ty .

H ence , s ome c onfus ion a r ises i n t h e a rchaeo log ica l i d en t if ica t ion o ft h er ef in ing p roce s ses . T he e x i s t ence o rn o t o f f u rnace s w h ich a r e i n t h e f o rm o f c on ta ine r s f o r l i qu id s en te t su i nd ica te s whethe r t h ey a r e s me l t ing f u rnace s o r r ef in ing f u rna ce s .

W i th r e spec t t o[ 4 ] , men t ioned a bove , f o rged i r on p roduc t s c an b e d i s tr ibu ted t o ama rke t . S t ee l i r on b a r s o r al ump s o f s t e e la r ep repa red i no rde rt of o rm f o rged i r on o b jec t ss uch a s n a i l s a nd c l amp sb y h amme r ing d ur ing af o rg ing p roce ss . A f o rg ing h ea r th i nt h e f o rm o f ah o le in the -g round h ea r th i s r e qu i red t o h ea t t h e ma te r ia l a nd t o make s t ee l i r on s of t . Many k ind s o fi r on c r a f t t oo ls s uch a s h amme r s , r a sp s , a nd c h i se l sa r er equ i r ed , a nd r ema in so ft h em n eed t ob ef ound a t as i t e f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e f o rg ing p roce s s . S lag a nd h amme r ing s ca le a sb y -p roduc t sa r ea l so r e qu i red a nd n e ed t o b e f ound a t as i te f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h i s p roce ss . T he s hape o fs l ag w h ich i s made i n ah o le in the -g round h ea r th i s i d en t ica l w i th t h a t o f t h e b o t tom o f ab ow l . T h i s s hape o f s l ag r e su l t s f r om t h e r e f in ing p roce ss , w h ich u ses ah o le in t h e -g round h ea r th . H oweve r , i fs l ag i s made b y t h e r ef in ing p roce s s , ma ter ia l o f d eca rbur isa t ion s uch a s i r on s and a nd i r on o r ec an b et r ac ed i nt h em ic ro -s t ruc tu re o ft h es l ag .

F o r e xamp le , i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e Mokusawa s i te ( 36 ) a r e c oncer ned w i th w he ther i ti s as me l t ing s i te o r ar ef in ing s i te . I th a sb een i n te rp re ted a s as me l t ing s i te f o rp roduc ing i r on f r om i r on s and d ue t ot h e f a c tt ha tt h e s l ag mo rpho logy i so ft h e t a pt y pe a nd b ecause o fa r chaeo log ica le v idenc es uch a s t he p resence o f s em i -underground s haf t f ur naces . A cco rd ing t oc hem ica lc omponen ta na ly s is ,t h es l ag c on ta in s a h igh p ropo r t ion o f T iO 2 , w h ich i nd ica tes s o me c onnec t ion s w i th i r on s and — w he the ra s ar aw m a te r ia l o r a na dd i t ive . F o rt h i sr ea son , t h ei n t e rp r e ta t ion w a s made t h a t i r on w a sp roduced f r om i r on s a nd .

4 7

4 :D iscuss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i nt he H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s t r ic t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

4 -8

Conc lus ion

a sa n i r on p an i sp roduced a nd d i s t r ibu ted t o ama rke t . [ 2 ] I t i sp o s s ib le t o d i s t r ibu te a l ump o r ab a r o f s en te tsu t oa ma rke t . [ 3 ] S tee l i r on b a r s o r a ma s s o f s t ee l c an b e d i s t r ibu ted t o ama rke t . [ 4 ] F o rged i r on p roduc t s c an b e d i s t r ibu ted t o ama rke t . T he refo re , t h e re a r e f ou r r oo t s o f d i s t r ibu t ion c an b ec on s ide red t oA inu s oc ie ty .T he se i n c lude i r on p roduc t s s uch a sc omp le ted o b jec t sa nd b a s ic m a te r ia li n t h e f o rm o fb a r s , i n go t s , e t c . Ar e con s truc t ion o f t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy i so f f e red i nC hap te r5 .

I ft h e s me l t ing p rocess i sn o t f am i l ia r t o as oc ie ty a nd r aw ma te r ia l i sn o t a va i lab le i n s oc ie ty , a s i nt h e c a se o f A inu s oc ie ty , t hen i r on ma ter ia ls a re o b ta ined t h rough a d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk . I n t h e a bove d i scuss ion , Ih ave c ons ide red f ou r w ay s o f d i s t r ibu t ing i r on t oc onsume r s : [ I ] Ac a s ti r on p roduc ts uch

4 8

4 :D iscu ss ion o f i r on t e chno logy i nt h e H okka ido a nd T ohoku d i s tr ic t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e A inu i r on t e chno logy

J apane se N e twork

A inu N e twork

J apanese s tee l J igan .e

J apanese s word p rocess

T amahagan

F org ing p ro ce s s

T oA inu s o ce i ty >1Ft : or g i r oduc t s

O r ish igane S lag

y e s

Fo r g in g

A in i i ron p roducts

H ear th

[ 4

S lag

LHammer

d ecarbur isa t ion

c arbur isa t ion

Sme l t ing p roce s s

s ca le

Hear th S lag Tam .ahagane

R ef in ing p roce s s

Na rnatetsu Hochote tsu

I r on s and Charcoa l

H igh t empera ture F urnace

r -

Nol H eaP i r th s ca le + pa ush is i t e dary es c on Ha m mer >1 r aw

[ 3 ]4

/ \ / \ \ d ecarbur isa t ion

Ta tara F urnace

e

oA inu s o ce i ty u n l ike ly

S tee l o r S of t S tee l

mater ia l

A inu >

l stee l

A inu i ron p roducts

\L ow t empera ture

R ef in ing p ro ce s s

S lag

A

z uku

c oo l ing d own

T oA inu s o ce i ty u n l ik e ly

S en tetsu -ka i ( un mo lded s o l id )

[ 2 ]

S lag Furnace

T oA inu s oce i ty y es

mo ld ing

Chu te tsu ( mo lded )

Ref in ing

>

C as t ing p roce s s

e .g . I ron p ots

[1]

F org ing A inu s tee l

S lag

>

Cr l eart

A inu i ron 2 p roducts

S lag

‚ J apane se i r on t e chno logy h ypo the t ica l ly r econs truc ted d iagram ( Chap ter 4 ) F low d i ag ram 4 1

A inu i r on t e chno logy b efore 1 667 ( Chap ter 5 )

Chap ter I ron t he

5 -1

t echno logy S aru

A inu ,

5

a nd

t he s tee l p roduc t ion p rocess of H okka ido i n t he 1 7 th c entury

T he g eo log ica lc ompo s i t ion o ft h is a r ea ( t he H idaka d i s t r ic t ) i s aT e r t ia ry f o rma t ion . T he e x is tence o f w e l l -fo rmed c h rom ium i r on d epo s i t s o n t h e u ppe r r eaches o f t h e S a ru R ive r i nd ica te s t h a t i r on s and i so b ta inab le i n t he m idd le r eache s o f t h e r i ve r . T he re i s a l so e v idence i n a n o ld g eo log ica l r e co rd t h a t d epo s i t s o f t h e o ld t ype o f i r on s and h ave b een m ined i n H obe t su i n t h e Mukawa R ive r v a l ley w h ich i sp a ra l le l t ot h e S a ru R ive r v a l ley . T he i r on s and i s n o rma l ly f ound a s l e ns -shaped d epos i t s ; o ne e dge o f t h e d epo s i t sm igh th ave b een e xpo sed i nt h eS am R ive rv a l ley .

I ntroduct ion

I n t h i s c hap te r , Is ha l ld i scuss t h e A inu s i tes w he re a r t i fa c t s r e la t ing t o i r on me ta l lu rgy a nd i r on a r t ifac t s d a t ing f r om b efo re 1 667 w e re f ound . Is ha l l t r y t oi n te rp re t A inu i r on t e chno logy b a sed o n t h e a r cha eo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ica l e v idence , a nd u pon t h e r e su l t s o f m e ta l lu rg ica l a na ly s i s . I s ha l l a t temp t t or econ s t ruc t t h e p roce s s b y w h ich i r on c ame i n to a nd p a ssed o u t o f t h e A inu c u l tu re w i th in t h e A inu n e two rk a nd h ow i tr e la t ed t ot h eJ apane se n e two rk .

T he a r ea o f my f i e ldwo rk i sl o ca ted a l ong t h e S am R ive ri n H idaka . T he A inu s i te s w h ich h ave b een e xcava ted i n t h e p re sen tN ibu t an i v i l lage a r e t h e Y uo icha sh i , P o romo icha sh i , a nd N ibu tan i s i te a tN ipu tan i -ko tan . T he N ibu tan i s i te i sa s e t t lemen t s i te , i n c lud ing t wo b u r ia ls , wh ich i s l oca ted b e tween Y uo ia nd P o romo i -cha sh i (ac hash ii s ap lace w h ich i se nc lo sed b y a man -made s t ruc tu re s uch a s ad i tch o r c onven ien t ly l o ca ted o n ah ighe r g eo log ica l l e ve l . I t s f unc t ions a r e s t i l l d eba tab le b u t w e re c e r ta in ly mu l t ip le ) , b o th o fw h ich h ave d i tche s . I ti st hough t t h a tc ha sh i a lway s h ave s uch d i tche s . W i th in 1km o f t h e se s i te s , u p t h e S a ru R ive r , t h e P ipaush i s i te a t P ipaush i -ko tan i sl o ca ted , a nd a no the r 1K a n f u r the ro n , t h e I r ueka sh i s i te a tK ankan -ko tan i sl o ca ted a tt h ej unc t ion o f t h e K ankan R ive r a nd t h e S a ru R ive r( F ig . 5 -2 ) .

5 -1-1 T he A inu s i tes i n N ibutan i , B ira tor i -cho T he p resen tN ibu tan i v i l lage w a s f o rmed s ome t ime b e tween 1 877 a nd 1 888 a nd c on s is t s o f o ld N ibu tan i ( N ipu tan i ) k o tan , P ipaush i -ko tan , a nd K ankan -ko tan ( ko tan u sua l ly mean s v i l lage ; h oweve r , i td oe s n o t c o r re spond p rec i se ly t o o u rc onc ep to f av ilage b ecause e ven as i ng le h ouse s t and ing b y i t se l fc an b et e rmed ak o tan ) . T he A inu p opu la t ion o ft h i s v ilage a tt h ep resen ti ss t i l ll a rge . T he se t h ree k o tan a r ea l l s i tua ted a l ong t h el owe rr e ache s o f t h e S a ru R ive r , w h ich i sl o ca ted i ns ou th -wes t H okka ido , r unn ing f r om t h e H idaka moun ta in s t owa rd s t h e s ou th -we s t u n t i l i tr e ache s t h eP ac if ic O cean . T he A inu w ho l i ved a l ong t h e S a r u R ive rw e re c a l led t h e S am A inu ( s ee F ig . 5 1) . A cco rd ing t o ah i s to r ica l d ocumen t ( Ma t suu ra 1 858 ) , t h e H onkankan S t ream w a s o n t h e f l a t e a s t t e r race o f t h e S a ru R ive r , a nd t h e re w e re 3h ou se so n t h et e rrace ; b ecau se o ft h e h e igh to ft h et e r race , t h ey w e re s a f ef r om f l ood ing . Ma t suu ra a l so men t ions t he o r ig in o f t h e p lace n ame N i fu tan i ( N ibu tan i ) , w h ich mean s t h ep l ace w he re l o ng a go s omeone h ad d ed ica ted aw ooden s wo rd w h ich h ad b een d eco ra ted w i th me ta l ' . T he re i sa no the r i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h i s p la ce n ame i s g iven b y Y amada ( Yamada 1 984 ) . H e d i v ide s N ibu tan i i n to t h ree p a r t s :N ipu -Ta I ,w h ich m eans ' t he p l a ce w he re h and le s w e re made ' . T he mean ing o f t h e n ame i ss t i l l d eba tab le . I men t ion p a r t icu la r ly , Ma t suu ra 's i n te rp re ta t ion b ecause i t r e f e r st ot h e u se o f me ta l s . T he re i s as t ream c a l led F u rena i i nN ibu tan i :f ur ei nt h eA inu l a nguage m eans ' r ed ' . Ma t suu ra m en t ions t ha t t h e n ame r e f e r s t o t h e c o lour o f t h e s t ream , w h ich i si r on r ed , a nd means w a te r c on ta in ing i r on . T he re i sa n o the rp lac e c a l led F urena i , 1 0 km u ps t ream f r om N ibu tan i o n t h e S a ru R ive r . T h is w a s am in ing v i l lage b e tween 1 8 17 a nd 1 944 . At o ta l o f 2 00 ,000 t ons o fc h rom ium w a s m ined t h e re a tt h a t t i me a cco rd ing t ot h er e co rd s( B i ra to r i -cho 1 974 ) . C h rom ium h e r e means c h rom ium i r on , t h e refo re i r on w a s a l so o b ta ined a sa b y -p roduc t . T he re a r ep l a ce sc a l led F u rena i w h ich a r e l i nked t o s ome k ind o f i r on m in ing , n o t o n ly i n B i ra to r i -cho b u t a l so i n many p laces i n H okka ido . S u lph ide o re w a s a l so m ined b y o pen -ca s t m in ing a t F u rena i i n Abu ta -cho , H okka ido .

5 1

E spec ia l ly i n t h e a r ea o f C h i to se a nd H ida l ca , d epos i t s o f v o lcan ic a sh w h ich f el i n1 667 a nd c ove r af a i r ly l a rge a r ea u pt h ee a s ts i de o fH okka ido a r ef ound . I ti sa r chaeo log ica l ly s i gn if ican t t h a t a l l t h e s i te s w e re f ound i mmed ia te ly u nde r T a ruma e b( Ta -b ) v o lcan ic a sh ( depo s i ted i n 1 667 ) , w h ich make s i tp o ss ib le t o c o r re la te t h em w i th in t h e s ame t ime r ange u s ing T a rumae ba s ak ey l a ye r . A t t h e P ipau sh i s i te , i t i s v e ry s i gn if ican t t ha t t h e d a t ing o f t he s i te w a s d e te rm inab le f r om t h e f a c tt h a tt h es t ruc tu re s a r e s andw iched b e tween t wo l a ye r s o f v o lcan ic a sh w h ich d er ive f r om d i f f e ren tv o lcan ic e xp lo s ion s i n1 663 a nd 1 667 , d a tab le f r om r e co rd si nh i s to r ica ld ocumen t s( s ee C hap te r3 ) . A lt hough t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e Y uo icha sh i , P o romo icha sh i , a nd N ibu tan i s i te s d oe sn o tr e la te d i rec t ly t o i r on t e chno log ica l a c t iv i ty ( i .e . t h rough t h e e x is tence o f t u ye re s , h ea r th , s l ag a nd h amme rs ca le , s uch a sw e re f ound a t t h eP ipaush ia nd I r ueka sh i s i te s ) , ag r ea tv a r ie ty a nd q uan t i ty o fi r on a r t ifa c t s w e re d i scove red a moun t ing t o mo re t h an 2 00 i t em s . T he se i n c luded a gr icu l tu ra l t oo ls , f i sh ing t oo ls , l i v ing t o o l s , o rnamen t s , a rm s a nd w eapons , e t c . I tf o l lows t h a t i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion a nd r e cons t ruc t ion o f t h e i r on t e chno logy o ft h e S a ru A inu , a l l t h e s i tes i nt h e a r ea o fN ibu tan i s hou ld b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t . T he re i s a no the r a r ea , t h e Y ukanbo sh i s i te , i n wh ich a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o fi r on t e chno log ica l a c t iv i ty i nt h e A inu c on tex t b efo re 1 667 w a s a l so f ound . I ti sl oca ted i n C h i to se -sh i , a nd i ti si n te re s t ing t on o t e t h a ti ti ss a id a mong

5 :h on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tury

F ig .

5 -1

The l oca t ion o f t he S aru R iver .

S ea o fJ apan

O

P ac if ic Ocean

F ig .

5 -2

The e xcava ted A inu s i tes a long t he S aru R iver .

5 2

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t he s t ee l p roduc t ion p roc ess o f t he S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

t h e A inu p eop le t ha tt h e S am A inu a nd t h eC h i to se A inu h ad s ome k ind o f r e la t ionsh ip i n t h e p a s t . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o ft h eb u r ia l s t ruc tu re s a nd t h eb u r ia l g ood s w h ich w e re f ound i nb o th t h e C h i tose a r ea a nd a tt h eN ibu tan i s i t e h ave f e a tu re si nc ommon t oo ( M iu ra 1 989 ) .

. . aS pan ish s h ip s a i l ing f r om Man i la t o Mex ico i n 1 582 w a s d r iven o f f c ou r se b y a s t o rm i n to t h en or the rn l a t i tude s ( F . A . Go lde r : R us s ian E xpan s ion o n t h e P ac i f ic 1 64 1-1850 ) . An i s land w a s s i gh ted , u pon w h ich l i ved a p eop le p os se ss ing a n i n f in i te v a r ie ty o f g o ld u t en s i l s a cqu i red f r om l o ca l r e sou rce s . When t he c r ew o f t h i s s h ip e ven tua l ly r eached Mex ico , i t s m embe r s r epo r ted t h i s e xpe r ience w i th g rea t e n thus ia sm . R ipp les o f i n teres t a roused b y t h ese s t o r ie s r eached S pa in a nd c aused s ome S pan i sh a t la se s t od ep ic ta n i s land t ot h en o r th -ea s to fJ apan l a beled ' I s la d eP la te ' i s land o fg o ld ( J ohn 1 969 ) .

T he refo re , Iwou ld l i ke t o r econs t ruc t t h e t e chno log ica l a spec t so fi r on p roduc t ion ,p a r t icu la r ly i nt h ea r ea o ft h eS a ru A inu , t h ough c ons ide red w i th in t h e w ide r c on tex t o f A inu c u l tu re a s aw ho le d u r ing t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry . 5 -2 How t he A inu o bta ined i r on ma ter ia l : d i s tr ibu t ion n etwork

t he

T he re i sn o h i s to r ica l , e t hnograph ica l o r a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , s uch a s t a tara f u rnace s i t es f o r t h e p roce ss o f s me l t ing i r on i n A inu t e r r i to r ies i n Hokka ido , s o i ti s u n l ike ly t h a tt h e A inu p roduced i r on f r om i r on s and o ri r on o r eb y u s ing s me l t ing m e thod s . H oweve r ,a cco rd ing t oA ida ( A ida 1 978 ) ,t h e re w a s at a tara i r on -sme l t ing s i te o p e ra t ed b y Wa j in [ J apane se ] w ho w e re p roduc ing i r on f r om i r on s and b y t h e t a tara me thod i n H okka ido i n t h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry ( 1860 s ) i n t h e Wa j in t e r r i tory o f N a l cano sawa V a l ley i n K ikyo -mach iH akoda te sh i .

T he K ing o fS pa in o rde red a n e xped i t ion t ol o ok f o rs uch a n i s land i n 1 610 , b u t i td id n o t s ucceed . C ap ta in S eba s t ian V izca ino , aS pan i sh c ap ta in , a l so c ame t ol o ok f o rt h e i s land i n 1 611 ( Kodama 1 971 ) . I n 1 639 , C ap ta in M . C ua s t a l so t r ied t ol o ca te t h e i s land , b u t a ga in t h e e xped i t ion d id n o t s u cceed . O n t h i sb a s i s , t h eo rde r so fC ap ta in M . G . V r ie s w e re t of i nd a n i s land i n t h e P ac i f ic O cean , w h ich w a s t hough t t o b e l o ca ted a round l a t i tude N 3 7 .5 d eg ree s , 3 43 D u tch m i le se a s t o f J apan , a nd t o make o bse rva t ions o f t h e i s land a nd t h e h ab i t s o f i t s p eop le , w ho w e re s a id t o b e b ig , t a l l , a nd b eau t ifu l w i th w h i te s k in , a nd t ob e ah i gh ly c i v i l ised a nd f r iend ly p eop le . H e w a s a l so o rde red t oe s tab l ish f r iend ly r e la t ion sw i th t h em f o rf u tu re t r ade ,a si tw a sc on s ide red q u i te c e r ta in t h a tt h ei s land w a sr i ch i ng o ld a nd s i lve r . I na dd i t ion t o t h is d u ty , C ap ta in V r ies w a s t o ld t h a t a l l i s land s a nd l a nd s , w he reve r h e s t opped o r s t ayed d ur ing h i s v oyage , w he the ri n hab i ted o rn o t , s hou ld b ec l a imed f o rt h e Du t ch ; i f t h e l a nd w a s a l ready s y s tema t ica l ly r u led t h en i tw ou ld t a ke s ome t ime , b u t i fi tw a s a n u n inhab i ted l a nd o r w i thou t a r u le r , t h en h e w a s t ol e ave ab i g m emo r ia l s t one a nd p u t u p t h eD u t ch f l ag a se v idence t h a tt h el a nd h ad b een o ccup ied b y t h eD u tch .

P r ev ious t ot h is , t h e w ay s i n wh ich t h e A inu c a r r ied o n i r on p roduc t ion u s ing ma te r ia l f r om o u t s ide t h e i rc u l tu re , n eed t o b e e xam ined , i n c lud ing t h e way i nw h ich t h ey g a ined i r on p roduc t s t of u rn i sh t h e b a s ic r aw ma te r ia l , b o th i nt h e f o rm o fw ho le o b jec t s a nd u nk nown f r agmen t s o fs c rap i r on . T he f ou r w ay s o f d i s t r ibu t ing i r on t o t h e ma rke t w i th in t h e J apane se n e two rk , d i scu ssed i nC hap te r4 ,n eed t ob e t a ken i n to a ccoun ti na ny c ons ide ra t ion o fe xchange a nd /o rt r ade o r a ny k i nd o fc on tac tb e tween t h e A inu a nd o u t s ide r s( s ee F low d i ag ram 4 1 p p .49 -50 ) . 5 -2 -1 Voyage o f C apta in Maar ten G err it sz V r ies t o a Go ld a nd S i lver I s land n ear J apan i n 1 643 . B e fo re d i scu ss ing o ft h e t e chno log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o fS am A inu i r on me ta l lu rgy b a sed o n t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined f r om m e ta l lurg ica l a na lys is , I wou ld l i ke t o e xam ine a v e ry i mpo r tan t p i ece o fe t hnograph ic e v idenc e f r om 1 643 w h ich w a sr e co rded b y E u ropean s . T h is w a s p ub l i shed i n1 858 b y P .A .L eupe , aDu tch n ava lo ff ice r ,w ho d i scove red t h i sr e co rd i n t h e Du tch Na t iona l A rch ives ( Leupe 1 858 , K i tagama e 1 983 ) . A l though t h is e t hnog raph ic e v idence d oes n o tr e la t e d i r ec t ly t ot h ea r ea o ft h eS a ru A inu , t h ed a te i sv e ry c l o se t o t h e p re -1667 d a te o ft h e S a ru A inu s i te s . I ti sa l so u se fu l i n i lum ina t ing t h e A inu i r on d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk a nd t h e w ay i nw h ich t h eA inu o b ta ined i r on . T he d ocumen t c oncer n s t h e e xped i t ion o f M . G . V r ies , a Du tch c ap ta in who s e t o f f o n av oyage o n t he 2 nd o f F eb rua ry 1 643 , f r om B a tav ia , J ava , u nde r t h e o rde r s o f A n thon io v an D iemen , H ead o f t h e Du tch E a s t I nd ian C ompany , w h ich h ad b een s e tu pa tB a tav ia i n1 602 . H ew a s i n s t ruc ted t o l o ca te a n i s land w h ich w a s f u l l o f g o ld a nd s i lve r . T he b a ckg round t ou nde r s tand ing t h i sd ocumen ti st h a t

5 3

B ecau se o f t h i s p u rpo se o f t h e i r e xped i t ion , C ap ta in V r ie s a nd h i sc r ew p a id p a r t icu la ra t ten t ion t o me ta ls o bse rved o n t h ej ou rney . T he r e co rd s o f t h e v oyage , w h ich w e re w r i t ten b y C o rne i l s J anzs . C oen , t h e f i r s t o f f ice r u nde r C ap ta in V r ie s , o f f e r at r emendou s o ppo r tun i ty f o ru nde r s tand ing t h e me ta l lu rg ica l a spec t s o f t h e A inu c u l tu re a nd t h e A inu 's s i tua t ion a tt h a t t ime , a st h e r e co rd s c on ta in f u l l d e scr ip t ive d e ta i l s o fh i s o b ser va t ion s o fm e ta l s i nu se a mong t h e A inu . C ap ta in V r ies t hough t t ha t t h e i s land s o f Haboma i , K una sh i r i , a nd U rupu i nt h e K ur i le ( Ch ish ima ) i s land s a nd S akha l in ( Ka ra fu to ) i s land n ea r H okka ido , w he re t h e A inu l i ved , w e re t h e " i s land s o f g o ld a nd s i lve r" , b a sed o n t h e o b serva t ion t h a t t h e i r i n hab i tan t s w o re s i lve r e a r r ing s a nd o rnamen t sa nd p o sse s sed m any s i lve rd eco ra t ed d agge r s .T he p eop le a l so s howed a ne x t en s ive k now ledge o f me ta l . T he se p eop le w e re t h eA inu . T h i s r e co rd h a s g rea t v a lue n o t o n ly i n r e spec t o f t h e m e ta l lu rg ica l a spec t s o f A inu c u l tu re b u t a l so a s ag ene ra l e t hnog raph ic r e co rd o fA inu l i f ea nd s oc ie ty o n t h ee a s ts i de o fH okka ido , i n c lud ing t h en o r th -ea s to ft h ei s land s ,i n1 643 . T he r e co rd men t ion st h a tt h e A inu w e r e af r iend ly ,j o l ly a nd

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce s s o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tury

g ene rous p eop le , f o r wher eve r C ap ta in V r ie s a nd h i s c r ew l a nded , t h ey w e r ew e lcomed i n av e ry p o l i t ew ay a nd r e ce ived p l en ty o ff r e sh f i sh t oe a ta nd t ot a ke a way . I ti ss t a ted , f o r e xamp le , t h a t " . ..t h e p eop le g ave u s a s many f r esh f i sh a s w e w an ted , s o w e g ave t h em s ma l l g i f t s f o r t h e i r g ene ro s i ty" ( Leupe 1 858 ) . O n t h e 5 t h o fJ u ly , ( a t S apo i ) i tw a s n o ted ( my t r ans la t ion f r om t h e D u t ch a nd t h e J apanese ) : L anded b y b oa t a nd l a unch . We b rough t a f i sh ing n e t a nd s ome r i ce f o r t h e p eop le a s a g i f t . T he p eop le a r ee age rf o rr i ce , a nd w eh ave s een t he i r p oo r w ay o f l i f e . A s s oon a s w e l a nded , t hey c ame t o s ee u s w i thou t a ny w eapons , a nd e xp re ssed t h e i r f r iend l ine s s t ou s a s much a s p o s s ib le .When w e g ave t h em r i ce , t h ey a ccep ted i ti nt h e mo s t p o l i te w ay . T hey h e lped u s t o p u l l i n o ur f i sh ing n e t s o t h a t p l en t ifu l f i sh w e re c augh t , e nough f o r a l l t h e c r ew t oe a t . I nt h e a f ternoon , w e l a nded a ga in . t h i s t ime , t h e l a unch w a s g rounded d ue t ot h e l ow t i de . T he p eop le h e lped u s a nx iou s ly a nd o f fe red t o l e t u s s t ay a t t h e i r h ou se ( Leupe 1 858 ) . O n J u ly 1 7 th , a tT ama r i ( on S akha l in i s land ) ,C oen w r i t es : I ,w i th t wo o t he rc r ew membe r s w a si n v i t ed t o g o i n to a h u t w h ich w a s b u i l t i n at r iangu la r s hape . I n s ide t h eh u tt h e re w a sa n i r on p o tw i th c ooked f i sh a nd v ege tab les i ni to n t h e c en t ra l h ea r th . We w e re s e rved b yw omen w i th s a lmon a nd g reen v ege tab les o n al a cque rJ apane se t r ay w h ich h as t h ree l e gs , a nd i sa s soc ia t ed w i th c hop s t icks w h ich a r e u sed f o r e a t ing . O ne o f t h ec r ew c ou ld n o t manage t ou se c hop s t ick s s o t h a t h e c ou ld n o t e a t t h e s a lmon . A l l o f u s l a ughed t oge the r( Leupe 1 858 ) . No tewor thy d e ta i ls o f t h is r e co rd a re t h a t t h e A inu w e re u s ing a n i r on p o t , aJ apane se l a cque r t r ay , a nd c hop s t ick s i n 1 643 ; mo reove r , t hey a t e s a lmon a nd g reen v ege tab le s , w h ich m igh th ave b een w i ld v ege tab le s , a nd r i ce , w h ich t h e A inu w e re v e ry p l eased t ob eg i ven . I na l lt h e se r e spe c t st h e i r l i f es ty le s ound s a lmos t t h e s ame a s t h a t o f t h e J apane se . T h i s may i n d ica te t ha t many J apane se g ood sh ad r e ached t o t h e A inu b ye xchange o rt r ade a tt h a tt ime , t h ough t h ey s e em t o h ave h ad l i t t le r i ce , t o j udge f r om t h e i r p l ea sure a t r e ce iv ing i t .

C ap ta in V r ie s f i r s t me t t h e A inu a tT okach i o n t h e s ou th e a s tc o s to fH okka ido o nJ une 9 th , b efo re c onc lud ing t h a th e h ad d i scove r ed t h eG o ld a nd S i lve rI s land s , w hen h es aw t h a t t h e A inu p o s se s sed many s i lve r o b jec t s a round T ama r i o n J u ly 1 6 th . A cco rd ing t ot h e r e co rd , t h e re w e re h o le s i nt h e e a rl o bes o ft h ep eop le , a nd s t r ings h ung f r om t h em . One h ad r i ng s i n s tead o fs t r ings made o fa n a l loy o fg o ld a nd c oppe r . D agge r s w e r e h ung o n t h e i rh ip s a nd t h e h i l t s o ft h e se w e r e d eco ra ted w i th s i lve r . Ag o lden s wo rd a ppea r ed t ob eJ apane se i ns t y le , b u t s i lve r a l so c ou ld b e s een u pon i t .T hese f a c t s c l ea r ly i nd ica te t h a t t h e p eop le w e re w e l l a cqua in ted w i th g o ld a nd s i lve r ( Leupe 1 858 ) . I ti sa l so r eco rded t ha t t h e p eop le w o re b i g s i lve r e a r r ings , a nd t h a t t h ey k new ag r ea t d ea l a bou t g o ld a nd s i lve r , b u t t h ey t hough t l i t t le o fc oppe r ( Leupe 1 858 ) . T he r e co rd f o rJ u ly 4 th s t a t e s : t h ep eop le h e re a r e t h e s ame a st h o se w hom w e m e tb efo re a tT okach i a nd T ama r i . T he re w e r e f ou r men , t wo women , t wo g i r ls a nd o ne y oung g i r l i na l l o n t h is b each w he re w el a nded t o e nqu i re a bou t g o ld a nd s i lve r . One m an p o s se s se s as wo rd o f w h ich t h e me ta l l ic p a r t w a s i n la id w i th s i lver . Ia sked t hem w i th g e s tu re s h ow a nd w he re y ou o b ta in t h e i rs i lve r . A n o ld woman among t hem s eemed t o u nde r s tand my q ue s t ion i mmed ia te ly , a nd s h e e xp re ssed b y t h e a c t ion o f i n se r t ing h e r h and i n to t h e s and a nd d igg ing i n i t . T hen s he p u t s ome s and o nh e rh and , mak ing as ound l i ke s i ! s i ! ,a nd p u ti ti n to as ma l l p o t w h ich s he t h en p u t o n to a f i re . H e r a c t ion wa s q u i te c l ea r s o t h a t w e u nde r s tood w ha t s he m ean t . " Kan i" i s t h e i r wo rd f o r s i lve r . Ia sked a ga in w i th g e s tu re s w he re t h ey f i nd s i lve r l i ke t h is . T hey p o in ted t o A n thony P eak a s t h e p lace w he r e t h ey g e t i t , t h en a l l a g reed w i th e ach o t he r ( Leupe 1 858 ) . Ic ons ide r t h i s r eco rd t o b e e x t reme ly i mpo r tan t a s c o r robo ra t ion o ft h e f a c t t h a t t h e A inu a l ready k new h ow t o s me l t s i lve r , i n t he manne r d emons t ra ted b y t he A inu w oman . T h i s i st h e f i r s tw r i t ten e v idence , t o my k now ledge , t od i scus s t h e A inu 's k now ledge o fs i lve r . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t o i n terp re t i ta s i nd ica t ing t ha t t h ey h ad a n a dvanced k now ledge o fm e ta l a l loys , w h ich i mp l ies a n u nde r s tand ing o f me ta l p roduc t ion a s a p rocess i nvo lv ing t h e t r an sfo rma t ion o fs i lve rf r om t h e s o l id s t a t e o fs i lve ra s ar aw ma te r ia l t o t h e l i qu id s t a te o f s i lve r i n ap o t , a ch ieved b y c on t ro l l ing t h e t empe ra tu re w i th f i re .

I tw ou ld b ef a sc ina t ing t od e sc r ibe t h ew ho le o fA inu s o c ie ty b a sed o n t h i s e t hnograph ica l ma te r ia l , i n c lud ing d e ta i l s o f t h e i r h ouse s , f ood , c lo thes , b u r ia ls , b ehav iou r , e t c . , b u t l e t u sh e re f ocu so n A inu me ta l lu rgy , r e co rded o n ly , i np a s s ing , a r e i n te re s t ing d e ta i l n o ted b y C oen : t h a t A inu d og s w e re t r a ined t oc a tch s a lmon . '

T he A inu a nd C ap ta in V r ie s e xchanged g ood s i n af r iend ly manne r ; t h e A inu o f f e red many f i sh a nd a n ima l s k in s . I n r e tu rn t h ey r e ce ived t a bacco , r i ce , p i ece so fc l o th , r i bbon a nd g l a s s b ead s . H oweve r , w ha t t h e A inu w e re e age r t or e ce ive f r om t h em w a si r on .T he r e co rd s t a tes :

1T he r epor t s ays t ha t a tT ama r i ( i n S akha l in ) , "When Iw a s s i t t ing i n ah u t , as urp r is ing t h ing h appened . I ti st h a t t h e i r d ogs a r e t r a ined t oc a tch f i sh e a s i ly ; t h e d ogs w a i t a l ong t h e r i ve r a s i f t h ey w e re h uman , o ne o f t h em k eep ing a n e ye o n t h e r i ve r a nd t he r e s t o f t h em a s ag roup r unn ing a l ong t h e r i ve r . When t h e s a lmon c ome u p t h e r i ve r , a l l o ft h e d ogs g o i n to t h e w a t e r

m ak ing af o rma t ion l i ke as em ic i rc le a nd s w imm ing i nt h e w a t e r t oc r ea t e s p la she s s o t h a t t h e s a lmon j ump u p o ve r t h e s ur face o f t h e w a te r i n to s ha l low p l ace s , t h en t h e d ogs c a tch t h e h eads o f t h e s a lmon a nd b r ing t h em t ot h e i r ma s ter i nh i s h u t , a nd g o b ack t ot h e r i ve r a ga in" .

54

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tury

w hen w ew e re o n t h el a nd , h ad b een l e f to n t h e b ox o f ammun i t ion b eh ind t he c annons . I w onde rw ha tt h i s mean s , a nd w hy t h ey l e f tt h e l e t te rt h e re ; Iam wonde r ing t h er e a son f o rt h is . T he re w ere many p eop le h ere b oa rd ing o u r s h ip , t h ey i n fo rmed u st h a tt h e r e i s much s i lve r i n t h e moun ta in . T he p eop le h e re v a lue i r on mo re t h an s i lve r( Leupe 1 858 ) .

a n o ld man c ame t owa rd s me a nd g ave me a n ice s ea -o t te r s k in , s o Ig ave h im a n i r on a xe u sed o n t h e s h ip , w h ich If ound i nt h e l a unch . He wa s e x t reme ly p lea sed s o t ha t h i s e xp re ss ion w a s mo re t h an f u l l o fj oy ( Leupe 1 858 ) . T he r e co rd a l so s t a te s : w eo b ta ined f r esh s a lmon , d ry s a lmon a nd o t he r f i sh , a s much a s w e c ou ld c a r ry b y b oa t , e xchang ing a n i r on r i ng , r i ce , a nd a l so ap i ec e o f h empen c lo th w h ich w e w ea r a round t h e n eck i no u rc oun t ry . Women a nd c h i ld ren c ame t owa rd s u s a nd b rough t many f i sh , m ak ing a h eap o ff i sh i nf r on to fu s , a si ft h ey w an t ed t o f i l l o ur b oa t w i th f i sh a nd e ach o ne o f t h e c rowd g ave u s t h e i rf i sh , s ay ing " Tako i K an i" , wh ich s ounded a s i f t h ey a re a sk ing u s " F r iends , g ive u s i r on" , s o t h a t w e c ou ld n o t c on t ro l o u r b oa t . When a n o ld m an i n t h i s v i l lage s aw t h is , h e s t opped t h em c om ing a long i ns uch ac rowd t o ge the r . T hen l a te r4 -5 p eop le i n as ma l l g roup c ame t o u s f o r e xchange . H oweve r , o u rb oa tw a ss os ma l l t h a t w e h ad t ol e ave i ta way f r om t h e l a nd . When w e r e tu rned t ot h e ma in s h ip , a lmo s t3 0p eop le c ame t os end u s o f fb y s i ng ing as ong a s t h ey h ad d one w hen w e l a nded . O n t h e w ay b ack t o t he ma in s h ip u n t i l w e r e ached i t , t h ey k ep t s ay ing a nd s hou t ing " Tako i , T ama r i , P i ruka , Kan i" , " Tako i , T ama r i , P i ru l ca , K an i" w h ich s ounded a si ft h ey w e re s ay ing " F r iend s , c ome b ack a ga in , when y ou c ome b ack n ex t t ime , b r ing l o t s mo re i r on" . We w en t b ack t o t h e ma in s h ip a round 4 :00 PM ; i tw a sr a in ing h a rd ( Leupe 1 858 ) .

A s t h e r e co rd c onc luded , i r on w a s c l ea r ly a n i mpo r tan t ma te r ia l f o r t he A inu p eop le , a t l e as t b y 1 643 . I t i s i mpo r tan tt oc on s ide rt h a tt h e re w ou ld h ave b een n op o in ti n t h e A inu a sk ing f o ri r on , i ft h ey h ad n o tk nown t h e v a lue o f i r on , a nd h ad n o tk nown t h ew ays i nw h ich i r on c an b eu sed . 5 -2 -2 A rchaeo log ica l

e v idence

T he a r ea d e sc r ibed i n t h e se d ocumen t s o f 1 643 i so n t h e n o r th a nd e a s ts i de o fH okka ido . H oweve r , t h ea r chaeo log ica l e v idence d i scu ssed h e re i sc oncen t ra ted i nt h e s ou th -wes to f H okka ido , w here t h e S am A inu l i ve . T he t ime r ange i s s ome t ime b efo re 1 667 . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r i r on p roduc t s a tA inu s i te s c omp r i se s aw ide r a nge o f ma ter ia l i n c lud ing A inu d agge r s , k n ive s , f i sh ing h ooks , h a rpoon s , n a i ls , i r on a r rowheads , d r i l ls , s i ck les , h oe s , a xe s , p o in t s , i r on p o t s , s wo rds , a nd s c rap s o f i r on , i n c lud ing m isce l laneous i r on p la te s , i r on r i ngs , i r on b a r s , a nd i r on c ha ins , e t c . T hese i r on p roduc t s w e re p o ten t ia l ly u sab le i nt wo w ays i nA inu s oc ie ty , e i the r a s i r on o b jec t s i n t h e i r own r i gh t o r a s as ource o f i r on m a te r ia ls , l i on n a i l s mus th ave b een b rough to n to t h e s i te a s ar e su l t o ft r ade , e xchange , o r c o l lec t ion — a s t h e A inu d id n o t u se n a i l s f o r b u i ld ing t h e i r h ouse s o r s h ips o r f o r a ny p u rpo se o t he rt h an r e cycl ing f o rt h ei r on ma te r ia l . I ti sp o ss ib le t o i n te rp re t s uch a v a r ie ty o f m isce l laneous i r on p roduc t s a s t h e r e su l t o f A inu a t temp t s t oo b ta in i r on o b je c t sa s as econda ry r aw ma te r ia lf r om w h ich t o make t h e i r o wn i r on p roduc t s . T h is a l so i mp l ie st h a tt h e A inu p o s ses sed s ome k i nd o f i r on t e chno logy . T he re wou ld h ave b een n o p o in t i no b ta in ing m isce l laneous i r on o b jec t s w i thou t b e ing e qu ipped t o t r ansfo rm t hem i n to u sefu l o b jec t s u s ing t e chno logy o ft h e i ro wn .

I ti sc l ea r f r om t h is d e sc r ip t ion t h a t t h e A inu d espe ra te ly w an ted i r on a nd g o ti tb ye xchang ing t h e i rg ood ss uch a sf i sh a nd s k ins w i th whomeve rt h ey c ou ld , w heneve ra nd w he reve r p o ss ib le . T he A inu w o rd k an i h e r em ean s i r on ; h oweve r , i t a l so means s i lve r a s p rev ious ly m en t ioned . T he w o rd k an i r e f e r st om e ta li ng ene ra l , b u t Is ha l ld i scu s si ti n mo r ed e ta i l i nC hap te r6 . T he r epo r ta l so men t ioned t h a to nJ u ly 1 9 th : Ab oa t c ame t oo ur s h ip f r om t h e l a nd f u l l o f f i sh , a nd w e s t a r ted t o e xchange . We e ven o b ta ined al i ve b ea r . Am an s howed ap i ece o f m ine ra l t o C ap ta in M . G . V r ies a ppa ren t ly s ay ing t h a t i t wa s s i lve r a nd p o in t ing t o t h e moun ta in o n t h e l a nd f r om w h ich i tc ame . T he moun ta in i s i n as ou th -sou th -ea s t d i rec t ion f r om u sn ow , a nd i st h e s ame o ne t h a t w e s aw o n t he 1 4 th J u ly . A s w e w e re s a i l ing a way f r om t h i s b ay , a no the r b oa t f u l l o f s k ins a nd d r ied f i sh c ame t owa rd s u s , r ow ing b e s ide o u r s h ip . A s w e w e re s a i l ing t oo f a s t , t h e b oa t c ou ld n o t c a tch u s , a nd w en t b ack t ot h e l a nd w i th t h eo the r s . ( om i ss ion ) A f te r w e h ad b een s a i l ing f o r s ome t ime , I d i scove red t h a t a n o f f ic ia l l e t te r , w h ich Ih ad g iven t ot h ep eop le t o ge the r w i th aD u tch f l ag

55

Ma te r ia l mod if ied b y t h e A inu w h ich Ih ave d ef ined a s " ma te r ia lo ft h eA inu 's o wn p roces s ing" i nC hap te r3 ,c an b e i l u s t ra ted b y t h e s imp le e xamp le o fr e use o f ab roken s wo rd t h a tw a s f ound a mong t h e se i r on p roduc t s ( M iu ra 1 989 ) . L e t u s c oncen t ra te o n t h e t e chno log ica l a spec t a nd d i scu ss i r on o b jec t sw h ich w e r eu sed a s as e conda ry r aw ma t e r ia l . ( 1 ) I ron ma ter ia l ( a )M i scelaneous i r on p roduc t s I nv i ew o ft h ea bove c ommen t s ,m i sce l laneou si r on p roduc t s f u rn i sh g ood e v idence f o r t h e u se o f i r on s econda ry r aw m a t e r ia l a s as ou rce f o r i r on ma te r ia l . A t t h e I r ueka sh i s i te ( B i ra to r i -cho Kyo iku i inka i 1 989 ) , f i nds i n c luded n a i ls , k ozane ( i ron l ame l lae f o ra rmou r )c l amp s , a nd m i sce l laneou s p i ece so fi r on s haped i n to b a r s a nd p l a te s ; t h e t o ta lw e igh to f

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tury

t h e se w a s4 13 .2 g .T he se m a t e r ia l s w e re n o tf o und n ea r t h e f o rg ing h ea r th ; t h e re fo r e , a n e xam ina t ion o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe en t h e a r ea o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se m a t e r ia l s a nd t h e h ea r th i sr e qu i red .

i r on p o t s , w h ich s ha re ad i agno s t ic c hem ica l c ha ra c te r i s t i c , n ame ly ah i gh p ropo r t ion o fp ho spho ru s( Akanuma 1 989 ) . Among s u ch m i sce l laneou s i r on p roduc t s , t h e r e i se v idence w h ich m ay r e la te t ot r ade t ot h e n o r th -ea s t w i th in t h e A inu n e two rk ,s u ch a sc o i l l ike o b je c t sa nd c o i l l ik er i ng sf o und a t t h e N ibu tan i s i t e ( Hokka ido Ma izo B unkaza i C en t e r 1 986 ) . S im i la ro b jec t sw e re f ound a sb u r ia lg ood s a tt h eR a i toko ro l c awaguch i s i te ( Tokyo U n ive r s i ty 1 980 ) , w h ich i sl o ca t ed a l ong t h e S ea o f Okho t sk - t h e a r ea d e sc r ibed i n t h e e t hnog raph ic a c coun td i scu s sed a bove .

A cco rd ing t ot h e r e su l to ft h em e ta l lu rg ica l a na ly s i s o fi r on m i sce l laneou sp roduc t sa tt h eY ukanbo sh i s i t e( 3 ) ( s ee T ab le 5 1) , t h e d a ta i n d ica te n o c ommon f e a tu r e s i n t e rm s o f p ropo r t ion o fc hem ica l c omponen t s w h ich w ou ld f a c i l i ta t e t r ac ing t h em b ack t ot h e i r p l ace o fo r ig in . T h i s m eans t h a t s uch m i sce l laneous i r on p roduc t s r eached t h e s i t e f r om v a r iou sp l a ce s . T h i s i s ,o n t h e o t he r h and , n o tt h e c a se w i th

T ab le 5 1

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fm i sc e l laneou si r on p roduc t sa tt h eY ukanbo sh is i te ( 3 )

A r row 4 452 C ha in 1 084 Me ta l f i t t ing 5 580 -126 Me ta lf i t t ing 6 078 -68

T .Fe 6 5 .73 6 2 .61 5 9 .26 8 8 .09

C u 0 . 010 0 . 004 0 . 022 0 . 002

Mn 0 . 004 0 . 0 12 0 . 002 0 . 029

P 0 . 005 0 . 096 0 . 079 0 . 083

( b )I r on p o t s I r on p o t s a nd f r agmen t so fi r on p o t sa r ea l so f o und o n A inu s i t e s . T he se p i ece s o f i r on p o t s may h ave b een u sed a s a s ou rce o f i r on . 1 8 f r agmen t s o f i r on p o t s w e re f ound a t N ibu tan i s i te ( Hokka ido Ma izo B unka za i C en te r 1 986 ) , w h ich i s al a rge n umbe rc on s ide r ing t h e l o ca t ion a nd a r ea o f t h e s i t e . 6 3 f r agmen t s o f i r on p o t s w e re f ound a t t h e I r ueka sh i s i t e , t h e i ra ve rage s i ze b e ing a pp rox ima t e ly 5c m i nd i ame te r , a nd t h e i r t o ta l w e igh t 7 48 .5 g ,w h i le 3 7 i r on p o t s w e re d i scove red a tt h e Y ukanbo sh i s i t e ( Ch i tose -sh i K yo iku i inka i , f o r thcom ing ) . A cco rd ing t o t y po log ica l s t ud ie s ( Ko sh ida 1 984 ) , t h ey r e semb le J apane se i r on p o t t y pe s d a t ing f r om t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry t ot h e 1 7 th -18 th c en tu r ie s . T he i r on p o t sa r ed i v id ed i n to t wo m a jo r t y pe s b a sed o n t h e t y pe o fh ang ing h and le ; o ne i sa n o u te r h ang ing h and le t yp e a nd o t he r i sa n i n ne r h ang ing h and le t ype . T he i n ne r h ang ing h and le t y pe i s c on s ide red t oh ave a ppea r ed i nt h e 1 5 th c en tu ry a nd i se a r l ie r t h an t h eo u te rh ang ing h and le t y pe , w h ich w a sc ommon i n

N i 0 . 0 17 0 . 0 14 0 . 037 0 . 0 10

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A l 0 . 062 ' 0 . 098 ' 0 . 029 , 0 . 033

t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry . T he o u t e r h ang ing h and le t y pe h a s b een f o und a tt h eI r ue l ca sh i , P ipau sh i , a nd N ibu tan is i t e .T he i n ne r h ang ing h and le t y pe w a s f ound a t P o romo icha sh i . I ti s i n te re s t ing t on o t et h a te xamp le so ft h ei n ne rh ang ing h and l e t y pe made i np o t te ry ( N .B . n o t a n i r on p o t ) w e r e f o und a mong t h e S a t sumon p o t t e ry a t t h e N i sh i t suk igaoka s i t e , N emu ro sh i , i nH okka ido a nd a mong H a j i wa r e p o t t e ry a t t h eY omog ida -oda te s i te i nA omo r i -ken , T ohoku . A cco rd ing t ot h er e su l t s o fm e ta l lu rg ica la na ly s i so ft h ei r on p o t s ( s ee T ab le 5 -2 ) f r om t h e s i te s o f I r ueka sh i , P ipau sh i , N ibu tan i , P o romo i a nd Y ukanbo sh i , w e re a l l m ade o f c hu te t su ( c a s ti r on ) ,a si n d ica t ed b y ac a rbon c on ten to fm o r e t h an 1 . 7% a nd t he e v idence o f l edebu l i te i n t h e m e ta l log raph ic r e su l t s . T he se p o t s a l so c on ta in a h i gh p ropo r t ion o fp ho spho ru s . S i nce c a s t ing s i te s a r e n o t f ound i nH okka ido , t h e se i r on p o t s mu s t o r ig ina l ly h ave b een o f e x t erna l o r ig in , a nd i t m us tb ea s sumed t h a tt h eA inu a cqu i red t h em b ye xchange a s ar e su l t o f t h e t r ade . J udg ing f r om t h e t y po log ica l a nd m e ta l lu rg ica l s t ud ie s , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e se i r on p o t s w e r e p r oduced i nm a in land J apan .

5 6

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , Hokka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

T ab le 5 -2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3

5

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fi r on p o t s . T he f o l low ing d a ta a r ec omp i led f r om e xcava t ion r e po r t s , i n c lud ing f o r thcom ing o ne s ,l i s ted i nA ppend ix -1 .

S amp le sf r om s i te s I r ueka sh i 1 35 18 I r ueka sh i K -35 10 I r ueka sh i J 34 -1 I r ueka sh i L -36 -2 I r ueka sh i M -35 -1 1 r ueka sh i J 34 -2 I r ueka sh i K -34 -4 I r uek a sh i K -36 1 P i pau sh i G 11 -68 P ipau sh i G 11 -69 Y ukanbo sh i 3 76 1 P o romo icha sh i N ibu tan ii s ek i B ib i 8 B ib i 8 B ib i 8 K a t suyamada te O hamanaka Y on nog ida ° da t e S ho royada t e

T .F e F eO C% S iO 2 T iO 2 C u C aO 8 7 .06 ' 0 . 002 4 . 48 0 . 008 '0 . 012 8 6 .54 4 . 36 0 . 013 0 . 002 '4 . 22 8 2 .08 0 . 0011 ' 0 . 002 4 . 60 8 8 .86 0 . 007 0 . 003 4 . 52 8 6 .58 0 . 009 0 . 009 . 008 , 8 6 .18 '5 . 30 . 0 0 . 009 '0 . 00 1 8 8 .17 5 . 94 0 . 009 9 1 .3 1 4 . 39 0 . 0018 0 . 019 1 . 19 0 . 085 8 5 .00 1 2 .70 4 . 83 1 . 6 1 0 . 011 7 7 .00 < 0 .0 1 5 . 19 0 . 076 0 . 014 0 . 012 -0 . 044 0 . 396 -8 5 .4 3 0 . 009 8 1 .44 0 . 0017 0 . 0073 8 2 .77 0 . 014 6 9 .38 0 . 034 7 8 .16 0 . 023 4 .93 ,8 . 047 - 0 . 003 5 2 .2 , 0 , 0 . 007 7 2 .58 < 0 .00 1 4 3 .50 0 . 0133 0 . 0066 _5 9 .10

Mn '0 . 006 0 . 003 '0 . 006 0 . 006 0 . 006 '0 . 006 0 . 005 0 . 007 0 . 033 0 . 035 0 . 010 0 .00 16 0 . 005 0 . 009 0 . 013 0 . 030 0 . 006 '

P 0 . 092 0 . 150 0 . 063 0 . 100 0 . 078 0 . 068 0 . 170 0 . 120 0 . 280 0 . 290 0 . 174 0 . 173 0 . 0505 0 . 128 0 . 220 0 . 175 0 . 029 0 . 061 0 . 112 0 . 3107

S 0 . 055 0 . 036 0 . 078 0 . 054 0 . 046 0 . 082 0 . 059 0 . 036 0 . 065, 0 . 120 0 . 156

T he s t ruc tu r e s o ft h e h ea r th s a tt h e se s i te s d i f f e r s l igh t ly i n s hape o ne f r om a no the r ,b u t ,b ya nd l a rge , t h ey c on s t i tu t ea n o va l s ha l low p i t w i th b u rn t s o i l q u i te s im i la r t o s t anda rd f o rg ing h ea r th s .

5 -3 E v idence o f t he f org ing p roce s s I ti sc l ea r f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t h a t t h e A inu c a r r ied o u t f o rg ing p r io r t o 1 667 . T he e v idence i n c lude s h ea r th s , t u ye re s , s l ag , h amme r s c a le , a nd c ha rcoa l f ound a t t h e I r ueka sh i ( B i ra to r i -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 989 ) , P ipau sh i ( B i ra to r i -cho K yo iku i inka i , f o r thcom ing ) a nd Y ukanbo sh i ( Ch i to se sh i K yo iku i inka i , f o r thcom ing ) s i t e s , w h ich a r e w i th in t h eA inu c u l tu ra lc on tex t . T he s ef i nd sd ef in i t e ly a t te s t t o ak now ledge o ft h ef o rg ing p ro ce s so fi r on t e chno logy .

A tt h eI r ueka sh is i te ,d e sp i te c a re f u li n ve s t iga t ion a r ound t h e h ea r th , n o e v idence , s uch a s p o s t h o le s , w a s f ound w h ich w ou ld h ave i n d ica t ed s t ruc tu r e sa r ound t h eh ea r th ; f r om t h i sI a s sume t h a t t h e h ea r th w a s s i tua ted o u t s ide a nd a way f r om a ny s t ruc tu r e . T he l o ng a x i so ft h eh ea r th i s 10 cm e a s t -we s ta nd t h es ho r t a x i s i s8 0 c m s ou th -no r th . T h i s a r ea i sd i v ided i n to t wo p a r t s . O ne i s ac one -shaped h ea r th p i tw i th d imen s ion so f1 5 c m i nd ep th , 3 4c mo n t h el o ng a x i s , a nd 2 7c mo n t h e s ho r t a x i s . T h i s i sa s soc ia ted w i th as l ag c onc en t ra t ion . T he o t he r p a r t i ss i tua ted o n t h e w e s t s i de o f t h e h ea r th p i t , w i th d imen s ion s o f 1 3 c m i nd ep th , 8 0 c m o n t h e l o ng a x i s , a nd 6 8 c mo n t h e s ho r ta x i s ; i ti sa s soc ia ted w i th b u rn ts o i l ( s ee F ig . 5 3 ) .

5 -3 -1 H ear ths H ea r th s w e re f ound o u t s ide t h e p o s th o le s o ft h e h ous e s a t I r ueka sh i a nd P ipaush i ; o ne w a s f o und w i th in t h e p o s th o le b ounda ry o f t h e h ouse a t Y ukanbosh i . T hese h ea r th s c on ta ined s l ag a nd h amme r s ca le s , i n d ica t ing t h e i rf u nc t ion a sh ea r th sw he re f o rg ing h ad t a k en p l a c e .

F i g . 5 3

M 2 7

57

H ea r th a tt h eI r uek a sh is i t e( 1 ) .

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce ss o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

F ig . 5 -4

H ea r th s a tt h e P ipau sh is i t e( 2 ) . ( s ee P ho to . 5 5 f o rN o . 1h ea r th ) .

