Aging and Society, Vol. 1: An Inventory of Research Findings 087154718X, 9780871547187

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page, Copyright Page
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction: A Synopsis
Chapter 2. The Population
Chapter 3. Work and Retirement
Chapter 4. Finances
Chapter 5. Education
Chapter 6. The Residential Setting
Chapter 7. The Family
Chapter 8. The Nature of Aging
Chapter 9. Mortality and Morbidity in the Population
Chapter 10. Physical Changes
Chapter 11. Behavioral Changes
Chapter 12. Personality Dimensions and Needs
Chapter 13. The Self
Chapter 14. Life Attitudes
Chapter 15. Life Satisfaction
Chapter 16. Mental Disorder and Deviance
Chapter 17. The Structure of Roles
Chapter 18. Work and Retirement
Chapter 19. Political Roles
Chapter 20. Religious Roles
Chapter 21. Voluntary Associations
Chapter 22. Leisure Roles
Chapter 23. Family
Chapter 24. Friends and Neighbors
Chapter 25. Roles in Institutions
Detailed table of contents
Subject index
Name index

Citation preview

AGING AND SOCIETY

AGING AND SOCIETY consists

of three volumes:

Volume one: An inventory of research findings Volume two: Aging and the professions Volume three: The sociology of age stratification Under the direction of Matilda White Riley

Consultants and advisers

MILTON BARRON

SIDNEY GOLDSTEIN

WILBERT E. MOORE

ETHEL SHANAS

JOHN C. BERESFORD

MARGARET S. GORDON

JAMES N. MORGAN

ELEANOR B. SHELDON

MARGARET BLENKNER

PHILLIP E. HAMMOND

JANET MURRAY

HENRY D. SHELDON

JACK BOTWINICK

DALE L. HIESTAND

ROBERT J. MYERS

DAVID L. SILLS

ORVILLE G. BRIM, JR.

ROBERT A. ISRAEL

ARTHUR J. PATEK, JR.

MORTIMER SPIEGELMAN

EWALD W. BUSSE

ABRAM J. JAFFE

RAY M. PETERSON

MERVYN W. SUSSER

JOHN A. CLAUSEN

CARL·GUNNAR JANSON

EARL S. POLLACK

CONRAD TAEUBER

PETER E. COMALLI

MORTON KRAMER

ARTHUR H. RICHARDSON

KARL E. TAEUBER

LOUIS H . CONGER, JR.

ROBERT M. KRAUSS

JOHN W. RILEY, JR.

PHILIP TAIETZ

DONALD R. CRESSEY

JUANITA KREPS

JOHN W. RILEY, III

GEORGE A. TALLAND

WAYNE DENNIS

LOUIS LASAGNA

ARNOLD M. ROSE

CLARK TIBBITTS

ABBOTT L. FERRISS

MARGUERITE LEVY

IRVING ROSOW

JACKSON TOBY MARCIA L. TOBY

HOWARD E. FREEMAN

GEORGE L. MADDOX

RICHARD SALLICK

JACK P. GIBBS

WILLIAM H. MASTERS

K. WARNER SCHAIE

MURRAY S. WEITZMAN

DANIEL GLASER

ROLF MEYERSOHN

WILBUR SCHRAMM

J. ALAN WINTER

CHARLES Y. GLOCK

CAROLYN MIEDING

JAMES H. SCHULZ

DONALD R. YOUNG

ALVIN L. GOLDFARB

DAVID O. MOBERG

THORSTEN SELLIN

HARRIET ZUCKERMAN

by Matilda White Riley and Anne Foner in association with Mary E. Moore, Beth Hess, and Barbara K . Roth

contributions by Marilyn E. Johnson and VirginiaE. Schein

AGING AND SOCIETY Volume one: An inventory of research findings

RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION

NEW YORK

PUBLICATIONS OF RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION

Russell Sage Foundation was established in 1907 by Mrs. Russell Sage for the improvement of social and living conditions in the United States . In carrying out its purpose the Foundation conducts research under the direction of members of the staff or in close collaboration with other institutions, and supports programs designed to improve the utilization of social science knowledge . As an integral part of its operations, the Foundation from time to time publishes books or pamphlets resulting from these activities . Publication under the ip1.print of the Foundation does not necessarily imply agreement by the Foundation, its Trustees , or its staff with the interpretations or conclusions of the authors.

© 1968 RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION

230 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017 Printed in t he United States of America Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-54406 Standard Book Number: 87154-718-X DESIGNED BY BETTY BINNS CHARTS AND GRAPHS BY B. HANDELMAN ASSOCIATES

Printed December, 1968 Reprinted December, 1973

Criteria for selection

PREFACE

Aging and Society summarizes the results of recent social science research on middle-aged and older people and intreprets this knowledge in terms of sociological theory and professional practice_ Its three volumes are addressed to social scientists and teachers engaged in research and education on tile aging process and to practitioners concerned with prevention and treatment of the problems associated with aging. Research findings on this topic, hitherto widely scattered, are summarized in Volume One; their implications for the practicing professions are set forth in Volume Two, and for sociological understanding in Volume Three. The aim is to stimulate both the application of existing knowledge and the development of new knowledge through further research . The present volume, An Inventory of Research Findings, selects, condenses, and organizes social science findings on human beings in their middle and later years. It is a reference work to be used as a tool for advancing theoretical understanding and enhancing professional practice_

Although a voluminous iiterature has been surveyed, the Inventory is in no sense a complete compilation . It consists of selected generalizations that are empirically based, and that meet criteria of theoretical and practical relevance, generality, and adequacy of evidence. Accordingly, writings devoted to theorizing about practical problems or philosophical issues are omitted. Even within the scope of empirical ~esearch, the major portions of the many thousand studies abstracted and scrutinized are not presented-some because their procedures lead to potentially misleading results, others (though often quoted) because they have been superseded by later, larger, or better designed stUdies. The research finally selected for inclusion is itself highly uneven, yielding broadly tested results in some areas, and only the most tentative clues in others.

Limitations ot he evicZc /lCL By collecting and organizing the extensive social science literature -on aging, the Inventory begins to suggest certain broad generalizatic;>ns. Yet a degree of scientific skepticism is necessary in using the specific findings. First, few studies of older people are unimpeachable methodologically on the usual grounds of sampling, data gathering, measurement, or analysis; and old age exacerbates the difficulties of representative sampling or valid testing, while decreptitude and death disrupt the execution of longitudinal designs. Second, the generality of the findings is restricted by the primary focus on American society or similar societies in the twentieth century, although cross cultural comparisons have been included wherever suitable material was readily available. In one sense, indeed, there is no analogue to the present,

since never before have so many people survived into old age. In addition, research on aging is vulnerable to special problems of conceptualization and interpretation. Since individual aging is inexorably intertwined with social change, each can be best understood in its relation to the other. Yet the widely used research approaches-the longitudinal and the cross sectional-each deal only with selected components of aging. Thus a fuller analysis of the underlying processes requires various elaborations of these basic approaches, elaborations which, though occasionally applied with provocative results, are not yet widely developed or used. As a partial attempt to deal with such difficulties, the reader's attention is directed at appropriate points in the text to the kinds of inferences that may legitimately be drawn from the research designs utilized in particular studies.

Organization of tile volume The findings, arranged by chapters and major headings according to their major substantive focus, are divided into four main Parts that deal with (1) the societal context, (2) the organism, (3) the personality of the individual, and (4) the social roles linking the individual to society. Thus the findings in Part 1 describe the society as it provides the setting for the aging individual, defines the roles he can play, and is, in turn, affected by the aging of its collective members. Part 2 deals with the state of health of older people, with their anatomical and physiological condition, and with age-related behavioral changes in perception, motor skill, intelligence, memory, and learning. Part 3 outlines the relevant research on the personality characteristics and basic -attitudes of the aging individual, as he re-

acts to the circumstances of the later years, begins to define himself as old, takes a positive or negative view of that self-definition, and in some instances succumbs to mental illness or suicide_ Finally, Part 4 is concerned with the various roles-political, economic, religious, familial-available to persons in their middle and later years, including such additional roles as retiree, widow, or (on occasion) inmate of an institution. Within each of the Parts, research findings-which are reported in the words (or the spirit) of the original research-are stated as succinctly as possible,' listed in outline form, and indexed for ease of reference. Bibliographical suggestions are included. Although the emphasis of this volume is on objective facts rather than interpretations, the Introduction provides an overview of the main themes running through the book_ Moreover, each chapter includes brief discussions and questions aimed to encourage development of a theoretical framework and to indicate gaps requiring further study. The aim throughout is to present the findings in such fashion that both scholars and practitioners can appreciate the interplay between individual and SOCiety in the aging process.

borne the major responsibility for the work, several chapters were written, entirely or partly, by others. In particular, Mary E. Moore, M.D. and Ph.D_ in psychology, who also participated in planning the volume as a whole, wrote all four of the chapters in Part 2 and subjected Part 3 to critical review. Marilyn E. Johnson prepared the original drafts of Chapters 19 and 20, in addition to providing editorial comment on various portions of the book and compiling the subject index. Virginia E. Schein drafted Chapter 12 and also supplied considerable material for Chapter 13. Completion of the work as a whole has been made possible only through the combined efforts of Beth Hess, who prepared abstracts of the voluminous studies used for the Inventory and edited the successive versions of each chapter, and Barbara Roth, who directed the library research and computations used in formulating and verifying the factual details, and steered the empirical formulations and exhibits through numerous revisions. Other members of the writing team, not formally designated as authors, include John W. Riley, Jr., and Marcia L. Toby, both of whom added important ideas and improvements.

Division of authorship Preparation of the Inventory has required the joint efforts of a team of ~cholars . Each has performed a specific role in the enterprise and has made other contributions to the collaborative effort that are more difficult to specify. While the senior authors, both members of the Sociology Department at Rutgers University, have Older persons (and the older person) are frequently designated as OP.

1

Acknow ledgments The program of study of which the Inventory is the first component was made possible by a grant from The Ford Foundation to Russell Sage Foundation . The foresight that initiated this work and the enthusiasm that has sustained it are attributable in large part to Stacey H. Widdicombe, Jr., and Ollie A. Randall of The Ford Foundation and to Donald R. Young and Orville G. Brim, Jr., of Russell Sage Foundation.

Special appreciation is due also to experts in many fields who read earlier versions of particular chapters of the Inventory and made valuable criticisms; their names are listed both on the title page and at the end of the appropriate chapters. In particular, Clark Tibbitts gave detailed attention to all the chapters in Parts 1 and 4, and Mervyn Susser returned comments on the entire manuscript. Among the many others who have assisted in the project are those who, prior to publication, have put the book to the test of actual use. These range from students in formal classes (undergraduates at the University of Arizona under Courtney B. Cleland, for example, and graduate students at Rutgers University), to numerous public and private agencies, to the contributing authors and advisers of Volume Two in this series,

Aging and the Professions . Research, editorial , and technical help on the book has been provided in many forms, under the general direction of Mildred G. Aurelius, by Zelda Cohen, Harry Cotugno, Arlene Halfon, Margaret Scott, Sallie Smith, Bernice Starr, and others, with Mrs. Aurelius and Mrs. Smith compiling the bibliography, and Miss Scott preparing the name index. The task of typing the manuscript was handled in large part by Marion Erhart in addition to Judith Vasey, Barbara Kerr, Linda Morton, and Ellen Enhoffer. Assistance in the search for documents was afforded by the Rutgers librarians, especially Franc;ois-Xavier Grondin, Gertrude M. Higgins, and H. Gilbert Kelley; and the librarians at The National Council on the Aging. To all these persons and agencies the authors express their profound appreciation .

M . W . R. A.F.

Rutgers University

CONTENTS

Preface, vii

1

INTRODUCTION: A SYNOPSIS

1

Part one Sociocultural contexts, 13 15 39

2

THE POPULATION

3

WORK AND RETIREMENT

4

FINANCES

5

EDUCATION

69 111

6

THE RESIDENTIAL SETTING

121

7

THE FAMILY

157

Part two The organism, 185 8

THE NATURE OF AGING

187

9

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION

195

10

PHYSICAL CHANGES

11

BEHAVIORAL CHANGES

221 241

Part three

Part four

The personality, 273 12

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND NEEDS

13

THE SELF

275 289

14

LIFE ATTITUDES

15

LIFE SATISFACTION

315 341

16

MENTAL DISORDER AND DEVIANCE

361

Social roles, 407 17

THE STRUCTURE OF ROLES

409

18

WORK AND RETIREMENT

421

19

POLITICAL ROLES

463

20

RELIGIOUS ROLES

483

21

VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS

501

22

LEISURE ROLES

511

23

FAMILY

24

FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS

25

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS

537 561 577

Detailed table of contents, 597 Subject index, 605 Name index, 627

AGING AND

SOCIETY

Following much previous research on the early years of the life cycle of man , social scientists have recently turned their attention to the middle and later years_ These later stages of the life cycle become increasingly significant as man becomes increasingly likely to live them out_ A man born in the middle of the past century was engrossed with the activities of the first four decades of life, the span through which, on the average, he was then likely to live_ Today, a man born in the United States can look forward , on the average, to living well into his sixties; a woman can look forward, on the average, to living well into her seventies. The growing awareness of how many people are affected and how little is known about the aging process has resulted in a proliferation of research. Not only has the number of studies multiplied , but their scope has broadened to span many disciplines. Research objectives are manifold. Many studies focus on diverse aspects of the aging individual, such as his adjustment to retirement, his ability to learn, his disposition toward crime or suicide, his psychomotor skills, his attitudes toward leisure and death, and his response to institutional care. Many other studies examine varied aspects of the society, such as the age composition of the labor force or the electorate; the bases for public policy on social security, medical care, or housing for the aged; and age as a factor in the income structure, in mental health, or in urban-rural residence of the nation 's population . Much theorizing about the multifaceted findings has been specific to particular research objectives and to particular conceptual and disciplinary frameworks. As yet there is no unified body of knowledge, no general theory of aging, that can be transmitted

to students, applied in professional practice, or tested and amplified through further research. The materials assembled in this volume run to many hundreds of pages of discrete findings, despite prodigious efforts to select, simplify, and systematize. The user of this book must make his own further selections from a vast array of information . There are, however, running through the innumerable specifics, certain persistent themes that seem to emerge. These represent different ways of abstracting from the over-all process of aging as it occurs in human beings and as it affects and is affected by society. (See Exhibit 1 . 1 for a schematic repres entation of the aging process.) One broad set of findings concentrates attention on the life cycles of aging individuals or cohorts (generations of individuals born at the same time), describing, for example, how the personality develops, experience accumulates, or adjustments are made to new roles. A second set of findings refers to the society as the composite of many cohorts at different life stages. These findings describe, for example, how, at a given point of time, old and young fit together in a cross section of the labor force or the family.

These two aspects of the total process, though abstractly separable as a means of reducin g complexity, are, of course, concretely interdependent. Over the lifetime of any individua l or cohort, not only the organism, the personality, and the ageappropriate roles but also the structure of the society and the roles it affords are simultaneously changing as norms, mores, attitudes, or knowledge change, or as wars or economic depressions may occur. It is not the same society with which each

1

1 INTRODUCTION : A SYNOPSIS

Schematic representation of the aging process, showing selected cohorts over time

EXHIBIT 1 1

Stages in life cycle 1111111111111111111

Early yea rs

Middle yea rs

Later yea rs

Cohort C 111111111111111111111111111111111

new cohort of individuals interacts, just as the nature of the individuals is not constant_ Individual aging and social change interpenetrate and affect each other. Thus, a full understanding of either requ ires a third approach that combines the other two: a study of the sequence of cohorts as they fit together within the changing society. This Introduction provides a brief conspectus of some findin gs as they refer to these three aspects of the larger process: the age structure of the society, the life cycles of individuals or cohorts, and successive cohorts in relation to social change.

Cohort B

THE AGE STRUCTURE

.111111111111111111111111111111111

Cohort A 1"'1""1""'''''''''''''''''''

1900

1940

1960 Time _

1980

A major portion of the research examined in the Inventory focuses on cross sections of the society at given points of time (for example, the year 1960, in Exhibit 1 . 1), taking a slice, as it were, from the several cohorts . The cross-section data have an important validity of their own , applying to the age structure of the society and the place of the individual within this structure. (It is interesting that this structural focus often differs from the original intent of the investigator, whose objective instead was to study the individual as he ages.) Every society has an age structure; it is divided into young, middle-a ged, and aged segments (see, for example, Parsons, 1942; Linton, 1942). In certain respects, the age structure is analogous to the class structure (the division along lines of money, power, or prestige) . The several age strata, like the class strata (though only roughly distinguishable, to be sure) , maintain a patterned relationship to one another, tending to change together in an orderly

2

prises the several age strata. In the United States, there has been a marked rise over the century in the number of older people, paralleling the expansion of the populatio n as a whole. The age category 65 and over, for instance, rose from three million persons in 1900 to nearly seventeen million by 1960. Numbers of older people have been increasing even faster than the total population as declines in fertility rates have reduced the accretions to the younger age categories, while declines in mortality rates have allowed increasing proportions of people to survive into old age. Thus, between 1850 and 1960, the proportion of the total population who were 65 and over rose from 3 per cent to 9 per cent; the proportion between 45 and 64 rose from 10 per cent to 20 per cent.

fashion. For example, old and young may give com plementary responses to a war or to a change of norms. But a peculiarity of the age structure is its physiological base, its dependence upon the organic maturation and inevitable decay of the constituent members. Thus, the mobility or succession of individuals through the age strata, unlike social mobility through the class structure, is not entirely contingent upon motivation or recruitment but is, in part, biologically determined. The particular individuals composing any given age category are continually moving on and being replaced. (However stable the contours of the waterway, the water passing a particular spot is ever changing; one can never step twice into the same stream.) The age strata within the society differ not only biologically but also in many other respects. Each cohort has unique characteristics because of the particular historical events it has undergone, the particular knowled ge and attitudes it has acquired in childhood, or the particular number of its component individuals (see, for example, Ryder, 1965; Cain, 1964). In addition, at a given time, each cohort is at a different life-cycle stage from all the others, and therefore it differs from them i n the roles members are expected to play, in the rights and privileges accorded by society, and in the sheer number of years of experience behind and future potential ahead. Moreover, the age structure is significantly implicated in other basic aspects of the society: the economic, political, and cultural systems; and the family, the neighborhood, and various other social grou pings.

Not only the number and proportion of older people but also the sex ratio in the older population has been changing over time. Mortality rates are generally higher for males than for females (even for some animal species), and at the older ages, this discrepancy has been widening. Amon g older people 75 and over, there are now only about 73 men for every 100 women.

The demographic base Many findings i n the Inventory describe the characteristics and changes in the population that com-

Such changes in the age composition of the population have important societal implications; for example, for government involvement in programs for

Incidentally, the boundaries of particular age catego ries vary from study to study, and people of diverse ages may be defined as old. Whatever category is used , it contains a range in ages. In the category 65 and over, for instance, there are nearly 900,000 persons in the United States who are over 85 (persons who are themselves old enough to be the parents of other older persons aged 65 and over).

older people, for the increasi ng supply of mature individuals available for the labor force, or for the structure of the family as all the family members, but particu larly the females, tend to live longer. The organic base The age structure of the society is fundamentally affected by biology not only through the succession of births and deaths but also because individuals at different stages of life show important differences in both physical structure and function. With age, there is a decline in the number and quality of vital cells and a decreased ability to adapt to changes in the environment. In line with these age-related differences, the health of older people is generally poorer than that of the young. Though older people have fewer acute illnesses, they are more subject to chronic conditions: such impairments as failing vision or hearing, or such diseases as rheumatism and arthritis, heart disease and high blood pressure. Some four out of five persons 65 and over have at least one chronic condition. Thus there are increases by age in physician visits, in the number and duration of hospital stays, and in the number of days spent in restricted activity or in bed. Nevertheless, only a small proportion (15 per cent) of the chronically ill old people report themselves to be so severely handicapped that they are unable to carryon their major activity, whether it be a job outside the home or housework. Moreover, physical changes that are associated with age are related not only to health but also to behavior (though the causal linkages seem far from clear). For example, older people, when compared with younger people, are more likely to show deficits in sensory and perceptual skills, in muscular

INTRODUCTION: A SYNOPSIS: THE AGE STRUCTURE

3

strength , in the ability to react quickly, in complex sensorimotor coordination (such as that required in driving a car), and , most important of all, in memory, learning, and various aspects of intellectual functionin g.

75 and over, 72 per cent have had only eight years of schoolin g or less, compared with 17 per cent of those aged 25 to 29. Moreover, althou gh the average educational attainment of older people is rising, the lag of old behind young persists.

Unfortunately, there is little information about trends over time in health , physical functioning, or the associated changes in behavior. For the popula tion as a whole, to be sure, the risin g proportions of older people point to the likelihood of increasing prevalence of the chronic conditions associated with senescence; indeed, there have been increases over the century in death rates resulting from such diseases of later life as heart disease or cancer. But it is uncertain whether older individua ls today are healthier than older individuals in the past. Medical advance may have improved their physical condition, or it may, by interfering with the principle of survival of the fittest, have yielded a larger but less hardy population of older people.

These striking age differences in education have widespread ramifications throughout the society. Since comparatively few older people are well educated, few of them possess those characteristics, typically valued in our culture, that are associated with high education. Thus, the less educated majority of older people are less likely than the few who are well educated to remain active; they are more likely to retire and less likely to belong to voluntary associations or to read or to want to learn more. They have lower incomes. They are distinctly less happy and less optimistic about the future; but at the same time, they are less introspective and less ready to doubt their own adequacy as spouses or parents. They are more negative in their view of death and think about it more, although fewer of them are disposed to plan for it.

Whatever the trends may be, the inferior physical state of the older segments of society, in contrast to the younger segments, has both societal antecedents and societal consequences. Health is con ditioned by such social factors as standard of living, education , and advances in medicine and publ ic health . In turn , the physical state of older people sets limits to their social adjustment and to the contributions they can make to society. The educational background

The age strata of the society are distinguished from one another not only in demographic and organic bases but also in educational background. Older people have far less formal education and less recent education than younger people. Amon g people

4

The organic base

Findings of this sort raise numerous questions that require answers throu gh further research. Do the old d iffer from the youn g in various characteristics and attitudes because the ma jority of them fail to meet some absolute level of educational attainment? Or are the differences in some sense ,-elative to the risin g educational level of the population as a whole? Will age differences tend to disappear as most older people in the future attain the educational levels of today's younger people? Or will the continuing educational gap between old and youn g set the old continually at a relative disadvantage, even thou gh they are increas ingly better educated?

Age categories in the population differ not only in level but also in recency of education. Thus, the content of knowledge and attitudes acquired vary by cohort. The information imparted to doctors or engineers during their training, for instance, differen· tiates sharply between the backgrounds of old and young. Yet within each cohort, there is a certain age homogeneity in values and beliefs (about what is good , beautiful, or true) among individuals who were educated at the same point in history. It is interesting to note that one reason education can make such enormous differences among the age strata is that it is almost completely concentrated in the early years of life. A person enters adulthood with a fixed educational background that functions sociologically in almost the same way as such inborn characteristics as skin color or sex. Adult education (a channel that might close part of the age gap) is developing, but it still reaches only small proportions of people in their middle or later years . Age and the economy The age structure is closely linked to the economy. Here again, older people tend, on the average, to be comparatively disadvantaged, although individual variations are great. Their low status is indexed by their comparatively low rates of participation in the labor force and by their low average incomes. Today less than one-third of men 65 and over are in the labor force, a drop over several decades from approximately two-thirds in 1900. Estimates suggest a possible reduction to one-fourth by 1975, provided present trends continue. Despite a great deal of research , no firm explanations for the decline have been satisfactorily demonstrated. Although there appear to be parallel declines in most indus-

tralized countries (in contrast to agricultural countries), there are such notable exceptions as, for example, a rise in the United States during the war years. The striking discrepancy in participation rates between older and younger men (most younger men are in the labor force) has differential consequences for the age strata , affecting not only their respective involvement in the goal-directed activities of the society but also their financial status and the time available for their leisure pursuits. In regard to financial status, people over 60, and even those in their 50's, have markedly lower median incomes than people in their middle years, even after various adjustments are made (for example, for family size) . Over time, there have been increases in the income and the purchasing power of older people, with a declining share from earnings and a rising share from social security and other retirement benefits (often paid in fixed dollars) . However, relative to the rising levels of income for the country as a whole, older people continue to lag behind the young. Considerable attention has been paid by the fed eral government and other agencies to the problem of how the older person , once retired, is to receive the goods and services produced by the working members of the population . Such programs as social security, Medicare, or the Older Americans Act have alleviated some difficulties and set a floor to older people's income, but they have not brought this income up to the level of younger families. Age and the polity Age is linked in a somewhat different fashion to the political system, where older people are signifi-

cantly involved, despite their low education. For example, older people are at least as likely as younger people to vote. They are more likely to identify strongly with one of the major parties . They are better represented among the politically elite and in leadership positions in many types of decision making. They are more disposed to keep up with the news and with public affairs through the mass media. In general, older people are more conservative than younger people in their political ideology. There are important exceptions, however, as on issues affecting their own economic self-interest. For example, the old tend to support extensions of social security or Medicare, but frequently vote against school bonds . Yet there is little indication whether, over time, the rising level of older people's education may be associated with a less conservative stance or with a generally greater flexibility of attitude. On the whole, age appears to contribute, for better or for worse, to the stability of the political structure. Despite the often-expressed fear that older people may be widely susceptible to extremist pressures, they are divided more evenly between the two major parties than younger people are, and they tend to hold strongly to these party commitments. Age and religion Reli gion assumes greater importance among older than younger segments of the society, although the research (which is less complete than research on the polity) does not show whether religious values become intensified with aging or whether the older cohorts reflect a stronger religious emphasis in their early training. The aged are more cau ght up than the

INTRODUCTION: A SYNOPSIS: THE AGE STRUCTURE

5

young in such personal observances as Bible reading and prayer, and elderly members of religious organizations benefit from a variety of special programs such as home visits and nursing homes. However, church attendance falls off in the oldest years. Age and the family Over the past century, the fam ily has been importantly affected by chan ges in the age structure of the society. Althou gh this chan ge is usually described as the isolation of the nuclear family, it may perhaps be more accurately described as the subdivision into two nuclear fam ilies: the young couple with their dependent children and the m iddle-aged or aged parents . As life expectancy has risen , husbands and wives have become increasingly likely to survive together into old age, and the age of widowhood has been postponed . Today, by age 65 and over, most men (about two -thirds) , but a m inority of women (about o ne-third ), are living with their spouses. Moreover, most of those 65 and over (nearly 80 per cent), whether married or widowed , ma inta in independent households. Over t ime, this way of living has been increasing, as decreasing proportions of older people live in the same household with their c hildren . Even when households are shared today, the older person is, more often than not, himself the head of the house or the host, not a guest or subordinate in the home of his child . Livin g entirely alone is a frequent pattern amon g older people. Th is is especially true among women , over onefourth of whom (nearly all widows) live alone. Moreover, the norms appear to favor separate households for older people, except for those who are ill.

6

Age and religion

Living separately from children does not necessarily mean complete isolation from them, however. Some 84 per cent of older people who have living children (and most do) live less than an hour away from the nearest child ; and a similar proportion see one of their children at least every week. Thus, a new type of nuclear family, the independent, mature family (often a single-person family), is developing, with little-explored consequences for the society as a whole. Age and friendship Outside of family groups, much of the social activity of older people takes place with age peers . If older people live in neighborhoods where age-mates are available, they tend to associate with friends or neighbors who are sim ilar to themselves in age as well as in sex, marital status, and other characteristics. Thus, older people conform to the general principle of homophily in friendsh ip formation, a find i ng that seems to controvert certain arguments against age-homogeneous residential settings for older people.

In essence, then, although the aged may remain involved in politics or religion , many of them survive today beyond the age at which they are performing or bei ng rewarded in the major social roles: worker, parent of dependent ch ild, and spouse. This fact has notable consequences for society. It has sometimes been interpreted as a waste of potential resources . Whether there is, in fact, such a waste (an important question from many points of view) can be answered only through examination of the character of the older people themselves. What are their capabilities? What are their feelings and motivations? Do they

constitute a potential resource for the performance of society's existing instrumental functions? Or does thei r freedom from occupational and familial constraints presage a reevaluation of leisure for the society as a whole, in which new functions might be performed by older people?

LIFE CYCLES

The findings from the Inventory are relevant for understanding not only the age structure of the total society but also the life course of the individuals who embody the aging process and who perceive and react to the later stages of their lives _ In contrast to cross-section analyses that compare the attitudes or experiences of different age strata at given points in time, life-cycle (or longitudinal ) analyses trace the shifts in attitude or experience of the same individuals (or cohort of individuals) across time. (See Exh ibit 1 . 1.) The research on the aging individual is, with certain exceptions, much less substantial than that on the age structure, however, and is therefore more difficult to interpret. Moreover, there is great individual variation among older people (even more than there is among young people in many respects) , a fact that must be kept in mind continually in interpreting findings that refer to the modal individual. Dangers of misinterpretation Scholars often make inferences about how individuals age directly from the cross-section societal picture. The older person qua member of society tends, as we have seen, to become comparatively disadva ntaged in many respects, despite the various qualifications and mitigating factors . Thus, in

contrast to younger people, the older person typi cally has poor health and low energy; his educational background is inadequate and out of date; he is deprived of his occupational role; his earnings are cut off, and he is left to live on a fixed retirement income in the face of rising living standards and the declining value of the dollar; he is extruded from the heart of the family group as his children leave home, his spouse ultimately dies, and he is left to live alone.

regard himself as old. The older person seems at least as likely as the younger person to feel adequate and to have a sense of satisfaction i'n playing his various marital, parental, occupational, or housekeeping roles. To be sure, he does not perceive old age as the happiest period of his life. Nevertheless, he does not worry any more than the young person about his health, his finances, or any of the other difficulties to which he is subject.

In the more dramatic accounts, all these tend encies seemingly add up to a tragic stereotype of the older person as destitute, ill, facing irreparable losses, no longer integrated into society, and no longer subject to society's controls and sanctions. Old age appears as the nadir: the end of a long decline that follows peaks that occur at the early life stages in intelligence, capacity for work, income, sexual capability, and so on . Feelings, too, are often supposed to reflect the relatively deprived status of the aged within society, so that the subjective state of older people is presumably characterized by a loss of self-esteem, a deprecatory view of their low education, a sense of dejection and despair over their losses, and anxiety about their health, finances , and death.

Problems of life-cycle analysis What accounts for this seeming paradox, for the apparent discrepancy between the invidious image of the older person as a member of society and the less negative im age of him in his own eyes or with reference to his own earlier life? The discrepancy highlights the conceptual pitfalls of reasoning directly from the age structure of the society to the aging of individuals, the problem of disentangling life-cycle change from social change.

How, then, do the actual data on aging individuals compare with such suppositions? A glance at the scattered available clues shows a picture that is, in certain respects, at sharp variance with the stereotype. The older worker's productivity shows no consistent decline. Scholarship is maintained at a fairly high level into old age. There is little evidence that agi ng brings sexual impotence. The typical older person seems to have a strong sense of his own worth, to minimize his self-doubts, and not even to

The cross-section analysis, as we have seen, focuses upon different cohorts of persons who are of different ages at given points of time (contrasting their political views, for example, or their competi tive chances in the labor market) and yields data essential for understanding the age structU1'e of the scciety. Since this form of analysis does not focus o n life-cycle patterns, however, it provides no direct answers to questions about how the individual ages. It does not indicate which characteristics may change as a result of his growing older (l ike hair color), or which may remain stationary over his life course (like skin color) . Yet a good deal of research, failing to distinguish between cross-sectional and longitudinal views, attempts to reduce one to the

INTRODUCTION: A SYNOPSIS: THE AGE STRUCTURE

7

other. As a consequence, there is considerable dan· ger of fallacious interpretation, of erroneously inferring that differences among age categories in the society are due to the aging of individuals. An apparently absurd example will illustrate this principle. The cross-section finding is that older people tend to have a lower level of education than middle-aged people-an important societal datum. A fallacious life-cycle inference might be that people's educational background (the number of school grades attended) declines as they age! The fallacy is obvious: There can be no change or deterioration in educational background over the later life cycles of given adult individuals. The cross-section differences among the age strata arise here because social change affected the amounts of education offered to different cohorts at different points in the past. A more realistic though parallel example is provided by income. Here the cross -section picture shows a peak in the age strata of the 30's and 40'sanother important societal datum. However, to reason from this that the income of particular individuals tends to fall off after they reach age 45 or so gives a specious result. In fact, an individual's income probably does not start to decline (on the average) until closer to age 65. Here, the societal finding occurs because a social change, the continuing rise in the over-all income level, is superim posed upon the life-cycle change. Thus, the cohort now aged 60, even though their income may have continued to rise throughout their own careers, may well earn less than the cohort now aged 50, simply because the younger cohort, by starting later, started at a higher level.

8

Problems

of

life-cycle analysis

Similarly, intelligence, as measured in cross-section studies, appears to reach a peak among people in their late teens or early 20's and then to decline with age in the older strata-again a useful societal fact for the teacher of a class, for instance. But to infer that intelligence falls off so early in the life cycles of individuals is open to serious question, as a few longitudinal studies have demonstrated (at least for early and middle adulthood) . Here again, the interpretative difficulty seems associated with social change, with the long-term upward trend in education. Intelligence test performance is highly correlated with educational level, and education sets older cohorts sharply below younger cohorts. Incidentally, there are other sources of dubious interpretations besides this difficulty of separating life-cycle changes from broad social or environmental changes. For example, earlier studies appeared to show that achievement in various scientific and artistic fields reached a peak in the early years of life, although a more appropriate analysis showed peaks for most fields at age 40 to 49 or even later, with continuing performance thereafter. Here the fallacy arose through use of published biographies of individuals of differing longevity. This method can give spurious weight to the productivity of the earlier years by excluding those potentially productive men who did not live long enough to fulfill their promise. Still another complexity of life-cycle analysis concerns the meaning to the aging individual of his own life course. How, for example, might older people be presumed to respond to the societal situation in which they tend to have less education than younger people? One inference might be that older

people regard their education as inferior or inadequate; indeed, this is the kind of inference very often made. Yet a glance at one of the findings reported in the Inventory shows that older people do not appear to be apologetic about their low education or to regard it as a shortcoming. That is, in this instance, older people do not seem to view their education in terms of their relative deprivation within the society. They seem, rather, to be assessing their education with reference to their own life course, or perhaps to that of their peers. It is not their own education that has changed but the education of younger generations that has changed around them. Thus, to assume one can predict an older person's self-estimate simply by knowing his position in the society may lead to an erroneous conclusion. Such examples point to an important principle, namely, generalizations from a cross-section analysis of the age structure of the society to the life cycle of individuals can be grossly misleading (see, for example, Schaie, 1965). Fallacies such as these pose a particular problem for social scientists because they produce distortions in substantive and theoretical understanding of the aging process. At the same time, there may be consequences for old people themselves. Fallacies can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies. To define an older person as incompetent, for instance, may help to make him so. 80th scholarly and practical considerations, then, underscore the need for more meticulous analysis and interpretation of existing studies.

Some suggestive findings Despite shortcomings of method and difficulties of interpretation, important insights emerge from a few

exploratory studies that succeed in following individuals over portions of their life course (through longitudinal analysis, panel analysis, cohort analysis, and various specially designed research procedures) . Clues from these studies (that may, in turn, dictate the direction of much future research) suggest, in the first place, that aging may be attended by a considerable shifting of goals, a redefinition of problems, and a reformulation of expectations. In regard to health, for instance, many older people appear to adjust expectations downward. Recognizing their disabilities, they may come to accept them as inevitable or unexceptional accompaniments of old age, to rate their own health more positively than doctors do, and to worry no more about it than the young do.

There is, in the second place, a continuing growth and development over the life cycle in many respects (in addition to the foregoing instances of income, intellectual functioning, or achievement) well beyond the point now suggested by cross-section studies . The individual apparently tends to accumulate experience as he ages, to develop a place for himself, and to adapt to expectations. There is an evident increase with age in such serious concerns as in public affairs and, possibly, religion, which may be indicative of a search for some basic or transcendent system of values or meaning.

These are but tentative analyses of the reactions of older people, tentative in that more research spanning the life cycle is needed. As longitudinal studies are expanded, they will undoubtedly reveal more about the aging process and its meaning for in-

dividuals as they live through the later stages of the life cycle.

SUCCESSIVE COHORTS AND SOCIAL CHANG E Important as it is for research to extend and enlarge such longitudinal studies, the analysis of the life cycle of single cohorts, like the cross-section study, must be further elaborated if it is to yield a more complete view of the over-all aging process (see Exhibit 1 . 1). In order to understand the subtle interplay of individual aging and social change, it is necessary to use research methods that are more imaginative than those ordinarily employed. Thus, analyses tracing the life course, not of one, but of a sequence of cohorts, can broaden the understanding afforded by either of the two approaches discussed . On the one hand, the description of the life pattern of a particular cohort cannot in itself reveal the inherent character of the life-cycle process because, with the passage of time, individuals are simultaneously affected both by their own aging and by the trend of social and environmental events. For example, the adjustment to retirement of one cohort (8 in Exhibit 1 . 1) might be quite different from that of a later cohort (C in Exhibit 1 . 1) if, in the future, retirement were to become more widely accepted and individuals were to be better prepared in advance. Hence, in order to isolate the effects of aging from the effects of social change, it is necessary to study the way in which different cohorts age at different times, in different places, and under different conditions . (Alternatively, the assumption is often

INTRODUCTION: A SYNOPSIS : LIFE CYCLES

9

made, perhaps justifiably in special instances, that the environment has not changed or that the environmental change has no material effect, at least in the relevant respects.) On the other hand , cross-section views are not in themselves enough to show how the structure of the society affects and is affected by the aging of its members. Even the comparison of several cross sections, though revealing trends, does not explain the link between aging and social change. Here it is the flow of successive cohorts through the social structure that allows deeper understanding of social change, since the sequence of cohorts is a major channel for the transformation of society (Ryder, 1965). A number of studies of consecutive cohorts point to the high potential of this method of disentangling life-cycle change from social change (at the same time illustrating several devices for offsetting the practical difficulty of the adult researcher who will not himself survive long enough to observe the entire lifetime of even a Single cohort). One such study, by using lifetime residence histories to reconstruct the migration patterns of successive cohorts, succeeds in determining whether individuals as they age have followed the societal trend of population away from the farm and toward the city. This analysiS discovers that the cohorts of people now old have, indeed, tended to follow the over-all pattern; whereas recent cohorts are more likely to move away from larger cities to suburbs. Another study, by utilizing mental hospital records of successive cohorts of newly admitted patients, finds that the over-all shift toward earlier release does not apply to the patients now aged 65 and over. Still

10

another study, by using samples of successive cohorts and controlling the impact of societal shifts in political response to particular elections, demonstrates the individual's increasing identification with the Republican party as he ages. Many other findings from the Inventory raise provocative questions about the older people of the fu ture, as cohorts who are young today will reach their later years . For example, one study of successive cohorts shows that a husband and wife today live together for a longer period and more independently of other relatives than a husband and wife of an earlier era. What then are the implications for the structure of the family or for socialization processes within the society? Does this mean that the older couple is becoming an internally strengthened family unit? Does the couple's transitional middle-year phase serve as a training period for the later years? Or, to take another example, what changes in the future use of leisure in American SOCiety are implicit in a complex set of shifts observed in successive cohorts? Men at age 60 can -now expect more than seven years of retirement. Families now have, on the average, a period of asset·building prior to retirement. People are increasingly surviving until retirement. People are increasingly reaching retirement with higher levels of education and after considerable leisure experience in weekends and vacations. How will the lives of older people be affected by such changes? In conclusion, the findings amassed by social scientists provide detailed description of the position of older people in the society today, a position of relative deprivation in certain spheres (such as the

economic or the educational) but not in others (such as the political or the religious), a position not invariably viewed as invidious by the older people themselves. Yet, social science still has much to learn about how an individual ages, what changes occur as the result of maturation or adult socialization, and how inevitable such changes may be. Social change is continually intervening, so that the older people of the future will not hold a position in society precisely analogous to that of today's older people, nor will they have aged in precisely the same way. Changes have been occurring in immigration and education, so that the cohort born in 1900 contains larger proportions of the foreign born and of the poorly educated than the more recent cohorts. Medical developments are taking place that can affect the future health and vigor of the aged. Social events are occurring that can influence their political attitudes or the peak level of their earnings. Thus, while much existing research emphasizes the disadvantages of being old, there are, nevertheless, few answers to the central question: Will future generations of older persons necessarily suffer similar handicaps?

Parsons, Talcott, 1942. "Age and Sex in the Social Structure of the United States," American Sociological Review, 7, pp. 604-616. Ryder, Norman S., 1965. "The Cohort as a Concept in the Study of Social Change," American Sociological Review, 30, pp. 843-86l. Schaie, K. Warner, 1965. "A General Model for the Study of Development Problems," Psychological Bulletin, 64, pp. 92-107.

W orhs cited in Chapter 1 Cain, Leonard D., Jr., 1964. "Life Course and Social Structure, " in Faris, Robert L., editor, Handbook of Modern Sociology, Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., pp. 272-309. Linton, Ralph, 1942. "Age and Sex Categories," American Sociological Review, 7, pp. 589-

603.

INTRODUCTION: A SYNOPSIS: SUCCESSIVE COHORTS AND SOCIAL CHANGE

2 In this country there have been increases over many decades in the num· ber and the proportion of Americans who are in the older age groups, as well as increases in the likelihood that an individual will survive into the later years . Demographic research analyzes these changes as they result from the rise and fall of birth , death , and immigration rates. Basic to an under· standing of aging in the society are the demographic reports on (1) the size and characteristics of the aged category of the population, (2) the "aging" of the population in terms of the proportion of the total who are old , and (3) the longevity or average length of life of individuals.

THE POPULATION

THE lJAT The principal sources of United States data on the size and growth of the population are the decennial censuses issued since 1790, the Current Population Reports released frequently in recent years by the United States Bureau of the Census, and the publications of the National Center for Health Statistics. Information on many other countries is supplied by the United Na· tions through its annual publication, Demographic Yearbook, and its quarterly publication, Population and Vital Statistics Reports. The same data analyzed in different ways may have quite different meanings. For example, a large increase in the number of aged or a substantial increase in the expectation of life may coincide with no increase (or even with a decrease ) in the aged proportion of the population.

CAUTION:

1)

1 THE POPULATION OF OLDER PEOPLE

2 AGE COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION 3 LONGEVITY OF INDIVIDUALS

1

THE POPULATION OF OLDER PEOPLE

The absolute number of older people in the Un ited States today is strikingly large, and has been steadily increasi ng. The population aged 65 and over is more than five times as large now as this same age group was in 1900 because of the high birth rate at the time they were born, the rap idly decreasing morta lity rates through their lifetime, and the high rate of immigration , especially during the ea rly part of the century. Females, whose death rates are lower than those of males, seem to have been adding more than their share to the growing numbers of older people. 1•a

EXHIBIT 2 . 1 Population of older persons, United States, 1900 to 1960, and projections to 1990 ( in thousands)

Y ear 1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

(projected) (projected) (projected) (projected) (projected)

Total United States population

Population

76,094 132,288 151,718 180,676 207,326 223,785 243,291 264,607 286,501

3,100 9,036 12,295 16,658 19,585 21 ,1 59 23,063 24,977 27,005

65 +

United States, 1960

The Bureau of the Census shows more than 16.5 million OP 65+ in 1960. See Exhibit 2· l. ( Cur-

rent Population Reports, 1964, P- 2S, No. 279 , p.S) 1. b

Trends

The secular trend is toward ris ing numbers of OP.

o

Since the turn of the century, the size of the population 65+ has multiplied many times, from 3 .1 million in 1900 to 16.7 million in 1960 (an increase considerably greater than that for the population as a whole). See Exhibit 2 • l.

Source : Data for 1900 from United States Bureau of the Cen'sus, Historical Statistics of the United States . 1960. p. 8 . Data for 1940 from C. Taeuber. 11 / 1964 , p. 1. Data for 1950 from Current Population Reports, 1966, P· 25 , No. 352, p. I. Data for 1960 from Current Popu la tion Reports , 1964 , P· 25 , No. 279, p. 5. Projections for 1970·1990 based on Series B from Current Popu lation Reports , 1966 , P· 25 , No. 359, p . 14 .

16

United States,1960

EXHIBIT 2 · 2

Adu lt population of the United States , 1963 and 1985 (projected) _

Yea rs of birth 1963 population

Exc ess of 198 5 over 1963

1878 and earlier

Each of the compon en ts i n popu l ation ch an ge (births, deaths, and m igration) has contributed to the increasing size of the older population. One analysis of these components traces from birth the life cycles of two population cohorts (generations), one born about 1840 and the other, about 1890. Comparison of these two cohorts shows the following:

Years of birth 198 5 popu lat ion

Female

Age

Male

o

85+

1900 and earlier

1878 to 1883

80 to 84

1900 to 1905

1883 to 1888

75 to 79

1905 to 1910

1888 to 1893

70 to 74

1910 to 1915

1893 to 1898

65 to 69

1915 to 1920

1898 to 1903

60 to 64

1920to1925

1903 to 1908

55 to 59

1925 to 1930

1908 to 1913

50 to 54

1930 to 1935

1913 to 1918

45 to 49

1935 to 1940

1918 to 1923

40 to 44

1940 to 1945

1923 to 1928

3 5 to 39

1945to1950

1928 to 1933

30 to 34

1950 to 1955

1933 to 1938

25 to 2 9

1955 to 1960

The later cohort was relatively larger at birth (because the number of births per year had been increasing) . A relatively larger proportion of the later cohort survived to the older ages (because mortality rates had been declin i ng). Additions to the later cohort throu gh imm igrati on were relat ively larger. ( Sheldon, 1960 , pp .

34-40 )

o

Projections for 1985 sh ow an estimated popula t ion of som e 25 m ill io n OP 65 +. See Exhibit 2· 1. Projections also show substantial increases in each of the older age categories from 55 to 59 and over. See Exhibit 2·2. (Current Popul ation Reports , 1964, P-25, No . 286, p . 1 )

Such projections assum e that t here will be no wars, widespread epidemics, depressions, or any major changes in the rates of mortality.

CAUTION:

10

8

6

4

2

0

0

2

4

6

8

10

Population in millions

Source: Current Population Reports . 1964 . P· 25 . No. 286 . p. 1 (ada pted ).

THE POPULATION: THE POPULATION OF OLDER PEOPLE 17

1·c

Sex

EXHIBIT 2 · 3

Females outnumber males among OP, an imbalance that has been increasing in recent decades. See Exhibit 2 . 3.

30----------------------------------------------------

c:J Women _

D In the United States (1960) , there is an appre· ciably smaller proportion of males (45 per . cent) than of females (55 per cent) among OP 65+; whereas for the total population, the difference is only 49 per cent males versus 51 per cent females.

(1960 Census of Population, Vol. I, Part 1, p. 361 )

Growth of United States population 65 and over 28.2 16.8

Men

25----------------------------------------·r-~-----·~--

20 Vl

C

D Although at birth there are more males than fe· males, the proportion of males decreases sharply with increasing age. The sex ratio (number of males for every 100 fe· males) in the United States (1963) is 103.8 for children under 5, but falls to 72.9 for persons 75+ . ( Current Population Reports, 1964, P- 25, No. 286, p . 10) See point 3 . b for sex differences i n mortality and the ex· pectation of life.

D This excess of females over males among OP appears consistently in countries studied through· out the world . ( United Nations , Aging, 1956, p. 18; analysis of 26 selected countries in about 1950)

~ 8. '0

15

Vl

c

2

-=

"

10

5------------__

o

1900

~_+----~

1930

__~--

1965 (estimated )

D The sex ratio for OP 65+ has not been static but has been falling for several decades in the United States. In 1900, the sex ratio for people 65+ was 102.0; by 1966, it had dropped to 76.6 ( C. Taeuber and I. Taeuber, 1958, pp. 31 - 32 . Current Population Reports, 1966, P- 25, No . 352, p. 4)

Source : Un ited States Administration on Ag ing. 1/ 1966 ; based on data from United States Bureau of the Census.

18

Sex

2000 (proiected)

EXHIBIT 2 · 4

Sex ratio of the United States population, by age, 1950, 1960, and 1966

o

This decline in the sex ratio has occurred for the following reasons:

110

Female mortality rates have dropped faster than male rates (point 3 • b) .

-

100

.

~

::::::......

'::,.... i=;:":::'

-, .,;;::

,;"

-::.:

VI

~

,,

80

0.

~ nfarm laborers. See Exhibit 2, 17. ( Guralnick, 911959; reported by Spiegelman, 1966, p . 4 )

o

A series of analyses for England and Wales relate mortality rates to social class groupings formed on the basis of occupation. See Exhibit 2 . 18.

Ratio of death rate for males in specified occupational level to that for all males, United States, 1950

EXHIBIT 2 .. 17

Occupational level

Ratio of death rate to all males

All males Professional workers Technical, administrative, and managerial workers Clerical, sales, and skilled workers Semiskilled workers Laborers, except farm Agricultural workers

1.00 .83 .85 .97 1.00 1.52 .96

Note : Males aged 20 to 64. exclud ing students. members of the Armed Forces . and persons who never worked .

A decline in mortality found in connection with rising social status was evident in 1921-1923 and again in 1930-1932, but the relationship becomes less regular by 1950. This points to a possible weakening over time in the relationsh ip between occupation and mortality. ( Logan, 1956,

p. 140; data me from 1 per cent census sample for a 1-year period. ) That the pattern for married women, who are classified according to their husbands' occupa tions, somewhat resembles the pattern for men (especially in 1930-1932) suggests that mortal· ity rates may be affected by class differences in environment (for example, i'n nutrition and medi· cal care) , and not merely by hazards specific to different levels of occupation. ( Logan, 1956, p.

138 )

Source : Gura lnic k. 9/ 1959 ; reported by Spiegelman . 1966, p. 4.