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5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

H oweve r , t wo h ea r th s f ound a tt h e P ipau sh i s i te e xh ib i ted t o ta l ly d i f f e r en tf ea tu re se ven t hough t h ey a r e l o ca ted w i th in l mo fe a ch o t he rw i th in a na r ea o ve rw h ich s l ag a nd h amme r s c a le w a ss p read . T he i n i t ia la ppea rance o fh ea r th N o . 1w a s j u s t a mound o f y e l low ish c l ay a s soc ia ted w i th s eve ra l o range b lock s o fb u rn t s o i l . I td id n o t l ook l i ke ah ea r th — i n c on tra s t t o h ea r th N o . 2w h ich w a s c l ea r ly a h ea r th r e la t ing t oi r on t e chno logy — b u t w a s i d en t if ied a s ah ea r th w i th s ome r e la t ion t oi r on t e chno logy b ecause o ft h eo range b lock s o fb u rn ts o i l .

o range b lock s o f s o i l o n t op o f t h e mound a nd a p i ece o f c a rbon i sed w ood u nd e rnea th i t . No . 2h ea r th w a s 5 0 c m x3 0 cm i na r ea a nd o va l i ns hape , a l though o ne q ua r te rw a sd es t royed b y al a te rf ea tu re . I tw a s s u r rounded b y v iv id o range b urned s o i l a s soc ia ted w i th a c on s ide rab le a moun to fs l ag a nd c ha rcoa l .T h is o range l a ye r w en tb e low ab l ack l a ye rm ixed w i th s l ag a nd c ha rcoa l i nt h e c en t re . T h i s h ea r th w a s c l ea r ly r e la ted t oi r on t e chno logy i n v i ew o ft h ea s soc ia ted s l ag a nd b u rned s o i l( s ee F ig . 5 -4 ) . I ti s t hough t -p rovok ing t o c ompa re t he se A inu f o rg ing h ea r th s w i th t h e S a t sumon f o rg ing h ea r th s i nt h e p re -A inu p e r iod i n o rde r t o i d en t ify a ny s equen t ia l f ea tu res . T he S a t sumon f o rg ing h ea r th w a s n o rma l ly s i tua ted i n s ide t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e d we l l ing p i t , b u t a tt h e R ansh ima s i t e ( 9 ) ( O ta ru -sh iK yo iku i inka i 1 989 ) , f o re xamp le ,o ne h ea r th w a s ah o le in the -g round h ea r th ( a n o pen -f ie ld t y pe ) , a nd a tt h e N ish ik icho 5 s i te ( 8 ) ( A sah ikawa -sh i K yo iku i inka i 1 984 ) , o ne h ea r th w a sa l so l o ca ted o u t s ide ( s ee T ab le 5 3 ) .

N o . 1h ear th ( Pho to . 5 -5 ) c ons i s ted o f ap i t2 0 c m x1 5 c m i ns i ze , o fo va l s hape a nd w i th af l a tb o t tom , p rov ing t ob e 6 cm i nd ep th a f te rt h ee xcava t ion o f ay e l low ish mound , a nd t h er emova l o ft h e y e l low ish c l ay u n t i l i td i sappea red a tt h e b o t tom . S eve ra l p ieces o fh amme r s ca le l mm i ns i ze w e re f ound w i th in t h is c l ay i nt h em idd le o ft h e mound . N oo the r ma t er ia l w a sm ixed i ni t .H oweve r ,t h e r ew e r es eve ra lb u rned

T ab le 5 -3

T he l o ca t ion o fh ea r ths .

T he A inu p e r iod T he S a t sumon p er iod

I n s id e Y ukanbo sh i s i te mos t

T he n umbe ro fc ra f t speop le may b e e s t ima ted b y t h e s i ze o f t h eh ea r th s , a nd b y t a k ing i n to a ccoun t t h ef r equency o fu se , s pec ia l i sa t ion ,a nd c ha ra c te ro ft h es i t e . A n i lus t ra t ion o ft h e S akha l in A inu d rawn i n t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ( s ee F ig . 5 -6 , Mam iya 1 808 ) e xh ib i t s t h ree c ra f t speop le w ork ing o n t h e f o rg ing . I nt h e c a se o ft h e h ueka sh i s i te , a tl e a s t 2 -3 p eop le m igh t h ave b een r e qu i red f o r t h e f o rg ing . T he c ra f t spe r son w ho w o rked t h e b e l low sm ay h ave f a ced t owa rd s t h e w e s tt o t a ke a dvan tage o ft h ep r eva i l ing w ind d i rec t ion , i nw h ich c a se t h ed i rec t ion o ft h et u ye r e sm ay h ave b een w e s t -fac ing .

I nt h e S a t sumon p er iod , t h e re a r e t wo e xamp le s o ff o rg ing h ea r ths wh ich w e re d iv ided i n to t wo p a r t s : One c on ta ined s l ag a nd s ca le ,i nd ica t ing i t sf unc t ion a s af o rg ing h ea r th , a nd t h e o t he ro ne p o ss ib ly c on ta ined a n a nv i la tt h e S ueh i ro s i t e ( 10 ) ( Ch i tose -sh i K yo iku i inka i 1 981 , 1 982 ) a nd t h e S a t sumae s i te ( 6 ) (Ma t sumae -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 985 ) i n H okka ido r e spec t ive ly . B o th s i te sa r ed a ted b e tween t h e 8 t h a nd 1 0 th c en tur ie s , a nd e v idence o fh ammer ing t e chn ique s h a s b een f ound a s soc ia ted w i th t wo p i t s i nt h e c en t re o ft h e d we ll ing p i t . A tt h e S a t su rnae s i te , i nt h e h ea r th o ft h e 2 1 -H d we l l ing p i t , t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e h ea r th c ons i s ted o f t wo j o ined p i t s .

F ig . 5 -6

o u t s id e I r ueka sh i &P ipaush i s i tes R ansh ima & N ish ik icho 5s i tes

h on wo rk ing o ft h e S akha l in A inu i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ( Mam iya 1 808 )

5 9

5 :l i on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce ss o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tury

5 -3 -2

Tuyeres

S ca le a tt h eP ipau sh i s i te w a ss ca t te red i nt r emendou s ly l a rge q uan t i t ie s o ve ra n a r ea 2m l ong a x i s , a nd 2 cm i nt h ickne s s ; t h ea r ea o fg r ea te s tc onc en t ra t ion o ccu r red a round ap i t3 0cm i n d i ame te r a nd 3 0cm i n d ep th . B ecause o f t h e e xpo sed c ond i t ion , c on s ide r ing t h ec oncen t ra t ion o fs ca le , t h ep i tw a s i d en t if ied a s ah o le i nw h ich a na nv i lh ad b een i n se r ted .

T he t h ick wa l led t ype o f t uye re f r om t h e I r ueka sh i a nd P ipaush i s i te s c an i nd ica te b o th t h e f o rg ing a nd t h e r e f in ing p roce s s . A tt h eI r ueka sh i s i te , t h e t u ye res a r e m ade o fc l ay w i th s ome g ra ss ( s cour ing r ush ) m ixed i na s t empe r i no rde r t o make t h em s t ronge r . T he t o ta l w e igh t o f t h e t u ye re s i s5 00g , wh ich r ep re sen t s a bou t 6t uye res ; t h i s e s t ima te w a s made a f te rr e f i t t ing t h ep iec es o ft uye re s a nd c oun t ing t h en umbe r o ft h ed iagno s t ic p a r t so ft h et u ye re s .

T he p i tw a sf o und a s soc ia ted w i th f u l lo fT a ruma e Bv o lcan ic a sh , w h ich i mpl ie s t h a t t h e p i tw a s emp ty w hen t h ea sh f e l l i n1 667 , o r t h a td u r ing t h e d i sa s te r , o ri mmed ia te ly a f te rt h e d i sa s t e r , t h ea r ea w a s c l ea red i no rde r t o move e l sewhe re . A ma ss o fh amme r s ca le w a s f ound a round t h is p i t i nd ica t ing h ammer ing a c t iv i ty . I ti so n ly t h e e a s te dge o ft h ep i t w h ich e xh ib i t s h amme r s ca le t i gh t ly p acked t o ad ep th o f 1 0cm b e low t h es u r fa ce .

A t l e a s t t h ree t uye re s w e re i d en t if ied a tP ipau sh i s i te . T h i s e s t ima t ion w a s made b y r ef i t t ing t h e p i ece s o f t u ye res a nd c oun t ing t h e n umbe r s o ft h e d iagno s t ic p a r t so ft h e t u ye re s . A l though i tw a s n o t p o ss ib le t o r econ s t ruc t t h e c omp le t e s hape o f t h e t uye res , i tw a s p oss ib le t o r ef i t t h e p i eces t o ge the r . T he re w e re t wo s po t s , w he re t h e t u ye re f r agmen t s w e re c oncen t ra ted , wh ich c an b ei n te rp re ted a si n d ica t ing t h a t t h e t u ye re sw e re d i sca rded a nd t h en b roken i n to p i ece s . T h i s t h ick t ype o ft uye re i ss im i la r t ot h e t y pe f r om t h e I r ueka sh i s i te . T he s i ze o f t he t uye re s i s8 -9cm i nd i ame t e r , 3 cm i n t h icknes sa nd 3 cm i ni n te rna l d iame te r . T he P ipau sh it u ye re s a r e made o fc l ay w i thou ta ny t empe r , a nd a r e t h u s d i f f e ren t f r om t ho se a tt h eI r ueka sh i s i te . T he t e x tu r eo ft h et u ye re s i s s moo th ,a l though t h ey a ppea rt ob eo f av e ry c oa r se t y pe .

T he g round s u r fa ce i nt h i sa r ea w a sd a rk b lue ,b ecause o ft h e c o lou r o fh amme r s ca le a nd b r igh t ly r ef lec t ive . Mo s to ft h e p i ece s o f s ca le w ere s t i l l magne t ised , s o i tw a s e a sy t o c o l lec t t h em w i th magne t s . T he t o ta l w e igh t o f h amme r s ca le w a s 3 278 .9g . Two d i f f e ren tt ypes o fs ca le c an b e s e en : o ne w a s t h in a nd s qua re i n s hape , 2r un-10 mm , a nd t h e o t he r w a s o f s phe r ica l s hape 2 mm-5 mm i nd iame te r . A p i ece o fs i lv e r 2mm i nl e ng th w a sa l so f ound . H amme rs ca le h a sb een i n te rp re ted a s ad eca rbu r i s ing a gency a tt h e Y ukanbo sh i s i te ( 3 )b a sed o n t h ea na ly s is o fs c a le s i ze ( Sa to a nd Amano f o r thcom ing ) .

5 -3 -3 Ha mmer s ca les

W i th in t h e S a t sumon c on tex t , h amme r s ca le h a sb een f ound a tt h eS ueh i ro s i te ( 10 )a nd t h eN i sh ik icho s i te ( 8 ) , p rov id ing e v idence o ft h eh amme r ing p roces sa s soc ia ted w i th s l ag a nd s c a le .

P iece s o f s ca le a pprox ima te ly 5mm i nd iame t e r h ave b een f ound b y u s ing s i eves a nd magne t s o n t h e a sh a nd t h e d epo s i t sf r om a nd a round t h e h ea r th a tt h eP ipau sh i s i te . T he t o ta lw e igh to ft h es ca le r e cove red i s5 40g .

T ab le 5 -4

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fh amme rs ca le f r om t h eP ipau sh i( 2 )a nd t h eY ukanbo sh i ( 3 ) s i te s . S hadow ing i nd ica te sd a ta a na ly sed s pe c ia l ly f o r my b ook b y am e ta l lu rg ica la na ly s tK . I t o .

S i te n ame S amp le n o

a n sh i 1 2 P ipau sh i .2 . 2

P ipau sh i 3 : a u sh i 3 Y ukanbo sh i 1

3 Y ukanbosh i 3 3 Y ukanbo sh i4 3 Yukanbosh i5 3 Y ukanbo sh i6 3 Y ukanbo sh i8 3 Y ukanbo sh i9

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2 7 .89 2 8 .12

6 6 .20

6 4 .88

2 2 .58

0 . 028 0 . 021 -0 . 033

0 . 100 0 . 071 0 . 048 0 .067

4

. 3 2 . 42 1 . 33 1 . 66 8 . 87 4 .91 4 . 38 5 . 30

*= S i+A l+Ca+ Mn

5 -3 -4

S lag

A cco rd ing t ot h e r e su l t s o ft h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o ft h e s l ag f ound a t t h e I r ueka sh i , P ipaush i , Y ukanbo sh i s i te s , f o rg ing s l ag a s w e l l a s r ef in ing s l ag w a s p r esen t ( Tab le 4 -3 i nC hap te r4 ) .

T he re w a s as l ag c oncen t ra t ion b es ide t h e h ea r th o n t h ee a s t s i de a tt h e I r ueka sh i s i t e . I tl a y i n as ha l low p i t , a s i fi th ad b een g a the red f r om t h eh ea r th a nd c o l lec ted i n to ah eap . T he t o ta l w e igh to ft h e s l ag w a s 2 . 427kg . Me ta l lu rg ica la na ly se s o ft h e s l ag r e s idue i nd ica te t h e p roce s s o f f o rg ing , t h e r aw ma te r ia l s u sed , a nd t h e s ca le o f t h e f o rg ing . Mo rpho log ica l c l a ss if ica t ion o f t h e s l ag w a s c a r r ied o u t , u s ing K ubo ta 's

60

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce ss o ft h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

m e thod ( Kubo ta 1 983 ) , w h ich d i s t ingu i she s 4t ype s ; t h e se a r e : 1 ) S lag t ha t l ook s l i ke s o l id t h ick ma l t s y rup a nd a ppea r s t oh ave j us t r un o u t o f t h e h ea r th . 2 ) S lag t h a t i s i regu la r ly s haped , s pongy w i th b ubb le s ,a nd b l a ck i nc o lou r . 3 )S lag t h a ti sb rown i sh r ed a nd i sa s sumed t oc on ta in l o t so f i r on o x ide . 4 ) S lag o f l ow s pec if ic -g rav i ty w h ich h ad p robab ly b ecome a t tached t ot h e w a l l o rf l oo ro ft h eh ea r th . Among t h e ma te r ia ls e xcava ted , Iw a s a b le t oc l a s s i fy t h e f o l low ing q uan t i t ies o fe ach o fK ubo ta 's f ou r t ype s o fs l ag : 1 )4 16g , 2 )2 31g , 3 ) 1 595g , 4 ) 1 86g ( Fuka sawa 1 989 ) .

m ud , i nd ica te s t h a tt h e i r on w a s h o t f o rged w i th ah ea r th o f t h es ame t y pe a si nJ apan . I ft h i s i lu s t ra t ion i s c ompa red w i th t h e p ho tograph o f f o rg ing a mong t h ep re sen t -day E venk i , r e indee rh e rde r s ( s ee P ho to . 5 1 ) , o ne c an f i nd s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h em . T he a r ea o f f o rg ing a mong t h e E venk i i s 2 x 2m ; t h e g round i s s ha l low ly d ug a nd t h e h ea r th i sl o ca ted i nt h e c en t re o f t h e a r ea . Two t uye res a r e s e t o n t h e g round a nd a r e b lown a l te rna te ly . T he E venk i c o l lec t a nd k eep s u i tab le i r on o b jec t s , s uch a s i r on n a i ls , l y ing n ea rby f o r u se a s as upp ly o fi r on ma te r ia ls . When aman d ec ide s t od o s ome f o rg ing , o n t h a td ay h e s t a r t s t o make ac on ta ine r f r om t h e b a rk o fa w h i te b i rch f o r t h e w a te r u sed i n q uench ing . T he f o rg ing i n vo lves v e ry h a rd w o rk e ven t o make o n ly o ne k n if e . H e i s u sua l ly s uppo r ted b y ay oung man o fh i s f am i ly o rr e la t ions s ot h a tt h ey oung man c an l e a rn h ow t of o rge a sh eh e lp sa nd c an b ecome h i ss ucce sso r( O t suka 1 987 ) .

As ma l l p i le o fs l ag w a s f ound a t 1m d i s tance f r om t h e No . 1h ea r th a tt h e P ipau sh i s i te . I tl a y o n t h e v o lcan ic a sh o f U su ( Us -b2 ) , w h ich i nd ica te s t h a ti tw a sd i sca rded a f t e r 1 663 b u t b efo re 1 667 ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) . T he a r ea o f t h e h eap i s 4 0cm x 3 0cm , a nd i ti s5 cm i nt h ickne s s . T he h eap i n c ludes v a r ious s i ze s o fd a rk b rown ish s l ag t o ge the r w i th p i ece s o f c ha rcoa l , p ieces o f t uye res , a nd i n te re s t ing ly , p i ece s o f b u rned d ee rb ones wh ich m igh ti n d ica t e t h a tt h ec r a f t speop le a t ed ee r mea td u r ing t h i sw o rk . 5 -3 -5

5 -4 E v idence o f t he r ef in ing p rocess

Charcoa l

T he p u rpo se o ft h e r e f in ing p roces s i ni r on t e chno logy i st o p roduce f i ne r q ua l i ty i r on o r e ven s t ee l f r om wh ich t h e s ha rpes to fi r on t oo ls c an b ep roduced . T he s t ee l i sp roduc ed b yr ef in ing t h es en te t su b yr educ ing t h ep ropo r t ion o fc a rbon c on ten t o f t h e i r on a nd r emov ing i n c lus ions f r om t h e i r on . T h i s p rocess r equ ire s k now ledge o f h ow t o c on t ro l t h e p ropo r t ion o f c a rbon c on ten t o f t he i r on , e i the r f r om e xpe r ience o rt h rough s c ien t if ic k now ledge . I nt h ec a se u nde r d i scus s ion , i tw a s s u re ly d one b y e xpe r ienc e a l one , a st h e re w e re n ow r i t ten d ocumen t s . I nt h is p roce s s , c e r ta in a dd i t ives , s u ch a sa dd i t iona li r on o r e ,i r on s and ,a nd a sh ,a r er e qu i red f o r c on t ro l l ing t he c a rbon c on ten t . T hus , e v idence o f t h is r ef in ing p roce s si nd ica te sa dvanced k now ledge o nt h ep a r to f t h ec r a f t spe r son , a nd t h e ir i n ten t ion t op roduce s t ee l f o rf i ne r i r on a nd t h es ha rpe s to fi r on t oo ls .

Ac oncen t ra t ion o fc ha rcoa l w a s f o und a tP ipaush i s i te ( 2 ) m ea su r ing 1 . 5m x 1 . 1m , a nd 1 0cm i nt h ickne ss . I tc on s i s t ed o f p i ece s o f c ha rcoa l 1 3cm i n d iame te r t i gh t ly p acked t o ge the r . I tl ook s a s i fi tw a s f ue l a nd e i the r h ad n o t b een u sed o r h ad b een e x t ingu i shed w hen i nu se . A n a t temp t a t i d en t if ica t ion u s ing EMR i nd ica t ed t h a tt h ec ha rcoa lh ad b een made f r om t r ee s o ft h e f o l low ing s pec ie s : A lnus , Magno l ia , F rax inus ,a nd F uga s . F rom a l l t h e a bove e v idence t h e re i sn o d oub t t h a t t h e S a ru A inu e ngaged i nf o rg ing a c t iv i t ies . A cco rd ing t oR inzo Mam iya ( Mam iya 1 808 ) , w ho r epo r t ed f o rg ing among t h e S akha l in A inu i nt h e e a r ly 1 9 th c en tu ry , a ccompan ied b y a n i lus t ra t ion , m en t ioned p rev ious ly ( c f . F ig . 5 -6 ) : f o rg ing w a su sua l ly c a r r ied o u tu nde rt h ee aves o f ah ouse ; ah amme r c ou ld b e a ny th ing s u i tab le f o rp ound ing ; i r on w a s u sed n o ts t ee l ; t h ey u sua l ly u sed i r on o b jec t s l i ke n a i l s f r om o ld b oa t s ; t h ey u sed a ny k i nd o fi r on w h ich w a s a va i lab le ,l i on o b jec t sw e r eo b ta ined b yt r ade a t S h iranush i . T he f o rg ing t e chn ique w a s t h e s ame a s o n t h e ma in land o f J apan ; w hen a n i r on b a rw a st ob ee x t ended t h ey p ounded i t ,a nd w hen a n i r on b a rw a s t ob ej o ined , t h ey t h rew a sh a nd mud i n to t h e f i r e . When ab l ade w a s made , t h ey p u ti ti n to w a t e rf o rq uench ing . T he p rocess o fp roduc ing i r on o b je c t s w a s e xa c t ly t h e s ame a si nJ apan ; h oweve r , t h et o o l sw h ich t h ey h ad w e re v e ry p r im i t ive ,s ot h ey c ou ld n o t make s a t i s fa c to ry p roduc t s( Mam iya 1 808 ) .

T he s l ag w h ich w a s f ound a t t h e I r ueka sh i s i te ( 1 ) i sa b o t tom s l ag ( s ee P ho to . 5 -2 ) . T h i s t ype o fs l ag i si n te rp re ted a st h e r ema ins l e f t a tt h e b o t tom o ft h e h ea r th , t h e s hape o f w h ich i tp re se rve s , a s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e r e f in ing p roce ss . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e r e f in ing p rocess c an b e c a r r ied o u t u s ing af o rg ing h ear th a sw e l la sb y u s ing af u rnace . I no t he r w o rd s , af u rnace i sn o t n ece ssa ry f o r t h e r e f in ing p roce ss , w h ich i sa l so d ependen t u pon t h e t empe ra tu re . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e u se o r n o t o f af u rnace m igh t a l so d epend o n t h e s ca le o f t h e r ef in ing p rocess : i fi t wa s o n ly s ma l l -sca le r ef in ing , i tc ou ld h ave b een c a r r ied o u t u s ing a f o rg ing h ea r th . A cco rd ing t ot h e r e su l t s o fm e ta l lu rg ica l a na lyse s o fs l ag a t t h e f r ueka sh i s i te , ah i gh p ropo r t ion o f i r on o x ide w as a l so i n d ica t ed ( s ee T ab le 4 -3 i nC hap te r4 ) ,a nd i r on s and p a r t ic le s w e r e p r e sen t . T he q ue s t ion i sa t wha ts t age w a s t h ei r on s and u t i l ised a nd h ow w a s i ta dded . I tn eed s t o b e d e te rm ined w he the ro rn o ti tf o rmed i mpur i t ie s i nt h e i r on p roduc t su sed a s r aw ma te r ia l . I r on s and p a r t ic les may i nd ica te t ha t d eca rbu r isa t ion h ad b een c a r r ied o u t b y t h e a dd i t ion o fi r on s and d ur ing t h e me l t ing p rocess ( s ee C hap te r 4 ) . I f t h i s i n t e rp re ta t ion c an b e a pp l ied t ot h is ma te r ia l , t h en i r on s and m u s th ave b een a dd ed a ta na dvanced s t age o fd eca rbu r i sa t ion .

A l though t h ea bove e v idence d a ted f r om t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry a nd t h e o b serva t ion wa s made among t h e S akha l in A inu , i ti s c l ea r t ha tf o rg ing w a s p rac t ised o u t s ide b u t n ea r t h e h ouse , a nd t h a t t h e A inu o b ta ined t h e r aw ma te r ia lb y t r ade . I nF ig . 5 -6 , t h ere i s ac ove ro ve r t h e h ea r th w h ich m igh t b e ah ea t r e f lec tor ,a nd t h e me thod o ff o rg ing m en t ioned ,u s ing a sh a nd

6 1

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce ss o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

T he r e su l t s o f me ta l lu rg ica l a na lyses o fs l ag f r om t h e A inu s i te c an b ec ompa red w i th t ho se f r om aS a t sumon e xamp le . A cco rd ing t ot h e r e su l t s a tt h e S a t sumae s i te ( 6 ) ( s ee T ab le 4 -3 i nC hap te r4 ) , i r on s and p a r t ic les w e re a l so f ound i nt h e s l ag . T h i s i si n te rp re ted a se v idence f o rt h er ef in ing o fi r on , a s ad eca rbu r isa t ion o fc hu te t su ( c a s ti r on ) i nt h el i qu id s t a t e t op roduce s t ee l ( O sawa 1 985 ) . I n t h i s me thod t h e me ta l i s h ea ted ,o x id i sed ,a nd s t i r red i n af u rnace t or educe t h ec a rbon c on ten t .H oweve r ,n of u rnac eh a sb een f ound a tt h eS a t suma e s i te . T he re fo re t h e e x is tence o f t h e r e f in ing p roce s s w h ich w a sc a r r ied o u tb yu s ing af u rna ce h a sn o tb een d emon s t ra ted a sy e t . H oweve r , af i rep lace u sed a sa n o ven , a s soc ia t ed w i th ad we l l ing p i t i n S a t sumon c u l tu re , m igh t a l so h ave b een u sed a s ah ea r th f o rs ma l l sca le r ef in ing .

U s ing al o t o fa i r i so ne w ay ; a no the r i st ou se a n a dd i t ive w h ich f a c i l i ta te s t h e d e ca rbu r i sa t ion r eac t ion , s uch a s i r on s and , i r on o r e , a nd h amme r ing s ca le , a nd t h i s may h ave b een a t tached t o s uch p ieces o f i r on p o t . C on jec tura l r e con s t r uc t ion o f t h e me thod b y wh ich t h e p roce ss m igh t h ave b een c a r r ied o u t n eed s t o t ake i n to a ccoun t t h e t empe ra ture r eached . I n o the r w o rds , i td epend s o n t h e m e l t ing p o in to ft h e p iece s o fi r on p o t . E v idence f r om t h e I r ueka sh i a nd P ipaush i s i t e s , a nd a l so f r om t h e N ibu tan i , Yuo i , a nd P o romo i s i te s , i n d ica t es t h a t many i r on p o t se x is ted i nt h eA inu c u l tu re a s ar e su l to ft r ade w i th t h e ma in land o fJ apan . T he re fo re , i r on p o t sc on s t i tu t ea v e ry l i ke ly s ou rce o fi r on ma te r ia l i nA inu i r on t e chno logy . T ak ing t h is i n to a ccoun t , ap i ece o fi r on p o tw h ich w a s mad e o fc hu te t su ( c a s ti r on ) wou ld r e qu i re r ef in ing b yh ea t ing a nd d eca rbu r i s ing i n ah ea r th i no rde rt op roduce s t ee l .

I ft h i s i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t t h e u se o fi r on s and a sa n a dd i t ive i nd ica t es d eca rbur i sa t ion i sc o r rec t , t h en i ts e em st h a ts eve ra l k i log ram so fi r on s and wou ld h ave b een r e qu i red , d epend ing o n t h e s ca le o f a c t iv i ty . T ak ing a s a n e xamp le t h e b lack sm i ths ( F ig . 5 -6 ) among t h e S akha l in A inu i nt h ee a r ly 1 9 th c en tury (Mam iya 1 808 , s ee a bove ) , Is ugge s t t h a t a h andf u l o fi r on s and may h ave b een t h rown i n to t h e f i re i n t h e f o rg ing h ea r th s eve ra lt ime s . One who h a sk now ledge o f f o rg ing t e chn iques c an j udge w he the r o r n o t i r on s and i s o b ta inab le f r om ar i ve r ; p re sumab ly , t ha t k now ledge c ou ld h ave b een s ha red a mong c r a f t speop le . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a ti r on s and w a s o b ta ined l o ca l ly f r om t h e S a ru R ive r . E ven a t p re sen t , i r on s and c an b e o b ta ined a ta pp rox ima te ly 5 0 -60g p e r l kg o f r i ve r d epos i t s , a s c an b e d emons t ra ted b y g eo log ica l e xpe r imen t ( Ma t suba ra , p e r sona l c omm . ) . T he e s t ima ted d a te o ft h e I r ueka sh i s i te i st h e 1 7 th c en tu ry , 3 00 y ea r s a go . A t t ha t t ime t h e p ropor t ion o f i r on s and o b ta inab le f r om t h er i ve rm igh th ave b een much g r ea te rt h a n 5 0 -60g /kg ,d ue t ot h e f a c tt h a t ac h rom ium m in ing c ompany w a so pe ra t ing a tt h e b eg inn ing o f2 0 th c en tu ry o n t h e u ppe r r eache so ft h eS a ru R ive ra nd t h a ti tm ined a l l t h ec h rom ium i r on d epo s i t s( B i ra to r i c ho s h i 1 974 ) . I nt h e 1 7 th c en tury , t h e t e chn ique f o r s epa ra t ing c h rom ium a nd i r on h ad n o t b een d i scove red .T he refo re , i r on s and c on ta in ing c h rom ium m igh t h ave u sed a tt ha tt ime .

T he r o le o f i r on p o t s f ound a t A inu s i tes i sp a ra l le led a t S a t sumon a nd J apanese s i tes . A t t h e S a t sumae s i te ( 6 ) ( Osawa 1 985 ) , o n ly a s i ng le p iece o f i r on p o t h a s b een f ound , mak ing i td i ff icu l t t oc onc lude t h a t o ld p o t s w e re a ma jo rs ou rce o fi r on f o rr e -u se ;h oweve r , t h er epo r tm en t ion s t h a t t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o f ma te r ia l r ewo rked f r om p i ece s o fi r on p o ti sh i gh b e cause o ft h e e v idence o fi r on s and i nt h e s l ag , a s men t ioned a bove . On t h e o the rh and , a tt h e K am inokun i K a t suyamada te s i te ( 5 ) ( O sawa 1 985 ) many p i ece s o f i r on p o t s h ave b een f ound . B o t tom s l ag w a s a l so f ound . F rom t h is e v id ence , i ti sb el ieved t h a ti r on p o ts w e re d eca rbu r i sed . T hey a r eb e l ieved t oh ave b een made i n to s ma l li r on p roduc t s s uch a sk n ive s a nd f i shhook s . H oweve r , e xam ina t ion o ft h i s l ump o f s of t s t ee l c ou ld l e ad u s t o a n a l te rna t ive i n terp re ta t ion . T h is f i nd s ugges t s t ha t s uch s ma l l i r on i mp lemen t s w e re made o fs o f t s t ee l , w h ich m igh th ave b een b rough to n to t h e s i t e a sd i scu s sed i nC hap t e r4 . T he re i sn o t r ace a tt h e A inu s i te s o f l umps o fr ef ined i r on s uch a s i n go t -shaped p iece s o f i r on o r s en te t su , o r as em i c i rcu la r f o rm o fs en te tsu , a s t h e r aw ma ter ia l f o r r e f in ing . T hose i r on p roduc t s wh ich h ave b een f ound p robab ly r ep re sen t s ou rce s o f i r on a s ar aw ma ter ia l a nd w ou ld h ave b een r ewo rked i n to i r on p roduc t s s uch a s m ak ir i ( t he A inu k n if e ) , d agge r s , k i te ( t he A inu h a rpoon ) , a nd f i sh h ook s . A cco rd ing t o t h e me ta l lu rg ica l a na lyses , t h e mak ir i a t I r ueka sh i s i t e ( 1 ) c on ta in s 1 . 17% c a rbon , w h ich m ean s i ti s s t ee l ( s ee T ab le 5 -5 ) . I tc anno t b e d e te rm ined w he the r i r on w a s made f r om i r on o re o ri r on s and o n a ccoun to ft h e l a ck o f a pp rop r ia te s l ag , a l though t h e p ropo r t ion o fp ho spho ru s i nt h e s l ag f ound w a sh igh ( s ee T ab le 4 -3 i nC hap te r4 ) .

A n a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion i st h a th amme rs ca le c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s ad eca rbu r i s ing a dd i t ive ma te r ia l a t t h e Y ukanbo sh i s i te ( Amano , f o r thcom ing ) . I ti sp o ss ib le t ha t i na n a r ea w he re i tw a s d i ff icu l t t oo b ta in r ef ined p roduc t sl o ca l ly ,p i ece so fi r on p o t sc ou ld h ave p l ayed av e ry i mpor tan tr o le a s as ou rce o f ma te r ia l . I nt h i sp roces s , p i ece so fi r on p o tp robab ly 5 10cm 2 wou ld h ave b een h ea ted i nt h eh ea r th . Two me thod s o fd eca rbur isa t ion a r e p o ss ib le . T ab le 5 5

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o fm ak ir i( sma l l d agge r s ) ( f rom I r uek a sh i s i te r epo r t ) T .Fe

1 I r ueka sh iF -12 -2

9 3 .92

F eO

C% -1 . 17

S iO 2

C u 0 .0 11

C aO

T iO Mn .003 0 .023 '0

P 0 .062

S 0 . 120

t h em , t h ey t r an sfo rmed t h em i n to o b jec t s o fh i ghe r q ua l i ty . T he w r i te r c on t inue s b y s ay ing t ha t h e f ound i td i ff icu l t t o b e l ieve t h is s t o ry , b u t t ha t h e h ad h ea rd i tf r om t h e p eop le w ho l i ved i nt h e Ma t sumae t e r r i to ry s oh er e co rded t h i s f a c t . Ii n te rp re t t h e s en tence " when t h e A inu r e ce ived t h em t h ey t r an sfo rmed t h em i n to o b jec t so fh i ghe rq ua l i ty" a s mean ing t h a t t h e A inu k new h ow t o make s t ee l b y t h e r ef in ing

A cco rd ing t ot h e 1 8 th -cen tu ry h i s to r ica l d ocumen t( Fu rukawa 1 788 ) w h ich I q uo ted i n C hap te r 2i nd ica t ing t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion p o l icy a dop ted b yt h e Ma t sumae -Han , i tw a ss a id t h a t many i r on p roduc t s , i n c lud ing c a rpen te r s ' t oo l s , h ad b een p a s s ing t o t h e A inu f o r al ong t ime . S uch p roduc t s w e r e a lways o f l ow q ua l i ty , b u t w hen t h e A inu r e ce ived

6 2

5 :l i on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce ss o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

p roces s . T he A inu c ou ld h ave h ad t h e t e chno logy t o t r ansfo rm d u l l , b lun t , a nd l ow -qua l i ty i r on i n to h ighe r q ua l i ty i r on , s uch a s s t ee l b y t h e t ime t h i s d ocumen t w a s w r i t t en .

O n t h eo the rh and , f o re xamp le a tt h eK a t suyamada t es i te ( 5 ) i nH okka ido , aJ apane se s i te o ft h e 1 5 -16 th c en tu ry d i scu s sed i nC hap te r4 , as em ic i rcu la rs haped l ump o fs t ee l ( s of ts t ee l ) w a s f ound , a nd f i sh h ook s w e re p robab ly made f r om i t . Mo reove r , a t t h e Nam ioka jo s i te ( 34 ) a nd o the r s i te s i n T ohoku w h ich Ia l so d i scussed i nC hap te r 4 ,d a t ing t ot h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tury , i r on b a r s o f s t ee l ( s o f t s t ee l ) w e re a l so f ound . T h is c an b e s een a s ar e f lec t ion o f ad i f f e ren t t r ade /exchange n e two rk w h ich a l so r ef lec t s ad i f f e r en ts oc ia l c on tex t . As oc ie ty w h ich c ou ld n o tg e ts t ee l e a s i ly w i th in i t s d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk a nd n eeded t op roduce i tb y r ef in ing s c rap m e ta l a nd as oc ie ty i nw h ich s t ee l c ou ld b e d i s t r ibu ted w i th in t h e n e two rk s o t ha t s t ee l i t se lf w a s o b ta inab le c on s t i tu te v e ry d i f f e r en ts oc ia lc on t ex t s .

F u rukawa d id n o tk now a bou t i r on t e chno log ica l p roce sse s , a nd h e d id n o t b e l ieve t h is s t o ry t h a t h e h ad h ea rd i n Ma t sumae . H oweve r , h e h ones t ly r e co rded t h e s t o ry a s i t w a s , e ven men t ion ing t h a t h e , a s ar ep resen ta t ive o f t h e J apane se a tt h a t t ime , d id n o t b e l ieve t h e s t o ry . I ft h e i r on p roduc t s made b y t he A inu h ad b een o f l ow q ua l i ty , a s t h e J apane se e xpec ted , t h en n o o ne w ou ld h ave t a lked a bou t t h e q ua l i ty o ft h ei r on ma te r ia l made b y t h e A inu . I ti sl o g ica l t o s uppo se t ha t t h e o n ly r ea son t h i s s t o ry b ecame r umou r a mong t h e p eop le i n Ma t sumae i st h a t t h e A inu g enu ine ly w e r e a b le t ot r ansfo rm p oo ri r on i n to h i ghe r -qua l i ty m a t er ia l . T o s omeone e qu ipped w i th ak now ledge o fm e ta l lu rgy , t h i s o bv iou s ly i mp l ies t h a t ar e f in ing p roce ss w a s b e ing u sed t o p roduce s t ee l , t h e reby t r ans fo rm ing l ow -qua l i ty i r on ma te r ia l i n to i r on o fh ighe rq ua l i ty .

5 -4 -2 An t echn ique

A h i s tor ica l d ocumen t i nd ica te s t h a t i r on p roduc t s w e re manu f ac tu red b yt h et a tara p roce s si n af i e ld , u s ing i r on s and a t U so r i b each i n t h e T suga ru a r ea o n t h e S h imok i ta p en in su la i n T ohoku , w h ich w a s c on t ro l led b y t h e A ndo f am i ly i n t he 1 4 th c en tury . I t i s s a id t ha t i r on b a r s , h a rpoons , a ncho rs , c ha ins , w i re s , a nd i r on p o t s w e re p roduced o n al a rge s ca le a nd w e re d i s t r ibu t ed b y t h ef l ee to f t h e A ndo f am i ly . T he A inu may h ave o b ta ined s uch i r on p o t s a s i r on p roduc ts a nd o b jec t s , b o th f o r u se a nd a s a s ou rce o f r aw i r on ma te r ia l b y t r ade a nd c on tac t w i th t h e J apane se . 5 -4 -1 A d if f eren t s oc ia l c on tex t T he p o in t s w h ich Ih ave d i scus sed a bove s how t h a tt h eA inu w an ted t o o b ta in s t ee l a nd t h a t t h ey h ad a k now ledge o f r ef in ing t e chn ique s s uff i c ien tt op roduce i t . A l though t h en a tu re o fs t ee l i sa dm i rab le , s ot h a tt h ed emand f o r i ti sv e ry h igh , i ti sn o t e a sy t op roduce s t ee l d i rec t ly . F o re xamp le , t h ep roduc t ion p roce s so ft a rnahagane ( t he b e s t J apane se s t ee l ) b y t h e t a tara s me l t ing me thod , p a r t icu la r ly t h e k eraosh i me thod ( one o f t h e t r ad i t iona l p roduc t ion me thod s f o r J apane se s t ee l ) w a s p er f ec ted o n ly i nt h e 1 8 th c en tury . S t ee l w a sp rev ious ly p roduced b yd i f f e ren tk ind so f d eca rbur i sa t ion me thod s , s uch a s t h e o nes w h ich Ih ave men t ioned a bove . A no the rs t ra tegy i st ou se o b jec t s made o f s o f t s t ee l h amme r ing t h em i n to s hape , a nd t h en a t tach a p i ece o fs en te tsu t ot h ep a r to ft h e o b jec t s w h ich i sr e qu i red t ob e o fs t ee l , s uch a st h e e dges o ft o o l s , b l ade s , a nd s wo rd s , e t c . T h is i sd one i n ah ea r th i no rde r t og e t t h e m e ta l i n to a h a lf -mo l ten s t a te a nd b y r epea ted ly h amme r ing i no rde r t o n o rma l ise i t ( i .e . t he i mpur i t ie s i n t he i r on b ecome d i s t r ibu ted u n ifo rm ly b y t h e f o rce o fh amme r ing ) . I ti sv e ry h a rd w o rk . T h is i mp l ies t ha t i n a rea s w he re s t ee l w a s n o t o b ta inab le , s t ee l c ou ld h ave b een p roduced f r om l ow -qua l i ty i r on p roduc t ss uch a sd u l l , b l un t , i r on ma te r ia la nd s c rap . I no the r w o rd s , t h eA inu c ou ld n o te a s i ly h ave o b ta ined s of ts t ee la sa f o rm o f i r on r aw ma te r ia l , s o t h e A inu r e l ied o n i r on p o t s made o fc hu te t su ( c a s ti r on ) .

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A sa na i dt ou nde r s tand ing t h eA inu a t t emp t st op roduce s t ee l i no rde r t or e so lve as i tua t ion i nw h ich s t ee l w a s d i ff icu l tt o o b ta in , i ti su se fu l t oe xp la in t h em e thod o f mak ing J apane se s wo rd su sed a tt h ep re sen tt ime .T he p rob lem w h ich J apane se c r a f t s wo rd sm i ths f a ce n owaday s i s al a ck o ft h eo ld t y pe o f s t ee l w h ich t h ey o b ta ined i n t h e p a s t f r om t h e t r ad i t iona l t a tara p roduc t ion . S uch s t ee l i sn o l o nge ro b ta inab le d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t t r ad i t iona l t a tara p roduc t ion h a s b een t o ta l ly r ep laced b y mode rn s t ee l -p roduc t ion m e thod s .2 T he re fo re , J apanese c ra f t s wo rd sm i ths h ave p rob lems i n f i nd ing t h e a pp rop r ia t es t ee lf o rt h eJ apanese s wo rd . I no t he rw o rd s , t h ey h ave d if i cu l t ies i no b ta in ing s t ee l . A f te r 1 876 , w hen t h e w ea r ing o f s wo rd s w a s p roh ib i ted b y t h e Me i j i Gove rnmen t , t h e J apane se s wo rd l o s t i t s f unc t ion a s aw eapon a nd b ecome o n ly a n o b jec t o f a r t is t ic a dm i ra t ion . T he re a r es t il s ome s wo rd sm i ths w o rk ing t o day , b u t t h ey make s wo rd s f o r c o l lec to r s a nd a s ah obby . T hey a t temp t t o make s wo rd sa ss hape ly a nd b eau t i fu l a sp o s s ib le , i nt r ad i t iona l s t y le s .T he s oc ie ty o ft h eJ apane se s wo rd sm it h s i nt h e p a s t w a s v e ry c l o sed . T hey w e re ag u i ld w ho g ua rded t h e i rs e c re t sc l o se ly . N owadays t h ey ounge rg ene ra t ion t r ea t s m ak ing s wo rd s a sa n a r t , h o ld ing c ompe t i t ions a nd t r a in ing t h emse lves a s J apane se s wo rdc ra f t a r t is t s — t h a t i s , a s J apane se c r a f ts wo rd sm i ths . T he eme rgenc e o f t h e J apane se s wo rd d a te s f r om a bou t t h e 1 2 th c en tury , a l though t h e re w a s , o f c ou r se , a n e a r l ie r p ro to type o f t h e J apane se s wo rd . J apanese s wo rd s w e re d i v ided i n to t wo t ype s : a n o ld t y pe a nd an ew t ype b a sed o n t h e p e r iod i nw h ich t h ey w e re made a nd o n t h e i ra ppea rance , w h ich p robab ly d er ive s f r om t h ed if e ren tp roduc t ion m e thod o ft h er aw ma te r ia l . T he o ld t ype w a s made d u r ing t h e K amaku ra p e r iod ( 1 192 1 333 ) f r om t h e 1 2 th t o t h e 1 4 th c en tury . Howeve r , t h e t e chn ique u sed t o make t h is o ld t y pe i se x t inc t , s o t h a t t h e p re sen t -day s wordsm i th c anno t r e con s t ruc t t h e p roce s s t o p roduc e t h em a st h ey w e r e .T hes ee a r ly s wo rd sa r ec on s ide red t h e f i ne s te ve r made , a nd i ti st h e d r eam o fs m i th sa tp re sen t t o ma tch t h em f o r e xce l lence . T h i s o ld t ype o f s wo rd i s

2A p seudo t rad i t iona l m e thod i sp rac t i sed a s c u l tura l h e r i tage r a the r t h an c omme rc ia l p roduc t ion .

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t he s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , Hokka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

c a l led at a ch ia nd w a sw o rn s uspended f r om t h eh i pw i th t i ed c o rd s .T he e dge o ft h es wo rd f a ce sd ownwa rd s .

i r on e i the rb yc a rbu r isa t ion ( s h in tan ) o rd eca rbu r i sa t ion ( z uku o rosh i o rd a t tan ) . I ti se qu iva len t t or ef in ing i nt h e f o rg ing p ro ce s s .

T he n ew t ype o f s wo rd wa s made d u r ing t h e Mu romach i p e r iod ( 1 392 -1573 ) , w hen z uku ( s ee G lo s sa ry ) w a sp roduced b y ad i f f e ren tp roces s u s ing t h et a tara i nt h e f i e ld si nt h el a t e 1 4 th c en tu ry a nd t h e e a r ly 1 5th c en tury . T h i s n ew t y pe o f s wo rd i sc a l led ad a to a nd w a s wo rn o n t h eh i p . O ne e dge o f t h e s wo rd f a ces u pwa rd s . Du r ing t h e Mu romach i p e r iod , J apane se s wo rd s w e re t h e mo s t i mpo r tan tg ood se xpo r ted t o C h ina , a lmo s t 1 , 130 ,000 b e ing s en tt h e re d u r ing t h ec en tu ry a f te r 1 450 . T ian g ong k a i w u ( 1637 ) , aC h ine se t e chn ica l b ook o ft h eM ing p er iod , s t a te s t ha tt h eJ apanese s wo rd w a s t h e mo s te xce l len t s wo rd a nd t ha ti t s p roduc t ion t e chn ique s w e r en o tk nown i nC h ina . Howeve r ,J apane se d ocumen t ss a y t h a tt h es wo rd se xpor ted w e re made o n ly f o rt h a tp u rpo se a nd w e r e ma s s -p roduced l ow -qua l i ty p roduc ts ( Ha ra 1 988 :100 ) .

T he z uku o rosh i me thod i nvo lves c a rry ing o u t d eca rbu r isa t ion o nz uku ( e qu iva len tt ot h ep roce ss o fr ef in ing p ig i r on i n to s t ee l ) i n o rde r t o o b ta in t h e mo s t s u i tab le o ro sh igane f o rt h eJ apane se s wo rd , w h ich r e qu i re ss ha rpne s s , b eau ty , a nd p e r f ec tc l ea rne s s . T he f i nes tJ apane se s wo rd s ,b y t h e n ame o f K un ih i ro o r K iyoma ro , e xh ib i t s ha rpne s s , b eau ty , a nd ap e r f ec t s heen , a sw e l l a sb e ing f unc t iona l . F o r t h i s r e a son , t h ed eca rbu r i sa t ion me thod i sh i gh ly d eve loped i n a s soc ia t ion w i th a w ide r ange o f t e chn ique s among J apane se s wo rd sm i th si no rde rt op roduce t h er e qu ired c o lou r a nd t e x tu re i nt e rms o f s h in ine ss , h a rdne ss o r s of tne s s , a nd f l ex ib i l i ty , a l though c a rbu r isa t ion w a s a l so c a r r ied o u t o n h ocho te tsu ( o rn ama te t su ) ( s ee G los sa ry ) . T he se p roc e s se s d ep end e n t i r e ly o nt h ej udgemen to ft h es wo rd sm i th a nd h ave af undamen ta le f f ec to n t h e f unc t ion a nd t h ea r t is t ic w o r th o f t h e s wo rd . T he s wo rd sm i th s l e a rn t h rough t h e a ccumu la t ion o f e xpe r ience , s o t h a t t e chn ique s a re k ep t s ec re t . Among t ho se t e chn ique s , t h e o rosh i p roce ss ( r ef in ing ) i s av e ry c r uc ia l a nd s e n s i t ive o ne i nt h e p roces s o fJ apanese s wo rd m ak ing .

T he J apanese s wo rd w a s made f r om J apanese s t ee l ( wahagane ) , a nd t h i s p rov ide s t h e d i s t inc t ive t e x tu re o ft h e s wo rd ; s m i ths d e sc r ibe s uch s t ee l a s h av ing ' c on t rac t i le p owe r ' a nd f l ex ib i l i ty s u i tab le f o rf o ld ing m any t ime sd u r ing t he f o rg ing p roce ss . B ecause i ti s a n a dhes ive i r on — a dhe s ivenes s b e ing ap roper ty o fJ apanese i r on — i ti se a sy t oo b ta in g ood c on tac tb e tween t h el a ye r sw hen t h es u r f ace i s f o lded d ur ing t he c ou r se o f f o rg ing . I ti s av e ry i mpo r tan t p o in tt h a tt h is t e x tu re c anno tb e o b ta ined u s ing f o r e ign s t e e l . T he re fo r e ,J apanese s t ee l( wahagane )w h ich w a sp roduced b y t he t r ad i t iona l me thod i sa b so lu te ly n eces sa ry i n o rde r t o r e ta in t h ed i s t inc t ive f e a tu res o ft h eJ apane se s wo rd .

T he j i gane ( r aw ma te r ia l ) , i ss t i l l i nt h e f o rm o f al ump a t t h es t a r to ft h ep roce s sa nd r e qu i re sw aka sh i( me l t ing s t ee lb y f i re ) i no rde r t op roduce s t ee l i n t h e r i gh t c ond i t ion t ob e f o rged i n to ar e c tangu la rp l a te o rb a rs hape . T he r e c tangu la rp l a te o rb a ro fs t ee l n eed s f u r the rf o rg ing i n o rde r t or emove i mpur i t ie s o r i n c lus ions t ot u rn i ti n to p u r e s t e e l . A tt h i s s t age , l a ye r so fs t ee l a r ep i led u po n t op o fe a ch o t he ra nd f o lded o ve ra ga in a nd a ga in .T h i sp roce s so ff o rg ing a nd f o ld ing i sr e pea ted f r om 1 4t o2 0t ime s ,d epend ing o nt h e q ua l i ty o f t h e s t ee l . A l though t h i s p roces s d epends o n t h e a b i l i t ie s a nd s k i l l o ft h e s m i th , t h e p rev ious p roce s s , n am e ly t h e p r epa ra t ion o ft h eo rosh igane , i st h e mo s ti mpo r tan ta nd i s av e ry d e l ica t ep roce s s .

T he p roces s f r om r aw ma te r ia l t o s wo rd c ons i s t s o f s even s t ep s( Ono 1 978 ) : 1 ,s h i tagi tae ( l owe r f o rg ing ) : t h is s t ep c ons is t s o f t h e s e lec t ion o fr aw ma te r ia l t h rough t of o rg ing a nd f o ld ing o f t h e f i r s ts t age o fs t ee l . 2 ,a gek i tae ( uppe rf o rg ing ) : f i ne f o rg ing i no rde rt og e tr i do f i mpu r i t ie s a nd i n c lus ion s w i th in t h es t ee l . 3 ,k um iawase ( comb ina t ion ) : t h e c omb in ing o f d i f f e ren t t ypes o fi r on i no rde rt o make t h eb lade f unc t iona la sw e l la s b eau t ifu l . 4 ,s e ike i ( swo rd f o rm ing ) : t h e p roces s o f mak ing t h e b a s ic b ody o ft h eb lade . 5 ,y ak iba tsuch i ( p repa ra t ion f o r q uench ing ) : mak ing t h e s pec ia l s o i l t o c ove r d i f fe ren t p a r t s o f t h e b lade d u r ing q uench ing .T h i s g ive s t h ev a r ious p a r t so ft h eb l ade d i f f e ren t q ua l i t ie sa nd i s av e ry s ec re tp a r to ft h ep roce s s . 6 ,y ak i ir e( quench ing ) :h ea tt r ea tmen t . 7 ,s h iage ( f in i sh ing ) : s ha rpen ing a nd s i gn ing .

T he p rob lem w h ich J apanese c raf t s wo rd sm i ths f a ce n owaday s i st h e l a ck o fj i gane ( r aw ma te r ia l ) w h ich t h ey o b ta ined i nt h ep a s t t h rough t r ad i t iona l t a tara p roduc t ion . I t i sn o l o nge r o b ta inab le , o w ing t o t h e f a c t t ha t t r ad i t iona l t a tara p roduc t ion i se x t inc t a s Ih ave men t ioned e a r l ie r . T he re fo re ,J apanese c r a f ts wo rd sm i ths h ave p rob lem s f i nd ing a pp rop r ia te r aw ma te r ia l f o r mak ing t h e J apane se s wo rd . I n o t he rw o rd s , t h ey h ave d i f f icu l t ie s i no b ta in ing t h eJ apane se s t e e l( wahagane ) .

Iw i l l c oncen t ra te o n s t eps 1 a nd 2 , w h ich r e la t e t o my d i scu ss ion o ft h er aw ma te r ia l f o rs wo rd -mak ing .T he r e s to f t h e s t eps r e la te mo re s pec if ica l ly t o t h e mak ing o f t h e J apanese s wo rd i t se lf , w h ich Id on o ti n tend t od i scu s sh e re . T he mo s t i mpor tan t t e chn ique f o r mak ing s word s b y t h is me thod i sd ependen t u pon o b ta in ing t h e b e s t t ype o fj i gane ( r aw ma te r ia l ) . J igane i n c ludes : 1 )t amahagane ( t he b e s t s t ee l ) , w h ich d oes n o tn eed t h eo rosh i p roce ss ( r ef in ing ) b u t c an b eu sed d i rec t ly f o r mak ing s wo rd sd ue t ot h e f a c tt h a ti t i sa l ready h igh -qua l i ty s t ee l , a nd 2 ) o rosh igane w h ich h a s a l ready b een t h rough t h e o rosh i p roce ss ( r ef in ing ) . T he o rosh ip roce s si so ne w h ich a d jus t s t h ec a rbon c on t en to ft h e

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A l though t h e q uan t i ty i sn ow v e ry l im i ted , s ome J apane se c r a f t s wo rd sm i ths c o l lec t u sed ma ter ia l w h ich w a s made o f z uku , s uch a so l di r on p o t s , a nd o ld o b jec t s made o fJ apane se s t ee l ( wahagane ) , s uch a s u sed n a i ls a nd o ld a g r icu l tu ra l t o o l s , a nd s o o n ; a ny th ing made o f z uku o r w ahagane ( J apane se s t ee l ) i nt h ep a s ti sc o l lec ted i no rde rt oo b ta in r aw m a t e r ia lt ob ed e ca rbu r i sed t o make J apanese s t ee l . S ome o f t h em t r y t o p roduce t h e i r own J apanese s t ee l ( wahagane ) f r om i r on s and w h ich t h ey b uy a nd s me l t i n s ma l l h ome -made f u rnace s , r e con s t ruc t ing t h em s o a s t ob e s im i la rt ot h et r ad i t iona lt a tara f u rnace , i no rde rt oo b ta in a nd d eca rbu r i se J apanese s t ee l ( wahagane ) b y t h emse lve s . T h i s

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce s s o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

a pp roa ch h a s t wo p urpose s : o ne i st os o lve t h e p rob lem o f t h el a ck o fJ apane se s t ee l( wahagan e )a tp r e sen t ,a nd t h eo t he r i st ot a ke u p t h e c ha l lenge o fr e con s t ruc t ing t h e p roce s s o f mak ing t h e o ld t ype o f J apanese s wo rd , c u r ren t i n t h e K amaku ra p e r iod , when t h e f i ne s t o f a l l J apane se s wo rds w e re made .T he me thod sa r en ow e x t inc t , h oweve r , a nd h ave n o t b een f u l ly r econs t ruc ted b y a ny moder nJ apane se c r a f t s wo rd sm i th s .

m ade . Ap i ece o fz uku i st a ken a nd m ixed w i th w hea tf l ou r g l ue , a nd a ny e x t ra w hea t f l our g lue i ss haken o f f . T h i s i s a l so m ixed w i th t h e i r on o x ide p owde r made b y t h e a bove p roces s i n o rde r t o make i ts t ick t oge the r . I ti sl e f t o u t n a tu ra l ly i nt h e s un t od ry . T he p rocess ing o ft h i s p i ece b y t h e z uku o rosh i me thod ( deca rbu r i sa t ion ) t a kes p lace , a nd t h us z uku o rosh igane i so b ta ined . F rom t h is d e sc r ip t ion , i ti sc l ea r t h a th amme r s ca le n eed n o t b e o n ly a b y -p roduc t b u t c an b e r ecyc led , mak ing i ta p o ten t ia lr e sou rce f o rs ome p u rpo ses .

A s Ie xp la ined e a r l ie ri nt h i s c hap t e r , t h eA inu a l so c o l lec ted u sed i r on p roduc t s ,n o rma l ly o ld n a i l sa nd i r on p o t s ,a cqu i red t h rough c u l tu ra l c on tac t s , i n o rde r t op roce s s t h em a nd t o make t h e i rt oo ls b yr ef in ing s uch s c rap i r on . I nt h i sr e spec t , J apanese c ra f t s wo rdsm i ths a t p resen t h ave a p rob lem s t r ik ing ly a na logous t ot h a tw h ich A inu s oc ie ty f a ced i nt h e p a s ti nt e rm so f al a ck o fr aw ma te r ia lf o rs t ee l .

H av ing u nde r s tood t h e a bove c ra f t s wo rdsm i th 's a wa rene s s t h a t h amme r s ca le i sn o t o n ly a w a s te b y -p roduc t b u t c an a l so p l ay a n i mpo r tan tr o le i nt h e i r on techno log ica lp roces s o fp roduc ing d eca rbu r ised ma te r ia l , t h e r e c tangu la r -shaped i r on ma te r ia l f r om t h e P ipau sh i s i te may b e i n te rp re ted a s r ef lec t ing a s im i la r a wa reness o n t he p a r t o f a n A inu c r a f t sper son t h a t h amme r s ca le c an b e u sed f o r s t ee l p r oduc t ion .

A n a wa renes s o fh ow J apane se c r a f ts wo rd sm i th s a tp r e sen t t r y t o s o lve t h is p rob lem h e lp s u s t o u nde r s tand t h e a r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om t h eP ipaush is i t ea nd t od i scu s s h ow t h e A inu m igh t h ave t r ied t os o lve t h e p rob lem o f a l a ck o f s t ee l . I n t h is w ay , i ti s p oss ib le t o o b ta in a n u nde r s tand ing o ft he l e ve lo ft h e i rt e chno logy a tt h a t t ime . I t i sa l so i mpo r tan t t o b ea r i n m ind t h a t t h e o r ig in s o f t h e t e chn ique o fJ apanese s wo rd -mak ing mu s th ave d e r ived f r om a nd r e la te t o t e chn iques u sed i n t h e p roduc t ion o f r aw ma te r ia l d eve loped b efo re t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry . T he r e a son f o r p o in t ing t h i so u ti st ha t A inu i r on t e chn ique sm ay h ave b een d er ived f r om t hose o f t h e S a i sumon c u l tu re , t h emse lves p robab ly ar e su l t o fc u l tu ra l c on tac t b e tween t h e S a t sumon a nd J apanese c u l tures i n T ohoku d u r ing t h e 8 th -10 th c en tu r ie s( s ee C hap te r s 3a nd 4 ) .

5 -5 T he e v idence f or t he p oss ib i l i ty o f s econdary r aw mater ia l T he e v idence w h ich w a s f ound a t t he P ipaush i s i te ( 2 ) r e qu i re sf u r the rd i scu s s ion . Me ta l lograph ic a na lys is o f i r on ma ter ia l i n ar e c tangu la r s hape ( s ee P ho to . 5 3 ) f r om t h e P ipaush i s i te , s how s t h a t i t c on s i s t so fh amme rs ca le a nd s ome k i nd o fg lue . I nf a c t , i ti s n o tj u s t h amme r s ca le ; t h e me ta l log raph ic a na lys i s r evea ls t h a t i ti ss ca le r educed t om ic ro -f ine p owde r i sh s ca le ( s ee P ho to 5 -4 ) .

A n e xamp le i s p rov ided b y aJ apanese s wo rdsm i th , T osh im i t su I ma izum i , b o rn i n 1 898 , w ho i s aL iv ing N a t iona l C u l tu ra l A sse t b ecause o f h i s s k i l l a s am ake r o f t r ad i t iona l J apanese s wo rd s ( Ono 1 978 ) . H e e xp la in s t h e i mpo r tance o fo b ta in ing z uku o rosh igane b yt h ez uku o rosh i m e thod ( deca rbur isa t ion ) . H e h a s d ev ised a me thod o f o b ta in ing z uku o rosh igane u nde r t h e c ur ren t d i f f icu l t c ond i t ion s .

T he m ic ro -s truc tu re c ons i s t s o fw us t i te i nt h em idd le n ex tt o az one o f magne t i te a nd h ema t i te o n t h e o u t s ide . T he r e su l t o ft h e c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e r e c tangu la r -shaped i r on m a ter ia l i ss hown i n T ab le 5 -6 . D IGH s peed q ua l i ta t ive a na lys is ( s ee G raph 5 1 a nd T ab le 5 -7 ) i nd ica te s t ha t i t c on s i s t s ma in ly o f i r on ( 60 .497% ) a nd c a rbon ( 24 .823% ) , t h e l a t te r p o ss ib ly i n te rp re tab le a s g lue o r s ome k ind o f o r gan ic ma t e r ia ls uch a ss t a rch , f a r inaceous ma te r ia lo rd ung . T he r e s t o f t h e c omponen ts a r e 1 0 .588% o xygen , 3 . 305% s i l ica , a nd 0 . 786% a l um in ium . I ti sf o rmed i n to a n i n go t s hape , s o i ti sp o ss ib le t o r ega rd i ta s h av ing b een made i n ten t iona l ly f o rs ome p u rpo se .

H is me thod i st oc o l lec th amme rs ca le ( i ron o x ide ) f r om t h e f l oor ; h amme r s ca le i s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e f o rg ing p roce s s w hen t h e s wo rd i sh amme red . H e r emove s t h e d us ta nd s o i l f r om t h ec o l lec t ed h amme rs ca le a nd g r ind s t h es e lec t ed f i ne s ca le u s ing a g r ind ing s t one . H e t h en p a s ses t h e g round m a t e r ia lt h rough as i eve .T hus ,p owde r ed s ca le ( i ron o x ide ) i s

T ab le 5 -6 T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o ft h er e c tangu la r shaped i r on m a te r ia l f r om P ipaush i ( s e eT ab le 4 -6 i nC hap te r4 ) . T .Fe P ipaush i

6 5 .90

F eO F e 2O 3 < 0 .01 '

S iO 2 4 . 83

6 5

A 1 20 1 . 48

C aO 0 . 400

T iO

MnP

0 .068

0 .04

P 0 .06

C%

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

T ab le 5 -7

T he c hem ica lc ompo s i t ion o ft h er e c tangu la r -shaped i r on ma te r ia l f r om t h eP ipaush i s i te .

RATI O NO. 1 2

ELE. FE Ka C Ka

XTAL L I F1 LSA4

4 4. 7000

PKI-BGI 986.3 5783.3

3 4 5

0 Ka S I Ka AL Ka

LSA5 PET2 RAP

2 3.6500 7 .1260 8 .3390

1 480. 0 8 1.3 80.5

W . L. 1 .9373

STD(I) 373.2

I -RATI O 2 .6426

5333.5 3 199.9 563.2 2343.6

1 . 0843 0 . 4625 0 .1444 0 . 0343

TOTAL

WT(%) 60.497 24. 823 1 0.588 3 .305 0 . 786

ELE. FE 0 S I AL

100. 000

RATI O NO.

ELE.

XTAL

W . L.

I-RATI O

WT ( %)

ELE.

1 2

FE C

Ka Ka

L I F1 LSA4

1 .9373 4 4. 7000

PKI-BGI 1 620.2 4 365. 0

STD(I I ) 373.2 5333.5

4 .3412 0 . 8184

66. 079 1 2.457

FE C

3 4 5

0 A U S I

Ka Ma Ka

LSA5 PET2 PET2

2 3.6500 5 . 8400 7 .1260

2 354.3 6 2.1 6 2. 7

3 199.9 1 38.5 5 63.2

0 . 7357 0 . 4486 0 .1113

1 1.199 6 . 829 1 .695

0 AU S I

6 7

AL CA

Ka Ka

RAP PET2

8 .3390 3 .3600

1 86.6 7 2.5

2343.6 2085. 7

0 . 0796 0 . 0347

1 .212 0 .529

AL CA

1 00. 000

TOTAL

w h ich i s v e ry u nusua l f o r af o rg ing h ea r th . T hus i ti s p o s s ib le t oc ons ide rt h a tt h is h ea r th w a sd e s igned f o r mak ing i r on p roduc t sr a the rt h an t h e ma te r ia lf o rd eca rbu r i sa t ion .

T he r e c tangu la r shaped i r on ma te r ia l f r om t h e P ipau sh i s i t e e xp la ined a bove c an , a s w e h ave s een , b e i n te rp re ted a s s e conda ry r aw m a ter ia l f o rf u r the rp roduc t ion o fs t ee l . I ft h i s i n t e rp re ta t ion i sc o r rec t , t h i s ma te r ia l w ou ld h ave u nde rgone f u r the rp roce s s ing . I ns uch ac a se , i tw ou ld h ave t ou nde rgo r educ t ion i no rde r t oo b ta in ah igh c oncen t ra t ion o fc a rbon a nd o xygen , u s ing s ome th ing l i ke c ha rcoa l , u nder t h e c ond i t ions o f r e la t ive ly l ow t empe ra ture i n o rder n o t t o a cce le ra te t h er e duc t ion p roce ss . S t ee l c an b ep roduced w i th t h is p roce ss b y c on t ro l l ing r educ t ion a dd i t ives a nd t h e t empe ra tu r e .

B a sed o n b o th t h e e v idence o ft h e h ea r th a nd t h er e c tangu la r s haped i n go t l ike i r on ma te r ia l , i tmay t h e r efo re b es ugges t ed t h a ta l ready i nt h e 1 7 th c en tury t h e p roduc t ion o fs e conda ry r aw ma te r ia l w a s b e ing u nde r taken b y A inu t h em se lve s , a l though Ih ave d i scus sed h ow t h e A inu i r on t e chno logy w a s b a sed o n t h ei r on w h ich t h eA inu o b ta ined f r om o u t s ide t h e i r c u l tu re .

T o d o t h i s , ah ea r th s t ruc tu re wou ld b e r equ i red w h ich s a t isf ie s t h e c ond i t ion t ha t i te xc lude s mos t o f t h e a i r . I n o the r wo rd s , ah ea r th c ove r ed b y c l ay o r s ome th ing s im i la r w ou ld b e n eeded i n o rder t o r oa s t t h is ma te r ia l w h i le c on t rol ing r e duc t ion a nd ma in ta in ing al ow t empe ra tu re .

T he p roduc t ion o f s econda ry r aw ma te r ia l b y t h e A inu t h em se lve sw a sp resumab ly ad espe ra te m ea su re t a ken u nde r t h e p re s su re o fn eces s i ty , d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t s t e e l b a r s a nd l ump so fi r on s uch a st ho se f ound a tt h e K a t suya r nada te s i te ( 5 )w ou ld h ave b een v e ry u n l ike ly t oh ave b e en d i s t r ibu ted t o t h e A inu .

T h is i n te rp re ta t ion w ou ld e xp la in t h e e x is tence a tP ipaush i o f t h e h ea r th n ea rby wh ich e xh ib i t s v e ry d i f f e ren t f e a ture s f r om t h eh ea r th a sa ho le in -a -hea r th f o rf o rg ing o rr ef in ing a t t h e P ipaush i s i te , wh ich I h ave men t ioned p rev ious ly ( Pho to . 5 -5 ) . T he No . 1h ea r th c ons is ts o f ap i t , 2 0cm x 1 5cm i n s i ze o fo va l s hape a nd w i th af l a t b o t tom 6 cm i n d ep th - a f te r e xcava t ion o f ay e l low ish mound , a nd r emov ing t h e y e l low ish c l ay u n t i l i td i sappea red a t t h e b o t tom . S eve ra l p i eces o fh amme rm ic ro -sca le 1 mm i ns i ze w e re f ound w i th in t h is c l ay i n t h e m idd le o f t h e mound . T he re w a s n o o t he r ma te r ia l m ixed i n w i th i t , e xcep t t h a t t h e re w e re s eve ra l o range b lock s o fb urn t s o i l o n t o p o ft h e mound a nd ap i ec eo fc a rbon i sed w ood u nde rnea th t h e mound . S eve ra lp ie ce so fh amme rm ic ro -sca le w e re f ound w i th in t h e c l ay w h ich h ad b een p acked i n to t h em idd le o ft h eh ea r th -

6 6

5 -6

C onc lus ion

T o c onc lude t h is c hap te r , t o ge the r w ith C hap te r 4 , Iw i l l s umma r i se t h e i r on t e chno logy o ft h e A inu i ns o f a ra si ti s p o s s ib le t or e con s truc ti t . A inu i r on t e chno logy i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry w a s b a sed o n t h e i r on ma te r ia l w h ich t h ey a cqu i red f r om o u t s ide b ye xchange a nd t r ade . H oweve r , t h e A inu p rac t ised i r on t e chno logy , i n c lud ing t h e f o rg ing a nd r ef in ing p roce sses ; mo reove r , t h e e v idence s ugges t s t ha t t h ey may h ave b een c apab le o f p roduc ing s t ee l b y r e cyc l ing s ca le , u s ing u n ique t e chn ique s o f t h e ir o wn d ev is ing . T hus i t may b e s a id t h a t t h e A inu

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roc e ss o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

T he re w e re t wo k ind s o f s m i ths a tt h a t t ime i nJ apan : o ne w a st h ek akeya ( wande r ing t i nke r ) w ho t r aveled f r om v i l lage t o v i l lage i n o rde r t o mend i r on p o t s ; t h e o the r w a s t he i monosh i ( wo rk shop f ounde r ) , w ho h ad h i s o wn s ma l l w o rk shop a nd w a i t ed f o rc u s tome r s t oc ome t oh im ( Kubo ta 1 980b ) . T he refo re , s ma l l -sca le s m i th ing t e chn iques w ere r e qu i red n o t s imp ly i nr e la t ion t os upp ly a nd d emand , b u ti n c onnec t ion w i th ma in tenance a nd r epa i r , mend ing , a nd r ep roduc t ion o fa l l s o r t s o fw o rk r e la ted t oi r on .

t e chno logy i nvo lved n o t o n ly p roce s s ing b u ta l so p roduc ing t h e i ro wn i r on . T he p u rpo se o fd eve lop ing t h e se t e chn ique sw a s t op roduce s t ee l , f r om w h ich t h ey p roduced t h e i r mak ir i k n ive s , u s ing t h ed e ca rbu r is ing m e thod o fr e f in ing p roce s s . I nt h i sw ay , t h e A inu c ou ld h ave t r ansfo rmed l ow -qua l i ty i r on i n to h i ghe r q ua l i ty i r on . B efo r e t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion w a sf o rced u pon t h e A inu b y t h e Ma t sumae i n 1 669 , A inu s oc ie ty mu s th ave r e ached al e ve l a tw h ich t h ey w e re r e l ian tu pon t h e u se o fi r on p roduc t s a nd w e r e e ngaged i nt h e p roduc t ion o fi r on o b jec t sb a sed o n t h e i r on t e chn iques w h ich t h ey p o sse ssed . T hus , t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion mus th ave a f f ec ted s t rong ly t h ee ve ryday l i f eo f t h e A inu a t t ha t t ime ; a f ter t he p roh ib i t ion p o l icy , i r on t e chno logy mus th ave f a l len i n to ad ec l ine i nA inu s oc ie ty a s i tb ecame h a rde rt oo b ta in t h ei r on m a t e r ia l sr e qu i red .

O ne c an w onde r w hy A inu i r on t e chno logy a ppa ren t ly d i sappea red f r om t h e J apane se h i s to r ica l r eco rd , a s i n Mam iya 's s t a temen t ( 1808 ) w h ich w a s o n ly 2 0 y ea r s a f te r F urukawa 's a ccoun t ( 1788 ) . F ur ukawa , h oweve r , a l ready f ound i th a rd t oc r ed i t t h e s t ory o f A inu i r on -wo rk ing s k i l l w h ich h e h ad h ea rd i n Ma t sumae . T h i s may i mp ly t h a t t h e A inu p rac t ised i r on techno logy o u t o fs i gh t o ft h e J apanese b ecause o f t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion . I n o the r w o rd s , t h e A inu may h ave p rac t i sed i r on -wo rk ing s e c re t ly . At o ng f ound a t t h e S e tana icha sh i s i te ( 4 ) ( K i ta t a iyama -cho 1 980 ) i na n A inu c on tex t d a ted t oa round 1 724 , a l though u na ccompan ied b y a ny o t he re v idence o fi r on p roc e s s ing a tt h e s i te ,a nd i ns p i te o fa n a bundance o fi r on p roduc t s , s ugge s t s t h a t A inu s m i th s mus ts t i l lh ave e x i s ted .

Ar epo r t w r i t ten i n t h e e a r ly 1 9 th c en tu ry ( Mam iya 1 808 ) s t a ted : i n t ho se d ays o n ly t h e S akha l in A inu p rac t i se s m i th ing b u t t h e Hokka ido A inu d on o t . T he re wa s a n o ld man n ea r S oya i nH okka ido w ho wa s t h e o n ly o ne w ho k new h ow t op rac t ise s m i th ing . Ar ea son f o r t h i s may b e t h a t i nt h e p a s t , w hen i r on p roduc t s w e re n o t w ide ly a va i lab le i n E zo [ Hokka ido ] , t h ey p ra c t i sed s m i th ing i no rde rt os upp ly i r on p roduc t s f o r t h e i r own n eeds ; b u t n owaday s i r on p roduc t s a r ee a s i ly i mpo r ted f r om t h e ma in land s o t h ey h ave c ea sed s m i th ing ( Mam iya 1 808 ) .

T he re a r e a l so s ome i nd ica t ion s o f t h e e x i s tence o f A inu s m i th s i n h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s o f t h e l a te r 1 9 th c en tu ry , w h ich i n c lude s uch c ommen t sa s" t he b lade w a s made b y t h e A inu t h emse lve s ; i ti ss ha rp e nough f o r s hav ing h a i ra nd i s s im i la r t o J apanese b lades" ( Ma t sumae 1 863 ) ; a nd " In F u rebe t su v i l lage , t h e c h ief o ft h e A inu i sc a l led S e i j i . H e i s w e l l i n fo rmed a bou t f o rg ing a nd a l l t h e k n ive s w h ich c u t s a lmon a r e m ade b y h im" ( Ama r i 1 877 ) ; o r" A d agge r made b y D a i saku w ho i sa n A t suke sh i A inu" ( Sa to 1 975 ) . T hus i t may b e s a id t h a t A inu i r on t e chno logy s u rv ived i n s ome m ea su re i n to t h e 2 0 th c en tury . T h i s w a s c l ea r ly t h e c a se i n S akha l in , a s P i lsudsk i t ook a p ho tograph o f t h e S akha l in A inu b l ack sm i th ( Pho to . 5 -6 ) , b e tween 1 896 a nd 1 905 , w hen h e w a ss t ay ing .

I n t h e l i gh t o f t h is s t a t emen t , I s h izuk i p o in t s o u t t h a t " t h is t e l l su st h a ti np lace st h a tw e re n ea re rt ot h e ma in land , w h ich w a s as ou rc e o fi r on p roduc t s , i tw a se a sy f o r t h ep ra c t i se o f s m i th ing t ob ef o rgo t ten" ( I sh izuk i 1 983 ) . Iq ue s t ion t h e l og ic o ft h i s s t a temen t ,h oweve r . I ti sd i ff icu l t t oi mag ine t h a ti fs m i th ing t e chn ique sw e r ea l ready k nown a s ame thod o fp roduc ing i r on ma te r ia ls i nt h e A inu c u l tu re , i t wou ld n o t b e e a sy t o f o rge t h ow t o f o rge e ven i fi r on p roduc t s w e re f l ood ing i n f r om o u t s ide . F o r e xamp le , i n J apan d u r ing t h eE do p e r iod ( t he 1 7 th -19 th c en tu r ie s ) ,a nd i n E do i t s e lf ( Tokyo b efo re 1 868 ) w he r e i r on p roduc t s w e re e spec ia l ly a bundan t , t h e s m i th e x is ted a s ac r a f t spe r son .

A na r cha eo log ica la nd a r cha eome talu rg ica la pp roach c an n o t b e i gnored i n d eve lop ing a n u nder s tand ing o f t he t e chno log ica la spec t s , i ndeed m e r i t sv ery s e r ious a t ten t ion . I n t h e p re sen t s t udy , i n w h ich my d i scus s ion i sb a sed o n t h e r e su l t s o f s uch a na lys is , Ih ave t r ied make f u l l u se o f i t s p o ten t ia l .

6 7

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t he s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

G raph 5 1

T he r e su l to ft h eD IGH s peed q ua l i ta t ive a na ly s is c a r r ied o u ts pec ia l ly f o rt h is b ook b yK . I t o .

F I F E

P ho tog raph 5 1

r

1 6 .0DO

2 1.

6 .

F o rg ing a mong t h ep re sen t -day E venk ii nn o r thern C h ina ( Rep roduced w i th t h ek ind p e rm i s s ion o fP ro f e s so rK .O t su l ca ) .

5 :I ron t echno logy a nd t he s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o f t h e S a ru A inu , Hokka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tury

P ho tog raph 5 -2

B o t tom s l ag f r om t h eI r ue l ca sh i s i te ( 1 ) .

P ho tog raph 5 -3

I r on ma ter ia l i n ar e c tangu la rs hape f r om t h eP ipaush is i t e .

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t he s t ee l p roduc t ion p rocess o ft h e S a ru A inu , Hokka ido i n t h e 1 7th c en tu ry

P ho tograph 5 -4

M ic ro -s truc tu re o fi r on ma ter ia li n ar e c tangu la rs hape f r om t h eP ipau sh i s i te .

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roc e s s o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

P ho tog raph 5 5 ( a ) I n i t ia le xpo su r e o fN o . 1h ea r th a tt h e P ipau sh i s i te .

P ho tog raph 5 5 ( b ) P lan o f No . 1h ea r th a tt h eP ipau sh is i te w i th o ne q ua r te re xcava ted .

5 :I r on t e chno logy a nd t h e s t ee l p roduc t ion p roce s s o f t h e S a ru A inu , H okka ido i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry

P ho tog raph 5 -5 ( c ) S ec t ion o f No . 1h ea r th a tt h eP ipau sh is i te . T he ma rke r s i n d ica t e t h ep o s i t ion o fm ic ro -sca les .

P ho tog raph 5 -6

AS akha l in A inu b lack sm i th a tt h e b eg inn ing o f2 0 th c en tu ry . ( Rep roduced f r om t h ec ole c t ion o ft h e Mu seum o fA rchaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fC ambr idge .T he r eg i s t ra t ion n umbe ri sP .6092 .ACH 1 . )

72

Chap ter T he

e xam ina t ion i n o rder t o

6

o f words f or ma ter ia ls a nd o ther t h ings u nders tand t he A inu c u ltura l c ontex t

6 -1 I ntroduc t ion

s ylaba ry . S ome r e co rd sw e re w r i t ten b yo u t s ide r s , i n c lud ing t h e J apane se , a nd s ome w e re w r i t ten d own b y t h e A inu t h em se lve s .

I n C hap ter s 4 a nd 5 I h ave e xam ined i r on -wo rk ing t e chno logy i nA inu s oc ie ty f r om t h em a te r ia l p o in to fv i ew . I n t h i s c hap te r a nd t h e s ucceed ing C hap te r 7my a pp roach s h if t s t o i den t ify ing t h e mean ings o f wo rd s i n t h e A inu l a nguage f o r ma ter ia l sa nd t h ing sa nd i n ve s t iga t ing t h em , i n t h e c on tex t o f t h e A inu o ra l t r ad i t ion , f o r ma te r ia l c u l tu re w i th in t h e A inu s oc ia l c on tex t . Ip ropo se t oa pp roach t h e s ub jec tb y a t temp t ing t og a in a n i n s igh ti n to t h e A inu v i ew o ft h e i r own i n te rna lc u l tu re .

T he A inu l a nguage i sn o l o nge r s poken b y t h e A inu i n e veryday l i fe . A l though t h e Me i j i g overnmen t d id n o t p roh ib i t t h e u se o f t h e A inu l a nguage , i td ec l ined w i th in A inu s oc ie ty d u r ing t h e Me i j ip e r iod ( 1868 -19 12 ) . I ti sd i f f icu l t t o g ene ra l ise a bou t h ow t h e A inu l a nguage d ecl ined w i th in A inu s oc ie ty . H oweve r , i tc an b e s a id t h a t t h e g ene ra t iona ld i f f e rence s c l ea r ly r e f lec tt h ea t t i tude t ot h e A inu l a nguage . T he g ener a t ion b o rn a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e Me i j i p e r iod , a round 1 868 , h ad t h e A inu l a nguage a s t h e i r mo the r t ongue . A l though t h ey may h ave u nde r s tood s imp le J apane se c onve r sa t ion , t h ey c ou ld n o t s peak —o r d id n o t w an t t o s peak — J apanese . I ti si n te res t ing t o n o te t ha t , p r io r t o Me i j i , s peak ing J apane se w a s p roh ib i ted u nde r t h e Ma t sumae . T he i n c rea s ing n umbe r o f J apanese -speake r s a mong t h e A inu w en ta ga ins tt h e monopo l i s t ic p o l icy o ft h e Ma t sumae ( Sa to 1 786 ) . Among t h e g ene ra t ion b o rn a round 1 880 , b i l ingua l s peake r s a ppea red , d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h ey w o rked among t h e J apanese . B y t h e t ime o ft h e g ene ra t ion b o rn a r ound 1 900 , t h e i r mo the rt o ngue h ad b ecame J apane se , d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h eJ apanese e duca t iona l s y s t em b ecame c ommon among t h e A inu p eop le , u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o ft h e J apane se g ove rnmen t . I no the rw o rd s , A inu c h i ld ren w en tt o as choo l w he re t h eJ apane se l a nguage w a st a ugh t . H oweve r , t h ey u nde r s tood t h e A inu l a nguage w i thou t a ny d i f f icu l ty . A s r ega rd s t h e g ene ra t ion b orn a round 1 910 , t h e i r mo the r t ongue wa s J apanese , t h e i r e ve ryday c onve r sa t ion w a s c onduc ted i nJ apanese , a nd t h ey c ou ld n o t s peak t h e A inu l a nguage s i nce t h ey h ad n o t b een t r a ined t ou se i t ,a l though t h ey c ou ld u nde r s tand i tw hen t h ey h ea rd i t( f o r mo re d e ta i l , s e eF uka sawa 1 993 ) .

T he A inu l a nguage a nd t h e i r o ra l t r ad i t ion i s ar i ch f i e ld a s a ni n fo rma t ion s ou rce f o ru nde r s tand ing t h e i r ma t e r ia lc u l tu r e a nd s hou ld n o tb ei gno red .I ti s au se fu la i dt ou nde r s tand ing t h e c on tex t o fa rchaeo log ica l ma te r ia l . A n a pp roach w h ich c omb ines i nves t iga t ions f r om b o th ma te r ia l c u l tu ra l a nd l i ngu i s t ic p o in t s o f v i ew may b e u se fu l f o r b o th f i e ld s o f s t udy . T h is k ind o fa pp roach h a s n o t b een a dop ted b y a ny A inu l i ngu i s t ic s cho la r s , a s t h ey a r e u sua l ly k een t o c oncen t ra te o n t he l a nguage s t ruc tu re a nd i t s l i ngu is t ic

T o r e cogn ise t h ings i n as oc ie ty , i n t h e s ame w ay t h a t a p e r son h a s an ame i n as oc ie ty s o t h a t p eop le c an i d en t ify w ho y ou a re , s o t h ings h ave n ame s t oa i d u s i ne xp re s s ing wha t t h ey a re . T he re i sn o s oc ie ty i nw h ich ma te r ia l s a nd t h ing s e x i s tw i thou t an ame b y w h ich t h ey a r ec a l led w i th in t h a ts oc ie ty . An ame m ay s imp ly g i ve at h ing al a be l , o r i t may e xp ress i t s a t tr ibu tes , s uch a s i t s f unc t ion o r i t s mo rpho log ica l f ea tu re s . Wha t t h e se t h ing s a nd ma te r ia l s a r e c a l l ed i n as oc ie ty i sv e ry i mpor tan t . F o re xamp le , t h e re i s n oE ngl ish wo rd f o r ' c icada ' b ecau se c i cada sa r en o tf ound i n E ng land . T he wo rd ' c icada ' o r ig ina ted i nt h e Med i te r ranean a r ea w he re c i cada s l i ve , a nd i tw a s t h en i n t roduced t oa nd e s tab l i shed i t se lf w i th in t h e E ng l i sh speak ing wo r ld . A s a mate r o fc ou r se , t he re i sn o n ame t or e f e r t ot h ing s w h ich d o n o t e x i s t i n as oc ie ty . When at h ing e n te r s as oc ie ty , i t f r equen t ly b ea r s t he n ame b y w h ich i tw a s k nown i n t h e o r ig ina l s oc ie ty , a nd t h is t hen e s tab l i shes i t se lf i n t h e r e c ip ien t s oc ie ty . T hu s , i ti sv e ry s i gn if ican t f o rt h e s t udy o f ma t e r ia l c u l tu re i n as oc ie ty t o e xam ine t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ings w h ich e x i s t ed i nt h a ts oc ie ty a nd t h en ame s b y w h ich t h ey a re c a l led , i no rde rt ou nde r s tand t h e i rs oc ia l c on tex t i n t ha t s oc ie ty . As t udy w h ich c on s ide r s ma te r ia l c u l tu re f r om t he p o in t o fv iew o f t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h ings a nd t h e i r n ames h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i n J apan b y M inao H aya sh i , w ho d i r ec ted t h e p ro jec t s w h ich e xam ined t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re o ft h e H an d yna s ty , C h ina . H i s m e thod h a sb een e s tabl i shed i nt h eb ook e n t i t led K anda in ob unbu t su ( Th ing s a nd Wo rd s i nt h e H an p e r iod ) ( M . H aya sh i 1 976 ) . T hu s t h is k ind o fa pp roa ch c an b e u se fu l f o r u nde r s tand ing t h em a t er ia lc u l tu re .

6 -2 -1 A b r ief h istory o f A inu l i ngu is t ic s tud ies ( 1 ) A inu l a nguage s t ud ie s f r om t h e 1 8 th t ot h e m id -19 th c en tu ry ( t he E do p e r iod ) E xp lo re r sa nd t r ave l le r sc olec ted s ome e xamp le so ft h eA inu l a nguage a nd r e co rded t h em i nt h e i rd i a r ie sa nd r epo r t s .T he se a r e , o fc ou rs e , n o ts ys tema t ic , e spec ia l ly i nt e rm so fw r i t ing t h e l a nguage i n t h e k ana l e t te r s o f t h e J apanese p hone t ic s y l laba ry . Among t h ese d ocumen t s , t h e mo s tr ema rkab le i s c a l led Mosh ihogusa : i tw a s made p hone t ica l ly a ccu ra te b y i nven t ing n ew p hone t ic s i gns a nd w a s w r i t ten b y Kuma j i ro U eha ra i n 1 792 . Documen t s w h ich w e re w r i t ten a f te r Mo sh ihogusa r e co rded amo re e x tens ive v ocabu la ry . I ta l so m en t ion sr e g iona ld i f f e r enc es w i th in E zo [ Hokka ido ] .

6 -2 T he A inu l anguage

A ne p ic t y pe o fo ra l t r ad i t ion w a s a l so men t ioned i na no the r t r ave l d a iry c a l led E zo J orur i ,j orur i b e ing a t e rm f o r n a r ra t ive s t o r ie si nE do -pe r iod J apan .

T he A inu d id n o t h ave w r i t ten l a nguage , t hus t h e A inu l a nguage h e re r e f e r red t oi so n ly t h e s poken l a nguage a nd r e co rd s o fi tw r i t ten i nr oman ised l e t t e r s o rJ apane se k ana

T he re a r e s ome a r t ic les o n t h e A inu l a nguage w r i t ten i n E u ropean l a nguages , e spec ia l ly G e rman a nd F rench , b y p eop le w ho t r ave l led t h rough o u t t h e R uss ian c on t inen ta nd

7 3

6 : T he e xam ina t ion o f w ords f o r ma te r ia l s a nd t h ing s i no rde r t ou nde r s tand t h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t

i mpo r tan t b ook c a l led K amu i Y ukara i nr o inan ised A inu , w i th aJ apane se t r an s la t ion ( Ch ir i 1 922 , 1 978 ) . S he a l so l e f t s e ve ra ln o te sa bou tA inu s t o r ie s .

w en t t o S akha l in I s land ( c f . L e P e rouse 1 797 ) . T he se d ocumen t sd e sc r ibe t h e S akha l in A inu , w ho , Ia s sume , w e re a l ready b yt h a tt ime v e ry d i f f e ren tf r om t h e H okka ido A inu , s how ing r eg iona lv a r ia t ions i nt h e i rc u l tu re a nd l a nguage .

C h i r i Ma sh iho ( 1902 -1961 ) w a s as t uden t o fK inda ich i . H e w a s a n A inu h imse lf , b u t h i s f i r s t l a nguage w a s J apane se a nd h e l e a rned t h e A inu l a nguage a s af o re ign l a nguage . H oweve r , h i s i n s igh t s i n to t h e A inu c u l tu re w e re p rofound . Mo s t o ft h e mo re r e cen t w o rk i nt h is f i e ld d epends h eav i ly o n t h e w o rk s o f K inda ich i a nd C h i r i . C h i n's c on t r ibu t ion i n c lude sn o to n ly g ramma t ica l wo rk b u ta l so as t udy o fA inu l e x icog raphy a nd a ne t ymo log ica ls t udy o fA inu p lace n ame s ( Ch i r i 1 973 ) . K inda ich i t a ugh t t h e A inu l a nguage a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f T okyo f o r 4 0 y ea r s a nd C h i r i w a s h i s f i r s t s t uden t .

( 2 ) A inu l a nguage s t ud ies f r om t h e m id -19t h t ot h e e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry J ohn B a tche lo r ( 1845 -1944 ) , a n E ng l ish m iss iona ry w ho l i ved i n Hokka ido , c o l lec ted A inu v ocabu la r ie s a nd o ra l t r ad i t ions . H e a l so e s tab l i shed t he f r amewo rk o f A inu g ramma r , b a sed o n t he p r inc ip les o f E ng l i sh g ramma r ( Ba tche lo r 1 889 ) . A lt hough t h i s w a s l a te rc r i t ic i sed b y C h i r i ( Ch i r i 1 942 , 1 974 ) f o r i t s f a i lu re t o t ake a ccoun t o f A inu p h i lo sophy a nd c o smo logy , i tw a s t he f i r s t A inu D ic t iona ry a nd G ramma r , p ub l ished i n 1 887 a nd 1 889 ( 1890 t r ansac t ions o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o f J apan ) . B a tche lo r t hough t t h a tt h e A inu l anguage w a s t h eo r ig ina l l a nguage o f t h e J apanese , a nd a l so t h a tt h e A inu w e re t h e n a t ive p eop le o fJ apan .

K ubode ra w a s a l so as t uden t o f K inda ich i ; h i s c on tr ibu t ion t ot h i s f i e ld i st h e c o l lec t ion a nd t r ans la t ion o f t he K amu i Y uka ra o ft h eS a r ua r ea ( Kubode ra 1 977 ) . I nt h i s p e r iod , t h e A inu l a nguage , o r ig ina l ly o n ly a s poken l a nguage , w a s g iven a w r i t ten f o rm u s ing t he r oman a l phabe t , a l though i th a s t o s ome e x ten t s t i l l n o t b een s y s tema t ica l ly w o rked o u t . T he re a r e n ow t wo w ay s o f w r i t ing t h e A inu l a nguage : o ne , f o l low ing Y u l c ie C h i r i a nd Ma t su K anna r i , u ses r oman a l phabe t s , w h i le t h e o the r l i ke t h e J apanese l a nguage , e mp loys t h e J apanese s y l laba ry h i r agana

H oweve r , t h en o t ion o f ar e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e J apanese w a s ah ypo thes is r e jec ted b y B a s i l H a l l C hambe r la in ( 1850 -1935 ) , w ho w a s aJ apanese l i ngu i s ta nd made c ompa ra t ive s t ud ies o f J apanese a nd o t he r O r ien ta l l a nguages . H e c onc luded t ha t t h e A inu l a nguage mus t b e c ons ide red a n i s o la ted l a nguage , a s i ti sr e la ted t on e i the r J apane se n o r a ny o f t h e A l ta ic l a nguages ( Chambe r la in 1 887 ) .

( 4 )A inu l a nguage s t ud ie sa f t e rt h e 1 960 s P i lsudsk i ( 1866 -1918 ) , aP o l ish a n th ropo log is t , w en t t o S iber ia a s ap o l i t ica l p r isone r . H e ma r r ied aS akha l in A inu w oman a nd h ad t wo c h i ld ren . H e made s ound reco rd ings o f t h e A inu o ra l t r ad i t ion n o t o n ly amongs t t h e A inu o f S akha l in , b u t a l so t h e Hokka ido A inu o f t h e S a ru a r ea , u s ing w ax c yl inde r s . H i s wo rk sw e re d i scove red i nP o land i n t he 1 980s , a nd a re c u r ren t ly b e ing s t ud ied b y l i ngu i s t s ( Kokur i t su M inzokugaku H akubu t sukan 1 987 ) .

T h i sp e r iod i sc ha rac te r i sed b y t h ed eve lopmen to fs t ud ie so f r e g iona l d i f f e rence s i n t h e A inu l a nguage . A inu l i ngu i s t ic s t ud ie s w e r e i n i t ia l ly b a sed ma in ly o n r e sea rch i nt h e S a ru a nd H o robe t su a r ea s , s i nce i tw a s i n t h ese a rea s t h a t t h e s em ina l s t ud ie s b y K inda ich i , C h i r i , a nd K ubode ra w e re c a rr ied o u t .

( 3 ) A inu l a nguage s t ud ies a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 2 0 th c en tu ry

A f te r t h e p ub l ica t ion o f w o rk b y S h i ro H a t tor i ( Ha t to r i 1 964 ) , l i ngu i s t sb ecame mo re a wa re o fr eg iona l d i f fe rence s . H a t to r i 's r e sea rch o n A inu d i a lec t s i s ap ioneer ing s t udy . H e p rov ided t h eb a s ic l e x icog raph ic ma te r ia ls .

S tudy o f t h e A inu o ra l t r ad i t ion w a s s t a r ted i ne a rne s t b y K yo suke K inda ich i a tt h e e nd o ft h e 1 9 th c en tury . Mee t ing c ompe ten tA inu s peake r s w a s i mpo r tan tf o rt h ec o l lec t ion o f o ra l t r ad i t ion a t t ha t t ime , s i nce t hey w e re d ec rea s ing i n n umbe r sa st h ey g r ew o lde r . Mo s to fK inda ich i 's w o rk r e l ied u pon e ncoun te r s w i th g rea t A inu s peake r s a nd i n fo rman t s s uch a s Y uk ie C h i l i ( 1902 -1922 ) , Ma t su K anna r i ( 1875 1 961) , Waka rupa ( 1863 -1913 ) , a nd s o o n , a nd h e i st h e f o remos t o f t h e A inu l i ngu is t s who h a s c o l lec ted a nd a na lysed d a ta . He c oncen t ra ted o n t he c o l lec t ion , t r an sc r ip t ion a nd t r ans la t ion o fY uka ra a nd o n w r i t ing a bou t t h e i r g ramma r . H is f i r s t p ub l i shed b ook w a s A inu S e i ten ( K inda ich i 1 923 ) , as t udy o f Y uka ra . H is ma jo r w o rk w a s Y ukarashu ( pub l i shed b e tween 1 959 a nd 1 964 ) , ac o l lec t ion o fY uka ra c omp i led i nc o l labo ra t ion w i th a n A inu s peake r a nd a ccomp l i shed Yuka ra r e c i te r , Ma t su K anna r i , a l ong w i th h i s g ranuna r o f A inu , i n c luded i n h i s v o lume i n 1 960 . K inda ich i 's w o rk c an b e s a id t ob e t h e mos tc omp rehens ive a nd a cces s ib le ma te r ia l o n t h e H okka ido A inu . Y u l c ie C h i r i w a s as i s te ro f Mash iho C h i r i a nd n iece o f Ma t su K anna r i . A l though s he d ied a t t he e a r ly a ge o f 1 9 , s he w ro te a n

S uzuko T amu ra 's w o rk w a sc a r r ied o u te spec ia l ly i nt h eS am a r ea ( Tamu ra 1 960 , 1 961 , 1 964 ) . I tc ove r s as ub s tan t ia l p o r t ion o f t h e g ramma r o f t h is d ia lec t , w h ich i s a ma in d ia lec t o f t h e H idaka r eg ion a nd a d i rec t d escendan t o f C la s s ica l A inu a sr ep re sen ted b y t h e v e r s ion o f t he y u l ca ra " I tado r ima r u" ( "Ku tune S h i rka" ) d esc r ibed b y K inda ich i ( K inda ich i 1 96 1 ) . K yoko Mu ra sa l c i 's c on t r ibu t ion t o t h is f i e ld i s t h e A inu l a nguage o f S akha l in . H e r w ork w a s d one w i th t h e c o o p e ra t ion o fa n A inu w oman , H am F u j iyama , o ne o ft h el a s t f l uen ts peak e r so fS akha l in A inu . S he h a sr e co rded d a ta f o ra g r amma ro fS akha l in A inu , t h e R aych ish i ca d i a lec t , a nd h a s p rov ided a s i zeab le b ody o f d a ta i n t h e f orm o f t a pe r e co rd ing s a nd t e x t s ( Mu ra sak i 1 978 ) . T o rn A sa i 's w o rk o n t h e I s h ika r i a r ea ( Asa i 1 970 ) , u nde r taken w i th t h e c o o pe ra t ion o f a n A inu w oman , Ku ra S unazawa , w a s a l so c a r r ied o u ti nt h is p e r iod .

7 4

6 :T he e xam ina t ion o fw o rds f o r ma te r ia l s a nd t h ing s i no rde r t ou nde r s tand t h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t

A l though d a ta c once rn ing d ia lec t s i n c rea sed , t h e w o rk h a s f r equen t ly b een t h er e su l to f ac l o se r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e r e sea rcher a nd t he i n fo rman ts w ho p rov ided t h e d i a lec t i n fo rma t ion . A s ar e su l t , i ti sn o t a lways c l ea r w he the r t h e d i a lec t s poken w a s i n d iv idua l o r s o c ia l . I n aw ay , t h i s k i nd o f d ia lec t ica l s t udy i s n o t t h e s ame a s t hose n orma l ly a s soc ia ted w i th l i ngu is t ic s t ud ies . H oweve r , i ti sn ow v e ry d i ff icu l tt ot r ace b ack A inu d ia lec t sw i th in as oc ia lc on t ex t .

6 -3 T he A inu w ords f or me ta ls A inu w o rd sw e re c o l lec t ed b yJ apane se t r ave l le r s , i n sp ec to r s , a nd i n te rp re te r s w ho b e longed t ot h e S hoguna l g ove rnmen t i n t h e 1 8 -19 th c en tur ies . T he A inu w ord s w h ich w e re c o l lec ted make i tp os s ib le t o u nde r s tand wha t k ind o f v ocabu la ry e x is ted i n A inu s oc ie ty a t t ha t t ime . T h is i s u se fu l i n s o f a r a s i th e lp s u s t o u nde r s tand t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o f A inu s oc ie ty . I ta l so r evea l s t h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h o se w o rd s w e re c o l lec ted b y t h e J apane se a nd t h us s hed s l i gh t u pon t h e d eg ree o f J apane se k now ledge o f A inu s oc ie ty . I t i s p os s ib le t o p e rce ive a r e la t ionsh ip o f c o r re spondence b e tween J apane se t e rm s f o r t h ing s a tt h a t t i me a nd t h e A inu w o rd s f o r t h em . S ince my p u rpo se i st o i n ves t iga te t h e mean ings o f me ta lwo rk w i th in t h e A inu c u l tu ra lc on t ex t , Is ha l l e xam ine t h e w o rd s f o r me ta li nA inu s o c ie ty .

( 5 ) A inu l a nguage s t ud ie sa f te rt h e 1 980 s R ecen tA inu l a nguage s t ud ie s i nd i f f e ren ta r ea s i n d ica te t h a t t h e f r amewo rk o f y uka ra s t ud ie s w h ich h a s a l ready b een e s tab l ished may n o t b e a dop ted i n o the r r eg ion s , s i nce t r an sm is s ion i sr a the ri d io sync ra t ic a nd p e r sona li nc ha ra c te r . I th a s b een r ea l i sed t h a t y uka ra e spec ia l ly wou ld h ave b een c hanged v e ry s l igh t ly f r om r ec i t e rt or e c i te r . A st ime g o e sb y s uch d i f fe rence s g radua l ly i nc rea se , a l though i th ad b een t h ough t t h a t y uka ra p reserved t h e i r o r ig ina l f o rm a nd h ad n ever c hanged . R eg iona l c on tex t a nd t he p roces s o f t r ansm is s ion b o th n eed t o b e c ons idered i n t h e s t udy o f y uk a ra .

T he o lde s t r e co rd o f A inu wo rd s i s Ma t sumaeno k o to , i n w h ich 17 A inu w o rd s w e re c o l lec ted i n t h e e a r ly 1 7 th c en tury [ t he e xac t d a te i sn o t k nown , b u t w a s p robab ly b e tween 1 630 a nd 1 640 ] ( Na r i ta 1 977 ) . T he re a r e n o w o rd s w h ich s ugges t o r r e la te t o me ta l . T he wo rd p iruka , m en t ioned i nC hap te r 5 ,i sd esc r ibed a s mean ing ' good ' o r ' we l l ' . Mosh ihokusa , w r i t ten b y U eha ra i n 1 792 , r e co rd s 2 740 A inu w o rd s .T he se w o rd s w e re c o l lec ted t h rough d i rec t c on tac t w i th t h e A inu p eop le , a nd t h e w o rd s w e re c l a s s if ied i n to 1 0 c a tego r ie s , c omp r is ing t h e f i r s t d i c t iona ry o f A inu a nd J apane se .K inda ich im en t ioned t h a tt h eo r thog raphy u sed i n t h i s p ub l ica t ion w a s a dvanced f o r i t s t ime ( K inda ich i 1 925 ) . I n 1 850 , T ake sh i ro Ma tuu ra p ub l ished E zogo w h ich c o l lec ted 1 850 A inu w o rd s ( Na r i ta 1 986 ) . I n 1 855 , h e a l so p ub l i shed S h ir ibesh i o rosh i , w h ich f o rms a c o l lec t ion o f 1 048 A inu w o rd s( Na r i ta 1 991) .J i ro Y oda r e co rded 8 38 A inu w o rd s i nE zo t s ush ikan i n 1 854 ( Na r i ta 1 988 ) . T he re a r e d e ta i led A inu w o rd s f o r me ta l i nt h e se f ou r r e co rd s , w h ich p rov ide u sw i th v e ry u se fu le v idence .T ab le 6 -1 i nd ica te st h a t t h e re w e re d i f f e ren tn ame sf o rd i f f e ren tk ind so f me ta l ,a nd i t i sp o s s ib le t oc ompa r e t h e w o rd s .

O sam i Okuda i sr e sea rch ing d a ta f r om a n i n fo rman t a nd r e c i te r c a l led S u teno O r i ta ( 1901-1993 ) ; h e i sc o l labo ra t ing w i th T osh ih iko Koha ra , w ho i st r a ined a s a n a r cha eo log is t . T he i r r e sea rch h a s l e d t o an ew a sp ec t o f y uka ra s t ud ies w h ich empha s ise s t h ec hanne l o ft r an sm i ss ion ( Okuda 1 99 1 , K oha ra 1 991) . T he n a tu re o f t h e c hanne l may r e la te t ot h e t r an sfo rma t ion o ft h e y uka ra i nt h ep roces so ft r an sm i s s ion . O kuda a nd K ir s ten R ef s ing wo rk i n t h e S h izuna i a r ea . R ef s ing 's work ( Re f s ing 1 986 ) o n ag ramma r o f t h e S h izuna i d ia lec t c on t r ibu tes t o d i a lec t s t ud ies o f t h e A inu l a nguage i nE ng l ish , a l though h e r i n t e rp re ta t ion o fC h i n's c r i t ic i sm o fB a tche lo r( i b id . ) s eems t om et oi nd ica te t h a ts he d o e sn o tw holy u nde r s tand C h in 's w o rk . M ie H ag inaka 's g ende r i n terp re ta t ion o f y uka ra w a s a l so c a r r ied o u ti nt h i sp e r iod ( Hag inaka 1 982 ) .T h is o f e r su n ique a nd i mpo r tan t a spec t s o f s t udy f o r u nde r s tand ing a nd r e con s t ruc t ing A inu s oc ie ty , t h e p o ten t ia l o fw h ich h a s n o t b e en f u l ly d eve loped a sy e ti nt h el i ngu i s t ic f i e ld .

A l though C ap ta in V r ie s 's r e co rd o f 1 643 men t ioned k an i a s t h e w o rd f o r b o th s i lve r a nd i r on , i n t h e b road s en se o f ' me ta l ' , a round t h e S akha l in a r ea ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) , b y t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry , t h e re w e re n ame s f o re ach s pec if ic me ta l , s uch a sk on l cane ( y e l low m e ta l ) f o r g o ld , s h irokane ( wh i te m e ta l ) f o r s i lve r , a nd k upuka o rk uuka f o r i r on . I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e re a r e t wo f o rm s o f t h e w o rd f o r me ta l — t h a t i s ,k ane o rk an i — s o t h a tb o th y a i -kane o ry aya -kan i a r e f o und . A cco rd ing t ot h e l i ngu is t O kuda , w ho s pec ia l i sed i n t h e S h izuna i d i a lec t , t h e re a r e t wo w ays o fs ay ing me ta l i n d i f f e ren t a r ea s ( pe r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . K ane w a s u sed p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e S a ru a r ea , a nd k an i w a s u sed i n t h e S h izuna ia r ea a nd t h er e s to ft h e e a s tp a r to fH okka ido . T h i s m ay r e f lec td i f f e r en tc u l tu ra lc on tac tw i th in d i f f e ren tr e g ions .

H i ro sh i Nakagawa p lays a l e ad ing r o le i n A inu l i ngu i s t ic s t ud ie s a tp resen t . H e i st h e o n ly p e r son t e ach ing t h e A inu l a nguage a to ne o f t h e N a t iona l U n ive r s i t ie s . H e w o rk s o n t h e C h i to se a r ea . Y uko Yone ta i sa n A inu l anguage t e ache r o f c h i ld ren a t N ibu tan i i n t h e S a ru a r ea a nd i sa n a s s is tan t t o S h ige ru K ayano , who i sh imse lf a n A inu , a nd w ho t e ache s t h e S a r u d i a lec t . K ayano i sn o to n ly al i ngu i s tb u ta l so t e ache s a bou t A inu l i fe i n g ene ra l . H e c o l lec t s f o lk ta les o f t h e A inu U epeke re a nd h a sp ub l ished t h em ( Kayano 1 974 ) .

7 5

6 : T he e xam ina t ion o f w o rds f o r ma ter ia l s a nd t h ing s i no rde r t ou nde r s tand t h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t

T ab le 6 -1

Ac ompa ra t ive t a b le o ft h ew o rd sf o rm e ta l . E ng l ish

J apane se

A inu Mosh ihokusa ( 1 792 )

g o ld s i lve r

k i no rk ane g in

c oppe r i r on

d o t e t su s uzu k a radou

k onkane s h i rokane f u r ek ane k upuka y a ikane o ry ayakan i I c a rankan i

t i n C h ine se c oppe r r e dc opp e r p u rp le c oppe r

A inu E zogo ( 1850 ) k onkane s h i rokane f u re l cane k uuka y a i l cane o ry ayakan i I c a rnakan i s hakunndo

me r cu ry g o ld l e a f s i lve rl e a f money n a i l f e l l ing a xe

s e k idou s h idou s u ig in k i nnpaku g i npaku s en o rz en i k ug i ma sa l ca r i

mukka r i

a be sha l cundo s h i rokanewa l cka k onkanewa l c i ca s h i rokanewakka s hamo ta l ca ra o ri s en s h ikae mukka r i

h o e

k uwa

s ha l cush i

s hakush i

c oppe rp o t

d onab e

k aba ru shu o rf u re shu s aya t su ra i s h ika

s aya t su ra i s h i l ca

Y u -P aka

y u -pa l ca

s h i rokanewa l cka k on l canewak I ca s h i ro l canewakka

I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t on o t e h e re t h a ti r on i sw r i t ten n e i the r a sk an i ,a si nS akha l in i n1 643 , n o ra sk ane , b u ta sk upuka ( Ueha ra 1 792 ) , ( Ma t suu ra 1 855 ) o rk uuka ( Ma t suu ra 1 850 ) . Mo reove r ,o t he rr e co rd s men t ioned t h ew o rd sk ubuka ( Yoda 1 854 ) , a nd k uf uka ( No toya 1 864 ) i n t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . A l though i ti sn o t k nown e xac t ly w he re t h e se w o rd s w e re c o l lec ted i nH okka ido , i tw a s p re sumab ly s omewhe re n ea r t h e Ma t sumae d oma in i n t h e s ou th o f H okka ido , a s t h e w ord s w e r e r e co rded b y J apanese . A cco rd ing t oK inda ich i ( K inda ich i 1 960 ) , t h e re w e re t wo d i f f e ren tc u l t iva t ing t o o l s , c a l led k ukka a nd k upuka , w h ich f unc t ioned l i ke h oe s . T he f o rme r , t h eo l de rt ype , w a sm ade o fw ood o ra n t le r , a nd t h e l a t te r w a s made o f i r on i n t h e s ame w ay a s a n i r on h oe . T akakura 's i n te rp re ta t ion i st h a t c u l t iva t ion t o o l s made o f w ood o r a n t le r w e re n o rma l ly c a l led s h i tappu i n A inu s oc ie ty ; t h ey w e re a l so c a l led k ukka b a sed o n K inda ich i 's d i s t inc t ion . H oweve r , C h in i sa ga ins t K inda ich i 's i d ea t h a t t h e re i sn o ma te r ia l d i s t inc t ion b e tween k ukka a nd k upuka , h e b e l ieve s t h a t c u l t iva t ion t o o ls made o fw ood a nd a n t le r w e re c a l led s h i tapu a sw a st h ec a se r e cen t ly .

I nJ apan , i r on i sc a l led t e t su o rk urogane , k urokane ( b lack m e ta l ) ; t e tsu c an b e t r aced b ack t o t i , u sed i n t h e H an d ynas ty i n C h ina . T i i st hough t t o b e t r an sfo rmed f r om f emur i n Mongo l ian ( To ni 1 925 ) . Howeve r , i n a nc ien t J apanese c h ron ic les , s uch a s t h e H i tach i -F udok i a nd K o j ik iden , t h e r ea r et h e w o rd sm ara , maura , a nd m aro w h ich i n d ica te p eop le o r af am i ly , c a l led i nf u l l Ama t su -Ma ra ' , w ho wo rked a s k annuch i who d ea l t w i th i r on ( i .e . b l ack sm i ths )a nd w e re p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th i r on s a nd . T hese wo rd s a r e a l so t hough t t o b e d e r ived f r om t he Mongo l ian w o rd f emur ( i b id . ) . O n t h e o the r h and , i r on i sc a l led s oe o r c ho l i n K o rean ( Ko rean -Eng l i sh D ic t iona ry ) ; t h ese wo rd s a re s im i la r t ot h e w o rd f o ri r on i n Manchu r ian , w h ich b e longs t ot h eT ungu s ic l a nguage f am i ly . I n Manchu r ian , i r on i sc a l led s e lä .T ab le 6 2s hows t h e w o rd s f o r i r on i n t h e s ur round ing a r ea s a nd l a nguages , w h ich s how l i t t le r e semb lance t ot h e Mongo l ian f emur .

My i n te rp r e ta t ion o fa l l t h i s i st h a ta n i r on h oe , c a l led k uwa i nJ apane se s oc ie ty , e n te red A inu s oc ie ty a st h e m a te r ia l o f i r on i t se lf a sw e l l a s i nt h e f o rm o f ac u l t iva t ion t o o l . T hu s , t h e A inu w o rd s k ukka o rk upuka w e re u sed b o th f o r t h e ma ter ia lo fi r on a nd t h e c u l t iva t ion t o o l . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion may b es uppo r ted b yt h e e xam ina t ion o ft h ew o rd f o ri r on i n t h e l a nguage so fs u r round ing e t hn ic g roup s w h ich , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h eJ apane se ,d on o te xh ib i t as t rong c o r re la t ion w i th t h eA inu l a nguage a sr e ga rd st h e i rw o rd sf o ri r on .

I na dd i t ion , t h e U i l te r i nS akha l in a l so r e fe r t oi r on a ss a id ( Hokka ido 1 981) . S ince t h e U i l te r , w ho a re t h e n o r thern n e ighbour s o ft h e A inu , u se t h e w o rd s a id f o ri r on , k ane o r k an i c l ea r ly r e la te s t o J apanese a lone . T o s umma r i se , i t s e ems t h a tt h e re a r e t wo d i f f e ren t r oo ts o ft h e w o rd s u s ed t o d e s igna te i r on i n E a s t A s ia . I n t h e A inu c a se , d e r iva t ion f r om J apane se s e em s t h e mo s tr ea sonab le s cena r io , g i ven t h e v e rba ls im i la r i t ies n o ted .

7 6

6 : T he e xam ina t ion o fw ord s f o r ma te r ia l s a nd t h ing s i no rde r t ou nde r s tand t h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t

T ab l e6 -2

Wo rd sf o ri r on i nn o r th -ea s tA s ian l a nguage s ( b a sed o nT o ni 1 925 ) . t h ew o rd f o ri r on

l a nguage

a r ea

s e le ' s a L a s e l lä s e h leh s e lö

O r ucha O r ucha Manchu r ia

i nne r Mongo l ia i nne r Mongo l ia Manchu r ia

J ü rch in K o ldog i lT ungu s

Manchu r ia

,

T ungu s

s ä lä s ö lö s e le o rs e l '6 s ö lö o rs ä lö s e la s e le s e le s e i le

_

R amu to ( Lamu t ) D aun r en T ungu s Amu rT ungu s N e r uch i sTungu s A nga ra T ung u s E n i se T ungu s Manguzea T ungu s T ungu ska T ungus

s ö l lo z ö l la c i l

O ko t sukuTungus Wi ru iT ungu s S o ron

h ö lö e r se le

a l ong L ake B a ika l a l ong t h e Amu r _ ,

a l ong t h eA nga ra a l ong t h eE n i se a l ong t h eT ungu ska a l ong S ea o f Okho t sk a l ong t h e Amu r

T he r ea r eo the rw o rd sr e la ted t oi r on t e chno logy .T he A inu v ocabu la ry i ss hown i nT ab le 6 3 . T ab le 6 -3

T he A inu w o rd f o r ' t o me l t ' . E ng l ish

t o me l t t oc a s t me l t me l t

A inu Mosh ihokusa ( 1 792 )

J apane se

r u r e r u r e l ca ru r uwo

t o roka su t ok e ru y ou y ou

r uwoke r e

A inu E zogo ( 1850 ) r u r e l ca re n iwo r uwoke r e

w h ich l i t e ra l ly t r ans la ted i n to E ngl i sh means w h i t em e ta l ( o r s i lve r )w a te r( o rp e rhap sl i qu id )i sa l so u sed f o rm e rcu ry .