34

By occupational level

EXHIBIT 2 . 18 Age-standardized mortality ratios , by occupational level, England and Wales , 1921-1923 to 1950

3 •f

(Average for all classes by sex on each period = 100) 125

75

100

50

o

25

Jen, agee 20 to 6

years

25

50

75

100

Marrie ~ women aged 2C to 64 y ars'

r

19 0

125

1 11111 1111111 1

11111111111111111 1111111

11111111 11111 11111111111111111 111111

111111111111111 111111111

Geographical differences

The average length of life is relatively high in certain regions of the country (notably the West North Cen· tral states) and in areas outside the urban centers, but these differences are lessening over time. ( Spiegelman, 1966, pp. 4- 5 )

o

Records of mortality in the nineteenth century show urban rates considerably higher than rural rates. ( C. Taeuber and 1. Taeuber , 1958, p . 274 )

o

Data for 1939 show that the average lifetime in communities with populations under 2,500 was 2.5 years longer for white males and 1.2 years longer for white females than in cities with populations of 100,000 or over. ( Spiegelman, 1966, p . 5 )

111111111 111111111111111111111

o

19

o to

19 2

A 1950 analysis, showing very little difference in rates for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan coun· ties, suggests the decreased importance of rural· urban residence as a factor in mortality. ( C. Taeuber and I . Taeuber, 1958, p . 275)

1 11111111111' 11111111111111111111 1111111111111111111 11111111111 1

1 111111111111 111111111111111111

o

I

I

I

I

Social classes 19 1 to 19

3b

I

I 11111111111111111111 11

111111111

Regional differences in longevity diminished duro ing the 1950's, as the greatest gains occurred in those areas formerly having the least favorable record. (Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 7/1965, pp. 1-2)

I Professional · I

11111111111111111111 Intermediate - II

liliiiiiiliiiiiiiil

Skilled -III

Semiskilled·IV Unskilied·V

I

I

I

I

" According to social class of husband .

I

1

"Data for women not available .

Source: Logan . 1956. p. 139. COPY righ t 1956 by The Free Press . a cor po ration.

THE POPU LATION: LONGEVITY OF INDIVIDUALS

35

RESEARCH NEEDS

1 What are the implications of a "mature" population ( one with high proportions of older persons ) for the broader social, economic , and cultural aspects of the society ( V alaoras , 1958 ) ?

2 How are changes in mortality rates related to the physical and mental attributes of those who surIJive? Are reductions in mortality among the young interfering with natural selection in a way that affects the kinds of people who reach old age? 3 To what extent might further reduction in mortality among older persons be effected by increases in research, improved medical care, or rising levels of income and/ or education? 4 What is the connection between mortality rates and marital status if factors such as health or care during illness are held constant? How is the remarriage of widowers and widows related to expectation of life?

Warks cited in Chapter 2 Birren, James E., editor, 1959. Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

36

Warks cited

* Dublin,

Louis I., Alfred J. Lotka, and Mortimer Spie· gelman, 1949. Length of Life, New York: Ronald Press Co.

Enterline, Philip E., 1961. "Causes of Death Responsibile for Recent Increases in Sex Mortality Differentials in the United States," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 39, pp. 312-328. Guralnick, L., 9/ 1959. "The Study of Mortality by Occupation in the United States," National Center for Health Statistics, Public Health Servo ice, Washington: Government Printing Office. Hauser, P. M., and R. Vargas, 1960. "Population Structure and Trends," in Burgess, Ernest W., editor, Aging in Western Societies, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp . 29-53. Hermalin, Albert I., 1965. Tables and Charts to Accompany "The Effect of Changes in Mortality Rates on Population Growth and Age Distribu· tion in the United States." Presented before the Statistical Section of the American Public Health Association at the Ninety-Third Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, October 19, 1965 (unpublished). Jacobson, Paul H., 1966. "The Changing Role of Mortality in American Family Life," Lex et Scientia: International Journal of Law and Science,5, pp. 117-124. Kallmann, Franz J., and Lissy F. Jarvik, 1959. "In· dividual Differences in Constitution and Ge· netic Background," in Birren, James E., editor, Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 216-263. Logan, W. P. D., 1956. "Social Class Variations in Mortality," in Spengler, Joseph J., and Otis Dudley Duncan, editors, Demographic Analysis, Glencoe, III.: The Free Press, pp. 138-144.

Bogue, Donald J., 1959. The Population of the United States, Glencoe, III.: The Free Press.

Metropolitan Life Insurance Company,

Burgess, Ernest W., editor, 1960-a. Aging in Western Societies , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

National Center for Health Statistics, 1964. "The Change in Mortality Trend in the United

10/1964,

7/ 1965, Statistical Bulletin.

• Suggested additional reading

States," Vital and Health Statistics, PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 3, No. I, Public Health Service. Washington: Government Printing Office. " Rosset, Edward, 1964. Aging Process of Population, New York: Macmillan Co. Sheldon, Henry D., 1958. The Older Population of the United States , New York: John Wiley and Sons.

- - - , Demographic Yearbooks, 1955-1958. ---,1965. Demographic Yearbook, 1964. - - -, Population and Vital Statistics Reports. United Nations Office of Public Information. United Nations Yearbook, 1956 . United States Administration on Aging, 111966, "Year-end Statistical Round -up," Useful Facts, No. 16, Washington .

" - - - , 1960. "The Changing Demographic Profile" in Tibbitts, Clark, editor, Handbook of Social Gerontology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 27-61.

United States Bureau of the Census, 1960. Historical Statistics of the United States , Colonial Times to 1957, Washington: Government Printing Office.

Shurtleff, D., 311955. "Mortality and Marital Status," Public Health Reports, 70.

- - - , 1964. Current Population Reports, P-25, No. 279.

Spengler, Joseph J., and Otis Dudley Duncan, editors, 1956. Demographic Analysis, Glencoe, III.: The Free Press.

- - - , 1964. Current Population Reports, P-25, No. 286.

" Spiegelman, Mortimer, 1966. Significant Mortality

- - - , 1966. Current Population Reports, P-25, No. 352.

and Morbidity Trends in the United States Since 1900, Bryn Mawr, Pa.: American College

- - - , 1966. Current Population Reports, P-25, No. 359.

of Life Underwriters. Taeuber, Conrad, 11 / 1964. Data Relating to the Population of the United States, United States Bureau of the Census (unpublished). Taeuber, Conrad, and Irene B. Taeuber, 1958. The Changing Population of the United States, New York: John Wiley and Sons. Tibbitts, Clark, editor, 1960. Handbook of Social Gerontology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. United Nations, 1953. "The Determinants and Consequences of Population Trends: A Summary of the Findings of Studies on the Relationships Between Population Changes and Economic and Social Conditions," New York.

- - - , 1960 Census of Population, Vol. I, Part 1. Valaoras, Vasilios G., 1958. "Young and Aged Populations," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 316, pp. 69-83.

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS Wilbert E . Moore Eleanor Bernert Sheldon Henry D. Sheldon Mortimer Spiegelman

Mervyn W . Susser Conrad Taeuber Clarit Tibbitts Donald R. Young

" United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1956. "The Aging of Populations and the Economic and Social Implications," Population Studies, No. 26, New York.

THE POPULATION

37

3 Since the t urn of the century, when today's older generation was entering upon its life 's course, basic changes have occurred in manpower utilization and the production of wealth . Today, a minority of older men remain in the labor force , in contrast to a majority in 1900. Thus , the economic context in which the older person works or retires is very different from that in which he was reared . Moreover, as his life-cycle situation shifts abruptly at age 60 or 65 , his economic status becomes markedly different from that of younger adults in act ivity, income, and use of time. Such changes in labor force participation have led to serious questions concerning the status of older persons, on the one hand , and the economic and political consequences for the society, on the other. How inevitable are these changes, both past and future? Will the majority of older workers con tinue to leave the labor force, perhaps even in increasing proportions , or will conditions of full employment heighten the demand for older workers? At what age will older women ret ire , many of whom have returned to the labor force in their middle years? Will the work ethic relax its hold so that older workers themselves elect to retire? What implications does wide spread retirement hold for the use of leisure time and for the value placed by society upon the older person 's new functions in retirement? How, and to what extent, is the nonworking older person to receive the goods and services produced by the working members of the population (discussed in Chapter 4)?

THE DATA Research on the economic activity of older persons rests on a vast store of statistical data . In the United States, reports on the labor force (based on the decennial census and on monthly sample surveys) show characteristics of that portion of the population who are performing, or seeking to perform, work for which money income is usually received . Many other related sets of data have also been used to describe and explain labor force changes and to develop appropriate societal programs. Data for other countries have been compiled by the United Nations and its agency, the International Labour Office, and by such international bod ies as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; but strict comparability of the data is limited by differences in definitions and methods of measurement. Data on societal trends in leisure are scanty, comprising mainly records of expenditures or of attendance.

39

WORK AND RETIREMENT

A A ·1

The age pattern of work and retirem ent

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF MEN

A ·2

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN

A ·3

PATTERNS OF WORK

A ·4

CHARACTERISTICS OF OLDER WORKERS

A ·5

OLDER PEOPLE WITHIN THE TOTAL LABOR FORCE

B

Factors associated with retirem ent

B ·1

MANPOWER SUPPLY AND DEMAND

B ·2

THE STRUCTURE OF OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES

B -3

COMPETITIVE QUALIFICATIONS OF OLDER WORKERS

B ·4

PERSONNEL POLICIES AND PRACTICES

C

Societal patterns of leisure

C -I

THE INCREASE IN LEISURE TIME

C ·2

TRENDS IN LEISURE PURSUITS

A The age pattern retirement

of work and

EXHIBIT 3 • 1

See Chapter 18 for the older person's roles in work or reo tirement.

Labor force participation rates, which reach a peak among middle-aged persons, tend to decrease' in the older age categories. Moreover, the participation rates for older men, though not for older women , have been decl ining sharply for several decades. Substantial research , comparing different countries and different time periods, relates retirement from the labor force to the industrial development of the cou ntry, suggesting that age at retirement may be integrally related to the larger complex of economic and social change. Labor force participation rate refers to the proportion of the total noninstitutional population in any given age categonJ that is either at worh or loohing for worh .

DEFI NITION :

A· 1

100

A· 1 · a

United States, 1960

o

Among men 65+ , 31 per cent were in the labor force in 1960.

-........

1 / 80

1\

Males

\

CI)

~

-2 (;

60

.D

~

c:

-

II '\

c: CI) u

Q;

40

20

~

/

I \. I I I}

a.

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF MEN

The older a man is, beyond the middle years, the less likely he is to remain in the labor force (either employed or looking for work though unemployed).

Labor force participation rates, United States,

1960

••,>'Fe

,,- ....

" \

~ales

\

\\

\

\, \

,\

I

........

o o

10

20

30

40

50

60

Age

o

Participation rates, which drop sharply at age 64, are notably lower for men beyond 65 than for those in their 30's or 40's. See Exhi bit 3·1. (1960 Census of Population, Vol . I, Part 1, p. 487)

Source : 1960 Census of Population . Vol. I. Part 1. p. 487 (adapted) .

40 United States, 1960

\ ....

70

80

90

EXHIBIT 3 . 2 Male labor force participation rates , by degree of industrialization for various countries, about 1950 100

r b

80

~

0

\ \:

~

c Q)

40

~

Q)

Q.

1 agricu Itu ral

\

\

\

countries

,o semi· industrialized

Nations , 1962, Manpower, p. 12; data for males, 1950's)

countr ies

\

a'/ :/

c:

Averages computed for countries at different stages of industrialization show that for males 65+ only about 38 per cent are working in the i ndustrialized countries, in contrast to some 61 per cent in the semi -industrialized countries and 70 per cent in the predominantly agricultural countries. (United

verages for :

\

~

.0

o

\ \\

,

~

Cross-cultural similarties

This pattern of withdrawal from the labor force in the later years of life seems to occur not only in the United States but also in countries throughout the world, especially in industrialized countries. See Exhibit 3' 2.

~, ~ \\\

t

60

u

~

t

Q)

~

~

A•1 •b

\ \ 1

industrialized

' 2 countries

:1

if

20

il

,I

I o 0

10

20

This exhibit is based on the following data : Degree

o(

Industrialization

Industrialized countries Sem i· i nd ustrialized cou ntries Agr icultural countries

30

40

50

60

70

Age

10

15

20

25

35

45

55

65

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

and

14

19

24

34

44

54

64

over

4 .1 13 .2 23 .9

72.4 70 .3 78 .4

91.5 91.8 91.2

96 .7 96 . 2 96 .3

97 .6 97 .1 97 . 5

95 .9 95 .9 96.3

85 .6 88 .9 91.6

37 .7 61.0 70. 1

Source: United Nations. 1962 . Manpower. p. 12 . WORK AND RETIREMENT: LABOR fORCE PARTICIPATION Of MEN 41

A' l '

C

Trends

Over time the tendency for older men to withdraw from the labor force has become more pronounced.

EXHIBIT3 " 3 Labor force participation rates , United States, 1900 to 1975 (per cent in labor force ) 1975

o

In the United States, the proportion of men 65 + in the work force has dropped sharply (with a notable reversal i n the war years) from approximately two-thirds in 1900 to less than one-third in 1960. Projections suggest a further decrease (possibly to one-fourth) by 1975. See Exhibit 3" 3_

(pro-

Age

1900

1920

1940

1944

1950

1955

1960

;ected)

Both sexes

55.0

55.8

55.9

63.1

58.3

58.7

57.4

57.8

87.7

85.9

83.9

89.8

84.4

83.6

63.6

52.6

44.2

70.0

53.2

49.5

91.7

91.0

96.3

97.2

93.3

93 .8

68.3

60.1

96.1 98.1 98.5 95.5 87.2 45.0

98.5 99.0 99.0 97.1 92.1 52.2

89.0 96.2 97.6 95.8 87.0 45.8

90.8 97.7 98.4 96.4 88.3 40.6

79 .7 34.4 73.1 88.9 96.4 96.4 94.3 85.2 32.2

76.9 32.1 70.0 86.7 96.2 96.7 95.0 83.9 23.4

20.4

24.1

28.2

36.8

33.1

34.8

26.8

28.4

23.3

42.0

31.5

29.9

32.1

38.1

18.1

22.4

14.1

17.1

9.1

8.0

49.5 35.2 28.8 24.3 18.7 7.4

55.0 39.0 40.5 35.8 25.4 9.8

46.1 34.0 39.1 38.0 27.0 9.7

46.0 34.9 41.6 43.8 32.5 10.6

36.1 20.8 51.0 46.1 35.8 43.1 49.3 36.7 10.5

39.9 20.8 50.6 51.5 39.3 49.0 57.6 45 .7 9.8

Males

14+ 14-17 18-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ Females

14+ 14-17 18-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Notes : Data prior to 1940. based on the notion of " gainful workers ," ' are roughly comparable to labor force participation rates from 1940 on ( Bogue , 1959, p. 421) . Data from the Current Population Reports tend to indicate a slightly higher level of labor force participation than those from the decennial census (Sheldon, 1958, pp . 164 · 165 ).

Source : Data for 1900 · 1955 from Bogue , 1959 , p. 426 . Sources ci ted by Bogue : Data for 1940 · 1955 from Current Population Reports , P· 50, Nos. 61 and 72 ; data for 1920 from United States Census , 1940, Vol. III , The Labor Force. Part 1. Un ited States Summary , Table 8 , p. 26; Data for 1900 from United States Census. 1940 . Comparative Occupation Statistics for the Un ited States. 1870 · 1940 . Data for 1960 and 1975 from Manpower Report of the President. 1966 . p. 215 .

42

Trends

Male labor force participation rates, industrialized countries, 1920 to 1950 (Averages for ten countries)

EXHIBIT 3 . 4

100 ----------------.----------------------------------------------

About

About

1920

1950

o

This secular decline in economic activity of older men is not peculiar to the United States, but also appears in other industrial countries for which data are available. See Exhibit 3' 4. In every country studied, the proportion of men 65+ who are working has fallen considerably over time, while less sharp declines also appear at age 55 to 64. ( United Nations, 1962, Man-

D

I

80 - - - - - - - - - - -

power, pp. 14-16; data for 10 countries in about 1920 and about 1950) LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN

A'2

60 --------------------

c:., u

The patterns of work and retirement among older women are qu ite different from those among older men. Althou gh, in general, women are less likely than men to work for payor profit, their participa' tion in the labor force has been increasing rapidly in recent decades, a change having repercussions for older as well as younger women.

40 --------------------

20 -------------------

A •2 •

a

United States, 1960

o

Among women 65+, 10 per cent were in the labor force in 1960.

o

10 to 14

15 to 19

35 to 44

65 and over

Age

HOtLs ewives are not defined as m embers of the labor force.

NOTE:

o

Similar to the pattern for men, women beyond age 65 are comparatively less likely than women in their 40's to participate in the labor force. See Exhibit 3 - 1. ( 1960 Census of Population , Vol . I,

PaTt 1, p. 487) The life-cycle patterns of individual women cannot be inferred direc tly from comparisons of .different age groups at a single point of time, as in Exhibit 3 - 1. See point A . 2 - c.

CAUTION :

Source : United Nations, 196 2, Manpower , p. 16 .

WORK AND RETIREMENT: LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF MEN

43

A•2• b

Trends

These differences between older and younger women today reflect a long·term trend , as increasing pro· portions of each new generation (cohort) of women enter the labor force at some point in the life cycle.

D Since World War II, growing proportions of women, especially married women, have been enter· ing the labor force during their middle years. See Exhibit 3' 5. ( United Nations , 1962, Manpower, p. 35. 1960 Census of Population , Vol . I, Part 1, p.

EXHIB IT 3 · 5

Female labor force participation rates, United States , 1920 to 1960

50_r--------~.---------+_--------_r--------~----------1_--------_f---

40-r--------~~--~~--_i------~~_r----------t_------~_i----------~---

487)

D For older women, there has been no long·term decline in labor force participation comparable to that for men. See Exhibit 3 . 3.

30 ~------~~------~4ct_--~~--_r--------~----~----1_~~----_f---

Indeed, partici pation rates for the age categories from 45 to 64 show pronounced increases since 1940, while proportions of women 65+ in the work force have remained at about 9 to 10 per cent from 1900 to 1960. (Bogue, 1959, pp. 423-

426. Manpower Report of the President, 1963, p . 88 . National Manpower Council, 1957, pp. 110- 111 , 132) This absence of change in the labor force participation of older women does not necessarily m ean that the forces producing the decline for older m en w ere not at work upon women also. Indeed, the tendency for increasing proportions of participants to withdraw may well have occurred for women just as for men, though concealed by the opposing general tendency for increasing proportions of women to enter the labor force initially. (Gallaway, 1965, pp. 27-28)

10-r--~~r_--t_--------_i----------_r----------t_--------_i--------~~~~

INTERPRETATION :

o-r~~----r_------~--------~--------+_--------r_------~--10 20 40 60 30 50 70

Age

Sou rce : Un ited Natio ns , 1962 , Manpower , p. 35 (ad a pted ) ; 1960 from 1960 Cen s us of Popul ation, Vol. I, Part 1, p. 487.

44 Trends

Changing labor forc e participation rates of women born in specified decades, as they grew older, United States, 1900 to 1955

EXHIBIT 3 . 6

Deca de of birth

Age

1876 to 188 5

14 to 24

1886 to 189 5

189 6 to 1905

1906 to 1915

1916 to 1925

Per cent in labor force

Year

o

10

20

30

40

50

1900

25 to 34

1910

35 to 44

1920

45 to 54

1930

55 to 64

1940

65 to 74

1950

14 · 24

1910

25 · 34

1920

35·44

1930

45 · 54

1940

55 · 64

1950

60 · 69

1955

14 · 24

1920

25 · 34

1930

35 ·44

1940

45 · 54

1950

50 · 59

1955

14·24

1930

25 · 34

1940

35 · 44

1950

40 · 49

1955

14 · 24

1940

25 · 34

195 0

30·39

1955

A •2 •c

Work-life histories

The trend toward increasing econom ic activity of middle-aged women (which has no counterpart for men) has two kinds of implications for understanding the life-cycle patterns of individual women . (1) There is no necessary implication, as Exhibit 3 . 1 might suggest, that gi ven individuals withdraw from the labor force once they have reached age 50 . (2) Older women of the future will have had very different occupational histories from older women today.

o

When life-cycle patterns are disentangled from the trends, there is apparently no general tendency for individual women to withdraw from the labor force much before age 60_ In a cohort of women all born in the same decade (1886 to 1895) , labor force participation rates increased as the women advanced in age from their 30's through their 50's, only starting to decrease at about age 60 _ See Exhibit 3 - 6 _ ( N a-

tional Manpower Council, 1957, pp. 127- 129; data from the United States Bureau of the Census)

~

I

Source : National Manpower Council, 1957 , p. 128 ; estimates based on data from United States Bureau of the Census

WORK AND RETIREMENT: LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATI ON OF WOMEN 45

o

As a reflection of the trends, women who are old today are far less likely than younger women to have had work experience during their lifetime. See Exhibit 3' 7. 43 per cent of those 75+ had never been in the labor force, compared with 31 per cent of those 65 to 69 and only 11 per cent of those 30 to 34. Thus, in another three decades, some 90 per cent of older women will have had work experience.

( Goldstein, 1966- a, p . 4 , Table 1; based on 1960 Census of Population, PC ( 2 )-6C, Labor Reserve, Table 1 ) A' 3

PATTERNS OF WORK

Older men and women who do remain in the labor force are less likely than younger people to work full time or all year. At the same time, OP are less likely to become unemployed . A· 3 ' a

Part-time w ork

The proportions who work less than 35 hours a week rise steadily by age after a low point in the middle years. Among those with work experience in 1964, these proportions include:

o

2 per cent of men at age 35 to 44, 30 per cent at 65 to 69, and 55 per cent at 70 +

o

25 per cent of women at age 55 to 59, 50 per cent at 65 to 69, and 60 per cent at 70 + A· 3 · b

Part-year work

Moreover, the proportions who work less than 50 weeks of the year are higher for OP 65+ than for those in their middle years . Among those with work experience in 1964, these proportions i'nclude:

o

17 per cent of men in the age categories 35 to 54 versus aver 40 per cent of those 65+

46 Work-li fe histories

EXHIBIT 3 · 7 Labor force status and year last worked, United States, 1960 (percentage distribution) In labor reserve Year last worked not 1950- 1949 or Never 1954 earlier worked reported

Last Last Last Last worked worked worked worked

Total

In labor forc e

Total

19591960

19551958

Males 14-17 18-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75+

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

26.5 66.5 86.2 93.9 95.8 95.8 95.4 94.5 92.0 87.7 77.8 44.0 28.7 15.6

16.4 20.3 10.3 4.2 2.7 2.6 2.8 3.4 5.3 8.1 15.2 42.0 45.3 31.7

15.4 19.0 8 .8 3.2 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.9 4.1 6.4 15.6 10.4 6.7

1.0 1.2 1.3 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.7 2.9 6.2 20.1 19.0 12.0

0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.2 2.7 6.3 15.9 13.0

Females 14-17 18- 19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55- 59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75+ Total

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

14.1 46.4 44.9 35.0 35.5 40.2 45.3 47.4 45 .9 39.7 29.4 16.5 9.6 4,3 34.5

12.2 27.0 39.1 46.4 35.4 24.3 18.7 16.1 15.0 14.7 16.0 18.9 15.5 8.0 23 .1

11.4 22.1 19.1 13.4 10.3 8 .8 8.0 7.3 6.7 6.5 6.5 6.2 4.0 2.2 9.7

0.7 4.8 16.9 18.2 11.2 7.6 5.9 5.1 4.9 4.8 5.8 8.1 5.9 2.7 7.8

0.0 0 .2 3.1 14.8 14.0 7.9 4 .8 3.7 3.4 3.5 3.7 4.5 5.6 3.1 5.7

Age

1.8 2.8 5.5 11.5 22.3 47.5

53.3 12.3 2.8 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.8

3.8 0.9 0 .7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.9 1.8 2.5 3.3

0.0 0.0 0.3 5.1 17.1 22.9 21.5 20.3 21.1 23 .0 26.8 30.8 36.0 40.7 17.6

69.2 25.1 14.3 12.1 10.6 11.5 13.3 14.9 16.5 20.4 25.9 31.0 35.9 42.5 22.8

4.5 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.5 2.2 1.9 2.8 2.9 4.4 2.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9

1.1

EXHIBIT 3 · 8

Increases in the rate

of long-term unemployment,

o

About 40 per cent of women in the age categories 45 to 64 versus over 50 per cent of those

by age

Long-term unemployment, by age, 1962, as per cent of unemployed in age group 50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

15 plus

27 plus

weeks

weeks

65+ ( Saben, 1966, p. A-5; annual supplement to Monthly Report on the Labor Force) A ·3 • c

40 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Unemployment

Older members of the labor force are, on the average, less likely than younger members to lose their jobs, but they take longer to find new employment if they do lose their jobs.

o

-

The proportions of men and women in the labor force who were unemployed for one week or more during the year decline steadily by age from over 30 per cent at age 18-19 to 12 to 13 per cent at age 45-64 and 9 to 10 per cent at age 65 + (in

30 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

c

4>

u

1964). ( Saben, 1966, p . A- 14 ) 20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

o

However, for those workers who lose or seek to change their jobs, the duration of unemployment increases with advancing age. See Exhibit 3· 8.

(Wolfbein, 1963, pp . 17- 18 . Similar findings for Canada, Belgium, Netherlands reported by Sobel and Wilcock, 1966, p . 21 )

10

o

o 14 to 19

20 to 24

25 to 34

35 to 44

45 to 64

65 and over

Hence unemployment rates for any given week, th ough below the national average for all older workers 45+ , tend to rise slightly from age 45 on among men, but not among women.

Age

In 1964, male rates, after dropping from 17.1 at age 16-17 to 2 .9 at age 35-44, rose steadily to 4 .0 at age 65 + . ( Manpower Report of the

President, 1965, p. 205, Table A- 12; data from Monthly Report on the Labor Force)

o

Apparently only a few of those OP who cannot (or believe they cannot) find jobs remove themselves from the ranks of the unemployed by withdrawing from the labor force entirely. Source : Goldste in, 1966 · a, Table 1; based on 1960 Census of Population , PC (2)·6C, Labor Reserve , Table 1.

Source : Wolfbe in, 1963 , p . 18 .

WORK AND RETIREMENT: PATIERNS OF WORK 47

Less than 1 per cent of those OP 65+ who had no work experience during the year gave "inability to find work" as a reason for not working, citing instead retirement, illness, or other reasons. Most of those (of all ages) alleging "inability to find work" had not themselves given up the search for a job. (Saben, 1966, pp. 157, A-22;

data for 1964) The effects of possible discouragement are difficult to measure and may not be adequately indexed by such data.

CAUTION :

A• 3 • d

Occupational changes

Workers make comparatively few changes of job or occupation , particularly few upward changes, in later life. See Chapter 18. B' 1 • c, for the job stability of the older worker.

o

A man at age 40 can still expect to make about two job changes, on the average, during his remaining years of work; at age 60, he can expect 0.5. ( Wolfbein , 1963, pp. 18- 19; estimates based on

tables of working life and job mobility data for United States, 1960)

o

An analysis of the occupational mobility of in· dividual men over a ten·year period (1940 to 1950) shows that: The proportions shifting to higher occupational levels fall steadily by age categories, from 36 per cent at age 25 to 29 to 10 per cent at age 60 to 64. Meanwhile, the proportions experiencing no change in occupational levels rise steadily, from 37 per cent at age 25 to 29 to 78 per cent at age 60 to 64.

EXHIBIT 3·9 Labor force participation rates , by various characteristics of individuals, United States, 1960 (per cent in labor force)

Older persons 65 + Characteristics Educational attainment (years of school completed) Elementary school Less than 5

Males

Females

Total population 14 + Males

Females

22 28 31

6 8 9

56 66 71

19 26 27

37 39

13 13

75 92

23 42

44 51

17 24

85 93

43 54

Color White Nonwhite

31 29

10 13

78 72

34 42

Residence Urban Rural nonfarm Rural farm

30 23 50

11

8 8

79 73 78

37 29 23

Marital status Single Married' Widowed and divorced

24 35 19

23 7 10

55 87 51

43 32 36

5-7 8 High school

1-3 4 College

1-3 4 or more

' Includes married , spouse absent.

Source : 1960 Census of Population , Vol. I, Part I , pp . 488 · 490 , 49 3 , 496,501 ; PC(2) · 5B, Educational Attainmen t , pp . 55 · 56 , 7 1· 72 (adapted ).

48 Unemployment

Downward shifters, typically 6 to 9 per cent, vary little with age. ( Reiss, 1953; reported by Gordon, 1961 , pp. 21 - 22; 5,600 male workers aged 25

Labor force status and year last w orked among older persons 65 and over, by education, United States, 1960 ( percentage distribution )

EXHIBIT 3 . 10

Educational attainment (ye ars of sc hool completed ) Males Elementary school Less than 8

8

T otal

labor forc e

Last worked 19501960 (in labor reserve)

Last worked 1949 or earlier

N ever worked or not reported

100.0 100.0

24.5 30.6

40.3 41.4

31.1 24.8

4.1 3.2

100.0 100.0

37.0 39.0

40.2 37.0

19.2 20.1

3.6 3.9

100.0 100.0

43.6 50.6

36.2 32.2

17.3 15.1

2 .9 2.1

100.0 100.0

7.1 9.3

12.5 13.1

35.4 35.5

45 .0 42.1

100.0 100.0

12.8 13.5

16.1 15.4

36.1 36.1

35.0 35.0

100.0 100.0

16.9 24.4

18.9 23.1

38.6 34.3

25.6 18.2

In

A•4

High school

1-3 4 College

1-3 4 or more Females Elementary school Less than 8

8 High school

1-3 4 College

1-3 4 or more

to 64 in 1950 in 4 cities) CHARACTERISTICS OF OLDER WORKERS

What kinds of OP remain in the labor force while the great majority are retiring from it? Notably, those at the higher rather than the lower levels of education and occupation tend to continue working, although the explanations, which range from a possible love of work to a possible inadequacy of pensions for professionals and those who are self-employed, are not clear. At the same time, certain of the less advantaged sectors of the older population are also comparatively likely to remain in the labor force (for example, Negro women more than white women, and Single women more than married women). See Chapter 18, C • 2, for factors associated with the deci· sion to retire.

A •4 •a

Education

Among men, education is associated with continued participation in the labor force; whereas among women , education is more clearly related to the tendency to enter the labor force initially than to the tendency to continue in it.

o

Labor force participation rates are markedly higher for those men and women with the higher levels of educational attainment, both among OP 65+ and in the population as a whole. See Exhibit 3 • 9.

(1960 Census of Population, PC ( 2)-5B , Educational Attainment, pp, 55- 56, 71-72)

o

Source : Goldste in, 1966 · a, Table 5 ; based on 1960 Census of Population, PC(2) · 58, Educational Attainment , Tables 4 and 5; PC (2) · 6C , Labor Reserve . Table 3 .

Among men 65+, the higher the level of educational attainment, the lower the proportion who have le ft the labor force , See Exhibit 3 . 10_

WORK AND RETIREMENT: PATIERNS OF WORK

49

Over 70 per cent of men who did not complete elementary school had left the labor force, in contrast to less than 50 per cent of men who completed college.

EXHIBIT 3 ' 11 Occupational distribution of persons 65 and over, by labor force status, United States , 1960 ( percentage distribution)

o

Among women 65+, the higher the level of edu· cational attainment, the lower the proportion who had never been members of the labor force. See Exhibit 3 • 10. (Goldstein , 1966-a, pp. 9-10, Table

5; based on 1960 Census of Population, PC(2)5B , Educational Attainment, Tables 4 and 5; PC ( 2)- 6C, Labor Reserve, Table 3) The association between education and labor force participation is undoubtedly somew hat exaggerated in these analyses because the v ery old ( age 75 +), w hose educational level is disproportionately low, are more highly concentrated among the nonparticipants than among the participants.

CAUTION:

A· 4 · b

Occupation

OP with high occupational status, who are comparatively likely also to have attained a high educational level and to be self-employed, show the greatest tendency toward continued labor force participation. Several different analyses point to this conclusion.

o

Labor force participation rates for males 65+ were highest (1952) for professional and technical workers, nonfarm managers and proprietors, salesmen, and farmers and farm managers . See Exhibit 18' 27. ( Steiner and Dorfman, 1957, p . 41 ;

Un ited States sample classified by occupation with w hich the man had been identified longest )

o

Similarly males 65 + least likely to retire (1962) are professional and technical workers, managers and proprietors, farmers and farm managers. ( Palmore, 8/1964, p. 4 ; United State s sample of men w ho had worked full time within the preceding 5

years)

Occupation Males Professionals, technicians, and kindred workers Farmers and farm managers Managers, officials, and proprietors, excluding farmers Clerical and kindred workers Sales workers Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers Operatives and kindred workers Private-household workers Service workers, excluding privatehousehold workers Farm laborers and foremen Laborers, excluding farm and mine workers Occupation not reported Total Females Professionals, technicians, and kindred workers Farmers and farm managers Managers, officials, and proprietors, excluding farmers Clerical and kindred workers Sales workers Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers Operatives and kindred workers Private-household workers Service workers, excluding privatehousehold workers Farm laborers and foremen Laborers, excluding farm and mine workers Occupation not reported Total

Last w orked In labor 1950- 1960 forc e ( in labor reserve)'

8.4 15.9

4.4 9.4

13.8 6.2 8.2 14.3 9.5 0.4

9 .5 6.1 4.7 22.3 16.5 0 .2

10.6 3 .0 5.7 4.0

10.0 3 .9 9.3 3.7

100.0

100.0

12.9 2.2

10.1 1.6

6.5 13.9 8.8 1.2 10.4 19.4

4.4 13.2 8 .5 1.4 16.9 14.6

15.5 1.1 0.4 7.7

17.9 3.8 0.6 7.0

100.0

100.0

• Occupation for the labor reserve refers to the last held occupa tion as a member of the labor force. Source: Gold stein. 1966 · a, Tab le 3; based on 1960 Census of Population . Vol. I. Part I . Table 204 ; PC(2) · 6C , Labor Reserve , Ta ble 10 .

50 Education

o

( Goldstein, 1966- a, pp . 5- 6; based on 1960 Censu s of Population, Vol. I, Part 1, Table 204; PC ( 2 )-6C, Labor Reserve, Table 3 )

fraction of the whole and tend to be concentrated in relatively few occupations . Such concentrations arise not only from tendencies for men to retire earlier from some occupations than from others (point A . 4 . b) or to sh ift into certain occupations as they grow older but also from overrepresentation of older men in occupations that have been declining in im portance within the total occupational structure.

A•4 •c

A•5 •a

Moreover, among both men and women 65+, those still in the labor force, compared with those who had withdrawn during the previous ten years, are more likely to be professionals, managers and proprietors, farmers and farm manag1!rs; and le ss likely to be manual workers. See Exhibit 3· 11.

Residence

Just as labor force participation rates are com paratively high for elderly farmers and farm managers, rates for men 65+ living on farms are higher than for those living in urban or rural nonfarm areas, a difference that is far less pronounced for the male labor force as a whole. For women, urban rates of participation appear slightly higher than rural rates. See Exhibit 3 . 9.

A' 4 ' d

Marital status

Married men at all ages are more likely to work than single, widowed, or divorced men; whereas single women are more likely to work than married , widowed, or divorced women . See Exhibit 3 . 9.

A' 4 ' e

Color

Although labor force participation varies little by color, white rates are somewhat higher than nonwh ite rates among m en and som ewhat lower among wom en. See Exhibit 3·9. (1960 Cen su s of Population, Vol . I, Part 1, pp. 488-490 , 493, 496, 501 ) A' 5

OLDER PEOPLE WITHIN THE TOTAL LABOR FORCE

When viewed in relation to the over-all composition of the labor force, OP 65+ constitute only a small

Age composition of the labor force

5 per cent of all men in the labor force and 4 per cent of all women in the labor force were 65+

(1960). (1 960 Cen sus of Population, Vol. I, Part 1, p . 487 ) Occupational concentrations Those occupations where the proportion of employed men 65 + is notably above 5 per cent (1960) are mainly the following:

o

Certain older crafts, where employment is generally declining

o o

Low-paying service occupations

Certain types of self-em ploym ent, especially trade and farming, where employment is generally declining

o

Certain profession s (law, medicine, dentistry, arch itecture), where many of the self-employed can continue past 65, often with a reduction in workload ( Wolfbein, 1963, p. 6 )

connected? What societal constraints may have developed to narrow the older individual's freedom to choose whether or not to retire? Why do limitations in the labor force exempt the very old (and the very young) rather than taking other forms, such as far more drastic changes in working hours and vacations than have actually occurred? How inevitable are these tendencies? Attempts to isolate specific causes have been largely inconclusive, but studies of past trends and of age patterns today point to a variety of associated factors and fac ilitating mechan isms that are related to the balance between manpower supply and demand, the structure of occupations and industries, the competit ive status of older workers, and to various public and private personnel policies and practices . B · l

MANPOWER SUPPLY AND DEMAND

The long-term decl ine in employment of older men has certainly not been paralleled by any reduction in the size of the labor force as a whole. Moreover, the productivity of the labor force, in spite of reductions in the work week (sect ion C· 1) , has been vastly increased throu gh technological advances. Hence, the question has often been raised (although there is little agreement on the answer) whether there may be a sufficiency of manpower to meet existing demands for goods and services, even without the participation of older men.

B•1•a

B Factors associated with retirement Why has retirement from the labor force become an institution in our society? If the long-term decline in the economic activity of older men is coincident with increasing industrialization , how are the two trends

The supply of manpower

During the twentieth century, various i ndexes reflect ing the total supply of manpower have tended to rise.

o

T he population of worhin g age . The proportion of th e po pulation aged 15 or 20 to 64, a roug h index

WORK AND RETIREMENT: CHARACTERISTICS OF OLDER WORKERS 51

of the potential supply of labor, increased during the early decades of the century.

United States '

In the United States, the proportion of men and women 20 to 64 rose from 50.2 per cent of the population in 1890 to 58.7 per cent in 1940. (By 1960, the proportion had dropped back to 52.4 per cent, and projections through 1985 indicate little further change. See Chapter 2, 2' b.) (Sheldon, 1958, p . 174. 1960 Census of Population,

Vol. I , Part 1, p. 349. Current Population Reports, 1964, P-25, No . 286, 1964, p. 41) Similarly, in several economically developed coun· tries, the proportions of working·age adults in· creased between 1900 and 1940 (declining slightly 1940 to 1950). The adult proportions tend to be generally higher in developed than in less devel· oped countries. (United Nations , 1956, Aging,

pp. 8-14)

o

400 200

Q)

u

0. :J

'- e

o

111111111 1111

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

1890 1900

1920 1930 1940 1950

.!?on '- c

o

0

Q)

:J

..0:.;: ~~

New Zealand

Great Britain 600 - . .-

..

-,.~

____

~

C

___

£gco.

.-

Q)

Q; E > '" '" 0 "0

400 -"-"-~~-'I--1'-200 - . .-

..

-,.~

____

~

___

Q)

",-

Labor force participation rates. Over·all rates of

In the United States, the rate for the total population (14+ ) has been rather constant: 55.8 per cent in 1920, 56.8 per cent in 1950, and 57.4 per cent in 1960. (Kreps et al. , 1963, p. 61 ) In five countries, over the years between 1900 and 1950, the labor force has rema i ned a relatively stable proportion of the population aged 14+ . See Exhibit 3· 12. (Long, 1958, pp. 21, 230)

o

Work-life expectancy. The average years of work that individuals put in during their lifetimes have not decreased (even among males) but, because of increasing longevity, have increased substantially over t ime.

The supply

United States b

600 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

c.r:

labor force participation have shown little decline, despite the decreases among older men and among the very young. A major counterbalancing factor has been the increasing rates of participation by women (section A • 2).

52

Stability of the labor force, five countries, 1890 to 1951

EXHIBIT 3 · 12

of

manpower

~

rt'

0 0 0_

THE CHANGING ROLE OF MORTALITY

See Chapter 2, section 3, for the longevity of individuals .

20

>-

a.>

a. a.>

ro

10

0::

o_+----~----~~----+_----+_----~----_+----~----~~----+_----+_-

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

Note : Includes Armed Forces overseas during 1917 to 1919 and 1940 to 1964; excludes civilian population of Alaska and Hawa ii prior to 1960 .

Source : Jacobson , 1966, p. 118 (adapted) . Reprinted by permission from Paul H. Jacobson , American Marriage and Divorce , New York , Rinehart and Company , Inc ., Copyright © 1959 , Table 70 and " The Changing Role of Mortal ity in Ame rican Family Life," Lex et Scientia , Vol. 3 , No . 2 , 1966 , Fig. 1.

THE FAMILY : THE CHANGING ROLE OF MORTALITY

163

A"3"b

Duration of marriage

Estimates of the joint expectation of life for married couples today (based on the mortality experience of the period from 1959 to 1961) indicate, for exam· pIe, that a husband aged 30 with a wife aged 26 can look forward to 36.8 additional years together, on the average, and that a husband aged 65 with a younger wife can expect over 10 years of remaining married life. See Exhibit 7 · 7. (Jacobson , 1966, p.

120; joint survival rates disregard the possibility of divorce )

EXHIBIT 7 · 7 Joint expectation of life for males and females, United States, 1959-1961 ( in years)

Age

No. of years by which male is younger than female 5

2

Male same age as female

44.4 42.6 40.8 38.1 33.6 29.2 25.0 21.0 17.3 14.0 11.0 8 .5

45.6 43.8 42.0 39.4 34.9 30.4 26.1 22.1 18.3 14.9 11.9 9.3

46.4 44.6 42.8 40.1 35.6 31.1 26.8 22.7 18.9 15.5 12.4 9.7

of

male 18 20 22 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

No. of years by which male is older than female 2

4

5

10

15

47.0 45.2 43.4 40.7 36.2 31.7 27.4 23.2 19.4 16.0 12.9 10.2

47.6 45.8 44.0 41.3 36.8 32.3 27.9 23 .7 19.9 16.4 13.3 10.5

46.0 44.3 41.6 37.0 32.5 28.2 24.0 20.1 16.6 13.5 10.7

42.6 38.1 33.6 29.2 24.9 21.0 17.4 14.2 11.4

38.8 34.3 29.9 25.6 21.6 18.0 14.8 11.9

Source : Jacobson. 1966 . p. 120 (ada pted). Repr inted by per mission fro m Paul H. Jacobson . " The Changing Role of Mortality In American Family Life." Lex et Scientia . Vol. 3 , No. 2, 1966 , Table 2.

164

Duration of marriage

EXHIBIT 7 ' 8

Age distribution

of new widows, United States,

A· 3 · c

1900 and 1964

The onset of widowhood has come increasingly later in life as more and more husbands and wives have survived together through the middle years.

40 1900 1964

30

o

The proportion of women becoming widowed after age 64 rose from 20 per cent of the newly widowed in 1900 to 32 per cent in 1964. See Exhibit

01

7' 8.

~

OJ

C1>

o

>-

The median age of entry into widowhood rose even more sharply for husbands than for wives (as a consequence of the greater decline i n mortality for wives).

~ OJ

B

Age at widowhood

20

'0 C

For husbands, the median age rose from 48 in

U

1900 to over 65 in 1964 .

C1> ~

C1>

CL

For wives, the median age rose from 51.4 in 1900 to 59.2 in 1964. (Jacobson , 1966, p. 121 )

10

o

Widowers today are older, on the average, than widows. 4 5 t054

55t064

65 and over

Age of wife at husband 's death

The median age (1960) of widowed females was 67.8, in contrast to 7 1.0 for widowed males.

(19 60 Census of Population, Vol. I , Part 1, pp . 424-425)

Note : In cludes allowance for death s of husbands in Armed Forces overseas during 1964.

Source : Jacobson . 1966 . p. 12 1 ( adapted ) .

THE FAMILY: THE CHANGING ROLE OF MORTALITY

165

A · 3 · d Chances that a wife will survive her husband

EXHIBIT 7 · 9 Chances in 100 that a married person will survive his or her mate, United States, 1959 to 1961

The chances that a wife will eventually become widowed have increased.

o

In 1964, the wife was the surviving spouse in 70 per cent of all marriages broken by the death of one partner. The comparable figure in 1890 was 56 per cent; in 1930, 60 per cent; and in 1942, 65 per cent.

90

80 "0 C

'"on

.0

o

Whether or not particular wives today survive their husbands depends upon the respective ages of both mates. See Exhibit 7 . 9. If the husband and wife are the same age, the wife's chances of outliving her husband are 62 in 100.

o

100

::J

70

..,. ~

.s::::

OD

c

.:;

60

.~

::J

on

'0

50

~-

~

10

~

20 ~ .~

30

c >

.~

40

/

50

Only if the wife is at least six years older than her husband does she have less than 50 chances in 100 of surviving him. (Jacobson, 1966, pp.

121 - 122; based on the mortality experienced in the United State s in 1959- 1961 ) A· 3 · e

Duration of widowhood

Despite the gradual postponement of widowhood to the later years, most women have many years of life ahead of them after their husba nds die. Three·fourths of the women widowed at age 50 can expect to live twenty years longer.

c

60

40

'"

'"

.s:::: u "0

70

30

C

'"on

.0

~

::J

20

80

10

90

o

100

-5

~ Husband 5 years younger

o

~ Husband same age as wife

5

10

15

20

\~--------------~vr--------------~I Number of years by whi ch husband is older than wife

Of those widowed at age 65, one·half can expect fifteen years of life, and one·third can expect twenty years. (Jacobson, 1959, p . 83; reported by Ja cobson, 1966, p. 123 ) Source : Jacobson . 1966 . p. 12 2 ( adapted ). Repr inted by permi ssion from Paul H. Jacob son . ·· The Changin g Role of Mortal ity in Amer ican Fam ily Life ." Lex et Scientia. Vol. 3. No.2. 1966. Fig. 3 .

166 Chances t hat a wi fe will survive h er husband

on

.s:::: u

.on ~

on U C

on u

::J

on

'0

If the wife is ten years younger than her husband, her chances rise to 80.

OD

I

Living arrangements of the population 65 and over, United States, 1965 ( percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 7 ' 10

Males Living arran gements

Total in households In group quarters Inmates of institutions Oth ers in group quarters (containing 5 or more persons unrelated to the person in charge) Total in group quarters Total ind ividuals

T otal

75 +

T otal 65 +

65-74

75 +

T otal 65 +

65-74 75+

T otal 65+

83.4

74.2

80.2

66.0

58.0

62.9

73.8

64.7

70 .5

14.1 11.7 5.6 6.1 2.4

19.4 15.7 12.0 3 .7 3 .7

15.9 13.1 7.8 5.2 2.9

31.4 27.9 22.6 5.2 3 .5

34.0 29 .9 26.3 3 .6 4 .1

32.4 28.6 24.0 4.6 3 .8

23.6 20.6 15.0 5.6 3 .0

27 .9 24 .0 20.3 3 .6 4 .0

25.2 21.8 16.9 4 .9 3.4

97.5

93 .6

96.2

97.4

92.0

95.3

97.4

92.7

95.7

2.3 .2

5.8 .6

3 .5 .3

2 .1 .5

7.9 .1

4 .3 .4

2. 2 .4

7.0 .3

4.0 .3

65-74

In households In families (of 2 or more m embers) Unrelated ind ividuals Living alone Widowed Others living alone Other unrelated individuals

Females

B

6.4

3.8

100.0 100.0 100.0

2.6

8 .0

4 .7

100.0 100.0 100.0

2.6

7 .3

4 .3

100.0 100.0 100.0

Note : Details may not add to totals because of rounding.

of older

How near to his relat ives does the older person dwell? His livi ng arrangements within the household or commun ity affect the ease, and perhaps also the frequency, with which he can interact with kin . (See Chapter 23.) Research has focused primarily on two dimensions of living arrangements . (1) To what extent do older people live in the same household with rela· t ives, who can provide companionship and ready assistance in case of need? (2) To what extent do older people mainta in the independence reflected in heading households of their own? Each dimension has important implications for the status of older people, although the two are unfortunately not al· ways separable as the data are presented (notably in data from the United States Censu$) . B '1

2.5

Living arrangements people

LIVING IN FAMILIES

Most OP live with their husbands or wives, adult ch ildren, or other relatives. However, substantial minorities, particularly women and those in ad· vanced old age, live in households apart from rela· tives; and a few live in institutions, hotels, and other group quarters . (See Chapter 6, B . 7.)

B •1 ' a

Living inside an d outside families

An over-all view of total OP 65 + (1965) shows that 71 per cent live in families (with one or more persons to whom they are related by blood , mar· riage, or adoption), while 25 per cent live (as un· related ind ividuals) in households alone or with nonrelatives . See Exhibit 7 . 10. Source : Current Population Reports. 1965 . P· 20. No . 144 . Tables 4 and 8 (adapted) .