T he se w o rd sm igh ti mp ly t h e s me l t ing o fs i lve r , a sr e co rded b y C ap ta in V r ie s ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) . A l though i ti sd i f f icu l t t o e xp la in i nE ng l i sh d ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h eC h ine se i d eog rams c anno t b e d e sc r ibed , t okeru i nJ apanese m eans ' t o m e l t ' . Wr i t t en w i th C h ine se c ha ra c te r ss ugge s t ing d i f f e r en tk i nd so f me l t ing , i tc an b e u sed t oe xp re ss d i f f e ren tk ind so fm e l t ing i n t e rms o f p urpose o r f unc t ion . T he wo rd i s u sed t o d e s igna te c a s t ing , wh ich i mp l ie s at r an sfo rma t ion f r om t h e s o l id s t a te o fm e ta lt ot h el i qu id s t a te o f me ta l .

T he e x i s tence o f t h e f o l low ing v ocabu la ry i n t h e A inu l a nguage a l so i nd ica tes a c t iv i ty w h ich r e la te s t o i r on w o rk ing . T he wo rd s f o rc ha rcoa l( s um ii nJ apanese )u sed f o r f u e la r ea sf olow s : h ash ih a sh i ( Ueha r a . 1 792 ) h a sh i ( Takaya 1 808 ) u sa t su ( Ma t suu ra 1 850 ) h a sh iba sh i ( Yoda 1 854 ) h ash isuke ( No toya 1 864 )

A l though t h ew o rd r uk an ic an t h en b e t r an s la t ed l i t e ra l ly a s ' t o m e l t me ta l ' o r ' mo l ten me ta l ' , i tw a s u sed t o mean ' me l t ing s i lve r ' o r ' wa te r s i lve r ' , i nd ica t ing m e rcu ry . T h is t e rm w a s f r equen t ly u sed i n y uka ra ( wh ich Id i scu ss i n C hap te r7 ) .T ak ing a ccoun to ft h ef a c tt h a t av e in o fm e rcu ry i ss ome t ime sl o ca t ed a tt h ee nd o f av e in o fs i lve r( Shephe rd 1 993 ) , t h en i tm igh t b e p o ss ib le t os ay t h a t t h e A inu i na c e r ta in r eg ion ( i .e . w he reve r av e in o f s i lve r e x i s t s ) h ad k now ledge o f me rcu ry b ecause o f i t s a ssoc ia t ion w i th s me l t ing s i lve r . H oweve r , t h e w o rd r uI c an is t i l ln eed s t ob e e xam ined d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e w o rd s h irokan i w akka ,

T he w o rd f o r ' at o ng ' ( h ibash i i nJ apane se ) i sa ihashu i n A inu ( No toya 1 864 ) . T he wo rds a l so r e f lec t g r ind ing s t one a nd g r ind ing ( t o i sh i [ noun ] a nd t ogu [ v e rb ] i nJ apane se ) i s r u i ( Ueha ra 1 792 ) , ( Ma tsuu ra 1 850 , 1 855 ) ,f ur ima o rr u i ( Yoda 1 854 ) ,a nd r u e( No toya 1 864 ) .

7 7

6 :T he e xam ina t ion o f w ords f o r ma te r ia ls a nd t h ing s i no rde r t ou nde r s tand t h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t

F ur the rmo re , e ven t h e w o rd k aneuch i ( Ma t suura 1 850 ) , w h ich m eans ' f o rg ing ' , e x i s ted i nA inu s oc ie ty . T he w o rd k aneuch i s ound s J apanese , a s i n k ane ( me ta l ) a nd u ch i ( pound ing ) . T h is means k a j i ( f o rg ing ) i n mode rn J apane se , s i nc e t h ew o rd k a j ii n modern J apanese may b et r a ced f r om k a -n -uch io rk a -n -nuch i , i na nc ien tJ apane se , t ok a -ch i t h en k aj i o n p honem ic g rounds ( Nakagawa , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) . A cco rd ing t o B a tche lo r 's A inu -Eng l ish J apane se D ic t ionar ya nd G rammar ( Ba tche lo r1 889 ) ,/ c ane k i k g uru , d e s igna te s ab lack sm i th i nA inu . K ane mean s m e ta l , k i k mean sp ound ing , a nd g uru means ah uman o r man . T hus t h e e n t i re wo rd means ' me ta l p ound ing man ' . A l though p ound ing i n t h e A inu l a nguage i sk ik , u ch i ( pound ing ) i n J apane se i sa l so u sed , a s men t ioned a bove . T hu s t h e re a r e t wo v e r s ions o f t h e e xp ress ion f o r p ound ing : u ch i , w h ich s ound sJ apane se , a nd k i k , w h ich s ound s A inu . I tw ou ld t h en b e p o s s ib le t ot h ink t h a t t h e w o rd p ound ing a s v e rb c an b e t r ans la ted i n to t h e A inu w o rd s e a s i ly f r om J apane se u ch it o k i k , i ft h ew o rd k i kh ad a l ready e x is ted i nA inu s oc ie ty w hen t h e w o rd w a s b o r rowed f r om t h e J apane se . I ts eem s v ery r ea sonab le t o me t h a t t h e wo rd k aneuch i f o r f o rg ing w a s b o r rowed f r om a nc ien tJ apane se .

T he e x i s tence i nt h e A inu l a nguage o ft h e w o rd s f o rm e ta l s a nd i r on t e chno logy w h ich a re d i f fe ren t f r om mode rn J apane se w o rd sa nd d on o tc o r re la te w i th t h em i nd ica t es t h a t c oncep t s , s uch a s ' t o me l t m e ta l ' , a l ready e x i s ted i n A inu s oc ie ty l o ng a go a nd h ad e s tab l ished t h em se lve s . I tt h e re fo r e s e em st h a tt h ey d id n o tc ome f r om J apan i nr e cen tt imes ( i . e . t h e 1 8 -19 th c en tu r ie s ) , a st h e se a re n o tl o an w o rd s o rw o rd s b o r rowed i nr e cen tt ime sf r om J apan . I ts e em st ha tt hey w e r e p a s sed d own f r om a nc ien t J apanese ( i . e . a r ound t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry ) , a l though i ti sn o t q u i te c l ea r w he the r t he w o rd s o r ig ina ted i n A inu s oc ie ty o re n te red f r om o u t s ide J apan . I t c an b e s a id , a tl e a s t , t h a t as oc ie ty w h ich a dm i t ted t h e u se o f s uch w o rd s e x i s ted . T h i s s ugges t s t ha t i r on t e chno logy i n A inu s oc ie ty w a s n o t s ome th ing s pec ia l o r u nknown t o t h em b u t a n o rd ina ry a ccep ted e veryday a c t iv i ty u p t ot h e 1 9 th c en tu ry .

Among t h e U i l te r i nS akha l in , f o rg ing i st ap ic i ( Hokka ido K yo iku i in l ca i 1 981) , a nd p ound ing i r on i st a a l tau ( f o rg ing ) ( Hokka ido K yo iku i inka i 1 990 ) , wh ich a r e a l so d i f fe ren t

I nt h en ex tc hap te r , Ie xpand my r ev iew o fy u l ca ra , as pec if i c t y pe o fA inu o ra l t r ad i t ion , i no rde rt oc on tex tua l ise t h ew o rd ' i r on ' .

f r om t h e A inu k i k . T h i s i mp l ie s t ha t t h e a c to ff o rg ing i t se l f h ad e x i s ted i nA inu s o c ie ty f o r al ong t ime .

6 -4

78

C onc lus ion

Chap ter T he

7 -1

a na tomy

I n troduct ion

7 o f

y ukara

K inda ich i , w ho w e re l e ad ing s cho la r s o f A inu l i ngu i s t ic s . When K inda ich i f i r s tk new o ft h ee x i s tence o fy uka ra i nt h e A inu c u l tu re i n 1 906 , h e b egan a s t udy o f t h e i r s t ruc tu re . K inda ich i a nd h i s t wo s t uden t s , K ubode ra a nd C hin , a l l a g r eed t h a t y uka ra c an b road ly b e c a tego r ised i n to t wo d i f f e ren t g roup s d e te rm ined b y t h e n a tu re o f t h e n a r ra to r ( Ch il i 1 973 ) ( s ee F ig . 7 1 b e low ) : t h e se a r e k amu i y uka ra a nd h uman y uka ra , d epend ing u pon w he the r t h e n a r ra to r i s k amu io rh uman . W i th in k amu iy uka ra , t h e re a r e t wo f u r the r c a tego r ie s b a sed o n t h e t ype o f k amu i : k amu i y uka ra a nd o i na . I ft h en a r ra to r [ i . e . t h e s ub jec to ft h e f i r s tp e r son ] i sa n a n ima l , a n o b jec t o r a ny n a tu ra l p henomenon , t h e e p ic i s c a l led ak amu i y uka ra . O n t h e o the rh and , i ft h e n ar ra to r i s o i na k amu i , i . e . ak amu i o f t r ansm i ss ion o r ak amu i o f c r ea t ion , t e l l ing a bou t t h e o r ig in a nd c r ea t ion o f t h e A inu w o r ld , t h en i ti sc a l led a no i na . I ft h en a r ra to r [ i . e . s ub jec to f t h e f i r s t p e r son ] i sa n A inu h e ro , Ok ikurum i , t h en i ti s c a l led ah uman y uk ara o rh e ro ic y uka r a . .

I nt h i s c hap te r , Id i scu ss t h e a ppl icab i l i ty o fy uka ra , a n e p ic f o rm o f o ra l t r ad i t ion i n t h e A inu c u l tu re a s e v idence . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e d i scus s ion c on s ide r s t o w ha t e x ten t w e c an e x t rac t t h e s oc ia l c on tex t f r om t h e a na lyse s o f y uka ra t o i lum ina te t h e A inu s oc ia l c on tex t . Ia l so a t temp tt od i scu ss t h ep o ss ib i l i ty o fu s ing t h ey uka ra t op rov ide ma te r ia l u se fu l f o ru nde r s tand ing t h eA inu ma te r ia lc u l tu re . 7 -1-1 Wha t i s y ukara ? T he A inu o ra lt r ad i t ion i sd iv ided i n to t wo t ype sa cco rd ing t o l i ngu is t ic s t ud ie s : v e r se a nd p ro se . T he v e r se t ype o f o ra l t r ad i t ion i s t he y uka ra . Y uka ra i s a n e p ic f o rm o f o ra l t r ad i t ion w h ich i s /wa s t r ansm i t ted b y t h e A inu r e c i to r s . I t h a s r hy thm a nd r e f ra in a nd i sa n a u tob iog raph ica l s t o ry n a r ra ted i n t he f i r s t p e r son b y k amu i . K amu i c an b e =s la ted b ys uch wo rd sa s' s p i r i t ' o r' g od ' a nd ' g odde s s ' ( c f . P h i l ipp i 1 979 ) . Howeve r , k amu ii nt h eA inu w o r ld r ef lec t sa w ay o f t h ink ing t ha t i nc lude s mo re t han j u s t g od s o r g oddesse s . T he t e rm s ome t ime s r e f e r s t o h umans a s w e l l , s uch a s Ok iku rum i k amui , a nd a l so t o a n ima ls , p lan t s , o b jec t s , a nd n a tura l p henomena , wh ich e x is t i n a n i ndependen to rde ri ns ome r e la t ion w i th t h e A inu . A l though t h e g ende ro fk amu ic an b ei d en t if ied a cco rd ing t ot h e mode o fe xp res s ion o ft h e y uka ra , t h e w o rd k amu i i t se lf d oe s n o t e xp re ss g ende r , s uch a s g od o r g oddes s . T hu s , ` k amu i ' i s k amu i a nd i nc lude s b o th s exe s . F o r t h is r ea son , Iu se t h e w o rd k amu i w h ich a ppea r s i ny uka ra a s t h ey a r ep a r to ft h e A inu wo r ld .

I -kamu iy uka ra

I I camu iy uka ra I I -o ina

I -human y uka ra ( h e ro ic y uka ra ) F ig .

7 1

C a t ego ry o fy uka ra .

T he n ame o fO k ikurum i i s men t ioned i nJ apanese h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s . F o re xamp le , E zo Danh i t suk i ( Ma t sum iya 1 629 , c i t ed i nK inda ich i 1 942 ) , r e co rded t h a t" t he A inu r e f e r red t o Y o sh i t sune [ i . e . aJ apane se h i s to r ica l h e ro , who w a s a b ro the r o fY o r i tomo M inamo to ( Shogun o ft h e Kamaku ra ) i n t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry ] a s Uk iku rum i" . T he E zo Z u ih i tsu ( Anon . 1 737 , c i ted i n K inda ich i 1 942 ) s a id : " when t h e d r ink ing f e a s tr e ache s i t s h e igh t , t h e A inu s i ng as ong a nd n a r ra t e aj orur is t o ry [ i . e . ab a l lad s t o ry i nJ apan i nt h e 1 7 th 1 9 th c en tu r ie s ]" . I ta l so s a id : t h e re i s as t o ry o fY o sh i t sune i n aj orur i s t o ry , t h a t w hen Y o sh i t sune w a s y oung , h e c ame t o t h e E zo l a nd [ Hokka ido ] b y s h ip a nd d eve loped a c l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th a d augh te r o f H ach imen Da io . Y o sh i t sune s t o le at r ea su r ed a r t ic le w h i le H ach imen D a io w a s o u th un t ing , a nd h e e scaped a nd r e tu rned t oJ apan b y s h ip . T he a ccoun tt h en s ay s : " Yo sh i t sune i nt h e A inu l a nguage i s U k ikunun i" .

T he n umbe ro fy uka ra i nt h e A inu c u l tu re i sn o tk nown , a s t h ey h ave b een t r an sm i t ted f r om p e r son t op e r son i nv i l lage s a nd l oca l a r ea s . I n p rac t ice , t h e re i sn o r u le g ove rn ing w ho b ecomes ay uka ra p e r fo rme r ,a l though t h e re m igh th ave b een r u le s i n t h e p a s t f o r s ome r ea sons r e la ted t o s haman ism . A nyone who c an r emembe r u pon h ear ing y uka ra a t a ny o cca s ion a nd c an p e r fo rm i to n as ub sequen to cca s ion ,c an b e ay uka ra p e r fo rme r , a l though n o te ve rybody d oe sb ecome a y uka ra p e r fo rme r . An a b i l i ty t or emembe ra nd p e r fo rm i sa n o bv ious m in imum r equ iremen t . P eop le w ho a r e a b le t o p e r fo rm y uka ra a r ec a l led y ukarakur . Y uka ra a re p e r fo rmed w hen t h e A inu h ave v i s i to r s a nd a r e t a lk ing a nd amus ing t hemse lves b es ide t h e f i re i n t h e e ven ing ; p eop le a sk ay ukarakur t op e r fo rm y uk a ra .T hen s he o rh e c an s t a r t . On s uch o cca s ion s , ay ukarakur s ome t ime s d oe s n o t c omp le te r ec i t ing a y uka ra t oi t s e nd i no rde r t o s u s ta in p eop le 's i n te res t . Howeve r , i n t h e c a se o f f une ra l c e remon ies , t h e y uka ra mus t a lway s b e r e c i ted t ot h e e nd , a nd a l so p er fo rmed p e r fec t ly b ecause , i fi ti sn o t , t h e d ead p e r son m igh t c ome b ack i n o rde r t o h ea r t h e e nd o f t h e y uka ra , s o i ti sv ery i mpo r tan t t h a t t h e r ec i ta l o ft h e y uka ra i sc omp le ted ( Hag inaka , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . T hus , a mong t he A inu , y uka ra i ss ome th ing t ol i s ten t oa ga in a nd a ga in .

I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t Ok iku rum i i s men t ioned i n t he 1 7 th 1 8 th c en tu r ie s J apane se d ocumen t s a s Uk i l cu rum i a nd a l so t h a th e w a sr e f e r red t oa sY o sh i t sune b y t h eA inu . Y uka ra i n t h e A inu c u l tu re a tt h a t t ime w a s i n te rp re ted b y J apane se w r i te r s ,a st h ee qu iva len to fj orur ii nt h eJ apane se c u l tu re ,a s i ss hown b y t h e c ommen t t ha t " t he re i s y uka ra i n t h is c oun t ry [ i . e . t h e A inu c oun t ry ] , w h ich a re s im i la r t o t h e j o rur ii nJ apan" ( E zo k enbunk i ,c i t ed i nK inda ich i 1 942 ) . T h i s c an b e i n terp re ted a s i nd ica t ing t ha t t h e s t o ry o f Y o sh i t sune , w h ich w a s v e ry p opu la r i n J apanese s oc ie ty d u r ing t h e 1 5 th 17 th c en tu r ie sa nd w a sr e c i ted a s aj orur i ,h ad a l ready b een d i f fused i n to t h e A inu c u l tu re . K inda ich i

Y uka ra h ave b een c o l lec ted b y A inu l i ngu i s t s s i nce t h e e nd o f t he 1 9 th c en tury : f o r e xamp le , b y B a tche lo r a nd

7 9

7 :T he a na tomy o f y uka ra

c ons ide red t h a t t he r o le o f Ok iku rum i i n A inu s oc ie ty , ow ing t o h i s p opu la r i ty a mong t h e A inu , c ame t o b e i d en t if i ed w i th t h a to fY o sh i t sune , w ho w a se qua l ly p opu la r among t h eJ apanese , a nd t h e refo re O k iku rum i c ame t ob e i d en t if ied w i th Y o sh i t sune ( K inda ich i 1 942 :349 ) .

t h e a ge s w i th in A inu s oc ie ty . R a the r , i t wou ld b en a tu ra l t o c ons ide r t h a t t he c oncep t d e r ives f r om o r i s b a sed o n h i s to r ica l e ven t s o rt h e A inu e t hn ic e xpe r ience a nd t h a tt h i s a ccoun t s f o r t h e p a r t icu la r w ay i n wh ich t h e s t o r ie s w e re made u p( c f . V ans ina 1 985 ) .

I ti sc l ea r f r om t h e a bove d i scuss ion t h a t y uka ra a l r eady e x is ted i n A inu s oc ie ty i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry . T h is i mp l ie s t ha t t h e s t y le o fy uka ra m igh t h ave b een f o rma l ised b e fo re t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry . Mo reove r , t h e e x i s tence o fU k i l cu rum i i n t h e h e ro ic y uka ra i nd ica t e s t h a t t h e s t ruc tu re o fy uka ra w a s a l ready e s tab l ished i n much t he f o rm i n w h ich i t i s c a tegor i sed a t p resen t b y K inda ich i a nd o the r s . I n o t he r w o rd s , i ti sd i ff icu l tt ob e l ieve t h a t t h e c oncep to ft h eh e ro ic y uka ra i nA inu s oc ie ty w a s f o rmed a f te r t h e 1 7 th c en tury , whe the r t h e i d ea d e r ived e n t i re ly f r om t h e A inu 's o wn c u l tu ra le xpe r ience o rn o t .

A l though Ia c cep ty uka ra a sa n o ra l t r ad i t ion wh ich r e la te st o h i s to r ica l f a c t s w i th in t h e A inu c u l tu ra l e xpe r ienc e , t h e re i s s t i l l t h e b i g p rob lem o fh ow t h e e xpe r ience s o f t h e A inu i n t h e i ro ra l t r ad i t ion c an b e i d en t if ied w i th t h e k nown f a c t s o f t h eh i s to r ica lf r amewo rk w i thou tb low ing t h ea c tua ld a t e so f t h e y uka ra . T h is i s ap rob lem c ommon t o a l l k ind s o fo ra l t r ad i t ion , n o t o n ly y uka ra , b u t a l so t he " I l iad" a nd " Ody s sey s" i nc l a s s ica l a r chaeo logy ( c f . G ray 1 954 , Mo r r is 1 986 , S nodg ra s s 1 989 , S he r ra t t 1 990 ) . I ti sa n i n ev i tab le d i ff i cu l ty i na s ses s ing s uch o ra l t r ad i t ion w i th in ah i s to r ica l f r amewo rk .

I ti st hough tt h a tt h e y uka ra o r ig ina ted a s ak i nd o fd i v ine ly i n sp i red mono logue o r d i v ine m essage d e l ive red t h rough a s haman , s i nce i ti sn a r ra ted i n t h e f i r s t p e r son ( K inda ich i 1 942 ) . I th a sb een n o ted t h a tt h ey uka ra p e r fo rme ru se s ab a r , c a l led a r epun i , f o r k eep ing r hy thm a nd h i t s s ome th ing r hy thm ica l ly . T h is a c t iv i ty i st h ough t t oh ave i t s o r ig in s i n t he p rac t ice o f s haman i s t ic d rumm ing ( Ch i n i1 973 ) . T he p roce ss o ff o rma t ion o fm o re r e cen t y uka ra d e r ive s f r om a t r ansforma t ion o f ad iv ine m e s sage ; t h ey d eve loped i n i t ia l ly a s f o rms o f o ina , i n w h ich t h e o r ig in s o f t h ings i n A inu s oc ie ty a r e e xp la ined . S uch f o rms f u r the r d eve loped i n to a u tob iog raph ica l me s sage s f r om k amu i a nd s t o r ie s l i ke t h e h e ro ic y uka r an a r ra ted b yO k iku rum i ( K inda ich i 1 942 ) .

A s y uka ra h ave b een c o l lec ted i n t h e 2 0 th c en tury , a l l t h e e xpe r ience s o f t h e who le A inu c u l ture b efo re t h e 2 0 th c en tu ry c an f o rm t h e b a s is o f t h e mo t if s i n h e ro ic s t o r ies . T he re fo r e , i ti si mpo r tan t t ou nde r s tand b o th t h e v a lue a nd t h e l im i ta t ions o f t h e y uka ra a s o ra l t r ad i t ion i n o rde r t o a pp ly t h em t ot h e h i s to r ica l c on tex t . T ak ing a s a n e xamp le t h e t e rm ' r epunkur ' , t h i s c an r ef e r t o a ny e thn ic g roup , n o tab ly t h e O kho t sk a nd t h eJ apanese o ppo sed t ot h e A inu , w ho w e r e ` y aunkur ' i nh i s to r ica l t ime s . T he re i sn or e a son w hy t h e e t hn ic g roup o ppo s ing t he A inu i nh i s to r ica l t imes s hou ld a lways b e o ne a nd t h e s ame . I n o the r wo rd s , a ny e t hn ic g roup a round t h e A inu c an b e r egarded a s y aunkur . F o re xamp le , t h ec on t inen ta lp eop le ( i nc lud ing t h e Mongo ls ) w ho s eve ra l t ime s a t tacked t h e S akha l in A inu i n t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry ( Emo r i 1 989 ) , o r t h e J apanese i n t h e T ohoku a r ea , w i th w hom t h ey mus t h ave h ad many c on f l ic t s i nt h e 8t h 1t h c en tu r ie s c ou ld h ave b een y aunkur a td i f fe ren t t imes . T he re fo r e , i ti s mo re a pp rop r ia te t od i scuss t h e c oncep ta nd mean ing o f ` yaunkur ' i n t h e A inu c u l ture , i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand h ow t h eA inu t h emse lves r ega rded a nd d e sc r ibed o the r e t hn ic g roup s o r o pponen t g roup s , t han t o f i nd o u t w h ich h i s to r ica l ly k nown e t hn ic g roup i sb e ing r e f e r r ed t oa s y aunkur w i th in t h e h i s to r ica l f r amewo rk . F or t h is r e a son , i t i se s sen t ia l t o u nde r s tand t h e A inu s oc ia l c on tex t o f t he y uka ra w o r ld , a nd i ti sn o t e nough t oc ons ide r o n ly h e ro ic y uka ra ; o t he rt ype so fy uka ra s hou ld b et a ken i n to a ccoun t .

7 -1-2 Yukara i n t he h i s tor ica l c on tex t T he re i sd eba te a bou t t h e h i s to r ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o fh e ro ic y uka ra , c en t red u pon w he the ro rn o t t h e i d ea s i nt h e h e ro ic y uka ra a r e b a sed o n r ea l h i s to r ica l f a c t . T he ma in mo t if o f t h e h e ro ic y uka ra i st h e w a r fa re b e tween t wo g roup s : t h e y aunkur ( l and p eop le )a nd t h er epunkur ( o f f sho re p eop le , i . e . p eop le f r om t h es ea ) . I ti sd eba ted w he the rt h e se t wo g roup s a c tua l ly r ep r e sen tc er ta in e t hn ic g roup s w i th in t h eh i s to r ica l c on tex t . T ho se w ho s uppo r t t h e i d ea t h a t i ti sn o tn ece s sa ry t oc ons ide r y uka ra a s h i s to r ica l f a c t a nd b e l ieve t h a t s uch g roup sa r ef i c t iona l , e x i s t ing o n ly i nt h e y uka ra 's w o r ld , a r e K inda ich i ( K inda ich i ) a nd K ubodera ( Kubode ra 1 969 ) . O the r s ,w ho s uppo r tt h ei d ea t h a tt h eh e ro ic y uka ra a r eb a sed o n h i s to r ica l f ac t s , s o t h a t i ti s p oss ib le t o d i scuss a p a r t icu la r e t hn ic g roup i n t h e h i s tor ica l c on tex t , i n c lude C h in i( Ch id . 1 953 ) , Emo r i ( Emo r i 1 979 ) , K a iho ( Ka iho 1 979 ) , a nd Obaya sh i ( Obaya sh i 1 991) . H oweve r , w i th in t h e l a t te r g roup , t h ere a r e t wo d i f fe ren t i n terp re ta t ion s o f r epunkur b a sed o n a na ly se s o f y uka ra a nd o n h i s to r ica l e v idence . T he t e rm m igh tr e f e r t ot h e Okho t sk p eop le i nt h e 8 t h -10 th c en tu r ie s i n t h e O kho t sk c u l tur e a cco rd ing t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f C h in a nd Emo r i , o r i tm igh t r e fe r t ot h e J apane se , a nd t he w a r fa re b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e Ma t sumae i n t he 1 7 th c en tury , a ccord ing t o t h e i n terpre ta t ion o f K a iho ; O baya sh i s uppor t s o n ly t h e f o rma t ion o fy uka ra i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry .

7 -1-3 T he p urpose o f y ukara a nato my T he p u rpo se o fy uka ra a na tomy i st ou nde r s tand A inu s oc ia l m ean ing s w i th in t h e A inu c on tex t . I nc ons ider ing y uka ra a s ar e co rd o f v a r ious s oc ia l e xp ress ions , i ti s e s sen t ia l t o u nde r s tand t h e r o le o ra l t r ad i t ion p layed i n A inu s oc ie ty , i n c lud ing t h e mean ing o f t h e o ra l t r ad i t ion . B y s oc ia l e xp re s s ion , Imean s ome th ing w h ich e xp resses a spec t s o f s oc ie ty — t h a t i s , e xp res ses s cenes o f as oc ie ty — a nd w h ich d e sc r ibe s as oc ie ty — t h a ti s , d e sc r ibes wha th appens i n as oc ie ty i nt h e wo rd s o f amembe r o ft ha t s oc ie ty . T hus , as c ene w h ich w a s o ccu r r ed a nd b een e nac ted i n as o c ie ty i s d e sc r ibed a s as oc ia le xp re s s ion . As cene wh ich e x i s t ed a nd h as b een e nac ted i n a s oc ie ty c an b e e xp res sed i n r ep re sen ta t ive w o rd s a nd t h i sc an a l so b e as oc ia le xp r e s s ion .

I ti sd i ff icu l t t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e y uka ra , i n c lud ing h e ro ic y uka ra , a r e s imp ly s t o r ie s o r f i c t iona l l i t e ra ture , a s t h ey r ep re sen ta no ra l t r ad i t ion w h ich h a s b een t r an sm i t ted d own

Ic on s ide r i ti mpor tan t t od ef ine y uka ra a s a n o ra l t r ad i t ion a nd a s af o rm o f s oc ia l e xp res s ion . T he refo re , i ts hou ld b e

8 0

7 :T he a na tomy o fy uka ra

i n te rp re ted a s ar e co rd o f v a r iou s a spec t s o f A inu s oc ie ty . Y uka ra i t se lf h a s ay uka ra c on tex tw h ich r ef lec t s av a r ie ty o f d i f f e ren te xp re ss ions i nA inu s oc ie ty .T h i sc an b es een a st h e r e su l t o ft h e c omb ina t ion o f t h e A inu w ay o ft h ink ing a nd t h e i r s ens i t iv i ty t o t h e p a r t icu la r c i rcum s tance s o f t h e i r e ve ryday l i f e .T hu s , s oc ia l s c ene st y p ica lo fA inu s oc ie ty c an b es e en i ny uka ra .T h i s It e rm ' t he y uka ra w o r ld ' .

w il b ed i ff icu l tt ou nde r s tand f u l ly t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween ' o ra l t r ad i t ion ' a nd ' c on t ex t ' . A tt h el e ve l a bove t h ep a r t icu la rc i rcum s tance s i nw h ich o ra l t r ad i t ion w a sr e c i ted i st h e o ve ra l l s oc ia l c on tex t . T he s oc ia l c on tex t c an b e e xemp l if ied w i th in t h e s oc ie ty b y v a r iou s s oc ia l e xp re s s ion s s uch a sd r ink ing f e a s t , r e l ig ious p rac t ic e , b ea r f e a s t , t r ade a c t iv i ty , s ub s i s tence a c t iv i ty , s oc ia l c l a sse s , g ende r , t h e r o le o fs m i th ing , e t c . S oc ie ty a s aw ho le c an b e r e ga rded a sc omp r i s ing s e ts o fs oc ia le xp ress ion s .T he refo r e , a n a na ly t ica l m e thod n eed s t ob e c rea ted t or ead t h e A inu s oc ia l c on tex t , w h ich i se xp re ssed a s s oc ia l e xp re s s ion i n y uka ra f o ra nu nde r s tand ing o ft h eA inu ma te r ia lc u l tu r e .T he a na tomy o fy uka ra c an b e u sed t ot e s t t h e d eg ree t ow h ich o ra l t r ad i t ion c an b e o f i mpor tance i n t he a r chaeo log ica l m e thod . U nde r s tand ing f r om ma te r ia l s t ot h e c u l tu ra l e n t i ty t h rough o ra lt r ad i t ions c an b ee xp re ssed d i agramma t ica l ly a s i nF ig . 7 -2 . F ig . 7 3 s how s ar ef lec t ion o ft h e ma te r ia l w o r ld a nd t h ey uka ra w o r ld a ss e en t h rough A l ice 's m i r ro r .

A f te re x t rac t ing s oc ia le xp re ss ion sa nd s oc ia lm ean ings f r om y uka ra , i ti sp oss ib le t o u nde r s tand t h e A inu c on tex t i n t e rms o f s oc ia l p rac t ice s a nd p rac t ica l p henomena b y t h e p roce ss o f t e s t ing t he se w i th in t h e A inu s oc ia l c on tex t a ga in . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween ' o ra lt r ad i t ion ' a nd ' c on t ex t ' c an b e a na ly sed s t ruc tu ra l ly ( s ee F ig . 7 -2 b e low ) : p a r t icu la rk ind so f o ra lt r ad i t ion c an b ee x t rac t ed f r om t h e i rc on t ex tf o ra na ly s i s , b u tt h ey mus tb er e la ted b ack t ot h e i rc on tex tt ob ee l eva t ed t o ah i ghe r s t ruc tu ra l l e ve l . W i thou t t h is k i nd o fp roce ss , i t

F ig . 7 -2

F rom ma t e r ia l st ot h ec u l tu ra le n t i ty t h rough o ra l t r ad i t ion .

ma t e r ia l< : : : :> wo rd I( b a ckwa rd a nd f o rwa rd )a na tomy In oun s /ve rb s /ad jec t ive s o ra lt r ad i t ion I( b a ckwa rd a nd f o rwa rd )s t ruc tu ra la na ly s i s HWha tk i nd o fp a t t e rn c an b eu sed i nc on t ex t ? - Mode l

c on tex t

> soc ia le xp re ss ion

> soc ie ty

>c u l tu ra l e n t i ty

d r ink ing f e a s t r el ig iou sp rac t ice b ea rf e a s t t r ade a c t iv i ty s ub s i s tence a c t iv i ty s oc ia lc l a sses g ende r t h e r o le o fs m i th ing , e t c . F ig . 7 -3

Ar ef lec t ion o ft h em a t e r ia lw o r ld a nd t h ey uka ra w o r ld a ss e en t h rough A l ice 's m i r ro r A l ice 's m irror

A inu s oc iety

ma ter ia l word

y ukara w or ld

ma ter ia l c on tex t

s oc ia l e xpress ion

s oc ia l c on tex t

8 1

7 :T he a na tomy o fy uka ra

7 -2

Ana lyt ica l

7 -2 -1

me thods

t o i nd ica te i t s s ex . T h i s r evea ls whe the r t h e n a r ra to r [ i . e . k amu i ] , i sf ema le o r ma le .

Ana lys is o f v ocabu lary A no the rt ype o fs e te xp re s s ion i s ac e r ta in p h ra se w h ich d oe s n o t e xp la in t h ings b u t i s as ymbo l ic me taphor : " A t sush i w i th ab l aze , t h e e nd o f t h e s hea th i sb u rned" i mp l ie s t h e a ppea rance o f A eo ina k amu i . T h i s p h ra se i su sed a s a m e tapho r f o r A eo ina k amu i w heneve rh e a ppea r s i ny uka ra . T he r e a son w hy i se xp la ined i no ina , w h ich t e l l a bou t t h e o r ig ins o f c us tom s a nd t h e r ea sons f o r t h em i n t h e A inu c u l tu re . T he refo re , e ve ry A inu u nde r s tand s t h a t t h e p h ra se e xp res ses t h e c o s tume a nd a ppea rance o f A eo ina k amu i ( K inda ich i 1 942 ) .

Ana lys is o f t h e v ocabu la ry u sed i n y uka ra h e re m eans c on s ide r ing p a r t icu la rn oun si ny uka ra i no rde rt oc r o s s -check b e tween w o rd s a nd ma ter ia l o b jec t s t o d i scove r p rec ise ly wha t t h ey r e f e r t o . T hese wo rds may o r may n o t l i t e ra l ly e x is t w i th in A inu s oc ie ty . T he p u rpose o f t h i s k ind o f a na ly s i s i s t o f i nd o u t t h e ma ter ia l c on tex t b o th i n t h e y uka ra a nd i n A inu s oc ie ty . Me ta l o b jec t s a nd a ny th ing w h ich r e la te s t o me ta l h ave b een c en t ra l t ot h e d i scus s ion t h roughou t t h is b ook , s o Iam p a r t icu la r ly c once rned w i th word s f o r me ta l o r w o rd s w h ich r e la te t o me ta l . I ti s i mpo r tan tt ok now h ow w o rd s w h ich a r e i na ny w ay r e la ted t o me ta l a re u sed i n t h e y uka ra c on tex t , i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e mean ing o f me ta li nA inu s oc ie ty . T he r efo r e , e xp re s s ions c on ta in ing w o rd s l i ke k an i w i l l b e c hecked t o s ee w he the rt h ew o rd i sb e ing u sed a s an oun d eno t ing m e ta l , g o ld , a nd i r on a st h e ma t e r ia l o fo b jec t sa nd /o rw he the ri ti s b e ing u sed a sa na d jec t ive t od e sc r ibe s ome th ing g o ld l ike ,o r i r on l ike .

C on t ra s t ing w i th t h e a bove , c er ta in s e t p a t te rns o f e xp re s s ion a r e u sed f o r c e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s , a s ad e sc r ip t ive e xp re s s ion r a the r t han a me tapho r . T hey a re c l ea r ly r ecogn isab le a nd e voke t h e p rocess o f a n a c t iv i ty . F o r e xamp le , e xp re s s ions l i ke " pu t ap an o n t o t h e f i re , p u t m i l le t i n to t h e p an , s t i r w i th a s pa tu la " a nd " th in -made b ow l , t h in -made t r ay , o ne u pon a no the r" a r e u sed t oe voke t h ep r epa ra t ion o f amea li nt h ey uka ra ,a nd a r eu nde r s tood t o r e f e rt ot h ec ook ing p ro ce s sa nd h ow t h ef ood i ss e rved .

I ti sa l so i mpo r tan t t o i d en t ify t h e wo rd s i mpor ted f r om o u t s ide t h e A inu c u l tu re , p a r t icu la r ly J apanese wo rd s . T he e x is tence o fJ apane se l o an wo rd s i nt h e y uka ra i mp l ie s t h a t t h e o b jec t s d id n o t e x is t o r ig ina l ly i nt h e A inu c u l tu re a nd t ha t t h e w o rd s a r e u sed a s t h ey w e re o r ig ina l ly u sed i nt h e c u l tu re f r om w h ich t h ey w e re b o r rowed . I ti sa l so e v idence t ha tt h eo b jec t so rt h ings d eno ted b y s uch w o rds w e r e i nu se among o r f am i l ia r t ot h e A inu b y t h e t ime t h e y uka ra w e re c ompo sed . T h is c l ea r ly i nd ica tes c u l tu ra l c on tac t a nd i n te ra c t ion b e tween t h eA inu a nd o the rc u l tu re si n c lud ing t h e J apanese .T hen t h ew o rd sc an b e c ompa red w i th t h e ma te r ia l wh ich e x is ted i n t h e o the r c u l tures r e la t ing t o t h e c h rono log ica l o rde r w i th in t ha t h i s tor ica l c on tex t . I n t h is w ay , i tmay b ep o s s ib le t ot r a ce t h e a pp rox ima te d a te o ft h e eme rgence o f t h e w o rd w h ich c an b e i d en t if ied i n A inu s oc ie ty .

I ti sc l ea r , a s men t ioned a bove , t ha t c er ta in s e t p a t te rn s o f e xp re s s ion a r eu sed f o rt h ed e sc r ip t ion o fp a r t icu la ra c t iv i t ie s a nd t h ings , s o t h e s ame p a t te rn o f e xp res s ion i sr e ta ined , a l though t h ep h ra se sa r en o tn ece s sa r i ly e xa c t ly t h e s ame i n a l l c a se s , a s i nd iv idua l r e c i te r s h ave t h e ir own modes o f e xp re s s ion . F o r e xamp le , t h e o rde r o f t h e w o rd s may b e r eve r sed s o t h a t " t h in -made b ow l , t h in -made t r ay , o ne u pon a no the r" , b ecome s " t h in -made t r ay , t h in -made b ow l , o ne u pon a no the r" . T he refo re , c ro s s -check ing p a t terns w h ich a r e f r equen t ly r e cogn ised a nd u s ed f o rc e r ta in e xp re ss ion sm ak es i tp o s s ib le t o a na ly se t h e s t ruc tu re o f y uka ra . Mo reove r , d esc r ip t ive e xp re s s ion s w h ich a l so e xp la in c e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h ings m ake i tp o s s ib le t ou nde r s tand b o th t h e p roce sses a nd t h e e xp re s s ion s w h ich w e re u sed i nA inu s oc ie ty .

7 -2 -2 S truc tura l a na lys is ( B) I d io mat ic e xpress ions ( A ) P a t terns o f e xpress ion T he re a r e a l so s e t e xp re s s ion s w h ich c r ea te a n a n t i thes is i n t h e y uka ra . T he se a n t i the se s e xp re s s t h e s ame mean ing o r s ay t h e s ame t h ing b u t u se d if fe ren t p h ra ses c oup led t o ge the r , o rt h ey e xp r es s p a i r s o fo ppo sed e l emen t s , b u t t h e c oup led j ux tapos i t ion i st h e s ame . F o r e xamp le , i n t h e e xp re s s ion " Japanese l a nd , R epunkur l a nd" , t h e wo rd ' J apanese ' a nd t h ew o rd Repunkur ' a r ei na ppo s i t ion , w h ich i nd ica tes t h ey h ave t h e s ame mean ing . I n t h is c a se , R epunkur means J apane se . Howeve r , i na no the r e xamp le Repunkur ' i su sed i nt h i s w ay : " t he s ea o ft h e R epunkur , t h e s ea o f t h e A inu , i n t h e m idd le o f t h e s ea" . H ere R epunkur a nd A inu a r ec oup led a sa na n t i the t ica le xp res s ion , a nd a r ed i f f e ren ti nm ean ing . B ya na lys ing t h i sk ind o fc ro s s c heck ing , i ti sp os s ib le t ou nde rs tand t h e c oncep t a nd t h e mean ing o fr epunkur a sr e f e r r ing t o' o t he rp eop le ' i n ab road s ense , a s o pposed t o ' o u r p eop le ' o r ' o ur se lve s ' , t h e membe r s o r t h e g roups o f A inu s oc ie ty . T he refo re , i ti s p o s s ib le t ou nde r s tand w h ich w o rd w a s u sed w i th d i f f e ren t m ean ing s a nd i ti sp o ss ib le t oe s t ima te t h e m ean ings o ft h e w o rd w h ich i su sed d i f f e r en t ly .

I ny uka ra ,c er ta in e xp r e s s ions a r eu sed a s me tapho r si no rd e r t o e xp re s s c e r ta in a c t iv i t ies a nd b ehav iou r , o r t h ing s a nd s ub jec t s . T he se e xp re ss ions w h ich a r e u sed a s me tapho r s o ccu rw i th in a l lc a tego r ie s o fy uka ra a nd a lways r e f e rt ot h e s ame k ind s o f a c t iv i ty o r b ehav iou r . T hese s e t p a t te rn s o f e xp re s s ion c an b ee x t rac t ed a nd a r e u sefu l f e a tu re s t on o t ic e a s ak ey f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e u se o f me tapho r i n t h e s t ruc tu r eo fy uka ra a s aw ho le . F or e xamp le , ap a t te rn o f e xp res s ion wh ich f r equen t ly a ppea r s i n y uka ra i s" I g e t a long w i th c oncen t ra t ing o n n eed lewo rk" . T h is i s af ema le mode o f e xp ress ion , a nd i mp l ies t h a t a woman i ss peak ing . B y t h e s ame t a ken , a p a t tern " Ig e t a l ong w i th c oncen t ra t ion o n ac a rv ing o n a s hea th" i mp l ies a ma le mode o f e xp ress ion , a nd t h a t t h e s peake r i s aman . T he k amu i w ho n a r ra te s ay uka ra d oes n o t s pec if ica l ly men t ion w he the r t h e ' f i r s tp e r son ' i sf ema le o r ma le b u t t h e k ind o fe xp res s ion men t ioned a bove i su sed

8 2

7 :T he a na tomy o fy uka ra

s i lve r ,o r me l ted i r on ; t h i s w o rd i st r an s la ted a s ' me rcu ry ' o r ' p o i son ' o r ' wa te r g o ld ' , a ppea r ing d i f f e ren t ly i no ne p age a l though t h eo r ig ina l A inu w o rd k eep s t h es ame f o rm a nd s o o n . I n i t ia l ly , It hough t t h a t t h e t r an s la t ion r e f lec ted t h e r e c i te r 's i n te rp re ta t ion ,a nd Ia s sumed t h a tt h et r ans la to r sh ad a sked t h er e c i te r s w ha t t h e w o rd s mean t i na n A inu c on tex t . H oweve r , h av ing s t ud ied t he y uka ra , Ic ame t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h i s i sj u s t i n cons is tency i nt h e t r ans la t ion . T h i s k i nd o ft r an s la t ion may n o tb e ap rob lem i nt h e c a se o f y uka ra t r ea ted a s l i t e ra tu re . H oweve r , f r om t h e ma te r ia l c u l tura l p o in t o fv i ew a nd s oc ia l c on t ex t , i ti sn eces sa ry t o c on s ide r e xac t ly w ha t t h e o b jec t o rp henomenon r e f e r red t o b y t h e g i ven w o rd i s , o therw ise t h e re c ou ld b e s e r iou s m isunde r s tand ings i n t h e c on tex t o f a n a na lys is o f v ocabu la ry f o r t h e p u rpo se o f t h is s t udy . F o r t h i s r ea son I h ave t a ken p a r t icu la r c a re t o u se a nd r e ly o n t h e o r ig ina l A inu v ocabu la ry .

7 -3 Da ta T he d a ta w h ich a re u sed i n t h is a na ly s is a r e 1 82 y uka ra , l i s ted i n A ppend ix -2 .T hese w e re c o l lec ted b y K inda ich i ( K inda ich i 1 959 ) , K ubode ra ( Kubode ra 1 977 ) , C h i n i( Ch in a nd P i lsud sk i ( P i lsudsk i : 1 902 i n N a t iona l E thno log ica l Museum 1 987 ) . A l l o f t h e se h ave a l ready b een t r ans la ted i n to J apane se b y t he i r c o l lec to r s , e xcep t f o r B a tche lo r 's c on t r ibu t ion , w h ich h a s b een t r ans la ted i n to E ng l ish . T he t r ans la t ions h ave mo s t ly b een p ub l i shed t o ge the r w i th t h e A inu o r ig ina l . Wr i t ten t r an scr ip t ions i nr oman l e t te r s o ft h e o r ig ina l t e x t i n t he A inu l anguage w e re made f o r K inda ich i 's a nd C h in's c o l lec t ion b y t h e A inu i n fo rman t s t h emse lve s , a nd f o r K ubode ra ' sc o l lec t ion b y Kubode ra h imse lf , a sh e w a s a n A inu l i ngu i s t . B a tche lo r 's c olec t ion i sw r i t ten i n E ng l ish , a nd P i l sud sk i 's c o l lec t ion i si n t h e f o rm o f w ax c y l inde r r e co rds w h ich w e r e t r ans la ted i n to J apanese b o th b y a n A inu a nd b y J apane se l i ngu i s t s . T he d e ta i l s o f t h e r eco rd ing s i tua t ion a nd t h e r e c i te r 's n ame a t t h a tt ime a r en o tk nown .

T he r e c i t e r so ft h e se y ukar aa r el i s ted b e low ( Tab le 7 -1 ) . I ti s i mpor tan tf o rt h i ss t udy t oc oncen t ra te o ny uka ra w h ich w e re t r ansm i t ted i nt h e a r ea o f S am , whe r e t h e a rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie sd i scu s sed i np rev iou sc hap t e r s w e re u nde r taken . 1 4o f t h er e c i t e r sw e r eS am A inu , i n c lud ing t wo u nknown r e c i t e r s . I n o ne v e r s ion f r om a n u nknown r ec i te r , t he a rea o f S h i sh i r imuka , w h ich i s aw o rd f o r t h e S a ru R ive r , i s m en t ioned ; t h u s i ti sc l ea r t h a t s omehow t h is u nknown r e c i te r 's y uka ra r e la te s t ot h e S a ru A inu . A no the r e xamp le , t h er e c i te ro fw h ich i su nknown , w a sc o l lec ted b y B a tche lo r . S i nce B a tche lo r 's f i e ld s t ud ie sw e re ma in ly c a r r ied o u ti nt h e S am a r ea , t h i s may a l so r e la t e t ot h e S am A inu .

F o r t h e p u rpo se o f y uka ra a na tomy , In eeded t oe xam ine e xac t o r ig ina l A inu wo rd s i n t e rm s o f t h e v ocabu la ry a nd f r om t h e p o in to fv i ew o f t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re . T he refo re , I h ave r e f e r red t o t h e A inu l a nguage t e x t f i r s t a nd u sed t h e J apanese t r an s la t ions a s ar e f e r ence . If o und i td i ff icu l tt ou se t h e J apane se t r ans la t ion s , b ecause w o rd s a r e n o t t r ans la ted c ons is ten t ly e i ther b y K inda ich i o r b y K ubodera . F o r e xamp le , i nK inda ich i 's c a se , t h e A inu w o rd r ukan i mean s ' t o me l t me ta l ' a nd ' me l ted me ta l ' o r m e l t ed g o ld , me l ted

T ab le 7 - 1

T he l i s to fr e c i te r s

N ame o fr e c i te r s U tomu r iuku T akuuno Nabe sawa K anumo re H i ramu ra Waka rupa N abes awa K o tanp ir aH i ramu ra E tenoa H i raga K a r ep ia H i rame Mo tozo N abe sawa K un ima t su N i tan i S ank i ro t te T umon te H i raga Y aya sh iH i raga Ma t su K anna r i Y uk ie C h in

'

S h imukan iS h ikada ,Y one I wayama N ame sn o tk nown

S ex M F F

D a te s ? 1 860 -1920 1 860 -1951

M F F F M M M F

1 863 -1913 1 860 -1941 1 880 -1960 1 880 -1947 1 886 -1967 1 888 -1960 1 907 -? ?

F F

? 1 875 -1961 1 902 -1922

F F F

1 887 -1944 ?

* :N o .o fe p ics r e coun ted b ye ach r e c i te r .

8 3

' '

,

A r ea S am S am S am S am S am S am S am S am S a ru S am S am S am I b u r i I b u r i A sah ikawa C h i to se

V i l lage

*

S iunko t su S iunko t su B i r a to r i S iunko t su

-

3 3 1 5 6 4 9 19 2

S h inp i raka N ina S iunko t su N ibu tan i N ikappu

2

,

1

H o rob e t su H o robe t su C h ikabum i R anko sh i

1 2

2 9 1 35 _

2 3

7 :T he a na tomy o fy uka ra

7 -4 A inu D iscuss ions

s oc iety i n t he Yukara a nd i n terpre ta t ions .

wor ld :

o fs ak e li n ah ouse /d r if t ed a l la round" ( 62 ) , a l so " Is t and u p / ab i g b ow l o fs ak e ! Ir e ce ived i t /s i x s ake c on ta ine r s i nl i ne o n o ne s i de / ab ig b ow l o fs ake ! Ir e ce ived / Ip ou red s ake i n to c on ta ine r s" . A l though s uch ad r ink ing f ea s ti so rgan ised b y ah o s t , p repa ra t ion f o r i ts eems t ob e d one b y s e rvan t s w ho b e long t o t h e h o s t : " servan t s / w ho make maul u se k n ive s /w ho f i l te rs ake lu se s pa tu la s / f o r ad r ink ing f e a s t /f o r ad i n ing p a r ty / i ti sr eady" ( 59 , 6 2 , 10 ) . T he Mau a nd s ake a r ep r epa red b yd i f f e r en ts e rvan t s , a nd i ts eems t h a tt h eA inu d r ank f i l te red s ake .

( Numbe r s i np a ren these s r e f e r t ot h e n umbe r s i nt h e l i s t o f y uka ra i nA ppend ix -2 ) A l though my d i scuss ion t h rough o u t t h i s b ook f o cu se s o n i r on , Ih ave t od i scuss t h e o t he ra c t iv i t ie si nA inu s oc ie ty i n o rde rt os how t h a t i r on a c t iv i ty i so ne p a r to fs oc ie ty . It r ea t i r on a c t iv i ty a s e qua l t oa ny o t he r k ind o fa c t iv i ty i nA inu s oc ie ty . F o r t h is r ea son Ih ave t o b a lance i r on a c t iv i ty a ga in s t o the r a spec t s o f s oc ie ty t o s how i ta s p a r t o f t h e s ame s ys tem . 7 -4 -1

A t t h e d r ink ing f e a s t , s ake i ss e rved t ot h e g ue s t s , a s i n" I s e rve /h o ld ac a sk / w a lk a l ong / s e rv ing /p ou rs ake" ( 59 , 6 2 , 10 ) . T he re i s ac e r ta in manne r o f d r ink ing s ake w h ich i s d e sc r ibed a s" ca r ry ing my se l fo n my k nee s /r ece ive ab ow lo f s ake /p r e sen t i to n h igh /p resen t i tl owe r / d r ink i ta to ne g o / r e tur n t h e b ow l o f s ake" ( 106 ) , o r " a b ig b ow l o f s ake l p r e sen ti to nh i gh /p re sen ti tl owe r" ( 152 ) .

A lcoho l : s ake

T he t h ing mo s tf r equen t ly d e sc r ibed a nd t h e mo s tf r e quen t ly u sed w o rd i ny uka ra i sa l cohol ic d r ink — s ake .F o ri n s tance : Iv i s i t t h e A inu p l ace /a nd r e tu rned w i th s ake ! mau la nd s h i to m och ia ss ouven i r / Ii n v i ted t h e k amu i wh ich i sn ea r / w h ich i si nd i s tance / ( I h ea r ) t h ek amu i v o ices w h ich s ound m e r r i ly /t o my h ea r t / Ie n joy / t h e k amu i e n t i r e ly t h ank t o me / s peak v e ry h i gh ly / my r ank o ft h e k amu i l g e t t ing h igh r ank / Il i ve ( 12 ) .

T he A inu e n joy t h ese d r ink ing f ea s t s a nd t h ey l i ke d r ink ing s ake :" when s ake a r r ived / Iw a s i nv i ted / Iam a b le t oj o in a d r ink ing f e a s t /a s Id r ink s ake a long / my h ea r t b ecome s s o f t w i th s ake l my h ea r t b ecome s me r ry w i th s ake" ( 4 7 ) , a nd " I h ea r t h e v o ice o f ad r ink ing f ea s t a nd d in ing p a r ty j oyfuly . . .you j o in a nd make y ou r h ear t h appy" ( 2 8 ) . A t t h e c l imax o f ad r ink ing f e a s t , s ongs a nd d ance s a r e p e r fo rmed , a si n" dance ad ance / a ga in a nd a ga in /k amu i l a ugh l oud ly / v o ice s s ound j oyfu l" ( 74 ) , " Ii n s is t o n d r ink ing s ak e l ad ee r k amu i b ecame c omp le te ly d runk / s t a r ted t od ance / as t amp d anc e / Ih e lp t h ed ee rk amu i ld ance t o ge the r" ( 75 ) , s o "many k i nd so fd ance sa r ep e r fo rmed" ( 8 1) . When t h e A inu p e r fo rm y uka ra , t h ey u se a b a r c a l led a r epun i , a s p rev ious ly men t ioned , i n o rder t o k eep r hy thm , a s i n " take a s haman is t ic b a r f r om t h e b rea s t / s t a r t as ong ( i . e . y uka ra )" ( 1 52 ) . T hese l i nes c l ea r ly i nd ica te t h a t t h e r epun i w a s a n i mp lemen tu sed b y as haman .

I n A inu s oc ie ty a s d esc r ibed i n y uka ra s ake a nd mau ( wh i t t led s t ick s )f o rm a na n t i thes i se xp res sed i ns uch p h ra se s a s " A inu s ake l A inu Mau" ( 6 ) . I ti se a sy t ou nde r s tand t h a t s ake a nd mau a re v e ry i mpo r tan t i n ma in ta in ing t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e k amu i a nd t h e A inu . I ti sv e ry i mpo r tan tt h a tt h ek amu i s hou ld b ep resen ted w i th s ak ea nd mau o f fe r ings b y t he A inu i n o rde r t o b ecome a h i ghe r k amu i ( i . e . amo re i mpo r tan tk amu i ) i nt h ek amu i 's w o r ld . When t h e A inu d r ink s ak e , t h ey i nv i te many p eop le f o r a d r ink ing f ea s t a s i sd e sc r ibed i n y ukara l i ne s s uch a s t h e f o l low ing : " b rew s ake la nd i n v i t e o ne o f y ou a s my g ue s t / t r ea t o ne o fy ou a s my ma s t e r / t h en w e w i l l h ave ad r ink ing f e a s ta nd ame r ry t ime t oge the r" ( 24 ) , o r" hav ing ad r ink ing f e a s t /h av ing ad inne r p a r ty / i ti sr eady / . . . to k amu i w h ich i s n ea r / k amu i w h ich i si n d i s tance / my f o s te r b ro the r / s end i nv i ta t ions" ( 62 ) , a nd " I sh ika r i k amu i l b r ew s ake l g ood k amu i lb ad k amu i l i nv i te t h e s ame n umbe ro fk amu i l g ood k amu i s i ta th igh t a b le i n al i ne /b ad k amu i s i t a tl ow t a b le i n al i ne / f a c ing e ach o the r / f o r d r ink ing f e a s t " ( 80 ) . T h is d r ink ing f ea s t i sn o t j u s t ap a r ty ; i ti sa l so ac e remony a t w h ich t o r eve re t he k amu i . T herefo re , as ea t ing p l an i nvo lv ing ah igh t a b le a nd al ow t a b le i sd e c ided u pon . " The k amu i 's d r ink ing f ea s t / f r om ah igh t a b le t o al ow t a b le /a l l t o ge the r / a l l o f t h em / s i t a tt a b le" c an b e v i sua l i sed a s a f o rma l d i nne rp a r ty a t wh ich a l l t h ei n v i ted g ue s t sa r es e a t ed a tt a b le t oge the r .

mau , w h i t t led s t ick s , a r ea si mpo r tan ta ss ake a tt h ed r ink ing f e a s t , s ot h a ti tc an b e s a id t h a t ad r ink ing f e a s ti sn o to n ly a p a r ty b u ta l so ac e remony . mau a r e w ooden s t ick s : t h e b ody o ft h e w ooden b a r i ss haved r epea ted ly t h inne r a nd t h inne r t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e b a r , wh ich c rea tes l o t s o f wood s hav ings , s t i l l a t tached t o t h e b a r , w h ich a re u sed f o r t h e A inu c e remon ie s . mau mu s tb e p roduced b y men , t oj udge f r om l i ne s l i ke " t he t h ing w h ich w omen s hou ld n o t d o i s p roduc ing mau f o rt h e k amu i" ( 55 ) . I ti sn a r ra t ed a s" s ake w a s b r ewed / s ake a nd mau a re p resen ted t om e / w o rd s o f t h ank s t o me a r e g iven / s o Ib ecome a h ighe r a nd h ighe r k amu i l Il i ve" ( 50 ) , w h i le o the r l i ne s : " m au made b y h uman s ( i . e . t h e A inu ) /a r e w ha t Iw an t t oh ave / t h en i fi ti s p re sen ted t o me a nd p rayed f o r m e / Ig o b ack t h e k amu i 's l a nd w i th i t " ( 104 ) . A s men t ioned a bove , i ti s v e ry i mpo r tan t f o rk amu i t oh ave mau . I f ak amu i d oe s n o th ave t h e A inu 's Mau when i tg oe s b ack t ot h e k amu i 's l a nd , t h en t h ek amu i f e e ls s hame . T he r e s t o ft h e k amu i i nt h ek amu i 's l a nd l o ok d own o n i t .F o r t h e k amu i , t h e refo re , mau i sa n i mpo r tan t ma te r ia l r e ce ived f r om t h e A inu . Ay uka ra w h ich i sn a r ra ted b y ak amu i w h ich d id n o tb r ing A inu Mau t ot h e k amu i 's l a nd , b u th ad i n s tead t h e J apane se i nau l ike o b jec t , t e l l s h ow s hamed i tw a s , a s i n : " kamu i wh ich w a s s en t o f f b y t h eJ apane se u nde r t h e i rc us tom / w i th ab ranch o fw i l low t r ee s w i th p i ece s o fp ape r a t tached / . . c l imb ing a l ong u p t o

When a d r ink ing f ea s t t a ke s p lace , p repa ra t ions mu s t b e made b y t h e h os t a nd t h e p roce ss o f b rew ing s ake i s d e sc r ibed : " b rew s ak e lt wo o rt h r ee d ay s /w a i tf o rs ak er e ady / . . then / s p lend id d r ink ing f e a s tt o ok p lace" ( 16 ) , o r" hav ing p a ssed / t wo o r t h ree d ays / s ake h a s b een b rewed w e l l / d r ink ing f e a s tt a ke sp lace" ( 5 1 , 5 8 , 8 1) , a nd " hav ing p a s sed / t wo o r t h ree d ays /n ow /s ake b e ing b rewed w e l l / n i ce s me l l

8 4

7 :T he a na tomy o f y uka ra

t h e s ky / l o t s o f p iece s o fp ape r a round t h e k amu i 's b ody / p iece s o f p ape r s w ing ing / mak ing a n u g ly n o i se / w ha t a s hame s uch a n u g ly s i gh ti s " ( 45 ) . I ti sv e ry i n t e r es t ing t h a t t h e A inu k new t h a tt h eJ apanese h ave a ni n au l ike o b jec tf o r J apane se g ods , wh ich t h e S h in to p r ie s t s u se i n J apane se s h r ine s a nd t ha t s ome p a r t s o f t h o se i nau -l i ke o b jec t s a r e made o fp ape r . Howeve r , t h eA inu c l ea r ly f e l tt h a tt h ek amu i s hou ld h ave t h e A inu mau n o t t h eJ apane se s ty le o ne a si n : " A inu 's m au a nd A inu 's s ak e f r om t h eA inu /a r r ived f o rm e / . . Ib ecome ah ighe rk amu i" ( 108 ) .

g o ing t ot r ade f o r t h e b ea r -cub k amu i t og ive i t as p lend id s end ing -of ff e a s t . I ti si mpo r tan t t on o te t h a t t h e p u rpo se o f A inu t r ade w i th J apan i st og e tJ apane se s ak ea nd i n g red ien t s f o r mak ing s ake f o rd r ink ing f e a s t sa nd a ny o the rs end ing -of f f e a s t s . T h i s i sb ecause s ake , a cco rd ing t ot h e A inu , i st h e mo s t i mpo r tan tt h ing f o rt h ek amu i .

F o r t h e A inu , t he mean ing o f t h e d r ink ing f e a s t a s a c e remony i st ha t i ti n vo lve s s end ing s ake a nd mau t ot h e k amu ii nt h ek amu i 's l a nd : a s t h e se l i ne s p u ti t" Ok iku runü k amu i lb r ew s ake l s ake a nd mau f o r my w if e / a r r ived w i th p raye r " ( 5 8 ) . T he d r ink ing f e a s t t h u s p l ay s av e ry i mpo r tan t r o le i nA inu s oc ie ty , s o i ts hou ld t a k e p l ace . O n t h e o t he r h and , f r om t he k amu i 's p o in t o f v i ew , k amu i g o t o t h e A inu 's l a nd t ov i s i ta nd c ome b ack t ot h ek amu i 's l a nd w i th l o t s o f s ouven i r s s uch a ss ake , mau a nd s h i to -moch i f r om t h e A inu . T he k amu i i st h e refo re a b le t oi n v i te o t he rk amu i t o ad r ink ing f ea s tt os ha re t h e s ouven i r s , a nd t h en t h e r a nk o ft h ek amu i wh ich i so f f e r ing t h es ouven i r sb ecome sh i ghe r i nt h ek amu i 's l and . K amu i i nt h ek amu i 's l a nd a l so r e ce ive g i f t s s uch a ss ake , mau , a nd s h i to m och i ( A inu f ood , made o f m i l le t ) f r om t he A inu a nd p raye r s t h rough o u t t h e d r ink ing f e a s t , a nd t h e k amu i r e c ip ien t a l so s ha re s t h e g i f t s among t h e o the r k amu i s o t h a ti t s r a nk a sk amu i b ecome s h ighe r . S o , a s ment ioned e a r l ie r " Iv i s i t t h e A inu p l a ce , a nd r e turned w i th s ake , mau , a nd s h i to moch i a s s ouven i r , I i nv i ted t h e k amu i wh ich i sn ea r , w h ich i sa t ad i s tance , ( I h ea r ) t h e k amu i v o ice s w h ich s ound m e r r i ly , t o my h ea r t , I e n joy , t h e k amu i e n t i re ly t h ank m e , s peak v e ry h i gh ly , my r ank o ft h e k amu i , g e t t ing h igh r ank , Il i ve" ( 12 ) . F o r t h e k amu i , t h e refo re , i ti si mpor tan tt ov i s i tt h eA inu i no rde rt o r ece ive g i f t s /of f e r ings , o the rw i se t h e k amu i i sn o t a b le t o b ecome ah ighe r k amu i . K amu i w an t t o v i s i t , t o" make a f o r tune / Ig od own t ot h eA inu 's l a nd" ( 4 5 ) . When f am ine o ccu r red i nA inu s oc ie ty , " t he l a s tf ood w h ich we h ave / t h a t i so n ly c e rea ls / Ib rew s ake f r om t h e l a s t c e rea l s / a nd w i th t h is s ake a nd mau ! Ip ray" ( 8 1 ) . I no t he r wo rd s , t h e l a s t c e rea l s a r e u sed f o r b r ew ing s ake f o r t h e k amu i i no rde r t o p ray f o r b r ing ing f ood d own f r om t h e k amu i 's l a nd . s ake i su sed f o rp raye r sa nd t og i ve t h ank s t o t h ek amu i , a nd a l so i nm emo r ia l s e rv ice s . I ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e k amu i i s ma in ta ined t h rough t h e a gency o fs ake a nd mau , a nd t h er o le s ake p lays i s av ery i mpo r tan to ne .

P o isoned s ak e i s men t ioned i n y uka ra ; f o r e xamp le , " my f a the r w a s d ece ived a nd g iven p o i soned s ake b y I s h ika r i" ( 1 52 ) ,a nd " bad J apane se i n te rp re te r /p o i soned t h es ake lg ave i tt o m e t o d r ink / Iw a s k i l led" ( 92 ) . I t i s p o ss ib le t o s pe cu la te t h a ts im i la rt h ing sh appened i nA inu s oc ie ty . 7 -4 -2 E xpress ion o f s oc ia l

c lasses

I ti sp o ss ib le t ha t t h e k ind o f d r ink ing f ea s t s men t ioned a bove c ou ld o n ly b e o f f e red b y r i ch A inu , b a sed o n t h e e x i s tence o ft h e wo rd s u ssh in u t ar a nd s hukum i u tar o ra inu e wn k ur , w h ich m ean ' s e rvan t s ' . A cco rd ing t oB a tche lo r 's d i c t iona ry , t h e se w o rd s mean ' s laves ' , w h i le Kubode ra 's t r ans la t ion i s ' s e rvan t s ' . Wha t t ype o f r e la t ionsh ip w a s i n vo lved i sn o tc l ea r ly i d en t if ied , w i thou tk now ing w he the r t h e ' s e rvan t s ' w e re p a id o rj u s t g iven f ood . Howeve r , t h e b ehav iou r o fu s sh in u tar a nd s hukum i u t ar a se xp re ssed i n y uka ra , s e em t o me t o i mp ly t h a t t h ey w e re n o t ' s lave s ' , b ecause t h ey s ome t ime s b ehave b ad ly a nd a re l a zy , n o t w o rk ing w h i le t h e ma s te ri sa way .T he re a r e ma le a nd f ema le m embe r so ft h i s c l a s s : am an s e rvan ti so kkayo u ssh in a nd a w oman s e rvan t i sm enoko u ssh in . I ts eem s t ha t t h ey w e re n o tt empo ra r i ly emp loyed . T he j ob s w h ich t h ey d o i n c lude " c lea r ing o n ma t" ( 62 ) f o r w omen s e rvan t s , " ga the r ing w ood f o r f ue l /mak ing f i re s" ( 62 ) a nd " eve ryday / g o h un t ing / b r ing d ee r a nd b ea r s b ack h ome" ( 62 ) f o r men s e rvan t s . When ad r ink ing f ea s t i st o t a ke p l ace , t h ey p roduce s ake a nd mau : " s e rvan ts who make i n au lr un k n ive s e a ch o t he r /s e rvan t s w ho f i l te r a nd s queeze s ake l r un s pa tu la s e ach o the r" ( 36 , 5 9 ) . T hey a l so b u i ld a h ou se a s i n" beau t ifu l h u t / w a s b u i l t " ( 106 ) . T he re a r e a l so d e sc r ibed a sl o ok ing a f te r ab ea r wh ich i sb e ing k ep t , g i v ing i tf ood . H owever , a cco rd ing t o o ne b ea r -cub k amu i 's n a r ra t ion , s e rvan t s d id n o t f e ed i t :" Iw a s n o t f ed a ta l l" ( 8 ) w h i le t h e ma s te r w en t t ot r ade . I n a no the r c a se , w hen t h e ma s te rc ame b a ck a nd s aw af i rep lace w i th a lmo s tn ot r ace o f f i r e , h ek i cked t h e s e rvan t s w ho w e re s l eep ing a nd s a id : " a s y ou a r el ow -c la s sp eop le /h ow d a re y ou s l eep" (6 2 ) , t h en t h e s e r van t sg o tu po ne a f te ra no the ri ns u rp r i se . I tc an b e s e en t ha tt h ese s e rvan t sl i ve i nt wo t ype so fp l ace s : o ne i si n s ide t h e ma s te r 's h ouse , a nd t h eo the ri so u t s ide t h e ma s te r 's h ou se . T he f o rme rl i ve i nt h e l owe rp o s i t ion o ft h e ma s te r 's h ouse : " a y oung w oman s e rvan t w ho i si n l owe r p l ace" ( 107 ) . T he l a t te r l i ve o u t s ide t h e ma s te r 's h ou se , i n w h ich c a se t h ey l i ve i na no the r h ou se o r e ven o u t s ide t h e c ha sh i :" Io rde r s e rvan t s w ho l i ve o u t s ide c ha sh i t ob u i ld a b eau t if u lh u t" ( 106 ) .

A s men t ioned a bove , s ake i s p roduced b y t h e A inu t hemse lve s a nd t he l a s t c e rea l i su sed f o r b rew ing s ake , wh ich m eans t ha t A inu c e rea l s s uch a sm i l le t a nd b a rnya rd m i l le t w e re u sed f o r p roduc ing A inu s ake . H oweve r , a no the rk i nd o fs ake i sa l so m en t ioned i ny uka ra , a nd t h a ti s J apane se s ake , wh ich i si mpo r ted f r om J apan a nd c a l led u i rnam s ak eo rt ono to . T he o r ig ina lA inu s ake i sc a l led a inu s ake o ra sh ikoro . I ti sn a r ra t ed t h a t" t rade w i th t h eJ apane se / Ig o t o / t r ade s ake lb r ing / b r ing b ack b y s h ip" ( 7 ) , o r " Ig o t o t r ade / i n gred ien t s f o r s ake ! Ib r ing b a ck" ( 8 ) , a nd " t rade s ake ! t r ade J apans s ake ! A inu s ake l b o th t oge the r " ( 9 ) . A b ea r -cub k amu i d e scr ibe s h ow a n A inu s a id t oi tt h a t b e i s

T he re a r ew o rd si nd ica t ing h i gh a nd l ow c l a s se s , s uch a sy a i u t ark esh i , w h ich m ean s l ow -c la s sp eop le i n my v i l lage ' , o r y a i -u t arp a , w h ich mean s ' h igh -c la s sp eop le i n my v i l lage ' . T he re a r ea l so e xp res s ions t h a tr e vea l t h a tr ank w a si nhe r i t ed s uch a s" aw oman s e rvan tw hose n o se s how s l ow -c la ss" .

8 5

7 :T he a na tomy o fy uka ra

Ac a t ego ry o fc l a sses d i s t ingu ished b y e conom ic d i spa r i t ie s i sa l so i nd ica ted : t h e re a r e t e rm s f o r r i ch a nd p oo r . Wo rd s s uch a sn i sh ipa -ne -kur o rn i sh ipane -kusu a r e u sed f o r ar i ch A inu , a nd h i s r i chness i sd e sc r ibed i n t e rms o f me tapho r a cco rd ing t ot h e s ame p a t te rn : " wha t ar i ch man / al i ne o f t r ea su r e /a si fl a id ac l i f fi nl ow h e igh t / l a id al o ng l i ne / o n t h em /s wo rd sf o r ah ead / many many h ead so fs wo rd s / much much h ead so fs wo rd s /o ve r lapp ing o ne a no the r /t a s se l sf r om s wo rd s /s w ing ing , mov ing /b r igh tt r ea su re /r ef lec t ing o n t h e wa l l / s h in ing b r i l l ian t ly / r ef lec t ing s hadow" ( 16 , 6 0 , 1 05 , 1 07 , 1 08 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 1 21 ) . T he a bove l i ne s e mpha s ise ma te r ia lw ea l th , w h ich i mp l ie s t h a tt h e wo rd r i ch r e f e r s t oa man who p ossesse s many f i ne g oods . Wea l th i s a l so d e scr ibed a s " game f r om o f f sho re b rough t u p t ot h e l a nd / g ame f r om t h e moun ta in b rough t d own t ot h e l a nd / a s t h i s man i s at r ue r i ch man ( n ish ipa )" ( 101 ) . T hus aman w ho b rough t b ack , a nd p o sse s sed p l en ty o f g ame f r om h un t ing a nd f i sh ing i sa l so p e rce ived a s ar i ch A inu .

h oe o n t op o fO pu ta te sh ike moun ta in / f r om t h e h oe /a n e lm t r ee g rew" ( 109 ) . I nC hap te r 6 Ih ave d i scu s sed h oes c a l led k upuka o rk u tuka . I tw a s a r gued t ha tt h ey w e re a n i r on h oe s b u th e re n ik upuk r e f e r s t o aw ooden h oe m ade f r om a n e lm t r ee .T he re i sa no the ro ina w h ich r e la t e st h a tl a nd w a sc r ea ted b yk amu i u s ing aw ooden s h i tapu w h ich i s ad i f f e ren t t y pe o fc u l t iva t ion t oo l . T he a c t iv i t ie s o fc u l t iva t ion a r e c l ea r ly e xp r e s sed i ny uka ra . T he re i s ad e sc r ip t ion o f " a l a nd w h ich i sc u l t iva ted w i th h oe s i nt h e d i s tance / b lack i sh b lack / al a nd w h ich i sm own b y s i ck le s i n t h e d i s tance / w h i t ish w h i te" ( 1 59 , 1 60 , 1 61 , 1 62 , 1 63 ) . I nt h ef a rd i s tance , t h e l a nd l o ok sb l ack whe re t h e s o i l h a s b een l a id b a re b y t h e h oe , w h i le o t he ra rea s w he re g ra s se s h ave b een mown b y s i ck le s h ine w h i t ish w h i te . F ie ld s , t o i ta i nA inu , o ccu ri ny ukara , a si n" l ike d igg ing u p c u l t iva ted f i e ld s /l i ke mo re t h an d igg ing u pc u l t iva ted f i e ld s / at u rned o ve r" ( 121 , 1 22 ) . T h is e xp res ses t he m e s sy c ond i t ion o ft h e g round w hen t h e s o i l h a s b een t ur ned o ve r a f te r af i e ld i sc u l t iva ted . T h is i mage i su sed a s ame tapho r f o r d i so rde r . T he re i sa l so t h e p a ssage i nw h ich a r abb i t k amu i n a r ra te s h ow i tw a s a sked " why d o y ou e a t s uch t h ings /a nd make ame s so ft h e f i e ld s / . .n eve r make am e s s o f t h e f i e lds / p robab ly c e rea l k amu i g e t a ng ry . . ." ( 30 ) . " A b i g f i e ld / as ma l lf i e ld / mow ing" ( 152 , 1 53 ) a nd a l so " al i t t le f i e ld v ege tab le /f i e ld t oba cco" ( 33 ) a r e f u r the rr e f e rence s t o c u l t iva ted l a nd a nd c u l t iva t ion n a r ra ted i nt h ey ukar a .

On t h e o the rh and , t h e w o rd w en k ur -ne -kur means ap oo r A inu w ho i sd e sc r ibed a s" ar i ch man i nt h ep a s t / ap oo r man a tt h ep re sen t" o r" ap oo r man i nt h e p a s t / ar i ch man a tt h e p resen t " ( 56 ) . T h is i nd ica te s t h a t s t a tu s may n o t h ave b een p e rmanen t . Mo reove r , i ti ss a id t h a t " ac h i ld i np oo r s t a tus w ho se p a ren t sl i ved ag ood l i f e /a f te rt h e i rp r ema tu re d ea ths / t h e c h i ld w a s b rough t u p b y i t s g randmo the r / Ik now t h a ti s ap oo rc h i ld" ( 5 5 ) .

When t h e A inu h a rves tm i l le t , t h ey u se t o o l s made o fs he l l , c a l led p ipa , i no rde r t op i ck u p t h e e a r s o fm i l le t . Ay uka ra w h ich i sn a r ra t ed b y o ne o ft h ese p ipa i t se l ft e l ls w hy A inu w omen s t a r ted t ou se p ipa f o r p i ck ing u p t h e e a r s o fm i l le t : " p ipa made S amayukuru 's m i l le t f i e ld w i the r / Ok iku rum i 's m i l le t f i e ld s r i ch / k now ing a l l t ha t / p i ck u p t he e a r s o f m i l le tw i th p ipa s he l ls / t h en w heneve rA inu w omen p i ck u p t h e e a r s o f m i l le t u se p ipa s he l ls" ( 137 ) . A f te r m i l le t i s h a rve s ted , t h ec rop n eed st od ry o u t s ide , ap roce ss d esc r ib ed i nt h e f o l low ing l i nes : " b r ing o u t d r ied t h ings [ i . e . m i l le t ] w h ich i sf u l ly o n ar e ed ma t o u t / b r ing o u tt h ings w h ich i s f u l ly o n aw innow ing b a ske t" . T hen , t h e n ex t s t age , c r op s n eed t h re sh ing a nd p ound ing : " b low m i l le tb r an a way" ( 1 26 ) , a nd " pound m i l le t w i th a p es t le" ( 167 ) , i n a mo r ta r . T he c e rea l f ood s h i to -moch i i s made b y t h i s p roce ss . When t h e A inu make i t" ag roup o fm en / ag roup o fw omen / g a the r ed t o ge the r t o make s h i to -mochr ( 38 ) . I ti sa ppa ren tf r om t h e r e f e renc ei ny uka ra n a r ra t ion t o" mo r ta rm an a nd p e s t le m an" ( 4 , 5 )t h a tt h ep e s t le a nd mo r ta rw e r e w ide ly k nown a nd u s ed i nA inu s oc ie ty .

Howeve r , t h is i sa n e xp re ss ion w h ich may i nd ica te t h a t s t a tus w a s h anded d own f r om f a the r t os on : " ac h ie fo ft h is v i l lage / a sh e w a s ac h i ld o f / s u rpr is ing ly / ama s te r o f t h i s h ouse i s ar i ch man" ( 16 ) . T he re a re a c t ions w h ich a r e d e sc r ibed a sa s soc ia ted w i th d eg ree so fs t a tus ,a si n" h ide r i ch p eop le 's b od ies / g o o u t a nd s how p oo r p eop le 's b o t tom" ( 31 , 4 9 , 5 0 ) . T h is i sa n e xamp le o f a n e xp ress ion u sed f r equen t ly i ny uka ra a ga in s tu nwe lcome i n t rude r s , s uch a sa n e p idem ic -d i sea se k amu i , t op r even ti tf r om e n te r ing t h eA inu v ilage . A cco rd ing t oC h i ni( Ch i l i 1 973 ) , t od i sp lay ap r iva t e p a r t o f t h e b ody i s a n i n su l t i n A inu s oc ie ty . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he a bove s en tence , t h en , may b e t h a t p eop le o f d i f f e ren t r ank i n A inu s oc ie ty p layed d i f f e ren t s oc ia lr o le si nk eep ing o u t s ide r sa tb ay . 7 -4 -3 ( 1 )

S ubs istence

a ct iv ity

Cu lt ivat ion

Ih ave m en t ioned t ha t A inu s ake i sp roduced f r om c e rea ls , a nd e v idenc ef o rt h i s h a sa l ready b een q uo ted : " t he l a s tf ood w h ich w e h ave / t h a t i so n ly c e rea l s / Ib rew s ake f r om t h e l a s t c e rea l s / a nd w i th t h i s s ake a nd mau ! Ip ray" ( 8 1) . T he o r ig ins o fs ake i nA inu s oc ie ty mus tg o b ack a s f a r a s t h e i r c e remony o f t h e d r ink ing f e a s t w h ich , a cco rd ing t o t h e i r c o smo logy , c ou ld n o tb e c a r r ied o u t w i thou ts ake . T he A inu w o rd f o rc e rea ls i s amamu a nd i n c lude s m i l le ta nd b a rnya rd m i l le t . T he refo re i ts eem s l i ke ly t h a t t h e A inu mus t h ave s t a r ted t o c u l t iva te amamu a l ong t ime a go i n o rde r t o p roduce s ak e .

( 2 )

Hun t ing

A l though h un t ing a c t iv i t ies d o r ece ive s ome a t ten t ion i nt h e y uka ra , t h ed esc r ip t ions a r eb y n o means a sf u l la nd d e ta i led a s t ho se c once rned w i th c u l t iva t ion o r t h e p repa ra t ion o f m ea l s . H un t ing i nA inu i se k imme , w h ich r e a l ly mean s ' t o g o t ot h e moun ta in s ' , t oh un t , a s i n" go t ot h e moun ta in t o h un t / a n a n ima l l i ke ad ee r / a n a n ima l l i ke ab ea r / b r ing i t b ack t o t h e h ouse" ( 62 , 1 05 , 11) . T he h un t ing t oo l i sa b ow , w h ich i s made o ft h eb a rk o fc he r ry t r ee s ,a si n" ab ow w h ich i sw rapped i nt h e b a rk o fc he r ry t r ees "( 65 , 1 03 , 11) . When a n a n ima l i sc augh t i nt h e moun ta in s , p ar t icu la r ly a d ee r , i ti sc u t i n to p iece s , s t a r t ing w i th i t s l e gs a s i n" t he f r on t l e g o f ad ee r / t h e h ind l e g o f ad ee r / It h rus t ak n i f e / I

I no ne c r ea t ion my th o ft h e A inu , t h e k amu i w h ich c r ea ted t h e A inu l a nd u sed ah oe . T he y uka ra n a r ra tes a s " an e lm t r ee / made ah and le o f w ooden h oe / w i th t h e h oe / l a nd i s c r ea t ed /v i l lage i sc r ea ted /a f t e rp roduc ing e ve ry th ing /l e f tt h e

8 6

7 :T he a na tomy o f y uka ra

t r y s k in s c rape" ( 121) . O the r a n ima l s a r e b rough t h ome o n t h eh un te r 's b ack . T he a n ima ls a r e ma in ly d ee ra nd b ea r s , a s i n" ca tch d ee ra nd b ea r s /f o rb r ing ing u p u s" ( 88 ) . As pec ia l m e tapho rt op ra ise s omeone w ho i sv e ry g ood a th un t ing a nd c a tch ing g ame i st o s ay o f h im t h a t h e b r ing s t h e g ame o f t h e s ea t o t h e l and a nd t h e g ame o f t h e moun ta in t o t h e l ow land sa s i n" game f r om o f f sho re b rough tu p t ot h e l a nd / g ame o f moun ta in b rough t d own t ot h e l a nd" ( 100 , 1 01 , 1 03 ) . A no the r h un t ing t o o l i s ac on t r ivance b ow s uch a s a t r ap i nt h ef o rm o fa na u toma t ic b ow f o rc a tch ing r a bb i t sa nd s ma l l a n ima ls . I n o ne y uka ra , ar abb i t n a r ra te s h ow " my a nces to rr abb i t s /w heneve ry ou s e e ab ow t rap /d odge t oo ne s i de t o e scape i t " ( 29 ) . T he f ox d oes n o t s eem t o b e a f avou r i te a n ima l : " why s hou ld I s e t ab ow t r ap f o r a d e sp icab le f ox? n eve r ! "( 2 4 ) . ( 3 )

b ow l mus tb e f i led u p w i th b o i led m ile t , t h en p u to n at r ay f o r e a t ing , a si n" t ake at h in -made t r ay w h ich i sp l ac ing o n t h e t r ea su re p l ace" ( 30 ) , a nd " at h in -made b ow l , at h in -made t r ay , o ne u pon a no the r" o r" t h in -made t r ay , t h in -mad eb ow l , o ne u pon a no the r " ( 90 , 1 07 , 1 08 , 10 , 1 21 , 1 54 ) . T he m ea l i st h en s e rved i n av e ry p o l i te w ay ; s e rv ing amea l f o r a h usband i sd esc r ibed t h us b y t h e w if e : " r espec t fu l ly / t ot h e k amu i w hom Ir a ise u p / t ot h e l i v ing k amu i w hom Ir e ve re / t h i s i sw ha t Iw an t" ( 121) , w h i le ak amu i h usband d e sc r ibe s t h e s e rv ing p roce ss t h us : " when r eady i st h e b ow l w h ich i s f u l l o fb o i led m i l le t / p u t s h e r h and s d own / c a r ry ing h e r se lf f o rwa rd s o n h e rk nee s / p re sen t s i tt o me f r om b e low" ( 107 , 1 08 , 1 09 , 10 ) . R ega rd ing t h e manne r o f e a t ing , w hen a m ea l i sr e ce ived , t h eb ow l i sr a ised h igh i nt h e a i r , a nd t h en l owe red a si n" p re sen ted h igh ly /p resen ted l owe r "( 90 ) .T hen t h em ea l i se a ten .

F ish ing A s men t ioned a bove , t he e xp re ss ion f o r p repa r ing a nd s e rv ing m ea ls a ppea r s many t ime s a nd f o l lows t h e s ame p a t tern . I t i s p os s ib le t o c ons ider t ha t t h e se f o rmu lae r ep re sen tt h es oc ia le xp re s s ion o ft h ea ccumu la ted e xpe r ience o fd a i ly l i f ei nA inu s oc ie ty r e f lec ted i ny uka ra .

F i sh ing a c t iv i ty i sd e sc r ibed i ny uka ra , e spec ia l ly c a tch ing s a lmon . T he f a vou red t e chn ique a mong t h e A inu w a s t oh i t t h e f i sh o n t h e h ead w i th a w ooden s t ick , d e sc r ibed a s i n " a l though i tw ou ld b e b e t t e r t ok i l l s a lmon b y h i t t ing t h em o n t h e h ead w i th as p lend id s t ick made o fw i l low" ( 8 1) . A n a l ter na t ive me thod w a s t o make a w e i r i n t h e r i ve r , a s i n " pu t u p p os t s f o r af i sh t r ap made f r om t h e w a lnu t t r ee" ( 134 ) ,a nd " af i sh t r ap , e ggs o fs a lmon" ( 1 71) . S ea f i sh ing i s d e sc r ibed a nd i n c lude sa na ccoun to fc a tch ing as pea rf i sh a nd as wo rdf i sh . F o r t h is , h a rpoons a r e u s ed . T he h a rpoon s a r e d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l : t h er ope o ft h eh a rpoon i s made o fn e t t le s t ems , t h e wooden h and le o ft h e h a rpoon i s made o fc he r ry , t h e h ead o f h a rpoon i s made o f m e ta l , a nd t h e s ha f t o f h a rpoon i s made o f b one . T he p roduc t ion p roce ss i sa l so d e sc r ibed ,a nd w i l lb ed i scu s sed i nt h em e ta ls e c t ion . ( 4 )

7 -4 -4

F am ine

F am ine i s as e r ious ma t te r i na ny s oc ie ty . N a r ra t ive s a bou t f am ine a r e c ommon i n y uka ra : f o r e xamp le " i n t h e A inu l a nd / a si fa l l f i re s ( l igh t s ) g o o u t / b ecau se o ff am ine o ccu r" ( 7 5 ) a nd " made t h e A inu l a nd t ob e f am ine / t h u s t h e A inu l a nd i sg r ipped b yf am ine" ( 74 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h e A inu , t h e r e a son w hy f am ine o ccu r s i st h a t t h ek amu i i nt h el a nd o fk amu i d on o ts end f ood d own t ot h e A inu 's l a nd f o r s ome r ea son ; s ome t imes i ti st h e A inu 's f a u l t b ecause t h e A inu h ave t r ea ted t h ek amu i c a re le s s ly , a s t h e k amu i r e la te , b u t , o n o the r o cca s ion s , f am ine o ccu r s b o th i nt h eA inu 's l a nd a nd i nk amu i ' sl a nd b ecau se ad emon k amu i , s uch a st h e O ld Woman -B ig P o tk amu i a pp rop r ia te s a l l t h e f ood f o r i t se lf , a s i n" b ig p o t k amu i l d emon k amu i l c ause f am ine / t h e A inu 's v i l lage / g r ipped b y f am ine / t h e k amu i t o o a nd t h e A inu t oo / a r e d r iven t oe x t rem i ty" ( 1 14 ) a nd " O ld Woman -B ig P o t k amu i j ea lous t oo much / p ro spe r i ty o f t h e A inu v i l lage / p lunde r s s p i r i t o f f ood / S h i sh i r imuka . . . / i nt h e k amu i v i l lage a nd t h e A inu v i l lage / f am ine o ccu r s" ( 1 13 ) , o r " t he A inu v i l lage t oo / k amu i v i l lage t o o / f am ine t ook p lace / a l l a r e d r iven t oe x t rem i ty" ( 5 1 ) .

Mea ls

I n t h e y uka ra , t h e re a r e many n a r ra t ion s o fm ea ls a nd t h e se i n c lude d e ta i led a ccoun t s o ft h e p roce s s o fc ook ing a nd t h e manne ro fe a t ing , w h ich i se xp re s sed b yt h es ame d esc r ip t ive p a t t e rn si nt h ed i f fe ren ty uka ra . F i r s to fa l l , f i re i s made , a nd ap o t i ss e to ve rt h e f i re , a si n" ac h ie fo ft h e A inu / make a f i re r a p id ly /w a sh ap o t /p u t ap o to n to f i re" ( 7 ) , a nd " pu ta b ig p o t o n to t h e f i re / p lace t h e f a ce u nde r t h e p o t [ i . e . f o r b low ing ] / make t h e f i re r ap id ly" ( 1 1 ) . T he i mpor tance o f h av ing c l ean h and s f o rc ook ing i ss t r e s sed a si n" wa sh y ou r h ands / b efo re c ook ing f ood" ( 105 ) , " when y ou c ook f ood / w a sh f r om y ou r a rm t ot h e t i p s o fy ou r f i nge r s" ( 107 , 1 08 , 10 ) , o r" wheneve ry ou c ook /d oi ta f t e rw a sh ing y ou rh and s p rope r ly" ( 121 ) . T hen , t h e n ex ts t age i st ow a sh a mamu [ i . e . m i l le to rb a rnya rd m i l le t ] a nd p u t i ti n to ap o t . N ex t t h e p o t i s p u t o n to a f i re , a nd t h en b o i led m i l le t i sd e l ic ious ly c ooked , a si n" two l a d le w a t e r , t h r ee l a d le w a te r /i n to an i ce ( o r c l ean ) s ma l l p o t /s e to n t h e f i re p l a ce / p u t w a shed m i l le t i n to t h e p o t / s ound o f c ook ing , g u t su ! g u t su ! / d e l ic ious b o i l ed m i l le t /t u rn i to ve rw i th as pa tu la /m ix i tw i th al a d le / t a ke i to f ft h e f i re p lace" ( 107 , 1 08 , 10 ) , o r" pu t an i ce ( o r c l ean ) s ma l l p o t o ve r t h e f i re / w a shed m i l le t i n to t h e p o t / h igh -sound o fd ropp ing m i l le ti n to t h ep o t /f i n ished c ook ing b y s t ir r ing t h e b o i led m i l le t w i th a s pa tu la" ( 90 ) . I ti s i n te re s t ing t os e e t h e p roces s d esc r ibed i ns uch d e ta i l . T h i s p roce s so fc ook ing i sw ide ly p rac t i sed w i th in t h e c on t ex to f a ny r i ce -m i l le t c u l tur e . F ur the r , a f t e r t h e d e l ic iou s b o i led m i l le t i sr eady , i ti ss e rved i n to a b ow l w i th a l a d le , t h e

T o r e l ieve t h e f am ine , t h e A inu c an o n ly p ray t ot h e k amu i t oh e lp t h em : " t he A inu v i l lage / t h e re i sf am ine / n o f ood /i t b ecomes h a rd t op ray t ot h e h i ghe r k amu i l n ow t h e re i sn o f ood / d r iven i n to a t i gh t c orne r / o n ly f ood ( t he l a s t f ood ) w h ich w e h ave / b y t h i s /l e tt h e k amu i k now t h i s f a c t" ( 74 ) , a nd " t he l a s tf ood w h ich w eh ave /t h a ti so n ly c e rea l s / Ib rew s ake f r om t h e l a s t c e rea ls / a nd w i th t h is s ake a nd mau l I p ray" ( 8 1) . When t h e se c i r cums tanc es a r e o b served b y t h e k amu i w i th r e spon s ib il i ty f o r c a r ing f o r t h e A inu l a nd , t h e k amu i s ays : " i n t h e A inu 's l a nd w h ich Ip ro tec t / f am ine o ccu r s / t h e A inu s t a rve t od ea th / Iam u nab le t og o w i thou t l e av ing i t " ( 1 31) .T he e xp r es s ion w h ich p a r t icu la r ly i n d ica te s t h a t af am ine i so ve r a lways i n vo lves t h e a ff i rma t ion t h a t t h e re a r e n ow m any f i sh i nt h e r i ve r , a s i n" as choo l o ff i sh g oe s d own d eep r ubbed t h e b o t tom s t one s o f t h e s t ream / a

8 7

7 :T he a na tomy o f y uka ra

s choo l o f f i sh wh ich g oes t o u ppe r l e ve l b u rn i n t h e s un" ( 75 , 8 6 , 13 ) .

s oc ia l e xpr ess ion among t he A inu , a nd i s u sefu l f o r u nders tand ing t he A inu s oc ia l c on tex t . T h is s oc ia l e xp ress ion o f i n te rac t ion c anno t b e r ead o u t f r om d a ta p rov ided b ye t hnog raphy a nd h i s to r ica ld ocumen ts , wh ich a r e b a sed o no u t s ide r s ' o b se rva t ions a nd a r ec onduc ted w i th in a f r amewo rk i mposed b y o u t s ide r s , r a the r t h an b y t h e A inu t h em se lve s . I ti sa l so v e ry d i f f icu l t t or e cogn i se o n ly f r om ma ter ia l c u l ture , wh ich i s mu te t e s t imony u n less a ccompan ied b y a r chaeo log ica l s t udy a nd a r chaeo log i s t 's i n ter p re ta t ion s .

7 -4 -5 T rade O ne o ft h er e a son s why t h eA inu w e re e age rt ot r ade w i th t h e J apane se w a st oo b ta in J apane se s ak ea s Ih ave a l ready n o ted . H oweve r , t h a t i tw a s n o t o n ly f o r s ake , b u t f o r o the r g ood t h ing s w h ich e ve ry A inu w an t s t og o t r ad ing i sc l ea r f r om : " a l though g ood t h ings w ha t Iw an t t od o / g o ing t ot r ade i n J apan" ( 92 ) .O ina k amu ig oe st oJ apan t ot r ade ( 143 ) a nd " t o g o t o Ma t sumae / r ow t h e b oa t a long" ( 150 ) . T rade i s u imamu i nA inu ,a nd u imamu p a r t icu la r ly i nd ica te s g o ing t o J apan , a l though t h e re w a s t r ade a l so w i th t h e n or th a nd t h e A s ian c on t inen t . R ece iv ing r i ce , t obacco ,a nd s wo rd sa sw el a s s ake f r om J apan , i nr e tu rn , t h e A inu b r ing t h e s k ins o f b ea ra nd d ee r :" a r r ive i n aJ apane se t own /l o t so fs ak e ll o t so f t a bacco / l o t s o f r i ce / l o t s o f t r ea su re / l o t s o f t r ea su re s wo rd s . . . g ood s w h ich t h e J apane se b uy / s k in o fd ee r / s k in o fb ea r s" ( 69 ,7 0 , 7 1 ) .

A n A inu mo the r t r y ing t os t op h e r b aby c r y ing , t e l l s h ow t h e i n fan t 's f a the r d i ed b efo re c om ing b ack t o t hem a f te r b e ing s ummoned b y J apan a nd g o ing u nw i l l ing ly : " t he r u le o ft h eJ apane se s t r ic t /c a l led u pl e t te rc ame f r om t h eJ apane se v i l lage" ( 96 ) .H e w en tt ot h eJ apane se v i l lage , s ay ing : w hen t h e re i sa n omen o fc a lm f r om o f f sho re / g o o u t a nd l ook o u t t o s ea / y ou w i l l s ee a g roup o fb i rd s c om ing t owa rd s t h e l and /i nt h e f r on t o f t h e g roup / t he re i s ab i rd k amui w i thou t ah ead among t h em / i ti s I /p l ea se c ook a ny k i nd o f v ege tab le ( l ike s t ew ) / c ook a ny k ind o fg r a sses /a nd p ray f o r me w i th f o od w h ich y ou h ave c ooked ns ha l l t a ke t h e f ood a nd g o t ot h e K amu i 's l a nd / Is ha l l l i ve w i th k amu i( 96 ) .

F i r s t o f a l l , b efo re g o ing t o t r ade , as h ip i sb u i l t f r om a f eled t r ee a sn a r ra ted b y as h ip k amu i :" al ong l o ng t i me a a go / w hen A eO ina k amu i i n tended t og o t ot r ade t oJ apan / t h e k amu i i sg o ing t o b u i l t as h ip" ( 102 ) . T hen t h e s h ip i s d eco ra ted w i th c a rv ing : " go t ot r ade t oJ apan /p u tg ood so na c a rve s h ip" « 102 ) . T he t ype o ft r ade wh ich i sd esc r ibed i nt h ey uka ra i st r ade i n t r ibu t e t oJ apan . When t h e A inu mee t t h e J apane se , t h ey d r es sed i nt h eA inu c o s tume w h ich i s emb ro ide red a nd made b yA inu w omen : " t o mee tt h eJ apane se t o no la ne mb ro ide red c o s tume wh ich Imade / as p lend id c os tume / my b ro the r s / c hanged c l o th i n to f orma l d re ss" ( 102 ) . T hey r e ce ive g i f t s f r om t h e J apane se , i n e xchange f o r t h e i r g ood s . T he g i f t s w h ich t h ey r e ce ive d i f f e ra cco rd ing t ot h es ex o ft h er e c ip ien t a s i n" g if t sf o r w omen / g i f t s f o r men /d i f f e rence f r om e ach o the r /t a ke as i s te rt ot r ad e" ( 92 ) ( i no rde rt or e ce ive d i f f e ren t t ypes o f g i f t s ) . I ti sc l ea r f r om t h i s t h a t t h e A inu w ish t o r ece ive e xo t ic g ood s a nd a ny th ing e l se w h ich t h ey d o n o t p o s se st h rough t r ade w i th t h eJ apane se . H oweve r , t h er e su l t s o ft r ade c ou ld b e t r ag ic . A n A inu w oman n a r ra ted t h a t s he me t ab ig w h i te b i rd o n t h e w ay t o t r ade b y s h ip w i th h e r b ro the r s .I tf l ew a bove t h e i rs h ip a nd t o ld t h em t h rough t e a r s " a l though Iw en tt ot r ade b ecause t h a tw ha t Iw an ted / ab ad J apane se i n te rp re te r / p o i soned s ake l g ave i t me t od r ink / I w a sk iled / Id i ed /n ow my d ead b ody i so n t h ew ay b ack t o my v i l lage / d o n o t g o / g o b ack i mmed ia te ly / r e turn i mmed ia te ly" ( 92 ) . T hey w en tt ot r ade i ns p i te o ft h e a dv ice o ft h eb ig wh i te b i rd , a nd t h en h e rb ro the r s w e re k i l led w i th p o isoned s ake . T h is i mp l ie s t ha t s uch a f a te h ad b efa l len c e r ta in A inu a nd w a sk nown a bou ti nA inu s oc ie ty . 7 -4 -6 The J apanese A sd e sc r ibed a bove , wheneve rt h eJ apane se a r e men t ioned i n y uka ra , t h e re i sa lways a ccompany ing t r agedy : f o re xamp le t h e A inu w e re k i l led b y t h e J apane se . I tc an b e s a id t h a t i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e J apanese i sd e sc r ibed . Mo reove r , t h e s adne s s o ft h e A inu , a nd h ow t h ey f e l t , w a s s u re ly mo s t d i rec t ly e xp re ssed i n t he i r own word s a nd t h rough t h e i r own med ium , t he e p ic f o rm t ha t i sy uka ra . T hus , i ti se nough t o s ay t ha t y uka ra i s ag rea t f o rm o f

I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h e c oncep t i nA inu c o smo logy t h a t b i rd s s ymbol i se t h e s p i r i to f ad ead p e r son r e tu rn ing h ome , a s e xp re ssed a l so i n y uka ra ( 92 ) , m en t ioned a bove . Mo reove r , t h e w ay i nw h ich t he A inu w e r e s u mmoned b y t h eJ apane se i sd esc r ibed : " l ong a go / w hen y ou r f a the rw a s s t i l l a l ive /f r om t h eJ apane se v i l lage / f r om t h et ono v i l lage / c a ll ing u p a ga in a nd a ga in / many t ime s t h e s ummons /a ga in a nd a ga in" ( 9 7 ) . T he re c an b e l i t t le d oub ta bou t t h e g ene ra l s i tua t ion d es c r ibed b y t h e y uka ra . I ti s ah i s to r ica l f a c t t h a t u nde rt h eB a sho -Ukeo is y s tem ( s ee C hap t e r 1 ) , w h ich w a si n o pe ra t ion t h roughou t t h e Ma t sumae 's p o l icy i n t h e 1 8 th 1 9 th c en tu r ie s , t h e A inu w e re c a l led u p f o r f i sh ing l a bou r . T he se y uk a ra d e sc r ibe t h er e a l i ty b eh ind t h eh i s to ry . F ur the rmo r e , l i fe f o r t h e A inu i n aJ apane se v i l lage mu s t h ave s eemed u nfa i r i n t h a t , w i thou t k now ing t he r e a son w hy , a n A inu w a sp u tt od ea th : w ha t w a s t h e r ea son / b e p un i shed / a s Iw ou ld b e k i l led / t h en / wou ld b e s t ruck d own w i th a s wo rd / ama t w a s l a id o u t / Is a t o n i t / a tt h e v e ry p o in t o fb e ing s t ruck / aJ apanese m a s t e r w ho w a s k i nd t o me / s t ooped t od o s o /h e s a id w o rd s o f a po logy / h is a po logy wa s n o t a ccep ted / Iw a sk i l led /h oweve r /d o n o tf e e l s o s ad / b r ing u p my c h i ld / t h a t i sa l l / k eep t h e a nce s t ra lf e a s t s / my l i neage c on t inues ( 97 ) . T he se a r e /we r em e s sage st h a tt h eA inu w an t ed t oh and d own t op o s te r i ty . I n t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e J apane se ,J apane se s upe r io r i ty w a sa l ready e xp ressed i ns uch aw ay t h a te ven t h eA inu t h em se lve se ndu re t ob e t he A inu . I n c on t ra s t w i th t h e a bove , t h e re a re y uka ra d escr ib ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eA inu a nd t h eJ apanese i n wh ich t h e

8 8

7 :T he a na tomy o f y uka ra

m y v i l lage / u se s wo rd s v io len t ly /p eop le w ho k il A n ru r -un k amu i l A nru r -un k amu i 's t r ea su re i n h i s p lace / w hen w e p l unde ra l lo ft h em t o my v i l lage /e ven t h o se w ho w e re p oo r a nd l ow c l a s s i n my v i l lage / Iw i l l make s uch p eop le r i ch" ( 6 2 ) .

A inu p e rce ive t h emse lve s a s b e ing t r ea ted a s e qua ls . T h i s e qua l i ty i s e xp ressed i n t h e f o rm o f a n a n t i the t ica l j ux tapo s i t ion , a s i n " t he A inu 's . . , t h e J apane se 's . . ." ( 25 , 6 5 , 16 , 1 24 , 1 46 ) . A inu a nd J apane se made o f g ra s s a r e d es c r ibed t hu s : " t he A inu w h ich a r e made o fg r een g ra s se sa r e a t t h e s t er n / i n a l l s i x ty A inu / Imade t h em b y h and / t h e J apane se w h ich a r e made o fg reen g ra sse sa tt h ep row /i na l l s i x ty J apanese / Imade t h em b y h and" ( 25 ) . T he re a r e a l so l i ne s r e la t ing t h a t J apanese a nd A inu s i ng s ongs t o e ach o the rw h i le r ow ing : " fo rt h e A inu / t h e A inu b oa t s ong / s i ng t o e a ch o the r / c a r ry o n s i ng ing / f o r t h e J apane se / t h e J apane se b oa t s ong / s ing t o e ach o the r / c a r ry o n s i ng ing" ( 25 ) . T he A inu p e rce ived t ha t t h ey a nd t h e J apanese w e re d i f f e r en ts oc ie t ie sb u tw e r ec l o se t oe a ch o t he ra sn e ighbou r s . When c augh t i n as t o rm a t s ea , b o th , " whe the r A inu o r J apane se , a sk A eo ina k amu i f o r h e lp" . When c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion a nd t h eo r ig in o f my ths a r er e coun ted : " t he s ong o f t h e A inu / t r ansm i t ted i n t h e A inu 's l a nd / t h e s ong o f t h e J apane se t r an sm i t ted i n t h e J apane se l a nd" ( 124 ) , o r " t he s ong o ft h e A inu / t op ropaga te i ti nt h e A inu l a nd / t h e s ong o ft h eJ apane se /t op ropaga t ei ti nt h eJ apane se l a nd" ( 146 ) . 7 -4 -7

T he r ei sa ne xp r es s ion w h ich r e cu r si nt h ef i na lp a r to fm any y uka ra : " j u s t n ow / i n te rva l b e tween w a r s / w e a r e r e s t ing / I l i ve" . T h i s e xp re s s ion i s ap a t te rn f o r e nd ing a y uka ra . Mo reove r , t h e e xp re s s ion " i n te rva l b e tween w a r s" i sa l so f r equen t ly u sed a s i n : " fo r al o ng t ime / o ne a mong w a r s / a lway s k ep t t o ge the r w i th e ach o t he r / s ha red at o ugh t ime / i n te rva l b e tween w a r s / t ook ar e s t / t h ank ing e ach o the r f o r f i gh t ing b rave ly / e xchanged o u r s i s te r s" ( 1 51 ) , o r " one a mong w a r s /s uppor t ing e ach o the r /s ha red at o ugh t ime /t i e s o fr e la t ion s /p l aced u pon /t h e w oman o fS h in tapuka /w en tt o P onmosh i r i v i l lage / t o ma r ry / o r ig in o f r e la t ions / t ook p l ace" ( 1 57 ) , a nd "t o ok ar e s t / e xchanged w omen" ( 155 ) . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a tA inu l i f e w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y many w a r s b o th w i th in a nd o u t s ide A inu s oc ie ty , s o t h e l u l l s b e tween t h e se s t rugg les w e re a t ime o f r e s t w hen t h ey c ou ld d o s ome th ing f o r t h e i r o wn s oc ie ty . T h is i sa l so e xp re ssed i n t h e f o l low ing l i ne s : " wa rb r eak so u t / i nt h e l a nd o fK a ra fu to [ S akh a l in ] ! my f a the r /d i dn o tw an tt of i gh t /f o rw ho h ad n o t k nown t h e o r ig in / t h en h e s uppor ted t h e y aunkur [ l and p eop le , t h e p eop le o f t he l a nd i . e . o u r o r u s , h i s o wn p eop le ]" ( 1 57 ) , t hus t h e A inu n eeded a g ood r ea son f o r s uppo r t ing o t he r p eop le , s uch a s ap rev ious r e la t ionsh ip , o r ac ompa t r io tr e la t ion sh ip .

D isas ter

T he re a r e d esc r ip t ion o fp henomena w h ich c ause d i sa s te r s , p a r t icu la r ly r e la t ed t ot h es o -ca l led t s unam iw h ich o ccu ra f te r a ne a r thquake ,w hen h uge w ave sh i tt h el a nd .T h i sc an c r ea t e h avoc , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e c oa s ta l a rea s , d es t roy ing h ouse s a nd d e lug ing t h e l a nd w i th s a l t w a te r . Ay uka ra d esc r ibe s h ow : " one d ay / at e r r ib le s ea t s unam i ! as u rge h i tt h e l a nd /a v i l lage w a s wa shed a way / t h e v i l lage p eop le a l l d i ed" ( 34 ) . T he re i sa l so amoun ta in t s unam i , w h ich may o ccur a f te r v e ry h eavy r a in , w hen t h e v o lume o fw a te ri nt h e moun ta in s t ream s b ecomes s udden ly e xce ss ive a nd , s weep ing d own , p ou r s a l ong t h e r i ve r v a l ley , c a r ry ing r ock s a nd s o i l d own f r om t h e moun ta ins t o t h e l ow land , c aus ing w idesp read d ev a s ta t ion .

7 -4 -9 Marr iage a nd k insh ip T he e xp res s ion w h ich i su sed i ny uka ra f o r t r an s i t ion f r om g i r lhood t ow omanhood i ss ymbo l ised b y w ea r ing t h em our ( ap i ece o ff ema le u nderwea r ) a nd t y ing u p ar i bbon a bove t h e b r ea s t s , w h ich h ave b ecome w e l l d eve loped , a si n" on ly n ow / m a r r iageab le / o ne c an w rap y ou r se lf i n ar wur" ( 6 1 ) , o r " woman 's r i bbon / It i e i ti n ah igh p os i t ion r ound b r ea s t s" ( 105 , 1 22 ) , " a b eau t ifu l y oung g i r l / o n ly n ow / a w oman 's r i bbon / t i e i tu p i n ah igh p os i t ion r ound t h e b r ea s t s" ( 1 57 ) . When ag i r l b ecomes o f ma r r iageab le a ge , a h ou se i sb u i l ts pec ia l ly f o rh e ra nd s he w a i t s f o r aman w ho i ss u i tab le f o r h e r . T h is i sn a r ra ted a s " (my f o s te r b ro the r ) b u i l t as p lend id h ouse a nd g ave i tme / Il i ve i nt h e h ouse / I d oo n ly e mb ro ide ry" ( 6 1 )a nd " when woman r e a che st h er i gh t t ime / w oman 's h ouse ( ah ouse i n wh ich o n ly a d augh te r l i ve s ) / as epa ra te h ouse / w hen i ti sb u i l t / Il i ve t h e re" ( 106 ) . When t h er i gh t man a ppea r s , t h e woman p r epa re s amea la nd p r e sen t s ab ow l f u l l o fm i l le t t ot h e man , w ho r e ce ive s a nd e a t s i t .T h i s p roce s s o fp repa ra t ion a nd s e rv ing h a s a l ready b een d esc r ibed i nt h em ea ls s e c t ion , a nd t h e s ame p a t te rn o f e xp re s s ion si su sed i nt h i s c on tex ta sw e l l . N ex t , ma r r iage i s s ymbo l ised b y t h e a c t ion i n w h ich t h e man e a t s h a lf t h e b ow lf u l a nd r e turn s t h e r e s t t o t h e woman ; i ft h e w omen r e ce ive s i ta nd e a t s i ti nt h e manne r p rev iou s ly d esc r ibed , t h en t h e ma r r iage i sc omp le ted . I te xp re sse s t h e i dea o f s ha r ing f ood t o ge the r i nl i f e . T he e xp re s s ion i sd e sc r ibed a s " two w a te r , t h ree w a te r . . .th in -made t r ay , t h in -made b ow l / o ne u pon a no the r / p resen ted a b ow l f u l l o f m i l le t t o P onmo sh i r iku r / P onmosh i r iku r b end s t h e c en t re o f h i s h ip t or e ce ive i t /p r e sen ted h i gh ly /p r e sen ted l owe r "( 1 54 ) .

A cco rd ing t o ac row k amu i 's n a r ra t ion , ac row k amu i g ave w a rn ings o f amoun ta in t s unam ia s am e tapho rt oS ama i -un k u r 's v i l lage , a s i n" h igh moun ta in s / g e t w e t , g e t w e t / l ow moun ta in s /n o tg e tw e t , n o tg e t w e t " ( 50 ) . H oweve r , S ama i u n -ku rd id n o tl i s t en t ot h e c row k amu i ; i n s tead , S ama i -un k u rs a id t ot h ev i l lage p eop le , " h ide r i ch p eop le 's b od ie s /g o o u t a nd s how p oo r p eop le 's b o t tom s" ( 3 1 , 4 9 , 5 0 ) . A s men t ioned a l ready , t h is e xp re s s ion i su sed i no rde r t od r ive a way s omeone / some th ing a s a n u nwe lcome g ue s t , s o t h e c row k amu i g o t a ngry . T hen t h e c row k amu i w en t t o Ok ikurum i 's v i l lage a nd s a id t h e s ame t h ing s . Ok ikurum i l i s tened a nd b e l ieved t h e c row k amu i 's w a rn ing , a nd t h en s a id t ot h e v i l lage p eop le : " r ich p eop le / t a ke o u t t r ea su re / p oo rp eop le /p l ace mau o u t s ide" t op rov ide o f f e r ings f o rt h e k amu i . One d ay , i n s u mme r , a f te r v e ry h eavy r a in , a moun ta in t s unam i s udden ly h appened a nd h i t t h e v i l lage s . T he p eop le o f Ok iku rum i 's v i l lage a l l s u rv ived b u tt ho se o f S ama i -un -ku rv i l lage a l ld i ed . 7 -4 -8 Warfare I n y uka ra , b a t t le s o n v a r ious s ca le s a r e d e sc r ibed r ang ing f r om o ne to -one c onf ron ta t ions t o s t rugg le s b e tween o ne v i l lage a nd a no the r , a nd e ven w a r s b e tween d i f f e ren t e t hn ic g roup s . Wa rb e tween v i l lage s i sd e scr ibed , a si n" peop le i n

8 9

7 :T he a na tomy o fy uka ra

7 -4 -10 G ender

F rom t h e a bove d e sc r ip t ion i ts e em s t h a t ama r r iage p a r tne r c an b ed ec ided u pon e n t i re ly f r ee ly b y aw oman ,a s ma r r iage d oe s n o th appen i fs he d oes n o t a ccep tt h e b ow l r e tu rned t o h e r b y t h e man . Howeve r , t h e re i s ad esc r ip t ion w h ich i n d ica te st h a t ama r r iage p a r tne ri sd ec ided o nb yt h ep a r en t s : " you t wo s hou ld b ecome ac oup le /a nce s t ra l w o rd sh ave b een l e f t / i th a sb een d ec ided a s ac ommand" ( 105 ) . T he se w o rd s w ere l e f t b y af a the r t o af o s te r s i s te r f o r h i s c h i ld . T h is i s a l so i n d ica ted b yt h ed e sc r ip t ion o f ay oung m an w ho i sv e ry g ood a th un t ing , d escr ibed a s" game f r om o f f sho re b rough t u pt ot h el a nd /g ame o f moun ta in b rough td own t ot h el a nd " , w ho t u rns u p f r om s omewhe re a nd s t ay s a tt h e h ouse o fa r i ch v i l lage c h ief a nd t h en a sk st o ma r ry t h ec h ief 's d augh te r ( 100 , 1 01 ) .