THE FAMILY: LIVING IN FAMILIES

167

o

In families. 80 per cent of males 65 + and 63 per cent of females 65 + live in fam ilies, proportions that decrease in the oldest age category (75 +). See Exhibit 7·10.

o

Unrelated individu als. 16 per cent of the men 65 + and 32 per cent of the women 65 + live in households entirel y alone or with nonrelatives, proportions that increase in the oldest age category (75 + ). See Exhibit 7 ' 10. Of those OP living alone, most of the women and most of the oldest men are widowed . Living alone tends to be characteristic of the later rather than the earlier years. (Th is is not shown in the exhibit.) Of all people in the United States who live alone, one·th ird of the men and about half the women are OP 65 +; the median ages of those living alone are 57 for men and 65 for women. ( Curren t Population Reports, 1965, P-20, No . 144, Tables 4 and 8 ) B •1 •b

Living with husband or wi fe

Among OP 65+, 68 per cent of the men, but only 34 per cent of the women , are married and living together with a spouse (1965) . (The sex difference is related to the difference i n marital status noted in pOint A' 1 . b.) ( Current Population Reports, 1965, P- 20 , N o. 144, p. 10 )

o

Comparable percentages ava ilable countries include the following:

for

other

In West Germany, 66 per cent of men and 33 per cent of women ( DIV a In stitute ; reported by

EXH IBIT 7 . 11

Family living arrangem ents

of older persons, Unite d States ,

1957 (percentage distribution ) Persons with living children

All persons Living arrangem ents Total Livin g alone Married couple With spouse alone With spouse and children As head of household Not head of household With spouse and others (as head of household) Single parent with children As head of household Not head of household Older person with others As head of household Not head of household No a'nswer Number

T otal

Men W omen

100.0 100.0 100.0

Total

Men W omen

100.0 100.0 100.0

Persons with no living children T ota l

Men W omen

100.0 100.0 100.0 31.8 37.2 32.8

28 .0 51.2 45.7

34.5 26.8 23.2

4 .4

5.5

3.6

6.6

30.7

20.7

38.2

1.6

4 .6

11.2

7.9

13.6

2.4

2.8

2.0

19.5

12.8

24.6

0.2

0 .5

20.1 52.6 36.9 12.3

14.4 69.5 47.7 17.6

25.1 38.1 27.7 7.7

16.8 57.0 38.1 15.8

10.8 74.2 48.2 22.1

22.2 41.5 29.0 10.1

11 .5

16.7

7.0

14.8

21.0

9.1

0.8

0 .9

0 .7

1.0

1.1

1.0

3 .4

4 .2

2.7

3 .1

3 .9

2.4

15.9

8 .0

22.7

20.4

10.1

29.7

5 .5

3.0

7 .7

7 .1

3 .8

10.1

10.4

5.0

15.0

13.3

6 .3

19.6

11.2

7.8

14.0

5 .6

4 .4

5.0

2.9

6 .7

3.2

6.2

4.9

7 .3

0.2

0 .4

0 .1

( 1,734) (801 ) ( 933 ) ( 1,350) ( 637 ) ( 713 )

0.3

0 .5

( 384 ) (164) ( 220 )

Burgess, 1960- b, p. 279 ) In Milan , 66 per cent of men and 27 per cent of women ( S. Ingegnieros, 1958; reported by Burgess , 1960-b, p . 281 ; data for 1958 ) Source : Shanas. 1962 . p. 96 ; 1.700 nOOlnstitutionalized OP 65+ . United States. 1957 . Reprinted by permission of Harvard University Press. Copyright. 1962 . by the President and Fellows of Harvard College .

168

Living inside and outside families

EXHIBIT 7' 12 Proximity of older people to their nearest child, three countries , 1962 (percentage distribution )

People with living children Proximity of the nearest child Total Same household 10 minutes journey or less 11-30 minutes journey 31 minutes-l hour Over 1 hour but less than 1 day 1 day or more Number

Britain

United States

Denmark

100.0

100.0

100.0

41.9 23 .5 15.9 7.6 9 .1 1.9

27.6 33 .1 15.7 7.2 11.2 5.2

20.1 32.0 23.0 12.4 11.2 1.3

( 1,911 )

( 2,012)

( 2 ,009)

Note : Details may not add to totals because of round Ing.

B · 1· c

Living with children

A good deal of research focuses on the extent to which OP (married or nonmarried) live together under the same roof with their children . Such com bined or shared households are of special interest because they do not fit the usual conception of the nuclear family (composed of parents and young children) ; most children of persons 65 + are already over 18 years old.

o

In the United States . One study of noninstitutionalized OP 65+ (1957) shows that the proportions living in combined households with children are over one-fourth of all OP, or about one-third of those OP who have living children. See Exhibit 7' 11. ( Shanas, 1962, p. 96; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 United States)

+,

CompaTe the data on co mbined hou se holds in which either the OP or the child may be head of the house, points B • 2 • c, B • 2 • d , and B • 2 . e.

o

Cross-national .comparisons. Another study of OP 65 + in three countries (1962) shows that living in combined households is less widespread in the United States than in Brita in and more widespread than in Denmark. See Exhibit 7 - 12_ ( Townsend, 1963; cross-national study of 2,500 OP 65 + in each of 3 countries, 1962; reported by Stehouwer, 1965, p. 147. See also other studies by Baumert, 1962; Rosenmayr and Kockeis, 1962; and reports by Burges s, 1960- b, pp . 279-282)

Source : Townsend. 1963; cross · national study of 2.500 OP 65+ on each 01 three countries. 1962 ; reported by Stehouwer, 1965. p. 147 .

THE FAMilY: LIVING IN FAMILIES

169

o

Multigeneration households. In the United States, sharing of the household by OP and their children does not typically imply that grandchildren are also present.

Sex of offspring. When non married OP live with married children, they typically live with the family of a daughter (United States and Britain).

(Townsend, 1963; cross-national study of 2,500 OP 65 + in each of 2 countries, 1962; reported by Stehouwer, 1965, p. 146 )

In only a few United States families, about 8 per cent altogether in 1960, do three generations live together under one roof.

However, in countries where farmers transmit farms to their sons, a different pattern predominates, and households are more likely to be shared with the son than with the daughter.

By contrast, in Japan (one of the few countries for which comparable data are available, 18 per cent of the households in densely inhabited areas and 34 per cent of the households in the less populous areas are multigenerational. ( Beresford

and Rivlin, 1964, Tables 1 and 3)

o

Differences by age . The proportions of OP sharing households with their children tend to decrease with advancing age from 62-64 to 73 + among married OP, but they tend to increase with advancing age among nonmarried OP, both men and women. ( Epstein and Murray , 1967, p. 385; based on probability sample of married couples living together with at least one member 62+ or nonmarried persons 62 +, United States, 1962)

o

Differences by marital status and sex. Combined households tend to contain either those parents or those children who are not currently married (United States, Britain, and Denmark). See Exhibit 7 . 13. Marital status of parents . OP who are married are less likely than those not presently married to share households with children .

Marital status of offspring. OP (especially married OP) are less likely to share with married than with single children.

170 L iving 'With c hildren

( Sweetser, 1964, p . 215; data for Finland and Sweden)

B. 1 . d Proximity to children Living in a different household from children does not necessarily mean isolation from them.

o

Regardless of household living arrangements, the proportions of OP 65 + who live (1962) less than an hour away from one of their children are: 84 per cent of those with surviving children in the United States and nearly 90 per cent in Britain and Denmark. See Exhibit 7, 12. (Townsend, 1963;

cross-national study of 2,500 OP 65+ in each of 3 countries; reported by Stehouwer, 1965, p . 147. Similar finding for United States, 1957, in Shanas, 1962, p . 98)

o

The proportions of OP 65 + living within an hour of their nearest child are higher for nonmarried women than for either nonmarried men or married couples (United States, 1962) . (Epstein and Mur-

ray, 1967, pp . 163- 164, 387; based on probability sample of married couples living together with at least one member 62 + or nonmarried persons 62 +, with living children)

Family living anangem ents of older people, three countries, 1962 ( percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 7 . 13

People with living children Marital status and living arrangem en t s

Britain

United States Denmark

Married Total Living with: Spouse only Married daughter Married son Unmarried child Sibling Grandchild Other relative Nonrelative only

100.0

100.0

100.0

63 .8 4.7 0.8 25.9 1.5 1.5 0 .6 1.2

77.9 1.0 1.1 14.6 1.3 2.3 0.8 1.0

79.8 0.4 1.2 14.9 0.3 0.7 0.3 2.4

( 1,022 )

( 1,169 )

( 1,183 )

100.0

100.0

100.0

Living alone Living with: Married daughter Married son Unmarried child Sibling Grandch ild other relative Nonrelative only

38.7

46.5

61.1

19.7 7.4 26.8 2.6 0.7 0.9 3.2

14.5 4.1 24.1 2.5 2.2 1.4 4.6

4.5 4.1 18.4 1.0 1.4 0.8 8.7

Number

( 889 )

( 843 )

(828 )

Number Divorced, widowed, or single Total

Note : Details may not add to totals because of roundi ng.

Source : Townsend . 1963. cross -national study of 2. 500 OP 6 5 + in each of three countries, 1962 ; reported by Stehouwer . 196 5, p_ 146 _

D Proximity to the nearest child tends to be less close among OP with white-collar than working-class or agricultural backgrounds (United States and Britain, 1962). ( Shanas, 1966, Table IV; 2,500 OP 65+ in each of 2 countrie s_ Occupational differences for Denmark are less pronounced. ) But proximity to the nearest child varies little by income of OP. ( Ep stein and Murray, 1967, p . 164 )

B •1•e

Living with other relatives

Small fractions of OP also share households with their aged parents (less than 5 per cent), and with their brothers and sisters (among the nonmarried, about 10 per cent)_ ( Epstein and Murray, 1967, p . 388; based on probability sample of married

couples living together with at least one member 62 + or nonmarried persons 62 +, United States , 1962 ) B •2

MAINTAINING OWN HOUSEHOLD

The majority of OP, whether or not they live with children or other relatives, run their own households_ Thus, heading the household and sharing it with relatives are independent dimensions that crosscut each other, and a distinction is ofte n drawn between the OP as head (or host in his own home) and the OP as relative of the household head (or guest in the home of another). The distinction is conceptually importa nt as it may reflect the OP's autonomy or lack of it, although in practice the designation as head may be sometimes a mere courtesy title (Steiner and Dorfman, 1957, p. 110)_ Moreover, the distinction is essential for an understanding of data from the United States Census that have typically classified household members by their relationship to the head.

THE FAMILY: LIVING IN FAMILIES

171

B •2 •a

Extent of maintaining own household

Most OP are (self-designated) heads or wives of heads of their own households. See Exhibit 7 . 14.

Extent of living in own household, United States , 1965 ( percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 7· 14

H eads of households

o

All persons in age category

30-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75+ Total 65+

In 1965, 60 per cent of OP 65 + were heads and another 19 per cent were wives of these heads.

o

The older a person is (beyond the middle years), the less likely he is to head his household jOintly with a surviving spouse. There is an increase by age in proportions of household heads who are no longer married (since many OP, even when widowed, continue to maintain their own households). ( Current Popu-

lation Reports, 1965, P- 20 , No . 144, Table 6)

Age

W ives of household heads

Total

Married, w ife present

Other male

100 100 100 100 100 100

46.6 49.3 52.2 56.7 62.3 57.1

39.9 40.3 40.8 38.2 33.5 21.7

2.1 2.7 3.4 5 .0 7 .2 9 .4

4 .6 6.3 8.0 13.5 21.6 26.0

42.5 41.9 39.0 32.9 23.4 10.6

10.5 14.3 32.2

100

60.4

29.2

8 .0

23.2

18.7

20.8

Female

All others

10.9

8 .9 8.8

Source : Current Population Reports . 1965. P ·20. No . 144. Table 6 (adapted); percentage bases from Table 1.

172

Extent of maintaining own household

EXHIBIT 7' 15 Relationship between living with children and heading own household, 1957

B • 2 • b Older people as h eads in single-generation households

Percentage distribution of older people 65 and over

The majority of OP 65 + (two·thirds in one crosssection study, 1957) are heads of households who do not live under the same roof as their child ren. See Exhibit 7' 15, cell c. ( Shanas, 1962, p. 96; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 +, 1957)

Older person is head ( a)

Older person is not head ( b)

Married 11.5 Not married 5 .5 17 .0

Older person lives with children

Married 0 .8 Not married 10.4 11.2

(d)

(c)

B· 2· c holds

Household heads in combined house-

In combined households, where the older individua l or the older couple live together with other relatives , it is sometimes the OP and sometimes the relative who is considered the household head . For example, in one study of OP living with ch ildren (1957), it was noted that:

o

Older person does not live with children

Married 40 .3 Not married 25 . 1 -65 .4

The OP (17 per cent) are more likely than their children (11 per cent) to be the head of t he household . Not married 6 .2

o

The marital status of the OP makes a difference. If the OP is married , he is usually the head . If he is widowed or divorced , the offspring is more frequently the head. See Exhibit 7' 15, cells a and b. ( Shanas, 1962, p. 96; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 + , Un ited States , 1957 )

Adapted from Exh ibit 7 · 11

Source: Shan as , 1962 , p . 96 (ad apted ); 1.700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 + , United States . 1957 .

THE FAMILY: MAINTAINING OWN HOU SEHOLD

173

B •2 •d

Older people as relatives

of the head

Certa in OP approximate the category (Exhibit 7 • 15, cell b) of guests living as relatives in the households of others. See Exhibit 7 . 16. D Among OP 65 + who lived in households (1960) , 12 per cent were related to the household head as parents; 3 per cent were related as sibl ings; and even a t iny fra ction (under 1 per cent) were related as offspring. D Altogether, 24 per cent of the women 65 + and 11 per cent of the men 65 + lived in the household of a relat ive, proportions that increase with advancing age past 65. ( 1960 Census of Population ,

Vol . I , Part 1, T ables 18 1 and 183 ) B•2•

e R elative s living in households of older

people Other OP approximate the category (Exh ibit 7 • 15, cell a) of host s to t heir relatives.

Older people 65 and over livin g as relatives in households headed by others, United States, 1960

EXHIBIT 7 ' 16

Per cent of older people living as each type of relative

Son- or daug hter- Other Child re lative in-law of head of head of head

Parent of head or wife

Brother or sister of head or wife

3 .0 5.6 13.2

2.0 1.9 2.0

.2 .1

6.9

65- 69 70-74 75 + Total 65+

Age of older persons

T otal relatives

Males

.1

.0

.0 .0

0.9 1.2 2.4

6 .2 8 .8 17.6

2.0

.1

.1

1.4

10.5

9 .8 14.9 26.6

3.7 4.0 4.2

.4

.2 .0

.0 .0 .0

1.5 2 .2 4.3

15.4 21.3 35.1

16.8

3 .9

.2

.0

2.6

23 .5

65-69 70-74 75+

6.7 10.6 20.8

2.9 3 .0 3 .2

.3 .2 .0

.0 .0 .0

1.2 1.7 3 .5

11.1 15.5 2 7.5

Total 65+

12.3

3 .0

.2

.0

2.1

17.6

65- 69 70-74 75+ Total 65+ Females

Total

Note : See Exhibit 7 · 17 for rela tives living in ho useholds hea ded by OP 65 + .

Source: 1960 Census of Population . Vol. I. Part 1. Table 18 1 ( adapted ): pe rce ntage s based on total ind ividual s in hou seholds .

174

Older people as relativ es of the head

Relatives living in households headed by older people 65 and over, United States , 1960 ( numbers in thousands )

EXHIBIT 7 "17

Husband-w ife households, heads 65 + Relatives liv ing in households

Other households, heads 65 +

Total households, heads 65 +

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Own children of any age (regardless of marital status) Grandchildren of head Parents of head

1,004

21

851

19

1,855

20

254 65

5 1

224 25

5 1

478 90

5 1

Number of households

4,775

100

4,517

100

9,292

100

Note : See Exhibit 7 · 16 for OP 65 + living as relatives in households headed by others .

D 20 per cent of the households headed by OP 65 + contain children; 5 per cent contain grandchildren ; and 1 per cent contain aged parents of the household head. See Exhibit 7 " 17.

D Altogether, 23 per cent of the households contain children, grandchildren, or parents (in some combination). ( 1960 Census of Population, PC ( 2 )-4A, Families , Table 18, p. 170 ) Ex hibit 7' 17, since i t is based on households , is not directly comparable with Ex hibit 7 ' 16, whic h i s based on individuals .

INTERPRETATION:

B "3

TRENDS IN LIVING ARRANGEMENTS

What changes have been occurring in the living arrangements of OP over time? An earlier pattern has sometimes been postulated in which the extended kin network lived together under one roof. Is there evidence of a shift from such a pattern to today's mode of OP living by themselves in their own homes? Apparently, there is not. The data show certain marked changes, to be sure, since World War II: increased maintenance by older individuals and couples of their own households, de· creased sharing with relatives, and decreased living as roomers or lodgers. But this extension of the single-generation household composed only of OP appears to reflect declines in two-gen erational living rather than any secular shift away from threeor four-generation households, which seem to have been almost as rare in the nineteenth century as they are today.

Sou rce : 1960 Census of Population , PC(2) · 4 A, Families , Table 18 (adapted) . Percentages based on number of households from 1960 Census of Population, Vol. I. Part 1. Table 183 .

THE FAMILY: MAINTAINING OWN HOUSEHOLD 1 75

B •3 •a

More older people living w ith husband

or w ife Just as, over time, increasing proportions of OP are married , so too increasing proportions are sharing their homes with a spouse (compare point A . 2' a) .

o

For example, between 1940 and 1960, the pro· portion of total husband -wife households in the United States with heads 65 + grew from 9.4 per cent to 12.1 per cent. Th is represent s a rate of increase of 91 per cent, larger than that of any other age group. See Exhibit 7' 18. (1 960 Census of

Population , PC(2)-4A , Families, T able 1 ) B •3 •b

Increase in husband-wife households , by age of head, 1940 t o 1960

EXHIBIT 7 . 18

Age of h ead of husband-wife h ouseholds Under 25

25-29 30-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Percentage increase, 1940 to 1960

87.3 33.6 36.5 43 .7 39.2 53.0 90.8

Fewer older people livin g with relatives

Sharing with relatives other than the spouse has been steadily decreasing (from 1951 to 1963) for both married and nonmarried OP 65 +. ( Epstein and Murray, 1967, p . 180; 3 surveys of OASDI

ben efi,ciarie s ) B •3 •c

More older people as heads of house-

holds There have also been parallel increases over time, and particularly since 1930, in the extent to wh ich OP ma inta i n their own households. See Exhibit

7' 19.

o

The propensity of persons aged 55 + to head their own households has risen (lines 23 and 39) as part of a general tendency for more and more persons of all ages to form separate households.

o

In general , increasi ng proportions of all households are headed by f emales and by older people (lines 3, 8, 18, and 34). ( Kuznets, 1962, pp . 38-

39 ) Source : 1960 Census of Population. PC(2) ·4A . Families. Table 1.

176

More older people living with husband or w ife

EXHIBIT 7· 19 Size of household, and the sex and age of household head, United States, 1890 to 1957

(1) Persons per household

1890 (1)

1930 (2)

1950 (3 )

1957 (4)

4.93

4.11

3.52

3.42

Percentage distribution by sex of head 85.6 (2) Male 14.4 (3) Female

87.3 12.7

84.9 15.1

82 .6 17.4

Percentage distribution by age of head 5.0 (4) Below 25 25.2 (5) 25-34 (6) 35-44 25.8 (7) 45-54 20.9 23 .2 (8) 55+

4.6 20.9 26.0 22 .1 26.3

4.8 20.5 22.8 20.2 31.7

4.7 19.3 22.1 20.5 33.4

(a) Relation between the distribution by age of males 20 and over and the distribution of households by age of male head

1890 (1)

1930 (2)

1950 (3)

1957 (4)

Male heads of households as percentage of all males, by age (22) 45-54 (23) 55+ (24) 20+

83 .1 78.7 62 .3

84.4 79.6 68.5

84.0 79.6 73.3

88.1 82.4 78.6

(b) Relation between the distribution by age of females 20 and over and the distribution of households by age of female head Percentage distribution of households with female heads, (30) Below 25 3 .2 3 .2 (31) 25-34 12.5 9 .8 (32) 35-44 21.1 18.1 (33) 45- 54 25.4 22.8 (34) 55+ 37.7 46.2

by age of 2.6 8.5 14.6 19.8 54.6

Percentage distribution of households with male heads, by age of head (14) Below 25 5.3 4.9 5.2 4.9 (15) 25-34 27.3 22.5 22.7 21.5 (16) 35-44 26.6 27.1 24.2 24.0 (17) 45- 54 20.1 22.0 20.3 20.8 (18) 55+ 20.8 23 .5 27.7 28.7 Male heads of households as percentage of all males, by age (19) 20-24 18.4 23.7 33 .0 37.1 (20) 25-34 57.8 62.4 70.2 78.0 (21) 35-44 77.8 80.3 81.9 86.2

Female (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40)

Note : While the definition of household has generally been ide nt ical with a dwelling un it , in 1890 quasi· households (a household with at least five lodgers, hotels, dormitories , etc .)

were included . The effects of the ir inclusion on comparability with respect to size , and age and sex of head are slight.

head 3.9 8.5 13.1 18.9 55.5

heads of households as percentage of all females, by age 20-24 1.9 2.2 2.8 25-34 4.9 3.9 4.4 35-44 11.6 8 .2 8 .6 45-54 19.2 13.9 14.5 55+ 25.8 23.8 26.6 20+ 11.3 10.2 12.6

6.0 6.3 9 .5 16.5 30.2 15.7

Source : Kuznets . 1962 . pp . 38 · 39 ; based on H is torical Statistics of the Un ited States. 1960 . pp . 15·16. Some lines of original table omitted .

THE FAMILY : TRENDS IN LIVING ARRANGEMENTS

177

B. 3 · d More older heads outside of family groups What changes in living arrangements underlie this growing tendency for OP (and their younger coun· terparts) to maintain their own households? One set of data points to the Willingness to maintain own households even if entirely apart from rela· tives. See Exhibit 7 • 20.

o

Increasing proportions of older heads now live alone or with nonrelatives (as primary individuals). This increase in primary individuals has occurred for younger people also, but to a lesser extent.

(C . Taeuber, 11 / 1964,p. 23) B· 3 · e Decline in parents as hosts to young adult offspring . Another analysis points to changes in the number and ages of the children who remain within the family of procreation.

EXH IBIT 7· 20 Increase in number of primary individuals, United States , 1940 to 1960 (num bers in thousands) Primary individuals (heads with no relatives present) Census year and age of All household household head heads

Primary family heads

Number

Per cent of all heads

1960 1950 1940 1930

53,021 42,394 35,087 29,905

44,670 37,758 31,590 27,548

8,351 4,636 3,497 2,357

24,173 28,851 19,559 9,292

22,379 22,648 16,550 6,098

20,522 22,081 15,604 6,477 16,676 18,411

1960 Under 45 45+ 45-64 65+ 1950 Under 45 45+ 45-64 65+ 1940 Under 45 45+

Increase since preceding census Number

Per cent

15.8 10.9 10.0 7.9

3,715 1,139 1,140

80.1 32.6 48.4

1,794 6,203 3,009 3,194

7.4 21.5 15.4 34.4

649 2,521 1,103 1,418

56.7 68.5 57.9 79.8

19,377 18,399 13,698 4,701

1,145 3,682 1,906 1,776

5.6 16.7 12.2 27.4

153 1,176

15.4 46.9

15,684 15,905

992 2,506

5.9 13.6

Source : C. Taeuber . 11 / 1964 . p. 23 (adapted) : based on data from 1960 Census of Population . PC ( A2) · 1. Advanced Reports. Table 2. 1960 Census of Population. Vol. I. Part 1. Table 181. 1950 Census of Population. Vol. IV . Part 2. Chapter A. Special Reports . General Characteristics of Families . Tables A and 24 . Sixteenth Census of the United States : 1940. Population . Types of Families . Table 3 and 7 . Fifteenth Census of the United States : 1930 . Vol. VI . Families. Table 20 .

178 More older heads outside of family groups

o

Average number of children and other relatives in families in Massachusetts , 1885, and Massachusetts and the United States , 1940 and 1960 EXHIBIT 7 · 21

1940

Type of relative Children of head Other relatives Grandchildren and parents Others

Massachusetts ,

Number of children . Records for the United States since 1940, and for Massachusetts since 1885, show a drop in the number of children living in the parents' household. See Exhibit 7 . 2l.

o

1960

1885

Ma ssachusetts

United States

Massachusetts

United States

2.04 .33 .14

1.71 .32 .13

1.62 .32 .15

1.53 .21 .09

1.54 .22

.19

.19

.17

.12

.11

.11

Note: Details may not ad d to total beca use of rou ndi ng.

Age

of children .

Children used to stay in the

parental home longer. In 1885, some 22 to 23 per cent of children living with their parents were aged 20+, in contrast to only 12 to 13 per cent in 1960 (Massachusetts) .

o

Other relatives . Other relatives (mostly siblings of the head), whose presence in the household has also declined, were more likely to be young adults (20 to 29) in 1885 than in 1960 (Massachusetts). (Beresford and Riv lin, 1964, pp . 15- 16, Tables 5 and App , 2 )

Source : Beresford and Rivlin. 1964 . Table 5 (adapted) ; based on data from the following sources : Census of Massachusetts : 1885 . Volume I. Population and Social Statistics , Part I. Wright and Potter Printing Company . State Printers . page 482 . United States Bureau of the Census. Sixteenth Census of the United States : 1940 . PopulatIon of Families. Types of Families. Regions and cities of 1.000.000 or more. Table 3 . Families . Size of Family and Age of Head. Regions and cities of 1.000 .000 or more , Table 1, page 11 . Volume IV . Characteristics by Age. Massachusetts. Tables 13 and 14. pages 93 and 180 . 1960 Census of Population . PC ( 1 )· 20 . Detailed Characteflstl cs. Ma ssachu sett s. Table 106. 1960 Censu s of Population , Vol. I, Part 1. Table s 183 and 18 6.

THE FAMfLY: TRENDS IN LIVING ARRANGEM ENTS

179

B•3•f

Recent decline in older people as guests

of their children If adult children are now less likely to remain with parents, older parents are also less likely to live in the homes of their children, although the evidence goes back only to 1940.

o

For each age category of OP beyond age 60, the proportions living as parents of the household head have decreased between 1940 and 1960. See Exhibit 7·22.

B•3•g

Decline in lodgers and roomers

Proportions of OP 60 + living as lodgers, roomers , or resident employees have also declined since 1940. See Exhibit 7·22. ( Beres ford and Rivlin,

1964, Table 5) B • 3. h No long-term decline in multigeneration households Does th is evidence of a decline i n the sharing of households by OP and their children mean a decline also in three·generation households? The historical records are scanty, but data for Massachusetts sug· gest that households containing either grandchil· dren or parents of the head were nearly as rare in 1885 as they are today. See Exhibit 7 • 2l.

o

The average number of grandchildren or parents in the household decreased somewhat between 1940 and 1960 (United States and Massachusetts) .

o

But there was no change between 1885 and 1940 consistent with the notion of extensive three· generation living in the late nineteenth century.

(Beresford and Rivlin, 1964, Table 5 and passim . Similar finding for Rhode Island, 1875 versus 1960; Pryor; reported by Beresford, personal communication)

180

Recent decline in OP as guests

EXHIBIT 7· 22 Persons 60 and over in various relationships to the household head, United States , 1960, 1950 , and 1940 (percentage distribution)

Age, sex, and year

T otal

Head

100 100 100

90 84 84

100 100 100

82

Wife

Parent

Other relatives

Lodger, resident, employee

In group quarters

Male

60-64 1960 1950 1940 65-69 1960 1950 1940 70- 74 1960 1950 1940 75 + 1960 1950 1940

89 80

2

3

3 3

4 4

2 4 5

3 5 4

3 5 6

3 4 4

2 4 6

3 5 4

3 4 6

4 6 4

100 100 100

85 78

5

3

8

4

77

9

4

100 100 100

74 65 65

12 17 19

4 5 4

100 100 100

27 24

25

58 54 52

6 9 10

5 6 6

100 100 100

33

48

29

43

4

41

5 6 6

4

30

10 14 15

5

3

100 100 100

38

35

34 34

32 30

14 19 21

6 7 7

2 4 5

4 4 3

100 100 100

38

18 15 14

24 31 33

8 8 8

3

9

4

8

5

5

3

7

5 6

8 6

Female

60-64 1960 1950 1940 65-69 1960 1950 1940

2

2

4

3

4

3

2

2

70- 74 1960 1950 1940 75 + 1960 1950 1940

34

35

B- 4

EXHIBIT 7 · 23 The population 65 and over, by living arrangements and health, United States , 1957 to 1959 ( numbers in thousands ) Percentage distribution Average persons Health characteristics

Number

Per cent

Living alone or with nonrelatives

Married, living with relatives

Other, living w ith relatives

14,666

100

23

51

26

3,328

100

19

56

25

11,338

100

24

50

26

No activity limitation Partial activity limitation Major activity limitation

5,137 4,102 2,099

100 100 100

27 23 18

51 51 45

22 26 37

No mobility limitation Partial mobility limitation Major mobility limitation

8,679 2,01 7 641

100 100 100

26 22 15

52 42 39

22 36 46

Total persons Persons with no chron ic conditions Persons with one or more chronic conditions

ASSOCIATED FACTORS

What factors account for the living arrangements of OP and the changes that have been taking place? These changes have been coterminous with other societal trends such as increased availability of housing since World War II , rising income levels and the spread of social security, increasing proportions of married couples who survive jointly into the later years, and decreasing numbers of children in the family to whom OP can relate. Althou gh there has been little research to connect these trends, numer· ous cross-section studies have established correlations between the living arrangements of OP and such factors as health, income, and the norms governi ng intergenerational living. (Here again , the research is often restricted to OP living either as guests or as hosts, which produces apparent contradictions in some of the results.)

B- 4 - a

Health

OP with serious health conditions are especially likely to live with relatives.

o

OP 65 + whose activity or mobility is markedly limited by chronic ailments are more likely than those without such limitations to live with relatives other than the spouse (generally not as household heads). See Exhibit 7·23. ( Beresford and Riv lin , 1964, p. 27 and Table 9 ; based on United States

National Health Survey, data for 1957- 1959 )

o

Very sick OP are more likely than those who are well to live with their children. ( Shanas, 1962, p . 101 ; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 +, United States , 1957 ) Sou rce : Beresford and Rlvlin . 1964 . Table 9 (adapted): based on data from United States National Health Su r vey . Older pe r sons. selected health cha racteristics. United States . July. 1957 to June . 1959 . Series C4 · Publica tlon No. 584 · 6 4 . Tables 13 and 14 . Da ta are based on household Interviews dUring July . 1957 to June. 1959. and refer to the CIVIlian nOninstitutional population of the Un ited States. Source : Beresford and Rivl in. 1964 . Appendix Table 5 ( adapted ): based on 1960 Census of Population. Vol. I. Part 1. Table 183 ( for conterm inous Un ited States ) . THE FAMILY: ASSOCIATED FACTORS

181

B '4 ' b

Income

There are indications that inadequacy of income may be a factor in the decision by OP or by their children (or other relatives) to share a household.

ried couple with the spouse only. ( Beyer and Wahl,

1963, p. 10; sample

o

o

I" certain other countries, however, coresidence of aged parents with their middle-aged children is more prevalent on farms and in small communities than in the larger cities.

o

In West Germany (1958) , proportions of OP 65 + who live with children are as follows: 71 per cent among farmers, 47 per cent in small ru ral com munities, and 22 per cent in larger cities . ( Bau-

OP who share households (1951) tend to have smaller incomes than other OP, and income is lowest of all for those OP who are parents of the household head .

But the total family income in the shared households is very much larger than for older individuals or older couples not sharing with relatives (compare Chapter 4, A' 2 . b). ( Ep stein, 1962, pp . 235- 237;

based on Steiner and Dorfman, 1957 and previously unpublished data ) B '4 ' c

Occupational backgTOund

Sharing households with children is less prevalent among OP from white·collar than from workingclass occupations (in the United States and Great Britain, with little difference in Denmark, 1962) .

( Shanas, 1966, Tables II, III; cross-national study of 2,500 OP 65 + in each of 3 countries; marital status controlled) B ' 4 ' d

mert, 1962, p. 421 ; based on survey by DIVO In stitute) B '4 'e

o

See Chapter 23. B • 1 • f . for OP's own preferences for sep· a rate households.

o

For example, a cross·section sample of the United States public (1957), when asked about the best and the worst places for OP to live, definitely favored the OP's own home over the home of chil dren or other relatives. See Exhibit 25 . 6. Places regarded as best are as follows: own home (74 per cent) , home of child or relative (12 per cent), and home for the aged (13 per cent).

RW'al-urban residence

For example, one study (1958) shows that New York State farmers 65 + (or persons formerly en· gaged in farming) , when compared with total persons 65 + , are somewhat more likely to ma intain their own households, less likely to share the household with children or other relatives, less likely to live alone, but more likely to live as a mar·

I ncome

Norms

In general, norms in this country favor separate households for OP.

Farmers are less likely than urban dwellers to share households with relatives in the United States, al though the residential patterns vary considerably from country to country.

182

of OASDI beneficiaries )

Places liked least are as follows: home of child or relative (47 per cent) and home for the aged (44 per cent). ( Shanas, 1962, p . 172; cross-section

sample of 2 ,500 adults 21 + )

o

However, these norms vary with the circum stances and from one population segment to another. When a cross-section sample (1957) was presented with a hypothetical situation of an ill and widowed woman needing her daughter's at-

tention, but not requiring special nursing care, 46 per cent felt she should move into the daughter's household, versus 23 per cent who felt she should stay in her own home. ( Shanas ,

6 How do Negro older people in this country compare with white older people in family structlLTe and living arrangements?

of 2 ,500

7 Is upward mobility between generations a

1962, p . 121 ; cross-section sample adults 21 +, United States)

Farmers are more likely than other people (1960) to oppose the idea of OP moving in with their children. ( Morgan et a!. , 1962, pp . 158- 160;

sun;ey of spending-unit heads )

factor in the decreased . Are changes occurnng ern independent living their children?

1 How has the older person's kin network been

changing over time to reflect declining mortality rates and changing patterns of family formation? 2 What are the implications for older people of the extended period of husband-wife relationship in the middle years? What kinds of anticipatory socialization are taking place? What repercussions is this period having (l·elatively active, affluent, and leisured as it is ) on the public image of older people?

* Baumert,

Gerhard, 1962. "Changes in the Family and the Position of Older Persons in Germany," in Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, editors , Social and Psychological Aspects of Aging, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 415-425.

Beresford , John C., and Alice M. Rivlin, 1964. "The Multigeneratio n Fam ily." Prepared for a meeting on the multigeneration fam ily at The University of Michigan Conference of Aging, Ann Arbor, Michigan (mimeographed) . Beyer, Glenn H., and Sylvia G. Wahl, 1963. "The Elderly and Their Housing," Bulletin 989, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, and New York State College of Home Economics.

3 Does the delayed entry into widowhood of the average individual mean a closer juxta- " Burgess, Ernest W., 1960-b. "Family Structure and Relationsh ips," in Burgess, Ernest W., editor, position of widowhood with decreptitude? Does Aging in Western Societies , Chicago: U·niverit mean better financial preparation for old sity of Chicago Press, pp. 271-298. age? DIVa Institute, Frankfurt am Main.

4 To what extent will older people in their 60's become increasingly responsible for their own aged parents? 5 What are the patterns older people?

of remarriage among

versity Press, pp . 233-262.

The Aged Population of the United States: The 196a Social Security Survey of the Aged,

Epstein , Lenore A., and Janet H. Murray, 1967.

Washington : Government Printing Office.

sharing of households? ..,. .. C R b P k J 1965 "N . GliCk, Paul., and 0 ert ar e, r. , . ew m the nOrms that govApproaches in Studying the Life Cycle of the by older people and by Family," Demography, 2, Chicago: The Popu -

Worhs cited in Chapter 7

RESEARCH NEEDS

Aspects of Aging, New York: Columbia Uni-

Epstein, Lenore A., 1962. "Some Problems in Measuring the Economic Status of the Aged in the United States," in Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, editors, Social and Psychological • Suggested additional reading

lation Association of America, pp. 187-202. Havighurst, R. J., and Ruth Albrecht, 1953. Older People, New York: Longmans, Green and Co. Ingegnieros, S. , 1958. Aspetti Gerontologici lanesi, Milan: Commune di Milano.

Mi-

Jacobson, Paul H., 1959. American Man-iage Divorce, New York: Rhinehart and Co.

and

- - - , 1966. "The Changing Role of Mortality in American Family Life," Lex et Scientia: The International Journal of Law and Science, 2, pp. 117-124. Kuznets, Simon S., 1962. "Income Distribution and Changes in Consumption," in Simpson, Hoke S., editor, The Changing American Population, New York: Institute of Life Insurance, pp. 21-58. Morgan, James, et aI., 1962. Income and Welfare in the United States , New York: McGraw-Hili Book Company, Inc. Myers, Robert J., 1959. "Statistical Measures in the Marital Life Cycles of Men and Women," No. 15. Presented at the International Population Conference, Vienna . Edward. Family Structure and Change: Rhode Island, 1875 and 1960. Dissertation,

Pryor,

Brown University. Rosenmayr, Leopold, and Eva K6ckeis, 1962. "Family Relations and Social Contacts of the Aged in Vienna," in Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, editors, Social and Psychological

THE FAMILY : ASSOCIATED FACTORS

183

Aspects of Aging , New York: Columbia Un iversity Press, pp . 492-500.

* Shanas,

Ethel , 1962. T he Healt h of Older People: A Social Survey, Cambridge: Harvard Un iversity Press .

-

-

- , 1966. "Family Help Patterns and Social Class in Three Countries." Presented at the Meetings of the American Sociol ogical Assoc iation , Miami .

Shanas, Ethel , and Gordon Streib, ed itors, 1965.

Social Structures and the Family : Generational Relations , Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prent ice-Hail , I'nc. ,~

Shanas, Ethel , et aI., 1968. Old People in Three Industrial Societies, New York: Atherton Press.

'~ Sheldon ,

Henry D., 1958. T he Older Population New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, 1962. Social and Psych ological Aspects of Aging, New York: Columbia Univers ity Press . Townsend, Peter, 1957 . The Family Life of Old People, London : Routled ge and Kegan Paul. -

;' Stehouwer, Jan, 1965. "Relations between Generations and the Three-Generation Household in Denmark," in Shanas, Ethel and Gordon Streib, ed itors, Social Stru cture and t he Family : Gen erational Relations, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., pp. 142- 162. Steiner, P.O ., and R. Dorfman , 1957. The Economic Status of the Aged, Berkeley: Un iversity of Californ ia Press. Sweetser, Dorrian Apple, 1964. "Urba'nization and the Patrilineal Transmission of Farms in Finland. " Reprint from Acta Sociologica, Copenhagen . Taeuber, Conrad, 1111964. Data Relating t o the Population of the United States, United States Bureau of the Census (unpublished) .

* Taeuber,

Conrad , and Irene Taeuber, 1958. The Changing Population of the United States, New York: John Wiley and Sons.

184 W orhs ci ted

-, 1963. "The Family of Three Generations." Presented at the International Social Science Research Sem inar in Gerontology, Markaryd , Sweden .

- - - , 1966. " The Emergence of the Four-Generation Fam ily in Industrial Society," Proceedings , 7th International Con gress of Gerontology, Vienna , 8, pp . 555-558. United States Bureau of the Census, 1960 Census of the Population , Vol. I, Part 1. ' - - -, 1960 Census of the Population , PC(2)-4A,

of the United States ,

Simpson, Hoke S., editor, 1962. T he Changing American Population , New York: Institute of Life Insurance.

-

Families. - - - , 1/ 1966. Americans at Mid-Decade, P-23, No. 16. - - -, 1950. Current Population Report s, P-20, No. 26. -

- -, 1953. Current Population Reports, P-20, No. 50.

- - - , 1965. Current Population Reports , P-20, No. 144. United States National Hea lth Survey, 1960. " Older Persons, Selected Health Characteristics, United States, July 1957- June 1959," Healt h Statistic s, PHS Pub. No . 584-64, Series C, No . 4, Public Health Service, Washin gton : Government Printing Office. CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

John C. Beres ford Ethel Shanas

Conrad T aeuber Clark T ibbitts

8 What is aging? Mortality rates for man tend to increase stead ily with age , following a pattern closely approximating that for other animal species. Hence, many students postulate an underlying aging process, assuming that as time passes the organism changes and becomes less resistant to the stresses of living and more vulnerable to death. But the nature and causes of such a process are still largely matters of speculation. Is there an inherent biological process of aging that takes place within the organism , apart from the onslaughts of the social and physical environment? Is bio· logical aging distinguishable from disease? To what extent is the biological process controllable through changes in public health and medical practice, education , or standard of living? There are few empirically su pported an· swers to general questions of this kind , and no clear line has been drawn between biological and social aging. However, a variety of attempts to elucidate the nature of the biological aging process provide important background for the social scientist. Research has examined such variables as heredity, exposure to radiation , autoimmunity, diet, and stress as they may affect health or longevity. And certain special theories of the aging process have begun to emerge , although at present none of these is generally accepted .

187

THE NATURE OF AGING Manj E. Moore

1

THE AGE PATTERN OF MORTALITY

2

HEREDITARY FACTORS IN LONGEVITY

3

RADIATION AND AGING

4

AUTOIMMUNITY AND AGING

5

DIET AND AGING

6

STRESS

1

THE AGE PATTERN OF MORTALITY

Human mortality is clearly related to age in a manner strikingly similar to that of other species.

1 •a

Mortality rate as a function of age, United States,

EXHIBIT 8 . 1 1939 to 1941 500 -

~

For humans

The mortality rate for man , when infant and childhood mortality and deaths from violence are disregarded, tends to increase (exponentially) with age accord ing to the so-called Gompertz (1825) function. See Exhibits 8 ' 1 and 8 - 2 (Glass, 1960, pp . 70 ff . Strehler, 1960, pp . 285- 286 )

Whi e mal

5

,,

200 ~

~

'~"

...

-

~.

100

OIl

o

o o o

" ,; ~'

50

," , , ,,

20

, ,"

10

-eo

5

~

/

,

I

2

,

I

\

o

"

I 10

,, I

1"

"

.. "

.,. "

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Age Note : Gompertz plot. Between age 30 and 90 the data obey the equation R = R oe>'. R o ( the ini tial mortality rate at time 0) and a ( the increase in the mortality rate over time) are constants which depend on the population ; e is the base of natural logarithms and t is the age in years.

Source : Strehler. 1960. p . 286 (adapted) . From Strehler. Bernard L.. in Aging : Some Social and BiologICal Aspects . Publication No . 65 of the American AssocIation for the Advancement of SCIence . COPYright © 1960 by the American Assoclalton for the Advancement of Science .

188

FOT

humans

EXHIBIT 8 · 2 Mortality rate as a function of age, New York City, 1950

1• b

Males

/

-

10- 2

.'!! ro

u

"'on

---;

.2

-

All d

-

Q)

ro

-\

.~

t!0 ~

1 0- 3

-

-

-

"-~

~~

-

,,-1 , /

;; ,"

I

/

~

o

20

Variability

There are, of course, pronounced variations in the shape of the curve (its slope and starting point) for different species, as well as for different categories and conditions of individuals within species.

V

Thus, if the consistent pattern of mortality describes a general aging process, the study of variations in the pattern may afford clues to the nature of the process, its causes, and possible means of control.

~

Compare Chapter 9, section 1, on mortality in the population.

acted a Vio ent dea hs subt

2

HEREDITARY FACTORS IN LONGEVITY

Stud ies of aging in both human beings and animals point to the importance of hereditary factors in longevity.

/

...... .......

10

1960-a,pp.242,243) 1• c

2· a

Child Ten versus paTents

The life span of children is positively correlated with that of their parents. (Pearl, 1922. Jalavisto, 1951. Kallmann et al., 1956. Kallmann, 1957)

-

Age

For other species

Mortality curves for other species studied (rats, mice, horses, and fruit flies) fit the same mathematical pattern. (Glass, 1960, pp. 70 ff. Shock,

30

40

50

60

70

' Violent deaths by accident, homicide or suicide. Note: Gompertz plot. See Exhib it 8·1. Source: Glass, 1960, p. 71. From Glass , Bentley , in Aging : Some Social and Biological Aspects, Publication No. 65 of the American Assoc iation for the Advancement of Science. Copyright © 1960 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

THE NATURE OF AGING: THE AGE PATTERN OF MORTALITY

189

2 •b

Identical twins

The life spans of identical twins are more closely similar than those of fraternal twins. See Exhibit

8' 3. (Kallmann, 1957. ]arvik et al. , 1960) 2 •c

Life-span differences (in months)

(Clarke 1956)

and Maynard-Smith,

Identical twins

Fraternal twins

Hybrids versus purebreds

In Drosophila (the fruit fly) and other species, hybrids tend to live longer than their purebred parents.

3

Average intrapair differences for twins 61 and over, both of whom died of natural causes

Selective breeding

The longevity of mice can be changed through selective breeding, thus proving the importance of a hereditary component either in the genes or in the cytoplasm for this species. (Strong, 1936)

2 •d

EXHIBIT 8' 3 Life-span differences of identical as compared with same-sex fraternal twins

1955.

Year of analysis

Number of pairs

Male

Female

1950 1954 1958 1950 1954 1958

11 24 41 17 37 45

48.0 50.6 60 .6 73.8 68.9 64.5

18.2 22.9 36.9 41.3 65.6 68.2

Comfort,

RADIATION AND AGING

A provocative parallelism has appeared between the genetic correlates of the aging process, on the one hand, and the observed effects of ionizing radiation, on the other. Some of the same somatic chromo· somal aberrations resulting from radiation are also found to occur during "normal" aging. Some experts have gone so far as to theorize that aging is simply exposure to radiation.

Source: Kallmann and Jarvik . 1959 (adapted).

190

Identi ca l twins

EXHIBIT 8 . 4 Chromosome aberrations as a function of age in two strains of mice with differing life expectancies 100

~

80

,.---

Q)

.0

'" E

'"0 E ;:

e~

./

u

OJ)

40

;; ..c:

.. V~

0

'"

~

Q)

o

Animals subjected to sublethal doses of ionizing radiation subsequently die prematurely, the process closely resembling that of "natural" aging. (Russ

----.

o

Id breeders ( sho rt lived strain )

~

60

..c: c

___ e_

~~

Q)

0

In animals

and Scott, 1939. Henshaw, 1944. Upton , 1957)

'"c

0 ' '::

~

3' a

;,.----

u

01 d breeders (I ong lived strai n)

'" Young n ice

./

20

o

... Young r ice (s hort Ii ed strain )

------. . _0--0--

/"

Q)

0

o

100

200

Mice exposed to ionizing radiation develop somatic chromosomal aberrations similar to those that appear with age. (Stevenson and Curtis,

1961) 3• b

In humans

'0

/

~

0-

Somatic chromosomal aberrations develop more rapidly in a strain of short·lived mice as compared with a long·lived strain , thus indicating a correlation between life span and chromosomal aberrations. See Exhibit 8·4. (Crow ley and Curtis , 1963)

300

400

500

600

700

Age, days

Data on the effects of ionizing radiation on human aging are sparse and inconclusive, the chief sources bein g studies of radiologists and of survivors of the Japanese nuclear bombings . Work Oil a sample of fourteen Hiroshima survivors offers some evidence of accelerated aging in the connective tissue of those exposed to radiation. (Anderson, 1965)

4

AUTOIMMUNITY AND AGING

Autoimmunity occurs when the immunological mechanism that ordinarily protects the body against invading foreign substances instead attacks cells and t issues of the body itself. Similarities between this process and that of aging have been recognized and have led to the fascinating and controversial postulate that there is an identity between the two processes, an identity that obviates the distinction often drawn between a general biological aging process and aging due to disease. So u rce: Crowley and Curtis, 196 3, p, 627 (adapted),

THE NATURE OF AGING: RADIATION AND AGING

191

4'

a Indexes of autoimmunity

Variaus indexes af the autaimmune state (such as gamma glabulins, antibadies, and amylaid depas its) tend to' increase with age. (Bell, 1960 . Das and Bhattacharya, 1961 . Heimer, Levin, and

Rudd,1963) 4' b

Holmes and Burnet, 1963)

Leading causes of death

Certain leading causes af death (including cancer, diabetes, vascular disease, and hypertensian) have been linked to' autaimmune phenamena. Since the age-related incidence af deaths due to' these diseases fits the Gampertz plat, which describes martality in general, a link between autaimmune pathalagy and general bialagical aging is pastulated.

(Blumenthal and Berns, 1964) 5

DIET AND AGING

Studies af the relatianship af diet, maturatian, and aging have led to' the theary that avereating leads to' the rapid develapment and the early anset af aid age.

192

By restricting their calaric intake in arder to' retard develapment, the life af white rats was increased significantly. Same rats in the experimental graups exceeded 1,400 days, mare than twice the average life af these animals under narmal canditions_ See Exhibit 8' 5. (McCay, 1952)

EXHIBIT 8 ' 5 Rats of same age but differing caloric intake The bottom rat had a restricted caloric intake intially that retarded its development and also the onset of old age.

5' b

Caloric intake and aging

Experiments in ather species, invalving averfeeding as well as underfeeding, suppart the impartance af the relatianship between calaric intake and aging.

(Kellogg and Bell, 1903 . Ingle et al., 1937. Lansing, 1947. Rudzinska, 1952)

Experimental immune disease

Experimentally praduced immune disease in yaung animals results in changes strikingly like thase seen in aging. (Hall , Hall, and Cross, 1959. Walford, 1962)

4' d

Caloric intake and longevity

Autoimmune lesions

Same types af lesians believed to' be autaimmune in nature have been abserved to' increase with age. (Dunn, 1944. Heston et al ., 1945. Heston and Deringer, 1948. Berg and Harmison, 1957.

4' c

5' a

Indices of autoimmunity

5' c

Weight and longevity

In man, being averweight is carrelated with a shortened length of life. The Metropolitan Life Insurance figures far desirable weights (thase for which mortality rates are lowest) were compiled from a natianal sample af 5 million insured persans (Society af Actuaries, 1959). They indicated that (far a given age, sex, and body-build) the desirable weight is fram 5 to' 10 per cent less than the national average weight. (Metropolitan Life Insur-

ance Company, 1959) 6

STRESS

Although nonspecific stress has been propased as playing a key role in aging (Selye and Priareschi, 1960), there is little experimental evidence to' shaw that it daes So'.

o

Among animals, to' be sure, in a study of twenty rats subjected to chranic light-shock stress, campared with faurteen control animals, a decrease in

Source: McCay . 1952 . p. 166.

swimming speed was observed and tail tendon ':' Casarett, George W., 1964. "Similarities and Con trasts between Radiation and Time Pathology, " changes similar to those found in aging were also in Strehler, Bernard L., editor, Advances in noted. (Pare , 1965) Gerontological Resem-ch, New York: Academic Press, pp. 109-163. D However, strikingly clear·cut negative results were obtained when the effects of several chemical ':' Clark, Arnold M., 1964. "Genetic Factors Associated stressors on the survival time of mice were inveswith Aging," in Strehler, Bernard L., editor, tigated. (Curtis, 1963) Advances in Gerontological Research, New York: Academic Press, pp. 207-255.

Heimer, R., F. M. Levin, and E. Rudd, 1963. "Globulins Resembling Rheumatoid Factor in Serum of the Aged," American Journal of Medicine, 35, pp. 175-181.