( 1 ) Man T he e xp res s ion " Ig e ta l ong w i th c oncen t ra t ion o n ac ar v ing o n as hea th" i mp l ie s aman i ny uka ra , a sa l r eady men t ioned p rev iou s ly , a nd ' ac a r v ing o n as hea th ' i s as ymbo l ic p h r a se . T he c o s tume s w h ich a r e d e sc r ibed i n y uka ra i nd ica te t h e s exes a sw el .T he s p lend id c os tume o f aman i sd esc r ibed a s k an ik o sod e ,g o lden k o sod e ( k osod ei s aw o rd b o r rowed f r om J apanese , w he r e i tr e f e r red t o ac lo th k imono ) , a s i n" go lden k osod e If r om t h e t op o f t h e k osode l b e l l s h ang ing d own / h a l fw ay d own / al i ne i s made b y c u t t ing / f r om h a lf o ft h e k osod e l b e l l s h ang ing d own / t ot h e b o t tom / al i ne i s made b y c u t t ing / b ecau se o f t h is / wo rk ing a l ong / o n t h e b ody / r i ng ing b e l l s / s ound o fb e l l s , r i n -r in" ( 60 . 6 1) , o r " go lden k osode l p u l l o n o ve r my b ody /g o lden b e l t p u t o n t i gh t ly / t h in -made s ma l l h e lme t / t i e s t r ings o f h e lme t t i gh t ly" o r " r ece ived k o sod e f r om k amu i lp u l l u po ve rm y b ody /g o lden a rmo r / i n f u l l a rmo r" ( 107 , 1 08 , 13 , 14 ) , a nd " go lden k osode l p u l l o n t h e l a ye red / s u rface o fk o sode l a long t h e b ack g o ld h ang ing d own / a l ong t h e c hes t g o ld h ang ing d own / ma ss ive g o lden s t r ings h ang ing d own" (152 ) . F rom t h is , i ts e em s t h a t ' g o lden k osode ' i nd ica tes a n a rmo red c os tume . T he w o rd t h a t Ih ave t r ans la ted a s ' g o lden ' — a s d id K ubode ra — i st h e A inu wo rd k an i , w h ich , a s w e h ave s e en , c an a l so b e t r an s la ted a s ' me ta l ' . H oweve r i td oe s n o t s e em t om e t h a t t h e w o rd a s u sed h e re s imp ly mean s t h e ' me ta la rmo r ' .

Mo reove r , o ppo r tun i t ies o f ma r r iage a rose t h rough w a r s , w h ich e nab le p eop le t og e t k now e ach o the r w h i le f i gh t ing o n t h e s ame s i de , a s n a r ra ted i n" fo r al o ng t ime / o ne o f w a r s /a lway s k ep t t oge the r w i th e ach o the r / s ha r ed at o ugh t ime / i n te rva l o f w a r / t ook ar e s t / t h ank ing e ach o t he r f o r f i gh t ing b rave ly / e xchanged o u r s i s te r s" ( 1 51) , o r " one o f w a r s / s uppor t ing e ach o the r / s ha red a t o ugh t ime / t i e s o f r e la t ionsh ip / p laced u pon / t h e woman o f S h in tapuka / w en t t o P onmo sh i r i v i l lage / t o ma r ry / o r ig in o f r e la t ions / t ook p lace" ( 157 ) , a nd " t ook ar e s t / e xchanged w omen" ( 1 55 ) . T he ses n a r ra t ions i mp ly t h a t r e g iona l r e la t ionsh ip s , u n ion r e la t ion sh ip s , a nd f r iend ly r e la t ion sh ip s w e re e s tab l i shed b y ma r r iage a l l iances i n A inu s oc ie ty . F ur the r , t h e se k ind s o f r e la t ionsh ip w e re s t reng thened i n o rde r t o f i gh t a ga in s t a c ommon e nemy i n w a r , a nd i tc an b e s a id t h a t t h is w a s a f ounda t ion o fc ompa t r io ta wa rene s sw i th in A inu s oc ie ty .

( 2 ) Woman

My d i scus s ions a re b a sed o n d a ta c o l lec ted ma in ly i n t h e S am a r ea , i no rde rt ou nde r s tand t h e A inu s oc ia l c on tex t o f t h a t a r ea i nr e la t ion t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . I n y uka ra , t h ere i sa n i nd ica t ion o f t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e S am a r ea a nd t h eS akha l in a r ea , a sn a r ra ted i n" t he w a rb roke o u t / i nt h el a nd o fK a ra fu to [ Sakha l in ] / . . .one o fw a r s /s uppo r t ing e ach o ther / s ha red a t ough t ime / t i e s o f r e la t ions / p laced u pon / t h e woman o f S h in tapuka / w en t t o P onmo sh i r i v i l lage / t o ma r ry / o r ig in o f r e la t ions / t ook p lace" (157 ) . T he re i sa l so a y uka ra n a r ra ted b y ac l o se f r iend o f w o lf k amu i : " I l i ve i n av i l lage o f t h e l a nd o f K a ra fu to / . . one d ay / s udden ly / i n S h ish ir imuka [ t he S ar n ] / . .my c l o se f r iend / Ih ea rd as c ream o fw o lf k amu i" ( 54 ) , t h en t h ec l o se f r iend o f wo l fk amu i w en t t ot h e S a ru a r ea t oh e lp t h e w o lf k amu i .

Women 's c o s tume i sd e sc r ibed a s ' go lden k osode ' a sw e l l : f o re xamp le , " go lden k o sod e l wh ip o n /s i xk osode lo nt o po f o ne a no the r / o n t op t i e ab e l t / a nd o n t op a no the r s i x k osod e" ( 16 , 1 7 , 5 3 ) I ts eem s t h a tt h i s i nd ica t es t he J apane se w omen 's c o s tume w h ich w a sc ommon ly c a l led t h e ` k o sod e ' , j un i -h i toe ' o r ' t he t we lve layered k imono ' o f t he 1 7 th c en tu ry , s i nce 1 2 l a yer s a re men t ioned b a sed o n t h e c a lcu la t ion a nd i ta l so s ays ' on t op o f o ne a no the r ' . T he w o rd j un i -h i toe a ppea r s f o r t h e f i r s t t ime d u r ing t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry o fJ apane se h i s tory . I tw a s ac ommon r a the r t h an a f o rma l d e s igna t ion , a nd i t mean t o n ly al a ye red k imono a t t h a tt i me ( Kawaba ta 1 969 ) . I ny uka ra , an eck lace ( 32 ) , ar i ng ( 1 54 ) , a nd e a r r ings ( 106 ) a r e d esc r ibed , w h ich n o rma l ly d id n o t f o rm p a r t o f J apanese women 's c o s tume a t t ha t t ime s i nce t h e se w e r e n o t w or nb yJ apane se w omen f r om t h e8 t h 1 0 th c en tu r ie s o nwa rd s . T he se or namen t s a r e d e sc r ibed a s b e ing p a ssed o n i nt h e ma t e rna l l i ne , a s i n" ab ag w h ich i s t r an sm i t ted i nt h e ma t erna l l i ne / n eck laces ( k osod e , e a r r ing ) w h ich i st r an sm i t t ed i nt h e m a te rna l l i ne" ( 106 ) .

A l though , i n te res t ing ly , t h e re a r e n o d esc r ip t ion o f a ny f i gh t sb e twe en w i f ea nd h usband ,t h e re a r ee xp re s s ion sw h ich d e scr ibe f i gh t s o ve r aw if e a nd /o r o ve r ah u sband b e tween m embe r s o ft h e s ame s ex , a nd a l so o fu nf a i thfu l w ive s a nd h usband s . T he re i sa n A inu w o rd , t u sh , f o r am is t re ss , a nd i t i su sed i n ay uka ra n a r ra ted b y af i r s tw i f ew ho w on b ack h e r h usband a nd l i ved h app i ly a ga in ; t h e w if e n a r ra te s : " t ha t woman k amu i l If e l t p i ty / s o Imade h e r m i s t re ss" ( 48 ) . T he re i sa l so a n e xp re ss ion " t ak ing o f fs i x h ood s" , w h ich i s ame tapho ri nd ica t ing t h a t aw idow c an ma r ry a f te r t h e s i x y ea rp e r iod o f mourn ing e xp i res , a si n" s ix h ood s /w hen y ou t a ke i to f fa l l / aman w i l l v i s i t y ou" ( 90 ) .

T he re i s af u r the r i n te res t ing d esc r ip t ion o f t he woman 's c o s tume u sed w hen aw oman k amu i i sg o ing o u t : " t ie g r a s s b e l t t i gh t ly a r ound t h e w a i s t / d o u p h a i r i n ak no t h igh o n t h eh ead /t ow ea rf l y ing ap a i ro fs hoe s /t ow ea rf l y ing ap a i r o fg l ove s / t op u t ag o lden f a n i n to ap ock e t" ( 1 , 2 1 , 4 8 , 5 8 ) , o r r eve r se f o rms o f t h e a bove ( 79 , 8 0 ) . Howeve r , t h e m ean ing o ft h i si sf a rf r om c l ea ra nd c anno tb ei n te rp r e t ed .

9 0

7 :T he a na tomy o f y uka ra

( 3 ) T he r o le o f g ender E xp r e ss ions w h ich d e sc r ibe g ende rr o le s o r g ende rd i v i s ion a r e f ound i n y uka ra . I n t h e c a se o f w omen , e xp re ss ion s o f n eed l ewo rk o r emb ro ide ry s ymbo l i se w omen 's a c t iv i t ie s a s i n" be ing awoman / i sd o ing n eed lewo rk / d o n eed lewo rk" ( 105 ) . On t h e o the r h and , " t he t h ing w h ich w omen s hou ld n o t d o i sp roduce mau f o rt h ek amu i" ( 5 5 ) , s o t h a t w omen a r e p roh ib i ted f r om mak ing mau . T he r o le o f w omen i s d e sc r ibed . T hey u nder take t h e w eav ing o f ma t t ing : " my s i s te r / w eave s a ma t / t u rns t o t h e b ack o f t h e r oom / o ne l a ye r /t u rn s t ot h e f r on to ft h e r oom /o ne l a ye r" ( 18 ) . T hey c o l le c t a nd b r ing i nf i rewood , a s i n" one h o ld o ff i rewood / much f i rewood / b rough t t ot h e h ou se" . T hey p r epa re f ood w i th mo r ta ra nd p e s t le : " ou t s ide h ou se / aw oman /p ound ing m i l le t" ( 30 ) . Mo reover , t he re i s a n e xp re ss ion o f a n a n t i thes i so f man a nd w oman a si n" ag roup o fm en /h o ld ing h a rpoons i nh and s / f o r c a tch ing f i she s / ag roup f o r h un t ing d ee r / b ow s i nh and / . a g roup o f w omen / g a the r ing l i l ie s" ( 86 ) , o r" men g ot o moun ta ins f o rh un t ing / t og e tg ame /o u r s i s t e r s g o t o af i e ld / w o rk ing af i e ld / t of i l l many s t o re s / t o f i l l m any s t o re s" ( 156 ) , d esc r ib ing w omen 's g a the r ing a nd c u l t iva t ing a c t iv i t ie s . F u r the ri n te re s t ing e xp re s s ions i ny uka ra a r e d e sc r ip t ion s o f h un t ing a nd f i sh ing a c t iv i ty b y w omen , a s i n " my s i s te r p u l l s ab ig w ha le t o l a nd b y p ie rc ing i tw i th ah a rpoon" ( 18 ) , t h en " my f o s te rs i s te rc u t s u pa nd d i v ide st h em ea to fa w ha le i n to p i ec es" ( 18 ) . T h is e voke st h e w o rk w h ich r e la te s t ow ha l ing , a nd " wheneve r my s i s te r g oe s t ot h e moun ta in s t oh un t " ( 120 ) t oh un t ing . T he re i s ad e sc r ip t ion o fw hen s he c ome sb ack f r om t h e moun ta in s a si n" mea tc ove red i ns o i l / f i sh c ove red i ns o i l / c om ing b a ck b ea r ing i to n h e r b ack" ( 120 ) . A n o te b y K ubode ra o n t h i s e xp res s ion s t a tes : " be cause s he i s aw oman , s he c anno th un t f i sh , a nd d ee r o r b ea r s . S he p ick s u p t h ings o n t h e g round w h ich m en h ave t h rown a way ,t h a ti sw hy t h ey a r ec ove red i ns o i l" ( Kubode ra 1 977 : 5 56 ) . O ne r o le o f men i st oh un ta nd f i sh ,d e sc r ibed i n" ag roup o f men / h o ld ing h a rpoon s i nh and s / f o rc a tch ing f i sh / ag roup f o r h un t ing d eer / b ows i n h and" ( 86 ) , a nd " men g o t o moun ta ins f o rh un t ing / t og e t g ame" ( 1 56 ) . I na dd i t ion , " an A inu c h ief / make s af i re r ap id ly /w a she s ap o ta nd p u t so n to af i re" ( 7 ) ,o r" my f a the rd raws w a te r /c ook sf ood /b r ing sm e u p" ( 8 7 ) . 7 -5 Conc lus ion : e xpress ion

Meta l

a nd

Yukara

a s a s oc ia l

Two c onc lus ion s c an b e d rawn . T he s econd c onc lu s ion i s d e r ived f r om t h e f i r s t .T he f i r s tc onc lu s ion i st h a t , a s Ih ave s hown a bove , f o r t h e A inu y uka ra c ons t i tu te s t h e i r v i ew o f t h ings a round t h em a nd f am i l ia r i nt h e i rd a i ly l i f e e xp re s sed i nt h e i r own w o rd s . T he i ra ccumu la ted e xpe r ience b a sed o n t h e i rw ay o ft h ink ing a nd t h e i r l i f e s ty le c an b er e cogn i sed i n y uka ra , s uch a s t h e k amu i , t h e d r ink ing f e a s t s , t r ade , i n te rac t ion w i th o ther s , g ende r , ma r r iage , a nd k in sh ip . T he refo re , y uka ra a s a' s oc ia l e xp re s s ion ' w i th in t h e A inu c on tex t c an b e u nde r s tood b y t h e s t udy o fy uka ra , a nd t h ey c an b e u sed e f f ec t ive ly i na na r chaeo log ica l s t udy ,a ss hown b y t h e many e xamp le s o f s oc ia l e xp ress ion t h a t Ih ave e x t r ac t ed f r om y uka ra i nt h i sC hap te r .

T hu s , t h e s e cond c onc lus ion i st h a t i ti sp o ss ib le t oe x t rac t f r om y uka ra t h e s oc ia l mean ing o f me ta l f o rt h e A inu a nd t o s e e i t sr o le a sa ne xp re s s ion o fs oc ie ty . T he w o rd k an i a ppea r s i ny uka ra v e ry f r equen t ly : 8 5 o ft h e 1 82 y uka ra i n my d a ta d e sc r ibe k an i . T ype s o fk an i i n c lude k onkan i , s h irokan i , a nd r ukan i . T hey o ccu r a t l ea s t o nce a nd i ns ome c a se s many t ime s . T h i s n umbe ro fo ccu r rence s d epends o n t h e l e ng th o f t h e t e x t . F o r e xamp le , i ny uka ra n o . 1 50 , w h ich h a s 7 080 l i ne s , 4 6 l i nes d esc r ibe k an i , a nd t h is i s n o t t h e l onges t p a ssage . I t i s e a sy t o g e t t h e i mp re s s ion t h a tt h eA inu l i ked k an iv e ry much . A cco rd ing t o t h e l i ngu is t C h i l i ( Ch in i 1 955 ) , t h e w o rd k an i c an b e i n te rp re ted a s i nd ica t ing t h a t me ta l w a s av ery p rec iou s m a t e r ia l t ot h ea nc ien tA inu ; t h u s t h e wo rd k an ii su sed w i th t h e m ean ing o f ' s p lend id ' o r ' magn if icen t ' , a s i nk an i c h i se ( go ld h ouse ) , w h ich means ' s p lend id h ouse ' a nd n o t ' me ta l h ouse ' . T he re a r e many ma te r ia ls w h ich s uppo r t t h is i n te rp re ta t ion . F o r e xamp le , h ouse , h i l l f o r t , f l oo r , a r row , f a n , c l o th ,a nd ' b ow ' d ance s t ick a r e d e sc r ibed b ya d jec t ive s s uch a s ' g o lden ' , ' b eau t ifu l ' , ' n ice ' , ' s p lend id ' , a nd ' magn if icen t ' . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue i na n e xamp le l i ke k an ic h i s e ,p oro c h i se ( go ld h ouse ,b i g h ou se ) , w h ich c r ea te s a n a n t i the s i s a l though t h e re i st h e wo rd p iruka e x is t s w h ich m ean s ' b eau t ifu l ' , ' n ice ' , a nd ' s p lend id ' . T h is a ppea r s i n y uka ra i nc omb ina t ion s s uch a sp iruka c h i se . H oweve r , i nP h i l ipp i 's t r an s la t ion o f y uka ra ( 142 ) c o l lec ted b y B a tche lo r , h e t r ans la ted k an i a s ' me ta l ' i n E ng l ish , i n s uch p h ra se s a s ' a me ta l -buck led b e l t ' a nd ' al i t t le me ta l h e lme t ' , a l though h e s ugges ted a c onfus ion i n t h is i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e wo rd i n a no the r p lace i n t h e s ame y uka ra ( Ph i l ipp i 1 979 ) . T he se p h ra se s c ommon ly a ppea red i n many y uka ra a nd a r e t r an s la ted a s ' g o ld -buck led b e l t ' a nd ' al i t t le g o ld h e lme t " i nJ apane se t r ans la t ions b y l i ngu i s t s l i ke K ubode ra , K inda ich i , a nd C h i n. T hus t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e w o rd k an i n eed s t ob e c ons ide red i n t h e c on tex t o f y uka ra t h em se lve s . I nr e la t ion t o me ta l o b jec t s l i ke s word s , w h ich n eed t ob e s ha rpened , i nt h ec on tex to fy uka ra t h ea c t iv i ty o fs ha rpen ing o n aw he t s tone i sa l so d esc r ibed b y t h e t h unde rk amu i i na n i n s t ruc t ive e xamp le : " t he v i l lage c h ief / s a id t o t h e v i l lage p eop le / ah i gh k amu i l w a lk ing a l ong / s o s how r e spec t / d o n o ts ha rpen /d on o tw eave" ( 77 ) . T he re a r e c a ses i n w h ich t h e w o rd k an i s eem s t o i mp ly m e re ly t h a t a n o b jec t i s made o f me ta l , i n t h e c on tex t o f y uka ra . F o r e xamp le , a n a n t i thes is o f n i s h in toko , k an i s h in toko ( 5 5 ) i mp l ies ' wooden s h in toko , me ta l s h in toko ' ( s h in toko i s aw o rd b o r rowed f r om J apane se a nd i st h en ame o f ar ound c on ta ine rw i th t h ree l e gs , made o fl a cque red w ood i n J apan . I tw a s u sed d ur ing t h e 1 6 th -18 th c en tur ies ) . A l though K ubode ra i n te rp re ted t h is a s ' go ld ' ( Kubode ra 1 977 :251) , i tmay b er i gh tt h a tt h e re i sn o ma ter ia l e v idence t h a t s uch am e ta l s h in toko i t se lf e x is ted i nJ apan o r among t h e A inu . H oweve r , i ti s i n te res t ing t o n o te t ha t k an i s h in toko m eans a wood -burn ing s t ove , made o f me ta l a ccord ing t o a n A inu i n fo rman t ( 1984 ) . Mo reove r , a n a n t i thes i so fs h irar s uop a nd k ane s uop ( 73 ) , ' s tone b ox a nd m e ta l b ox ' , a l so i mp l ie s ma ter ia l . A no the r e xamp le i s s h irokane s hu tu ( s i lve r c l ub ) ( 78 ) , w h ich i mp l ies t ha t a w ooden c l ub made o f s i lve r a ppea r s i na no ther p a r to f t h is

91

7 :T he a na tomy o f y uka ra

y uka ra . T he c ommen t made o n K anepe tb y P h i l ipp i i sv e ry i n te re s t ing : i ti s "Me ta l R ive r . T he n a t ive s o f Me ta l R ive r w ea rm e ta la rmo r ,a nd t h en a t ive so fS tone R ive rw ea rs t one a rmo r" ( 142 ) ( Ph i l ipp i 1 979 :379 ) . H e re i ti sa ga in p a r t o f a n a n t i the t ica lj ux tapo s i t ion , ' p eop le o f K anepe t ' a nd ' t he n a t ive so fS h i rarper a s 'me ta lr i ve r ' a nd ' s tone r i ve r ' . T hu s i ti sp o s s ib le t o u nde r s tand wha t k an i o rk ane i mp l ie s a sa r e su l to ft h ec on tex ti mp l ied b y y uka ra .

m e ta l ; t h e s haf t so ft h e h a rpoons a r e made o fb one a nd t h us y ou h ea rt h es ound o fs hav ing b one s , a si n : h a rpoon / t op o f h a rpoon / b ecause i ti sm e ta l / t o t he i n s ide o f my s t omach / s ound s o f p ound ing me ta l / i n s ide o fh a rpoon / b ecau se i t i sb one / t o i n s ide o f my s t omach / s ound s o f s hav ing b one . .You c ame f l oa t ing d own t h e s t ream / o f S h ish i r imuka [ t he S a ru R ive r ] / t o t h e mou th o f t h e r i ve r / b e d r i f t ing a sho re / t o my s t omach / p ound ing me ta l / s hav ing b one . ( 67 , 6 8 , 1 38 , 1 39 , 1 40 , 1 41 ,168 ) .

F u r the rmo re ,d esc r ip t ion sw h ich i nd ica te i r on p roduc t ion a nd i r on -wo rk ing t e chno logy a r e d esc r ibed i ny uka ra . T he re a r e f i ve v e r s ion s o ft h e s ame k ind o f s t o ry , i na l l o fw h ich t h e r e f ra in i s" t usunapanu" , r ec i ted b y K un ima t su N i tan i , U tomu r iuku , a nd Waka rupa , a nd p e r fo rmances b y t wo u nknown r e c i to r sw e re c o l lec ted b y B a tche lo ra nd P i lsud sk i . T he re i sa no the rv e r s ion , i nw h ich t h er e f ra in i sd i f f e ren t , i . e . " zussa i -zor i , z ussa i -ma tsu" r ec i ted b y Ma t su K anna r i . A l though t h e re a r e s l igh t ly d i f f e ren t l i ne s , w h ich Ia s sume a r e b a sed o n t h e c apac i ty a nd c i rcum s tance s o f memo ry o r d if e ren tc hanne l so ft r an sm i s s ion , t h ec on ten to ft h es t o ry i s t h e s ame , b e ing n a r ra ted b y aw ha le k amu i o r s wo rd f i sh k amu i , a nd t h e s ame p a t te rns o f e xp res s ion d esc r ibe t h e ma te r ia lo fw h ich h a rpoons a r e made a nd h ow t h ey a r e made . H a rpoon s w h ich w e re u sed f o rh un t ing w ha le s o rs wo rdf i sh a r e made o fb one a nd i r on ; t h e re fo re t h eh ead o ft h eh a rpoon s i s made o f me ta l , a nd t h us y ou h ea r t h e s ound o fp ound ing

T he w o rd k ane k i k h um d e sc r ibe s ' me ta l -pound ing s ound s ' , t h us t h is i mp l ie s t ha t ' me ta l ' h e re m ean s ' i ron ' a nd a l so i mp l ies f o rg ing a c t iv i ty b y a n A inu b lack sm i th i n A inu s oc ie ty i no rde r t op roduce t h e me ta l h ead o f ah a rpoon f o r h un t ing w ha les o r s wordf ish . T he u se o f t he w o rd Sh i sh i r imu l ca ' f o r t h e S a ru R ive r c l ea r ly i n d ica tes t h e S a ru R ive ra r ea . F rom t h e a bove d i scu ss ion , i tc an b e s e en t h a t t h e f o rg ing p roce s s , a tl e a s t , e x is ted i nA inu s oc ie ty a s as oc ia lp rac t ice a nd s o i se xp re s sed i ny uka ra . I no t he rw o rd s , i r on -wo rk ing w a s ac ommon p ar to fA inu d a i ly l i f e a nd e xpe r ience i nt h e S a ru a r ea .

9 2

Chap ter Conc lus ion :

8 -1

A inu

8

a rchaeo logy

a nd

e thnoh is tory

T hu s , i tc an b ea s sumed t h a ti r on t e chno logy w a si n t roduc ed i n to t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re a s ar e su l to fc u l tu ra lc on tac tw i th t h e J apane se , a nd t h a t i tw a s c a r r ied o u t c on t inuou s ly i n to t h e A inu c u l tu re . T he l e ve l o f i r on t e chno logy among t h e A inu i sv e ry s im i la r t ot h a to ft h e S a t sumon . B u ti td oes n o t b ea r c ompa r i son w i th t h a t o fJ apan , w he re i r on t e chno logy h ad d eve loped c on s ide rab ly , a s t h e p e r f ec t ion o ft h e t a tara s me l t ing m e thod i lu s t ra tes , a nd h ad r eached a l e ve l o f s oph i s t ica t ion f a rb eyond a ny th ing t h eA inu c ou ld a ch ieve .

I n troduc t ion

I n t h i s c hap te r , Ic onc lude t h is b ook b y d i scu s s ing h ow t h e mean ing o f i r on t e chno logy f unc t ioned a s at e chno log ica l c on tex t i n t h e A inu c u l ture a nd h ow t h e s oc ia l c on tex t , w h ich c an b e r ef lec ted i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re , w a s u nde r s tood w i th in t h eA inu c u l tu ra lc on tex t . Ia l so c on s ide rt h e mean ing o f h i s to ry f o r t he A inu a nd t h e w ay i n w h ich i th a s b een f a sh ioned f o r t hem , a nd I d i scu ss A inu a r chaeo logy a s e thnoh is to ry f rom t he p o in t o f v iew o f c on tex tua l a r cha eo logy .

O n t h e o t he r h and , i n s p i te o f s ome d eve lopmen t o f i r on t e chno logy i nA inu s oc ie ty , i tw a sa dve r se ly a f f ec ted b y t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion p o l icy o f t h e Ma t suma e . A s ar e su l t , A inu s oc ie ty f a ced c ond i t ion s i n w h ich i r on p roduc t s a s ar aw ma te r ia l w e re d i f f icu l t t o o b ta in . Howeve r , a s Ih ave e xp la ined i nC hap te r2 ,s ome i r on p roduc t sa lway s managed t ob ypa s s t h e p roh ib i t ion o n i r on e xpo r t s . I n A inu s oc ie ty , i ts eem s t h a t A inu b l ack sm i ths c on t inued p roces s ing i r on p roduc t sb y s ma l l -sca le f o rg ing . S uppo r t ing e v idence f o rt h i s p e r s i s tence w a sf ound a tt h eS e tana icha sh i s i te .

8 -2 I ron t echno logy o f t he S aru A inu b efore t he 1 7 th c en tury a nd i t s s oc ie ty . H av ing e xam ined A inu i r on t e chno logy i nt h e 1 7 th c en tury , b efo re t h e i r on p roh ib i t ion p o l icy w a s a dop ted b y t h e Ma tsumae , Ic an s t a te t h a t f o rg ing p roce s ses a nd r ef in ing p roce s se s w e re d ef in i te ly p rac t i sed i nA inu s oc ie ty . A t t h e s ame t i me , c us tom s o fe ve ryday l i f e w h ich n e eded a cce s s t o i r on p roduc t s w e re b e ing e s tab l i shed . Mo reove r , p roduc t ion o fi r on i t se l f , b y au n ique me thod , c an b er e cogn i sed . F rom a l l o ft h i s e v idence , i ti sp o ss ib le t od e te rm ine c l ea r ly t h a t t h e s oc ia ld emand f o ri r on i nA inu s oc ie ty w a s v e ry s t rong . A t t h e s ame t ime , d esp i te t h e d emand , A inu s oc ie ty w a s a s oc ie ty i nw h ich i r on a nd p a r t icu la r ly s t ee lw e re d i ff icu l tt o o b ta in , o r , r a the r , as oc ie ty i nw h ich i tw a s v e ry d i f f icu l t t o o b ta in s t ee l a s ar aw ma te r ia l b ecause A inu s oc ie ty w a s o u t s ide t h ed i s tr ibu t ion n e two rk f o rs t ee l . I r on r aw ma te r ia l s w e r e o b ta ined i nt h e f o rm o fi r on o b jec t s , s uch a si r on p o t s a nd s c rap i r on , a cqu i red b y t r ade e xchange . T he se i r on p roduc t sw e r ep roce s sed a nd c ove red t h ed emand f o re ve ryday n eces s i t ie s .T he p roce s s ing o ft h e se i r on p roduc t so n ah ea r th w a sa l r eady b e ing p rac t i sed a tt h ee nd o ft h eS a t sumon p e r iod a nd h ad e ven r eached t h el e ve lo ft h er ef in ing p roce s s , a ss e en a tt h e S a t sumae s i te s . I ti sp o ss ib le t oa rgue t h a t t h e s oc ia l d emand i n c rea sed g radua l ly i n A inu s oc ie ty a nd t h a t t h e q uan t i ty o fi r on p roduc t s i mpo r ted i n c rea sed i na cco rdance w i th t h a t d emand . T hus , t oj udge f r om i t s t e chno log ica l a spec t , i r on p roces s ing t e chno logy w a s n o td e r ived d i rec t ly f r om c on tempo ra ry J apanese s oc ie ty . R a the r , i ti sp o ss ib le t o c on s ide r t ha t i td er ived f r om t h e S a t sumon , w ho h ad a l ready b een i n f luenced b yJ apane se i r on t e chno logy a tt h a t t ime . T he n or th o f T ohoku i nn o r the rn Hon shu , p robab ly t h e s ou rce o f i r on p roduc t s f o r t h e S a t sumon c u l ture , i n c rea sed p roduc t ion s o a s t o i n c rea se t h e s upp ly o f s uch g ood s , ap roces s t h a t l e d t os oc ia l c hange a s af o rma t ion o f A inu s oc ie ty .

T he s oc ia l c on tex t c an b e e xam ined f r om a spec t s o f i r on t e chno logy . I ti sp o s s ib le t o i d en t ify t h e d i f f e ren t s oc ia l c on tex t si nA inu s oc ie ty a nd J apane se s oc ie ty b yc on s ide r ing t h e r o le o f i r on w i th in e ach s oc ie ty , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk ,a nd t h et e chno logy u sed . A f te r t h e b reakdown o f t h e R i t su -Ryo s ys tem i n t h e J apane se p o l i t ica l f r amewo rk , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e T ohoku d i s t r ic t a round t h e 9 t h -10 t h c en tu r ie s , t h e re w a s i n c rea s ing p roduc t iv i ty a nd e xpan s ion o ft r ade b a sed o nc u l tu ra lc on ta c t w i thou tp r ev iou sp o l i t ica lb o rde r s . T h i s i n c rea se i ni ndus t ry a f fec ted t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re i n t h e h in te r land o f n oel T ohoku a nd H okka ido . l i on p roduc t s w e re d i s t r ibu ted b y e xchang ing g ood sw i th p eop le i nH okka ido . Ma te r ia l c u l tu re i nd ica t es many f a c to r s i nt h e c ou r se o f p ro longed c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th o the r s a nd t h is c u l tu ra l c on tac t mus t h ave i n c rea sed , o w ing t o t h e e xpans ion o f p roduc t iv i ty i n T ohoku . T hus , i r on a s ac omponen t o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re , w h ich c an b eu nde r s tood b ya r chaeo log ica ls t udy ,n eed st ob e t e s ted w i th in t h eA inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t . T he a na lys i s o fy uka ra w a s e mp loyed f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t . A inu s oc ie ty , w h ich c an b e s een t h rough t h ea na tomy o fy uka ra i sr e f lec ted i n aw ide r ange o f A inu a c t iv i t ies , i n c lud ing w idesp read t r ade . T he A inu t h emse lve s r ea l i sed t h a t t h ey w e re t h e A inu ; t h e i r i d en t i ty w a s f o rmed t h rough t h e i r t r ade a c t iv i ty a nd g ave t h e ir c ompa t r io ta wa rene s s . G roup s o l ida r i ty w a sr e info rced b yt h e w a r f a r e w i th o u t s ide r s .Y uka ra e xp res sed t h e i rs oc ie ty , w h ich w a sb u i l to nt h is a wa renes s . T he e xp re s s ion o fY aunkur , a nd R epunkur i s ag ood e xamp le o fi t .

T h is i n te rp re ta t ion c an b e t aken f u r the r : t h e re w a s ag rea t t e chno log ica ld i f f e rence b e tween K a t suyamada te , aJ apane se s i t eo f1 5 th -16 th -cen tu ry d a t e ,a nd A inu s i te so f1 7 th -cen tury d a te l i ke t h eI r ueka sh ia nd P ipau sh is i te s .T he f o rme ra l ready p o s ses sed a l ump o f s t ee l o b ta ined w i th in t h e J apanese n e two rk ; o n t h eo the rh and , t h e l a t t e ra ta n e ven l a te rp e r iod t h an t h e f o rme rd id n o th ave s t ee l . I n s t ead au n ique me thod w a s p r e sumab ly i nven ted t op roduce s t ee l i no rde r t o me e t t h e d emand f o ri ti nA inu s oc ie ty .

When a nd h ow t h e c oncep t o f aw o rd l i ke k an i c h ise e me rged , a nd w he the r o r n o t t h e t r ans la t ion s hou ld b e ' go lden h ou se ' o r ' s p lend id h ouse ' , t h e mean ing a nd t h e c oncep te xp re s sed n o to n ly d e sc r ibe ' a dm i rab le ' i n as i ng le a d jec t ive b u t a l so r ef lec t t h e a c tua l f a c t t h a t s omeone h ad s e en ar ea l g o lden h ou se , s uch a sC huson j i K on j ik ido , ( i .e . a r e a l g o lden h a l l ) , w h ich w a s b u i l t b y t h eF u j iwa ra f am i ly i n

9 3

8: C onc lu s ion : A inu a r chaeo logy a nd e t hnoh is to ry

124 a tH i ra izum i , i nT ohoku . I ts eem s t h a t h ea r say b a sed o n t h e e xper ience o f a c tua l ly h av ing s e en s uch a h ou se s p read b y w o rd o f mou th a nd w a sg radua l ly t r an smu t ed i n to t he s ymbo l ic i mage o f t h e k an i c h ise , o r p e rhap s p eop le h ea rd a ts e cond -hand e xagge ra ted J apane se d e sc r ip t ion st h a t c la imed " t here i s as p lend id h ouse , ag o lden h ouse , i n J apane se t e r r i to ry" . T hu s , y uka ra d esc r ibe t h e s oc ie ty n o t o n ly e x t en s ive ly , b u ta l so f a c tua l ly .

s uch a sa r chaeo log ica ld a ta , w h ich c on s i s t so fc omponen t so f t h e i r ma te r ia l c u l tu re , a nd e p ic d a ta , i nw h ich t hey e xp re s s t h em se lve si nt h e i ro wn w o rd s . T hese d a ta a r e mos tv a luab le f o r d e sc r ib ing t h e e t hnoh i s tory o f t h e e t hn ic g roup : a ta ny r a te , t h i s i s t h e r e su l t o f my a t temp t t o e xam ine t h e t e chno log ica l c on tex t o f i r on t e chno logy i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e A inu s oc ia l p henomena a nd t he s oc ia l m ean ing o fi r on t e chno logy i nA inu s oc ie ty .

F rom t h ea bove , p eop le o ft h e S a t sumon c u l tu re a nd p eop le o ft h e A inu c u l tu re c an b er ega rded a sh i s to r ica l ly t h e s ame p eop le , a nd c an b e i n te rp re ted a s a n e vo lv ing e t hn ic g roup . T hus , t h eA inu a re ag roup o fp eop le w ho f o rmed t h rough a p roce s so fc u l tu ra lc hange f r om t h ep eop le o ft h eS a t sumon . T he i rl i f es ty le w a sa l so t r an sfo rmed b yt h eh i s to r ica lp roce ss o fa ccu l tu ra t ion t ot h e J apane se c u l tu re a nd i n c luded o t he r i n f luence s .

A l though h i s to r ica ld ocumen t sa re t h e mo s tv a luab le d a ta f o r d e sc r ib ing h i s to ry a nd a r ea n i mpo r tan t mode f o re xp r e s s ing h i s to ry ,n on l i te ra te e t hn ic g roup s d on o tt h em se lve sp o s se s s h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s t o e xpress t he i r h i s tory . When h i s to r ica ld o cumen t s ,p roduced b ya no the rl i t e ra te g roup w i th w h ich t h ey w e re c onf ron ted , a re u sed t od e sc r ibe s uch a n e t hn ic g roup , t h ei n fo rma t ion n eed st ob ee xam ined c a re fuly t oe s tab l i sh w he the rt h e d ocumen t sa r eb i a sed o rn o tb ecau se o fe t hn ic d i f f e rence s w h ich m igh tp re jud ice t h el i t e ra te e t hn ic g roup . I tc anno t b e g ua ran teed t ha t h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s p rov ide h omogeneou s i n fo rma t ion o n a l l a spec t s o fs oc ie ty . I tm igh t b e s a id t ha t t h e d ocumen t s w h ich w e re l e f t b y a no the r s oc ie ty d o n o t d e sc r ibe f u l ly t h e s oc ie ty wh ich w a s t h e o b jec t o f s t udy . T ak ing a s a n e xamp le A inu i r on t e chno logy , w h ich i s s ca rce ly men t ioned i n J apane se h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s , i ti s p oss ib le t o c l a im t ha t s ome p rac t ice s i nA inu s oc ie ty h ave n o t b een f u l ly d esc r ibed i n J apane se h i s to r ica ld ocumen t s .J apane se h i s to r ica ld ocumen t s w h ich d esc r ibed t h e A inu c u l tu re d o n o ta lways a g ree w i th t h e a rchaeo log ica l d a ta o b ta ined f r om e xcava t ions . A rchaeo log ica l d a ta s ome t imes i nd ica te s ome th ing w h ich d oe s n o t a ppea r i n J apanese h is to r ica l d ocumen t s . T hu s , t h e se d if e r ence sb e tween t h ed i f f e ren t mode so fe xp re s s ion o f h i s to ry n eed t ob ee xam ined ,a nd e xp lana t ion sa re r equ i r ed t o f i l l t h e g ap s . A cknow ledg ing t ha t t h e r e mus t b e ag ap b e tween A inu s oc ie ty i t se lf a nd t he i mage o fi tt ha t eme rge s f r om J apane se h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s , w h ich a r e c o lou red b y e t hn ic p r e jud ic ea nd d i s to r ted b y i gno rance , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o t e s t t h e se d ocumen t s b y u s ing a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . I no t he r w o rds , i ti sd i f f icu l t t o d e sc r ibe A inu e t hnoh is tory u s ing o n ly e t hnog raph ica la nd h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s ; i tn eed s t ob e t e s ted a ga in s tt h ea r chaeo log ica ld a ta .

8 -3 Wha t i s e thnoh is tory t o t he A inu? B y h i s to ry , wha t Imean h e re i st ha t d i ach ron ica l p roce ss wh ich c an b e s e tw i th in ac h rono log ica l o rde ra mong t h ings a nd o b jec t s . H is to ry t h rough w h ich t h e e t hn ic i d en t i ty o fa p eop le w ho b e long t o an on l i te ra te s oc ie ty i sf o rmed c an b e t e rmed e t hnoh is tory . T he e t hn ic i d en t i ty w h ich i sp e rce ived b y t he A inu e thn ic g roup wa s f o rmed t h rough t h e e t hnoh i s to ry o ft h e A inu . A inu a r chaeo logy i sc on s ide red , i n t h i sb ook ,a sa na r chaeo log ica la pp roa ch t ot h eA inu c u l tu re , wh ich w a sc rea ted b y t h e A inu p eop le , i no rde rt oe s tab l i sh i t s h i s to r ica l c hange a nd mean ing . Ih ave u sed s eve ra l d i f f e ren t modes o fe xp re s s ion o fh i s to ry , d epend ing o n t h e n a tu re o ft h ed a ta d e sc r ib ing A inu e t hnoh i s to ry . Da ta w h ich a re u sed f o rt h ei nve s t iga t ion o fe t hnoh i s to ry c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo d i f f e ren t c a tego r ie s . O ne i sd a ta w h ich d e scr ibe t h e e thn ic g roup o n t h e b a se s o f t h e o b ser va t ions a nd r e co rd s f r om a no the rc u l tu re , s uch a se t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s . T he o the r i sd a ta p roduced b y membe r so ft he e t hn ic g roup i t se l f , u s ing t h e i ro wn mode o f e xp re ss ion .T h is c a tego ry i n c lude sa r chaeo log ica ld a ta w h ich r evea l ac omponen t o ft h e i r ma te r ia l c u l tu re , a nd a l so s uch e v idence a st h ee p ic t ype o ft h e i ro ra l t r ad i t ion , y u l ca ra .

A l though t h e e t hnog raph ic p resen t i sc l ea r ly i den t if ied f o r e t hnog raph ic d a ta , i n fo rma t ion wh ich i st r an sm i t ted b y a n i n fo rman t i sn o t c l ea r ly t i ed t o ap a r t icu la r p o in t i nt ime . I n fo rma t ion o b ta ined f r om i n fo rman t s a l so n eeds t o b e e xam ined w i th in t h e s oc ia l a nd h i s tor ica l c on tex t , a nd t h e i n fo rman t s w ho p rov ide t h e i n fo rma t ion n eed t o b e p l aced w i th in t h e i r s pec if ic c ond i t ions o f l i f e a nd t he p e r iod i n w h ich t h ey l i ve .

I n t h i s b ook , Ih ave u sed t h e f o rme r c a tego r ie s , s uch a s e thnograph ic a nd d ocumen ta ry h i s tor ica l d a ta w h ich w e re p rov ided b y o the r c u l tures i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e s ubs tan t ive h i s to r ica l p roce ss o fc u l tu ra l c hange a nd t og a in i ns igh t i n to A inu s oc ia l p henomena a nd t o s e t u p h ypo the t ica l mode ls f o ra r chaeo logy .T he l a t te rc a t ego r ie so f d a ta w e re u sed t oe xam ine t h ese h ypo the t ica l mode l sa nd t o t e s t t hem i n t he l i gh t o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T he o ra l t r ad i t iona le p ic t ype o fd a ta w a s u sed i no rde rt ou nde r s tand t h e A inu s oc ia lc on tex tf r om w i th in .

H oweve r ,e t hnog raph ic r e sea rch c a r r ied o u tb ye t hnog raphe r s i sa l ready s e t w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f t h e r e sea rche r , s o t h e i r q ue s t ions c anno t e x tend b eyond t h e i r f r amewo rk . I ti s t h us v e ry d i f f icu l t f o r u s t o o b ta in i n fo rma t ion a bou t p henomena w h ich may h ave e x is ted i n as oc ie ty b u t w h ich n o o u t s ide r e ve r c ons ide red . S uch p henomena w e re n eve r a sked a bou t b y a nyone o r w e re k ep t s ec re t w i th in t h e s oc ie ty . T he re i s at e ndency f o r i n fo rma t ion f r om p a r t icu la r s t ud ies t ob e l im i ted b y t h e f r amewo rk o ft h e s t udy . I nt h e c a se o f as t udy w h ich i sc ar ied o u tf o rp a r t icu la rp u rpo se s ,i t w ou ld b ed i ff icu l tt oe xpec tt or ece ive i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t o mo r e t h an t h ose p u rpose s . I n fo rma t ion o b ta ined w i th in t h e

A l though e t hnog raph ic , d ocumen ta ry , a r chaeo log ica l , a nd e p ic d a ta i n d iv idua l ly e xp r e s sd i f f e ren t mode so fh i s to ry a nd h ave d i f f e ren tv a lues f o rd e sc r ib ing e t hnoh is to ry , t h e se d a ta make i tp o s s ib le t od esc r ibe amo re s ub s tan t ive e t hnoh i s to ry b y c ros s -check ing b e tween t h em , s i nce t h ey n ece s sa r i ly c omp lemen t e ach o the r . I n p a r t icu la r , t h i s b ook c onf i rm s t ha t t h e p rocess o ff o rma t ion a nd t h e s ub s tan t ive r e a l i ty o f t h ee x is tence o f an on l i te ra t ee t hn ic s o c ie ty c an b ed e sc r ibed b y u s ing d a ta w h ich t h e e t hn ic g roup i t se lf p o sse s se s —

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8: C onc lus ion : A inu a r chaeo logy a nd e t hnoh is to ry

f r amewo rk o fi d ea s o ft h e r e sea rche r s t h em se lve s i sl i m i ted t o as pec if ic a r ea , a tt h e l e ve l o fs amp l ing d a ta , e ven b e fo re a na lys i s . Wha t i s n eeded i s n o t t o d i scus s ar e sea rch f r amewo rk a s u sed i ne t hno logy , b u t t os t udy e t hnog raph ic d a ta , s uch a st r ave lr eco rd so rt r ave ld i a r ie sw h ich d e sc r ibe a s oc ie ty a sa no b served s cene b yt h e w r i t e ra nd w h ich m ake i t p o s s ib le t o u nder s tand s oc ia l p henomena i n t h e i r e t hn ic c on tex t . F o re xamp le , a s Ih ave e xp la ined i nt h e c u l t iva t ion p roh ib i t ion mode l , t he r ea son w hy c u l t iva t ion wa s c a r r ied o u t s ec re t ly i s t ha t " cu l t iva t ion i s w an ted" b u t " i t i s p roh ib i ted" , " i fo ne i ss e en , t h e c rop s may b e t a ken a way" , s o t h ey " mus td o i ts ec re t ly" . Whe re? " Deep i nt h e f o re s t" o r " away f r om t he h ome" . R ea sons o f t h is k ind , w h ich d er ived f r om t h e A inu t h emse lve s c anno t b e r ead u n le s s p eop le w ho s ha red t h e i d ea o f ' c u l t iva t ion p roh ib i t ion ' i na s oc ie ty . I n o the r wo rd s , t h is p henomenon , p rac t i s ing c u l t iva t ion s ec re t ly , c an o n ly b ed e r ived f r om t h ei d ea w h ich o n ly t h e A inu c an r a ise i n o rde r t o c omp rom ise i n t h e i r s oc ie ty . E thnoh is tory , w h ich i sb a sed o n t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic i d ea s o fa n e t hn ic g roup , i sd i ff icu l t t oe s tab l i sh f r om d a ta s upp l ied o n ly b y o u t s ide o b se rva t ion s . Wha t c an b e d rawn b y o u t s ide o bse rva t ions i st h e h i s tory o f t h e s oc ie ty t o wh ich t h e o bse rve r s b e long o r t h e h i s to ry o f e t hno log ica l t hough t . Af r amewo rk w h ich i sb a sed o n e t hnog raph ic d a ta n eed st ob et e s t ed a ga in s ta r cha eo log ica ld a ta . I no t he rw o rd s , w i thou t t he s uppo r t o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , e t hnoh i s to ry c anno tb e w r i t t en ( c f . W i lm sen 1 989 ,J on son e ta l . 1 994 ) . 8 -4 Conc lusion : e thnoh istory

A inu

a rchaeo logy

c u l tu re ( Ch i lde 1 956 ) , a nd t h ea r chaeo log i s tt e nd st oi d en t ify ag roup o f p eop le w ho h ave l e f t a ma te r ia l c u l ture a s a n e t hn ic g roup . A s ar e su l t , a rgumen t s s uch a s " t he A inu c u l tu re may b e d e r ived f r om t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re , b u t t h e S a t sumon p eop le w e re n o t t h e s ame a s t h e A inu p eop le d ue t ot h ef a c t t h a tp o t te ry -mak ing e x is ted among t h eS a t sumon" ( Ka iho 1 993 ) h ave b ecame c ommon k now ledge among H okka ido a rchaeo log is t s a nd J apanese a rchaeo log is t s . H oweve r , i n t h e se c i rcum s tance s , o n ly ah i s to r ica l c hange w i th in t h ec on tex to ft h es ame e t hn ic g roup o fp eop le c an b e e x t rapo la ted f r om s uch al im i ted a spec to f ma te r ia lc u l tu re a s p o t te ry . I f t h i s ac hange i n t h e e thn ic c ha rac te r o f t h e p opu la t ion i sp red ica ted o n ly o n t h eb as i s o ft h ep re sence o r a b sence o f p o t te ry , t h e l og ica l c onc lus ion d rawn mus t b e t h a tt h ee t hn ic g roup who c r ea ted t h e S a t sumon c u l tu re w a s c omp le te ly e x t inc tb efo re t h e A inu e t hn ic g roup a r r ived , o r t h a tt h ey w e r ec omp le te ly i nvaded b y t h e A inu e t hn ic g roup . I ti sn ece ssa ry t o e xam ine h ow f a r a n a rchaeo log ica l ly d ef ined c u l tu r ec an b er ega rded a ss ynonymou sw i th a ne t hn ic g roup . I ti s ama t t e ro fh ow w e i n te rp re t ag roup o fp eop le s a s a n e thn ic g roup wh ich w ere d ef ined b y t he ir ' a rcha eo log ica lc u l tu re ' . T he w ay i nw h ich ag roup o fp eop le a re r e cogn ised a s a n e t hn ic g roup b a sed o n e t hn ic i ty , n eed s t ob e e xam ined . I s t h e re e t hn ic i ty d ef ined b y c ommon c u l tu ra l f a c to r s? I no t he r w o rd s , ac u l tu ra l c oncep t w h ich h a s as t ruc tu r e — s ha r ing a c ommon c ode i n c lud ing l a nguage , t hough n o t n ece s sa r i ly o n ly l a nguage , b u t av a r ie ty o fc u l tu ra l t r a i t s— n eed s t ob e r e cogn i sed f o r ac u l tu r et ob ei d en t if ied .

a nd

T o i n te rp re t p henomena o r t h ings w i th in t h e s t ruc tu re o f c u l tu re i si mpo s s ib le w i thou tu nde r s tand ing t h e i n ten t ion s o r p u rpo se s o ft h ep eop le who a c ted t o make t h ese p henomena o r t h ings , b ecause t h ey a re t h e p roduc t o f t h e a c t ion a s a r e su l to ft h e i n ten t ion sa nd p u rpo ses o ft ho se p eop le .

A rcha eo log ica ld a ta u sed i nt h is b ook ,w h ich a r en ece s sa ry t o d e sc r ibe e thnoh i s to ry , a r e ma te r ia l s f r om e xcava t ion sw h ich make i t p o ss ib le t o r econs t ruc t i r on t e chno logy b y a r cha eome ta l lu rg ica la na ly se s .F ur the re xam ina t ion b a sed o n s uch d a ta may h e lp t o i lum ina te t h e s oc ia l c on tex t . F rom t h i se xam ina t ion , t e chno log ica l s im i la r i t ie sc an b e i d en t if i ed w i th t e chn ique s emp loyed i nt h e S a t sumon c u l tu re w h ich p r eceded t h e A inu c u l tu r e . T he se s im i la r i t ie sg o b eyond t h e i mmed ia te p rob lem o f i r on t e chno logy a nd e x t end t oo t he r a spec t so f ma te r ia lc u l tu r ea sr e vea led b y a r chaeo logy . T hu s i tc an b e a rgued t ha t t h e re w a s s ome c on t inu i ty f r om o ne c u l tu re t ot h eo the r .

" How t o r ecogn ise a n ' a rchaeo log ica l c u l ture ' i n a r cha eo logy" h a sb een e xam ined h e re b ecau se t h e se h a sb een ap a rad igm s h if t i n a rchaeo logy ( Hodder 1 982 ) : f r om a c oncep t o f c u l tu re i n a rchaeo logy wh ich w a s d e f ined b y p henomena a nd t h ings a s ar e su l t o f a c t ion , t o ac oncep t o f c u l tu r e w h ich i n c lude s as t ruc tu re wh ich h a s ac ommon ly s ha r ed c ode , w h ich make si tp o s s ib le t or e ad h uman i d ea sa nd i n ten t ion sa s as ou rc eo fa c t ion .

A rchaeo log ica l ly , i n g ene ra l , i ti sd i ff icu l t t op e rce ive t h e p roce s s o ft h e h i s to r ica l c on t inu i ty o fg roup s o fp eop le w ho e x is t a tp resen t a nd who c ame i n to e x is tence t h rough t h e a r chaeo log ica l p rocess . E ven w i th in t h e s ame g eog raph ica l a r ea , h i s to r ica l c on t inu i ty c anno t b e g ua ran t eed , s o i ti sn o t c e r ta in w he the r ap resen t -day e t hn ic g r oup i st h es ame e t hn ic g roup a si nt h ep a s ti nt h e s ame a r ea . I n t h e c a se o f t h e A inu , i ti sp os s ib le t oc ons ide r t h a t t h e S a t sumon a nd t h e A inu a r e t h e s ame g roup o fp eop le i nt h e h i s to r ica l s equence , s i nce J apane se h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s g ive n o h i n t o fe thn ic r ep lacemen t o re t hn ic movemen t s o r e thn ic m igra t ions b e tween t h e 1 0 th a nd 2 0 th c en tu r ie s . T he refo re , t h e mean ing o f c u l tu ra l c hange f r om t h e S a t sumon t o t h e A inu n eed s t o b e q ue s t ioned a s c u l tu re c hange w i th in t h eh i s to r ica ls equence .

T he re fo re , ag roup o fp eop le w ho s ha red ac ommon c ode t o c ommun ica te t h e i n ten t ion o f t h e i r a c t ions a s m embe r s o f t h e s t ruc tu re o f ac u l tu re , s uch a sa n e t hn ic g roup , n eed s t o b ee xam ined a r chaeo log ica l ly — a st h ey a r et h es ame p eop le i nt h e c oncep to fc u l tu re u sed i na r chaeo logy . A tt h i s p o in t , A inu a r chaeo logy , a se xam ined i nt h is b ook , h a s s i gn if ican t v a lue i n t h e c on tex t o f r e cons ider ing t he me thod s o f r e cogn i t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion i n a rchaeo log ica l c u l tu re s . P eop le w ho l e f t ma ter ia l c u l tu re , wh ich a rchaeo logy i n te rp re t s , a nd a g roup o f p eop le who a r e membe r s o f a c u l tu re a s a n e t hn ic g roup , i . e . t h e A inu e t hn ic g roup , a r e p o s s ib ly r e cogn isab le a st h e s ame p eop le . T hu se t hnoh i s to ry c an b ed e sc r ibed a sc onnec t ing t h ea r cha eo log ica ld a ta a nd a g roup o fp eop le a sa ne t hn ic g roup .

Howeve r , i na r chaeo logy , ' a rchaeo log ica lc u l tu re ' i sd ef ined b y t h e c ha rac te r is t ic f ea tures w h ich a ppea r i nt h e ma te r ia l

A inu c u l tu re i n c lude s ac ommon c ode , wh ich c an b er e ad a s p eop le s ' i d ea s a nd i n ten t ion so fa c t ion . T ho se w ho b e long t o

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8:C onc lus ion : A inu a rchaeo logy a nd e thnoh is to ry

t h e A inu e t hn ic g roup u se t h is c ode a s as ou rce o fa c t ion . A m e thod o fr e ad ing s uch ac ommon c ode i sn eeded .

c on tex tr equ i re s t h e u se d a ta w h ich c an b ee xp re ssed b y t h e A inu t h emse lve s . T ha t i sy ukara , w h ich i s am e ssage f r om t h e p a s t a s a n e p ic t ype o f o ra l t r ad i t ion i nA inu s oc ie ty . E thnoh is tory w h ich s eek s t od escr ibe a n e t hn ic g roup i ni t s o wn t e rms c anno t i gno re t h is e p ic t ype o fd a ta . T h is b ook h a sd emons t ra ted t h a tt h i sk i nd o fd a ta i sv e ry s i gn if ican ta nd m ean ingfu l a s ak ey t o u nde r s tand ing n o t o n ly h ow t h ing s w e re e xp res sed b u t a l so ap eop le 's c oncep to ft h e i r c u l tu r e . Mo reove r , t h e e xp res s ion u sed i n t h e e p ic t y pe o f d a ta i s r epea ted i n v i r tua l ly t h e s ame p a t te rn i n ac on tex t i n t h e s oc ie ty a s ap a t te rn o fs t ruc tu re . S o t h e i re xp r e s s ions a ppea r n o t t ob e d ependen t o n as pec if ic i n fo rman t , w h ich make t h em av e ry d i f f e ren t mode o f d a ta f r om t h e e t hnog raph ic d a ta : t h e se e xp res s ion s g o b eyond i n fo rma t ion b ased o n t h e e xpe r ience o fa n i n fo rman t a s a n i nd iv idua l . A l though i ti s t r ue t h a t i ti sd i f f icu l t t ol o ca te i na c tua l h i s to r ica l t ime t h e h appen ings n a r ra ted i n t h e c a se o f t h e se e p ics , t h ey a r e p e r formed b y p eop le w ho t h em se lves b e long t o A inu s oc ie ty , s o t h ey a re mo r e r e l iab le t h an e t hnog raph ic d a ta w r i t ten b y o u t s ide r s , wh ich d epend o n t h e f r amewo rk o ft h e r e sea rche r 's i d ea s t ha t i n ev i tab ly i n ter f e re w i th t h e d a ta . T hu s , y uka ra a re i n as en se t he mo s t ' a u then t ic ' d a ta f o r r econs t ruc t ing A inu s oc ie ty a nd f o r r e cogn is ing t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e A inu a sa n e t hn ic g roup . T hey a r ep a r t o fA inu c u l tu re s ha r ing t h e c ommon c ode i n to w h ich c an b e r ead t h e i d ea s a nd i n ten t ion s o f p eop le w ho b e long t ot h e A inu e t hn ic g roup .

E ach p henomenon o r t h ing o r o b jec t , man i fe s ted a cco rd ing t op eop le 's i dea s a nd i n ten t ions , h ave ar o le a nd m ean ing w i th in e a ch c u l tu re . T hu s , i ti sd i ff icu l tt or ead t h e i d ea sa nd i n ten t ion s o f p eop le w ho c a r r ied o u t a n a c t ion o r u se a n o b jec tw i thou t u nde r s tand ing t h er o le a nd m ean ing o ft h o se a c t ions a nd o b jec t s w i th in t h a t c u l tu re . T o u nde r s tand t h e r o le a nd m ean ing o fp henomena a nd t h ings o r o b jec t s i st o u nde r s tand t he i r c on tex t w i th in t h a t c u l ture . T h ings o r o b jec t sa r er e cogn i sed f r om t h e i rs u r f ace a ppea rance a sb e ing t h e s ame c la ss o f o b jec t s . Howeve r , i ft h ese t h ing s o r o b jec t s e n te r as t ruc tu re o f c u l tu ra l c oncep t s w h ich h a s a d i f f e r en tc ommon c ode , t h en t h e m ean ing a nd r o le o ft h ings a nd o b jec t sd i f f e rf r om o t he rs t ruc tu res . T hus t h em ean ing o f t h ings a nd o b jec t s i sn o t o ne b u t i n c lude s many m ean ings a cco rd ing t od i f f e ren ts t ruc tu re s . T o s ea rch f o r t h e c ommon c ode w h ich makes t h es ame mean ing w i th in e ach c on t ex tc an b e am e thod o fc on t ex tua la r chaeo logy ( Hodde r1 986 ) . I n A inu a r chaeo logy , o b jec t s — e . g . i r on p o t s , J apane se m i r ro r s , s wo rds , a nd c o ins — w h ich a r e J apane se p roduc t s a cqu i re d i f fe ren t mean ings i nt h e A inu c u l tu re . I fp a r t icu la r o b jec t s e n te r ing t h e A inu c u l ture c hange t h e i r o r ig ina l m ean ing , a nd o the r t h ing s o r p henomena a l so c hange i nt h e s ame manne r o n e n te r ing t he A inu c u l tu re , a nd i ft h is manne r c an b e r e cogn i sed a s t h e A inu 's i n c l ina t ion , t h en i t i st e rmed " t he A inu 's i n c l ina t ion" , a s i ti se xp re ssed i n J apane se a s "A inu g onom i" i nJ apane se s oc ie ty , s i nce A inu t a s t ed i f f e r sf r om J apane se t a s t e .T he m anne r ,w h ich i n c ludes i n tended a c t ion a s t h e r e su l to ft h e i ri n ten t ion a nd m ean ing , i sc a l led " t he A inu 's w ay" ( i .e . e xp res sed a sA inupur i a nd e x i s t sa mong t h e A inu ) .

F rom t h e a bove , t he e t hnoh is tory o f t h e A inu c an b e d e l inea ted u s ing r e su l t s f r om A inu a rcha eo logy w h ich a r e b a sed o n t h e s ubs tan t ive A inu c u l tu re , a pp roa ched t h rough c on tex tua l a r chaeo logy . I nt h is s en se , A inu a r cha eo logy a s e t hnoh is to ry c an b e c a l led t h e a r chaeo logy o fA inupur i ( t he A inu 's w ay )a nd c an p lay as i gn if ican tp a r ti ne nhanc ing o u r u nde r s tand ing o f A inu c u l ture . F ur the rmo re , y uka ra , a s mes sage s f r om t h e p a s t t r ansm i t ted b y t h e A inu e t hn ic g roup , a r es i gn if ican tf o ra r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion a so ne c omponen t o f e t hnoh is to r ica l d a ta . I n o t he r w o rd s , i nt h i s b ook , t h e e x is tence o f y uka ra makes i tp o s s ib le f o r A inu a r cha eo logy t ob ecome e t hnoh i s to ry .

I nt h i s b ook , t he d es i re f o r i r on i nA inu s oc ie ty , t h e w ay i n w h ich i r on e n te red A inu s oc ie ty , t h e w ay i n wh ich i r on w a s u sed , a nd t h e mean ing o f i r on i nA inu s oc ie ty a l l i n d ica te h ow t h eA inu p rac t ic e " t he A inu 's w ay" . A rcha eo log ica ld a ta w i th in t h eA inu c u l tu ra lc on tex ta nd t h ep eop le w ho l e f tt h a t ma te r ia la s ar e su l to ft h e i ra c t ion , i . e . membe r so ft h e A inu e t hn ic g roup , a re c onnec ted w i th t h e s ame a c t ion t h rough c on tex tua l is ing e xam ina t ion . I ft ha t i ss o , i ti s v a l id t o r e co rd t h en ames o fa r t if ac t s f r om e xcava ted s i te sa nd r e f e r s t ot h em i np ub l ica t ion r epor t s , b y u s ing t h e n ame s w h ich t h e A inu u se i nt h e A inu c u l tu re a s u sed among t h em se lves — s uch a s c a l l ing a s ma l l k n if e a mak ir i , o r ah a rpoon a k i te , a nd s oo n , wh ich a r e c a l led r e spec t ive ly k oga tana ,a nd m or i -gash ira i nJ apane se . B y t he s ame l o g ic ,i r on p o t s , n ow c a l led t e t sunabe i nJ apane se c an b ec a l led k an i shu .

T he re fo re , A inu a rcha eo logy w h ich i sf u r the ra pp roa ched b y c on tex tua l a r chaeo logy i n o rde r t o e xam ine s ome o the r a spec t s o f t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o ft h e A inu , a pa r t f r om i r on a nd i r on t e chno logy , w i l l m ake i tp o ss ib le t ou nde r s tand t h e A inu c u l tu ra l c on tex t i n mo re d e ta i l . I nt h e f u tu re , i ts hou ld b ep o s s ib le t oa ch ieve amo re p rofound u nd e r s tand ing o ft h e A inu c u l tu re a s at o ta l e n t i ty o n t h e b a s i s o ft h is c on t ex tua l a pp roach . I nt h i s ac ase , y uka ra w i l l p l ay am o re s i gn if i can t p a r t i nd esc r ib ing A inu s oc ie ty , i no rde r t op rov ide f u r the r c on tex ts s uppor t ing A inu a rchaeo logy . T hus t he e t hnoh i s to ry o ft h eA inu w i l l b ed e l inea ted a nd d ef ined mo re c l ea r ly .

F ur the r , i nt h is b ook , i ti sc ons ide red t h a t t os ea rch f o r t h e c ommon c ode wh ich b e s tows t h e s ame mean ing a nd t o u nde r s tand i r on a nd i r on t e chno logy w i th in t h eA inu c u l tu ra l

9 6

Append ix

- 1 L is t

I ntroduct ion

s i tes

( 7 ) S lag T he re w a s as l ag c oncen t ra t ion b e s ide t h e h ea r th o n t h e e a s t s i de . I tl a y i n as ha l low p i t , a s i fi th ad b een g a the red f r om t h e h ea r th a nd c o l lec ted i n ah eap . T he t o ta l w e igh t o f t he s l ag w a s 2 . 427kg . Me ta l lurg ica l a na ly ses o f t h e s l ag r e s idue i nd ica te t h e p rocess o f s m i th ing u sed , t h e r aw ma t e r ia l s u sed a nd t h e s ca le o f t h e sm i th ing . Morpho log ica l c l a ss if ica t ion o f t he s l ag u sed K ubo ta 's me thod ( Kubo ta 1 983 ) , w h ich i den t if ies 4 t yp e s a nd d i f f eren t w e igh t s o f e ach t ype . T he f o l low ing c ha rac te r is t ics w e re i d en t if ied : 1 )S lag t h a t l ook s l i ke s ol id t h ick ma l t s y rup a nd a ppea r s t o h ave j us t r un o u t o f t h e h ea r th ( 4 16g ) . 2 ) S lag t h a t w a s i r regu la r ly s haped , s pongy w i th b ubb le s a nd b lack i nc o lou r ( 231g ) . 3 ) S lag t ha t i sb rown i sh red a nd a s sumed t o c on ta in l o t s o f i r on o x ide ( 1595g ) . 4 ) S lag o f l ow s pec i f ic g rav i ty wh ich h ad p robab ly b ecome a t tached t o t h e w a l l o r f l oo r o f t h e h ea r th ( 186g) .

T he s ma l l n umbe r s r efe r t h roughou t t ot h e s i te 's n umbe r a nd r e f e r t o s i te s i nT ab le 4 -2 . T he p l ace n ames i n p a ren theses a r e l o ca t ion s ; k en = p refec tur e , s h i= c i ty , c ho = t ownsh ip . T he s i te e xcava t ion r epo r t s a r e i nd ica ted w i th in []b e low e ach s i te n ame , t hus t hey a r e =I i nc luded i n t h e R ef erences a t t h e e nd o f t h i s b ook . Numbe r s i n p a ren these s r e fe r t o t h e n umbe r s g iven t o t h e b a s ic r equ i r emen t s o f t he e v idence , men t ioned i n C hap te r 4 . I f t h e o rde r o f t h e n umber s i n t h e s i te d esc r ip t ion g oe s , f o r e xamp le , ( 2 ) , ( 5 ) , ( 6 ) , ( 8 ) , t h is means t ha t e v idence d es igna ted b y t h e n umbe r s ( 1 ) , ( 3 ) , ( 4 ) , ( 7 ) , ( 9 ) i s n o t a va i lab le a t t ha t s i te , s o d esc r ip t ion s c anno t b e g iven .

( 8 ) H amme rs ca le S ca le s a pp rox ima te ly 5mm i nd iame te r h ave b een f ound b y u s ing s i eves a nd magne t s o n t h e a sh a nd t h e d epos i t s f r om t h e h ea r th a nd a r ound t h e h ea r th . T he t o ta l w e igh t o f t h e r ecove red s ca le s i s 5 40g .

Hokka ido

The f o l low ing s i tes o ccur w ith in t he A inu c ontex t i n t he 1 7th c entury ( before 1 667 )

d a ta :

( 5 ) T uye res A t t h e I r ueka sh i s i te , t uye res w e re made o fc l ay m ixed w i th s o me g ra ss a s t empe r ( s cour ing r ush ) i no rde r t o make t h em s t ronge r . T he t o ta l w e igh t o f t h e t uye re s i s5 00g , a nd f r agmen t s o f a bou t 6 t uye re s w e re f ound ; t h is e s t ima te w a s a l so made b y r e f i t t ing t h e p i eces o f t u yeres a nd c oun t ing t h e n umbe r o f t h e d iagnos t ic p a r t s o f t h e t u ye re s .

F rom t h e f o l low ing a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a te xcava ted s i te s , i ti sp o s s ib le t o i n terp re t t h e e x i s tence o f a c t iv i t ie s r e la t ing t o i r on t e chno logy . Is ha l l s u mma r i se b r ief ly t h e f i nd ing s a t e ach s i te a s a n i n t roduc t ion . T he t ypes o f e v idence r e fe r red t o a r e t hose g i ven i n T ab le 4 -1 i n o rder t o c onf i rm t he b a s ic r equ i r emen t s o f t he e v idence f o r i r on t e chno logy .

A :

o f

c u l tura l

2 . P ipau sh i s i te : ( N ibu tan i , B i ra tor i -cho ) [ For thcom ing ] T h is s i te w a s e xcava ted b y t h e a u thor i n 1 990 . T he s i te w a s s i tua ted o n t h e t e r race whe re t h e P ipaush i R ive r mee t s t h e S a ru R ive r . T he t e r race i s a bou t 5 5m a bove s ea l e ve l a nd f o rm s a n a lmos t f l a t a r ea . T he s i te w a s d iv ided i n to t wo a r ea s b y as ma l l s t ream .

1 .I r ueka sh i s i te : ( N ibu tan i , B i ra to r i -cho ) , [ B i ra to r i -cho i s ek i c hosaka i 1 989 I rueka sh i s i te ] T he I r ueka sh i s i te i sl oca ted o n at e r race ( 60m a bove s ea l e ve l ) whe re t h e K ankan s t ream a nd Makaush i s t ream mee t . Un t i l t h i s s i te w a s e xcava ted b y t h e a u tho r i n 1 988 , t h e re w a s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o r whe the r o r n o t i r on t e chno logy e x is ted i nt h e A inu c u l tu re , a nd i tw a s t h ough t t h a t t h e A inu d id n o t p rac t i se i r on -work ing . I wou ld l i ke t o s u mma r ise t h e I r ueka sh i s i te f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins o n ly .

Two h ea r ths , t u ye res , ap i t w h ich w a s c on s ide red t o b e a n a nv i l h o le , ac ha rcoa l c oncen t ra t ion , am a ss o f h ammer s ca le a nd a h eap o f s l ag w e re f ound a f t e r t h e r emova l o f t h e v o lcan ic a sh o f T a -b , w i th in f ou r g r ids ( 8m x 8m ) a tt h e s ou th -ea s t c o rne r o f t h e t e r race . T he a r ea w a s c ons ide red t ob e a n i r on -wo rk shop a r ea o f t h e s i te . T he re w ere s u rface h ou se s , s t one h eap s , i r on ma te r ia ls s uch a s d agge r s a nd i r on p o t s , a l l w i th in t h e c on tex t o f A inu ma te r ia l c u l tu re .

( 2 ) I r on ma te r ia l Many p i eces o f i r on p o t s a pp rox ima te ly 5 cm i n d iame t e r , h ave b een f ound a t t he s i te a nd t h e i r t o ta l w e igh t i s 7 48 .5g . T he se p ieces o f i r on p o t s m igh t h ave b een u sed a s as ou rce o f i r on ma te r ia l . T he re a re s o me o ther i r on ma te r ia ls , w h ich may a l so h ave b e en u sed a s as ou rce o f i r on s uch a s n a i l s , s ca le s , c l amps , a nd m i sce l laneous p ieces o f i r on wh ich a r e s hap ed a s b a r s a nd p la te s ; t h e t o ta l w e igh t o f t h ese i s4 13 .2g . T hese ma te r ia ls w e re n o t f ound n ea r t he f org ing h ea r th ; t h erefo re , a n e xam ina t ion o f t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se ma te r ia ls a nd t he h ea r th i sr equ ired .

O ne o f t h e h ea r ths w a s l o ca ted v e ry n ea r al i ne o f p os t h o les o f h ouse H -6 . H oweve r , t he h ea r th w as n o t a s soc ia ted w i th t h i s h ouse . T he o ve r lapp ing o f t h e h ouse a nd t h e h ea r th w a s a s sessed b y c a refu l o bserva t ion o f t h e p os t h o les a nd o ve r lapp ing c ha rcoa l , w h ich w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e h ea r th . I n o the r w o rds , t h e i r on-wo rkshop wa s l oca ted o u t s ide t h e h ouse a nd w a s n o t c ove red b y a ny k ind o f s t ruc tu re .

( 4 ) S t ruc tu re o fh ea r th Desp i te c a refu l i nves t iga t ion a round t h e h ea r th a t t h e s i te , n o e v idence , s uch a s p os t h o les wa s f ound wh ich wou ld h ave i nd ica ted s t ruc tu res a round t he h ea r th ; f r om t h is Ia s sumed t h e h ea r th w a s s i tua ted o u t s ide as t ruc tu re a nd a way f r om i t .

( 2 ) I r on ma te r ia l ( Pho to . 5 -3 i nC hap te r 5 ) An i r on b a r , s qua re i n s hape , w a s f ound i n ap i t wh ich w as c ons ide red t ob e a n a nv i l h o le a s soc ia ted w i th ar ock o f s phe r ica l s hape . A cco rd ing t o me ta l lu rg ica l a na lyse s , i tc ons i s t s o f s ca le w i th s o me k ind o f g l ue .

T he l o ng a x is i s 10cm e a s t -wes t a nd t h e s ho r t a x is i s 8 0cm s ou th -no r th . T h is a r ea i sd iv ided i n to t wo p a r t s . One i s ar eve r sed c one -shape h ea r th p i t , d imens ions 1 5cm i n d ep th , 3 4cm o n t h e l ong a x i s , a nd 2 7cm o n t h e s hor t a x is . I ti sa s soc ia ted w i th a s l ag c oncen t ra t ion . T he o the r i ss i tua ted o n t h e w e s t s i de o f t h e h ea r th p i t , d imens ions 1 3cm i n d ep th , 8 0cm o n t h e l ong a x i s a nd 6 8cm o n t h e s hor t a x i s ; t h i s i sa s soc ia ted w i th b u rn t s o i l .

( 3 ) C ha rcoa l Ac oncen t ra t ion o f c ha rcoa l w as f ound , f o rm ing a n a r ea 1 . 5m x 1 . 1m , a nd 1 0cm i n t h ickness . I tc ons is ts o f c ha rcoa l p i ece s 1 3 cm i n d i ame te r i n at i gh t ly p acked c ond i t ion . I tl ook s a s i ft h ey

97

App end ix -1

L i s t o fd a ta : s i te s

w ere l e f t t o b e u sed a s f ue l b u t h ad n o t b een u sed o r h ad b een e x t ingu ished d u r ing u se .

w e igh t o f t h e h ammer s ca le i s3 278 .9g . Two d i f fe ren t t ype s o f s ca le c an b e s een : o ne i s t h in a nd s qua re i n s hape , 2mm2-10mm2 ; a nd t h e o the r i ss phe r ica l i n s hape , 2mm-5mm i nd i ame te r . Ap i ece o fs i lve r 2mm i ns i ze w a s a l so f ound .

( 4 ) S t ruc tu re o fh ea r th Two d i f f e ren t t ype s o f h ea r th w e re f ound . T he i n i t ia l a ppea rance o f No . 1 wa s j us t a mound o f y e l low ish c l ay a s soc ia ted w i th s eve ra l o range -bu rned b lock s o f s o i l ( Pho to . 5 -5 i n C hap te r 5 ) . A l though i td id n o t l ook l i ke a h ea r th wh ich o ne e xpec ted t os e e i n c on t ra s t t o h ea r th N o . 2 , wh ich wa s e v iden t ly a h ea r th r e la t ing t o i r on t e chno logy ; i t wa s i den t if ied a s ah ea r th w h ich h a s s o me r e la t ion t o i r on t e chno logy b y t he e v idence o f t h e o range -bu rned b lock o f s o i l . T he refore , i ti sc a l led N o . 1h ea r th , a nd t h e o the r o ne i sc a l led N o . 2h ea r th .

The f o l low ing s i tes o ccur w ith in t he A inu c u ltura l c ontext b etween t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c entur ies ( before 1 739 ) 3 . Y ukanbosh i C 2 s i te : ( Ch i tose -sh i ) [ For thcom ing ] Two d i f f e ren t t ype s o f h ea r th w e re f ound s u r rounded b y t h e p o s t h o le s o f ag round -su rface h ouse a t t h i s s i te ; t h e h ea r th i n t h e c en t re o f t h e h ou se i s al ong a x i s h ea r th , a nd t h e o the r , w h ich i s l o ca ted b e tween t h e c en t ra l h ear th a nd t h e s ou th s ide , w a s a s soc ia ted w i th f r agmen t s o f t uye re s a nd s l ag . I ti nd ica te s s ome k ind o f i r on a c t iv i ty a nd i s i n te rp re ted a s af o rg ing h ea r th . U nfor tuna te ly , h a lf o f t h e h ouse h ad a l ready b een d es t royed b y c u l t iva t ion w hen t h is w a s e xcava ted . T he re i sa l so ad i sca rd s po t ( a pp rox ima te ly 5m i n d iame t er a nd 0 .7m i n d ep th ) , 1 -2m a way f r om t h i s h ouse , w h ich c on ta ined l o t s o f s l ag ( more t han 1 000g ) , h amme r s ca le ( 500g ) , a nd f r agmen t s o f t uye re s ( 3 1 p i ece s ) a nd 6 i r on t o o l s . I ti sa s sumed t ha t t h e s po t i sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e h ouse .

N o .1 h ea r th e xh ib i t s ap i t 2 0cm x 1 5cm i n s i ze o f o va l s hape a nd w i th a f l a t b o t tom 6 cm i n d ep th a f te r e xcava t ion o f a y e l low i sh mound a nd r emova l o f t he y e l low ish c l ay u n t i l i t d i sappea red a tt h e b o t tom . S eve ra l p ieces o f m ic ro -sca le l mm i n s i ze w e re f ound w i th in t h is c l ay i n t he m idd le o f t h e mound . T he re wa s n o o the r ma te r ia l m ixed i n to i t ; h oweve r , t h e re w e re s eve ra l o range -bu rned b lock s o f s o i l o n t op o f t h e mound a nd a p i ece o fc a rbon i sed wood u nde rnea th t h e mound . N o . 2h ear th i s a n o va l 5 0 cm x 3 0 cm s hape , a l though o ne q ua r te r wa s d es t royed b y al a te r s t ruc tu re . I ti s s ur rounded b y v iv id o range -bu r ned s o i l a s soc ia ted w i th s l ag a nd c ha r coa l . T h i s o range l a ye r i s b enea th t h e b lack l aye r m ixed w i th s l ag a nd c harcoa l i n t he c en t re . T h is h ea r th c l ea r ly i nd ica tes i r on t e chno logy t h rough t h e a s soc ia t ion o f s l ag a nd b u rned s o i l .

( 2 ) I r on ma te r ia l V a r ious t ype s o f i r on p ieces w e re f ound — i nc lud ing n a i ls , n eed le s , i r on b a r s , i r on p la tes a nd p ieces o f i r on p o t . P ieces o f i r on p o t , p a r t icu la r ly , h ad b een f ound a s i ft h ey w e re c o l lec ted a t o ne s po t f o r s ome r e a son .

( 5 ) T uye re s A t l e a s t t h ree t uye res h ave b een i den t if ied . T h is e s t ima te w a s made b y r e f i t t ing t he p ieces o f t he t uye re s a nd c oun t ing t h e n umber s o f t he d iagnos t ic p a r ts o f t he t uye res . F rom r e f i t t ing p ieces o f t uye res , i t wa s a lmos t p oss ib le t o r econs t ruc t a l l o f t h em . T here w e re t wo s po ts o f c oncen t ra t ion o f t h e t u ye re f r agmen t s wh ich c an b e i n terp re ted a s i nd ica t ing t h a t t u ye res w e re d i sca rded a nd t h en b roken i n to p iece s . T h is t h ick t ype o f t u ye re i ss im i la r t o t h e t ype f r om t he I r ueka sh i s i te . T he s i ze o f t u ye re s i s8 -9cm i n d iame te r , a nd 3 cm i n t h ickness a nd 3 cm i n i n t erna l d iame te r . T he t uye res a r e made o fc l ay w i thou t a ny g ra s s ( s cour ing r u sh ) m ixed i n . T hey a re t hus d i f fe ren t f r om t h e o ne s f r om t he I r ueka sh i s i te . T he t e x ture o f t he t uye res i ss moo th , a l though t h ey a ppea r t ob e av e ry c oa r se t ype .

( 4 ) S t ruc tu re o fh ea r th T he h ea r th e xh ib i t s ac oncave s hape 4 0 -50cm i n d iame te r a nd 1 2cm i n d ep th . One e dge o f t h is o va te s hape i s n o t c l ea r ly d e f ined . T h is may i n d ica te t h a t t uye re (s ) w a s ( we re ) p laced a tt h is p os i t ion . ( 5 )T uye res 4 4 f r agmen t s o ft u ye re s w e re f ound i n a l . T hese a r e n o t r e f i t tab le i n to o ne , s o t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e t uye res a r e n o t k nown . Howeve r , t h e i r t h ickness i sc a . 2 .4 -2 .6cm . ( 6 ) C ra f t t oo ls Ap i tw h ich w a s c on s ide red t ob e a n a nv i l h o le w a s f ound .

( 6 ) C raf t t oo l s Ap i t wh ich w a s c ons ide red t o b e a n a nv i l h o le w a s f ound . Ap i t 3 0cm i nd iame te r a nd 3 0cm i nd ep th w a s f ound f u l l o fT a rumae B v o lcan ic a sh , wh ich i mp l ie s t h a t t he p i t w a s emp ty w hen t h e a sh f e l l i n 1 667 . A ma ss o f h amme r s ca le w a s f ound a round t h i s p i t , i nd ica t ing t h a t i tw a s a n a nv i l p i t . T he e a s t e dge o f t h e p i t w a s t i gh t ly p acked w i th h amme r s ca le e x tend ing 1 0cm b e low t h e s u rface .

( 7 ) S l ag Two t h i rds o ft h e s l ag f ound a tt h i s s i te i sf r om ad i sca rd s po t a nd t h e r e s t i s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e h ea r th . T he t o ta l w e igh t o f t h e s l ag i s 1 841 .4g .

( 7 ) S lag A s ma l l p i le o f s l ag w a s f ound a t lm d i s tance f r om t h e N o . 1 h ea r th . I tl a y o n t h e v o lcan ic a sh o f U su , w h ich i nd ica te s t h a t i t w a s d i sca rded a f te r 1 663 b u t b efo re 1 667 . T he a rea o f t h e h eap i s 4 0cm x 3 0cm a nd i ti s 5 cm i n t h ickness . T he h eap i n c lude s v a r ious s i zes o f d a rk b rown ish s l ag t oge ther w i th p i ece s o f c ha rcoa l , p ieces o f t uye re s , a nd p ieces o f b ur ned b one s .

( 8 ) H amme r s ca le T he e x i s t ence o f h amme r s ca le o n t h e g round s u r face a round t h e h ea r th d ef in i te ly i nd ica tes f o rg ing a c t iv i ty . T o ta l s ca le f ound a t t h i s s i te i s 2 900g , o f wh ich 2 400g w a s f ound n ea r t h e h ea r th w i th in t h e h ouse . 4 . S e tana i -Cha sh i s i te : [ 1 C i tah iyama -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 980 , S e tana i -chash i -a to i s ek i h akku tsu c hosa h okoku sho ] T he r e i sn o e v idence f o r ah ea r th o r s l ag a tt h i s s i te . ( 2 ) I r on ma te r ia l s T he re a r e many m i sce l laneou s i r on p roduc t s , i n c lud ing 4 10 n a i ls a nd 3 04 p i eces o f i r on p o t .

( 8 ) H amme rs ca le S ca le a t t he P ipaush i s i te was s ca t te red e xtens ive ly a nd i n t r emendous q uan t i ty , t he a rea o f g rea tes t c oncen t ra t ion b e ing a round a h o le , wh ich w a s p robab ly a n a nv i l h o le , 2m l o ng a nd 2 cm i n t h ickness . I t l ooked a s i f t he g round s u rface w a s a b r igh t ly r ef lec t ive d a rk b lue . Most o f t h e s ca les w ere s t i l l magne t ic , s o i tw a s e a sy t oc o l lec t t h em w i th magne t s . T he t o ta l

( 6 ) C raf t t oo l s Ap a i r o f t ongs w a s f ound , w h ich m igh t i nd ica te i r on a c t iv i ty .

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s i te o ccurs w ith in i n t he 1 6th c entury

t he

L is t o fd a ta : s i tes

t h e s e cond t e r race , w h ich i s t he l a rges t o ne a t a pp rox ima te ly 7 000m2 — t h e a r ea i sd iv ided i n to s ma l le r u n i t s s qua re i n s hape w h ich a r e s ur rounded b y d i tches . Wi th in t h ese a r ea s , t h e re a r e b o th d we l l ing p i t s a nd s u rface h ouses . T herefore , i ti s l i ke a s ma l l v i l lage o r t own .

J apanese

5 . K am inokun i -Ka t suyamada te : ( Kam inokun i K a t suyamada t e ) [ Kam inokun i-cho Kyo ikui inka i 1 993 , Kaminok u ni Ka t suyamada te a to I -X11 1 ]

Aw ide r ange a nd g rea t v a r ie ty o f a r t ifac t s a r e f ound a tt he s i te , i nd ica t ing a c omp lex s oc ie ty a nd g rea t v a r ie ty i n t h e e ve ryday l i fes ty le . Mo s t o f t h e a r t ifac t s a r e p orce la in a nd c e ram ic s . T he se w ere C h inese , K orean , a nd J apanese c e ram ic s wh ich i nd ica te s t h a t a l l o f t h em w e re b rough t t o t h e s i te . T he e x is tence o f at e a c eremony s e t , k oro ( i ncense b u rner ) , s uzur i ( i nk s tone ) , a nd g o ish i ( s tone s o f t h e g ame g o ) i nd ica te ah igh l e ve l o f c u l tu re a t t h a t t ime .

Accord ing t o M ineo K a iho , a n h i s to r ian o f t h e M idd le a nd Mode rn A ges , a lmos t 2 0 Wa j in ( J apane se ) m ano r h ouse s c a l led y aka ta , t a re o rd a te i n t h e s ou th o f E zo ( p re sen t H okka ido ) i nt h e 1 4 th c en tury a re men t ioned i n t he h i s tor ica l d ocumen t s o f S h inra -no -K iroku . Mos t o f t h em h ad s ome k i nd o f r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e A ndo f am i ly , wh ich o r ig ina ted a r ound t h e c oa s t o f Mu t su a nd N anbu ( t he p resen t A omo r i -ken ) .

T he e v idence f o r f ood w as r ecove red mos t ly f r om t he s he l l m idden , l o ca ted t o t h e e a s t s i de o f t he ma in p la teau i n t h e T e ranosawa R ive r v a l ley ; f i nds i n c luded r i ce , s oba , m i l le t , f i sh ( i nc lud ing h er r ing , s a lmon , t r out , f l a tf ish , mackere l , y e l low ta i ls , p la ice , e t c . ) , a nd s he l lf i sh . T here a re a l so f auna l r ema ins o f d ee r , f oxe s , b ea r s , wo lves , d ogs , a nd h o r ses a nd a l so s ea a n ima l s i n c lud ing w ha le s , o t te r s , f u r s ea l s , s ea l i ons , e t c .

T he se Wa j in w e re g row ing i n p owe r , b a sed o n f i sh ing a nd t r ade b y w h ich t hey e xchanged n or the rn g oods f o r J apanese g ood s d i rec t ly a nd i nd i rec t ly v ia t h e A inu . T he se y aka ta w ere S h inor i -da te , H ako -da te , Mobe t su -da te , Nakano -da ta , Wa l c imo to -da te , Onna i -da te , O yobe -da te , N ebo ta d a te , H a raguch i -da te , H i ish i -da te , S uzak i -da te , K a t suyama -da t e , Yoku rame -da te , a nd T oma r i -da te . T he re w e re s ome o the r s w h ich may n o t b e d i rec t ly r e la ted t o S h inra -no-k iroku : t h ese w e re Yaemon -da te , Kokubu -da te , H anam i ta i -da te , a nd T o ida te .

A r t ifac t s w h ich w e re p robab ly u sed a s t oo ls a nd made o f i r on i nc lude s i ck les , i r on a r rowheads , f i sh s pea rheads , f i sh ing h ook s , h a rpoon s , n a i ls , c l amp s , w edges , s aws , a nd d r i l ls . Mo re t han 5 00 a r t ifac t s made o f b one w e re a l so f ound , s uch a s a r rowhead s a nd f i sh s pea rheads f r om t h e a r ea o ft h e s he l l m idden . T he se i nd ica te a s oc ia l c on tex t i n te re s t ing i n t e rms o f t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e A inu a nd t h e J apanese i n t he 1 6 th c en tu ry . Weapons s uch a s s wo rds , a nd p a r t s o f a rmou r , s uch a s k ozane ( i ron l ame l lae f o r a rmou r ) a nd k o te w e re f ound .

T he se y aka ta h ad d i sappea red b y t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e E do p e r iod d ue t ot h e f a c t t ha t t h e p owe r o f t h e K ak izak i i n c rea sed a nd t h ey were i n tegra ted i n to t he h o ld ings o f t h e K ak izak i f am i ly a t Ma t sumae . A rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion h a s b een c a r r ied o u t a t t h ese y aka ta s i nce 1 967 a nd h a s l e d t oa n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e h i s to ry o f t h e a r ea i n t he M idd le A ge s a nd a n i n te rp re ta t ion s umma r i sed a s av i ew f r om t h e n or th .

T he re i sa no the r f l a t p l a teau , a pp rox ima te ly 3 500m 2 , a tt h e e a s t s i de o f t h e ma in p la teau a nd a t al owe r l o ca t ion . I n t h is a r ea , 7 h ouses , 1 3 s t orehouse s , a nd 3 m isce l laneous b u i ld ings h ave b een f ound . I t i s e s t ima ted t ha t a no ther 1 0 h ouses a nd 2 0 s t o rehouses l i e i na n u nexcava ted a r ea .

Acco rd ing t o h i s tor ica l d ocumen t s , K a t suyama -da te b e longed t o , a nd w a s p robab ly u sed , i n t he p e r iod b efo re t h e c en t re o f p owe rw a s moved t o Ma t sumae .

I n t h i s a r ea , t he re a r e 3a r ea s o f b urned s o i l a s soc ia ted w i th h amme r s ca le , a nd t uye re s w ere f ound i n t he a rea wh ich i s a s sumed t o h ave b een o u ts ide t h e h ouses . A r t ifac t s wh ich i nd ica te s o me k ind o f a c t iv i ty r e la ted t o i r on t e chno logy a r e mo re t h an 6 00 p iece s o f s l ag amoun t ing t o3 5kg i n t o ta l w e igh t , h amme r s ca les , a nd t u ye re s o f av e ry l a rge s i ze made o f s t one a nd c l ay . A l ump o f i r on , o f s em ic i rcu la r s hape w a s a l so f ound . F rom i t s c on tex t , t h i s i sv e ry i mpo r tan t f o r a n u nder s tand ing o f i r on t e chno logy .

T he e xcava t ion o ft he s i te o f K a t suyama -da te s t a r t ed i n 1 979 a sa p a r t o f al a rge -sca le n a t iona l h er i tage p ro jec t o ve r al o ng t ime s pan . T he t o ta l e xcava t ion a r ea b y n ow i sa pp rox ima te ly 1 0 ,000 m2 , a nd s t i l l i s b e ing worked a t p re sen t . E xcava t ion s o f a r i nd ica te s al a rge c omp lex s e t t lemen t w h ich w as o ccup ied f o r more t h an 1 00 y ea rs . Th is s i t e i ss i gn if ican t f o r c ompa r ison w i th t h e A inu s i tes a nd w i l l b e d esc r ibed i n s o me d e ta i l . I t i s l o ca ted o n t h e w ho le moun ta in -s ide ; t he a l t i tude o f t h e s l ope i s f r om 1 5m t o 13m , i mmed ia te ly i n f r on t o f ag ood p or t o n t h e J apan S ea . T he p la tfo rm o n t he s l ope wa s made b y t wo r i ve r s , t h e M iyanosawa R ive r a nd t h e T e ranosawa R ive r . T he s l ope h a s t h ree s t ep s o f f l a t t e r races r i s ing t owa rds t h e t op o f t h e moun ta in . T he re a r e 2V s haped t r enche s a te ach s i de o f t h e e dge o f t h e f l a t t e r race . T he i nne r i s 8m i n w id th a nd 2 . 5m i n d ep th , a nd t h e o u te r i s 4m i n w id th a nd 1 . 8m d eep . A t t h e s i de o f t h e s econd t e r race , t h e re a r e many p os t h o les i n al i ne , a s i f af ence h ad b een s e t u p . A t t h e v e ry t o p o ft he t h i rd t e r race , t h e re a r e p os t h o le s i n al i ne , a si fa f ence w a s s i tua ted o n t op o f t h e e a r then w a l l w h ich h a s ag a t e ; o u t s ide t h e g a te , t here i s aV -shaped t r ench . T he l i ne o f p o s t h o les c on t inues a nd i s c onnec ted t o t h e s econd t e r race . T he refo re , t h e s i te i ss ur rounded b y b o th n a tu ra l r i ve r v a l ley s a nd h uman -made t r enches a nd f ence s , a s i fi tw e r e at ype o f moun ta in f or t .

The f o l low ing s i tes a re w ith in c u ltura l c ontext b etween t he 8 th c entury

t he a nd

S atsu mon t he 1 0th

6 .S a t sumae : ( Ma t sumae -cho ) [ Ma t sumae -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 985 S a tsumae i s ek i ] O u t o f 3 3 S a t sumon d we l l ing p i t s d i scove red , 4 dwel ing p i t s a r e i d en t if ied a s a n i r on techno logy a c t iv i ty a rea t h rough t he i r a s soc ia t ion w i th t uye re s a nd s l ag a tt h e S a t sumae s i t e . T he se f ou r d we l l ing p i t s , N os . 1 , 1 2 , 1 5 , a nd 2 1 , a r e d i s t r ibu ted r andom ly among t h e o the r dwe l l ing p i t s . T he s hape o f t h e p i t s i s s qua re , mea sur ing 8m a ve rage o n t h e l ong a x i s , a s soc ia ted w i th a n o ven o n o ne s i de a nd w i th t wo c en t ra l h ea r ths a t t h e c en t re . A l l o f t h em i nd ica te a lmos t t h e s ame f ea tures a s t h e r e s t o f t h e dwe l l ing p i t s a t t h e S a t sumae s i te . Howeve r , o n ly No . 2 1 dwe l l ing p i t h ad ac en t ra l h ea r th , e xh ib i t ing ag ou rd -shape a s t h e r e su l t o f t h e c onnec t ion o f t wo h ea r ths . A long t h is h ea r th , a c oncen t ra t ion o f t uye re s a nd s l ag w e re f ound . Dwe l l ing p i t s N o . 6 ,7 ,8 ,a nd 9 a l so c on ta in t uye re s a nd s l ag o n t h e f l oor l e ve l .

A ma in s t ree t a nd s t a ir s a pp rox ima te ly 3m w ide c onnec t t h e t h ree s t epped t e r races , l o ca ted a t t h e m idd le o f e ach t e r race h or izon ta l ly . A t b o th s i de s o f t h e ma in s t ree t — f o r e xamp le , o n

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Dwe l l ing p i t I H97 w a s s qua re i n s hape , 5m l o ng , a nd a s soc ia ted w i th a n o ven ; i t w as i den t if ied a s a n i r on t e chno log ica l w o rk shop a tt h e e dge o f as e t t lemen t o f S a t sumon dwe l l ing p i t s .

Ove ra l l , S a t sumon s i tes s eem t o h ave a s t rong r e la t ion sh ip w i th a c t iv i t ies o f i r on t e chno logy . ( 4 ) A g round -shaped h ear th w h ich c onnec ts t wo o va l s hapes t o ge the r w a s i nt h e c en t re o f ad we l l ing p i t .

T h is p i t w a s ad i f f e ren t f ea tu re f r om t h e o the r p i t s , a s t h e d ep th o f p i t w a s d eepe r t h an t h e r e s t a nd i th ad ad i tch a r ound i t .T he re w e re t wo a r ea s o va l i ns hape , 5 0cm i nd iame te r , w h ich w e r e d ug a tt h e c en t re o f t h e p i t s a nd c onnec ted t oe ach o t he r . A t t h e n o r th e nd o fo ne , t h e re w a s ab u rned d i tch i n wh ich at u ye re m igh th ave b een p laced . A ccord ing t o t he e xcava tor , t h e o ther o ne m igh t h ave b een t h e p o s i t ion f o r t h e a nv i l . ( 8 ) H amme r s ca le , s uch a s t wo s i ck le s , a n i r on a xe , i r on a r rowhead s , ad agge r a nd a l so s l ag , t u ye re s , a nd ag r inds tone w e re f ound i n t h is p i t .

( 5 ) T uye res w e re f ound o n t h e f l oo r l e ve l o f t h e d we l l ing p i t s . ( 7 ) S lag w a s f ound o n t h e f l oo r l e ve l o f t h e dwe l l ing p i t s . 7 . M iyuk icho : ( Mor i -cho ) [ Mo r i -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 985 , M iyuk icho i s ek i ] A l though o n ly o ne S a t sumon dwe l l ing p i t w a s f ound a tt h i s s i te , i ti se s t ima ted f r om t h e a s se ssmen t o f i t s s i tua t ion t h a t t h i s w a s a to ne e dge o f aS a t sumon s e t t lemen t , o f wh ich t h e r e s t i ss t i l l u nexcava ted .

1 . N aka j imama t su 6 & 7 :( En iwa -sh i ) [ En iwa -sh i K yo iku i inka i 1 988 , Naka j imama t su 6 a nd 7i s ek i ] A t t h e N aka j imama t su 6 s i te , o n ly ( 5 ) ap iece o f t uye re w a s f ound , a nd a t t h e N aka j imama t su 7 s i te , ( 8 ) h ammer s ca le w a s f ound .

T he dwe l l ing p i t w a s s qua re i n s hape , 3m o n i t s l ong a x i s . T he re w a s n o c ook ing o ven , b u t as t re tch o f b urned s o i l , 1 . 1m x 0 . 5m , i nt he c o rne r o f t h e p i t , a s soc ia ted w i th s l ag , w a s i d en t if ied a s a n i r on techno log ica l wo rkshop . ( 5 ) S ome t uye res , ( 6 ) ag r ind ing s t one , ( 7 ) a nd s ome s l ag w e re f ound o n t h e f l oor o ft h is p i t .

1 2 . S akushuko ton i : ( Sappo ro -sh i ) [ Hokka ido D a igaku 1 986 , S akushuko ton i i s ek i ] ( 5 ) O ne t uye re w a s f ound . I ti s n o t f r ag men ta ry , a l though i ti s n o t c omp le te .

8 . N i sh ik imach i 5 : ( A sah ikawa -sh i ) [ Asah ikawa -sh i K yo iku i inka i 1 984 , 1 985 N ish ik imach i ] T hree p i t s , S E -32 , MK -20 , a nd MX -12 , w ere i d en t if ied a s b e long ing t o a n i r ontechno log ica l w ork shop . T hese p i t s w e re s i tua ted a tt h e e dge o f as e t t lemen t o f S a t sumon dwe ll ing p i t s , i n as o mewha t s epa ra te a r ea . Howeve r , t h e e x is tence o f t h e s ame k ind o f p o t te ry i nd ica te s t h a t t h ey a r e a lmos t c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e ma in p a r t o f t h e s e t t lemen t .

( 8 ) O ne p iece o fs l ag w a s f ound . 1 3 . Okawa : ( Yo ich i -cho ) [ Yo ich i -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 990 , O kawa isek i h akku tsu c hosa g a iho ] T he s i te h a s b een e xcava ted s i nce 1 989 a nd t h e t o ta l a r ea o f e xcava t ion w i l l b e 2 0 ,000 m 2 . T he s i te i ss i tua ted o n ab ank o f t h e mou th o f t h e Okawa R iver , wh ich r uns i n to Y o ich i B ay . Many r e su l ts h ave c ome f r om t h is s i te i nc lud ing ma te r ia l f r om c on t inen ta l C h ina . I tc over s t he p e r iod f r om t h e 4 th c en tu ry t o t h e 2 0 th c en tu ry , w h ich i n c ludes t he Z oku jomon , t h e S a t sumon , a nd t h e A inu p e r iod o f t h e H okka ido c h rono log ica l s equence . A s i gn if ican t f i nd f r om t h i s s i te was c a rbon ised r i ce wh ich w a s f ound b y a me thod o f f l o ta t ion c ar r ied o u t o n s o i l c on ta ined i n S a t sumon p o t tery . M ile t a nd S oba w ere a l so f ound o n t h e f l oo r o f t h e S a t sumon d we ll ing p i t s .

( 4 ) T he MX -12 p i t wa s as ha l low c oncave p i t o f o va l s hape , 5m i nl eng th . I n i t ah ea r th 1 . 2m x 0 .6m w a s f ound , a s soc ia ted w i th s l ag . S E -32 p i t h ad a l a rge c oncave s hape , 8m x 6m i n a r ea a nd 1 . 4m i n d ep th . T he re w as a f l a t a r ea 1 m x lm i n t h e m idd le o f t h i s p i t . ( 4 ) A h ea r th w as f ound o n t op o f t h is f l a t a r ea , a nd u nde rnea th t h e h ea r th a 1 5cm t h ick l a ye r o f g rave l w a s f ound . T h is s t ruc tu re h a s b een i n terp re ted a s p ro tec t ing t h e h ea r th f r om t h e d ampne ss o f t h e g round . S tones w e re l a id o u t o n t h e s i de o f t h e p i t w h ich w e re i n te rp re ted a s i n tended t o p reven t t h e s i des t umb l ing d own . T he h ea r th w a s a s soc ia ted w i th ( 8 ) s l ag a nd ( 5 ) t uye re s . T he MK -20 p i t w a s o ve r lapped b y S E -32 a nd s l ag w a s f ound i n t h e c oncave s hape , a pp rox ima te ly 1 0m x 5m .

( 7 ) (5 ) S lag a nd t uye res w e re f ound a s soc ia ted w i th ma te r ia l w h ich i sc on s ide red t oh ave c ome f r om t he S a t sumon s e t t lemen t a nd i t s 1 4 d we l l ing p i t s , b u r ia l p i t s , a nd p i t s .

9 . R ansh ima : ( O ta ru -sh i ) [ O ta ru -sh i K yo iku i inka i 1 989 , R ansh ima i s ek i c h ipush i tana i i s ek i ] T he s i te w as e xcava ted i n 1 988 . A ccord ing t o as t udy o f t h e S a tsumon p o t te ry t ypo logy , t h e s i te w as a ssoc ia ted w i th t h e e a r ly s t age o f t h e p o t te ry a round t h e l a te r 8 th c en tu ry . ( 4 ) A h ea r th w h ich w a s e nc i rc led b y s t ones a nd c l ay i n t h e m idd le w a s f ound o n t h e g round s u rface , n o t w i th in adwe l l ing p i t . H oweve r , ( 8 ) h amme r s ca le w as f ound b y s i ev ing t h e b urned s o i l i n a nd a r ound t h e h ea r th . ( 5 ) Af l a red t u ye re ( t rumpe t shaped ) w a s f ound i n a n i s o la ted c on tex t . 1 0 . S ueh i ro ( mu l t ip le l o ca t ions ) : ( Ch i tose -sh i ) [ Ch i to se -sh i K yo iku i inka i 1 981 , 1 982 , S ueh iro i s ek i n i o keru k okogaku c hosa J o , g e , z oku ] More t h an 1 00 dwe l l ing p i t s w e re f ound o n t h e r i ve r t e r race o f t h e S ueh i ro R ive r i n as e r ie s o f e xcava t ions . ( 5 ) A t r umpe t s haped t uye re a nd ( 6 ) a n a nv i l s t one w i th i r on r us t w e re f ound i n t h e dwel ing p i t o f I P -89 , wh ich h ad b een h a lf d e s t royed b ecau se i tw a s a tt h e e dge o ft h e t e r race .

1 4 . G enwa : ( O tobe -cho ) [ O tobe -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 977 , G enwa , z oku ] ( 5 )O ne t u yere w a s f ound . ( 8 ) O ne p iece o fs l ag w a s f ound . 1 5 . A onae : ( Oku sh i r i to i s land ) [ Okush i r i -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 978 , A onae i s ek i h akku t su c hosa g a iho ] T he s i te i sa s soc ia ted w i th as he l l mound o ft h e S a t sumon p e r iod . A lmos t 2 70 b ase s o f S a t sumon p o t tery , w h ich h ad g eome t r ica l i n c i sed m a rk s , w e re f ound . T he re w e re a l so b one t oo ls , s u ch a s h a rpoons a nd ( 2 ) i r on ma te r ia l s s uch a s i r on p ans made o f c a s t i r on , a nd a n i r on r i ng , d agge rs , s wo rds , s i ck le s , h oes , a xe s , e t c . H oweve r , t h ese h ave n o t b een e xam ined t o d e te rm ine w he the r t h ey w e re made o fc as t i r on o r s t ee l . A ccord ing t o t h e e xcava t ion i n 1 976 , ( 7 ) a lmo s t 5 kg o f s l ag a s soc ia t ed w i th ( 5 ) t uye res w e re f ound , a s w e l l ab lock o f w h i te c l ay a nd b urned s o i l . T hese f i nds i nd ica te t h a t t h e s i te w a s a n i r on -wo rk ing s i te . 1 6 . A t susabukawaguch i : ( Esa sh i -cho ) [ s u r face c o l lec t ion , s ee Onuma a nd S a to 1 976 ]

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( 8 ) O ne p i ece o f s l ag w a s f ound a tt h i s s i te . However , t h is w a s n o t i n s i tu . 1 7 . H o rona ipo : ( K i tam i E sash i -cho ) [ E sa sh i -cho K yo ikui inka i 1 980 , Horona ipo i s ek i ] T he s i te w a s e xcava ted i n 1 978 . T h i s i st h e f i r s t s i te a tw h ich t h e e x is tence o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e S a t sumon c u l ture w as r ecogn ised d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re w e re ( 5 ) f i ve t uyeres o f wh ich t h ree w ere d eco ra ted w i th i n c i sed p a t terns w h ich w e re e xac t ly t h e s ame a s t h e p a t te rns o n S a t sumon p o t te ry . T he refo re , t hese t uyeres w ere c l ea r ly i den t if ied a s b e long ing t o t he S a t sumon c u l tu re . T he f i ve t uye res w ere f ound i n t wo s ha l low p i t s w h ich w e re c oncave i n s hape , 2m i n d iame te r w i th in t he s e t t lemen t o f a lmos t 2 5 dwe l l ing p i t s a t t h is s i te . I ti s s i gn if ican t t h a t t h e t uye re s w e r e d eco ra ted o b jec t s . A l though h ea r ths w e re n o t f ound a tt h i s s i te , ( 7 ) as ma l l a moun t o f s l ag [ 2 g ] w a s f ound i nt h e dwe l l ing p i t o f D -83 a nd e xam ined b y am e ta l lu rg is t . 1 8 . M inam i mach i C : ( K i tam i sh i ) [ s ee U takawa 1 981 ] ( 5 ) On e t u ye re w a s f ound w h ich i sd ecora ted i nt h e s ame w ay a sa t t h e H o rona ipo s i te , w i th a t yp ica l S a t sumon p a t te rn . 1 9 . K agawa -sansen : ( Tomamae -cho ) [ Tomamae -cho Kyo iku i inka i 1 988 K agawa s ansen i s ek i , K agawa 6 i s ek i ] ( 5 ) O ne t u ye re w as f ound . I ti sn o t f r agmen ta ry a l though i ti sn o t c omp le te .

L is t o fd a ta : s i tes

2 6 . T okach ibu to -Fu rukawa : ( Urahoro -cho ) [ s ee M iya , H . 1 982 ] ( 5 ) T he re w a s as i ng le f i nd o f at uye re w i th in t h e S a t sumon d we l l ing p i t s . 2 7 . K awaguch i : ( Tesh io -cho ) [ s ee Y o sh izak i 1 974 ] ( 5 ) O ne p i ece o f at u ye re w a s f ound . 2 8 . N ish i t suk igaoka : ( Nemu ro -sh i ) [ Nemu ro -sh i 1 966 , Hokka ido N emuro n o s en sh i i s ek i ] ( 5 ) T he re w a s as i ng le f i nd o f at uye re w i th in t h e S a t sumon d we l l ing p i t s . 2 9 . T oko ro -cha sh i : ( Tokoro -cho ) [ Tokoro -cho Kyo iku i inka i 1 986 , T okoro -chash i m inam i o ne i s ek i ] ( 5 ) T he re w a s as i ng le f i nd o f at uye re w i th in t h e S a t sumon d we l l ing p i t s . 3 0 . S udo : ( Sh iya r i -cho ) [ Sha r i -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 981 S udo i s ek i ] ( 5 ) T he re w a s as i ng le f i nd o f at uye re w i th in t h e S a t sumon d we l l ing p i t s . 3 1 . G ifu : ( Tokoro -cho ) [ Toko ro -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 982 G if u d a i 2i s ek i ] ( 5 ) T he re w a s as i ng le f i nd o f at uye re w i th in t he S a t sumon d we l l ing p i t s . 3 2 . S h in to t sugawa : ( Sh in to t sugawa -cho ) [ s ee T akaha ta 1 894 ] ( 5 ) O ne p i ece o f at u ye re w a s f ound .

( 8 ) O ne p i ece o fs l ag w a s f o und . 2 0 . T aka sago : ( Ob ira -cho ) [ Ob i ra -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 983 Ob ira taka saga , 1 985 , T aka sago i s ek i d a i 2c h i ten h akku t su c hosa h okokusho ] ( 5 ) O ne t uye re was f ound a t l o ca t ion 2 , w i th in S a t sumon dwe l l ing p i t No . 5 , a nd a no the r w a s f ound w i th in S a t sumon dwe l l ing p i t BH 54 . I t i s n o t f r agmen ta ry a l though i ti s n o t c omp le te .

The f o l low ing s i te c u ltura l c ontext

o ccurs

w ithin

t he

Ohotsuku

3 3 . K abuka i : [ Tokyo D a igaku S huppanka i 1 976 , 1 981 , K abuka i i s ek iJ o , g e ] ( 4 ) As ma l l t uye re w a s f ound ( on ly 1 . 5cm i n i n te rna l d iame t e r ) . T he i n s ide s u r face o ft h i s i sb u rn t a nd v e ry b ad ly d amaged .

( 8 ) O ne p i ece o fs l ag w a s f ound .

B :

Tohoku

2 1 . H iga sh ih i rosa to : ( Fukagawa -sh i ) [ Hokka ido Ma izo Bunkaza i C en t re 1 989 , H igash i h irosa to i s ek i ] ( 5 ) O ne t u ye re w as f ound . I ti sn o t f r agmen ta ry a l though i ti sn o t c omp le te . ( 8 ) O ne p i ece o fs l ag w a s f ound .

The f o l low ing s i tes o ccur w ith in t he J apanese c u l tura l c ontext i n t he 1 5 th-17th c entur ies

2 2 . T anaka : ( Ch i tose -sh i ) [ s ee H owa rd , J .A . 1 960 ] ( 8 ) O ne p i ece o fs l ag wa s f o und .

( 2 ) T he re a r e 3 0 i r on b a r s w h ich w e re t i ed u p i n ab und le a s i f t h ey w e re d i s t r ibu ted g ood s . T he re a r e a l so k ozane ( i ron l ame l lae f o r a rmou r ) .

2 3 . Wa tenbe t su : ( Sh iranuka -cho ) o [ Sh i ranuka -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 968 , 1 969 , S h iranuka -cho n s ensh i b unka ] ( 8 ) O ne p i ece o fs l ag wa s f ound .

3 5 . H amadoo r i : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomo r i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C ent re 1 983 , v o l . 8 0 Hamadoor i i s ek i ] T h i s s i t e w a s d a ted b a sed o n t h e a s soc ia ted p o rce la in o f t h e 1 6 th 1 7 th c en tur ies , a nd a l so b y a s soc ia t ion w i th a t obacco p ipe w h ich w a s i n t roduced a r ound t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry . ( 2 ) T he re a r e i r on n a i l s .

2 4 . T apukopu : ( Tomakoma i -sh i ) [ Tomakoma i -sh i Kyo iku i inka i , a nd T omakoma i -sh i Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 984 T apukopu ] ( 5 ) O ne p i ece o f at uye re w a s f ound . 2 5 . H okkema : ( O ta ru -sh i ) [ s ee M iya , H . 1 982 ] ( 5 ) O ne p i ece o f at uye re w a s f ound .

3 4 . N am ioka jo : ( Aomo r i -ken ) [ Nam ioka -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 984 , N am ioka jo a to V I I I ]

( 4 ) Ah ea r th w a s f ound w i th in adwe l l ing type o fs t ruc tu re , w h ich i s n o t e xac t ly a dwe l l ing p i t , among 8 g round -su rface h ou se s . T he h ea r th i t se lf h as ac ha rac ter is t ic f ea ture o f b e ing l i ned w i th c l ay i no rde r t os t op d amp c om ing u p f r om t h e g round . ( 5 ) F ragmen t s o f t uye res w e re f ound .

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L i s t o f d a ta : s i t es

( 4 ) B urned s o i l a s soc ia ted w i th s l ag a nd f r agmen t s o f t uye re s w e re f ound , i n d ica t ing h ea r th s . T he f l oor wa s p l a s te red w i th s i l t s o i l ( 5 ) L a rge -sca le t u ye res w e re f ound . ( 7 ) N ume rou sp i ece s o fs l ag w e re f ound

( 8 ) S l ag wa s f ound n ea r t h e p os t h o les o f as t ruc tu re w i th ah ear th i n i t . The f o l low ing d istr ic t , d a t ing

s i tes a re l ocated i n t he Tohoku b etween t he 8 th-lOth c entur ies

4 1 . U ch ieb isawa : ( Aomo r i -ken ) [ Tohoku-cho Ma izo B unkaza i c hosa U ch ieb isawa e m i sh i d a te ] ( 5 )N ume rou st u ye re s w e re f ound . ( 7 ) N ume rou s p i ece s o fs l ag w e re f ound .

3 6 . Mokusawa : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 990 Mokusawa i s ek i ] T he Mokusawa s i te i ss i tua ted i n A j iga sawa a tt h e f oo t o f Moun t I wak i o n t h e s ou th -ea s t e dge o f t h e T suga ru P la in , n o t f a r f r om t h e J apan S ea .

h okokusho

v o l .

2

4 2 . S umoda i sh imoya suha ra : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en tre 1 987 , v o l . 11 S umoda ish imoya suhara i s ek i h akku t su c hosa h okokusho ] 1 44 d we l l ing p i t s w e re f ound o f wh ich 8 4 w e re a s soc ia ted w i th o vens . ( 5 ) N ume rou sp i ece s o ft u ye re s w e re f ound . ( 7 ) 6 6 p i eces o fs l ag w e re f ound o n as i te a s sumed t oh ave b een a f o rg ing work shop .