RESEARCH NEEDS

Heston, W. E., C. D. Larsen, and M. K. Deringer, 1945. "Variations in Occurrence of Pathologic Calcification, Nephritis, and Amyloidosis in Mice Fed Control and Modified Diets," Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 6, pp. 41-

1 What is the nature of aging? How are the

variables of heredity, exposure to radiation, autoimmunity, and diet interrelated? 2 Is there a useful distinction to be made between biological and pathological aging?

Warks cited in Chapter 8 Anderson, R. E., 1965. "Aging in Hiroshima Atomic Bomb Survivors," Archives of Pathology, 79,

pp.I-6. Bell, E. T., 1960. Diabetes Mellitus, Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas, p. 60.

Clarke, M. F., and A. Maynard-Smith , 1955. "The Genetics and Cytology of Drosophila subolsana. XI. Hybrid Vigour and Longevity," Journal of Genetics, 53 , pp. 172-180. Comfort, A., 1956. The Biology New York: Rinehart and Co.

of Senescence,

Crowley, C., and H. J. Cu rtis, 1963. "Development of Somatic Mutations in Mice with Age," Pro-

ceedings of the National Academy of Science, 49, p. 626. Curtis, H. J., 1963 . "Biological Mechanisms Underlying the Aging Process ," Science , 141, pp. 686-694. Das, B. C., and S. K. Bhattacharya , 1961. "Changes in Human Serum Protein Fractions with Age and Weight," Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 39, pp . 569-579.

Berg, Benjamin N., and Charles R. Harmison, 1957. "Growth, Disease and Aging in the Rat,"

Dunn, T. B., 1944. "Relationship of Amyloid Infiltrat ion and Renal Disease in Mice," Journal of the National Cancer Institute , 5, pp. 17-

Journal of Gerontology, 12, pp. 370-377. Birren, James E., editor, 1959. Handbook of Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of

Gedda, L. , editor, 1956. Novant' Anni de lle Legge Mendeliane , Rome: Instituto Gregorio Mendel.

28.

Chicago Press .

,~

':' Glass, Bentley, 1960. "Genetics of Aging," in Blumenthal, Herman T. and Aline W. Berns, 1964. Sh ock, Nathan W., editor, Aging: Some Social "Autoimmunity and Aging," in Strehler, Berand Biological Aspects, Washington: Amerinard L., editor, Advances in Gerontological can Association for the Advancement of Sci ence, pp. 67-99. Research, New York: Academic Press, pp.

289-342.

• Suggested additional reading

Hall, C. E., O. Hall, and E. Cross, 1959. "Amyloidosis Induced by Parabiosis in Ge netical ly Homogeneous Mice," American Medical Associa-

tion Archives of Pathology , 68, pp. 657-668.

Henshaw, P. S., 1944. "Experimental Roentgen Injury: IV. Effects of Repeated Small Doses of X-rays on Blood Picture, Tissue Morphology, and Life Span in Mice," Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 4, pp. 513-522.

47. Heston, W. E., and M. K. Deringer, 1948. "Hereditary Renal Disease and Amyloidosis in Mice," Archives of Pathology, 46, pp. 49-58. Holmes, M. C. and F. M. Burnet, 1963. "The Natural History of Autoimmune Disease in NZB Mice. A Comparison with the Patterns of Human Autoimmune Manifestations," Annals of Internal Medicine, 59, pp. 265-276. Ingle, L., T. R. Wood, and A. M. Banta, 1937. "A Study of Longevity, Growth, Reproduction and Heart Rate in Daphnia Longispina as Influenced by Limitations in Quantity of Food,"

Journal of Experimental Zoology, 76, pp. 325-352. Jalavisto, Eeva, 1951. "Inheritance of Longevity According to Finnish and Swedish Genealogi es," Ann. Med . Internale Fenniae, 40, pp.

263-274. Jarvik, Lissy F. , Arthur Falek, Franz J. Kallmann, and Irving Lorge, 1960. "Survival Trends in a Senescent Twin Population ," American Journal of Human Genetics, 12, pp. 170-179. Kallmann, F. J., 1957. "Twin Data on the Genetics of Agei ng," in Wolstenholme, G. E. W., and C. M. O'Connor, editors, Methodology of the Study of Ageing , London: J. A. Churchill, pp.

131-143 .

THE NATURE OF AGING: STRESS

193

Kallmann, F. J., Bertha M. Aschner, and A. Falek, 1956. "Comparative Data on Longevity, Adjustment to Aging, and Causes of Death in a Senescent Twin Population," in Gedda, L., editor, Novant' Anni delle Legge Mendeliane, Rome: Instituto Gregorio Mendel, pp. 330-339.

* Kallmann,

F. J., and Lissy F. Jarvik, 1959. "Individual Differences in Constitution and Genetic Background," in Birren, James E., editor,

Handbook of Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 216263 . Kellogg, V. L., and R. G. Bell, 1903. "Variations Induced in Larval, Pupal and Imaginal Stages of Bombyx Mori by Controlled Variations in Food Supply," Science, 18, p. 741. Lansing, Albert I., 1947. "Prolongation of Life by Starvation," Journal of Gerontology, 2, pp. 190-192. - - - , editor, 1952. Cowdry's Problems of Ageing, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co_ - - - , 1959. "General I::!iology of Senescence," in Birren , James E., editor, Handbook of Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 119-135. McCay, C. M., 1952. "Chemical Aspects of Ageing and the Effect of Diet Upon Ageing," in Lansing, Albert I., editor, Cowdry's Problems of Ageing, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co., pp. 139-202. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 1959. "New Weight Standards for Men and Women," Statistical Bulletin, 40, pp. 2-3 . Pare, W. P., 1965. "The Effect of Chronic Environmental Stress on Premature Aging in the Rat," Journal of Gerontology, 20, pp. 78-84. Pearl, R., 1922. The Biology phia: J. B. Lippincott Co.

194 Works cited

of Death,

Philadel-

Rudzinska, M. A. , 1952. "Overfeeding and Life Span in Tokophrya Infusionum ," Journal of Gerontology, 7, pp. 544-548. Russ, S., and G. M. Scott, 1939. "Biological Effects of Gamma Irradiation," British Journal of Radiology, 12, pp. 440-441. Selye, H., and P. Prioreschi, 1960. "Stress Theory of Aging," in Shock, Nathan W., editor, Aging: Some Social and Biological Aspects, Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 261-272. Shock, Nathan W., editor, 1960-a. Aging : Some Social and Biological Aspects, Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science. - - - , 1960-b. "Some of the Facts of Aging," in Shock, Nathan W., editor, Aging: Some Social and Biological Aspects, Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 241-260. Stevenson, K. G., and H. J. Curtis, 1961. "Chromosomal Aberrations in Irradiated and Nitrogen Mustard-Treated Mice," Radiation Research, 15, p. 774. Strehler, Bernard L., 1960. "Dynamic Theories of Aging," in Shock, Nathan W., editor, Aging: Some Social and Biological Aspects, Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 273-303. - - - , editor, 1964-a. Advances in Gerontological Research, New York: Academic Press. Strong, L. C. , 1936. "Production of CBA Strain Inbred Mice: Long Life Associated with Low Tu mour Incidence, " British Journal of Experimental Pathology, 17, pp. 60-63. Upton, A. C., 1957. "Ionizing Radiation and the Aging Process: A Review," Journal of Gerontology, 12, pp. 306-313.

Walford, R. L., 1962. "Autoimmunity and Aging," Journal of Gerontology, 17, pp. 281-285. Wolstenholme, G. E. W., and C. M. O'Connor, editors, 1957. Methodology of the Study of Ageing, London: J. A. Churchill.

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

Robert M. Krauss Arthur J. Patek, JT. John W. Riley, III

MeTvyn W . Sus seT J. Alan WinteT

9 Population studies provide one important source of information about the later life cycle of the human organism and how it is changing. On the one hand, many studies go behind the mortality statistics reported in Chapter 2, section 3, analyzing the patterns of death and its precipitating causes. Such studies deal with the interplay between biological and environmental factors in determining length of life and who survives; they offer guidelines to those attempting to promote longer life. On the other hand, recent inquiries into population morbidity (illness, injuries, and impairments) are beginning to shed further light on the physical condition of people in their middle and later years. Although mortality data point to the existence of various diseases and disorders, they are by no means clearly correlated with the individual's state of health prior to death . Unfortunately, few com· parable earlier morbidity studies are at hand to show whether or not, as life is prolonged, the physical well·being of the older person is also en· hanced.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION Mary E. Moore

THE DATA Data on specific causes of death are obtained from the informa· tion recorded on death certificates (and are fairly complete, despite recording and reporting difficulties). They indicate how changes in certain diseases or dis· orders can reduce (or enlarge) the over·all death rate. Until recently, the health of the population was gauged indirectly from such studies of mortality. More direct evidence is now available on the spread of illness and disability through the population from the Health Interview Survey (conducted since 1957 as part of the National Health Survey and currently pub· lished by the National Center for Health Statistics, an agency within the Public Health Service). The Health Interview Survey is a continuing weekly survey of nationwide probability samples of the civilian, noninstitutional population of the United States. Since the weekly samples are independent, some of the data are cumulative over time; for example, approximately 134,000 cases from 42,000 households were accumulated in 1964. (National Center for Health Statistics, 1965, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 10, No. 15.)

195

1 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY

2

MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

EXHIBIT9 - I Mortality from leading causes, by age, United States, 1962 Death rates per 100,000 Cause of death

White males

White females

Per cent of all causes White males

White females

Age 1-4 All causes

92.7

79.8

100.0

100.0

Accidents Malignant neoplasms Influenza and pneumonia Congenital malformations Gastritis and enteritis

31.3 11.2 10.6 10.5 2.7

22.7 9.2 9.4 11.5 2.3

33.8 12.1 11.4 11.3 2.9

28.4 11.5 11.8 14.4 2.9

49.6

33 .0

100.0

100.0

Accidents Malignant neoplasms Congenital malformations Influenza and pneumonia Diseases of heart

23.4 7.7 3.4 2.0 0.8

9.9 6.4 3.1 2.1 0.8

47.2 15.5 6.9 4.0 1.6

30.0 19.4 9.4 6.4 2.4

Accidents Malignant neoplasms Suicide Homicide Diseases of heart

Cause of death Age 25-44 All causes Accidents Diseases of heart Malignant neoplasms Suicide Cirrhosis of liver Age 45-64 All causes

Age 5-14 All causes

Age 15-24 All causes

Death rates per 100,000

Diseases of heart Malignant neoplasms Vascular lesions of central nervous system Accidents Cirrhosis of liver Age 65+ All causes

139.5

54.3

100.0

100.0

90.2 10.4 8.7 3.9 3.5

21.0 6.6 2.9 1.7 2.2

64.7 7.5 6.2 2.8 2.5

38.7 12.2 5.3 3.1 4.1

Diseases of heart Malignant neoplasms Vascular lesions of central nervous system Influenza and pneumonia General arteriosclerosis

Source: Metropolitan Life In surance Compa ny , 11 / 1964, p. 7 (adapted); data from National Ce nter for Hea lth Statistics, 1962 , Vital Statistics of the Un ited States , Vol . II , Part A.

196

Per cent of all causes

White males

White females

White males

White females

250.5

141.5

100.0

100.0

65.4 63 .3 32.9 19.8 8.3

16.5 18.0 42.9 8.5 5.6

26.1 25.3 13.1 7.9 3.3

11.7 12.7 30.3 6.0 4.0

1,456.2

710 .9

100.0

100.0

674.2 287.3 78.9

215 .9 238.0 60.9

46.3 19.7 5.4

30.4 33.5 8.6

78.8 43 .8

27.0 19.2

5.4 3 .0

3 .8 2.7

7,175.0 5,211.9

100.0

100.0

3,384.5 2,419.2 1,090.5 707.7 932.8 895.8

47.2 15.2 13.0

46.4 13.6 17.2

3.5 2.8

3.4 3 .9

248.0 204.4

174.9 205.0

EXHI BIT 9 · 2

Mortality for selected groups

of diseases, United States,

1900 to 1957 14 0 0

o

g

-4-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----4-----4----- 1------+-----+-----+--

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY

CompaTe Chapter 2, section 3, for demographic data on mortality rates and expectation of life for the total population and its segments.

1 200 ~--~~~---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----_4----~~----~----~

Analyses of the causes of death examine both the specific causes and the conditions under which mortality rates vary.

1000 -4-----+-----+-----+~~~~---+-----4-----+----_4----~~--~~----~

1•a

800 ~----_+----_+-----+-----+----_+----_+-----+----_4----~~----~----~

o

o

Gro p Aa

~

1

600 -4-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----4-----+--~~~h4~~~h4~~h4~

.&

'"

Ct:

The age pattern

As age advances and death rates (after childhood) tend to rise (Chapter 8, 1· a), specific causes of death vary in importance, For example, data for white persons in the United States, 1962, indicate: D Accidents, the top killer among young people under 25, are of minor importance relative to other causes of death after age 45.

D Among persons 45+, diseases of the heart and malignant neoplasms (cancer) account for nearly two-thirds of all deaths.

1900 aG roup A

1905

1910

1915

1920

Infectious diseases, external,causes and childbirth

Typhoid feve r Tuberculosis Measles Syphi lis Scarlet fever Bronchitis Pertussis Pneumonia Dip htheria Pu erpera l hazards Dysentery External ca uses Diarrh ea and ente ri tis Early in fancy , and co ngenital malformations C Data

1925

1930

19 3 5

1940194519501955 bGroup B

Chronic noninfectious diseases

Cancer Heart disease Nephritis Cerebral vascular disease Diabetes mellitus Senility

Heart diseases far exceed malignancies except for a reversal among women aged 45 to 64 (for whom malignancies are the primary cause of death, with heart disease a close second).

D Vascular lesions of the central nervous system are third in importance among men and women 45+, accounting for 13 to 17 per cent of all deaths among OP 65+. See Exhibit 9· 1. (Me tropolitan

Life Insurance Company, 11/1964, p, 6) 1· b

are cor rected fo r changes in mortality li stings .

Source: Freeman , 1960, pp. 24 · 25 (adapted). From Freem an , Joseph T., in Aging: Some Soc ial and Biolog ical Aspects , Publication No. 65 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Copyright © 1960 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Trends

The steep decline in United States death rates since the beginning of the century (see Chapter 2, 3· a) has been paralleled by radical changes in the leading causes of death. See Exhibit 9·2.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION: FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY

197

o

For the population as a whole, there has been a decrease in the proportion of deaths due to infectious diseases, external causes, and childbirth, and a relative increase in deaths due to chronic noninfectious diseases_ See Exhibit 9' 2. (Freeman, 1960) Thus, the leading causes of death in 1900 were pneumonia and influenza, and tuberculosis; whereas in 1964, the leading causes were diseases of the heart, cancer, and cer~bral hemorrhage _ See Exhibit 9' 3. (Spiegelman, 1966, p.S)

o

These shifts in causes of death have been associated with the following factors: Improvements in sanitation, immunization, therapeutic agents (antibiotics came into widespread use in the late 1940's), and medical care, together with broad changes in education, standard of living, and nutrition Development of certain conditions potentially deleterious to health (such as smoking and air pollution) Gradual aging of the population (see Chapter 2, section 2), so that greater numbers and larger proportions of the people survive to become subject to the ills of later life (Spiegelman, 1966,pp .S-6)

o

For the older sectors of the population (persons 65+), there have been declines since 1929 in mortality from several leading causes. See Exhibit 9 • 4. Pneumonia and tuberculosis, in particular, have decreased with improved control of infectious diseases.

EXHIBIT 9· 3 The ten leading causes of death in the United States, 1900 and 1964

Cause of death

Rank

Death rate per 100,000 population

Per cent of deaths from all causes

202 194 143 137 107 89

11.8 11.3 8.3 8.0 6.2 5.2 4.2 3.7 2.3 2.0

1900 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pneumonia and influenza Tuberculosis Diarrhea and enteritis Diseases of the heart Cerebral hemorrhage Nephritis Accidents Cancer Diphtheria Meningitis

72 64 40 34

1964 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10

Diseases of the heart Cancer and other malignancies Cerebral hemorrhage Accidents Certain diseases of early infancy Pneumonia and influenza (except of newborn) General arteriosclerosis Diabetes mellitus Other diseases of circulatory system Other bronchopulmonic diseases

366 151 104 54 32 31

38.9 16.1 11.0

19 17 14

2.1 1.8 1.4

12

1.3

Note: Because of a change in the procedures of reporting and classifying detailed causes of death, the death rates for many of the leading causes in 1964 are not strictly comparable with those for 1900.

However, there has been a long-term rise among men in mortality associated with malignant neoplasms (cancer). Moreover, death rates from sevSource: Spiegelman. 1966. p. 5 , data from National Center for Health Statistics.

198 Trends

5.8 3.4 3.3

EXHIBIT 9·4 Mortality from leading causes at age 65 to 84, United States , 1929 to 1958 (death rate per 100,000 white population) Age 75-84

Age 65-74

Per cent change from

Per cent change from Cause of death White male All causes Cardiovascular·renal diseases Malignant neoplasms Accidents, total Motor vehicle Pneumonia and influenza Tuberculosis White female All causes Cardiovascular·renal diseases Malignant neoplasms Accidents, total Motor vehicle Pneumonia and influenza Tuberculosis

19291931

19391941

19491951

1954

1958

19291931 to 1958

5,559.2 5,290.9 4 ,832.7 4,733 .1 5,067.3

8.8

762.2 219.0 87.8 239.6 100.8

795.9 156.9 58.7 107.5 83.6

861.9 137.8 51.3 88.3 53 .6

912.8 123.8 50.6 130.9 43.0

612.8 81.5 20 .7 66.8 26.6

609.9 69.9 20.2 47.8 14.1

605.9 65.2 22 .0 63.0 9.7

1954

1958

19291931 to 1958

12,189.7 11 ,998.5 10,522.3 10,063.5 10,437.9 -14.4 7,832.1

7,226.1

6,906.3

7,217.0 -

+27.8 -49.1 -44.2 -66.6 -65 .1

1.112.9 451.8 130.7 1,015.8 115.1

1,340.1 462.6 124.5 698.9 89.4

1,366.0 330.1 84.9 322.4 85.1

1,421.9 291.9 80.1 262.1 63.9

1,410.5 247.7 69.2 364.5 52.4

10,984.0 10,328.4

8,475.7

7,888.5

7,800.8 -29.0 5,699.9 -16.4

2,610.8 2,374.6 2,032 .2 1,869.8 1,898.1 -27.3 680.3 136.5 30.7 188.3 55.0

19491951

7,695 .5

4,651.6 4,069 .7 3 ,226.1 2,973.0 3,007.0 -35.4

700 .2 148.9 38.2 374.4 89.7

19391941

.5

3,164.1 3 ,150.0 3,057.0 2,970 .6 3,180.7 + 714.5 243.2 90.7 391.9 123.1

19291931

-13.5 -56.2 -42.4 -83.2 -89.2

6,818.7

6,808.0

6,017 .8

5,673 .8

1,046.3 517.0 46.3 1,079.0 108.3

1,093.3 534.5 39.1 644.3 69.8

1,026.1 330.0 26.5 254.4 40.5

1,017.0 263.7 25.7 193.7 24.3

936.5 209.5 25.2 237.3 18.3

6.2

+26.7 -45.2 -47.1 -64.1 -54.5

-10.5 -59.5 -45.6 -78.0 -83.1

Note : Figures have not been adjusted for changes in the rules for cod ing and class ifyin g ca uses of death occasioned by revisions of the Internation al lists of Causes of Death.

Source: Metropolitan Life In surance Company ,Statistical B ulletin, 10/ 1960, p. 7; data from the National Office of Vital Statistics.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION : FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY

199

eral causes (pneumonia and influenza, cardiovascula r diseases) have turned upward in recent years . ( M etropolitan Life In suran ce Company, 10; 1960 , pp. 6-8 )

1 •C

Sex differen ces

The persistent tendency for females to outlive males suggests a biological relationship between sex and longevity, although a full explanation of the relationship awaits clarification. At the same time, analyses of death rates and the causes of death show that environmental factors can also contribute to variations in the sex-mortality ratio (ratio of the male death rate to the female death rate) and to changes in this ratio over t ime.

o

Lower mortality rates for females than for males have been widely observed . These lower rates have been observed at most age levels in the United States and most Western countries today (see Chapter 2, 3 • b) .

Sex ratio month of uterogestation

EXHIBIT 9 · 5

of stillbirths , by

Per cent of cases in whic h sex was recogn ized

R atio of m ales to fem ales

All months'

96.9

1.33

Under 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 and over

10.1 27.8 63.2 89.5 97.4 99.0 99.4 99.6 99.8 99.6

2.28 4.31 3 .61 2.01 1.40 1.23 1.12 1.25 1.35 1.33

Month of uterogestation

, In cl ud in g th ose of un k nown mont h .

Lower mortality rates for females have been noted even when certain sociocultural characteristics of m ale and female roles are held constant. For example, males and females in similar Roman Ca t holic teachin g orders, rem oved from the sex roles of ordinary living and subjected to fairly homogeneous strains and hazards, showed consistently higher expectation of life (at age 45) for females than for males. (Madigan and Vance, 19 5 7, pp. 198-1 99) Lower mortality rates have been observed in fetal life, where more male than female still births have been noted, with the ratio of males to fem ales declining from the second to the seventh month of gestation . See Exhibit 9' 5. ( Dublin et al ., 1949, pp. 129- 130 )

200

Trends

Source: Dublin , et al., 1949 , p. 1 30; based on Ciocco, 1938; cases regis tered in a se lected area of the United States, 192 5· 1934.

EXHIBIT9 · 6

These lower rates have also been noted among other animal species studied. See Exhibit 9·6. ( Kallmann and ]arvik , 1959, p . 231. Clark, 1964, pp.226-228)

Life-span differences , by sex, in selected laboratory animals Male Female

Days

o

Fruit fly

b

50

100

150

200

o

250

300

750

900

31 days 3

For example, accidents, suicide, and homicide are non biological causes that are extraordinarily more destructive of males than of females. ( Bogue , 1959, p. 197 )

days

o

60 days

Beetle

The increasing gap since 1920 between male and female mortality rates in the United States (see Exhibits 2 . 10 and 2 . 14) has been attributed to causes that were partly environmental in origin .

111 day

100 days

Spider

271

An analysis of the two age groups with the greatest increases in sex-mortality ratios (15 to 24 and 45 to 64) points to two trends that increase the difference between male and female death rates.

ays

~0 . 750

Rat

days 900 days

I

However, studies of human death rates ·after early infancy suggest that environmental factors also playa part in sex differences in mortality.

I

I

I

I

There were decli n es in certain causes of death particularly affecting f emales in the past: maternal mortality and tuberculosis among the younger women and cancer of the uterus and diseases associated with high blood pressure in the older group. These declines are associated with social, medical, and public health advances. At the same time, there were i n cr eases in death rates from certain causes particularly affecting males in these age groups: motor vehicle accidents among younger men and lung cancer and coronary heart disease among older men. Both accidents and lung cancer are traceable, at least in part, to non biological factors. ( Enterlin e, 1961 , pp . 312-328 )

Source: Kallm ann and Jarvik. 1959. p. 23 1

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION : FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY

201

1 •d

Differences by occupational level

Some studies made in England and Wales (19211923, 1930-1932, and 1950) show varied relation' ships between specific causes of death and occu· pational level. (To the extent that these analyses are not controlled by age, they may suffer from more accurate reporting at the upper in contrast to the lower levels .)

countries

Male

1956, pp.140- 142) 1•e

Future possibilities

To what extent has the declining death rate reached a biologically imposed minimum? Although the an· swer cannot be determined directly, several clues show that there is room for further improvement. D When sex· and age·specific death rates for the United States (1960) are compared with the cor· responding lowest recorded death rates for other countries of low mortality, the United States rate proves to be higher at each age level except for the very elderly (men 85+ and women 75+) . See Exhibit 9 • 7. The gap between United States rates and these lowest rates indicates that further declines in United States rates are possible. ( National Cen-

ter for Health Statistics, 1964, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 3, No.1 )

202

Differences by occupational leve l

Female

Unit d 5t tes

_. 1--

Low st re orde rate ~

10 ,000 8,000

These studies indicate that such diseases as bronchitis, respiratory tuberculosis, and myocardial degeneration are inversely associated with occupa· tional level (most pronounced among unskilled workers) . They also iCldicate that coronary disease and leukemia tend to be positively associated with oc· cupational level (most pronounced among men in professional and managerial occupations). ( Logan,

of low mortality, by age and sex, 1959 to 1960

30,000

o

o

Death rates for the United States and lowest recorded death rates for

EXHIBIT 9 ·7

6,000

~ ~'" ~ '"

4,000

c 0

ro

2,000

0.

0

0.

0"

1 ,000

600

Q;

400

0.

~

~ /

~

Q)

ro

t:t:

200

V

100

\~

80

\

60

J

1//

V

I

I

1/

/

/

I

V,/

I

800

0

J

I

:::J

0 0 0

),

V,

/

1-"

\~

/ \/

\

40

\

V

V

I

~ /

/

/

/

/

~J

~

;;

20

o

10

20

30

40

Age

50

60

70

80 85 + 0

10

20

30

40

50

Age

Source: National Ce nt er for Heal th Statist ics, 1964, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 3 , No.1, p. 41.

60

70

80

85

+

Years of life that would be gained after age 60 by specified reductions in mortality, United States , 1958

D A similar inference is sometimes drawn from the fact that current death rates are already higher for certa in population segments than for others (see Chapter 2, section 3).

EXHIBIT 9 ' S

Y ears of life gained Per cent reduction in cause of death

Age 60

Cardiovascular·renal diseases 10 0.7 20 1.4 50 4.2 Malignant neoplasms 10 0.2 20 0.3 50 0.8 Accidents 10 * 20 0.1 50 0.1 Pneumonia and influenza 10 " 20 0.1 50 0.2 All other causes 10 0.1 20 0.3 50 0,7 Expectation of life in 1958

* Less

White female

White male

15.7

D One or more years of life might be gained by persons now aged 60 if certain important causes of death were to decrease. See Exhibit 9 ' 8.

Age 65

Age 70

Age 60

Age 65

Age 70

0.6 1.3 3.9

0.6 1.2 3.7

0.7 1.4 4.3

0.7 1.4 4.2

0.6 1.3 4.0

0 .1 0.2 0.7

0.1 0.2 0.6

0.2 0.3 0.8

0.1 0 .3 0.6

0 .1 0.2 0.5

D However, future trends in longevity will not necessarily all be in the direction of further in· creases in the rate of improvement.

*

*

,.

0.1

0.1

0.1 0.1 0 .2

0.1 0.1 0 .2

Gains during the 1950's in the United States were notably smaller than those in the preceding decade. (Metropo litan Life Insurance Com-

~,

*

*

~l':

0.1 0.1

For example, even a 10 per cent reduction in mortality from cardiovascular·renal diseases would add about two·thirds of a year of life to people in their 60's, a substantial gain in com· parison with the long·term increases in expecta· tion of life at older ages (compare Exhibit 2 ' 10).

pany, 7 / 1965,p.4 ) *

.,.

0.1

0.1

0.1 0.1 0.2

0.1 0 .2 0.5

0.1 0.2 0.5

0.1 0.2 0.5

0.1 0.2 0.5

0.1 0.2 0.4

12.7

10.1

19.2

15.4

12.0

0.1 0.1

0.1 0.1 0.2

'.'

than 0.05 ye ars.

Sou rce: Metropol itan Life Insurance Compa ny. Statistical Bulletin , November , 1960 , p . 2.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION : FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY

203

2

MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

See Chapter 14, section 1, for attitudes toward health and illness and Chapter 16, A, for mental disorder.

As more and more people live on into old age, the question that intrudes itself on social scientists is: How good are the later years? Although the answer must be sought in the many dimensions of the lives of older people, one dimension cuts across all the others: without reasonably good health, the later years may hardly be worth living. What, then, is the state of health of our older population? Conversely, to what extent are older people aware of departures from a state of physical or mental wellbeing (morbidity) resulting from disease or injury? What limitations do the physical conditions of the aged place on their activities? What are the prospects of improving the health of future generations of older people? The findings presently available show marked discrepancies in the health of old and young. On the average, older people are comparatively less often afflicted than the young with conditions classified as acute (such as infectious diseases or common colds), more often afflicted with chr.onic conditions (such as heart trouble or deafness), and more likely to suffer disability restrictions on their activity because of their health. It is not yet clear, however, how changes in health relate to the life cycle of the organism, although the pronounced variability among aging individuals does show that poor health is by no means an inevitable concomitant of old age. The continuing health researches now in progress should eventually shed light both on these life-

204

cycle changes and on the trends over time, for it is not now known whether an older person of, say, 65 years is better or worse off today than a person of 65 was a few decades ago. Data will be presented here on the prevalence of chronic conditions as a whole among older persons, including both chronic disease and impairments, as well as on the prevalence of acute illness. Comparisons will be made with younger age groups as well as between males and females within the older population. Various indexes of disability will also be examined to indicate the extent to which older persons feel the limitations of their physical condition. Finally, the kind of medical care older people receive, in terms of physician and dental visits and hospitalization, will be reported. In using the results of the Health Interview Survey, it must be' remembered that the Survey excludes that portion (some 4 per cent) of the population 65 and over who live under care in institutions . More important, the data are obtained directly from the subjects' own reports on their health or from reports about them by household members (unlike the data from the companion Health Examination Survey, which are based on medical reports). Thus, the data from the Interview Survey are limited by the layman's knowledge and his willingness and ability to communicate, reflecting his own assessment of his health rather than the assessment of his physician . Moreover, the age comparisons are largely cross-sectional, thus failing to separate the effects of aging from any possible differences among cohorts (generations) caused by changing health conditions.

EXHIBIT 9 · 9 Persons with specified number of chronic conditions: by age, United States, 1957 to 1958 (per 100 persons)

No. of conditions Males 1 or more chronic conditions Only 1 chronic condition 2 chronic conditions 3 or more chronic conditions Females 1 or more chronic conditions Only 1 chronic condition 2 chronic conditions 3 or more chronic conditions

All ages

Age under 15

Age 15--44

Age 45-64

2 •a

Age 65+

Chronic conditions as a whole

Chronic conditions, which include both impairments and chronic diseases, are far more prevalent among the old than the young, afflicting most OP to some degree. See Exhibit 9 . 9.

Chronic conditions are defined in the Health Interview Survey to include a check list of diseases and impairments plus any other condition noticed at least three months before the interview.

DEFINITION:

39 23 9 7

19 15 3 1

39 26 9 4

58 30 16 12

75 26 21 28

44 23

16 13 2 1

45 26

63 27 18 18

81 27 20 34

11 10

11 8

D Well over three-quarters of the population 65+ suffer from at least one chronic condition (1957 to 1958), and about half of them report two or more. D This represents a considerable increase over the younger age categories, which are far less likely to report chronic conditions_ (Spiegelman, 1964, p. 8)

a Includes chronic diseases and impairments .

Source: Spiegelman. 1964. p. 8; based on United States National Health Survey . 1959 . He alth Statistics . Series B. No . 11 , p. 2.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION: MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

205

2. b

Impairment

Impairments of function, which constitute one of the two major classes of chronic conditions, are widespread among OP, resulting from many types of pathological processes that range from acute and chronic disease to accidental injury.

o

Between age 65 and 75, almost two out of every five persons have some impairment of function . After age 75, more than three out of five persons are affected . See Exhibit 9 - 10.

o

Loss of hearing and visual impairment, including blindness, are the most prevalent impair' ments of function among OP. Among those 65 to 74, 13 per cent. reported hearing impairments and 7 per cent reported visual impairments, proportions that became even higher among those 75+. See Exhibit 9' 10. ( United States National Health Survey, 1959, Health Statistics , Series B, No.9, p. 9)

EXHIBIT 9 · 10 Type of impairment among persons 45 and over, United States, 1957 to 1958 (rate per 1,000)

Type

of impairme nt

All impairments Blindness Other visual impairment Hearing impairments Speech defects Paralysis Absence, fingers, toes, only Absence, major extremities Impairment," lower extremities Impairment," upper extremities Impairment," limbs, back, trunk, except extremities only All other impairments

Age

Age

Age

45-64

65-74

75+

212.4

376.6

615.0

5.9 18.5 52 .2 3.7 8.8 15.9 3 .3 26.5 17.6 48.7

25.9 48.8 129.2 6.8 15.9 22.6 4.4 37.1 24.6 49.7

83 .3 74.3 256.4 6.1 34.4 17.4 7.0 39.7 26.6 61.6

11.2

11.6

8.2

' Except paralysis and absence.

Source: United States National Health Survey, 1959, Health Statistics, Series B, No.9, p. 9 (adap ted ).

206 Impairment

o

EXHIBIT 9 · 11 Impairments, by age and sex, United States, 1957 to 1958 (rate per 100)

Impairment

Age under

Age

Age

Age

25

25-44

45-64

65+

16

6

16

25

50

7 9

2 4

9 7

12 13

15 35

12

5

10

18

42

3 9

1 4

2 8

5 13

8 34

14

5

13

21

46

1 1 3 6 3

0 0 1

0 1 2 7 3

1 2 5 9 4

4 6 17 12 7

All ages

Males Total Caused by injury Not caused by injury

Over one-third of all impairments are caused by injury, and among persons 65 +, various types of falls are an important factor, accounting for almost 39 per cent of impairments due to injury, as compared with 22 per cent of injuries among those 15 to 44 and 27 per cent of those 45 to 64_ (N ational Center for Health Statistics , 1964, Vital

and Health Statistics , Series 10, No.6)

o

Impairments tend to increase as age increases. See Exhibit 9·11. (Spiegelman, 1964, pp. 8-9)

Females Total Caused by injury Not caused by injury Both sexes

Total Blindness as reported Other visual impairment Hearing impairment Impairment of extremities" All other impairments

2 2

a Includes upper and lower extremities, limb, back and trunk, except for cases of paralysis and absence of body pain.

Source: Spiegelman, 1964 , p. 8; based on United States Natio nal Health Survey , 1959, Health Statistics , Series B, No.9 , p. 9.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION: MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

207

Analys is of several specific impa irments shows an especially precipitous rise in paralysis and disorders of vision and hearing after age 65. See Exhibit 9 ' 12. ( United States National Health

Specific impaiTments, by age, United States, 1957 to 1958

EXHIBIT 9 . 12 80

80

Bli ndness

60

Survey, 1959, Health Statistics , Series B, No.

I

40

9, p.3)

20

-'

0

"",

20

---

0

0 0 0 ..-
~

~

//

0.

'"c

~~

1

180

a.

2 •d

Art hritis and rheu mati sm

"..;'

~;' ..f'__ V;; ~;

-

- ---. -----..

_

-..- - ~-~ F:"---~-

.. -.

-

--.........,

0 45 to 54

55 to 64

65 to 74

'-

Ast hma. hayfever Dia betes N

ronic bronc hitis

Pe pt;c ulcer

75 and over

Age

Source: United States National Health Survey. 1960. Health Statistics. Series C, No . 4 , pp. 3 1, 35 (adapted).

210 Chronic disease

o

Incidence of acute conditions, by age, United States, July, 1957, to June, 1958 (per 100 persons per year)

EXHIBIT 9 . 15

Condition

ALL ages

Age under 5

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

5-14

15-24

25--44

45-64

65+

o

248

406

347

251

194

157

155

o

22

56

41

14

13

7

1

158 13 34 21

260 20 36 34

218 40 31

144 20 52 21

124 11 31 15

106 5 28 11

114 13 14 13

272

402

355

291

247

194

169

24

51

51

18

16

9

4

179 15 23 31

273 27 22 29

237 15 24 28

183 20 22

163 13 19 36

131 10 25 19

98 14 32 21

Males Total I nfectiousa nd parasitic Respiratory Digestive Injuries All other acute

17

Females Total Infectious and parasitic Respiratory Digestive Injuries All other acute

Children under 5 experienced an average of four acute conditio ns per year (1957 to 1958) . This average fell consistently with age, reaching 1.55 for males and 1.69 for females aged 65 + .

48

Respiratory illnesses are the acute condition at all ages .

most common

Not only respiratory conditions but also the other acute categories show a general tendency to decline with age, although there are some reversals (notably the increase in injuries among older females) . (Spiege lman , 1964, pp. 8- 9)

2 • e Sex differences in ch1'Onic and acute condition s Among OP 65 + (as at the younger ages, beginning with adolescents) morbidity tends to be more frequent among females than among males .

o

Women are more likely to report one or more chronic conditions generally. See Exhibit 9·9.

o

Impairments, however, are less common amon g women . Men report more impairments caused by injury, and men and women are similar in frequency of other types of impairments . See Exhibit 9·11.

o

Women are more likely than men to report acute conditions (except for a reversal in respiratory conditions, where women 65 + are lower than their male counterparts). See Exhibit 9·15. (Spiege lman, 1964, p . 8 )

Source : Spiegelman, 1964 , p. 8; based on United States National H ealth Survey , 1958 , Health Statistics, Se ries B, No.6, p . 19.

MORTALITY AND MO RBID ITY IN THE PO PULATION : MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES 211

Disability

2•f

Paralleling the rise with age of chronic conditions, there is also a rise in disability, that is, in the temporary or long-term reduction of the person's activity as a result of an acute or a chronic condition. NOTE:

A number of measures of disability are used by

the National Center for Health Statistics, giving some perspective on the extent to which OP feel the limitations of their physical condition. Such measures include the number of days of restriction of usual activity, days spent in bed, and days lost from work, as well as self-ratings of limitations on activity or mobility. These measures, it should be noted, tend to reflect not only organic disease and impairment but also the individual's motivation either to define himself as "sick" or to disregard actual impairments. See Chapter 13. section 3. for OP's conception of their own health.

o

Disability for both sexes (1963 to 1964) increases stead ily with age, on the average, after age 15 to 24, as measured by the number of restricted activity days (in which usual activities were cut down) and by the number of bed-disability days (in which more than half the daylight hours were spent in bed or in the hospital). See Exhibit 9 . 16. (Spiegelman, 1966, p. 9)

EXHIBIT 9 ' 16 Average annual days of disability, by age and family income, United States, July, 1963, to June, 1964 Restricted-activity days per person per year All ages

Age under 5

Total

14.1

11.3

11.7

Under $2,000 $2,000-$3,999 $4,000-$6,999 $7,000 and over

24.9 16.6 11.9 11.2 11.5

10.4 10.0 12.2 11.9 10.0

Total

18.3

Under $2,000 $2,000-$3,999 $4,000-$6,999 $7,000 and over

28.3 18.9 15.9 16.0 17.7

Family income

Age 5-14

Age 15-24

Age 25-44

Age 45-64

Age 65-74

Age 75+

7.9

10.3

19.5

31.9

36.1

11.1 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.0

7.6 7.7 7.9 8.3 7.9

19.2 13.1 9.9 7.9 7.2

43.6 26.5 15.6 14.1 11.1

46.9 34.8 22.0 12.3 23.7

42.1 29.7 17.1 51.2 38.8

9.8

12.5

11.4

18.4

23.6

34.8

46.2

10.5 7.7 10.8 9.7 9.1

12.9 10.9 12.1 14.0 11.9

11.9 12.8 11.3 10.4 9 .4

26.0 19.6 17.8 16.2 20.8

36.1 25.5 21.0 19.6 17.9

41.0 35.1 27.4 27.2 31.5

47.6 48.0 42.0 53.6 34.8

Males

Unknown Females

Unknown ' Data not available.

Source : Spiegelman, 1966 , p. 9, based on National Center for Health Statistics, 1965 , Vital and Health Statistics , Series 10 . No . 24.

212 Disability

o

A very similar pattern of bed-disability days by age was revealed in an earlier (1957 to 1961) National Health Survey, suggesting the stability of the pattern over a short period of time. (National

Bed-disability days per person per year Age under

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

5

5-14

15-24

25-44

45-64

65-74

75+

5.4

5.0

5.2

3 .0

3.9

6.3

11.4

14.6

8 .7 6.6 4.6 4.3 4 .8

4.3 4.9 5.5 4.7 5.2

4.7 5.7 4.9 5.4 5.1

2.5 2.9 3.2 3.2 3.4

5.8 4.9 3.9 3.4 2.4

13.3 9.5 4.9 4.2 5.1

17.6 13.2 7.3 4 .2 4.8

15.8 10.9 11.9 17.7 20.7

7 .4

4 .5

6.0

5.4

6.9

8.2

12.5

23.6

11.5 8.1 6.5 6.2 6.6

5.7 4.0 5.2 3.8

7.2 4.8 5.6 6.7 6.0

6.6 6.1 5.2 4 .3 5.1

12.0 8.5 6.6 5.2 6.8

11.9 9.4 6.7 7.3 6.0

14.1 12.9 13.7 8.6 7.9

22.2 28.3 21.2 29.1 17.6

All ages

Center for Health Statistics, 1963, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 10, NO.4. National Center fo r Health Statistics, 1964, Vital and Health Statistics , Series 10, No. 12 )

o

By sex, females at all ages over 15 report more days of disability than males. See Exhibit 9' 16.

o

By residence , disability days tend to be higher (1963 to 1964) for rural than urban residents (45 +) . (Spiege lman , 1966, pp. 9-10 )

o

By income, disability days tend to decrease as family income rises for all sex and age categories between 25 and 74, but not for OP 75 +. See Exhibit 9' 16. (Spiege lman , 1966, pp. 9-10 . Similar finding for OP 65 +, Epstein and Murray, 1967,

pp . 175-176; 1963 Survey of the Aged) Although it is not clear to what extent high disability may be a cause or a consequence of low income, the variations among children and OP 75 + suggest that disability may be a causal factor.

INTERPRETATION:

o

By employment status, disability is appreciably lower, as expected, among OP who are usually working than among other OP. See Exhibit 3' 14 and·Chapter 3, B . 3 . a. Disabil ity days do not increase as rapidly with

age among employed persons as they do in the general population. (Spiegelman, 1964, pp. 910 )

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION : MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

213

2 •g

Disability and chronic conditions

Despite the reported prevalence of chronic condi tions (point 2 • a), only small proportions of OP seem severely handicapped.

Degree of limitation of activity due to chronic conditions, by age, United States, 1961 to 1963 (percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 9 ' 17

Persons with one or more chronic conditions

o

While 81 per cent of OP 65+ suffer some chronic condition (1961 to 1963), 32 per cent report no activity limitation due to chronic conditions, and only 15 per cent are unable to carryon their major activity. See Exhibit 9 . 17.

Age

All persons

Persons with no chronic conditions

Total

With no limitation of activity

With With limitation limitation, in amount but not or kind in major of major activity' activity'

Unable to carry

on major activity"

All ages

100.0

55.9

44.1

31.9

3.4

6.6

2.3

Under 17 17-44 45-64 65+

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

80.1 52.5 35.9 19.0

19.9 47.5 64.1 81.0

17.8 39.3 43.7 32.3

1.1 3.1 5.9 7.3

0.8 4.5 11.6 25.9

0.2 0.6 2.8 15.5

a Maior activity refers to ability to work . keep house, or engage in school or preschool activities.

Source : National Center for Health Statistics , 1965 , Vital and Health Statistics , Series 10, No. 17, p. 26 (adapted) .

214

Disability and chronic conditions

EXHIBIT 9 · 18 Leading causes of activity limitation among persons 65 and over, United States, 1961 to 1963 25

Per cent 21.8

Q)

Specific ch ronic cond ition causi ng limitation Total number of persons limited in activity

o

Among those OP 65+ who do report activity limitation due to chronic conditions, the major causes are heart conditions (22 per cent) and arthritis and rheumatism (21 per cent). See Exhibit 9' 18. (National Center for Health Statistics, 1965, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 10, No. 17; data for 1961-1963)

::J

ro u

2 •h

20

Q)

-5

Although there are no firm data on long·term trends in morbidity, over time more and more people survive to the ages characterized by long-term illness . Accordingly, for the population as a whole, there may well have been increases in the prevalence of certain chronic conditions. However, there is little evidence whether an OP of a given age is in better or worse health now than in earlier decades.

ro

c Q

.-

C

0

~

Q)

0.

Trends in health

Q)

-5 0

10

"0

.~ E

0 C Q)

u ~

Q)

[L

0 Heart conditions

Arthritis and rheumatism

Visual impairments

Hypertension without heart involvement

Mental and nervous conditions

Impairments, lower extremities

and hips (except paralysis and absence)

Source: National Center for Health Statistics, 1965, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 10, No. 17 , p. 5.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION: MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

215

o

One analysis for Germany and Sweden suggests that there may have been age-specific declines in invalidism among OP. See Exhibit 9' 19_ (Sjogren

EXHIBIT 9· 19 Trends in invalidism, estimated for Germany and Sweden (number of invalids per 1,000 of population)

and Larsson , 1959, p. 576; data for German sickness insurance and Swedish national pension insurance ) Such statistical data are uncorrected for changes in legislation, income structure, and other extraneous factors that may destroy their comparability.

Sweden Germany, 1906-1908

1921-1925

December, 1940

January, 1952

Age

Male Female

Male Female

Male Female

Male Female

60 61 62 63 64 65 66

183 212 245 283 326 373 424

CAUTION:

The health of OP may indeed be better now than it has been in the past as it keeps pace with improvements in medical and environmental conditions. With control of infections at the early ages, for example, smaller proportions may be entering old age with chronic conditions as sequelae of these infections (for example, rheumatic heart disease) . On the other hand, these very improvem ents may operate to produce a less-healthy population of OP by making it possible for the weaker members to survive_

INTERPRETATION:

333 373 417 462 508 554 599

130 142 156 173 192 215 243

183 201 221 245 273 307 347

71 87 97 110 128 153 182

124 147 166 198 226 257 285

68 74 78 89 102 114 122

88 100 107 122 150 162 164

Source : Sjogren and Larsson . 1959 , p. 575 ; based on sickness insurance record s for Germany , national pension insurance record s for Sweden.

216 Trends in health

Physician visits' for persons 65 and over, Uniteq States (per person per year)

EXHIBIT 9 ·20

Sex

2"i

Health Information Foundation study, May-June, 1957

National Health Survey, July , 1957-June, 1959

7.6 6.7 8.4

6 .8 6.1 7.3

Both sexes 65+ Males 65+ Females 65+

Medical care

See Chapter 25 for the roles of OP in hospitals, nursing homes, and other types of institutions .

' The National Health Survey defined " physician" as a doctor of medicine or an osteopa th . The Health Informa tion Found ation stud y defined " ph ys ician " as any practitioner consi dered to be a "doctor" by the respondent, with the exception of dentists and Christia n Science practitioners. Thi s broader definition may acco unt in part for the higher number of physician visits reported in the latte r study. Both studie s included telephone co nsultati ons under "visi t "

Sou rce : Un ited Sta tes National H ea lth Survey, 19 60 , Health Statistics, Series C, No.4' and Health Informa tion Fou ndation , 19 60, Re search Series. No. 16 .

Intervals of stay in short-stay hospitals, by age, United States, July , 1962, to June, 1963 (percentage distribution of hospitalized persons)

EXHIBIT 9 ·21

Interval of hospital stay Age

Number of discharges (in thousands)

All days

1-3 days

4-7 days

8-14 15 or more days days

15-44 45-64 65+

10,978 5,133 2,864

100.0 100.0 100.0

37.8 25.0 14.6

42.7 31.9 29.0

14.4 25 .3 29.4

The state of health of OP, as well as their resources and the availability of facilities, is reflected in the medical, dental, and hospital care they receive.

D The number of physician visits (in person or by telephone) increases with age from about five per year (in 1957-1959) at ages 45 to 54 to about seven for OP 65 +. Females 65 + avera ge over one more visit per year than males of the same age. See Exhibit

9·20. ( United States National Health Survey, 1960, Health Statistics, Series C, No.4. Similar findings reported for 1957 by Health Information Foundation , 1960, No. 10) D The extent of hospital care also rises with age durin g adult life. The number of discharges from short-stay hospitals increases with age for both sexes, although women (after the childbearing years) are less likely to be hospitalized than men. When the OP 65 + is hospitalized (in a short-stay hospital), his length of stay is considerably longer than that of a younger person. See Exhibit

9·21. (Nation al Center for Health Statistics , 1964, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 10, No.9)

5.1 17.9 27.0

Source: Natio nal Ce nter for Health Statistics, 1964, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 10 , No .9, p. 16 (a dapted ).

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION: MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

217

o

On the average, OP 65+ spend close to three times as much for medicines as persons under 65, the amounts spent at both age levels rising sharply with the presence of chronic conditions and the consequent degree of activity limitation. See Exhibit

9·22. Most of this expenditure is for prescribed, rather than nonprescribed, medicines. Females generally spend more than males for this purpose. (United States Administration on

Aging, 111967, p . 6; based on data from National Center for Health Statistics)

o

In line with the loss of natural teeth with age (see point 2 • b), dental care requirements also change. The proportion of dental visits per year devoted to denture work increases, while the proportion devoted to fillings and x-rays dedi nes. (X·ray visits decline from 38 per 100 persons per year in the 15 to 44 age group to 10.4 among those

65+.) ( National Center for Health Statistics, 1964, Vital and Health Statistics , Series 10, No.9)

EXHIBIT g. 22 Cost of medicines, by chronic condition and activity limitation, United States, 1964 to 1965 (per person per year) Both sexes Pre- NonpreTotal scribed scribed Persons under 65 $18.00 $12.70 $ 5.30 7.70 4.20 3.50 No chronic conditions 7.80 1 or more chronic conditions 32.00 24.20 25.50 18.30 7.20 No activity limitation Degree of limitation in major activity None 50.10 39.80 10.30 Some 56.50 46.30 10.20 Complete 92.50 83.80 8 .70 50 .20 41.40 8.80 Persons 65+ No chronic conditions 6.70 3.90 2.80 1 or more chronic conditions 58.80 48.80 10.00 36.30 28.70 7.60 No activity limitation Degree of limitation in major activity 68.70 57.40 11.30 None 67.50 56.00 11.50 Some 90.90 78.80 12.10 Complete

Female

Male Total

Pre- Nonprescribed scribed

$14.90 $ 9.90 $ 5.00 3.50 6.90 3.40 26.20 19.00 7.20 21.10 14.40 6.70

Total

$ 21.20 $ 15.50 $ 5.70 3.70 8.60 4.90 28.80 8.20 37.00 21.90 7.50 29.40

42.00 38.70 81.50 43 .30 6.20 51.50 27.00

32.10 29.60 72.70 34.70 3.10 41.70 19.40

9.90 9.10 8.80 8.60 3.10 9 .80 7.60

56.00 72.00 123.40 55.70 7.30 64.40 41.60

45 .50 60.70 114.80 46.70 4.70 54.30 34.00

10.50 11 .30 8.60 9 .00 2.60 10.10 7.60

52.30 50.40 83.50

40.90 40.80 71.00

11.40 9.60 12.50

75.70 80.60 106.00

64.40 67.60 94.70

11.30 13.00 11.30

Source : United States Admin istration on Agin g. 1/ 1967 , p . 6 ; data from National Center for Health Statistics.

218 Medical care

Pre- Nonprescribed scribed

RESEARCH NEEDS

1 How do the social variables related to longevity correlate with morbidity and causes of death?

2 What are the implications of the relatively higher female morbidity rates in contrast to the relatively higher male mortality rates? 3 Has the health of older persons changed over time? Does the rather slight increase in life expectancy for persons 65 (or over) imply at most a slight improvement in health? When short-term trends can be measured from accumulating data in the National Health Survey , w ill they show that older persons today are in better or worse health than in form er years? Will levels of health tend to rise with advances in income and education? 4 How does the level of health change with aging when trends over time (and differences among cohorts) are held constant?

Ciocco, A., 1938. "The Masculinity of Stillbirths and Abortions in Relation to the Duration of Uterogestation and to the Stated Causes of Foetal Mortality," Human Biology, 10, p. 235. Clark, Arnold M., 1964. "Genetic Factors Associated with Aging," in Strehler, Bernard L., editor, Advances in Gerontological Research, New York: Academic Press, pp. 207-255. Dublin, Louis I., Alfred J. Lotka, and Mortimer Spiegelman, 1949. Length of Life, New York: Ronald Press Co. Enterline, Philip E., 1961. "Causes of Death Responsible for Recent Increases in Sex Mortality Differentials in the United States," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 39, pp. 312-328. Epstein, Lenore A., and Janet H. Murray, 1967.

The Aged Population of the United States : The 1963 Social Security Survey of the Aged, Washington: Government Printing Office. Freeman, Joseph T., 1960. "The Geriatric Limb on the Gerontology Tree," in Shock, Nathan W., editor, Aging: Some Social and Biological Aspects , Washington : American Association for the Advancement of Science, pp . 19-40. Health Information Foundation , 1960. Research Series, No. 10.

5 How do the morbidity statistics from the Health Interview Survey compare with those from the Health Examination Survey, as each may reflect a different aspect of the condition of older people?

- - -, 1960. Research Series, No. 16.

Works cited in Chapter 9

Logan, W. P. D., 1956. "Social Class Variations in Mortality," in Spengler, Joseph J. , and Otis Dudley Duncan, editors, Demographic Analysis, Glencoe, III.: The Free Press, pp. 138-144.

Birren , James E., editor, 1959. Handbook of Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of Ch icago Press . Bogue, Donald J., 1959. The Population of United States, Glencoe, III.: The Free Press.

the

Kallmann, F. J., and Lissy F. Jarvik, 1959. "Individual Differences in Constitution and Genetic Background," in Birren , James E., editor,

Handbook of Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp . 216-

263 .

Madigan, F. C., and R. B. Vance, 1957. "Differential Sex Mortality: A Research Design ," Social Forces , 35, pp . 193-199.

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION : RESEARCH NEEDS

219

* Metropolitan

Life Insurance Company,

10/1960.

Statistical Bulletin, vol. 41.

* ---, 11/1960. Statistical Bulletin , Vol. 41. * ---, 11 / 1964. Statistical Bulletin, Vol. 45 . * ---, 7/ 1965. Statistical Bulletin, Vol. 46 . * National Center for Health Statistics, 1962. "Mor· tality," Vital Statistics of the United States, Vol. II, Part A, Public Health Service, Washington: Government Printing Office.

1964," Vital and Health Statistics, PHS Pub. No . 1000, Series 10, No . 15, Public Health Service, Washington: Government Printing Of· fice.

Strehler, Bernard L. , editor, 1964-a. Advances in Gerontological Research, New York: Academic Press.

United States Administration on Aging, 1/ 1967. "Year-end Statistical Round-up," Useful 1965. "Chronic Conditions and Activity Facts , No. 17, Washington . Limitation, United States, July, 1961 to June, 1963," Vital and Health Statistics , PHS Pub. ':' United States National Health Survey, 1958. "Acute No. 1000, Series 10, No. 17, Public Health Conditions, Incidence and Associated DisabilService, Washington: Government Printing Of· ity, United States, July, 1957 to June, 1958," fice. Health Statistics, PHS Pub. No. 584-B8,

'~---,

Series B, No.6, Public Health Service, Wash1963. "Disability Days, United States, July, '~ _ _ _ , 1965. "Disability Days, United States, ington: Government Printing Office. July, 1963 to June, 1964," Vital and Health 1961 to June, 1962," Vital and Health Statistics , PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 10, No.4, Statistics, PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 10, No. '~---, 1959. "Impairments by Type, Sex, and Public Health Service, Washington: Govern24, Public Health Service, Washington: GovernAge, United States, July, 1957 to June, 1958," ment Printing Office. ment Printing Office. Health Statistics , PHS Pub. No. 584-B8, Series B, No.9, Public Health Service, Wash · * - - -, 1964. "The Change in Mortality Trend in Shock, Nathan W., editor, 1960. Aging: Some Soington: Government Printing Office. the Un ited States," Vital and Health Statiscial and Biological Aspects, Washington: tic s, PHS Pub . No. 1000, Series 3, No. 1, PubAmerican Association for the Advancement of * ---, 1959. "Limitation of Activity and Mobility, lic Health Service, Washington: Government Due to Chronic Conditions, United States, Science. Pri nti ng Office. July, 1957 to June, 1958," Health Statistics , Sjogren, Torsten, and Tage Larsson, 1959. "The PHS Pub. No. 584--B8, Series B, No . 11, Pub1964. "Medical Care, Health Status and Changing Age Structure in Sweden and Its Imlic Health Service, Washington: Government Family Income," Vital and Health Statistics, pact on Mental Illness," Bulletin of the World Printing Office. PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 10, No.9, Public Health Organization, 21, pp. 569-582 . Health Service, Washington: Government * - - -, 1960. "Older Persons, Selected Health Spengler, Joseph J., and Otis Dudley Duncan, edi· Printing Office. Characteristics, United States, July, 1957 to tors, 1956. Demographic Analysis, Glencoe, June, 1959," Health Statistics , PHS Pub. No. 1964. "Bed Disability Among the ChroniIII.: The Free Press. 584-64, Series C, No.4, Public Health Servcally Limited, United States, July, 1957 to ice, Washington: Government Printing Office. * Spiegelman, Mortimer, 1964. Significant Mortality June, 1961," Vital and Health Statistics, and Morbidity Trends in the United States PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 10, No. 12, Public Since 1900, Bryn Mawr, Pa .: The American Health Service, Washington: Government PrintCollege of Life Underwriters. ing Office.

* ---,

* ---,

* ---,

'~ ---,

1965. "Acute Conditions, Incidence and Associated Disability, July, 1963 to June,

• Suggested a dditional read ing

220

Works cited

* ---,

1966. Significant Mortality and Morbidity Trends in the United States Since 1900,

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

Bryn Mawr, Pa .: The American College of Life Underwriters .

Robert M . Krauss Mortimer Spiegelman

Mervyn W. Susser

J. Alan Winter

10 In contrast with studies of the spread of illness and disability through the population of older people, a wealth of research showing age-related changes focuses directly on the organism itself, dealing at many levels with molecules, cells and cell components, tissues, organs, and organ systems_ Both anatomical changes and changes in physiological functioning have been observed to correlate with age (despite many individual differences) . Although the functional changes may be of more direct relevance to the social scientist, concerned with illness and disability as one major aspect of old age, anatomical studies (which are merely illustrated in this book) are contributing massive data for students investigating the nature of the biological aging process.

PHYSICAL CHANGES Mary E. Moore

In general, the anatomical changes are of two main types. First, there is a decrease in the functional (parenchymal) cells of organ systems and an increase in the supporting connective tissues (stroma). Thus, even though the total weight of an organ may increase with age, its functional weight is likely to decrease. Second, certain substances (such as pigments, fats, calcium, and amyloid) tend to appear for the first time or to accumulate in excess quantities as age progresses. With such loss of cells and accretion of inert materials, certain functional changes and disturbances are likely to ensue (although the connection between anatomical and functional changes is not always clear)_ Many physiological functions tend to decline at a constant rate with increasing age. In other instances, the aged organism, though it may operate fairly well under conditions of rest, typically has little reserve capacity and falters under an increased load to which the younger organism can readily adjust.

221

1

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 3

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

4

PHYSIOLOGIC FUNCTIONING

1

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Some of the most striking of the physical changes that accompany advancing years take place in the connective tissues that surround the cells and organs throughout most of the body. Connective tissue serves as a supporting f ramework, and it is the medium through which nutrients and oxygen must pass on their way to cells and through which waste products from cells must exit. Thus, changes in the properties of connective tissues have an important potential for the functioning of the body as a whole. Connective tissue, wherever it occurs in the body, consists of a combination of (1) ground sub stance (an amorphous complex of protein and mucopolysaccharide) with associated tissue fluid and (2) protein fib ers . The protein fibers most crucial to the study of aging are elastin and, even more importantly, collagen, the complex structure and properties of which are beginning to be well understood .

1 °a

Amount of collagen

As the human, as well as the nonhuman , organism ages, the amount of collagen fiber increases in many parts of the body. For example, increases have been demonstrated in the following parts of the body:

D The human testes ( Stieve, 1930 )

D The human ovary ( W oll et al ., 1948) D The human prostate (Moore, 1936) D The adrenal of rats ( Dribben and Wolfe, 1947 )

D Th e thyroid of mice (A ndrew and Andrew, 1942 ) 1 °b

Amoun t of ground substan ce

The amount of ground substance relative to protein fibers (indexed by the hexosamine-collagen ratio) decreases with age, since protein fibers are deposited at a greater rate than the ground substance is formed. Sig nificantly, also, this ratio is found to be decreased among persons with chronic disease as compared with normal people of comrarable age. See Exhibit 10 . 1. ( Sobel et al., 1958 )

1 °c

Charact er of collagen

The nature of the collagen fibers changes in various technical respects as the organism ages. The col lagen taken from old animals compared with that taken from young animals is more rigid and stable, as evidenced by the following:

D It tends to be less soluble . ( Gross , 1958 ) D It tends to have less thermal contractility. ( V erzar, 1957 )

D The human lung ( Chvapil, 1955 )

D It tends to be less easily digested by the enzyme colla genase. ( Keech , 1955. Kohn and Rollerson,

D The human skin ( Sobel et aI. , 1954, 1958 )

1960 )

D The human skeletal muscle ( Bucciante and Luria, 1934 )

D It tends to have less osmotic swelling ability. ( Banfield, 1956. Kohn an d R ollerson, 1958 )

222

Amou n t of collagen

These changes in the properties of collagen have been attributed to an increase in the size of the molecules involved. These large molecules are believed to be formed by the cross-linking of the original collagen components . Since such crosslinking occurs artificially when leather is tanned , it has been suggested that aging may correspond to a natural tanning process . ( B jiirksten, 1962 )

1 °d

Elastin

Elastin, which is especially important as the protein fiber that gives large arteries their elastic properties, also undergoes changes with age.

D Elastin in the elastic lamina of aging blood vessels becomes thinned and fra gmented with age. ( Bertelsen , 1961 . Co x and Little, 1961 ) D Elastin from old aortas has a higher specific g ravity than elastin from young aortas. ( Lansing et al., 1951 ) D A fluorescent material and also a pigment like other age pigments found throughout the body have been found to accumulate in aging aortic elastin. ( L abella, 1962. Labella and Lindsay, 1963) D Elastin from the aorta of older persons appears to be more easily di gested by the enzyme elastase than that from young aortas, although the opposite findings have also been reported . ( Mull and Ram, 1965 ) As was the case for collagen, the changes in elastin have been postulated as resulting from a cross-linking or tanning process (Partridge et aI. , 1955). The evidence is not clear, however. Such a theory is not supported by the point just noted (Mull and Ram , 1965) since the theory would predict that elastin from an aging organism would be less, not more, digestible by elastase than elastin from a younger organism .

EXHIBIT 10 · 1

2

Ratio of ground substance to fiber in connective tissue, as a

function of age

Of special interest to the social scientist are studies of age-related changes in the central nervous system, Both the behavioral changes observed in motor, sensory, and cognitive function (Chapter 11) and the increase with age in mental illness (Chapter 16) have led to a search for physical correlates in the central nervous system. The neuron (nerve cell), the functional unit of the central nervous system, is unlike many other cells in the body in that it does not reproduce itself. Ma n begins life with his entire allotment of neurons, and the only change that can occur is a loss due to the death of some of the cells.

Indexed by the hexosamine-collagen ratio (HIe) Men with chronic illness

Normal men

4

4

3

3

"u

m

0

"-

"-

I

I

2

2

0+ Age 0

2 •a

0+

I

I

1

20

40

Age

80

60

0

40

20

·Semi · log sca le with Hi e x 10'.

60

80

Source: Sobe l et al., 195 8, p. 130.

Brain weight, by age at time of death

EXHIBIT 10 • 2

.......

•

1350

•

.......... .......

«

40

o~ 0

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Age

o

Respiratory function , as measured by vital ca pacity (the volume of air that can be forcibly expelled in one breath) and ma ximum breathing ca pacity (the volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs in 15 seconds) declines with age. See Exhibit 10 - 6, lines (c) and (d). ( Shock , 1960-c )

o

Renal funct ion , as measured by several parameters, also declines with age. This has been attributed to a loss of funct ioning units in the aging kidneys and corresponds to the decreased cardiac output to th e kidneys (mentioned in section 3) . See Exhibit 10 - 6, lin es (g) and (h) . ( Shoc k , 1952 )

230

D ecline

of

f u nc t ioning

So urce: Shock , 1962-b . p_ 11 0 (ada pte d ) _ From " T he Ph ys io logy of Ag in g." N _W_ Shock_ Copyrig ht 1962 by Sc ientif ic Ame ri ca n. Inc _ All r ights reserved _

©

4•b

1 10 ~ ~

c

~ C::.\ :.::----- .... -- -----...... --'---.,. -- .... ..

No va co nduc a n velocity

~

Q)

Q.

90

'"

'\

OD

c c

80

2

~

\

••

14

."l u

\

ro

16 OJ

~ u

\.

. . b',~ , U

\

\

D

c ro

\

\\

Q)

50

o

c

'C

40

h

1/

I

0 Q)

u

30

ro

1940

-----

~61

Q; 20

E

1952

- - 101960

'I

Q.

U

2

V

/, ~.'I //

on

u

It appears to be correlated with the slower brain waves seen on the electroencephalogram (EEG) that are typical of many older individuals. (Surwillo,

70

u

It may often involve the substitution of a methodical, cautious approach for speed of response. (Brown, 1957. McFarland et al., 1964)

o

;/~; /

on

o

It may be similar to the changes observed in patients with brain damage. (Reed and Reitan, 1962)

80

Q)

,!,2

o

J //

,!,2

u c

;;-'

~';/

u

1955-a. Pacaud, 1955-b . Botwinick, Robbin, and Brinley, 1960)

It cannot be explained merely by an increased need to practice. ( Rabbitt, 1964)

A

90

~ '",'

VL

:;:; Vl

w

10

1964-b ) 0

o

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Age Source: McFarland etal. , 1964, p. 19l. The 1940 and 1952 figures are fr om the A. A. A. report , No . 17 , 1940 revised in 19 53. The 1960 estimates ar~ from Accident Facts , 1962, Natio nal Safety Cou ncil.

254 Automobile dl'iving

80

EXHIBIT 11 . 11

Contribution of different subtests to total alpha score of intelligence

\ J/ ' ~,

-'-

~ 0

U

a. Cl>

iii 100

• With no pr ior admissio n to any psychiatric facility . b State and county mental hospitals; excludes federal and nongovermental institut ions .

0::

0

,'"

.

tJ

c:

;:;,

Source : Computed from National Inst itute of Mental Hearth . 1966 . Patients in Mental Institutions . 1964 . II . pp . 19 -21. Current Population Reports. 196 5. P· 25 . No . 321. pp . 19.20.

'"'"

'"'"

E

E

...,'"

'"'"

'"

E'"

'"'"

,

'"'" E'" E"'" ~ c: '"'" '"'" '" " "'"

::J

-0

rates of mental illness than those who are married as observed in:

200

Ln

Prevalence rates for the community (Syracuse, 1952; San Francisco, 1960) ( Bellin and Hardt ,

Ln C

0 .';::;

Q) ro ro~

OP are less likely to be mentally ill if they are married , thou gh it may not be entirely marital status per se that protects them. Thus, the kinds of people who never marry or become divorced may be in some fash ion more prone to disorder than those who stay married , and even the widowed may differ from the married in morbidity-li nked characteristics (such as age) .

o OP who are divorced or separated or who have never married appear to have consistently higher

Q)

V>

.D

Marital status

1958, p . 158; over 1,500 OP 65+. Lowenthal and Berkman , 1967, p . 45; 600 OP 60 +)

150

a.

:i

Termination rates for psychiatric outpatient clin ics, among OP 65 + as well as younger people (Un ited States, 1961) ( National In stitute of

100

«

Mental Health, 1963, Outpatient Psychiatric Clinics Special Statistical Report, 1961 , p . 181 ) Hospital admission rates for mental d isorders of old age (Ohio, 1948 to 1952). See Exhibit 16· 25.

50

( Locke et at. , 1960, pp . 1006- 1008; first admissions to public m ental hospitals)

o

D

S

W

M

D

S

W

M

D

s

W

M

D

S

W

M

Marita l status D

=

Divorced and separa ted . S

= Sing le.

W

= Widowed . M =

Married

Sou rce : Locke. et at .. 1960. p. 1008 . Reprinted by permission of the American Public Health Assoc ia tio n. Inc .

MENTAL DISORDER AND DEVIANCE: DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS

391

o

OP who are widowed tend also (but with exceptions) to show somewhat greater incidence of mental illness than the married_

disturbance. Thus, widowhood may be less of a factor in the onset of illness tha'n in the institu tionalization of the OP once he becomes ill (Chapter 25, l ' b) . ( Lowenthal, 1965, p . 252; 534 OP

60+, San Francisco, 1959 )

This was found in prevalence rates for the com munity (Syracuse, 1952; San Francisco, 1960)_

( Bellin and Hardt, 1958, p. 158. Lowenthal and Berkman, 1967, p . 45) This was also noted in hospital admission rates for mental disorders of old age (Oh io, 1948 to 1952). See Exhibit 16' 25. ( Locke et al., 1960,

pp. 1006- 1008; finding holds true even when age controlled within 10-year categories) But this was not observed in psychiatric clinic terminations, where rates for the widowed are no higher than rates for the married among OP 65+, though they are higher for adults in all younger age categories (United States, 1961). ( National

In stitute of Mental Health, 1963, Outpatient Psychiatric Clinics Special Statistical Report, 1961,p.181)

o

However, factors other than the loss of spouse itself seem to be involved in such comparatively higher rates of mental ill'ness or institutionalization among the widowed. In the community, the difference between wid owed and married no longer appears consistently when other associated factors (such as age, disability, and SES) are held constant in the analysis. See Exhibit 16, 24. ( Bellin and Hardt,

1958, p. 160 . Similar finding in Lowenthal and Berkman, 1967, p. 74) Among OP 60 + admitted to the psychiatric ward of one hospital, while over one-third were widowed , most of these had become widowed five years or more before the onset of the mental

392

Marital status

Higher rates among the widowed than among the married may be partly a result of the comparatively higher average age of the widowed (even within age categories).

CAUTION:

B

Suicide and crime

Suicide and crime are disturbances of overt behavior that bear contrasting relationsh ips to age, though both are more frequent among men than women . On the one hand, the proclivity toward suicide, the ultimate social withdrawal , is most pronounced in the older age categories, a pattern observed in many countries in b?th the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. In the Un ited States today, there are some 22 to 25 self-i nflicted deaths each year for every 100,000 older persons 65 and over. On the other hand, crime rates show a consistent decline by age, beyond adolescence or early adulthood, and life-cycle analyses demonstrate a curtail ment in criminal beh,avior with age even among those who have previously engaged in such behavior. In the United States today, there are only 2 arrests per year for every 100 older persons 50 and over (less than one-fourth the rate for adolescents aged 15 to 17) , and most of the offenses involved are relatively harmless. Thus, in the comparatively rare instances when older people commit criminologically deviant acts, these are not ordinarily aggressive outbursts against society or acts of violence against other persons.

B· 1

SUICIDE

No single explanation has been systematically demonstrated to account for the complex relationship of suicide to age and to such other factors as sex, marital status, or race. To some investigators, the age-related increase in suicide rates has suggested a possible vulnerability of OP to the social and psychological conditions believed to foster suicide. Yet attempts to demonstrate such a theory founder on certain notable exceptions to the over-all tend ency for suicide rates to rise from adolescence on . Among older females, for example, or among older nonwhite males in the United States, this tendency is actually reversed, thus confounding any explanation that attributes suicide to such conditions as the weakening of social integration, the breakdown of 'norms as major life roles are lost, predisposing elements in the individual's past, poor phYSical or mental health, or the inevitable approach of death . All such conditions may be themselves exacerbated by old age. And there is certainly no reason to be· lieve that elderly females or elderly nonwhite males have a'ny peculiar immunity to their impact.

B• 1•a

The age pattern

Suicide rates show a general tendency, here and in other Western countries, to increase with age. However, this over-all tendency conceals certain marked differences i'n the suicide rates of particular segments of the population .

o

In the United States (1964), suicide rates per 100,000 population increased from 12 at age 2534 to 21 at age 45-54 to 25 by age 85+ . ( National Center for Health Statistics, 1964, Vital Statistics of the United States, II, Part A , pp. 1- 28)

EXHIBIT 16 ' 26

Suicide rates , United States and Japan , 1956- 1958

130

120

11 0

c 0

~

100

/

::::J

a. 0 a. 0 0 0

0

90

80

0

~

Q)

a.

J\

70

/ \

Q)

~

60

Q)

~ .~

::::J

50

III

'"c ::::J

c

40

'"c

'" Q)

30

::E 20

10

0

)

/ , "~ / ,/ " \

/,/

"\

,-

---

/

" ... "

~ . /V , ,"

~ ~--

~ ----- ---- -------

15 to 19 20 to 24

/

V

\

25 to 29 30 to 39

/ I

~/

/

/

/

/

B •1 •b Males , Japan

~~ Females , Japan /

/

I

V

/

Males , U.S.

,,/

/

Age

D For males, peak rates occur among OP i n their 70's or 80's (1956-1958) , not only in the United States but also in eighteen out of twenty-three other countries reporting (the remainin g five countries showed decreases by age after the 50's or 60' s) . For the United States and Japan, See Exhibit 16 . 26 . cal peaks in the 50's or 60's (approximately) . This was noted in the United States and also in eighteen out of twenty-three other countries reporting (peaks occurred in the oldest age category in four of the remaining countries and in the youngest in one) .

16' 26_ ( World Health Organization, 1961 , pp . 170- 173; data for 1956-1958)

---- r----- ........... 50 to 59

men and universal) with age; beyond a

D There are also subsidiary peaks in the earlier years in certain countries (notably Japan , where su icide has increased markedly since World War II), emphasizing the point that there is no necessary connection between age and suicide. See Exh ibit

~,

40 to 49

Suicide is differently related to age for women. In the modal (but by no means patterns, male rates tend to increase whereas female rates tend to decrease certain age.

D For females, rates decl ine in old age after typi·

//

I

Rates by age and sex

60 to 69

----

70 to 79

Females , U.S.

80 and over

Source : Gibbs, 1966 , p. 300 ; based on WHO , 1961, pp . 170- 173.

MENTAL DI SORDER AND DEVIANCE: SUICIDE

393

B•1•c

Sex differences

Regardless of age, suicide rates are generally lower for women than for men.

EXHIBIT 16 . 27 Suicide rates, by marital status and sex, United States , 1959 ( per 100,000 population) Age

o

Among OP, as in younger age categories, female rates within a particular country are ordinarily lower than male rates. This is true (1956-1958) in the United States and in each of twenty·three other countries reporting. See Exhibit 16 . 26.

o

From one country to another, however, female rates vary so widely that they controvert theories of any necessary immunity of females to suicide. Among OP 80+ (1956-1958) , female rates range from 80 (Japan) down to 2 to 3 (North Ireland or Venezuela). Thus, female rates in some countries may be higher than male rates in other countries. See for example, Exhibit 16' 26; compare Japan and the United States. (World Health Organization,

1961,pp. 170- 173 ) B • 1•d

Total

Single

Married

W idowed

Divorced

7.4 14.5 20.5 30.3 39.1 45.5 54.6

6.8 23.2 29.8 39.0 58.3 82.0 85.3

8 .4 11.1 16.7 25.6 32.4 33.6 34.5

95.8 81.7 58.3 65.0 79.6 79.2

19.7 66.7 112.6 111.7 89.4 152.5 140.0

2.1 5.5 6.9 8.5 9.8 9.7 6.4

1.7 9.2 9.4 8.8 12.3 9.6 4 .0

2.4 4.7 5.9 7.5 8 .0 7.5 4.6

7.2 10.2 12.0 12.4 11.3 6.9

12.4 17.8 24.4 17.4 19.6 25.8 18.4

Males

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75 + Females

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75 +

Rates for age and sex, by marital status

These same patterns noted to exist by sex and age tend to persist even when the powerful factor of marital status is held constant. Thus, within each category of marital status, suicide rates for each sex roughly approximate their characteristic age pattern. See Exhibits 16' 27 and 16' 28.

Source : DUblin. 1963. p. 27 (adapted ): based on National Office of Vital Statistics. unpublished data .

394

Sex differences

Male suicide rates , by marital status, United States , 1959

EXHIBIT 16 · 28 150

120

/ 'II

~ ::J

0 0

90

~

/

0 0

~

.r ",

~,

,I

Q;

a. V>

~

,, /// "/

/

" ' ....

Divorced

60

4>

, /

'2 ~

::J

en

30

/

/

/

V "" ,....

~,

o 15 to 24

"

,

.. ,,, ...... ......

-----

25 to 34

i""'"

" ," " "

V

35 to 44

- .. -----"

""

Marital status differences

Marital status itself, regardless of the person's sex and age, is importantly related to suicide rates . Married persons usually have the lowest rates , in

/~#

'"

/

( Dublin , 1963, p . 27; based on National Office of Vital Statistics, unpublished data for United States , 1959 ) B • 1•e

- - - - ~,

c Q

a. 0 a.

,

/

/

/

o

These rates tend generally to increase with age for m en (but note the major peak for widowed males in the younger years, also) ; however, they tend to drop for women in their 60's and 70's.

~ -------f ----

Single Widowed

~

"s> ,,0

EXHIBIT 18 • 10

B •1 •c

Job changing

Job changers in 1961 as per cent of persons with work experience

2S------------------------------

2S-----------------------------------

Women

Men

Job stability

The older the worker, the more likely he is to remain on the job, up to the age of normal retirement. See Chapter 3, A - 3 - d, for occupational change.

r--

20

D Proportions of male workers who changed jobs during the year (1961) declined steadily from age 20 to 24 to 65+. See Exhibit 18' 10. ( Bancroft and Garfinkle, 1963, p. 901 ; United States Labor

20 - - - - - - - - - -

Force Survey, 1962 )

-

IS---------~~--~r_----------

IS

c

c

Q)

Q)

u

u

~

Q)

Q)

c..

c.. 10

10---------~~--~r_----------

S

S--. .--~r_____~.r--..-------

,

0

",,'"

0

l> 'DC::

Age .......

" .9 ....

.......

.9

....co

......

,::

....0)

.9

~

.9

'DC::

~

l

Age .;:

"

.... .9

.......

....co

.9

~

,

:r

,::

....0) .9

.9

60

/

cCI> u

~

CI>

50

V

-'"

~

/

o

United States, 1950's. A sim ilar age pattern h a~ been ob served for presidential elections during the 19 50 's, wi th the decline in voting turn ou t occurring only after age 60 +. See Exhibit 19' 2. (Campbell et al., 1960, p. 494; combined national probability samples

fOT

1952 and 1956)

~

",

Cl.

--+-----+-t----t-----+-------+----+--r

o --+--r 20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Age ' Th is exhibit is based on a combination of data from the 1952 and 1956 samples . The absolute proportions associated with each age could be expected to vary according to motivational conditions attending the specific election . The fact that over · all partic ipation remained at approximately the same level between 1952 and 1956 made combination feasible in this case. Likew ise, absolute proportions are cer tain to vary 'between president ia' and other off · year elections. Our current assumption is that the form of the curve remains general, however.

Sou~e : Campbelleta~ ,

1960, p. 494 .

POLITICAL ROLES: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND INTEREST

465

1 •b

Voting participation, by age and sex

Voter participation , by age and sex, United States , November, 1964

EXHIBIT 19 · 3

The drop in old age tends to come later, and to be less pronounced , for men than for women. See Exhibit 19 - 3.

I

Men

o

Women

75

75

D United States, 1964. Men aged 65 to 74 are still votin g at the peak male rate of nearly fourfifths, dropping to two-thirds by age 75 + ; whereas female rates drop from three-fourths in the middle years to two-thirds at age 65 to 74 and to one-half by age 75 + . ( Current Population Reports, 1965,

80

79

80'

72

r-

78

-

74

67

66 65

r-

67

r--

60'

P- 20 , No . 143 , p . 9 ) 53 52

50

r-

r-

00

c

0

-'" >

c

40'

-

r-

20'

-

r- r-

0'

-

f-

0

~

'"

0..

'-

21 to 24

25 to 34

35 to 44

45 to 54

55 to 64

65 to 74

Age

Source : 8 ased on data from Current Population Reports . 1965 . P· 2O' . No. 143. p. 9 (adap ted) .

466

Voting participation, by age and sex

'-

75 and over

EXHIBIT 19 · 4

o

Voter participation, by age and education , United States ,

November, 1964 Per cent voting

E lem entary

Y ears of education High school College 4 1- 3 4 years 1- 3 years y ears years or more

T otal

"E ffect" of education ( high - low education )

80 87 93 88

53 71 79 74

+ 66 + 44 + 30 + 22

82

88

73

+ 30

+ 21

+ 8

+ 21

0- 7 years

8 years

21-24 25-44 45-64 65+

14 43 63 66

30 58 79 79

34 65 81 80

56 76 88 88

70 82 88 91

Total 21 +

58

73

69

80

+ 52

+ 49

+ 46

+ 32

Age Males

"Effect" of age (old youn g) Females

21-24 25-44 45-64 65+ Total 21 +

"Effect" of age (old youn g)

63

55 76 84 76 76

69 85 87 82 83

78 87 92 93 89

52 68 74 61 68

+ 39

+ 21

+ 13

+ 15

+ 9

22 34 52 46 45

21 52 69 63 63

33 58 75

+ 24

+ 42

72

+ 56 + 53 + 40 + 47 + 44

We stern Europe. Is this pattern of voting turnout a result of the particular circumstances (such as the introduction of woman suffrage) surrounding the current generations of OP in the United States? Apparently it is not, for the sex difference is by no means peculiar to recent Un ited States elections. Analyses of a variety of national and local elections in Western Europe over the years between 1911 and 1935, when, for example, woman suffrage was new in many countries, tend also to show consistently the following: Rates for men do not start to fall until age 60 or later (true in thirty-three out of thirty-seven in· stances) However, rates for women tend to decline following age 50 + (true in eighteen out of twenty·three instances) . (T in gsten , 1963; data on propor-

tions of voters among registered individuals in Sw eden , Switzerlan d, Germany, Denmark, and Holland, adapted. Similarly , a slight drop after age 60 was found for W est Germany, 1954, by Reigrotzki, 1956; reported by Havighurst, 1960- a, p . 320 ) 1 • c Voting participation, by age and education In addition to age, education is also strongly associated with votin g, particularly among men. Thus, both higher education and older age tend to be in· dependently related to higher proportions votin g. See Exhibit 19 • 4.

o

"Effect" of age . When education is controlled , the followin g patterns may be observed: Age makes the greatest difference among the least-educated men (the best-educated are likely to vote at all ages).

Sou rce: Cu rrent Popula tion Repo rts. 1965 . P· 20 . No. 143 . pp . 16 · 19 (adapted) .

Interesti ngly, there is no longer a ny consistent decl ine among the oldest m en . Those 65 + are just as li kely to vote as m iddle-aged men 45 to 64 (on e excepti on). See Exhibit 19' 4; read down .

POLITICAL ROLES: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND INTEREST

467

o

"Effect" of education. When age is controlled, education makes the least difference among the oldest men 65 + , two-thirds of whom vote even among the least-educated. See Exhibit 19·4; read across . ( Current Population Reports, 1965, P-20, No . 143, pp. 16- 18; data for 1964 ) 1 •d

Additional characteristics of older voters

Voting is related to many other factors besides age, sex, and education.

1 •f

Various studies show that OP (at least those past 50 or 60) display an active interest in political affairs (as compared with younger people).

o

Political activity. OP 50+ (United States, late 1940's) rate at least as high as younger age categories on an index of political activity (voting, discussing public issues, writing to congressmen , and so on). ( Woodward and Roper, 1950, p. 877)

o

Among OP 65 +, as with the United States population as a whole, voting participation tends to be comparatively high (1964) in the following categories:

OP 60+ (West Germany, 1954) are at least as likely as younger people to name political activity as a preferred leisure pursuit. ( Reigrotzki, 1956; reported by Havighurst, 1960- a, p. 322 )

In families with higher (versus lower) incomes Among white-collar workers (versus farm, service, and manual workers) Among whites (versus nonwhites) In regions other than the South In metropolitan (versus non metropolitan) areas

Mass media. OP seem more likely than younger people to evince political interest through their mass media behavior.

o

OP give greater attention than young people do to electoral campaigns in the mass media. ( Berelson et al. , 1954, pp. 92- 93; sample of Elmira,

o

New York , 1948 )

Retirement from the labor force, however, which is general for older men, but rare for younger men, affects the two differently.

OP are more likely than the young to follow public affairs and news through newspaper reading. ( Schramm and White , 1949, p. 150; 750 read-

Among men not in the labor force, 71 per cent of those 65 + vote, in contrast with only 56 per cent of those under 65 . ( Current Population Reports, 1965, P- 20 , No. 143, pp. 1- 3 )

1 •e

ers of local newspaper, Illinois city, 1949 ) They are also comparatively likely to follow public affairs and news through television viewing. ( Steiner, 1963, pp. 176, 179; 237 adults 18+

Political associations

who agreed to keep diaries , New York City, 1959- 1960 )

See Chapter 21 for OP's roles in voluntary associations .

As with voting, membership in pol itical associations (though generally limited) tends to be maintained into the later years, at least beyond age 55 .

o

Proportions of voluntary association members who belong to political and pressure associations (1955) constitute some 5 per cent of persons aged 55 + , in comparison with 4 per cent of those aged 21-34 and 3 per cent of those 35-54. ( Hau sknecht, 1962, pp. 71- 72, 85; United States sample) 468

Voting participation, by age and education

Political intere st

See Chapter 22, section 4.

o

Information . OP 50 + are more likely than young people in their 20's to keep up with such practical information as the names of their senators; but they are less likely to have such academic knowledge as what the first ten amendments to the Constitution are called or what is meant by the electoral college. ( Erskine, 1963, pp . 137-139; data from United States survey, 1954)

2

Relation of age to party identification, United States, 1950's' ( percentage distribution )

EXHIBIT 19 ·5

Party identification

Age

Age

21 - 24 25-29

Age

Age

Age

30-34

35-39

40-44

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

45-49 50-54 55-59 60- 6 4 65-69 70-75

Age 75+

If older people maintain high levels of political activity and interest, they also hold highly devel oped partisan loyalties.

2 Democratic Strong Weak

16 32

20 29

21 29

21 31

24 29

22 24

25 23

23 22

23 21

26 18

28 17

25 17

Independent

31

26

24

23

22

23

19

20

19

15

14

16

Republican Weak Strong Total Per cent of strong identifiers

13

18

8

7

16 10

15 10

15 10

16 15

17 16

16 19

18 19

19 22

16 25

16 26

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

24

27

31

31

34

37

41

42

42

48

53

51

Number of cases ( 552 ) ( 1,038 ) ( 1,201 ) ( 1,221 )( 1,081) ( 9 77) ( 915 ) (741 ) ( 6 77) ( 473 ) ( 354) ( 297 )

Strength of partisanship

Proportions of individuals who identify strongly with one or the other major party increase with age, without any decline in the later years.

o

Independent voters are somewhat fewer among OP 65 + than among younger age categories _ See Exhibit 19 · 5. ( Campbell et al ., 1960, p. 162; several United States samples combined, 19521957, University of Michigan Survey Research

Center )

o

Similarly, split-ticket voting is least common among OP 55 + (1948 national election) . ( Eldersveld, 1952, p . 751 ; United States sample of 662,

University of Michigan Survey Research Center )

• These da ta are combined fr om seven national samples interviewed by the Survey Research Cen ter between 19 52 and 1957 .

Source: Campbell e/

POLITICAL COMMITMENT

at.. 1960 . p. 162 .

POLITICAL ROLES: POLITICAL COMMITMENT

469

Partisanship, age, and duration of party identification

2 •b

Is this increasing partisansh ip explained directly by increasing age? Is it explained by the differing historical environments of older versus younger cohorts? Apparently not, for an analysis of persons who had shifted their party allegiance during adulthood points to quite a different factor: duration of party identification_ See Exhibit 19 - 6_

o

Duration and partisanship . The longer a person thinks of himself as belonging to a party, the stronger his attachment to it becomes, even when age is controlled.

o

Age and partisanship . But when duration of

Relation of age to party identification, by duration of the party identification ( percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 19 · 6

0-3 years

Duration of identification with current party 8- 15 years 4-7 years Age 44 or under

Age 45+

19 48 33

28 40 32

20 47 33

27 52 21

26 47 29

50 37 13

35 33 32

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

(76)

(27)

(57)

(40)

(48)

(38)

(52)

( 51 )

Strength of party identification

Age 44 or under

Strong Weak Independent

22 54 24

Total Number of cases

Age 45 +

party identification is held constant, age is no longer positively associated with strong attachment (indeed it tends to become negatively associated).

o

Age and duration. Thus, the connection between age and partisanship is largely indirect, as aging provides opportunity for longer-standing identification with a party. (Campbe ll et al., 1960, pp.

161 - 163,496--497)

Source : Campbell et al .. 1960 . p. 163 .

470

Partisans hip, age, and duration of party iden tification

16-39 years

Age 44 or under

Age 45 +

Age 54 or under

Age 55+

EXHI BIT 19 . 7 Conservative voting intention, by age and socioeconomic status, Great Britain 100-+----------~~----------4_----------_4--

3

PARTY AFFILIATION

Age is associated not only with how strongly people feel about a party but also with which party they are attached to.

Above average ~-----....., Average 80-+--~~~--~r_~~~----4_----------_4--

Total group 60-+----------~r_----------~----~~~~--

Below average

.,uc

......- ... - ......

40-+----------~r_~~~~--4_----------~--

~_----_,Very poor

3 •a

Republicans in the United States

The proportions of persons identifying themselves as Republicans tend to increase by age. See Exhibit 19·5.

o

Thus, the Republicans, though greatly outnumbered by Democrats in the youngest age brackets, more nearly equal the Democrats in the oldest brackets. (Campbell et al. , 1960, p . 162; data for

1950's. Similar tendencies for the early 1960's; reported by Erskine , unpublished; data from American Institute of Public Opinion ) 3 • b

Conservatives in Great Britain

The proportions favoring the Conservative party tend to increase by age, even with socioeconomic status controlled. See Exhibit 19· 7. ( Eysenck,

o-+-----------+----------~----------~--

21 to 29

30 to 49

50 to 64

1954, pp. 16- 22; about 9,000 cases from British Institute of Public Opinion, date not given. Similar age pattern for 1945 reported by Cantril, 1951 , pp . 97- 98)

65 and over

Age

3•c

Source : Eysenck . 1954. p. 22.

Differences among COhOl·ts

Are such age differences in party allegiance caused by (1) the aging process or (2) the differing political contexts and experiences of the several cohorts (or generations)? Apparently, both factors are in· volved, as a variety of analyses suggest (compare point 3 . d). On the one hand, connections have been observed between party affiliation and the political environment surrounding each cohort as it entered the electorate.

POLITICAL ROLES: PARTY AFFILIATION

471

o

United State s electorate. There is a marked difference between those cohorts who started to vote during (and after) the era of the· Depression and the New Deal, and those who came of age earlier. The latter (today's OP) have consistently lower proportions of Democrats than any of the groups entering the electorate in later years. ( Campbell et al. , 1960, pp. 154- 156; based on 10,000 cases accumulated from 7 national sam1Jles, 1952- 1958. Similar findings reported by Berelson, Lazarsfeld, and McPhee , 1954, pp . 5961, sample of Elmira, New York, 1948; and in Morsell , 1951, sample of Harlem N egroes, 1944; reported by Lipset, 1963- a, p . 281)

o

German electorate ( pre-Hitler ). The age composition and life experiences of members of the Nazi and Socialist parties (1930) were found to be, to an extent, predictable from the political climate of the first elections in which these people had participated. ( Dix, 1930, pp. 34- 35; reported by Lipset, 1963- a, p. 281) 3 •d

EXHIBIT 19 . 8

Eight-year cohort shifts on party identification,

relative to trend

Age of cohort T im e 1 Tim e 2

21-24 25-28 29-32 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52 53-56 57-60

Identification at time 2, compared with gen eral trend More More Republican Democratic

29-32 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52 53-56 57-60 61- 64 65-68

3 2 4 3 1 3 2 3

Total cohort shifts

26

2 3

0 1 0 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 9 ---

Same

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 5

Life-cycle di fferences

On the other hand, throughout adulthood, there also appear to be changes in party affiliation as age advances . A small but consistent drift of Democrats to the Republican party has been observed over the life cycle in the United States in recent decades .

o

An analysis of the way given cohorts of individuals sh ift between presidential elections suggests that people tend, as they grow older, to increase the ir identification with the Republican party and to vote the Republican ticket. In regard to party identification, twenty-six of the cohort shifts proved to be more in the Republi can direction than the general trend , wh ile only nine were more Democratic . See Exhibit 19 - 8_

472

Differences am ong cohorts

Source : Crittenden . 1962 . p. 652: U.S. sa mples (excluding the South) comparing 1946 with 19 54. and 1950 with 1958: controlled on high vs . low education .