A round Moun t I wak i , i ti s we l l k nown f r om l o ca l o ra l t r ad i t ion t h a t i r on p roduc t ion w a s p rac t ised i nt h e p a s t , d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t housands o f p ieces o f s l ag a r e s ca t tered a round e ve rywhere , w i thou t i tb e ing k nown w he re t h ey c ame f r om . A rchaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion h a s b een c ar r ied o u t s i nce 1 958 . S e t t lemen t s i tes wh ich a r e a s soc ia ted w i th i r on c ra f t t o o l s s uch a s t uye res , h amme r s , c h ise ls , a nd r a sp s h ave b een f ound a t t h e s i t es o fT akada te , F uruda te , a nd C hoka isan . I on -p roduc t ion s i te s , w h ich a re i nd ica ted b y t he e x is tence o f h ea r ths , h av ing t h e f unc t ion o f e i the r af u rnace o r af o rge , h ave b een f ound a t t h e s i tes o f Oda temo r iyama , Mokusawa , a nd Yaeg iku , o n t h e T suga ru P la in . A t t h e Moku sawa s i te , ( 4 ) 3 4 f u rnaces w e re f ound , t o ge the r w i th 1 9 dwe l l ing p i t s . A cco rd ing t o t h e a s soc ia ted a r t ifac t s a nd t h e e v idence o f t h e v o lcan ic a sh , i ti sd a ted t o t he 1 0 th a nd 1th c en tu r ies .

4 3 . B o tanda i ram inam i : ( Aomo r i -ken ) [ Aomor i-ken Ma izo B unkaza i c entre 1 975 , v o l . 2 6 B o tanda iram inam i i s ek ih akku t su c hosa h okoku sho ] 1 4 d we l l ing p i t s d a ted t ot h e 1 0 th c en tury w e re f o und . ( 1 ) I r on s and w h ich h ad b een s o l id a f te r h ea t ing w a s f ound i no ne o ven a nd o n t h e f l oo r o f adwe l l ing p i t . ( 5 ) L a rge t ype o ft uye res w a s f ound ( 7 ) S lag . ( 9 ) L ime s tone w a s f ound w h ich wa s a ssumed t o h ave b een a n a dd i t ive .

3 7 . I C i t sunemo : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken k okogaku 3 1 986 ] T he s i te i sd a ted t ot h e 1 0 th c en tury ( t he H e ian p e r iod ) b a sed o n p o t te ry s uch a sH a j i w a re a nd S ue w a re . ( 4 ) As em i -unde rg round s haf t -fu rnace o f o va l s hape w a s f ound a t t h e s u rface , 6 9cm o n t he l ong a x is a nd 6 7cm o n t h e s hor t a x i s .

4 4 . H ach iazawa : ( Aomo r i -ken ) [ Aomo r i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 987 , v o l . 16 Hach ia zawa i s ek i h akku tsu c hosa h okoku sho ] ( 2 ) A n i r on b a r l ike o b jec t w a s f ound . ( 5 ) Ap i ece o ft u ye re w a s f ound . ( 7 ) S l ag w a s f ound .

( 5 ) F ragmen t s o ft uyeres w e re f ound .

4 5 . Oda te : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ s ee K ikuch i 1 990 Y omog ida Oda te h okokusho ] N ume rou s i r on o b jec t s w e re f ound . ( 7 ) S l ag w a s f ound .

( 7 ) S lag w a s f ound , c on ta in ing ah igh p ropor t ion o f t ian ium . 3 8 . F u ruda te : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 979 , v o l . 5 4 F uruda te i s ek ih akku tsu c hosa h okokusho ] T he s i te i sd a t ed t o a round t h e 1l t h o r 1 2 th c en tu r ies . Af o rg ing p lace a nd ( 4 ) s ma l l -sca le i r on -wo rk ing f u rnace w e re f ound . ( 5 ) 1 68 p ieces o f t uye res w e re f ound , o f wh ich 4 1 p i ece s w e re r e f i t ted . Ac y l inde r type a nd at r umpe t type o f t u ye re w e re f ound . ( 6 ) H amme r s a nd t ongs w e re f ound . 3 9 . C hoka isan : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken Ma izo Bunkaza i C en t re 1 977 , v o l . 3 2 C hoka isan i s ek i h akku tsu c hosa h okokusho ] T he s i te d a te s f r om a round t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry . Af o rg ing p l ace w a s f ound i n as e t t lemen t . I r on p roduc t s , s uch a s i r on a g r icu l tu ra l t o o ls a nd a rm s w e re f ound . ( 5 )T uye res w e re f ound ( 6 ) Ap a i r o f t ongs a nd c h ise l s w e re f ound . ( 7 ) N ume rous p iece s o fs l ag w e re f ound w i th in t h e dwe l l ing p i t s . 4 0 . H agu roda i ra : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken Ma izo Bunkaza i C en t re 1 979 , v o l . 4 4 , Haguroda ira i s ek i ] Af o rg ing p lace w a s f ound w h ich h ad c l ay l a id o n t h e f l oo r .

s i te h akku tsu

c hosa

4 6 . K oda te : ( Aomo r i -ken ) [ s ee K ikuch i 1 990 ] ( 5 ) P i ece s o ft u ye re s w e re f ound . ( 7 ) S l ag w a s f ound . 4 7 . A sah iyama : ( Aomo r i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 983 , v o l . 8 7 A sah iyama s i te h akku tsu c hosa h okokusho ] ( 5 ) A p i ece o f t u ye re w a s f ound , 1 7 .9cm l o ng w i th me l ted i r on a t tached . ( 7 ) 1 9 p i eces o fs l ag w e re f ound , w i th a t o ta l w e igh t o f 1 , 163g . 4 8 . I t adome 2 :( Aomo r i -ken ) [ Aomo r i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 979 , v o l . 5 9 l t adome ( 2 ) i s ek i ] ( 5 ) 1 0 p ieces o f t u ye re s w e re f ound , s o me o f t h em 3 3 .9cm l o ng . ( 7 ) S eve ra l p i ece s o fs l ag w e re f ound . 4 9 . S h imoyach i : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ Aomor i -ken Ma izo B unkaza i Cen tre 1 987 , S h imoyach i i s ek ih akku tsu c hosa h okokusho ] ( 5 ) Ap i ece o ft u ye re w a s f ound . ( 7 ) 5p i eces o fs l ag w e re f ound .

1 02

v o l .

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L is t o f d a ta : s i te s

5 0 . T akag i : ( Aomor i -ken ) [ 1980 e xcava t ion r e su l t s n o t y e t p ub l ished ] ( 5 ) P i ece s o ft u ye res w e re f ound . ( 7 ) N ume rous p i eces o fs l ag w e re f ound .

( 4 ) Af u rnace w a s f ound . 6 1 . A oza ru : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ s ee S a sak i , K . 1 990 ] T he s i te i sd a ted t oa round t h e 9 t h c en tu ry . ( 4 ) As em i -unde rg round s ha f t fu rnace w a s f ound .

5 1 . N iwagamae : ( Aomo r i -ken ) ( 5 ) P i ece s o ft uye res w e re f ound . ( 7 ) S l ag w a s f ound .

6 2 . A sukada ich i : ( Iwa t e -ken ) ( s ee S a sak i , K . 1 990 ] T he s i te i sd a ted t oa round t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry ( 4 ) ( 5 ) Ah ea r th w a s f ound , a s soc ia ted w i th 5 9 p i ece s o f t u ye res .

5 2 . Y aeda i ra : ( Aomor i -ken ) ( 5 ) P i ece so ft uye res w e re f ound . ( 7 ) S l ag w a s f ound .

6 3 . S ek isawaguch i : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ s ee S a sak i , K . 1 990 ] T he s i te i sd a ted a r ound t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry . ( 4 ) Af o rg ing h ea r th w a s f ound . ( 5 ) P ieces o ft uye re s w e re f ound .

5 3 . K am imu ra : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ For thcom ing ] T he s i te i sd a ted t o a round t h e 8 th c en tu ry . T he re w ere a l so c ha rcoa l k i ln s n ea rby . ( 1 ) I r on s and w a s f ound . ( 4 ) 8f u rnace s a nd 1h ea r th w e re f ound . ( 5 ) T uye re s w e re f ound , s ome o fw h ich w e re s t i l l i ns i tu a nd w e re c omp le te i n f o rm . ( 6 ) Ap a i ro ft ong s wa s f ound . ( 7 ) Nume rous p i eces o fs l ag w e re f ound . ( 8 ) S ome p i e ce s o fh amme r s ca le w e re f ound . ( 9 ) I r on s a nd w h ich may h ave b een u sed a sa n a dd i t ive w a s f ound .

6 4 . K omayak iba : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ Iwa te -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 988 , v o l . 1 33 K omayak iba i s ek i h akku tsu c hosa h okoku sho ] ( 4 ) H ea r th . ( 6 ) Wa te r s t one . ( 7 ) T o ta l w e igh t o f s l ag w a s 180g . ( 8 ) H amme r s ca le w a s f ound w i th in o ne o f t h e d wel ing p i t s .

5 4 . Wanda i : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ Iwa t e -ken Ma izo Bunkaza i C en t re 1 993 , v o l . 1 86 Wanda i I & I I i s ek i h akku t su c hosa h okokusho ] T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa round t h e 9 th -lO th c en tur ies . ( 4 ) T he f u rnace w as s u r rounded b y l a rge p i eces o fs t one , w h ich i s u nusua l . ( 5 ) S eve ra lp i eces o ft uye re s w e re f ound . ( 7 ) Many p i ece s o f s l ag w e re f ound . 5 5 . N a t sumo to : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ Iwa te -ken Ma izo Bunkaza i C en t re v o l . 1 34 Na tsumo to i s ek i h akku t su c ho sa h okoku sho ] T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa round t h e 9 th c en tury . ( 4 ) 4H ea r ths w e re f ound . ( 5 )T uye re sw e re f ound . ( 7 ) N ume rous p i eces o fs l ag w e re f ound . ( 8 ) S ome h amme r s ca le w a s f ound .

6 5 . H a r imada te : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 990 , v o l . 1 92 Har imada te i s ek i h akku tsu c hosa h okokusho ] T he s i te i sd a ted t o a r ound t h e 1 0 th -llth c en tur ie s a nd t h e 1 5 th 1 6 th c en tur ies . ( 2 ) 3 0 i r on b a r s w e re f ound . ( 4 ) 5h ea r th s w e re f ound . ( 5 ) T uye re s w e re l ong s i ze i ns hap e . ( 7 ) S lag w a s f ound . ( 8 ) S ome h amme r s ca le w a s f ound . 6 6 . Uwano : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 992 v o l . 2 22 Uwano i s ek i h akku tsu c hosa h okokusho ] T he s i te i sd a ted t oa round t h e l th c en tu ry . ( 4 ) Af o rg ing h ea r th w a s f ound . ( 5 ) T uye re s w e re f ound a round t h e h ea r th .

5 6 . R ozawa : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ s ee S a sak i , K . 1 990 ] T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa round t h e 8 t h c en tu ry . ( 4 ) F ragmen t o f t uyeres w e re f ound t o wh ich ( 7 ) s l ag w a s a t tached .

6 7 . S amukawa I : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo Bunkaza i C en t re 1 988 v o l . 1 67 S amukawa i s ek i h akku tsu c hosa h okoku sho ] T he s i te i sd a ted t oa round t h e 9 t h -10 th c en tu r ies . ( 4 ) O ne r ec tangu la r s haf t -fu rnace w a s f ound .

5 7 . K adowak izawa : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ s ee S a sak i , K . 1 990 ] T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa round t h e 8 t h c en tury . ( 1 ) 2 0kg o fi r on s and wh ich m igh t h ave b een k ep t w a s f ound .

6 8 . K ann inzawa : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re T he s i te i sd a ted t oa round t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry . ( 1 ) E xposed i r on s and m in ing w a s f ound n ea r t h e f u rnaces . ( 4 ) 1 3 r e c tangu la r -shaped s ha f t f u rnace s w e r e f ound . ( 5 ) Many t u ye res w e re f ound .

5 8 . S h iwa jo : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ Mo r ioka sh i K yo iku i nka i s e r ies S h iwa jo i s ek i ] T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa round t h e 9 th c en tury . ( 4 ) Af r agmen to f as haf t f u rnace w a s f ound . 5 9 . S h imouba : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ s ee S a sak i , K .1990 ] T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa round t h e 9 th c en tu ry . f ( 4 ) Ar e c tangu la r -shaped f u rnace w a s f ound . ( 7 ) Ag r ea t v o lume o s l ag w a s f o und ( more t han 1t o n ) . 6 0 . O segawa A : ( Iwa te -ken ) [ s ee S a sak i , K . 1 990 ] T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa round t h e 9 th c en tury .

6 9 . R yugesawa : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 990 , v o l . 1 88 R yugesawa i s ek i h akku t su c hosa h okoku sho ] T he s i te i sd a ted t oa round t h e l th c en tu ry . ( 4 ) 2s em i -unde rg round s haf t -fur nace s w e re f ound . 7 0 . O da teno : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ For thcom ing ] ( 4 ) 3s em i -underg round s haf t -fur nace s w e re f ound . 7 1 . J un ibaya sh i : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re J un ibayash i i s ek i ]

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A pp end ix -1

T he s i te i sd a ted f r om t h e 1th c en tu ry o nwa rd s . ( 4 ) 2r ound s haf t -fu rnace s w e re f ound . 7 2 . S akanoue E & F : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re S akanoue E i s ek i ] T he s i te i sd a ted t o t h e 1 0 th -1 l t h c en tu r ies . ( 4 ) Af u rnace w a s f ound a tt h e S akanoue E s i te . ( 3 ) Ac ha rcoa l k i ln w a s f ound a tt h e S akanoue F s i te . 7 3 . N akada i : ( Ak i ta -ken ) [ Ak i ta -ken Ma izo B unkaza i C en t re 1 978 v o l . 5 0 Nakada i i s ek i c hosa g a iho ] T he s i te i sd a ted t o t h e 1 0 th -llth c en tu r ie s . ( 4 ) 2r ound -shaped s ha f t -fu rnace s w e re f ound i n af l a tp l a ce .

L is t o f d a ta : s i tes

7 4 . S h i ronaganeda te : ( Ak i ta -ken ) T he s i t e i sd a ted t oa r ound t h e 1 0 th -llth c en tu r ie s . ( 4 ) 3r ound -shaped s ha f t -fu rnaces w e re f ound o n av e ry g en t le s l ope . 7 5 . I C i tazawa : ( N iga ta -ken ) [ N i iga ta -ken T oyou ra -cho K yo iku i inka i 1 992 K i tazawa i s ek i g un ] T he s i te i sd a ted t o a r ound t h e 1 2 th -13 th c en tur ies . I ti sv ery i n te re s t ing t h a t n o t u ye res w e re f ound a tt h i s s i te . ( 1 ) 6 00kg o f i r on s and w a s f ound . ( 2 ) 6 . 5kg o fs en te t su w a s f ound . ( 3 ) Many c ha rcoa l k i lns w e re a s soc ia ted w i th in t h e a r ea . ( 4 ) 3f ur nace s w e re f ound .

104

Append ix

-2 L is t

[ Ref . N o . ]r e fe r s t o t he f o l low ing r e fe rence s , s ee R ef erences a tt he e nd o f t h i s b ook . [ Ref . N o . 1 ] : K inda ich i , K . 1 959 [ Ref . N o . 2 ] : K ubode ra , I .1 977 [ Ref . N o . 3 ] : C h i n, M . 1 978 [ Ref . N o . 4 ] : B a tche lo r , J . 1 890 [ Ref . N o . 5 ] : C h i n, Y . 1 922 [ Ref . N o . 6 ] : P i lsudsk i , B . 1 987

2 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga I s epo t ono y a ieyuka re [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar abb i t 's c h ief 3 Name o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame I sopo t ono i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar abb i t 's c h ief 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga Nupur i k o r k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as p ide r k amu i 5 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame Name o f t h ek amu i i sn o t k nown 6 Name o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga N upu r i k o r k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ea rk amu i 7 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H iraga P eu rep k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ea r k id k amu i 8 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame P eu rep k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ea rk id k amu i 9 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga P eu rep k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ea rk id k amu i 1 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame Nupu r i k o rk amu i k o r ma tnepo y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ad augh te ro f ab ea rk amu i 1 Name o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga Nupu r i k o r k amu i ma tnepoho y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ad augh te ro f ab ea rk amu i

d a ta :

Y ukara

1 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga N upur i k o rk amu i ma tnepoho y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f ad augh te ro f ab ea rk amu i 1 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga P eu rep K a rnu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ea rc ub k amu i

Nos N ame o fr e c i te r : Name o fe p ic 1 N ame o fr e c i te r : E t enoa H i raga K amu i h uch i y a ieyuka re [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f af i re k amu i

o f

1 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame Wen a rs a r u sh i i so i tak [ Re f . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ad b ea r 1 5 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame Wen a ns a ru sh i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ad b ea r 1 6 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga P on moyuk i s o i tak [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f at anuk ik id k amu i 1 7 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame A pa s amun k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f at anuk i 1 8 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame P on moyuk i s o i tak [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f as ma l l k i l le r w ha le 1 9 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame P on r epun k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f as ma l l k i l le r w ha le k amu i 2 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame P on r epun k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f as ma l l k i l le r w ha le k amu i 2 1 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga R epun m enoko i s o i tak [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f af ema le d o l iph in l ike f i sh 2 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga C h i ronnup k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f af ox k amu i 2 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame C h i ronnup k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f af ox k amu i 2 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame S h ik n ak c h i ronnup y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab l ind f ox

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A ppend ix -2L i s to fd a ta : Y uka ra

2 5 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame C h i ronnup k amu i i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f af ox k amu i

3 9 N ame o fr e c i t e r : K a r ep ia H i rame S hak s homo a yep i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ad r agon

2 6 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame E saman t ono y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar i ve ro t te r

4 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame H u re t o kkon i y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar e dm amu sh i

2 7 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga H o rkeu k amu i i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aw o l fk amu i

4 1 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame T e rke ipe t o no i s o i tak [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f af r og

2 8 N ame o fr e c i t e r : K anunmo re H i ramu ra I s epo n i tneh i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f amon s te r r abb i t k amu i

4 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame T un in o nneh i i s o i tak [Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa no l de a r thwo rm

2 9 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga I s epo t o no i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar a bb i t 's c h ief k amu i

4 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame E nunnoya i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f at i tmou se

3 0 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga i s epo t ono i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar a bb i t l o rd

4 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame E yam i i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aj ay

3 1 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame I s opo t o no i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar a bb i t

4 5 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K akkok t ono i s o i tak [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o fc uckoo k amu i

3 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame N inn inkeppo y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f af i re f ly

4 6 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga O nne k apach i r i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n o l de ag le

3 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : Y one I wayama Y ak i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac i cada

4 7 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K a ra ra t t o no i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac a r r ion c r ow

3 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : Y one I wayama Y ak i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac i cada

4 8 N ame o fr e c i t e r : K a r ep ia H i rame K a ra ra t k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac a r r ion c row k amu i

3 5 N ame o fr e c i t e r : K un ima t su N i tan i Y ak i i k a shpao t te [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac i cada

4 9 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame K a tken t o no i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac a r r ion c r ow

3 6 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga Y aoshkep k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as p ide rk amu i

5 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K a tken t ono i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac a r r ion c r ow

3 7 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame S hak s homo a yep i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ad ragon

5 1 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga K a tken t o no i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac a r r ion c r ow

3 8 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga S hak s homo a yep i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ad r agon k amu i

5 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame K e rn c h ikappo ( Mena sh u n ma t ) i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ar e d s p a r row ( woman o f Mena sh i )

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A ppend ix -2L i s to fd a ta : Y uka ra

5 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : S h imukan i S h ikada K ikao reu k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f af ema le b i rd 5 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K e sor ap k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ak esorap k amu i 5 5 Name o fr e c i te r : K un ima t su N i tan i K e sorap k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ak esorap k amu i 5 6 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga k e so rap k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ak e sorap k amu i 5 7 Name o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame K e sorap k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ak esorap k amu i

6 7 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H iraga S h rkap i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rdf ish 6 8 N ame o fr e c i te r : Kun ima t su N i tan i S h ikap k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rdf i sh 6 9 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga O nne c h ip k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n o ld b oa tk amu i 7 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame A tu i o run c h ip k amu i i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as h ip k amu i 7 1 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame O nne c h ip k amu i ( N imam k a tkema t ) i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n o ld s h ip k amu i ( s h ip w omen )

5 8 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K e sorap k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ak esorap k amu i

7 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame N ame o fk amu i i sn o t k nown [ Ref . N o . 2 ]

5 9 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K o tan k o r k amu i k o t t u re sh i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n ow lk amu i

7 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame C h ise k o r k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o 2 ] T he e p ic o f ah ouse k amu i

6 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K o tan k amu i k o t t u nesh i i s o i tak a nd A inu r ak k u r i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p i c o f ay ounge r s i s te rk amu io fa n o w lk amu i

7 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : K anunmo re H i ramu ra H a sh inau k o rk amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ah un t ing k amu i

6 1 N ame o fr e c i ter : K a rep ia H i rame K o tan k o r k amu i k o t t u re sh i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ay ounge r s i s te r o fa n ow l k amu i 6 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K o tan k o r k amu i k o t t u re sh i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ay ounge r s i s te r o f a n ow l k amu i 6 3 N ame o fr e c i t er : E tenoa H i raga H u n ic h ikap k amu i y a ieyuka [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ah ur lb i rd k amu i 6 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga H u n ic h ikap i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ah ur b i rd 6 5 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga H u n ic h ikap i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ah ur l b i rd 6 6 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame U r i r k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as ea c o rmo ran tk amu i

7 5 N ame o fr e c i te r : Kun ima t su N i tan i H a sh inau u k k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ah un t ing k amu i 7 6 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K anna k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f at hunde rk amu i 7 7 N ame o fr e c i te r : Kun ima t su N i tan i K anna k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f at hunde rk amu i 7 8 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K echan k o r k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ak echan k or k amu i 7 9 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame K an to k o r k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as ky k amu i 8 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame S i rampa k amu i i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f af o re s tk amu i

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8 1 Name o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga P e t o ru sh ma t , k amu i k a tkema t i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aw a te rk amu i

9 5 N am e o fr e c i t e r : S h imukan i S h ikada I humke [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac r ad le s ong

8 2 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Kun ima t su N i tan i N ame o ft h ek amu i i sn o tk nown [ Re f . N o . 2 ]

9 6 N ame o fr e c i t e r : S h imukan i S h ikada I humke [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac r ad le s ong

8 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : K un ima t su N i tan i N ame o ft h ek amu i i sn o tk nown [ Ref . N o . 2 ] 8 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame Upa shkuma k amu i y uka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as t o ry k amu i 8 5 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame Upa sh ikuma k amu i y uka r [ Re f . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f as t o ry k amu i 8 6 Name o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga Ok iku rm ik amu i k o t t u re sh i y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ay ounge r s i s te r o f Ok iku rm i 8 7 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame A inu h ekach i y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n A inu b oy 8 8 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga S amam n ik o tuk w a a mpe i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n A inu b oy 8 9 N ame o fr e c i te r : K anunmo re H i ramu ra Wen k amu i ei kka h ekach i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ab ad k amu i 9 0 N ame o fr e c i te r : S h i mukan i S h ikada A inu m enoko y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n A inu w oman 9 1 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame A inu m enoko y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n A inu w oman 9 2 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame A inu m enoko y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n A inu w oman

9 7 N ame o fr e c i t e r : K a rep ia H i rame I yonno tka (I yon ru ika ) c h i sh o r i t ak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f al ulaby 9 8 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga Mena sh u n m a t i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aMena sh i w oman 9 9 N ame o fr e c i t e r : K a rep ia H i rame S h ip icha rk o tan r epa u t a r y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aS h ip icha rc h ief 1 00 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga S h ip icha r u n k u ri r o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f ac h ie fo fS h ip icha r 1 01 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame S h ip icha r u n k u ry a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aS h ip icha r 1 02 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga S h in i n i shpa i s o i tak ( wen ta rap k amu i y uka r ) [Re f . N o ] T he e p ic o f ar i ch A inu 1 03 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga N ame o ft h ek amu i i sn o tk nown [ Re f . N o . 2 ] 1 04 K a rep ia H i rame S h inu tapka u n ma t i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aw omen a tS h inu tapka 1 05 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga O t a shu t u n m a ti s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aw oman a tS h inu t apka 1 06 N ame o fr e c i t e r : S h imukan i S h ikada O ta shu t u n m a ti s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa nO ta shu t w oman

9 3 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame S h ine h uch i ( Tokapch i ) e sok i sok i s h i repaka shnu w ao i tak k o t e s h ino tcha [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fa n o ld woman ( Tokach i )

1 07 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga A inu r a k k u r i s o i tak [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA inu r a kk ur

9 4 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga Ma tamk i t o no y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f aJ apane se ma tak i

1 08 N ame o fr e c i t e r : T umon te H i raga A eo ina k amu i i s o i t ak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i

1 08

A ppend ix -2L i s to fd a ta : Y uka ra

1 09 Name o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga A eo ina k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i

1 23 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a r ep ia H i rame A inu r ak k u ry a ieyukaa r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA inu r a kk ur

1 10 Name o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga A eo ina k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i

1 24 N ame o fr e c i t e r : T umon te H i raga A inu r a kk u r y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA inu r a kk ur

1 11 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga P on O k iku rm i i s o i tak (Wen ta rap k amu i y uka r ) [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fP on Ok iku rm i

1 25 N ame o fr e c i te r : Y uk ie C h i n i K amu ich ikap k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o fa n o w lk amu i

1 12 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga A eo ina k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i

1 26 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h in C h i ronnup y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f af ox

1 13 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga A eo ina k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA e ina k amu i

1 27 N ame o fr e c i te r : Y uk ie C h in C h i ronnup y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f af ox

1 14 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame A eo ina k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . No . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i

1 28 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h in i I s ope y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f ar abb i t

1 15 N ame o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame A eo ina k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i

1 29 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h in i N i t a t io runpe y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o fa n e v i l i n av aley

1 16 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga A eo ina k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i

1 30 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h i n i P on H o rkeukamu i Y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f as mal w o l f

1 17 Name o fr e c i te r : Kun ima t su N i tan i? [ Ref . N o . 2 ]

1 31 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h in K amu ich ikap k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o fa no w lk amu i

1 18 Name o fr e c i te r : K a rep ia H i rame Ok iku rm i k amu i y ak i k a shpao t te [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o f Ok iku rm i k amu i 1 19 N ame o fr e c i te r : Kun ima t su N i tan i P on A inu r ak k u ry a ieyuk a r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p i c o fP on A inu r ak k ur 1 20 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga A eo ina k amu i ( Pon Ok iku rm i ) y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA eo ina k amu i 1 21 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga A inu r ak k u r ( Pon Ok iku rm i ) i s o i tak [ Re f . N o . 2 ] T he e p ic o fA inu r ak k ur 1 22 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga A inu r a k k u r y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 2 ] T he e p i co fA inu r ak k ur

1 32 N ame o fr e c i te r : Y uk ie C h in R epun k amu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f as ea k amu i 1 33 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h in T e rkep i y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f af r og 1 34 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h in P on O k ik i rmu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o fP on Ok ik i rmu i 1 35 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y uk ie C h i n i P on O k ik i rmu i y a ieyuka r [ Ref . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o fP on Ok ik i rmu i 1 36 N ame o fr e c i te r : Y uk ie C h in E saman Y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f ar i ve r o t t e r

1 09

Append ix -2L i s to fd a t a : Y uka ra

1 37 N ame o fr e c i te r : Y uk ie C h i n i P ipa y a ieyuka r [ Re f . N o . 5 ] T he e p ic o f ap ipa s he l l

1 51 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i K amu ik a r sapa K amu ik a r tuman [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fk amu ik ara sapa a nd I c ar tuman

1 38 N ame o ft h e r e c i t e r i sn o t k nown T usunapanu [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as ha rk

1 52 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i K emka k a r ip [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f ar i ng o fb lood

1 39 N ame o fr e c i te r : U tomu r iuku T u sunapanu [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as ha rk

1 53 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i N i shmaku runa t [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f aN i shmakun w oman

1 40 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Waka rupa T u sunapanu [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as ha rk

1 54 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i I yoch iunma t k amu i r e shu ma t [ Re f . No . 1 ] T he e p i c o fa n I yoch iun woman

1 41 N ame o ft h er e c i t e r i sn o t k nown T u sunapanu [ Re f . N o . 6 ] T he e p ic o f aw ha le

1 55 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i U ch iu n inka r i [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f a n e a r r ing w h ich h a s n oj o in t p a r t

1 42 N ame o ft h e r e c i t e r i sn o t k nown T he e p ic o fK o tan U tunna i [ Ref . No . 4 ]

1 56 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Ma t su K anna r i Ak eu su tu i wen re su [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f ab ad u nc le

1 43 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i P on O ina [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fP on O ina k amu i 1 44 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i P o ro O ina [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fP o ro O ina k amu i 1 45 N ame o f r e c i te r : S ank i ro t te P o ro O ina [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fP o ro O ina k amu i 1 46 N ame o f r e c i te r : S ank i ro t te K amu iO ina [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fO ina k amu i 1 47 N ame o fr e c i t e r : T akuuno K amu i O ina [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fO ina k amu i 1 48 N ame o fr e c i t e r : T akuuno K amu iO ina [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fO ina k amu i 1 49 N ame o fr e c i t e r : E tenoa H i raga K amu i O ina [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fA inu K amu i 1 50 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i P on S amo runku r [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fP on S amo runku r

1 57 N ame o fr e c i te r : Waka rupa S hupne s h i rka [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fS hupne s h i rka 1 58 N ame o fr e c i te r : K o tanp i ra H i ramu ra S hupne s h i rka [ Ref . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o fS hupne s h i rka 1 59 N ame o fr e c i te r : Waka rupa K u tune s h i rka [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rd 1 60 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i K u tune s h i rka [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rd 1 61 N ame o fr e c i te r : E tenoa H i raga K u tune s h i rka [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rd 1 62 N ame o fr e c i t e r : Y aya sh i H i raga K u tune s h i rka [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rd 1 63 N ame o fr e c i te r : Mo tozo N abe sawa K u tune s h i rka [ Re f . N o . 1 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rd 1 64 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i T unup e k an t k an t [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f aS ibe r ian e rm ine

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1 65 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i H or im r im [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f aS ibe r ian e rm ine

1 74 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i T owa fum [ Re f . N o .3 ] T he e p ic o fO ina k amu i

1 66 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i K a ra r a n t[ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f ap i ece o fw ood f r om as h ip

1 75 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i H ach inan taku sa [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f as i s t e ro f Wa r iuneku ru

1 67 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i P enk ina P ank ina [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p i co f amamu sh i

1 76 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i O i sona [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o fO ina k amu i

1 68 Name o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i Z u sa i z o r iz u sa i ma t su [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f as wo rdf i sh

1 77 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i F ukaya ten te rao [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o fw a r iuneku ru

1 69 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i H owa h owa h owa [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p i c o f ac a r r ion c row

1 78 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i S h ip [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o fw a r iuneku ru

1 70 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i F u re k a kko k a l cko [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p i co f ar ed c uckoo

1 79 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i K ao ru [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f H o r i sh i r i Moun ta in

1 71 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i H a r ip h a r ip [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p i c o f ar i ve ro t te r

1 80 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i S o r epa s o repa [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f Ma t sumae t ono

1 72 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i P anku t eka r i [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f ag ooney b i rd

1 81 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i H an k awa k awa [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f ac a r r ion c r ow

1 73 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i O i sona [ Ref . N o . 3 ] T he e p i c o fO ina k amu i

1 82 N ame o fr e c i te r : Ma t su K anna r i S owae s owe [ Re f . N o . 3 ] T he e p ic o f as ma l lk emur ir ik amu i

G lossary I r on

( tetsu)

t erm ino logy

I ntroduct ion

g ando te tsu :c oppe r -con ta in ing i r on o re ; i r on o re c on ta in ing c oppe r

T he t e rm s u sed p a r t icu la r ly i n e xcava t ion s i te r epor t s a r e v e ry c onfus ing a nd d eba tab le d ue t o t he f ac t t ha t t hese a re d escr ip t ions o f ma ter ia ls wh ich f ound a s p r ima ry d a ta a t e xcava t ion s i tes . Af ter c arefu l e xa m ina t ion a nd a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l a na lys is , ad i f fe ren t t e rm may b e a pp l ied t o ma te r ia l w h ich h a s a l ready b een d escr ibed . H oweve r , f r om t h e a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew , t e rm s a r e r equ i red i n o rde r t o d iscuss t h e t e chno log ica l p rocess o f i r on -work ing a c t iv i ty . T he refore , b efore a ny d ec is ion a bou t f i x ing a ny s pec if ic t e rm ino logy i n o rde r t o d ef ine t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o f t h e s i te f o r i r on p roduc t ion , I u se more g enera l t e rm ino logy f or a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s s uch a s a r t ifac t s a nd s t ruc tu res a ts i t es .

s a te tsu: i r on s and A l though i r on s and i sn o t t r ea ted a sd i f fe ren t f r om r ock o re i nt h e Wes ter n m e ta l lu rg ica l f r amewo rk , o n a ccoun t o f t h e l a ck o f u se o f i r on s and , i ti si mpo r tan t t oc ons ide r i r on s and s epa ra te ly a nd t r ea t i td i f fe ren t ly f r om r ock o re w i th in t h i s s t udy . T h i s i s b ecau se n o t o n ly t h e s i ze o f t h e i r on ma te r ia l i sd i f feren t b u t a l so t h e p roce ss o f i t s n a tu ra l f o rma t ion . T echno log ica l p roces se s a nd i r on a s ap roduc t h ave b een g rea t ly a f fec ted b y s uch d if e rence s . I r on s and r e su l t ing f r om n a tu ra l f o rma t ion i sn o t t h e s ame a s i r on r ock o re ma shed b y a r t if ic ia l p owe r i n to f i ne o re g ra ins . T o u nde r s tand J apanese i r on t e chno logy , i ti s c ruc ia l t o r ea l i se t h i s d i f fe rence .

F o r t h is r ea son , t h e o rde r o f t h i s g lossa ry i sa r ranged a cco rd ing t o a r chaeo log ica l u nde r s tand ing — t h e w ay i n wh ich a r t ifac t s a nd s t ruc tu re s a ta r chaeo log ica l s i tes a r e f ound a nd s o r ted o u t f o r i n terp re ta t ion .

T he f o l low ing a r e d i f f e ren t k ind s o f i r on s and f ound i nJ apan : ma sa -sa te t su T h i s i r on s and c an o n ly p roduce k era i n at a tara s me l t ing f u rnace .

I t i s a l so v e ry c onfus ing a nd d eba tab le t h a t t he t e rm s u sed i n E ng l i sh d o n o t s eem t oe xp ress w e l l t h e t e rms u sed i n J apanese i r on t e chno logy , s i nce t h e t e rm s a nd d ef in i t ions u sed i n J apan a re b ased o n h i s tor ica l J apanese i r on t e chno logy a nd o n t he a rchaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n J apanese a rchaeo logy . T he se a r e d ife ren t f r om b o th Wes te rn a nd C h inese t e rm s . It r y t oe xp la in t h e w ay i n w h ich t h e se t e rm s a r e u sed i n J apan a nd t r an s la te t h em i n to E ng l i sh . A .

Archaeo log ica l

s i te :

mater ia ls

a nd

1 S ite t ypes A l though t h e re mu s t b e s l igh t d i f fe rence s b e tween t h e t e rm s u sed t o r efer t o p roduc t ion , i ndus t ry a nd w ork ing , b ased o n t h e d if feren t s ca le o f p roduc t ion i n e conom ic o r g eograph ica l r ea son s , t h ese wo rd s t e nd t o b e u sed f o r a ny p lace wh ich r e la tes t o t he p roduc t ion o f i r on . S uch a p lace i st e rmed a t e tsu i s ek i . T h is i n c ludes t h e mean ing o f i r on -wo rk ing s i te a nd ap roduc t ion s i te o r f o rg ing s i te . A b lacksm i th 's w o rk shop i s s pec if ica l ly r e f er red t oa s ak a j i k obo . t e t su s e i san i s ek i :i r on -p roduc t ion s i te t e t su s e isan i s ek i :i r on indus t r ia l s i te t e t su i s ek i :i r on -wo rk ing s i te k a j i k ob :b l ack sm i th 's wo rk shop 2 Raw ma ter ia ls ( genryo ) t e tsu :i r on : a ny th ing wh ich b ecome s i r on ( Fe ) , a nd a ny th ing made o f i r on w h ich b ecomes i r on a ga in . t ekkosek i :i r on o re p iece s o f i r on r ock wh ich c an b e s me l ted i n to i r on . I r on -ore r ock s c ons is t o f t h e f o l low ing d i f fe ren t m ine ra log ica l ma ter ia l s .

i r on

o re ;

i on

a kame -sa te t su T h i s i r on s and p roduces z uku i n at a tara s me l t ing f urnace . I t i n c ludes a h i gh p ropor t ion o f t i tan ium c ompa red w i th masa s a te t su . I ti s av e ry f i ne s and . I t s n ame i sd e r ived f r om i t s c o lou r ( aka = ' r ed ') . I ti s ma in ly f ound i n Okayama -ken a nd o the r a r ea s . h ama -sa te t su I r on s and w h ich i so b ta ined f r om b each s and s o n t h e s ea sho re .

f eatures

A rchaeo log ica l s i tes a r e i den t if ied b y a r chaeo log is ts t oge the r w i th me ta l lu rg is t s , b a sed o n c omp rehens ive s t ud ies o f t h e ma te r ia l s f r om t he s i te — l e ad ing t o t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o f i r on p roduc t ion a c t iv i t ies , i nc lud ing t he t e chno log ica l a spec t s .

s ek i t e kko :h ema t i te ( Fe2 0 3 ) j it e kko :magne t i te ( Fe3 0 4 ) k a t e kko :l imon i te ( Fe 203n H 20 ) g anr intetsu : p hosphorus -conta in ing c on ta in ing p hosphorus .

N o o t her i r on s and c an p roduce k era e xcep t masa -sa te tsu . I ti s v e ry p u re a nd d oe s n o t c on ta in much t i tan ium o r p hospho rus . I t i sf ound o n ly i n S himane -ken .

o re

y ama -sa te t su I r on s and wh ich i so b ta ined f r om moun ta ins . k c zwa -sa te t su I r on s and w h ich i so b ta ined f r om r i ve r s . n en ryou :F ue moku tan o rs um i :c ha rcoa l 3 I nsta l lat ions :

f eatures

r o o rh idoko :h ea r th Ah ea r th c an b e i d en t if ied f r om b u rned s o i l o n t h e g round s u r f ace o r f r om ah o le i nt h e s u r face , wh ich It e rm ah o le in the -ground h ea r th . ' Hea r th ' a l so m eans t h e r ema ins o f r e f in ing a nd f o rg ing a c t iv i ty a t s i tes . r o: f u rna ce T he re a r e many t e rm s f o r f u rnace , a cco rd ing t o t he t ype o f s me l t ing — s uch a s t h e b l a s t f u rnace , b loome ry f urnace , s ha f t f u rnace a nd s oo n . Iu se t h e t e rm f u rnace f o r a ny t ype o ff ea tu re f ound a t as i te wh ich i st h e r ema in s o f p o ss ib le s me l t ing a nd r e f in ing a c t iv i ty . k o -ro o ry oko -ro: b l a s t f u rnace E u ropean c on tex t . I tw a s i n t roduced t oJ apan i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry f o r t h e p roduc t ion o f c a s t i r on c annons . A b l a s t f u rnace i su sed f o r c on t inuou s o pe ra t ion o ve r w eeks o r mon th s . s e i te tsu -ro :b l oome ry f u rnace A E u rop ean h i s tor ica l t e rm . A b loome ry f u rnace i s u sed i n d i scon t inuous o pe ra t ion ; i ti sb roken u p w hen t h e i r on ' b loom ' i st a ken o u t o f t h e f u rnace . I tf unc t ions b y r educ ing i r on o x ide s t o i r on i nt h e s o l id s t a te .

112

G lossary :

h on ( t e t su ) t e rm ino logy

s e iren -ro :r e f in ing f u rnace Af u rnac e w h ich i su sed f o r a ny k ind o fr e f in ing p roce ss . t a tara -ro o re i ta it a tara: t a tara f u rnace A f u rnace i su sed t o p roduce k era a nd z uku f r om i r on s and . I ti s l oca ted i n s ide ar oofed s t ruc tu re . T h i s f u rnace w a s p er fec ted a nd u sed f r om t h e e a r ly 1 7 th c en tu ry o nwa rd s .

h akoga ta -ro :r ec tangu la r b ox type f u rnace A J apane se a nc ien t t ype o f f u rnace w h ich a ppea r s f r om a r ound t he 6 t h c en tury o nwa rds . T he s hape o f t h e b ox i sa s soc ia ted w i th t uye re s i n al i ne o n b o th s i des s o t ha t t h e f u rnace c an g e t l o t s o f a i r e a s i ly . I ti s b e l ieved a mong me ta l lu rg i s t s t h a t t h is mus t b e t h e p ro to type o f t he t a tara -r o [ s ee h ypo the t ica l ly r e con s t ruc ted i lus t ra t ion ( Tosa 1 986 ) , b e low ]

k a j i k ogu :s m i th 's t oo l s T oo l s w h ich a r e u sed d ur ing t h e p rocess o f f o rg ing , s uch a s t h e h amme r ( kanazuch i) , r a sp ( kanayasur i) , c h ise l ( kananor n i ) , t o ngs , g r ind ing s t one s , a nd a nv i l . 6 P roduc ts ( s eisanbutsu) [ s ee F low d iagram 4 -1 p p .

4 9-50 ]

t e t su :i r on ; F e T h i s i sp roduced b y t h e s me l t ing o fi r on o re o r i r on s and . t e kka i :b l oom Al ump o f i r on p roduced b y r educ t ion t o as o l id p ha se w i thou t m e l t ing d u r ing t h e s me l t ing o f t h e o re . h agane :s t ee l I r on w h ich c on ta ins a s i gn if ican t a moun t o f c a rbon . A cco rd ing t o t h e p ropo r t ion o f c a rbon wh ich i r on p roduc t s c on ta in , 1 . 7% i sd ef ined a s t h e d iv id ing l i ne b e tween h agane a nd c hu te tsu i n J apanese me ta l lurgy ( N ish izawa e t a l . 1 979 ) . Me ta l lu rg ica l d i scuss ions i nJ apan a r e b a sed o n t h i s d ef in i t ion . j i gane ;i r on m a te r ia l h on o b jec t s a r e made f r om t h is i r on ma te r ia l . w a h agane , w a t e t su o rw ako :J apane se s t ee l S t ee l w h ich i sp roduced i n J apan b y J apanese me thod s , u s ing J apane se r aw ma te r ia l s uch a s i r on s and .

h anch ika sh ik i t a tega ta -ro :s em i -unde rg round s ha f t f u rnace Anc ien t t ype o f J apanese f u rnace i n t h e T ohoku a r ea [ s ee h ypo the t ica l ly r econs t ruc ted i lus t ra t ion ( Tosa 1 986 ) , b e l low ] .

t a n za h agane T he b e s t J apane se i r on w h ich c an b e u sed f o r J apane se s word m ak ing . T h is i st h e t op p a r t o f t h e k era , wh ich c on ta ins l i t t le c a rbon . n anko :s of t s t ee l A ny i r on w h ich c on ta ins l e ss t h an 1 . 7% o f c a rbon . r en te t su :w rough t i r on A ny i r on w h ich c on ta ins n ea r ly 0% o f c a rbon .

4 A ttachments h aguch i :t u ye re Cy l inde rs w h ich a re l oca ted b e tween t h e f u rnace a nd b e l low s . T he a i r b l ows t h rough t h em i n to t h e f u rnace f r om b e l lows f o r a cce le ra t ing b urn ing . T hey a re n orma l ly made o f c l ay o r s o me t ime s s t ones . 5 Too ls ( kogu-rui) i ga ta :mou ld A s hape i n to wh ich l i qu id i r on i sp ou red f o r p roduc ing c a s t i r on o b jec t s s uch a s i r on p ot s . I ti sn o rma l ly made o f c l ay . r u t subo :c r uc ib le A c on ta ine r wh ich i sn orma l ly made o f c l ay , t o h o ld l i qu id i r on when t h e i r on i sh ea ted a nd me l ted w i th in i tt op roduce c a s t i r on . h i shaku: c a s t ing l ad le Ac on ta ine r w i th al ong h and le f o r u se i np ou r ing l i qu id i r on i n to amou ld .

z uku o rs en te t su ;[ no E ng l i sh e qu iva len t s ] I n t h e J apanese -Eng l ish d ic t iona ry ( Kenkyu S ha ) , t h i s t e rm i s t r ans la ted i n to E ng l ish a s ' p ig i r on ' , a l though s o me E u ropean m e ta l lu rg i s t d i sag ree w i th t h is t r ans la t ion . I n my i n te rp re ta t ion , s t ud ie s o f me ta l lurgy i n E urope h ave d eve loped a nd h ave u nde r s tood d e ta i ls o f t h e p roce ss o f p roduc t ion , s i nce t h is t e rm w a s u sed i nt h e p a s t a nd i n t roduced t oJ apan a s a n e xamp le o f t h e w es te rn t e rm ino logy o f i r on p roduc t ion . On t h e o the r h and , i n J apan a s ar e c ip ien t c oun t ry , t h e t e rm r e ma ins a s i t w as i n t roduced a nd may s t i l l r e ta in i t s o ld mean ing . H oweve r , z uku p roduced b y t h e t a tara m e thod h a s n o e qu iva len t . T hus , Iu s e z uku o rs en te tsu , w h ich c on ta ins more t h an 1 . 7% o f c a rbon . k era K e ra i sp roduced b y t h e t a tara s me l t ing me thod . I ti se qu iva len t t o al a rge b l oom o f i r on . K era i s al a rge l ump o f i r on wh ich c on ta in s d i f f e ren t p ropo r t ion s o f c a rbon i n d i f fe ren t p a r t s o f t h e l ump . A l though t h e w ho le p roduc t ion p rocess o fk era i sn o t f u l ly u nder s tood , i tm igh t b e s a id t h a t t h e d i f feren t p ropo r t ions o f c a rbon i nd i f f e ren tp a r t s o ft h e k e ra w e re p roduced i nt h e d i f f e ren t p a r t s o f f u rnace a ssoc ia ted w i th d i f ferent t empera tures a nd d i f fe ren t s peed s o f f o rma t ion . T h i s p roduces d i f fe ren t t ypes o f i r on . T he k era i ss o r ted i n to t h ree t ype s o f i r on b y b reak ing i t i n to s mal p i eces . T he u ppe r s ur face o f t h e k era i sv e ry p u re i r on w i th l i t t le o r n o c a rbon , c a l led t ama -hagane ; t h e m idd le o f t h e k era i sl ow -ca rbon s t ee l w rough t i r on c a l led k era ; a nd t h e b a se o f t h e k era i sz uku o rs en te t su w i th ah i gh c a rbon c on ten t .

113

G lossa ry :

I r on ( t e tsu ) t e rm ino logy

c hu te t su: c a s t i r on A mo l ten s t a te o f i r on d i rec t f r om t h e b la s t f u rnace w h ich c on ta ins more t han 1 . 7% o f c a rbon . A ccord ing t o t h e p ropor t ion o f c a rbon wh ich i r on p roduc t s c on ta in , 1 . 7% i s d ef ined a s t h e d iv id ing l i ne b e tween s t ee l a nd c hu te t su i nJ apane se me ta l lu rgy ( N ish izawa e t a l . 1 979 ) . Me ta l lurg ica l d i scuss ion s i n J apan a r e b a sed o n t h is d ef in i t ion .

w anga ta -sa i :b o t tom s l ag , o r s l ag s haped l i ke t he b o t tom o f a b ow l Ak ind o f s l ag w h ich i ss haped l i ke t h e b o t tom o f ab ow l . T h is s hape o f s l ag i sk nown f r om a tJ apanese i r on -work ing s i t es . t anzo -hakuhen , t anda -sa i :h amme r s ca le , m ic ro -sca le , o r i r on o x id i sed s ca le Smal p iece o f i r on w h ich a r e p roduced b y h amme r ing s of t i r on d u r ing t h e p roce ss o f f o rg ing .

t e t su s oza i :i r on r aw ma t e r ia l Ma t e r ia l wh ich p roduce s i r on t e t te i :i r on i ngo t R aw i r on i n t he s hape o f as l ab . T h is d oes n o t h ave a ny i mp l ica t ions a s r ega rds t he p roduc t ion p rocess ; i ti sd ef ined b y i t s s hape .

B .

R econstruct ion

p rocess

1 T echn iques t e t su g i ju t su :i r on t e chno logy I n ab road s en se , a l l t e chno logy r e la t ing t o i r on p roduc t ion a nd p roduc ing i r on p roduc t s .

t e t subo :i r on b a r R aw i r on i n t he s hape o f ab a r . T h i s d oes n o t h ave a ny i mp l ica t ions a s r ega rds t he p roduc t ion p rocess ; i ti sd ef ined b y i t s s hape .

s e i te tsu :sme l t ing p roces s A ny p rocess b y w h ich r aw i r on i sp roduced f r om i r on o re o r i r on s and .

t e t su -se ih in :i r on p roduc t s Any g oods made o f i r on . T here a r e t wo c a tego r ies : t anzoh in made b y t h e f o rg ing p rocess , a nd c huzoh in made b y t h e c a s t ing p rocess .

s anka :o x id i se /ox id isa t ion k angen :r educ t ion

m j i g en ryo o r: s econda ry i r on p roduc t s T h is c an b e ar aw ma te r ia l f o r i r on p roduc t s , b u t i ti sp roduced b y as econda ry s ource o f i r on ma te r ia l , n o t b y t he s me l t ing p rocess .

z osa iza i :a dd i t ives f u junbu t su :i mpu r i t ies

f uru te t su -se ih in :s c rap i r on T hese a r e i r on p roduc t s w h ich h ave b een u sed o r c an b e u sed , a nd w i l l b e t r ansformed i n to o the r i r on p roduc t s b y r ecyc l ing .

k a iza ibu t su :i n c lus ions

c huzoh in :c a s t ing p roduc t s G ood s wh ich a re made o fc a s t i r on , s uch a sa n i r on p o t .

c hokuse t su -ho :d i rec t me thod I r on o re o r i r on s and i sp u t i n to a s me l t ing f u rnace w i th c ha rcoa l , a nd a l ump o f i r on s uch a s ak era o r b loom i so bta ined . I n t h e k era o sh i me thod , t h e s t ee l p a r t w a s e x t rac ted f r om t h e l ump o f i r on , a nd t h en i r on o b jec t s w e re made b y f o rg ing s t ee l .

h ocho te t su o r n ama te t su R aw i r on i n t he s hape o f ak i tchen k n if e . t e t su -nabe :i r on p o t P o t s made o fc hu te t su .

k an se t su -ho :i nd i rec t me thod I r on r aw ma ter ia l a nd c ha rcoa l a re p u t i n to a b la s t f urnace t oge ther , a nd t h e i r on r aw ma ter ia l i ss me l ted . S ente t su , wh ich c on ta ins g raph i te a nd c emen t i te , i s p roduced b y t h i s p rocess . S ubsequen t ly , t h e s en te t su i sr e f ined i n ar e f in ing f u rnace , wh ich i sd i f fe ren t f r om t he s me l t ing f urnace , a nd a ma ss o f s t ee l i n w h ich c a rbon i sc on t roled i sp roduced b y t h i s p rocess . S t ee l c an a l so b e p roduced f r om t h e l ump o f s ente tsu b y t h e f o rg ing p roce ss . S tee l c an b e p roduced f r om s en te tsu t h rough t h i s p rocess .

7 By -products t e ssa i :s l ag Ag enera l t e rm f o r b y -p roduc t s f r om a ny k ind o ff u rna ce . s e i te t su -sa i :s me l t ing s l ag Ak ind o f s l ag wh ich i s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e s me l t ing p roce ss a nd f o rmed i n asme l t ing f ur nace . s e iren -sa i :r e f in ing s l ag Ak ind o f s l ag wh ich i s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e r e f in ing p roce ss a nd f o rmed i n s ide t h e r e f in ing f u rnace o r r ef in ing h ea r th . k a j i -sa i :f o rg ing / s m i th ing s l ag A k ind o f s l ag w h ich i s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e f o rg ing /sm i th ing p roce ss a nd f ormed i n t h e f o rg ing / sm i th ing h ea r th . t yush i tsu -sa i :t ap s l ag A k ind o f s l ag p roduced b y r un -of f f r om t he f u rnace c an b e i d en t i f ied a ts i tes f r om t h e s hape o f t h e s l ag , wh ich l o ok s a si fi t c oo led d own i n t h e a i r i mmed ia te ly a f te r r unn ing d i rec t ly o u t f r om f u rnace . r ona i -sa i: s l ag i n s ide t h e f u rnace A k ind o f s l ag wh ich i sf o rmed i n s ide a ny k ind o f f u rnace a nd f ound a t tached t op i ece s o ft h e f ur nace w al .

z uku -osh i -ho :at a ta ra me thod f o r p roduc ing z uku O ne o f t h e t a tara s me l t ing me thods wh ich p roduces z uku b y r educ t ion o f a kame i r on s and w i th c ha rcoa l i n at a tara f u rnace ( t rad i t iona l ly t h i s i sc a l led a motogama ) . Mo l ten i r on f r om t h e h o le o ft h e t a tara f u rnace i sc oo led e i the r i na i r o r d i rec t ly i n to a p ond ( t rad i t ionaly t h is i sc a l led k ana ike) i no rder t o p roduce a l ump o f z uku . I tw a s p rac t ised i n t he C hugoku d is t r ic t ( i n t h e p re sen t H i rosh ima a nd Okayama -ken ) whe re a kame i r on s and w a s o b ta ined . One p rocess n orma l ly t ake s f our n igh t s i n as e t ( t rad i t iona l ly t h i s s e t i sc a l led h i toyo , ' one n igh t ') . k era -o sh i -ho :a t a tara me thod f o r p roduc ing k era O ne o f t h e t a tara s me l t ing me thods w h ich p roduces J apanese s t ee l b y ad i rec t me thod . I t was e s tab l ished i n t he l a te 1 8th c en tury a nd i ti sn o rma l ly c a l led e ida i t a tara . On ly masa i r on s and i su sed . I ti so b ta ined i nt h e I zumo a nd H ok i d i s t r ic t s ( i n t h e p resen t S h imane -ken ) . T h is me thod p roduces ma in ly k era a nd d oe s n o t p roduce z uku .

114

G lossa ry :

l i on ( t e tsu ) t e rm ino logy

2 Ana lys is s e ir en o r o ka j i :r e f in ing p rocess I n t h e J apanese c ase , a ny p rocess t o p roduce f i ne r q ua l i ty i r on , mean ing i r on c on ta in ing l ow c a rbon c on ten t f o r mak ing h agane o rr e n te t su f r om z uku o rs en te t su a nd c hu te t su . s ha o r s hokoho i n J apanese , a nd c hao i n C h inese : f i n ing p roce ss T h i s t e rm i so n ly u sed i nt e x tua l d i scus s ions i nJ apan o n a ccoun t o f t h e l a ck o f ma te r ia l e v idence . A ny p roce s s f o r mak ing s t ee l f r om t h e l i qu id s t a te o f i r on b y s t i r r ing w i th a b a r i n ac on ta ine r t ype o f f u rnace i n C h ina . E u ropean me ta l lurg is t s c a l l i tt h e ' f in ing p rocess ' .

i n

meta l lurgy

A na ly t ica l me thods u sed f o r i nves t iga t ing s l ag i n J apan a r e a l l b a sed o n J I S ( J apane se I ndus t r ia l S tanda rd ) . k agaku s ose i :c hem ica l c ompos i t ion a na lys is s osh ik i k ansa t su :me ta l log raph ic e xam ina t ion s a te t su r yu sh i :i r on s and p a r t ic le b i sa i s osh ik i :m ic ro -s t ruc tu re T he f o l low ing c omponen t s c an b e f ound u nde r E P MA f o r me ta l lograph ic e xam ina t ion : i n i r on

s h in tan :c a rbur isa t ion A m e thod wh ich c on t ro l s t h e p ropo r t ion o f t h e c a rbon c on ten t o fi r on a nd i n c rea ses i ti no rde r t o make s t ee l . d a t tan :d e -ca rbur i sa t ion Am e thod w h ich r educe t h e p ropo r t ion o f t h e c a rbon c on ten t i n i r on i no rde r t o make s t ee l . k a j i o r k oka j i :sm i th ing / fo rg ing p roce sses A ny p roce s s i n wh ich i r on o b jec t s o r p roduc t s a r e f o rmed b y t h e a c t iv i ty o f c r af t speop le s uch a s t anr en o rt anzou ( hamme r ing a nd p ound ing o n i r on o b jec t s ) k a tanaka j i :J apanese s wo rd s m i th ing T he w ho le p rocess o f t e chn iques w h ich p roduce a J apanese s wo rd .

c emen t i te : F e3C c omponen t o f i r on p ea r l i te : c omponen t o f i r on F e r r i te : F e c omponen t o f i r on l e debu r i te : c omponen t o f i r on w us t i t e : ( FeO ) i n s l ag i lmen i te : F eT iO 3 c omponen t o f s l ag ; i ti sa l so a c omponen t o f i r on s and a sT i tan ium ( T iO 2) . f aya l i te : F e 2S iO4 c omponen t o f s l ag w u s t i te : F eO c omponen t o f s l ag u l vosp ine l : F e 2T iO4 c omponen t o f s l ag . I ti sa l so ac omponen t o f i r on s and . g l a s s ( s i l ica te ) : S i02 c omponen t o f s l ag , i r on r ock , f u rnace w al , a nd i r on s and .

115

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