EXHIBIT 19 · 9

Tolerance United States , 1954

of

In regard to voting, twenty-nine of the sh ifts were more Republican than the general trend ; thirteen were more Democratic . ( Crittenden , 1962, pp.

nonconfonnists, by age and education ,

Percentage distribution on scale of willingness to tolerate nonconformists Less tolerant College graduates

In between

651 - 654 ; United States samples, excluding the South , fTOm American In stitute of Public Opinion. This analysis fo cuses on cohort changes between 2 pairs of elections, 1946 versus 1954 and 1950 versus 1958; comparing the shift for each cohort with that for the total electorate , to eliminate the special impact of particular elections; and controlling on high versus low education . )

More tolerant

~~~~~________________-r~ (60)

Some college 21 to 29

[

High School graduates Some high school Grade school

4

College graduates

Conservative views on public affairs are also more wides pread in the older age categories. On certain issues, however, especially those affecting economic self-interest, older people may be less conservative than the young.

Some college 30 to 39

[

High school graduates Some high school Grade school College graduates

4 • a When older people are more consenJative than younger people

Some college 40 to 49

[

High school graduates

Studies in many areas emphasize the traditional positions ma intained by OP. In contrast with younger age categories, OP (sometimes defined as 50+ ) show this traditionalism in various ways .

Some high school Grade school College graduates

o

OP tend to be more resistant to change. (Campbell et al., 1960, pp. 210- 211; using a 12-item scale developed by McClosky )

Some college 50 to 59

[

High school graduates Some high school

o

College graduates

OP tend to be less tolerant of political and social nonconformists (even with education controlled) . See Exhibit 19·9. ( Stouffer, 1955, p. 93; United

Some college

States sample, 6,000 cases , 1954 )

Grade school

60 and over

[

POLITICAL IDEOLOGY

High school graduates Some high school Grade school

Note : Numbers in parentheses are bases for the percentages . Source : Stouffer. 1965. p . 93 ( adapted ). Copyright petmission of Doubleday and Company . Inc .

©

1955 by Samuel A. Stouffer . Reprinted by

POLITICAL ROLES: PARTY AFFILIATION

473

o

OP tend to be less willing to support racial integration in the schools (in United States surveys in both 1956 and 1963), though over time OP 65 + have reflected the general trend toward increasing support for integration. See Exhibit 19· 10. ( Hy.

Support for integration of public schools , by age and region, United States, 1956 and 1963

EXHIBIT 19 . 10

South

No rth 100-----------------------------------

man and Sheatsley, 1964, pp . 22-23; United States polls )

o

OP tend to be more opposed to a Negro as President of the Un ited States or to government support of integration . ( Erskine , 1962, pp. 142,

148 ; United States polls, 1961 and 1958 )

o

OP tend to be more opposed to a Catholic as President (in four studies between 1956 and 1963) or to government support of parochial (Catholic) schools . ( Erskine , 1965, pp . 332, 495; United

States polls, 1949, 1956, 1959, 1960, 1963 )

c 0

79

,..n

80

:;::; ~

..

Q)

67

.~

67

c

60

-

ob

0

>

~

1963

1956

65

...

OIl

..:

0

1

71

OIl

53

~

::J

-0 !1l

~

E

l-

40 -

f-

35

33

~

32

'0 22

C Q) u

~

Q)

20

-

I-

--

19 15

Cl..

o-

21 to 24

25 to 44

45 to 64

L '-65 and over

Age

Source: Hyman and Sheatsley , 1964 , p. 23 ; U.S. polls .

474

When older people aTe more conservative than younger people

21 to 24

25 to 44

45 to 64

65 and over

o

OP tend to be less favorable toward the Peace Corps . ( Erskine, 1961 , p . 301 . Erskine , 1964, p . 342 ; Un ited St ates polls, 1961 , 1962 )

o

OP tend to be less favorable toward government control in general (with certain exceptions noted under pOint 4 ' b) .

"

They tend to be more conservative (among whitecollar workers, but not among blue-collar workers) on a score of opposition toward government ownersh ip, collectivism, power of the working people, and so on . ( Centers, 1949; United States sample of 1,100 durin g World War II; reported by Eysen ck, 1954, pp. 23- 29 )

o

OP are more likely to feel the government should help th :Jse who want to work to find jobs.

o

OP are slightly more likely to favor public housing and publ icly owned electrical power.

o

But OP are n o more likely than the young to favor government aid to schools or to support government enforcement of nondiscrimination in housing and employment. ( Campbell, 1962, pp. 9497)

4' c

Not all OP are al ike in their views, of course, as su ggested by one small study.

They tend to be more opposed to nationalization of industry (Great Britain, 1945). They tend to be more likely to believe the best way to provide jobs is to remove all government controls (Great Britain, 1945). ( Cantril, 1951 , p.

Those classed as alienated (in terms of their perceived roles in the community power structure) were far more likely than the nonal ienated , old as well as young, to oppose a school bond issue. ( Thomp son and Horton, 1960 , p. 194;

343; British polls)

200 adults, upstate N ew Y ork community , 1957)

See Cha pter 12, 1 . a, for t he grea ter rig id ity of OP t ha n of younger peo ple .

When older people are less con servative than younger people 4' b

Where government intervention in the economy can benefit them, however, OP are at least as likely as younger people to favor such measures.

o

In dividual v ariation s amon g older people

OP are comparatively more likely to favor government guarantees of low-cost medical care and social security taxes to support old -age medical insurance (favored also by almost two-thirds of younger people) . ( Campbell, 1962, pp . 94- 97. Erskine, 1961 , p . 661 ; United St ates poll, 1961 )

5

LEADERSH I P IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS

Older people appear to be better represented than younger people among the elite who play strategic roles in the body politic and in related decisionmaking structures (particularly in the long-established, firmly entrenched groups).

5' a

N ationalleadership

Numerous pOSitions of high-rankin g leadership are acquired and reta ined between the ages of 50 and

70.

POLITICAL ROLES: POLITICAL IDEOLOGY

475

o

Age patterns. Individuals are most likely to serve as Presidents, Cabinet Ministers, or Ambassadors (United States and Great Britain) between the ages of 55 and 59 , with decreasing but substantial proportions continu ing to serve beyond 60. See Exh ibit 19 - l l , for example. Un ited States Supreme Court justices, also typically appointed between the ages of 55 and 59, are most likely to serve after age 65, with some continuing beyond age 90 (retirement depends on personal desire) . See Exhibit 19 • 12.

EXHIBIT 19- 11 Ages of the chief ministers of England, 920 to 1720, and of the British Prime Ministers , since 172 1 100

,.-

80 ~

c

'" c.. '"

60

u

~

40

,... L

20

V

L

./'~

/

~

"-.../

"

\

'"

0 20

40

30

50

60

70

80

90

100

Age at time of servic e

= 100

' Average years of service during peak 5 ·year period

Source: Lehman . 1953, p. 167 ; based on 63 men who served 599 years . Reprinted by permission of Princeton University Press .

EXHIBIT 19- 12 Ages

of the justices of the United States Supreme Court

A ...

100

.c

'"

~,

V //,

80 60

u

~

'"

c..

40

V"

20

-::£.

0 20

30

-

/ .... ........

I

/

1\

~.

..,....

40

50

60

'\.

\ ,

Ages at ime of appo ntment

\

.#.

"

Age at which ' ... Jus ice served

" "-

\ 70

80

90

Age ' Avera ge years of service during peak 5·year period = 100 . Source : Lehman , 1953. p. 17l; based on 78 iustices . who served for a total of 1.144 years . Reprinted by permission of Princeton University Press.

476 Nationalleadership

100

EXHIBIT 19 '13

Ages of United States senators and representatives, 1799 to

1925

Representatives Representatives Representatives Representatives Representatives Representatives Senators Senators Senators Senators Senators Senators

Y ear

Number of individua ls

Me dian age

Mean age

Standard deviation

Mode

1799 1825 1849 1875 1899 1925 1799 1825 1849 1875 1899 1925

108 217 241 301 373 436 39 63 70 82 75 108

43 .50 41.81 42 .81 47.48 47 .97 53.46 45 .25 46 .50 49 .50 51.50 58.17 57.50

43 .29 43.08 43 .93 47.75 48.67 53.25 45.19 47.10 50.79 52.50 56.83 56.95

1.84 1.67 1.46 1.83 1.85 1.88 1.53 1.63 1.92 1.74 2.12 2.02

40-44 35-39 40-44 45-49 45-49 55-59 45-49 45-49 45-49 50-54 60-64 60-64

o

Over time. There has been an increase over many decades in the age at which United States citizens are most likely to serve in legislative, judicial, and di plo matic posts (as well as in various top posts in religion and education) . See Exhibit 19 . 13, for example. ( Lehman, 1953, pp . 164- 169, 171 , 269- 279 ) However, a later analysis of judges (Supreme Court and Federal Courts of Appeals) shows that the upward trend in age of selection until 1932 may have been followed by a slight downward trend between 1933 and 1961. ( Schmidhauser,

1962, pp . 106- 109 ) Moreover, an analysis of several abstract models shows that there is no necessary relationship between aging of a population and aging of its elite.

( United Nation s, 1956, Aging, pp. 60- 61) 5 ·b

State and local offices

Proportions of OP 65 + are substantially higher among public officials in the Un ited States (elected or appointed) than among the rank and file of all occupations . ( Sheldon, 1958, pp. 75, 128- 129;

United States Census data for each decade from 1910 through 1950 . Cohort analysis of these data also shows individuals comparatively likely to survive beyond age 65+ in these occupations . ) 5 ·c

Community leadership

Numerous stUdies of community power structure show that people in the middle a'nd later years are typically overrepresented in such roles as:

o

Community decision maker ( Presthus, 1964, p . 287; 2 small New York communities, 1960- 1962 )

Source : Lehman . 1953 . p. 269 . Reprin ted by permission of Princeton Un iverSity Press.

POllTfCAL ROLES: LEADERSHIP IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS

477

o

Reputed influential (theugh net pelitical er ecenemic leader) (Jennings, 1964, pp. 41-42; At-

lanta)

o

Art er music patren, museum leader, er trustee ef educatienal institutien ( R. Coleman , 1955; re-

ported by Havighurst , 1960-a, p. 345; Kansas City, 1955) In anether (cress-cultural) study, hewever, age was asseciated with reputed status in enly ene (the Guatemalan) eut ef three villages. ( Faunce

and Smucker, 1966, p. 395; Michigan, Costa Rica, and Guatemala) 5 •d

Leadership in primitive societies

Ameng primitive tribes, particularly these with a permanent habitatien, leadership pesitiens (fer example, chieftain, elder, and judge) were widely held by aged men . ( Simmons , 1945, pp . 105- 130;

ethnographic data on 71 tribes) 5 •e

Personal influence

Infermal influence en public issues, theugh it tends to' cencentrate within age greups, is mere likely to' flew dO'wn the age scale than up. Thus in discussing pelitics, peeple tend to' seek ethers whO' are elder, rather than yeunger, than themselves. (Berel-

son et al. , 1954, pp. 104- 105; sample of Elmira, New York , 1948. Similar finding in Katz and Lazarsfeld , 1955, pp. 271 , 292- 293; sample of women in Decatur, Illinois , 1948 ) However, this study does not distinguish among age categories older than 55 +.

NOTE:

478

Community leadership

6

States with higher, rather than lewer, propertiens ef OP were mere likely to' adept (1961) a federalstate pregram ef medical assistance to' OP.

THE IMPACT OF OLDER PEOPLE ON THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

Is there a cennectien between elder peeple's participatien in pelitical roles and the increasing invelvement ef gevernment in pregrams affecting the aged (eutlined in Part One)? Are eld-age programs adepted because ef the sheer numbers ef elder peeple, because ef elder peeple's cehesiveness in pressing their demands, er because ef a ceincidence between elder peeple's demands and the demands ef the larger seciety? Hew likely is it that elder peepie may act as a blec fer their ewn self-interest? Hew likely is it that they may beceme prey to' demageguery? Despite censiderable debate, little evidence has been breught to' bear en these issues, apart from descriptiens ef the age cem pesitien ef the electerate and ef the scattered pelitical mevements centering upen preblems ef eld age.

6 •a

Age composition of the electorate

o

Aging of the electorate. There has been a rise in recent decades in the prepertiens ef the vetingage pepulatien whO' are OP 65+ (from seme 11 per cent in 1940 to' seme 15 per cent in 1960), a trend that is currently leveling eff. (1 940 Census

of Population , Vol. II,

p. 10. 1960 Census of Population, Vol. I , Part 1, p . 361. Current Population Reports, 1966, P-25, No . 359, pp. 14- 16. Cf . Sheppard, 1962, p. 49. Dickinson , 1958 )

The rank erder ef public cencern with eld-age preblems tends to' cerrelate with the prepO'rtiens ef OP (1960). ( Sheppard , 1962, pp . 49-52; data

on public concern from opinion poll in 18 states) 6 •b

Political movements

Several studies describe scattered instances ef erganizatiens to' promete specific legislatien fer er by OP.

o

Miscellaneous pensioner ol'ganizations. Several erganizatiens ef ret ired persens (fer example, civil empleyees, teachers, and pensieners in Califernia and Celerade) maintain legislative lebbies, stimulate cemmunity activity, eccasienally sell health insurance to' their members er represent them in grievance cases, and sO' en. (Tibbitt s, 1962, pp. 17- 18 . Pinnel' et al. , 1959, pp . 3-7)

o

To wnsend Movement . The Tewnsend Mevement, starting during the Depressien ef the 1930's and spreading to' several theusand lecal clubs, attracted ever ene millien members, premiSing a financial panacea fer OP. The censequence, apparently, was to' hasten legislatien fer security ef OP at beth the federal and state levels. ( Holtzman, 1954, p. 61-62 . Tibbitt s, 1962, pp . 15- 18 )

o

Age composition and old-age legislation . AI -

Railroad Employees National Pension Association. A case study ef one pressure grou p that

theugh OP are widely spread ever geegra phic regiO'ns and electeral districts, states vary semewhat in the prepertiens ef their veters whO' are eld. Such variatiens tend to' be asseciated beth with legislatien and with public interest favering OP.

achieved its geal (passage ef the Ra ilroad Retirement Act ef 1934) shews the subsequent fading away ef the erganizatien, with its members returning to' mere traditienal channels ef pressure threugh uniens . ( Polner, 1962, pp. 207-215)

o

o

Members versus nonmembers of the McLain Movement

EXHIBIT 19 ' 14

Percentage distribution, by degrees of satisfaction with various experiences Members

Amount of money income

The way this country is run

Chamcteristics of members. An analysis of recipients of old-age assistance, some of whose members joined a political pressure group (the McLain Movement), suggests the kinds of OP who are attracted. In contrast with nonmembers, the members are likely to have the following characteristics: Members tend to be slightly more privileged (homeowners, with spouses still living, having additional income beyond the pension). Members tend to be more anxious about their status in the community,

The way the city or town is run

They tend to be more dissatisfied on vaguely political or moralistic (rather than material or interpersonal) grounds, See Exhibit 19 . 14.

Medical attention

Food

They tend to be more often members of fundamentalist and evangelical sects.

The way people do their work nowadays

Members also tend to be more imbued with feelings of insecurity and distrust (often as a result of their membershi p) _ ( Pinner et al.,

1959, pp. 62- 63, 69, 75- 77, 86- 87, 91 - 100, 161 , 267- 268; mail questionnaire returns from over 3 ,000 recipients of old-age assistance, California, 1952- 1954 )

Hous ing

Number of family visi ts

o

Relation to extremist movements. Pensioner organizations (for example, Townsend Movement) have, on occasion, been caught up in extremist movements . ( Lipset, 1963- a, p. 286 )

Weather

Number of visits with acquaintances _ -....-------;.;...------4~""" and friends

However, attitudes toward such a radical organization as the John Birch Society show little variation by age (up to 50 + ). ( Lipset, 1963- b,

Treatment by yo u ng people

pp. 350-352, 355- 356; cross-section samples of United States and of California, 1962 ) Satisfied

[=:J

Not qu ite satisfied

I'ZZZZJ

Dissa tisfied _

Source : Pinner et a/., 1959, p. 86; ma il questionnaire returns from over 3,000 recipients of old age ass istance , Cali fornia, 1952 · 1954 .

POLITICAL ROLES: THE IMPACT OF OLDER PEOPLE ON THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

479

RESEARCH NEEDS

Worhs cited in Chapter 19

1 What exp lains the continued political par-

ticipation of older people? As the individual's personal obligations diminish, does he become increasingly involved with public obligations?

Bell, Daniel, editor, 1963. The York: Doubleday and Co.

Radical Right,

New

Berelson , Bernard R. , Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and Wil liam N. McPhee, 1954. Voting , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Burgess, Ernest W., editor, 1960-a. Aging in Western Societies , Chicago: University of Chicago 2 To what extent is the decline in voting Press. among older women a result of their being widowed hence no longer stimulated by their ,;, Campbell, Angus, 1962. "Social and Psychological "

..

. ?

husbands polztzcal mfluence. d ' . d 3 H ow are 0 ld er peop le s attztu es towar change and toward government intervention .;, in the economy affected by their education? How are these attitudes affected by their income? 4 If their early experiences tend to foster certain conservative views among older people today , how will the very different political background of today's younger people affect the views they will hold in the future when they , in tUTn, grow old?

Determinants of Voting Behavior," in Donahue, Wilma , and Clark Tibbitts, editors, Politics of Age, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp.87-101. Campbell, An gus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, 1960. The American Voter, New York: John Wiley and Sons. Cantril, Hadley, editor, 1951. Public Opinion, 1935- 1946, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Centers,

R.,

Classes,

1949. The Psychology of Social Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University

Press. Coleman, Richard, 1955. "Civic Participation and Leadership," Preliminary Report, Kansas City, Mo.: Community Studies, Inc.

5 To what extent and in what areas do opin,;, Cottrell , Fred, 1960. "Governmental Functions and ion leaders and decision makers maintain the Politics of Age," in Tibbitts, Clark, editor, their influence into the later years? How does Handbook of Social Gerontology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 624-665. the age of legislators affect their voting for Crittenden, John, 1962. " Aging and Party Affilialiberal versus conservative measures? tion," Public Opinion Quarterly, 26, pp . 648657 . 6 Under what conditions do older people see themselves as a minority group? Under what Dickinson, Frank G., 1958. "The 'Younging' of Elecconditions are they disposed to act in concert? • Suggested additional reading

480

Works cited

torates," Journal of the American Medical Association, 166, pp. 1051-1057.

and Work, "

in

Burgess, Ernest W., editor,

Aging in We stern Societies , Chicago: University of Chica go Press, pp . 299-353.

Di x, Arthur, 1930. "Die Deutschen Reichsta gswahlen , 1871-1930, und die Wandlun gen der Volkgliederung," TObingen, Germany: J.C.B. Mohr, pp. 34-35.

Holtzman, Abraham , 1954. "Analysis of Old Age Politics in the United States," Journal of Gerontology, 9, pp. 56-67.

Don ahue, Wilma, and Clark Tibbitts, editors, 1962. Politic s of Age, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Hyman, Herbert H., and Paul B. Sheatsley, 1964. "Attitudes Toward Desegregation," Scientific American, 211, pp. 16-23.

Eldersveld, Samuel J. , 1952. "The Independent Vote," American Political Science Review, 46, pp . 732-753 .

Jenn ings, M. Kent, 1964. Community Influentials , New York: The Free Press of Glencoe.

Erskine, Hazel Gaudet, 1961. "The Polls," Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, pp. 301, 661.

Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communication, Glencoe, 111.:

- - - , 1962. "The Polls," Public Opinion QuaTteTly, 26, pp. 142, 148.

The Free Press. Lehman, Harvey C., 1953. Age and Achievement, Princeton, N.J .: Princeton University Press.

Katz, Elihu, and Paul F. Lazarsfeld, 1955. Personal

Reigrotzki , Erich, 1956. " Soziale Verflechtun gen in der Bundesrepublik: Elemente der sozialen Teilnahme in Ki rche, Politik, Organisationen u nd Freizeit" ( Schriftreihe des UNESCO-

Instituts

fUT

Sozialwissenschaften

Koln )

TObingen, Germany: J.C.B. Mohr. Schmidhauser, John R. , 1962. "Age and Judicial Behavior: American Higher Appellate Judges," in Donahue, Wilma, and Clark Tibbitts, editors, Politics of Age, Ann Arbor: University of Michiga n Press, pp. 101-117. Schramm , Wilbur, and David M. White, 1949. "Age, Education, Economic Status: Factors in Newspaper Read ing," Journalism Quarterly, 26, pp. 149-159.

Sheldon, Henry D., 1958. The Older Population of tshe United States, New York: John Wiley and ons. - - - , 1963. "The Polls," Public Opinion QuaT'~ Upset, Seymour Martin, 1963-a. Political Man : .• Sh d H Id L 196 "I . . teTly, 27, pp. 137-139. The Social Bases of Politics, Garden City, New ~ eppa~, aro . " 2. . .mpllcatl?ns o~, an - - -, 1964. "The Polls," Public Opinion QuaTAging Population for Political . SOCiology,. In York: Doubleday and Co. Anchor Books_ , Donahue, Wilma , and Clark Tibbitts, editors, teTly, 28, pp . 518, 524. - - - , 1963-b. "The Sources of the 'Radical Politics of Age, Ann Arbor: University of - - -, 1965. "The Polls," Public Opinion QuaTRight,''' in Bell, Daniel, editor, The Radical Michigan Press, pp. 48-63. terly, 29, pp. 332, 495 . Right, New York: Doubleday and Co., pp. 259- Simmons, Leo, 1945. Role of the Aged in Primi- - - , Public Opinion Quarterly collection of 312. tive Society, New Haven: Yale University national poll items (unpublished). Press . Morsell, John, 1951. "The Pol itical Behavior of Eysenck, H. J., 1954. The Psychology of Politics, Negroes in New York City," Columbia Univer- Steiner, Gary A., 1963_ The People Look at TeleviLondon: Routled ge and Kegan Paul, Ltd. sion, New York: Alfred A. Knopf. sity, doctoral dissertation (unpublished) . Faunce, William A. , and M. Joseph Smucker, 1966. " Industrialization and Community Status Structure," AmeTican Sociological Review, 31, pp. 390-399. Hausknecht, Murray, 1962. The Joiners: A Socio-

logical Description of Voluntary Association MembeTship in the United States , New York: The Bedminster Press. Havig hurst, Robert J., 1960-a. "Ufe Beyond Family

,~

Pinner, Frank A., Paul Jacobs, and Philip Selznick, 1959. Old Age and Political Behavior, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Stouffer, Samuel A., 1955. Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co_

Polner, Walter, 1962. "The Aged in Politics: A Successful Example, The NPA and the Passage of the Ra ilroad Retirement Act of 1934," The Gerontologist , 2, pp. 207-215.

Thompson , W. E., and John E. Horton, 1960. "Political Alienation as a Force in Political Action ," Social Forces , 38, pp. 190-195.

Presthus, Robert, 1964. Men at the Top , New York: Oxford University Press.

Tibbitts, Clark, editor, 1960. Handbook of Social Gerontology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

POLITICAL ROLES

481

, 1962. "Politics of Aging: Pressure for Change," in Donahue, Wilma, and Clark Tib· bitts, editors, Politics of A ge, Ann Arbor: Un iversity of Michigan Press, pp. 16-26_

* Tin gsten ,

Herbert, 1963_ Political Beh avior, Totowa , N.J.: The Bedm inster Press.

Un ited Nations Department of Economic and Social Affa irs, 1956. "The Aging of Populations and the Econom ic and Social Implications, " Population Stu dies , No. 26, New York. Un ited States Bureau of the Census, 1940 Census of Population , Vol. II. - - -, 1960 Census of Population , Vol. I, Part 1.

* ---,

1965. Current Popu lation Reports, P-20, No. 143.

* ---,

1966. Current Population Reports, P-25, No. 359.

Woodward, Julian L. , and Elmo Roper, 1950. "Political Activity of American Citizens," American Political Science Review, 44, pp. 872-885. CONSULTANT AND ADVISER

Clark Tibbitts

482 Works cited

Religion, it is often assumed, becomes increasingly important with old age and the inevitable approach of death . The truth of this assumption is difficult to gauge , however, since different kinds of people at all ages approach religion differently, and the religious role itself is multifaceted . Thus, not only age but many other factors as well are associated with the religious role, factors such as sex (in Western society, women appear generally more religious than men), socioeconomic status, or the particular religious group with which the individual identifies.

20 RELIGIOUS ROLES In association with Marilyn E. John son

Moreover, at least two major dimensions of the religious role, distinguished in research on the population of all ages, show differing results for older as compared with younger people. On an institutional dimension, as indexed by attendance at church or synagogue, Catholics attend more regularly than other major religious groups, and higher-status persons (those with more income or more education) attend more regularly than persons in the lowest status. On a personal dimension of private religious observance , conviction, and feeling, however, people in the lower socioeconomic strata rate at least as high , if not higher, than people in the upper strata . When age categories are examined on these two dimensions, the evidence suggests that church attendance-but not personal devotions, feelings , or beliefs-tapers off among the oldest individuals. However, re search is still needed to ascertain whether such age patterns result from an aging process or from cohort (generational) differences reflecting long-term change in the place of religion in American society.

THE DATA The data on the religious role, though substantial , contribute less, on the whole, than those on the political role to an understa nding of aging as a process. Evidence (presented through selected examples in this chapter) comes almost entirely from cross-section studies, many of them local in scope, although national surveys on several religious dimensions have been reported by The Catholic Digest at two time periods (1952 and 1966). Such national surveys largely supersede earlier data from local samples or judgment samples (for example, Hall, 1922; Cavan et aI., 1949; Fichter, 1952; or the summary by Argyle, 1958, pp. 67-69) . Even in the national studies, however, except for one Current Population Report (1957) on religious preference, the samples are generally inadequate to support any full analysis of the complex factors apparently confounding the relationship between aging and religion.

483

1

RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION

2

CHURCH ATTENDANCE

3

RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS

4

PERSONAL OBSERVANCES

5

BELIEFS

6

IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION

7

RELIGION AND LIFE SATISFACTION

8

SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS

1 RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION Few older people claim identity with no religion.

1· a Extent

of identification

Most people in the United States, old as well as young, report a rel igion .

o

Only 3 per cent of OP 65 + (5 per cent of men and 1 per cent of women) regard themselves as having no religion (1957), proportions similar to those for other age categories. See Exhibit 20' 1.

( Current Population Reports, 1958, P- 20, No. 79 , pp. 7-8; United States sample based on 35,000 households ) The meaning of religious identification may van) greatly from one individual to another.

EXHIBIT 20- 1 Religion reported: by age, United States, March , 1957 ( percentage distribution)

Religion

Total, age 14 +

Age 14- 19

Age 20-24

Age 25-34

Age 35-44

Age 45- 64

Age 65 +

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

66. 2

66.9 56.2

64.8 55.1 9.7 28.0 2.8

64.5 55.8 8. 7 27.7 3.2

66.6

2.0

65 .0 54.3 10.7 27.5 2.4 2.1

1.8

2.1

58.7 7 .9 24.0 4.0 2.5

70.0 63 .6 6.3 20.8 3.4 2 .8

2.1

3.0

2.6

2.5

2.9

3.0

Total Protestant Wh ite Nonwhite Roman Catholic Jewish Other religion and not reported No religion

57.4 8.8 25.7 3.2 2 .2 2.7

10.6 26.6 2.5

CAUTION :

' In answer to the question : What

IS

your religion?

Source : Current Population Reports . 1958. P· 20 . No . 79 . p. 7 .

484 Extent of identification

1· b Pre ferences Among OP 65 + (1957), the majority (70 per cent) regard themselves as Protestants; 21 per cent, as Roman Catholics; and 3 per cent, as Jewish. See Exhibit 20 . 1.

o

As compared with younger people, OP 65 + are somewhat more likely to be Protestants and some· what less likely to be Catholics. Exhibit 20' 1. ( Current Population Reports, 1958, P- 20, No .

o

One study suggests that, although intrafaith friendships show little variation by age, the belief that it is wise to marry within one's own faith is somewhat lower among OP 50 + than among younger people under 35. ( Lenski, 1961 , pp. 15,

48-50; probability sample of 650 adults, Detroit, 1958 )

2 CHURCH ATTENDANCE

79 , pp . 2,7) These age differences in religious preferences reflect differences in rates of immigration, births, and deaths during past decades, as well as individual shifts in religious preference. ( Relatively large proportions of immigrants between 1880 and 1921 came fr om predominantly Catholic countries .)

INTERPRETATION:

1· c Church membership Amon g OP 50 + , 78 per cent report that they are members of a church (1954) , a proportion similar to that for the younger age groups. ( Erskine, 1964, p. 679; United States poll, American Institute of

Public Opinion ) 1· d Intrafaith marriage and friendship Does the religion that an OP professes affect not only his religious practices and bel iefs but also his patterns of behavior and attitudes outside the church? For example, do OP fit into the societal tendency of individuals to marry and choose friends within their own religious groups? (Glick, 1958. Lenski, 1961, pp. 48-50)

Church attendance is generally maintained at a high level among men and women in their 60's, but it becomes less regular in advanced old age. However, precise rates of attendance vary with the measures used; moreover, the true relationship be· tween attendance and age tends to be obscured in most analyses, since this relationship is conditioned by various factors that are not ordinarily controlled . Not only do sex and denomination make a difference, but also attendance tends to be positively associated for the population as a whole with income, education, and length of residence in the community ( Catholic Digest, 7/ 1966, p . 27. Cowhig and Schnore, 1962, p . 126. Lenski, 1961 , pp.

41-43 ). 2· a Among older people Substantial proportions of OP say they attend at least occasionally.

RELIGIOUS ROLES: RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION

4 85

o

Among OP 65 + (1966) , 37 per cent report attend ing every week, while another 38 per cent report never attend ing. See Exhibit 20 . 2. ( Catholic Digest, 7/ 1966, p. 27; United States sample of

adults ) The age pattern in general

2· b

In studies of the . population as a whole, variations in attendance by age tend to be slight, except that the proportions never attending rise among OP 65 + . See Exhibit 20, 2. ( Catholic Digest, 7/1966, p . 27; United States sample of adults . Similar

finding by Opinion Research Corporation, unpublished data, United States sample, 1966) Since data for both sexes are combined in this analysis, the attendance rate for OP tends to be raised by the comparatively high proportion of women among the aged. At the same time, since data for all religious groups are combined, the attendance rate for OP tends to be lowered by the comparatively low proportion of Catholics among the aged.

EXHIBIT20 · 2

Frequency

of chur c h

attendance, 1952 and 1966

Per cent attending during past twelve weeks

Frequency Every Sunday About 3 times a month About 2 times a month Once a month or less Do not attend Total

CAUTION:

Age 18- 24 1952 1966 35 9

32 14

32 9

30 13

39 12

12

8

11

11

11

6

14

18

12

16

14

12

30

30

31

32

32

31

100

100

100

100

100

100

Age 45-54 1966

Total

Age 35-44 1952 1966

34 10

1952 Every Sunday About 3 t imes a month About 2 times a month Once a month or less Do not attend

Age 25-34 1952 1966

Age 55-64 1952 1966

Age 65+ 1952 1966

32 11

42 10

31 15

43 10

31 14

37 8

14

6

11

7

8

7

11

12

11

11

5

10

32

30

32

29

42

38

100

100

100

100

100

100

So urce: Cath olic Dig est . 7/ 1966 . p . 2 7 ( ad apted ) : U.S. sa mpl e of adu lts .

486

Among older people

EXHIBIT 20 · 3 Frequency of church attendance, by religion, 1957 to 1958 ( percentage distribution)

2•c

Both age and the particular religion professed by the OP affect his church attendance.

Fre quency of c h u rch attendance Age

o

R egularly

Often

Se ldom

N eve r

27 37 41 41 37 39 42 40 40 40

25 26 26 25 23 22 25 22 24 24

39 31 26 29 32 30 28 31 28 28

9 6 7 5 8 9 5 7 8 8

251 502 498 460 494 452 419 335 259 515

70

11

69 72

16 12 17 12 13 15

17 13

2 2 5 2 3

81 158 168 157 184

2 4 8

117 110

Number

Protestants

21-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65+ Roman Catholics

21-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65+

72 77

11

9 8

74

12

66

14

13 15 5 13 12

6 8

17 23 22

56 54 43

72

66 78

9

Attendance and religious preference

80 68

1 8

147

21 15

48 73

10

67

Among OP, as well as among those in younger age groups, Catholics are far more likely to attend regularly than Protestants are; Jews are least likely of all. See Exhibit 20' 3. ( Lazerwitz, 1961, p . 304;

combined United States samples, 1957 and 1958; University of Michigan, Survey Research Center)

o

The general age pattern of attendance is reflected among Protestants and Catholics, but not among Jews. See Exhibit 20 . 3. Among Protestants and Cathol ics, regular attendance shows little cons istent variation over the middle and later years, although nonattendance may tend to rise at 65 + . ( Lazerwitz, 1961 , p .

304 . Similar finding of no decline among OP 60 + in Cowhig and Schnore, 1962, p . 123; United States urban sample , 1952 ) Among Jews, attendance is markedly higher amon g OP 50 + than among those at younger ages (a finding consistent with the historic decline of orthodoxy within Judaism in the United States) . ( Lazerwitz, 1961 , p . 304. Similar find-

ing in Orbach, 1961 , p. 538; Detroit sample, 1952 through 1957; sex controlled)

Jews

21-34 35-49 50-65+

25

Source : Lazerw ltz . 1961. p . 304 : combined U.S. samples : University of Mic higan . Survey Research Center.

RELIGIOUS ROLES: CHURCH ATTENDANCE

487

2•d

Attendance and sex

Sex is another factor importantly related to church attendance.

EXHIBIT 20 · 4 Frequency ( percentage distribution )

o

Amon g OP, as well as am ong those in younger age categories, women attend more regularly than men . See Exhibit 20 . 4.

o

When the age pattern for each sex is examined separately, regular attendance is maintained t hrough the age category 60 to 74, only droppi ng at age 75 + . See Exhibit 20 ' 4 . ( Orbach, 1961 , p . combined probability 536; 6,900 individu als 2 1

+,

samples of Detroit, 1952 throug h 1957 )

o

Related reports from other Western countries show the following: Regular attendance reaches its peak at age 60 to 79 (West Germany, 1954). ( R eigrotzki, 1956; reported by Havighurst, 1960- a, p . 32 1; na-

tional sample; sex controlled) Regular attendance declines steadily from age 65 to 69 throu gh age' 85+ (Netherlands, 19 51-

1952). ( Diedrich , 1955; reporte d by Havighurst, 1960- a, p . 326; n ational quota sample of 11 ,000 0 P 65+; sex controlled ) 2· e

Age and sex

21-39

Once a wee k

of ChlL1"ch attendance, by sex, Detroit , 1950's Frequen cy of attendan ce A few tim es a year T w ice a Once a m onth month or less

Never

Nu m ber

Men Women

44.9 4 1.1 48 .1 4 7.1 40 .4 53.9 48. 7 42.0 55.1 4 1.7 34.6 46 .7

12 .1 11.3 12.7 12. 9 10.7 15.1 10.3 9.3 11.3 11.3 9.1 13.0

8 .2 7.2 9.0 7 .8 7 .6 8 .1 8 .5 8.3 8.7 2 .3 3.6 1.3

24.1 26.7 22.0 22.2 27.0 17.3 21. 2 25 .9 16.6 18.9 25.4 14.3

10.7 13.7 8 .2 10.0 14 .3 5 .6 11.3 14.5 8 .3 25.8 27.3 24 .7

3 ,40 2 1,542 1,860 2, 510 1,268 1,24 2 8 55 421 434 132 55 77

Total Men Women

46 .0 40.8 50.8

12 .1 10.8 13.4

8 .0 7 .4 8 .5

22.9 26.7 19. 6

10.9 14.3 7 .7

6,91 1' 3 ,290' 3 ,621 '

Men Women

40-59 Men Wom en

60-74 Men Women

75+

--' Inc lud es those for wh o m age was no t asce rtained .

Religious activity of the physically able

That poor hea lth may be a deterrent for ma ny OP is suggested by one small study of OP well enough to go to church . This study shows higher scores of attending church and receiving communion among those 75 + than amo ng those 65 to 74 . ( O'Reilly,

1957, p . 120; 200 Catholics, Chicago working class)

Source : Orbach . 1961 . p. 536: combined samples of Detroit metr opOli tan area. 1952 t hrough 1957 .

488

A ttendance and sex

EXHIBIT 20 . 5 Presen t ch urch atten dan ce compared w ith reporte d attendance ten years ago ( percentage distribution)

Relative church attendance

Age 65-69

70-74

Long Beach Less often About the same More often No information

43 .8 40.2 15.5 0.5

50 .0 37.8 11.5 0.7

Number

( 199 )

( 156)

Age

Age 75-79

Age

2 •f

80 +

Age not specified

All ages

59.2 29.6 11.2

66.2 29.1 3.9 1.0

34.8 34.8 13.0 17.4

52.0 35.3 11.5 1.2

( 125 )

(103 )

( 23 )

( 606 )

Age 65- 74

Age 75 +

All ages

Grand Rapids Less often About the same More often No information

31.1 55 .7 10.4 2.8

64.4 28.9 6.7

41.1 47.7 9.3 2.0

Number

( 106)

( 45 )

(151 )

A mliltiv ariate analysis

Is there, then , any general relationsh ip between age and attendance? One analysis that does control simultaneously on a number of factors su ggests that no consistent age trends persist with in all the social and reli gious strata. ( Orbach , 1961 , p . 539; 6,900 individuals 2 1 +, combined probability samples of Detroit, 1952 through 1957 )

2 •g

Attendance over the li fe cycle

If such cross·section studies su ggest a f airly stable pattern up to advanced old age, what changes, if any, occur as individuals proceed throu gh their life course? The evidence, thou gh sl ight, su ggests that mo re individuals decrease than increase their attendance as they reach old age.

D One longitud inal study f ound no net change in reported church attendance among a panel of males contacted at age 64 and agai'n two years later, either among those who retired or those who con· t inued workin g. ( Streib, 1965- a, pp. 3-4 ; 1,300 males employed in 1952, recon tacted in 1954;

data not shown )

D In another study, retrospective reports of OP 60 + showed a sli ght net decrease in church at· t enda nce since age 50 . 30 per cent report less attendance, whi le 23 per .cent report more attendance (with nearly half report ing no chan ge). ( Barron , 1961, pp . 99-

100, 173 ; United States urban sample of 1,200 OP 60+, mostly men, 1952- 1953 )

D Decreases in attendance appear t o be most pro· nounced among OP in the most advanced age categories . See Exhibit 20 . 5. Source : McCann. 1955; Hunter and Maurice. 1953; both reported by Maves. 1960. p. 731.

RELIGIOUS ROLES: CHURCH ATIENDANCE

489

o

On the basis of scattered small studies decreased attendance also appears to be associated with poor health, difficulty in getting around, widowhood, low income, listening instead to services on radio or watching services on television, or transportation difficulties. ( McCann , 1955; 600 OP 65+,

Long Beach, California; reported by Maves , 1960, pp. 730- 734 . Hunter and Maurice , 1953, pp . v , 5-7, 61 - 63 ; 150 OP 65+, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1953 ) 2•h

Societal trends in attendance

Average rates of church attendance appear to have risen slightly (from 1952 to 1966) among OP 65+ and for the population at large. See Exhibit 20 . 2.

( Catholic Digest, 711966, p . 27; United States sample of adults, 1952 and 1966. A rise for the total population occurred between the annual polls taken in the 1940's and those taken in the 1950's and 1960's, American In stitute of Public Opinion; reported by Erskine , 1964, pp. 671 - 672.) 3

RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS

Apart from membership in a church, both membership and leadership in religious organizations tend to be maintained into the later years.

3 ·a

Membership

o

Among older people. Religious and church-related organizations have the second highest membership of all types of voluntary associations among OP 55 + (1955), second only to lodges and fraternal organizations. See Exhibit 2 1 ' 5, and compare Chapter 21. ( Hausknecht, 1962, p. 85; United States sample . Similar finding reported by Barron, 1961 , p. 172; United States urban sample of 1,200 OP 60+ , mostly men, 1952- 1953)

490

Attendance over the life cycle

o

Older people versus younger people . Membership in religious and church-related associations (1955) tends to increase by age categories. ( Hausknecht, 1962, pp . 71-72, 85)

o

By sex. Women at all ages tend to be more deeply involved than men in the organizational life of the church (at least among Episco palians). ( Glock et al., 1967, p. 69 ; national sample 1,200 Episcopalians) 3 •b

Religious leadership

The top leadership of established religious organizations seems to be heavily concentrated among OP.

o

The offices of Pope and of president of a religious organization are more likely to have been filled by men over, rather than under, age 65.

( Lehman, 1953, pp . 173- 177; analysis of 51 Popes and 101 presidents of American nonCatholic religious organizations) 4

PERSONAL OBSERVANCES

What are the religious feelings and experiences of older people, as distinct from church and organizational activities that require going outside the home? Research deals with such aspects of personal religion as observance, belief, and the importance to the individual of his religious .role. In regard to observance, studies suggest that devotional life is comparatively strong among today's older people.

4 •a

Practices and attitudes

OP (at least those 50 + ) are more likely than younger people to report such practices and attitudes as the following:

EXHIBIT 20 · 6

Relationship of age to four scores of religious

orientation'

o

OP are more likely to read the Bible at home (United States polls, 1942 and 1943).

Per cent who are religiou sly oriented on each dimension

Age Under 20

20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70+

Cogn itive dim en sion

Cultie dimen sion

Creedal dimension

Devotional dim en sion

20 28 22 22 22 22 19

35 29 46 49 51 45 38

19 22 26 27 32 34 32

12 12 19 19 27 31 36

• Scores of religious Orientation: Cognitive . knowledge of the Bible Cultlc .. frequency of church attendance and financial support. religious organization participation and leadership Creedal · bellef In life after death . Jesus Christ as Savior . and the Bible as revealed word of God Devotlonal ·falth In power of prayer . belief In converSion as a necessary experience for a Christian . and practice of dally Bible or devotional reading.

Over 70 per cent of OP 50 + versus about half of those persons 21 to 29 report reading the Bible within the past year. ( Erskin e, 1965, p . 154;

American Institute of Public Opinion )

o

OP are more likely to react favorably to the idea of a retreat to think about life and religion (United States poll, 1949). ( Erskine, 1965, p . 336; Ameri-

can In stitute of Public Opinion )

o

OP are more likely to pray in private (Czechoslovakian poll, 1946) . ( Cantril, 1951 , p. 742;

Czechoslovakian In stitute of Public Opinion)

o

OP are more likely to describe Sunday as a day for religion rather than for relaxation (United States poll , 1963) . ( Erskine , 1965, p . 155; Roper Poll )

4 •b

Devotional orientation

There are steady increases by age categories through 70 + on a score of devotional practices and beliefs (one denomination only). See Exhibit

20·6. ( Fukuyama, 1961 , pp . 156- 159; urban sample of 4 ,000 Congregational Church members) 4 •c

T ime spent on w orship and m editation

Among OP, about one in ten reports that, apart from Sunday activities, they spend an average of one hour a day reading the Bible or other religious literature, listening to religious programs, praying, and similar pursuits. See Exhibit 22·4. ( Beyer

and Woods , 1963, pp. 15- 16; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958 ) Sourc e: Fukuyama . 1961 . p. 158 (adapted) ; urban sam ple of 4 .000 Co ngregationa l Church members . Origi nally pub lished In the Review of Religious Research . Vol. 2. No. 4 . co pyr ig ht 196 1 by the Rel igious Research Associa tion . Inc.

RELIGIOUS ROLES: PERSONAL OBSERVANCES

491

EXHIBIT 20 "7

Belief in God, 1952 and 1966 ( percentage distribution) Age 18- 24

Age 35-44

Age 25- 34

Age 45- 54

Age 55- 64 1952 1966

Age 65 + 1952 1966

Belief

1952

1966

1952

1966

1952

1966

1952

1966

Absolutely certain Fairly sure Qu ite sure Not at all sure Do not believe Do not k:now

87

71

85

80

85

81

87

83

88

85

91

86

9

11

14 3

11

10 2

11

9 2

7 1

1

8 4 1 2

9 2 2 1

*

17 4 3 4 1

*

*

*

*

*

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

Total

2 1 1

*

2 1

1 1

12 3 1 1 2

100

100

100

100

3

2

;':

1

1

2 2 2

1

• Less than 0 . 5 per cent.

Source : Catholic DIgest. 6 / 1966 . p. 19 (adapted) : U.S . samples of adults .

492

d Religious education OP 55 +, although they participate less than other age groups in adult education generally (Chapter 5, section 4) are more likely to study religion than most other types of subject matter. (Johnstone and Rivera, 1965, pp. 79-81 ; cross-section sample of

the United State s) 4· e Religious knowledge Whether or not OP actually have greater knowledge of the Bible and religion than younger people do is not entirely clear.

o

OP are more likely than younger people to name selected books of the Bible correctly (United States poll , 1950) . ( Erskine, 1963, p . 135; American

In stitute of Public Opinion ) They are also more likely than younger people to have learned the catechism by heart when at school (Swedish poll, 1944). ( Cantril, 1951, p . 746 )

o

However, there is little difference among age categories on a score of religious information (one denomination only). See Exhibit 20 ' 6. ( Fukuyama, 1961 , p . 158; urban sample of 4 ,000 Congrega-

tional Church members ) 5 BELIEFS Belief in God and i n immortality also appear to be firmly ingrained in most older people, as well as in the public at large. See Chapter 14, 6 ' b, for attitudes toward death and im · mortality.

5· a Belief in God OP 65 +, of whom some 86 per cent say they are absolutely certain there is a God , are at least as likely

as younger people to express this belief (United States, 1966). See Exhibit 20' 7. ( Catholic Digest, 611966, p. 19; United States sample of adults.

Similar findings for United States , 1944- 1954, American In stitute of Public Opinion; reported by Erskine, 1965, pp. 145-146; and for Czechoslovakia, 1946, Czechoslovakian Institute of Public Opinion; reported by Cantril, 1951, p . 744) 5· b Belief in immortality Over three·fourths of OP beyond 50 or 55 say they believe in a life after death, a larger proportion than in you nger age groups (United States, 1944; No r· way, 1958). ( Erskine , 1965, pp. 147, 149; Ameri-

can Institute of Public Opinion and International Research Associates) 5- c Creedal orientation Ind ividuals in the older age categories (50 through 70 +) are especi ally likely to have high ratings on scores of religious beliefs in general as observed in studies: Among Congregational Church members (Exhibit 20 ' 6) ( Fukuyama, 1961 , pp. 157- 158; urban

sample of 4 ,000 membe1's) Among members of Protestant and Catholic con· gregations, San Francisco Bay Area ( Stark, 1966, pp. 5, 10; 3 ,000 church members; score of be-

lie f in God, divinity of Jesus, Biblical miracles, and the Devil) 5· d Trends The extent to which the United States public ex· press an absolute belief in God may have declined somewhat (1952 to 1966) at each age level. See Exhibit 20' 7. ( Catholic Digest, 6/ 1966, p. 19;

United State s sample of adults)

RELIGIOUS ROLES : PERSONAL OBSERVANCES

493

6

IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION

The sense that religion is important, even more clearly than the belief in religious doctrines, is most pronounced among people in the later stages of life.

6· a

Among older people

o

Rel igion appears to be highly valued, as suggested by the following findings: Amon g OP 65 + , 84 per cent say religion is very important (United States, 1952). See Exhibit 20' 8. ( Catholic Dige st, 2/ 1953, p . 8; United

of religion, 1952 ( percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 20 · 8

Importance Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Importance

18-24

25-34

35--44

45-54

55-64

65 +

64 30 6

71

71

77

24 5

23 6

80 14 4 2

84 11 4 1

100

100

Very important Fairly important Not very important Undecided Total

*

*

*

15 6 2

100

100

100

100

• Le ss than 0 . 5 per cent

State s sample of adults ) Among OP in the age categories 61 to 70 and 70 + , two-thirds of men and nine out of ten women say that, apart from attendance at church, religion is very important to them (United States, 1963). (J. Riley, 1968; United States sample of 1,500 adults) Among nonagenarians, 73 per cent say (United States, 1950's) they have been deeply religious most of their lives . ( Gallup and Hill , 1959, p . 108; 400 OP 95+ )

o

However, the reli gious role may be less salient than certain other roles for some OP. For example, in one study where OP were asked what gave them the most satisfaction and comfort in their lives today, fewer named religion and the church than family, relatives, or friends. ( Barron , 1961 , p . 179; United State s urban sample of 1,200 OP 60+ , mostly men, 19521953 )

Source : Catholic Digest . 2/ 1953 . p . 8 (adapted) ; U .S. sample of adults .

494

Among older people

EXHIBIT 20 · 9

Interest in worship and religion, Sweden, 1956

Per cent expressing strong interest

56-61

Age 62- 70

71+

25

32

45

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

11-18

19-28

29-36

37-55

7

6

15

6

Age

6 •b

Older people versus younger people

That religion is more important in the older, in contrast with the younger, age categories is evidenced by the consistent increases with age in the proportions of individuals who: Say that religion is very important in their own lives (Exhibit 20·8) (Catholic Digest, 2/ 1953,

p. 8; United States sample

of adults, 1952)

Say that aSide from attendance at church, religion is very important to them (J. Riley, 1968;

United States sample

of 1,500 adults , 1963)

Regard themselves as being reli gious ( Cantl'il,

1951 , p . 743; Sweden, 1942 ) Express strong interest in worship and reli gion . See Exhibit 20 - 9_ ( Swedish In stitute fOT Public Opinion, 1956; reported by HavighuTst,

1960- a, p.308 ) 6 •c

Life-cycle changes

What is the meaning of the increase with age in the importance of rel igion? Do people individually turn to religion as they age? Or do the differences among age categories (cohorts) reflect a general decline in religious interest? Evidence so far available points to considerable differences in the life-cycle patterns of particular individuals.

D One-half of a small sample of OP 65 + report that religion has become more helpful during the past ten years, while another one-third say it has become less helpful. ( O'Reilly, 1957, p. 120; 200 Catholics , Chicago working class )

Source: Swedish Institute for Public Opinion : reported by Havighurst. 1960 ·a. p. 308 .

RELIGIOUS ROLES: IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION

495

o

Nearly one-fifth of OP 60 + claim more comfort and satisfaction from religion now than they experienced at age 50, while a roughly similar proportion claim less _ ( Ban-on, 1961 , p _ 179; United States urban sample of 1,200 OP 60 +, mostly

f1'Om 5 diffel-ent surveys covering several thousand OP, 1959- 1960; analYSis controlled on various factors) Among OP who attend church or read the Bible more (rather than less) frequently (OP 60+ , Austin, Texas) ( Scott, 1955, pp. 543-544; 100

men, 1952- 1953 )

o

community residents , 1952; similar finding for 80 nursing-home 7-esidents capable of being interviewed)

Over the em-ly years of the life cycle, longitu dinal analysis shows a net increase in religious values as individuals move from their mid-20's to their mid-40's_ ( Kelly, 1955, pp. 659- 681 ; 368

Among OP who attend church (or listen to reli gious programs on radio) often, read the Bible regularly, or believe in an afterlife (recipients of old -age assistance) ( Shanas, 1949; reported by

men and women retested, after 16 to 18 years, from an original sample of 300 engaged couples ; Allport-Venwn scale of value s)

Gray and Moberg , 1962, pp. 45-46) 7

RELIGION AND LIFE SATiSFACTION

Compare

Chapter 15 for older people's satisfaction with life

generally.

Apart from older people's own assessments of the personal value of religion to them, their religious activities and beliefs are doubtless importa'ntly con nected with their basic attitudes and practical con duct and tend to be associated with the degree of their over-all satisfaction with life _

7•a

Among OP who are church members rather than nonmembers or among those who are church leaders rather than other church members (OP 60+, four Midwestern states) (Moberg and

Tave s, 1965, pp. 113-124; consistent findings

Life-cycle changes

Loneliness

The lonely or the unhappy appear no more likely than other OP to attend church or to receive communion (working-class Catholics 65 + ). ( O'Reilly,

1957, pp. 120-121 ; 200 OP, Chicago) Stich associations between religion and life satisfaction can mean either that the better-adjusted persons are the more religiously involved or that religious invo lvement enhances adjtLstment.

CAUTION:

Adjustment

Adjustm ent (8 urgess-Cava n-H avighu rst Inventory) tends to be comparatively higher among such cate gories of OP as the following:

496

7· b

8

SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS

What are the implications of the older person's reli gious role for the society in which he lives? Older people constitute a sizable minority of the rel igious community, and the churches provide many services to their elderly parishioners_ The aged , for their part, appear to take an especially positive view of the church and its respons ibilities_

Age composition of religious gTOUPS ,' 1952 and 1966 (percentage distribution) ._----

8 •a

EXHIBIT 20 . 10

Age

Total (all re ligions ) 1952 1966

Prote stants 1952 1966

Catholics 1952 1966

Jews 1952 1966

None 1952 1966

---10 25 20 18 14 13

9 20 21 18 16 16

14 28 21 15 14 8

12 21 25 20 12 10

5 27 27 19 14 8

8 20 22 27 14 9

13 23 22 18 13

12 25 25 13

11

10 21 22 19 14 14

11

14

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

25 21 18 14

Total

11

Concentrations of oldeT people

Amon g the total adults in the United States who report a religious preference, well over one-tenth are OP 65 +, with the characteristic competencies, attitudes, and needs of the elderly.

o

Concentrations of OP are more pronounced in certain socioTeligious 3egments of the population than in others. There are larger proportions of OP 65 + among white Protestants (14 per cent) and Jews (13 per cent) than among Catholics (10 per cent) or no nwh ite Protesta nts (9 per cent). ( CuTTent

11

Population RepoTts, 1958, P- 20 , No. 79, pp. 2 , 7; United States sample of peTsons 14+, 1957; self-TepoTted Teligious identification )

aBased on answers to the question : By the way. what IS your religious preference - Protestant . Catholic.

jewish . or what?

o

OveT time (between 1952 and 1966) , the proportions of OP 65 + rose slightly in each of the religious preference grou ps (consistent with the general aging of the population) . See Exhibit 20· 10. ( Catholic Digest, 9/1966, pp. 119- 122; United State s sample of adults ) 8 •b

Religious pTograms fOT oldeT people

Churches and religious organizations offer OP, in addition to rites and sacraments, a variety of services including home visits and pastoral counseling, nursing and retirement homes (Chapter 6, B· 7) , social centers, and social services of various kinds (Mathiasen, 1955, pp. 3-8; National Advisory Committee, White House Conference on Agin g, 1960).

Source : Catholic Digest. 9 / 1966. p . 122 (adapted) : U.S. samples of adults .

RELIGIOUS ROLES: SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS

497

o

The scope of such programs for OP is suggested by one national survey of Presbyterian churches. The majority of the churches provide visitation by the pastor and others, but only 15 per cent have a fulltime staff member, and only 13 per cent have a bud getary item assigned to ministries for OP.

80 per cent report special groups (typically socialrecreational) in which OP participate significantly. Two-thirds report specific activities for OP (for example, Bible study, dinners, and discussion grou ps). But very few provide employment, homemaker or health services, or room registries. ( United

Presbyterian Church, 1967, pp. 46-49, 88- 92; reports from 165 local churches) 8' c

Older people's views of religion

OP in their turn seem generally more inclined than younger people to stress the im portance of religion in education and public affairs and to take a posi tive view of the place of religion in society.

o

OP are comparatively more likely than younger people to express such views as the following: To say that people today are generally more reli gious than people were in their parents' day (United States, 1963) (Erskine , 1965, p. 151 ) To believe that people in this country will go t o church more often in the next fifty years than they do now (United States, 1949) ( Erskine,

1964, p.678 ) To think that religious people are more moral than atheists or those who are indiffere nt to reli gion (Czechoslovakia , 1946) (Cantril, 1951 , p.

745 )

498

Religious programs

fOT

OP

To favo r the teach ing of religion in the schools (Czechoslovakia, 1946; Sweden , 1944) (Cantril,

1951 , pp.745-746 ) To feel that the church should be represented at the peace conference after World War II (Sweden,

1944) ( Cantril, 1951 , p. 743 ) To think that the world has a greater need for more religion than for economic security (United States, 1938) ( Erskine , 1965, p. 152 )

RESEARCH NEEDS

1 To what extent is the apparent drop in church attendance among the very old attributable to their impaired health or their low socioeconomic status? To what extent is it a refiection of a possible social trend toward rising ritualistic performance in the country as a whole? Are there certain types of older people for w hom church attendance increases with advancing age?

2 Do the advent of old age, the imminen ce of death , and the dropping off of other responsibilities and commitments m ean a recourse to the devotional life? Or is the apparent rise in the salience of religion for older people explained entirely by such extraneous factors as their low level of educational attainment? 3 To what extent are private devotions a substitute for church attendance? How widely are older people exposed to religion through the mass media ( television, radio , books , and pamphlets) ?

4 What understanding of the connections between age and religion might be provided through longitu dinal studies? What understan ding of this con nection might be provided through trend studies comparing age categories over time? What understanding of this connection might be provided through largesample an alyses that control simultan eously on su ch factors as sex, socioeconomic status, religious grouping , and age of children?

Works cited in Chapter 20

Cavan, Ruth S. , et aI. , 1949. Personal Adjustment in Old Age, Ch ica go: Science Research Associates, Inc.

Hall , G. Stanley, 1922. Senescen ce: The Last Half of Li fe, New York: Appleton and Co.

Cowhi g, James D. , and Leo F. Schnore, 1962. "Religious Affiliation and Attendance in Metropolitan Centers," American Catholic Sociological Review, 23, pp. 113- 127.

logical Description of Vo luntary Association Mem bership in the United States, New York:

Diedrich, J., 1955. "Report of a Survey of Older People, 1951-52," Amsterdam : Bureau voor Marktanalyse en Sociografisch Onderzoek. Erskine, Hazel Gaudet, 1963. " The Polls," Public Opin ion Quarterly , 27, p. 135. - - - , 1964. "The Polls," Pu blic Opinion Quarterly, 28, pp. 671-672, 678, 679.

Argyle, Michael, 1958. Religiou s Behavior, Glencoe, III. : The Free Press.

- - - , 1965. " The Polls," Public Opinion Quarterly , 29, pp. 145-146, 147, 149, 151 , 152, 154, 155, 336.

.. Barron, Milton L. , 1961. T he Aging Americans: An Introdu ction to Social Geron to logy an d Geriatrics , New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co .

Fichter, J. H., 1952. " The Profile of Catholic Religious Life," American Journal of Sociology, 58, pp. 145- 150.

Beyer, Glenn H. , and Margaret E. Woods, 1963. " Fukuyama , Yoshio, 1961. " The Major Dimensions " Living and Activity Patterns of the Aged," Reof Church Membersh ip," Review of Religious search Report No. 6, Ithaca, New York: Center Research , 2, pp. 154-16l. for Housing and Environmental Studies, CorGallup, George, and Evan Hill , 1959. The Secret s nell University. of Lon g Li fe, New York: Avon Book Division, Burgess, Ernest W., ed itor, 1960-a. A ging in W estThe Hearst Corp. ern Societies, Ch ica go: University of Chica go Gl ick, Paul C., 1958. "Interm arria ge and Fertility Press. Patterns Amon g Persons in Major Religious Cantril , Hadley, ed itor, 1951. Public Opinion , Groups, " Eugenics Quarterly , pp . 31- 38. 1935- 1946, Princeton , N.J.: Princeton UniverGlock, Charles Y., Benjam in B. Ringer, and Ea rl R. sity Press . Babbie, 1967. To ComfoTt and to Ch allenge: Catholic Digest, T he, " Survey of Religion in the A Dilemma of t he Contemporary Church, U.S.," Februa ry, 1953, p. 8; June, 1966, p. 19; Berkeley, Calif .: University of California Press. " July, 1966, p. 27; September, 1966, pp. 119,~ Gray, Robert M., and David O. Moberg, 1962. The 122. Church and the Oldel' Person, Grand Rapids, • S uggest ed ad d ition al rea d inb Mi ch. : Will iam B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

Hausknecht, Murray, 1962. The Joiners: A Socio-

The Bedminster Press . Havighurst, Robert J., 1960-a. "Life Beyond Family and Work, " in Burgess, Ernest W., ed itor, Aging in W esteTn Societies, Ch icago: University of Chica go Press, pp . 299- 353 . Hunter, Woodrow W. , and Helen Maurice, 1953 . Older People T ell Their Story, Ann Arbor, Mich .: Institute for Human Adjustment, Division of Gerontology. Johnstone, John W. C., and Ramon J. Rivera , 1965. V olunteers for Learning , Ch ica go: Ald ine Publish ing Co. Kelly, E. Lowell , 1955. "Consistency of the Adult Personality," American Psychologist, 10, pp. 659-681. La zerwitz, Bernard , 1961. " Some Factors Associated with Vari at ions in Church Attendance," Social Forces, 39, pp . 301-309 . Lehman , Harvey C., 1953 . Age and Achievem ent, Princeton, N.J .: Princeton Un iversity Press. Lenski, Gerhard , 1961. Th e Religious Factor, Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Co. McCann , C. W., 1955. Long Beach Senior Citizen s' Survey, Lon g Beach , Cal if. : Com m unity Wel fare Council. Math iasen , Geneva , 1955. " Role of Rel igio n in the Lives of Older People," New York: The National Committee on th e Agi ng (mim eographed). Maves, Paul B., 1960. "Aging, Religion and the Church , " in Tibbitts, Clark, editor, Handbook of Social Gerontology, Ch icago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 698-749 .

RELIGIOUS ROLES: RESEARCH NEEDS

499

Moberg, David 0 ., and Marvin J. Taves, 1965. "Church Participation and Adjustment in Old Age," in Rose, Arnold M., and Warren A. Peterson, editors, Older People and Their Social World: The Sub-Culture of Aging, Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co ., pp. 113-124. National Advisory Committee, White House Conference on Aging, 1960. Background Paper on

Services of Religious Groups for the Aging, Washington: Government Printi·ng Office.

* Orbach,

Harold L., 1961. "Aging and Rel igion: A Study of Church Attendance in the Detroit Metropolitan Area," Geriatrics, 16, pp. 530540.

O'Reilly, Charles T., 1957. "Religious Practice and Personal Adjustment of Older People," Sociology and Social Research, 42, pp. 119-121. Reigrotzki, Erich, 1956. "Soziale Verflechtungen in der Bundesrepublik: Elemente der sozialen Teilnahme in Kirche, Pol itik, Organ isationen und Freizeit" (Schriftreihe des UNESCO-

Instituts fur Sozialwissenschaften Koln) TObingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr. Riley, John W., Jr., 1968. "Death and Bereavem ent," in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, New York: The Macmillan Company and the Free Press, pp. 19-25. Rose, Arnold M., and Warren A. Peterson, editors,

1965. Older People and Their Social World, Philadelphia : F. A. Davis Co. Scott, Frances Gillespie, 1955. "Factors in the Personal Adjustment of Institutionalized and Noninstitutionalized Aged," American Sociological Review, 20, pp. 538-546. Shanas, Ethel , 1949. "The Personal Adjustment of Recipients of Old Age Assistance," University of Ch icago, doctoral dissertation (unpublished). Stark, Rodney, 1966. "Age and Faith: A Changing Outlook or an Old Process?" (unpublished).

500

Worhs cited

Streib, Gordon, 1965-a. "Longitudinal Study of Retirement," Final Report to the Social Security Administration , Washington, D.C. Swedish Institute for Public Opinion, 1956. " Pa Aldre Daga r" (unpublished). Tibbitts, Clark, editor, 1960. Handbook of Social Gerontology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. United Presbyterian Church, 1967. The Church and the Aging, New York: Un ited Presbyterian Church . United States Bureau of the Census, 1958. CUT1"ent Population Repo1"ts, Series P-20, No. 79.

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS Milton L. Barron Charles Y. Glock Phillip E . Hammond

Margueri te Levy David O. Moberg Clark Tibbitts

21 In addition to the broad religious and political roles discussed in Chapters 19 and 20, our pluralistic society offers a variety of voluntary associations as potential links between older people and the larger community, associa tions such as clubs, lodges, auxiliaries , and the many other formal organizations to which people belong part time and without pay. To be sure, belonging to such associations is less widespread among older people generally than membership in a church or voting in a national election, and average membership rates show a drop in later life after a rise in the middle years. However, individuals vary greatly from this average, depend ing on their education and income. Thus , if . only one-fou rth of the older men with low incomes belong to one or more associations , as many as twothirds of those with high incomes belong.

VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS

What is the meaning of this correlation between socioeconomic level and association membership? Can older people's memberships be expected to increase in the future as their levels of educational attainment rise? How do life-cycle changes in occupational or familial roles affect the respective participation of older men and older women? What kinds of associational roles are open to older people , and how are these roles changing? Is there a growing tendency toward age-homogeneous memberships? What are the implications of membership for the individual: does it stimulate his interest, provide him with new friends , afford him opportunities to serve community goals? What are the consequences for society of involving the elderly in the give-and -take of pluralistic processes? THE DATA The data on voluntary associations provide only limited answers to such questions. Except for a few cross-section stud ies conducted in the 1950's and one substantial study concentrated on older people 65 and over, the research on older people is largely exploratory, based on local or specialized samples and productive only of 'numerous dues and suggestive insights (as illustrated in this chapter through selected examples) . More complete analyses of trends, life-cycle changes, and the factors conditioning the relationship between age and associational activity await further research.

501

M EMBERSHIP 2

CHARACTERI STICS OF MEMBERS

3

TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS

4

SPECIAL CLU BS FOR OLDER PEOPLE

5

NORM S

1

Membership in voluntary associations ( percentage distribution )

EXHIBIT 21 · 1

MEMBERSHIP

Membership tends, according to several cross-section studies, to persist well into old age, although its extent and its precise relationship to age vary with the time and place of the study and the particular types of organizations defined as voluntary associations_ 1•a

No .

of

memberships

The age pattern of membership

Total Number

o

United States, 1955. One study shows that the proportions belonging to one or more associations hover around 36 to 42 per cent between the ages of 25 and 64, but drop to 32 per cent by age 65 +_ See Exhibit 21 - 1, (a). United States, 1954. Another study shows a plateau from age 30 to 59, with very little drop at age 60+ . See Exhibit 21' 1, (b). ( Hausknecht,

Total

1962, pp. 15- 16, 23, 40-41 ; national samples) ship is reported for an urban area, with the drop starting at age 50 to 60 and becoming sharper in the 60's. ( Freedman and A xelrod, 1952, p. 9;

Age

Age

Age

Age

35-44

45-54

55-64

65 +

58 23 19

64 19 17

61 20 19

68 19 13

100

100

100

100

100

100

(138)

(594)

(523)

( 457)

( 328)

(292)

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60+

41 29 30

41 34 25

42 29 29

31 25

100

100

100

100

100

(398)

(498)

(409 )

(300 )

(372)

(b) AIPO sample, 1954b None 54 1 28 2 or more 18

o

Detroit, 1952. A bell-shaped curve of member-

Age

25-34

(a) NORC sample, 1955" None 84 64 1 10 21 2 or more 15 6

Average rates of membership rise to a plateau in the middle age categories, typically starting to fall off in the 60's _

o

Age

21- 24

Number

• U.S. sample. Nationa l Opinion Research Center ; associations def ined to stress those "i n the comm un ity here." b

U .S. sample. Amer ican In sti tute of Public Opi nion ; associations def ined to i nclude trade

un ions and to direct attention to various types of organizations .

750 adults aged 20+ )

Source : Hausknecht, 1962 . pp . 40 · 41.

502

The age pattern of membership

44

Membership in one or more organizations or social clubs among older people 65 and over

EXHIBIT 21 ·2

Category Total Occupancy status Owner Renter Rent free Income Under $1,000 $1,000-$1,999 $2,000-$2,999 $3 ,000-$4,999 $5,000 and over Age 65-69 70-74 75-79 80+

Total Number Per cent reportwho belonged ing

Women Number Per cent reportwho being longed

Men Number Per cent reportwho being longed

5,049

40

3,118

39

1,931

41

2,955 1,399 695

44 33 34

1,671 '944 503

43 34 35

1,284 455 192

46 31 29

953 1,851 1,050 565 302

30 36 44 48 61

719 1,148 595 290 155

32 38 35 45 55

234 703 455 275 147

23 33 48 52 66

1,663 1,663 961 545

44 39 37 35

1,160 965 522 257

43 36 37 37

503 698 439 288

46 42 38 34

o

West Germany, 1954 , German membership is also lower for OP 60+ than for the population at large, ( Reigrotzki, 1956, national sample ; reported by Havighurst, 1960- a, p. 319 )

o

In advanced old age. Beyond age 65, rates (in the United States) continue to drop fairly steadily to age 80+, See Exhibit 21 ·2. ( Beyer and Woods , 1963, pp , 16- 17; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958)

Source : Beyer and Woods , 1963 , p. 17 : over 5 ,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected - primarily urban - areas of the U.S.. 1958.

VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS: MEMBERSHIP

503

1 •b

Membership , by age and sex

EXHIBIT 21 ·3

Membership in voluntary associations, by sex

Althou gh the sexes do not differ substantially (United States) in extent of membership, the rates beyond middle age appear more stable for women than for men.

Per cent who belong to one or more associations

o

(a) NORC sample, 1955' Males 23 35

A drop between middle and later years is more apparent for men than for women. See Exhibit

21' 3. (Hausknecht, 1962, pp. 41-42; national samples for 1954 and 1955 )

Females

o

The drop with advancing age beyond 65 is somewhat more pronounced among men than among women. See Exhibit 21 - 2. ( Beyer and Woods ,

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

21-24

25-34

35-44

45-54

55-64

65 +

( 56)

(255)

43 ( 251 )

36 (227)

39 ( 178)

23 (129)

11 (82)

36 ( 328)

41 (272)

36 (230)

39 ( 150)

38 ( 163 )

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60 +

(162)

61 (241 )

56 (194)

55 (176)

51 (204)

45 ( 231)

57 ( 251)

60 (210)

62 (119)

61 (163)

1963, pp. 16-17; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban , areas of the United States , 1958)

(b) AIPO sample, 1954b Males 47

1 •c

Females

Membership and socioeconomic status

OP are by no mea'ns all alike in association membership, however, but differ greatly according to income and education.

o

At successively higher levels of income, membership rates increase sharply in the following instances:

• U.S. sample. National Opinion Research Center; associations defined to stress those "i n the community here." b U .S. sample . Amer ican Institute of Public Opinion ; associat ions defined to include trade unions and to direct attention to var ious types of organizations . Note : Numbers in parentheses are bases for percentages .

Among OP 65+ in the United States, especially among men (Exhibit 21 - 2) ( Beyer and Woods,

1963, pp. 16- 17; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States , 1958 ) Among OP 55+ in Australia, where club members range from 20 per cent of the poorest up to 65 per cent of the richest ( Hutchinson, 1954, p .

84; 1,300 OP 55+ in Victoria , Australia, 1953 )

Source : Hau sknechl. 1962 . pp. 41 · 42 ; U.S. samples.

504

Membership , by age and sex

EXHIBIT 21· 4 Male participation in formal organizations, by socioeconomic status, New York rural communities ( percentage distribution) Whether respondent participates' in any nonreligious organizations

Age under 45

Low socioeconomic status (88) Number Participates Does 'not participate Total

Total

Total

( 35)

Age 75 +

(18)

55.0 45.0

34.3 65. 7

27.8 72.2

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

(319)

( 93)

( 28)

79 .8 20.2

85 .6 14.4

81.7 18.3

64.3 35.7

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

High socioeconomic status (87) Number Participates Does not participate

(80)

Age 65-74

67.0 33.0

Middle socioeconomic status (411 ) Number Pa rtici pates Does not participate

Age 45-64

( 70 )

( 33 )

( 12 )

96.6 3 .4

98.6 1.4

84.9 15.1

83 .4 16.6

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

• Exclud ing participatio n in church · rela ted organizations . Note: Numbers in parentheses are bases for the percentages .

o At successively higher levels of educational attainment, increases in membership are even more pronounced (in both the older and the younger segments of the United States population, divided in two surveys at age 40 and 35, respectively).

( Hausknecht, 1962, pp. 33-34, 42-44; national samples for 1955 and 1954 )

o

Even when levels of old age are controlled, the increases by social status remain, at least among male household heads in rural New York, 19471948. See Exhibit 21 . 4. ( Taietz and Larson, 1956,

pp. 231-232, 235; 1,300 male household heads)

o

Can the comparatively low membership rates of today's OP be explained, then, by OP's low educa· tion and income? Does age make little difference once socioeconomic status is held constant? The evidence is scattered, based on small samples, and somewhat contradictory. Participation drops between 45-64 and 75+, even when socioeconomic status is controlled . See Exhibit 2 1 . 4. (Taietz and Larson, 1956, p.

235; 1,300 male household heads) Community participation scores (including asso· ciation membership) also tend to drop slightly at age 55 + when education and income are succes· sively controlled . ( Foskett, 1955, pp . 435-436;

1,000 male and female adults in 2 Oregon communities) In another study, however, high'status neighborhoods show no drop at age 60 + in the propor· tion of persons attending meetings (there is even an increase in the proportion attendi'ng fre· quently); whereas a drop does occur in low·status neighborhoods only. ( Bell and Force, 1956-a,

pp. 33-34; 700 males 21+ in 4 urban neighborhoods, San Francisco, 1953 ) Source : Taietz and Larson. 19 56 . p. 235 ; data from 1.300 male household heads. 1947 · 1948.

VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS: MEMBERSHIP

505

I" d

Participation

OP's involvement in voluntary associations, apart from mere membership, is suggested by the amount of time devoted to associated activities.

o

4 per cent of OP report spending an average of three hours each weekday on club and churchrelated activities (for example, in lodges, adult education, bazaars, suppers, handiwork for church, and charity and volunteer work). Proportions of people participating are less than for many other leisure activities, but the amount of time per participator is comparatively high. See Exhibit 22 • 4.

o

The amount of time spent on such activities shows few pronounced differences by sex, income, or age beyond 65 . (Beyer and Woods, 1963, pp . 15-16; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 se-

lected, primarily urban , areas of the United States , 1958)

I " e Changes over the life cycle Do given individuals change as they grow older? Self-reports suggest that many people persist in their established patterns, remaining joiners or nonjoiners (Freedman and Axelrod, 1952, p. 7). However, some OP do reduce their participation, at least under certain of the circumstances (for example, retirement and moving) associated with aging.

o

Amon g retired garment workers, 35 per cent say they attend meeti"ngs less often than they did before retirement; 14 per cent say they attend more often. (Tuckman and Lorge, 1953, p. 55; 660 garment

workers , 1951)

o

OP on old-age assistance report less membership after retirement (26 per cent) than before (36 per cent). (Pinner et al. , 1959, p . 67; mail ques-

506 Participation

tionnaire returns from over 3 ,000 recipients of old-age assistance , California, 1952- 1954)

o

Among OP 65+ in a retirement community, about one-half report giving less time to organizations now than when they were 50; only 1 per cent report more. ( McKain, 1947, pp . 26- 27; reported

by Webber, 1954, pp. 340, 345 )

o

When OP 40 + moved to a trailer·park community for retired persons, the proportions attending meetings dropped from 72 per cent to 8 per cent. (Hoyt, 1954, pp. 362, 365; 200 male heads

of households, not too ill to participate, 19521953 ) 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMBERS

How does the older person's membership ion voluntary associations fit into his life and the other roles he plays? Here the clues indicate rather consistently that the people who are members tend to be not only high status but also generally active and well integrated into other social roles. 2" a

Social integration

OP are, for example, more likely to participate in voluntary associations under such circumstances as the following: If they are still working (not retired) ( Taietz and Larson, 1956, p . 236; 200 male household heads 65+, New York rural communities, 1947-1948) If they are still married (Cowgill and Baulch, 1962, p. 49; 200 OP 60+, Wichita , Kansas, 1959. Hutchinson , 1954, p. 83; 1,300 OP 55+ in Victoria, Australia, 1953 ) If they have visitors at least occasionally (Hutch-

inson, 1954, p . 84)

EXHIBIT 21 . 5

Membership in various types of associations

2•b

Per cent who are members

Type of association Veterans, military, patriotic Civic O'r service PO'litical O'r pressure grO'ups' LO'dges, fraternal, secret sO'cieties, mutual (health) benefit assO'ciatiO'ns Church-related, religiO'us b EcO'nO'mic, O'ccupatiO'nal, prO'fessiO'nal · Cultural, educational, cO'liege alumni SO'cial, spO'rts, hO'bby, recreatiO'nal (except specifically church cO'nnected) TO'tal in each age grO'up

Age 21-34

Age 35-54

Age 55 +

AccO'rding to' variO'us studies, membership seems alsO' to' be assO'ciated with the fO'llO'wing characteristics:

6 7 2 14

GO'O'd adjustment (Havighurst-Cavan-Albrecht measures) ( Havighurst and Albrecht, 1953, p. 340; 100 OP 65+ in a small midwestern town 1948 . Pihlblad and McNamara , 1965, pp , 68~

5

5

16 1 6

17 1 13

6 3 1 7

10 3

(732)

Adjustment

2 5

(980)

11 3 1 5

(620)

' Other than political parties . bExclud ing membership in a church . ' Other than labor union s.

69 ; 150 OP, 3 rural places in Missouri) CO'mparatively slight tendency to' cO'mplain cf IO'neliness ( Hutchinson, 1954, p . 78; 1,300 OP

55+ in Victoria, Australia, 1953 ) It is not clear to what extent voluntan) associations may foster social integration and adjustment rather than simply attracting as members the healthier, happier, more active and better adjusted individuals. INTERPRETATION :

3

TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS

AmO'ng the many types O'f vcluntary asscciatiO'ns, with their varying appeals to' pecple cf differing statuses and at differing stages cf the cccupaticnal O'r family life cycle, cider pecple have their special predilecticns, which differ in certain respects from thO'se cf ycunger pecple.

3 ·a

Among older people

Types O'f crganizatiO'ns to' which OP 55 + are mO'st likely to' belO'ng are, in rank crder, (1) IO'dges O'r fraternal, (2) church-related O'r religicus , (3) civic cr service, (4) veterans, military, patrictic, and (5) sO'cial cr recreatiO'nal. See Exhibit 21 • 5. 3 •b Source: Estima ted f rom Haus kne cht . 1962 , p. 85 ; U.S . sa mple , Natio nal Op inion Research Center , 1955 .

Older people versus younger people

The age pattern O'f membership varies sO'mewhat by types O'f assO'ciatiO'n. See Exhibit 21 • 5.

VO'LUNTARY ASSO'CIATlO'NS: CHARACTERISTICS O'F MEMBERS

507

o

OP 55+ are less likely than middle-aged persons (35 to 54) to belong to civic or service organizations (for example, Rotary, PTA_, and Community Chest)_

o

Otherwise, OP are fairly similar to middle-aged persons, but more likely than young people 21 to 34, to belong to lodges or fraternal organizations (for example, Masons and Knights of Columbus) and to church-related or religious organizations (for example, Holy Name Society, Men's Club at the Church, and Women's Home and Foreig-n Missions)_

In addition to the established voluntary associations, many of which have planned programs for the aged and those approaching old age, special associations of and for older people (for example, Golden Age Clubs and Senior Centers) have emerged in the United States and in several Western European countries to provide recreational, educational, health, or welfare services . (Compare Rose, 1960,

pp. 678- 687; Havighurst, 1960- a, pp. 342- 343. )

4· a

3· c

Small proportions of OP are reported (1950's) to attend such special clubs and centers:

Relation to retirement

o

Among older men who retain some type of membership, the retired are less likely than those still working to belong to occupationally oriented organizations but more likely to belang to organizations emphasizing sociability. (Taietz and Larson, 1956,

p . 237; 150 male household heads 65 + who are association members, New York rural communities , 1947- 1948 )

Older people versus younger people

SPECIAL CLUBS FOR OLDER PEOPLE

(Hausknecht, 1962, pp _ 85, 131 - 133; national sample , 1955)

Does the greater decline in membership among older men than among older women (point 1 . b) reflect a decreasing relevance in old age of those associations that men joi'n during their working life? Suggestive evidence is provided by such findings as the following:

508

4

Participation

1 per cent in New York City, 1952 ( Klltne1' et al. ,

1956, p . 225; 500 OP 60+ ) 5 per cent in Syracuse, New York, 1952 ( Down-

ing, 1957, pp. 81-84; 1,400 OP 65+) 12 per cent in a London working·class district,

1954-1955 (Townsend, 1957, p . 216; 200 OP 65+ ) 4· b

A case example

A study of one multipurpose senior activity center (open daily to some 1,300 to 1,500 members aged 50+ ) suggests the character and functions of many such OP's clubs_

o

The program is flexible, providing opportunities for informal companionship, community service, self-government of the center, assistance in finding housing and employment, and so on_

o

Membership is not narrowly local, but is drawn from the entire surrounding area_ Half the members joined within two years after a major life change (such as retirement, loss of spouse, or moving)_ Although some two-thirds of the members acknowledge a health problem, less than one-fourth report an incapacitating injury or illness during the year.

o

Members appear to be much the same kinds of people as nonmembers, except, for example, that male members tend to underrepresent long-term residents in the area and to overrepresent Protestants; female members tend to overrepresent working women (rather than housewives)_

o

Members tend to be joiners; they participate more extensively than nonmembers in other voluntary associations (as member or officer), both currently and at age 40_ Even those nonmembers who would like to belong are comparatively high in present and past organizational experience, an indication that such group-minded ness may be a cause, rather than a consequence, of membership in the club_

o

Members seem generally more active and positive in their outlook than nonmembers_ They are comparatively more likely to engage in free-time pursu its and to have added new ones after retirement (or, for women , after the children have left home) , to emphasize OP's need for having friends and being wanted, and to hold positive attitudes t oward retirement and toward life after 60_

RESEARCH NEEDS

1 What changes have been occurring in asso-

ciation membership among older people? How are such changes mediated by rising levels of education? What changes have taken place in the types of associations available to older people? Has there been a general decline , for o About one-fourth of the members drop out (and example, in the lodges and fraternal associaare replaced) each year for reasons of death, tions in which older people are now especially moving away, transportatio n, and health problems _ ( St01-ey, 1962, pp . 216- 222; 1,700 members and active? nonmembeTs 50 +, Menlo PaTk, California, 1959- 2 To what extent must a v oluntary associa1960 . Full report in Schramm and Storey, 1961) tion , in order to have meaning for the mem4 • c Legislation ber, fit into the context of the other roles he United States federal legislation provides assistance plays? Are sex differences in types of organin the development of further programs and facili- izational membership related to the apparties to help OP_ (Frankel, 1966, p. 23) ently greater stability in membership among older women than among older men? Are men 5 NORMS more likely to join w ork-connected associaOlder people are not expected by others to relintions that lose their relevance after retirequish voluntary association membership. ment? Is the continuing interest of older o Approved activities for OP include keeping up w omen restricted largely to church-related membership i'n clubs; whereas dropping all memassociations? bership is highly disapproved. (Havighurst and Albrecht, 1953, pp. 344- 345, 356-357; 1,400 3 What can be learned from controlled exadults miscellaneous ages, 1949, 1951 . Similar finding in Britton, Mather and Lansing, 1962, p. periments about how senior voters or old-age 392; 500 adults, rural Pennsylvania community, clubs might foster the continued involvement of older people in the wider society? 1955)

VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS: SPECIAL CLUBS FOR OLDER PEOPLE

509

Worhs cited in Chapter 21 Bell, Wendell, and Maryanne T. Force, 1956. "Urban Neighborhood Types and Participation in For· mal Associations," American Sociological Review, 21, pp. 25-34. Beyer, Glenn H., and Margaret E. Woods, 1963. "Living and Activity Patterns of the Aged," Re· search Report No. 6, Ithaca, N.Y.: Center for Housi'ng and Environmental Studies, Cornell University. Britton, Joseph H., William G. Mather, and Alice K. Lansing, 1962. "Expectations for Older Persons in a Rural Community: Community Participation," Rural Sociology, 27, pp. 387-395. Burgess, Ernest W. , editor, 1960-a. Aging in Western Societies , Chicago: U'niversity of Chicago Press. Cowgill , Donald 0. , and Norma Baulch, 1962. "The Use of Leisure Time by Older People," The Gerontologist, 2, pp. 47-50. Downing, J., 1957. "Factors Affecting the Selective Use of a Social Club for the Aged," Journal of Gerontology, 12, pp. 81-84. Frankel, Godfrey, 1966. "The Multi-Purpose Senior Citizens' Center: A New Comprehensive Agency," The Gerontologist, 6, pp. 23-27. Freedman, R., and M. Axelrod, 1952. "Who Belongs to What in a Great MetropOliS?" Adult Leadership, 1, pp. 6-9. Foskett, J. M., 1955. "Social Structure and Social Participation," American SOCiological Review, 20, pp. 431-438.

* Hausknecht,

Murray, 1962. The Joiners: A Soci.ological Description of Voluntary Association Membership in the United States, New York:

The Bedminster Press.

* Havighurst,

Robert J., 1960-a. "Life Beyond Family and Work," in Burgess, Ernest W., editor,

• Suggested additional reading

510 Works cited

Aging in Western Societies, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 299-353. Havighurst, R. J., and Ruth Albrecht, 1953. Older People, New York: Longmans, Green and Co. Hoyt, G. C., 1954. "The Life of the Retired in a Trailer Park," American Journal of SOCiology, 59, pp. 361-370. Hutchinson, Bertram , 1954. Old People in .a Modern Australian Community, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Rose, Arnold M., and Warren A. Peterson, editors,

1965. Older People and Their Social World, Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co. Schramm, Wilbur, arid Ruth T. Storey, 1961. Little House : A Study of Senior Citizens , Stanford, Calif.: Institute for Communication Research , Stanford U·niversity. " Storey, Ruth T., 1962. "Who Attends a Sen ior Act ivity Center?" The Gerontologist, 2, pp. 216222.

Kleemeier, Robert W., editor, 1961-a. Aging and Leisure, New York: Oxford University Press.

" Taietz, Philip, and Olaf F. Larson, 1956. "Social Participation and Old Age," Rural Sociology, 21, pp. 229-238.

Kutner, Bernard, et aI. , 1956. Five Hundred Over Sixty: A Community Survey on Aging, New York: Russell Sage Foundation .

Tibbitts, Clark, editor, 1960. Handbook of Social Gerontology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

McKain, W. C., 1947. "The Social Participation of Old People in a California Retirement Community," Harvard University, doctoral dissertation (unpublished) .

Townsend , Peter, 1957. The Family Life of Old People, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Pihlblad , C. Terence, and Robert L. McNamara, 1965. "Social Adjustment of Elderly People i'n Three Small Towns," in Rose, Arnold M., and Warren A. Peterson, editors, Older People and Their Social World , Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co., pp. 49-73 . Pinner, Frank A., Paul Jacobs, and Philip Selznick, 1959. Old Age and Political Behavior, Berkeley: University of California Press. Reigrotzki, Erich, 1956. "Soziale Verflechtungen in der Bundesrepublik: Elemente der sozialen Teilnahme in Kirche, Politik, Organisationen und Freizeit" ( Schriftreihe des UNESCO-

Tuckman, Jacob, and Irving Lorge, 1953. Retire-

ment and the Indu strial Worker: Prospect and Reality, New York: Columbia University, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College. Webber, Irving L., 1954. "The Organized Social Life of the Retired: Two Florida Communities," American Journal of Sociology, 59, pp. 340346.

* Wilensky,

Harold, 1961. "Life Cycle, Work Situa tion , and Participation in Formal Associations," in Kleemeier, Robert W., editor, Aging and Leisure, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 213-242.

In stituts fur So zialwissenschaften Koln ) TO bingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr.

* Rose,

Arnold M., 1960. "The Impact of Aging on Voluntary Associations," in Tibbitts, Clark, editor, Handbook of Social Gerontology, Chicago: University of Ch icago Press, pp. 666697 .

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

Arnold M . Rose David L. Sills

Philip Taietz Clark Tibbitts

Leisure, a concept only vaguely defined in our society, has been studied as a residual category of time that is "free " from work or from other pursuits regarded as more serious or obligatory. Old age yields new increments of leisure time , as commitments to parental and later to occupational roles are relaxed . What do older people do with this time? Are norms and cust oms developing to institutionalize a leisure Tole as a counterpart to the work Tole? Is the leisure of older people (as often surmised) more sedentary, passive , or homebound than that of younger people? What differences occur among older individuals , with their varying levels of education , income, or health and their range in age from the 60 's to the 9 0 's and beyond? Is the older person 's pattern of leisure characteristic of old age gen erally, not dictated by the particular experiences of his generation or the particular facilities now available? How are today's younger people being prepared for the ir own future leisure in retirement?

22 LEISURE ROLES

Ol der people appear to use their leisure for many of the same activities as younger people , but with varied age patterns for different activities. One set of activities (fishing, hunting, or movie going) appears characteristic of the young. Another set (gardening or walking) seems characteristic of older people. Still another set (swimming, museum attendance, or playing a musical instrument) is widespread among the young, but largely unfam iliar to today's older generation-a possible portent of social changes to come . Thus, a "mass " culture may exist at the younger age levels that will permeate society only as these cohorts (generati ons) reach maturity. S ee Chapter 3, C, f o r t he soc iocu ltura l context of leisure, Ch a pter 18 for th e o ld er person ' s roles in work versus reti rem ent, and Ch a pter 23 fo r old er peop le' s fami ly ro les.

THE DATA The published data (apart from unpublished results of commercial research) are of uneven quality. For example, large national samples have been studied with the aid of the Census Bureau by the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review CommisSion , but the focus is restricted to outdoor recreation away from home. (The most recent 19 65 version was unavailable at the time of w riting.) Another detailed and sophisticated study is reported by Beyer and Woods, 1963, but the sample is limited to older people receivin g social security. A miscellany of small studies (thou gh by no mea ns def initive) provide suggestive and often m utually supportin g clues . The research suffers generally from confused definitions and connotations of leisure and from the difficulties of obtainin g-and summarizing over many ind ividuals- accurate measures of th e ma ny disparat e acti vities invol ved .

511

1

TIME FOR LEISURE

2

THE PATTERN OF ACTIVITIES

3

VISITING

4

MASS MEDIA

5

HOBBIES, STUDYING, AND CULTURAL PURSUITS

6

OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES

7

VACATION AND TRAVEL

8

ATTITUDES TOWARD LEISURE

EXHIBIT 22 . 1

Age All classes

Leisure available and portion spent on outdoor recreation: United States, June , 1961

Per cent of persons w ith some leisure available

Per cent of persons with some time on outdoor recreation

Week day· W eekend' Holidayd

W eekday· W eekend' Holiday· Weehdayb W eekend' Holidayd W eekdayb W eekend' Holiday· W eekdayb W eekend' Holidayd

Hours per person per day'; leisure

Hours per person per da y'; ou tdo or recreation

Per cent of leisure available spent on outdoor recreation

71

80

80

28

38

43

4 .00

4.75

5.25

.75

1.50

2.00

21

29

38

All

70

81

79

27

40

44

4.00

5.50

5.75

.75

1.50

2.25

21

29

38

12-13 14-17 18-24 25-44 45-64 65+

90 92 72 64 62 81

92 90 85 78 76 81

96 88 83 78 71 82

76 62 29 19 15 24

80 64 47 38 30 25

83 71 49 45 32 21

5.75 5.75 4 .25 3 .50 3.25 5 .50

6.75 6.25 5.75 5.00 5 .00 6.00

6 .75 6.25 6 .00 5.50 4.75 6 .50

2.75 2.00 .75 .50 .50 .75

3 .25 2.75 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00

4.00 3.50 2.50 2.25 1.50 .75

48 35 20 17 14 14

49 42 31 30 23 15

59 55 40 41 32 13

All

72

79

80

28

36

43

3 .75

4.25

4 .75

.75

1.25

1.75

20

29

37

12-13 14-17 18-24 25-44 45-64 65 +

95 90 75 65 65 80

97 93 84 74 75 83

97 92 87 76 76 82

70 52 25 25 21 23

80 54 43 36 25 22

76 39 51 43 34 26

5.75 5 .50 3 .75 3 .25 3 .25 5 .25

6.25 5.75 4 .75 3 .75 4.00 5 .00

6.50 6.25 5.75 4 .00 4 .25 5.25

2.00 1.50 .75 .75 .50 .50

3.00 2.00 1.50 1.25 .75 .50

3 .50 2.75 2 .25 1.75 1.25 1.00

36 27 18 21 17 12

49 34 34 35 21 12

56 42 40 45 31 17

Male

Fema le

• Away from home . "Randomly selected Mondays through Fridays dur ing mid · June 1961. C Randomly se lected Saturdays and Sundays dur ing mid ·June 1961. d Memorial Day 1961 . • Estimated from grouped data and rounded to nearest quarter hour .

Source : Na/ionalRecrealton Survey . 1962 . p. 360 ; sample of U.S. population 12+ . 4 .000 Interviewed in June . 1961.

512

EXHIBIT 22· 2 Composite view of hours spent daily on various activities by older people 65 and over

Activity

Total hours available in a day

Approximate hours per day (excluding Sunday)

24.0

Sleep

9.0

Obligated time Meals (preparing, eating, and cleaning up) Housekeeping Personal care Shopping Care of others

6.7 3.0

High-participation leisure time Television ; radio Visiting Napping Reading

6.5

Low-participation leisure time Gardening Handicrafts Entertaining Club and church activities Writing Meditation; worship Walking; sports Rides; outings

1.9

1.6 1.2

0 .7

0.2 2.8 1.6 1.4

0 .7

0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1

Note : Th is summarization . though suggestive. om its time spent in employment. Not only is the sample re stricted to OASDI beneficiar ies . but the overview also fa ils to take i nto account time spent by those 27 % of the sample st ill in the labor for ce ( Beyer . 1961 . p. 9 ) . For d eta ils. see Exhi bit 2 2 · 4 ; and Exh ibit 6 · 16

Source : Nie banck and Pope . 1965. p. 67 (adapted) ; es tima ted from Beye r and Woods. 1963 . study 01 over 5 .000 OASDI bene ficiaries in 4 selected - primar ily urban - areas of the U.S" 1958 .

1

TIME FOR LEISURE

A large fraction of the time of older people is available for leisure, larger than the fractio'n available among younger adults whose time is more heavily committed to their jobs, to care of their children, or to other obligatory tasks. Men and women alike report added hours of leisure in old age, despite the persistence of housework over the life span of most women (Chapter 18).

1. a

Among older people 65 and over

Over 80 per cent of OP 65+ have some leisure time available each day, with daily hours of leisure per person averaging above five on weekdays and between five and six and one-half on weekends and holidays . See Exhibit 22' 1. (N ational Recreation Survey, 1962, p. 360; sample of United States population 12+ , 4 ,000 interviewed in June , 1961)

o

Amon g OP receiving social security, more of the waking hours are allotted to leisure than to maintenance activities (such as housework, preparation and (;onsumption of meals, and personal care) . See Exhibit 22 . 2. (Niebanck and Pope, 1965, pp. 6667; estimated from Beyer and Wood s, 1963, study

of over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958 )

1. b

Older people versus younger people

OP 65+ have more leisure, on the average, than people in the middle years (25 to 64). See Exhibit 22' 1. ( National Recreation Survey, 1962, p.

360; sample of United States population 12+, 4 ,000 interviewed in June , 1961 )

LEISURE ROLES: TIME FOR LEISURE

513

1· c

Sex differences

Althou gh this access to leisure in old age applies to both sexes (Exhibit 22 . I), leisure fits into the day's activities somewhat differently for men and women. Men acquire free time upon retirement; whereas women's housekeeping tasks often continue throughout life.

D Hours of employment, greater for men than for women, tend to be reduced in old age (with retire· ment) . See Exhibit 22' 3. D Hours of housework, greater for women than for men, show little reduction, however, among OP 50 + . See Exhibit 23' 3. (J . A. Ward , Inc ., 1954; reported by de Grazia, 1961 , pp. 123- 124; diaries kept by a national sample, United States, spring , 1954 )

D Total hours available for leisure among OP (as for most younger age groups) are greater for men than for women on weekends and holidays, but on weekdays women have similar free time as com· pared with men. See Exhibit 22' 1. (National Recreation Survey, 1962, p . 360; sample of United States population 12+, 4 ,000 interviewed in June , 1961 )

EXHIBIT 22 ' 3

Hours spent daily on various activities, by age and sex

Approximate hours per day' (including Sunday) spent on each activity M en

W om en Age A ge 20-49 50 +

Age 20-49

Age 50 +

17.0

17.0

17.0

17.0

Away from home At work or school Traveling Shopping At restaurant, tavern, barber, and so on At friend's or relative's home Leisure (games, sports, church , and so on) At home Leisure (other than reading) Read ing Miscellaneous work at home Household chores or housekeeping Eating or preparing food Dressing, bathing, and so on Asleep

9.0 5.9 1.5 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.5 8.0 2.4 0.8 0.7 0.2 1.2 0.6 2.1

6.6 4.5 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.4 10.4 3.5 1.3 0 .9 0.3 1.4 0.6 2.4

4 .3 1.6 0.7 0.4 0.1 1.0 0.5 12.7 2.8 0.7 1.1 2.8 2.5 0.9 1.9

3.1 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.5 13.9 3 .5 1.4 1.2 2.5 2.3 0.7 2.3

All leisure activities

4.4

5.7

5.0

6.1

Activ ity

Total

' Betwee n 6 a.m . and 1 1 p.m.

If the data w ere to compare women with men who are retired, the weekday leisure of women might be comparatively less .

NOTE:

1· d

Other factor s

Proportions of OP 65+ saying they have all day to do what they want appear higher (in a small study) for those with poor (versus good) health and for those aged 75+ (versus 65 to 74) . ( Hunter and

Maurice , 1953, pp. 53- 54; 150 OP 65+ , Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1953 )

Source: J .A. Ward . Inc . 1954 ; reported by de Grazia . 1961 . pp . 123 · 124 (adapted); diaries kept by a national sample. U.S .. spring. 1954 . From Kleeme ier . Robert W .. ed itor . Aging and Leisure · Copyright . 1961 . by Oxford Univers ity Press . Inc .

CD

5

~

Sex differences

EXHIBIT 22 . 4

Leisure activities among older people 65 and over

Many and varied pursuits fill these hours of leisure, but some older people, especially the very old and the disadvantaged, often find little to do.

No. of hours ( percentage distribution )

Activity Watch ing television Radio; records Visiting Read ing Napping and idleness Enterta ini ng Club and church related activities Garden ing" Med itation ; worship Walks; sports Rides; outings Handiwork Writing Crafts; collections

Per cent engaging in activity on preceding weekday

Less than 1

1- 11/2

2- 3

more

T otal

70 17 68 61 56 9 4

3 19 12 18 8 8 3

14 34 29 47 39 26 8

47 34 49 29 39 32 40

36 13 10 6 14 34 49

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

3 1% 2 1 2 2 1h 3

19 9 10 9 15 8 1

7 28 26 23 9 22 15

30 42 40 41 37 43 26

44

19 6 6 5 19 5 7

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

2 1 1 1 2 1% 2

4 or

24 28 31 35 30 52

THE PATTERN OF ACTIVITIES

2

Median num ber of hours

2

0

a

M ajor activities

Leisure activities most frequently reported by OP typically include visit ing, watching television, reading, and gardening, followed by a host of other pursu its. See i::xhibits 22· 4 and 22· 5. ( Beyer and

Wood s, 1963 , pp . 13, 15- 16; over 5,000 OA SDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, prim arily urban, areas of the United States, 1958. Opin ion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A- 63; United States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults aged 15+ , summer, 1957 )

' Gardeni ng- which te nds to decline in urban places (Opinion Research Corpo r ation, 1957 , p. A· 63) - is u ndo ubtedl y unde re stimated in th is sa mple whic h unde rr epresen ts the popu la tion in pl aces wi th less tha n 2 ,500 inh abitants. [ Ed .]

Source : Beyer and Woods , 1963 . pp . 13 . 15 · 16 ; over 5,000 OASO I benefic iar ies in 4 selected - pri marily urban - area s of the U.S.. 1958 . Respondent s were asked for a fullchronologicalaccountofyesterday 's activities ( excluding Sunday ).

LEISURE ROLES: THE PATTERN OF ACTI VITIES

515

o

Although many of these same activities are widespread among younger people as well, participation rates for these and numerous other leisure pursuits show certain important age differences (described in this chapter) . See Exhibit 22' 5. (Opin-

ion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A- 63 )

EXHIBIT 22· 5

Leisure activities, by age

Per cent engaging in activity on previous day

o

ported by Havighurst, 1960- a, p . 313)

None of these Not reported

o

Total respondents

Idleness

A residual category of no activity (sitting, standing, looking out the window, or napping, for example, as a category separate from meditation or worship) is also conspicuous in the time reckoning of OP. See Exhibit 22 . 4 .

o Idleness

is most widespread among OP in advanced old age, and among those with the lowest incomes. See Exhibit 22' 6. ( Beyer and Woods , 1963,

pp . 13-15; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958 ) 2· c

Life-cycle changes

There is little to indicate whether OP adopt new avocations or rely upon activities from their earlier experience, except for a few studies in which individuals recall their own past. S ee Chapter 17, section 5, for life·cycle changes in overall level of activity and social participation .

OP say they have been doing for many years most of the things they now do in their leisure time ( Denmark, 1951). (Danish Gallup Institute; reHowever, most OP (nine out of ten in Minnesota, 1961) mention some activity at which they now spend more time than they did formerly.

(Taves and Han sen, 1963, p . 148; 1,700 OP 62+ , Minn esota, 1961 )

516

Maj or activities

Age 20-29

Age 30- 39

Age 40-49

Age 50-59

Age 60+

57 38

56 46

57 41

56 40

61 36

56 33

53 37

33

20

24

33

39

38

42

27 18 17 14 11

31 21 25 35 11

29 19 21 16 9

25 17 18 14 10

25 15 14 10 11

23 15 11

27 21 11

6

6

11

12

10

11

9

10

10

12

11

8 8 7

7

10

26 12

8

8 8

8 7

8 3

6 2

7

6

7

5

6

6

20

7

5

5

3

1

5 4 3

10

5

5

5

3 4 2

3 2 1

1 1

o

respondents

Watch ing television Visiting with friends or relatives either at their house or yours Working around the yard and in the garden Reading magazines Read ing books Going pleasure driving Listening to records Going to meetings or other activities of clubs and organizations Special hobbies such as woodworking, photography, and knitting Going out to dinner Participati ng in sports Playing cards, checkers, other indoor games Spend ing time at drugstore, soda fountain, or bar Singing or playing musical instruments Going to see sports events Going to movies in a regular theater (not a drive-in) Going to drive-in movies Going to dances Going to a play, concert, or opera Going to lectures or adult school

2· b

Age 15-19

All Activity

2 2 1 1 7 0

= 100%

(5 ,021 )

7

444 943 3

6

4

2

2

o

841 1 121 1 1 102

o 1

1 1

378

7

8

9

0

0

o

(392)

0

(806) ( 1,094)

( 942)

So urce : Opinio n Research Corporation. 1957. p. A ·63; U .S. sample of 5.000 noninstitu tionallzed adults aged 15 + , summe r , 1957 , Respo nde nts were asked to take ou t cards listing the things they did In their leisure time yes terday (Inc luding Sunday) .

o

1

(731) (1,022)

EXHIBIT 22 · 6

o

Act ivit ies receiving increased time in old age include the following:

Visiting, reading, and napping

Per cent of older people 65 and over engaging in activity on previous weekday

Category

Visiting Per cent engaging Number in reporting activif:lJ

Reading Per cent engaging Number in reporting activity

Television and radio, sitting and thinking (Minnesota , 1961) (Taves and Hansen, 1963, pp. 148-

Napping and idleness Per cent engaging Number in reporting activity

149 ) books, and hobbies (Sweden, 1956) ( Swedish Institute for Public Opinion, 1956; reported by Havighurst, 1960- a, p . 309 ) Radio,

All women

3 ,107

69

3,108

57

3,109

54

All men

1,914

68

1,913

66

1,912

59

Decreases in social activities since age 50 are reported by nearly half of OP 60+ , while only 3 per cent report increases (Kentucky, 1959) . ( Youmans ,

1,191 1,747

60 72

1,191 1,746

59 61

1,190 1,746

53 54

1962, pp. 31 - 33; 1, 250 OP 60+ in a rural and an urban area)

2,083

70

2,084

61

2,083

59

1,656 1,647 961 542

68 69 69 68

1,655 1,649 961 541

60 60 62 67

1,651 1,648 961 541

49 57 60 73

2,797 1,052 864

67 71 70

2,799 1,051 863

58 63 68

2,798 1,051 864

60 55 47

Household composition Living alone Living with spouse only Living with others Age of respondent

65- 69 70-74 75-79 80 + Income Under $2,000

$2,000-$2,999 $3 ,000 and over

o

o

Ind ividuals differ considerably, of course. For example, declines in leisure activity with age are much less for members of a senior activity center than for 'nonmember age peers in the same com munity (Menlo Park, Californ ia, 1959-1960) .

( Storey, 1962, p . 219; 1,700 members and nonmembers 50+ ) See Chapter 21, sect ion 4, for senior activity centers .

3

VISITING

See Chapter 6, A' 3, for the relation between visiting and residential setting and Chapters 23 and 24 for visiting with relatives and with friends.

3' a

Among older people 65 and over

Some two·thirds of OP 65 + spend time each day (about two hours on the average) visiting with someone inside or outside their own household . See Exhibit 22 . 4.

o

Proportions of OP visiti ng are comparatively low for the widowed or single who live alone, but these proportions vary little by income, sex, or (interestingly enough) by age beyond 65. See Exhibit 22 . 6. Source: Beyer and Woods. 1963 . p . 15: over 5 .000 OASDI ben eficiaries th e U.S" 1958 .

In

4 selected - primarily urban areas of

( Beyer and Woods , 1963, pp . 13- 15)

LEISURE ROLES: THE PATTERN OF ACTIVITIES

517

3 •b

Older people versus younger people

Visiting with friends or relatives (at one another's houses) tends to decline by age from the teens to the 50's, but tends to rise again slightly at age 60+ . See Exhibit 22·5. ( Opinion R esearch Cor-

D Viewing among older people. Over two·thirds of OP 65 + spend some t ime each day (an average of some three hours) watching televis ion. See Ex· hibit 22·4. ( Beyer and Woods , 1963, pp. 13, 15-

4

16 )

MASS MEDIA

4 •a

Television

OP generally appear to spend more time watching television than on any other si·ngle activity (Exhibit 22 . 4), devoting more time, in so far as television sets are accessible to them, to television than younger people do.

D Television set ownership among older people. Widespread as television is today, it is not universal among OP. Ownership (hence the opportunity to view regularly) tends to drop (1958) by increasing age beyond 65, among widowed and single OP living

Older people ve rsus younger people

1963, pp. 13- 14; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States , 1958 )

poration, 1957, p . A-63; United States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults aged 15+, summer, 1957 ) Much of the leisure time of older people is devoted to television and reading ; comparatively little to radio; and little to attendance at movies and other types of public entertainment. Interest in newspaper reading and i·n serious subject matter generally is higher among older people than among younger people, despite the broad tendencies for the better educated to prefer the printed page to television or radio and to prefer more serious content generally. (Compare the high voting participation of older people, again in spite of their relatively low educa· tion, as discussed in Chapter 19, section 1.)

51f

alone (ironically enough) , and in the lower income brackets. See Exhibit 22· 7. ( Beyer and Woods,

Advancing age beyond 60 or 65 makes little dif· ference in the following: Proportions viewing, among those OP who have sets (Exhibit 22 . 7) ( Beyer and Woods , 1963,

p . 14 ) Hours spent viewing ( Bush, 1966, p . 7; based on data from Schramm, unpublished; 800 members of a senior activity center, Menlo Park, California, 1960-1961) As education rises, there are slight declines among OP in the following: Hours spent viewing ( Bush, 1966, p. 7; based on data from Schramm, unpublished)

( Steiner, 1963, p . 177; 237 adults 18+ who agreed to keep diarie s, New York City, 1959- 1960 ) Number of programs per viewer

By living arrangements, viewing is tively high among those widowed and living alone (particularly men) who do See Exhibit 22 ·7. ( Beyer and Woods ,

compara· single OP own sets.

1963, pp. 13- 14 . Similar finding in Meyersohn , unpublished, Chapter 2; reanalysis of data from Steiner, 1963 )

EXHIBIT 22 · 7

Category CQuples Living with sPQuse Qnly Living with Qthers WidQwed Qr single WQmen Living alQne Living with Qthers WidQwed Qr single men Living alQne Living with Qthers Age Qf resPQndent

65-69 70-74 75- 79 80 + IncQme Under $2,000

$2,000-$2,999 $3,000 and Qver Occupancy status Owners Renters

o

Television viewing, by set ownership

Total number reporting

Per cent who had sets

Number reporting sets

Per cent of set owners who watc hed television

1,781 590

91 96

1,610 564

81 76

910 1,026

76 92

690 946

84 79

307 380

63 89

173 339

91 86

1,475 1,432 805 411

90 85 80 77

1,321 1,212 641 315

82 83 84 81

2,724 1,051 869

83 91 93

2,252 960 805

81 82 79

3,031 1,343

89 79

2,695 1,061

80 84

Older people versu s younger people. PrQPQrtiQns Qf the PQPulation viewing each day (1957) decline sQmewhat frQm age 40-49 to' age 60+ (Exhibit 22 . 4). HQwever, th is parallels, and eQuid be explained by, a similar drQP by age in set Qwnership. ( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, pp. A- 56 and A- 63 ; United States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults aged 15+, summer, 1957. Similar finding for 1960, Steiner, 1963, p . 343; United States sample of 2,500 adults 18+ ) Hours spent viewing appear sli ghtly higher fQr OP 50+ than fQr yQunger adults. (Television Bureau of Advertising, 1957, p . 3 ; United States sample of 3 ,000 adults; reported by Meyersohn , 1961 , p . 266 ) Programs per viewer i ncrease in number amQng OP 55+ , even with educational level cQntrolled. ( Steiner, 1963, pp . 176-177; 237 adults 18 + who agreed to keep diaries , New York City, 1959- 1960)

Source : Beyer and Wood s, 1963 , p. 14 ; over 5 ,000 OASDI benef iciar ies in 4 se lected - pri marily urban - area s of the U.S., 1958.

LEISURE ROLES: MASS MEDIA

519

o

Reported changes in viewing. As individuals reach the later stages of the life cycle, they tend, according to their own reports (1957), to shift toward more frequent television viewing. See Exhibit 22, 8. Among OP 60 +, 39 per cent say they view more often than they did three or four years ago; whereas only 16 per cent say they view less often . This net shift toward greater viewing is less pro· nounced among the younger age groups (larger proportio ns of whom have reduced their viewing).

( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p. A58 )

EXHIBIT 22· 8 Reported changes in television viewing and movie attendance (percentage distribution)

Age

Number

More often

Less often

About as often

Do not know

(a) Do you now watch television more often, less often, or about as often as you did 3 or 4 years ago?

15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+

344 694 976 843 587 729

33 45 32 32 33 39

38 26 28 23 22 16

27 27 39 44 43 42

2 2 1 1 2 3

(b) Do you go to the movies more often, less often, or about as often as you did 3 or 4 years ago?

15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 +

392 806 1,094 942 731 1,022

31 11

6 5 2 1

39 61 61 56 52 48

27 26 31 35 40 40

3 2 2 4 6 11

Source : Opinion Research Corpora tion . 1957. pp . A· 19 and A · 58 ; U.S. sample of 5 .000 non institutionalized adults aged 15 + . summer . 1957 .

520 T elevision

D Assessment of television. The majority of OP, as of the population as a whole, express a positive attitude when asked (1960) how they feel about television generally. This proportion does not increase by age despite the finding that for the population as a whole, people with lower education tend to take a more positive (less critical) view. (Steiner, 1963, pp.

39-41; United States sample of 2,500 adults 18+, 1960) 4 "b

Reading

Another widespread activity among OP is reading, with newspaper reading of particular importance in old age. D Among older people . Some 60 per cent of OP 65 + spend time reading each day (an average of about one hour) . See Exhibit 22' 4. ( Beyer and

Woods , 1963, pp. 13, 15- 16; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958 ) By age beyond 60 or 65, reading appears to in· crease. The proportion reading is particularly high among OP 80+ . See Exhibit 22' 6. ( Beyer

and Woods , 1963, p . 15 ) There are increases for men (but no differences for women) in reading hours, number of magazines read, and proportions reading newspapers regularly. With rising in reading proportions proportions

education, there are also increases hours, number of magazines read, reading newspapers regularly, and reading a book in the last year.

(Bush, 1966, pp. 7-8; based on data from Schramm , unpublished; 800 members of a

senior activity center, Menlo Park, California, 1960-1961. Similar increases by income in Exhibit 22 . 6) D Older people versus younger people. Age patterns of reading appear to be different for newspapers than for books or magazines. Readership of newspapers appears to be at least as high for OP as for younger people. More time was spent reading daily and Sunday newspapers among OP 50+ than among younger groups (1957). (Television Bureau

of Advertising ,

1957, United States sample of 3 ,000 households; reported by Meyersohn, 1961 , p . 265)

Time spent also tended to increase from those

20-29 to those 60+ (1946), though the proportions reading showed little age difference.

( Link and Hopf, 1946; reported by von Mering and Weniger, 1959, p. 322; no data on sample ) Readership of books and magazines, however, (highly associated with education) tends to decline by age from the teens, though perhaps with an upturn at 60+ . See Exhibit 22' 5. ( Opinion

R esearch Corporation, 1957, p. A- 63 ; United States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults aged 15+, summer, 1957. Similar declines reported by Link and Hopf, 1946; and for books in England, 1946, in Cantril, 1951 , p.53) An early (1946) analysis by education shows these age declines in book reading pronounced among the college-educated only; among the less educated, OP's book reading does not differ substantially from that of younger people.

( Lazars feld and Kendall, 1948, Appendix Table 9 , p. 134; cross-section sample of 3 ,500 adults 21+, United States, 1947)

LEISURE ROLES: MASS MEDIA

521

EXHIBIT 22 . 9

Television versus the printed page (percentage distribution) Age under

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

20

20-24

25- 29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65-69

70+

Which is the most important to you? Newspapers 32 29 Magazines 8 7 None or do not know 0 3 Radio 24 18 Television 37 42

38 5 4 15 38

31 10 2 16 40

35 9 4 16 36

37 8 3 16 37

49 7 2 10 33

38 3 4 16 39

41 5 5

45 4 4 14 33

45 2 4 38

44 6 2 15 33

Which is the most entertaining? Newspapers 6 6 6 Magazines 4 2 None or do not know 0 Radio 17 10 Television 74 76

10 9 1 6 74

10

14

12 1 9 68

11

12 9 1 9 70

15 9 1 7 68

12 12 1

18 4 1 14 63

25 9 1 10 56

(138)

(174)

Question

Total respondents = 100%

(84)

(1 80 )

( 294 )

( 267 )

2 7 67 (2 80 )

( 253 )

(212)

11

39

11

15 3 3 8

63

72

14 12 2 14 58

(211)

(193)

(130)

11

Source: Ste iner . 1963 . pp . 344 . 347 ; U.S. sa mp le. 2. 500 adu lts 18 + . 1960.

522

Reading

EXHIBIT 22 · 10 1947, and 1957

Movie attendance, 1945,

Per cent reporting movie attendance Age

1945

1947

21-29 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 +

48

39

28 27 13

25 21 23

1957

o

The printed page versus television. OP beyond 60 are more likely than younger people to rate the newspaper as the most entertaining medium and as somewhat more important to them than television . See Exhibit 22' 9. ( Steiner, 1963, pp. 344, 347; United States sample of 2,500 adults 18+ , 1960)

4· c 50 29 22 8

Movies, concerts, and sports events

Striking declines by age are reported for attendance at many kinds of public performances, starting far too young to suggest that the decline is peculiar to old age in particular.

o

Movie attendance . Movie attendance per day (1957) drops steadily from the teens to some 1 per cent among OP 60+ . See Exhibit 22·5. ( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p. A- 63; United States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults aged 15+, summer, 1957 ) That these age differences are not confined to a single cohort (generation) is evidenced by the parallel age patterns observed: In Sweden (1944 and 1945) ( Cantril, 1951 , pp . 13,488) In the United States at three different periods

(1945, 1947, and 1957) . See Exhibit 22· 10. ( Meyersohn , 1961 , p. 259; computed from national samples in Lazarsfeld, 1948, p. 239, and Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p. A- 15 )

o

Reported changes in movie attendance . OP reo

port a marked decline in their own attendance over the past three or four years. 48 per cent say they now go less often, in contrast with only 1 per cent who say they go more often. See Exhibit 22' 8. Source : Meyer sohn . 1961 . p. 259 ; com puted from U.S. national samples in Lazarsfeld. 1948 . p. 239 ; and Opinion Research Corporation. 1957 . p. A· 15 . From Kl eemeier. Robert W.• editor. Aging and Leisure . Copyright 1961 by Oxford Un iversity Press . In c.

CD

However, this shift away from movies is by no means peculiar to the later stages of the life cycle; it appears also in each of the other age groups (beyond the teens) . ( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A- 19 ) LEISURE ROLES: MASS MEDIA

523

o

Other performance. Similar age declines in attendance are also reported for other types of performances:

EXHIBIT 22 · 11 T elevi ion program tainment, by age of view er

Percen tage of programs devoted to Inform alton vs. entertainment

Theaters (United States, 1963-1965) ( Baumol

and Bowen , 1966, pp . 444, 453; ba ed on audien ce urveys ) Concerts (Sweden , 1945, and

Czechoslovakia ,

devoted to information ver u enter-

Age

1946) ( Cantril, 1951 , pp . 13, 495)

Num ber of In formation

Ente rta In me nt b

Information " 20

programs per viewe r. per week

Number of viewers

5.2

( 13 )

8 .9

(45)

8 .8

(79)

11.2

( 57 )

16.4

(28)

22.4

( 13)

80

Under 25

Outdoor concerts

and

drama

(United States,

1960) 1960) ( ational Recreation Survey , 1962, pp. 140141 ; ample of United State population 12 , 4 ,000 interv iewed in each of 4 seasons, 19601961 ) Outdoor sports events (U nited States,

Sports events (United States, 1957, as in Exhibit 22 - 5) ( Opinion Re earch orporation, 1957,

p . A- 63 ) 4 •d

33

31

69

35 to 4 4 35

65

I

4 5 to 54 44

56

55 to 6 4

Content pre ferences

What do OP choose to read about, listen to, o r watch on television? Their selections, affording certain clues to the possible functions of the mass media , tend to emphasize serious conten t and news about local affairs.

67

25 to 34

48 5 and ove r

52

• News. other Information . public affairS . bAli other .

o

The older the respondent, the more likely he is to select erious content. For example, there are increases by age in the followin g: Stated preferences for serious radio programs (thou gh the age differences tend to disap pear when education is controlled) ( Lazarsfeld and

Kendall, 1948, Appendix Table 18, p . 139; - ection ample of 3 ,500 adult 21 +, United tate , 1947, pre-televi ion era )

CTO

524

Movies , cOl/cer t , and sport even t

Source . Steiner . 1963 . p. 178 . 2 37 adults 18 + who agreed to keep d,artes . t 959 · 1960

ew York Ci ty.

EXHIBIT 22 ' 12

Radio listening and program selection

Per cent who listen 1 hour or more daily

Readin g public affairs news in newspapers ( Schramm and White, 1949, p. 150; 750

readeTs of local newspapers, Illinois city, Per cent who select entertainment

Per cent who sel ect information

1949)

Age

Sampl e 1

SampIe 1

SampIe 2

SampIe 1

SampIe 2

Number in SampIe 1

18-39 40-59 60+

34 30 18

57 40 20

49 30 20

21 33 46

32 51 53

195 239 140

Number in Sam pIe 2

521 475 296

Selection of television programs that are devoted to information (rather than to entertainment). See Exhibit 22' 11. ( SteineT, 1963, p . 178; 237 adults 18+ who agreed to keep

diaries, New Y OTk City, 1959-1960. Similar finding in Parker and Paisley, 1966, p. III!28; 600 adults , California community, 1965 ) There are also increases by age in the proportions who select radio programs that are devoted to information (rather than to entertainment). See Exhibit 22' 12. ( Parker and Paisley, 1966,

p . III!33; 1,900 adults; similar Tesults in each of 2 California communities)

o

Similarly, there are increases by age in the proportions of newspaper readers who regularly read local news (columns devoted to such topics as obituaries, births, engagements, brides, church bulletins, and city hall affairs). ( Bush , 1966, p . 67;

reader survey, Goldsboro, North Carolina, 1965 ) Among OP aged 60 to 90 + , local news ranks highest of all in readership. ( Bush, 1966, p. 8;

based on data from Schramm, unpublished; 800 members of a senior activity center, Menlo Park, California, 1960- 1961 )

Source : Parker and Paisley, 1966, p. 111 / 33 ; 1.900 adults in two Califo rn ia communities (Sample 1 and Sample 2) . 1965 .

LEISURE ROLES: MASS MEDIA

525

D By contrast, there are steady decreases by age in the proportions of people who select content primarily for entertainment.

ets (Beyer and Woods , 1963, pp. 15, 17; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958)

For example, there are age-related decreases in reading comics in the newspapers. ( Bush, 1966, pp. 66-67; reader surveys in Milwaukee, 1963, and Goldsboro, North Carolina, 1965. Similar finding by Schramm and White , 1949, p. 150 )

Older people versus younger people. Such activities (combined) show little variation by age from the teens to 60+ . See Exhibit 22' 5. ( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A- 63; United

There are age-related decreases in naming popular music as a favorite radio program at two different periods (1948 and 1957) and with sex and education controlled . (Meyersohn, 1961, p.

260; based on Lazarsfeld and Kendall, 1948, Appendix Table 14; and Whan , 1957, pp . 3233, local sample . Similar finding in Cantril, 1951 , p. 494, for United States, 1939 ) 5

HOBBIES, STUDYING, AND CULTURAL PURSUITS

Only small minorities of older people spend their leisure in crafts, hobbies, or intellectual and artistic activities.

5 · a

D Among older people 65 and over. Some 15 per cent of OP engage in handiwork (such as sewing, knitting, and crocheting) daily for an average of two hours. See Exhibit 22 . 4.

Hobbies (such as woodworking, photography, and collecting of coins and stamps) are daily activities of only 1 per cent (average of two hours a day), although the proportion is higher for retired men and for those in higher income brack-

Content preferences

States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults age 15+, summer, 1957) 5•b

Adult education

See Chapter 5, section 4, for education over the life cycle.

Underlying the comparatively low proportion of OP who engage in study of any kind are considerable individual variations in interest and motivation.

o

Studying tends to decrease by age, so that in a given year (1961-1962), 9 to 10 per cent of OP 55 + engage in any kind of study, either in formal classes or independently. See Exhibits 5' 6 and 5' 7. (Johnstone and Rivera, 1965, pp. 90, 105; cross-section sample of the United States, 1962) On a given day (1957), no more than 1 per cent of OP 60+ go to lectures or attend school. See Exhibit 22' 5. (Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A- 63 ; United States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults 15+, summer, 1957 )

Handiwork, cra fts , and hobbies

Various kinds of handiwork and hobbies constitute the special interest of a few people, regardless of age.

526

o

o

The desire to learn more also tends to decline by age. At the same time, greater interest is evinced at both older and younger levels if people have higher educational attainment. See Exhibit 22' 13. Greater interest is also evinced at both older and younger levels if people look forward to future increases in income, occupational advancement, or geographic mobility.

o

Reasons given by those taking adult education courses show an increasing emphasis with age on wanting to become better informed (in contrast with declines in job-related reasons). (Johnstone and

EXHIBIT 22 " 13 Interest in learning, by educational attainment Per cent who have something they would like to learn more about

Educational level College High school Grade school

Age under 30

Age 30-49

96 ( 584 ) 80 (1,376) 65 (136)

88 (996) 79 (2,406) 68 (904)

Age 50+

68

Rivera, 1965, pp. 155, 166, 170, 181 - 183 )

(496)

61 (1,154)

46 (1,820)

Note : Numbers in parentheses are bases for the percentages . All bases are weighted .

5°

c Other cultural pursuits

There is little research on the literary, aesthetic, scientific, and other cultural pursuits of OP. That the cultural backgrounds of many OP may be comparatively deprived is suggested, however, by the increases by age in the proportions who, for example, have never visited a museum of art or an art exhibition (Sweden, 1944); who have no works of art in their home, such as paintings or sculptures (Sweden, 1944); and who had never learned to play a musical instrument (Great Britain, 1946). (Can-

tril, 1951 , pp. 19, 20, 496; based on national polls) 6

OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES

Today's older people engage less than younger people in most outdoor sports. This does not mean , however, that all physically active leisure is relinquished by older people, for certain outdoor pursuits, notably gardening, show marked increases by age categories. To what extent are such patterns the result of life-cycle changes? There is little evidence to link these patterns directly to aging; and indeed, at least part of the current differences among age groups might well be explained by recent expansion of activities to which many young people, but few older people, have ever been exposed . Source: Johnstone and Rivera , 1965 , p. 170; cross · section sample of the U .S., 1962 . Copyr ight 1965 by National Opinion Research Center .

CD

LEISURE ROLES: HOBBIES, STUDYING, AND CULTURAL PURSUITS

527

EXHIBIT 22· 14

Outdoor recreation activities in which substantial minorities

of older people participate, June to August, 1960 ( a) Driving for pleasure Days per particiDays per person pant

Per cent participating

Age

(b) Sightseeing

Per cent participating

(c) Picnics

Days per person

Days per participant

Per cent participating

Days per person

Days per participant

Male All

51

6.57

12.9

39

2.03

5.2

49

1.98

4.0

12-17 18-24 25-44 45-64 65 +

48 59 59 45 33

7.91 12.24 6.04 5.43 3.59

16.5 20.7 10.2 12.1 10.9

48 39 43 37 23

2.58 2.06 1.85 2.08 1.68

5 .4 5.3 4.3 5.6 7.3

67 58 60 31 26

3.48 2.31 2.37 1.07 .66

5.2 4.0 4.0 3.5 2.5

Female All

54

6.77

12.5

45

2.35

5.2

56

2.28

4.1

12-17 18-24 25-44 45-64 65 +

59 76 55 50 37

8.77 12.40 6.17 5.13 4.58

14.9 16.3 11.2 10.3 12.4

57 50 49 42 23

2.84 2.53 2 .31 2.65 1.11

5.0 5.1 4.7 6.3 4.8

74 76 65 42 30

2.90 3.10 2.92 1.43 .91

3 .9 4.1 4.5 3.4 3 .0

' Omitted because of insufficien t sample size . bless than 0 .005 days per person .

528

6 •a

( d ) Walking for pleasuTe

(e) Fishing

(f) Hunting (fall, 1960 ) Per cent Days per participartici- Days per pant pating person

Days per person

Days per participant

Per cent participating

Days per person

Days per participant

28

3.76

13.4

40

3.04

7.6

25

1.43

5.8

43 26 27 22 26

5.08 3.31 2.36 3 .02 8.60

11.8 12.7 8.7 13.7 32.4

62 48 41 33 17

6.48 3.89 2.66 2.10 1.05

10.5

36 37 26 18

2.39 1.99 1.46 .97 .60

6.6 5.3 5.6 5.4

Per cent participating

8.1 6.5 6.4 6.2

9

Outdoor recreation away from home

Outdoor recreation away from home is more characteristic of the young than of the old.

o

Time spent. Approximately one-fourth of OP 65+ devote some time each day (from one-half hour to one hour per person on the average) to outdoor recreation away from home. See Exhibit 22' 1. Time spent on outdoor recreation tends to decline by age, although on weekdays OP 65+ devote a bit more time to it than persons 45 to 64 do . (National Recreation Survey, 1962, p. 360; sample of United States population 12+,4,000

-"

interviewed in Jun e, 1961 )

o

38

4.87

12.8

19

1.02

5.4

2

.10

4.3

64 41 40 28 19

9.57 6.14 4.02 4.08 2.70

15.0 15.0

27 31 21 14

.95 1.19 1.17 1.16

3.5 3.8 5.6 8 .3

2 5 3 1

.05 .17 .12

-"

.11

- "

4

.22

10.1 14.6 14.2

*

_b

-"

T ypes of activity. The most common outdoor recreation pursu its of OP 65 + are driving for pleasure, picnics, sightseeing, walking for pleasure, and (for men) fishing. See Exhibit 22' 14.

-" _A

Source : National Recreation Survey. 1962 . pp . 122 · 138. 209 ; sample of U.S. population 12+ . 4 .000 interviewed . June to August 1960.

LEISURE ROLES: OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES

529

Very rare among OP are such sports as bicycling, water-s kiing, and camping. See Exhibit 22 • 15.

EXHIBIT 22 . 15 Outdoor recreation activities in which few older people participate, June to August, 1960

o

Participation by age. Most of these activities tend to decline by age (beyond the teens). See Exhibits 22 . 14 and 22 • 15. However, the proportion of men who walk for pleasure rises at age 65 +, and those OP who do participate are likely to devote even more time than younger people to various activities (such as sight-seeing, driving, and walking for pleasure).

(National Recreation Survey, 1962, pp. 122138 ; Outdoor Recreation for America, 1962, p . 214; sample of United State s population 12+, 4,000 interviewed in each of 4 seasons, 19601961)

o

Associated fa ctors. Why are there such declines by age? In part, no doubt, these declines occur because certain of the characteristics on which many OP are disadvantaged are correlates of participation: education, income (with age and other factors controlled) , and health (with age controlled). The particular activities most commonly pursued by OP (Exhibit 22 . 14), though loosely associated with good health, are those that are nevertheless possible for sizable proportions of persons who are in poor health. (National Recreation Survey,

1962, pp . 122- 138; and Outdoor Recreation for America, 1962, pp. 159-162,216)

Activity Bicycling Per cent' Rate" Hiking Per cent Rate Horseback riding Per cent Rate Water skiing Per cent Rate Camping Per cent Rate Swimming Per cent Rate Boating Per cent Rate Nature walks Per cent Rate

All ages

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

12- 17

18-24

25-44

45-64

65 +

9 1.75

41 10.02

10 .61

5 .62

2 .12

- '

6 0.26

18 .91

5 .18

6 .16

2 .13

-

6 0.42

22 2.17

8 .33

3 .09

2 .15

- '

6 0.30

14 .93

14 .55

6 .29

-

8 0.46

20 1.07

8 .55

8 .41

5 .35

1 .06

45 5.15

83 15.27

65 5.75

55 5.02

22 1.88

.42

22 1.22

39 2.97

28 1.08

23 1.29

16 .69

5 .25

15 0.75

28

16 .82

15 .53

10

6

1.64

.67

.44

.*

*

.* *

-

.* *

· Less than 0 .5 per cent • Per cent = per cent participating "Rate = days per person in three - month period C Le ss than 0 .005 days per person

Source: Outdoor Recreation for America . 1962 . p. 214 ; sample of U.S. population 12+.4 .000 interviewed June -Au gust . 1960 .

530

Outdoor recreation away from home

o

Trends. Various indexes of recreational activity have been rising. For example, visits to national parks, outboard motors in use, or fishing·license holders have been increasing more rapidly (1951 to 1959) than the United States population itself or the disposable income per capita (compare Chapter 3, C' 2' a). (Outdoor Recreation for America, 1962, p .213 ) Do such trends mean that younger people today are doing more things outdoors than their parents did? One piece of supporting evidence is that the proportions not knowing how to swim, for ex· ample, increase steadily by age (France, 1938) from one·fourth of those 20-34 to three·fourths of those 64+. (C antril, 1951 , p. 841 ; similar

6 •b

An avocation that is particularly characteristic of people in the middle and later years is gardening.

o

Among older people . A substantial proportion of OP engage in gardening as a leisure pastime. For example, 42 per cent of OP 60+ (1957) named working around the yard and in the garden as a leisure activity engaged in on the previous day. See Exhibit 22' 5. ( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A-63; United States sample of 5,000 noninstitutionalized adults aged 15+, summer, 1957) Proportions of OP who garden are somewhat higher for men than for women, but these proportions vary little by income or by advancing age beyond 65. See Exhibit 6' 15. ( Beyer and Woods , 1963, p . 15; over 5,000 OASDI bene-

finding for Sweden, 1942)

o

Life-cycle changes. For fi shing and hunting, however, declines by age beyond the middle years are strikingly similar at different periods of time (United States, 1955 and 1965), suggesting a char· acteristic life·cycle pattern for such traditional ac· tivities . (Nationa l Survey of Fishing and Hunting, 1956, p . 33 . National Survey of Fishing and Hunting , 1966, pp. 50- 51)

o

Preferences . Preferred outdoor activities among OP 65+ include driving and walking for pleasure, picnics, sightseeing, and (heading the list for men) fishing. Although behavior is not entirely consonant with such preferences, only 1 per cent say their pre· ferred activity is restricted by age (being too old or too young). (National Recreation Survey,

1962,pp. 176, 180, 185- 194)

Gardening

ficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas

of the United States, 1958)

o

Older people versus younger people . Unlike many other activities, gardening tends to increase by age categories from the teens up to 60+ . See Exhibit 22' 5. ( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A- 63)

In the absence of data on life-cycle changes or trends in gardening as a leisure pursuit, three facts seem relevant. (1) Gardening is more widespread today in rural than in urban places ( Opinion Research Corporation, 1957, p . A-63) . (2) More OP than younger people had their early leisure experiences on farms and in rural places ( Chapter 6, C' 2' c) . (3) OP are more likely than younger people to have homes of their own to take care of. See Exhibit 4 · 20.

INTERPRETATION:

LEISURE ROlES: OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES

531

7

Outings are characteristic of the young, with the

VACATION AND TRAVEL

proportions who go away for the day or the night declining steadily by age.

Although older people, on the average, find much of their recreation at home, individual differences among them are considerable. For example, some older people take trips to distant places, and indeed, the old are more likely than the young to obtain passports for foreign travel.

7 •a

Vacation s and outings

OP 65 + are less likely than younger people, on the whole, to take short trips and outings or to spend their vacation away from home.

o

Among older people 65 and over. 21 per cent report a vacation away from home during the year; during the summer, 6 per cent report recreational outings lasting overnight, and 29 per cent report outings lasting the better part of a day. Over the year (1960-1961), on the average, an OP 65+ spends over nine days away from home em vacations, trips, and outings. This means that he travels more than 700 miles and spends some $7 to $8 per person per day. ( National Recrea-

tion Survey, 1962, pp. 169, 368- 370; sample of United States population 12 +, 4 ,000 interviewed in each of 4 seasons, 1960-1961)

o

Older people versus younger people. Age pat-

terns differ somewhat for vacations and for briefer outings. For vacations away from home, rates tend to be stable throughout the adult years, only falling off at age 65+. Vacation expenditures and distance traveled are highest at age 45 to 64, dropping off at 65+; whereas time spent away from home shows little or no drop among OP 65 +.

532

Vacations and outings

Distance traveled on outings and time spent away tend also to decline by age beyond the teens, and expenditures tend to decline after a peak in the middle years . ( National Recreation

Survey, 1962, pp . 169, 366- 369 )

o

Associated factors . Can these age patterns be explained by age differences in education , income, and health, all three of which are positively associated with vacations and outings? These factors cannot provide the entire answer. Even with each of these factors in turn held constant, participation rates for outings (both day and overnight) continue to show the pattern of decline by age, and participation rates for vacations still tend to be somewhat lower for OP 65+ than for those aged 45 to 64. ( National Recreation Survey, 1962, pp . 168- 169) 7 •b

Foreign travel

Foreign travel (still limited to the few) appears to be comparatively high among people in the middle and later years, although for the population en masse, resistance to long-distance travel may increase by age.

o

Passports. Passports issued or renewed (1960) go disproportionately to persons in the age categories 50 to 59 and 60 to 76. (de Grazia, 1964, p . 448 ; based on unpublished data from United States Passport Office)

o

Attitudes . However, there are decreases by age (at least in early polls) in the proportions who, for example, had thought of undertaking a long journey (Sweden, 1943), or who were willing to cross the Atlantic with all expenses paid either by airplane (United States, 1937 and 1939) or by boat (United States, 1937). ( Cantril, 1951 , pp. 10, 883 , 886)

8

o

ATTITUDES TOWARD LEISURE

See Chapter 18 for attitudes toward work and retirement.

What meaning, beyond the cessation of work, does leisure hold for older people? For some, it would appear, the accretions of time hang heavy. And the older generation appears to have less-positive views and less vision than the young on matters of public policy toward leisure and recreation generally.

8 •a

Personal assessments

o

Among older people. OP range from those evincing interest in new activities to those not knowing how to while away the hours. For example, proportions of OP who would like to do things they are not doing at present vary from study to study, constituting the following percentages: 29 per cent in Kentucky, 1959 (Youmans, 1962, p. 31; 1,250 OP 60+ in a rural and an

Older people versus younger people. The desire for additional free time (lowest among low·status individuals) is less for older groups than for younger groups even when socioeconomic status is controlled . (Johnstone and Rivera, 1965, pp. 263269; cross-section sample, 1962; age groups divided at 45) 8 •b

Indications from public opinion polls point to OP's comparatively low evaluation of leisure or of certain leisure pursuits.

o

For example, the proportions increase with age who say that movies have a bad influence on those under 21 (Australia, 1945), or that tax money should not be used to support exhibitions of statues and other art (Sweden, 1944). (Cantril, 1951, p.

20; national polls) Proportions increase with age who say that a fourday work week would make people soft and lazy (United States, 1957). ( Roper poll; reported by Riesman, 1958, p. 369)

urban area) 25 per cent in Minnesota , 1961 (Taves and Hansen, 1963, p. 150; 1,700 OP 62+) 61 per cent in Indiana, 1962 (Ford, 1962, p. 25; urban sample of 850 OP 65+ ) At the same time, a minority of OP say that the day drags or that they do not know what to do with their leisure. These views were expressed, in various studies, by the following percentages: 9 per cent in Denmark, 1951 (Danish Institute; 1,200 OP 60+; reported by

Gallup Havig-

hurst, 1960-a, p. 312) 10 per cent (and even more among the very old and those in poor health) in Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1953 ( Hunter and Maurice, 1953, p. 60; 150 OP 65+) 23 per cent in Kentucky, 1959 (Youmans,

1962,p.33)

Public attitudes toward leisure

3 Are women, whose child-rearing tasks are generally completed earlier than the occupational tasks of men, thereby better prepared for leisure in old age? 4 Does leisure serve a different function when the individual no longer works, no longer uses recreation in the literal sense to restore him for tomorrow's work? Do the mass media, for example, serve to maintain links with the community or to give a structure to the day or the week? 5 What will be the effect on older people

of

the spread of programmed instruction, permitting individuals, in the privacy of their own homes and at their own pace, to keep up with the times and to continue to educate themselves long after they leave school?

of current efforts to enlist older people in volunteer services of various kinds?

6 What are the consequences

RESEARCH NEEDS

Works cited in Chapter 22 1 To what extent are the discrepancies between old and young explained by age-related differences in education, income, and health? To what extent do the discrepancies reflect social changes in the preparation for leisure, perhaps implying that more of the older people of the future will be better prepared?

Is meaningful use of leisure in old age contingent upon participation and practice in leisure activities during the pre-retirement years?

2

Baumol, William J., and William G. Bowen, 1966.

Performing Arts-The Economic Dilemma: A Study of Problems Common to Theater, Opera, Music , and Dance, New York: The Twentieth Century Fund. Beyer, Glenn H., 1961. "Economic Aspects of Housing for the Aged," Research Report No. 4, Ithaca, New York: Center for Housing and Environmental Studies, Cornell University. * Beyer, Glenn H., and Margaret E. Woods, 1963. "Living and Activity Patterns of the Aged ," Re-

• Suggested

additio nal reading

LEISURE ROLES: ATTITUDES TOWARD LEISURE

533

search Report No.6, Ithaca, New York: Center for Housing and Environmental Studies, Cornell University. Birren, James E., editor, 1959. Handbook of Aging and the Individual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press . Burgess, Ernest W., editor, 1960-a. Aging in Western Societies, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Bush, Chilton R., 1966. News Research Bulletin, No.3, American Newspaper Publishers Association. Cantril , Hadley, editor, 1951. Public Opinion, 1935- 1946, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Grazia, Sebastian, 1961. "The Uses of Time," in Kleemeier, Robert W., editor, Aging and Leisure, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 113-154. - - - , 1964. Of Time , Work, and Leisure, Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co.

* de

Dennis, Wayne, editor, 1948. Current Trends in Social Psychology, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

* Ferriss,

Abbott L., 1963. " Applications of Recreation Surveys," Public Opinion Quarterly, 27, pp. 443-454.

Ford, Phyllis M. , 1962. "Leisure and the Senior Citizens," Bloom ington, Ind.: Department of Recreation, School of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Indiana University. Havighurst, Robert J., 1960-a. "Life Beyond Family and Work," in Burgess, Ernest W., editor, Aging in Western Societies, Chicago: Un ive rsity of Chicago Press, pp. 299-353. Hunter, Woodrow W., and Helen Maurice, 1953. Older People Tell Their Story, Ann Arbor, Mich .: Institute for Human Adjustment, Division of Gerontology. Johnstone, John W. C., and Ramon J. Rivera , 1965. 534

Warks cited

Volunteers for Learning, Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co. Kleemeier, Robert W., editor, 1961-a. Aging and Leisure, New York: Oxford University Press. Larrabee, Eric, and Rolf Meyersohn, editors, 1958. Mass Leisure, Glencoe, III.: The Free Press. Lazarsfeld, P. F., 1948. "Communications Research and the Social Psychologist," in Dennis, Wayne, editor, Current Trends in Social Psychology, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 218-273. Lazarsfeld, P. F., and P. Kendall , 1948. Radio Lis-

tening in America: The People Look at Radio -Again, New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Link, H. C., and A. Hopf, 1946. People and Books, New York: Book Manufacturers Institute. Rolf, 1961. " A Critical Examination of Commercial Entertainment," in Kleemeier, Robert W., editor, Aging and Leisure, New York: Oxford University Press, pp . 243-272.

* Meyersohn,

- - -, " Leisure and Television" (unpublished). National Recreation Survey. See entry for Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission. National Survey of Fishing and Hunting. See entry for United States Department of the Interior. Niebanck, Paul L., and John B. Pope, 1965. The Elderly in Older Urban Areas, Philadelphia: Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Pennsylvania. Opinion Research Corporation , 1957. " The Public Appra ises Movies," A Survey for Motion Picture Association of America , Princeton, N.J. (unpublished) . Outdoor Recreation for America . See entry for Outdoo r Recreation Resources Review Commission .

* Outdoor

Recreation Resources Review Commission, 1962. National Recreation Survey, Study Report 19, Washington: Government Printing Office.

* ---,

1962. Outdoor Recreation for America, Final Report, Washington: Government Print· ing Office.

Parker, Edwin B., and William G. Paisley, 1966. Patterns of Adult Information Seeking , Stan· ford, California: Institute for Communications Research, Stanford University. Riesman, D., 1958. "Leisure and Work in Post· industrial Society," in Larrabee, Eric, and Rolf Meyersohn, editors, Ma ss Leisure, Glencoe, III.: The Free Press, pp. 363-385. Rose, Arnold M., editor, 1963. Aging in Minnesota, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Schramm , Wilbur, and David M. White, 1949. " Age, Education, Economic Status: Factors in News· paper Reading," Journalism Quarterly, 26, pp. 149-159.

* Steiner,

Gary A., 1963. The People Look at Television, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Storey, Ruth T., 1962. "Who Attends a Senior Ac· tivity Center?" The Gerontologist, 2, pp. 216222.

von Mering, Otto, and Frederick L. Weniger, 1959. "Social·Cultural Backgrou nd of the Aging In· dividual ," in Birren, James E., editor, Handbook of Aging and the Individual, Chicago: Un iversity of Chicago Press, pp. 279-335. Ward, J. A., Inc., 1954. " A Nationwide Study of Living Habits," data collected for a national survey conducted for the Mutual Broadcasting System, New York (unpublished). Whan, F., 1957. The 1957 Iow a Radio-Television Audience Survey, Des Moines, Iowa: Central Broadcasting Co. Youmans, E. Grant, 1962. Leisure-Time Activities

of Older Persons in Selected Rural and Urban Areas of Kentucky, Progress Report 115, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Kentucky.

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS Abbott L. Ferriss Rolf M eyersohn

Wilbur Schramm Clark Tibbitts

Swedish Institute for Public Opinion, 1956. "Pa Aldre Dagar" (unpublished). Taves, Marvin J., and Gary D. Hansen, 1963. "Seventeen Hundred Elderly Citizens," in Rose, Arnold M., editor, Aging in Minnesota, Min· neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 75-18l. Television Bureau of AdvertiSing, Inc., 1963. " Total Nationa l Market Coverage of Newspapers and Television : A Media Study," Report No.2, New York: Television Bureau of Advertising, Inc. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1956. National Survey of Fishing and Hunting , Circular 44, Washin g· ton: Government Printing Office. - - -, 1966. National Survey of Fishing and Hunting, Resource Publication 27, Washing· ton: Government Printing Office.

LEISURE ROLES 535

23 Older people playa variety of family roles. Most are either married and living with a spouse or obliged to adjust to widowhood. Most also play the enduring role of parent. While their children, in turn , form families of their own , new linkages are developed with children·in·law; and grandchildren , even great·grandchildren , proliferate. Many older people retain ties to siblings or other relatives, and a few continue in the role of offspring to parents who have survived into very old age.

FAMILY

How do older people perform in these roles? How do they become social· ized , at so advanced an age , to such new roles as parent·in·law or grand· parent or widow? Does widowhood or retirement intensify interaction with kin? Does the societal norm of separate housing strengthen the husband · wife relationships of older people or influence the affectional bonds and exchanges of material support between older people and their children? See Chapter 7 for the societa l co ntext of older peop le and their families.

THE DATA Important data have been secured on many such topics through several substantial studies, including an intensive study of marital and parental relationships for a United States cross·section and cross'national studies of older people in the United States, Great Britain, and Denmark (though the full report by Shanas et aI. , 1968, was unavailable at the time of writing). In addition, numerous small studies afford clues to various aspects of the older person's family roles, notably his role as parent.

537

A Marital roles A· 1

MUTUAL ACTIVITY OF HUSBAND AND WIFE

A •2

QUALITY OF THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP

A •3

WIDOWHOOD

B

Parental and other family roles

B •1

INTERACTION

B·2

HELP AND SERVICES

B·3

SOLIDARITY AND STRAIN

A Marital Toles The marital relationship is central for those older people (71 per cent of the men and 37 per cent of the women aged 65 and over) who have a living spouse and may become increasingly significant as husbands and wives live longer portions of their lives together as an independent unit. Moreover, marital status is an important variable for understanding much of the research about older people; it is associated with the older person's living ar· rangements and many of his characteristics and attitudes, since marriage not only provides the social context of a nuclear family but also is initially selec· tive of certain kinds of people. See Chapter 7, A' 2 and A' 3, for the marital status of older people and Chapter 7, B' 3 • b, for their liv ing arrangements.

A· 1 MUTUAL ACTIVITY OF HUSBAND AND WIFE

With retirement and the departure of the children from the parental home, older couples have a large residue of time to spend together.

A· 1· a Shared activities Small studies point to considerable joint activity, both leisure projects and household chores, for husbands and wives in their later years.

o

Couples are more likely to do things together if

all, rather than some, of their children have left home . They are more likely to undertake major ventures (such as vacation trips and home decoration or repairs) and to engage jointly in everyday activities inside and outside the home, particularly after the children have been away for several years. ( Sus sman, 1955, pp . 339-341 ; 100 middle-class

post-parental couples, New Haven, Connecticut) 538 Sha red activities

o

After retirement, many husbands engage in such tasks as shopping, or dishwashing, thus bring· ing the retired husband's activity more closely into alignment with his wife's . ( Lipman, 1962, p . 480;

100 retired couples 60+, Miami, Florida) Sharing of housework is more widespread among couples with looser rather than closer ties (in proximity, continuing aid) to their offspring. ( Kerckhoff, 1965, p . 104; 200 couples with

adult children, Piedmont region, North Carolina ) Compare Chapter 22, 1 • c.

1· b Help and services There is scattered evidence of mutual aid within the aged husband·wife family.

o

For example, in case of illness, many' married OP 65 + say their husbands or wives would take care of them (United States) . ( Shanas, 1962, p. 111 ; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+, 1957)

o

Among some four out of five married OP 65+ who had been ill during the past year, the spouse had prepared meals, for example; and a similar pro· portion would expect such services if they became ill (Denmark) . ( Stehouwer, 1965, pp. 155- 156; 2 ,500 OP 65+, 1962 )

A· 1· c Decision making Do the shared activities and mutual interdepend· ence of husbands and wives affect the power structure of the aged family?

o

One study (Detroit, 1955) shows that husbands in their 60's are somewhat more likely than those in their 40's or 50's to hold the balance of power in making family decisions. ( Blood and Wolfe, 1960, p . 27; 1,000 wives of all ages) Such age differences may arise eith er from the aging process or from differences in family patterns among cohorts (generations ).

CAUTION:

EXHIBIT 23 ' 1

Self-assessment of marital role (percentage

A' 2

distribution) Marital adjustment indexes'

Age 21-24

Age 25-34

(a) Evaluation of marital happiness Very happy 52 48 Above average 20 22 Average 26 28 Not too happy 2 2 Not ascertained Total

100

100

(b) Frequency of feeling inadequate A lot of times; often 15 14 Once in a while; once 51 47 or twice 36 Never 31 Not ascertained 3 3 Total

100

100

(e) Report of marriage problems 45 50 Had problems 44 No problems 53 Inapplicable 2 2 Not ascertained 4 Total Number of people

QUALITY OF THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP

See Chapter 11, section 5, for the sexual activity of OP.

Age 35-44

Age 45-54

Age 55-64

Age 65 +

48 23 26 2 1

43 22 31 4

40 20 34 5 1

46 18 34 2

100

100

100

100

11 42

8 38

8 37

11 24

43 4

50 4

51 4

59 6

100

100

100

100

42 51 2 5

38 54 4 4

31 58 5 6

19 71 2 8

100

100

100

100

100

100

(132)

(509)

(472)

(366)

(228)

(160)

• Based on answers to the following questions : (a) Tak ing all th ings together, how would you describe your marriage- would you say your marriage was ve ry happy , a l ittle happier than average , just about average, or not too happy? (b ) Many men (women ) feel that they ' re not as good husbands (wives ) as they would like to be . Have yo u ever felt this way ? ( If, Yes ) Do you feel this way a lot of times , or only once in a while? (c ) Even in cases whe re marr ied people are happy th ere have often been times in the pa st when they weren ' t too happy- when they had problems gett ing along with each othe r . Has th is ever been true for you?

On the whole, OP appear to have become adapted to their roles as husbands or wives, so that they accept the positive features and minimize the stress. A' 2' a

Satisfaction

See Chapter 15, 5' a and 5' b, for marriage and life satis· faction.

In. assessing their marital roles, OP seem no less likely than younger people to evidence great happiness in marriage and even less likely to report problems or express feelings of inadequacy. Interestingly enough , there are few age differences in the sources of happiness or the kinds of difficulties encountered.

o

OP 65+, when compared with younger people, tend to be equally likely to describe their marriages as happy. See Exhibit 23 . 1, (a). They also tend to be more likely to say they have never felt inadequate as husbands or wives. See Exhibit 23 . 1, (b); compare Chapter 13, 7 . a. They also tend to be more likely to say they had no problems in getting on together. See Exhibit 23 . 1, (e).

o

These age differences tend to persist regardless of educational level or sex.

Source : Gurin et al., 1960 , pp . 8 8 · 90 , 103; marr ied per sons In U.S. sample of 2,5 00 adu lts 21+ , 1957 .

FAMilY: QUALITY OF THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP

539

o

OP do not differ markedly from younger people in their stress either on the relational aspects of marriage as the primary source of marital satisfaction or on the particular kinds of problems encountered in marriage (namely, faults in themselves or the spouse or difficulties in the relationship)_

o

However, in discussing sources of their own feelings of inadequacy in marriage, the very young are more likely than persons 35+ to mention inadequate providing (men) and inadequate housekeeping (women)_ ( Curin et al., 1960, pp. 100,

103, 107- 109, 110- 112; United States sample

of 2,500 adults 21+ , 1957) A· 2· b

Relation to retirement

Limited studies of atypical samples of OP suggest wide ind ividual differences in the consequences of retirement for the marital relationship.

o

Husbands and wives of retired garment workers mention both negative consequences (such as less income and more work to be done with husband around the house) and positive consequences (more time together) . (Tuckman and Lorge, 1953, p. 67;

70 spouses of retired workers)

o

Following retirement, both husbands and wives (Miami) are likely to report increased rather than decreased marital satisfaction.

o

Wives adhering to an instrumental definition of their role (stressing housework) show lower morale than those stressing expressive functions (love, understanding, and companionship). ( Lipman, 1962, pp. 482-484; 100 retired couples 60+ ,

Miami, Florida) A· 2· c

Personality congruence

Whether or not married couples may acquire greater communality of habits and interests with aging,

540

Satisfaction

there is no evidence that their personalities become more congruent (as least over the earlier married years) .

o

Married couples who were scored on th irty-eight personality characteristics in their mid-20's and aga in sixteen to eighteen years later showed that husbands and wives tended to be simi lar to each other at each of the two time periods.

o

But the same study showed that there was no tendency for this similarity to increase over time (that is, for the husband's or the wife's score to change toward the original score of the spouse). ( Kelly, 1955, pp. 679- 680; 116 married couples,

from panel of engaged couples first questioned in 1935- 1938 ) A· 3

WIDOWHOOD

The role of widow (or widower) is one to which many OP, especially women, must learn to adjust; and as life expectancy increases, the onset of widowhood tends to come at a later point in life. Many widowed OP, having lost the companion of a lifetime, are disadvantaged in various ways. However, the widowed are, on the average, less disadvantaged than the divorced; and they are better off in several respects, notably in having children, than those who were never married_

o

Suicide rates, too, are higher for widowed than for married OP, but these rates are still higher for the divorced. See Exhibit 16 - 27 and Chapter 16, B-1' e. ( Dublin, 1963, p. 27; based on National Office of V ital Statistics, unpublished data) A· 3· b

Sense of bereavement

See Chapter 15, 5 - b, fo r life satisfaction of the widowed .

While many widows and some widowers appear to make a fair adjustment, there is considerable indication of grief (probably most marked among those recently bereaved).

o The widowed, as compared with the married, report greater unhappiness, greater worry, and greater anticipation of death in the near future. ( Curin et al., 1960, pp. 235- 237; United States sample of OP 4 0 +; age controlled in the analysis)

o

One study of widows 60+ shows morale unusually low only among those bereaved within the previous ten years. ( Kutner et al., 1956, pp. 58,

65; widowed women from sample of 500 OP, New York City, 1952)

A· 3· c

Anticipatory responses

People are not entirely unprepared for widowhood, with anxiety appearing greatest among couples who are retired .

o

Longevity is lower among widowed than among married OP.

Among pre-retired persons in the United States public (1965) , 50 per cent of the women and 35 per cent of the men said they had thought about the possibility of losing their husbands or wives.

o

o

A· 3· a

Mortality

Mortality rates are higher for the widowed than for the married OP, though not as high as for the divorced . See Exhibit 2' 15 and Chapter 2, 3' c. ( Shurtleff, 3;1955, p. 248; reported by Spiegelman, 1966, p. 4)

Among retired persons (United States, 1965)

feeling lonesome upon loss of spouse is more widely anticipated by couples (61 per cent) than actually experienced by those already widowed (29 per cent).

Frequency of interaction with children, three countries, 1962

Handling the loss by keeping occupied is more widespread among the widowed than is anticipated by the couples. ( Harris , 1965-b; United

EXHIBIT 23 · 2

Last time OP saw one of their children Total Today or yesterday Within previous 7 days Within previous month Within previous year More than 1 year ago

N=

States poll)

OP with living children

Britain

United States

Denmark

100.0

100.0

100.0

69.3 17.3 7.4 4.2 1.8

65.0 18.7 6.8 7.0 2.5

62.3 21.8 9.8 4.8 1.3

(1,906)

(1,996 )

( 2 ,001 )

B Parental and other family roles Older people are caught up to varying degrees in family networks beyond the husband-wife relationship, particularly with their adult offspring and other descendants, but also with numerous collateral rela tives and, as an increasingly likely prospect, with their own aged parents. See Chapter 7. A. for the structure of the older person's family and Cha pter 7. B. for his family living arrangements.

B -1

INTERACTION

Few OP are devoid of contacts with ch ildren or other relatives. Though the frequency of interactio n depends in large part on proximity. many live close by or even in the same household with one another.

B - 1 -a

With children

Among OP who have living children (over three· fourths of all OP), the majority maintain regular contact with at least one child.

D More than eight out of ten OP with children see one of them as often as once a week; about twothirds see at least one child as often as every day or two days (United States, Great Britain. and Denmark). See Exhibit 23' 2. ( Stehouwer, 1965, p. 147; cros s-national study of 2,500 OP 65+ in each of 3 countries, 1962 )

Source: Stehouwer. 1965 . p. 147 ; cross · national study of 2. 500 OP 65+ in each of 3 countries . 196 2.

FAMILY: WIDOWHOOD

541

o

Even those aged parents who live far from their children typically see them at least on holidays and special occasions. ( Shanas, 1962, p . 99; 1,700

noninstitutionalized 1957 )

OP

65 +,

United

EXHIBIT 23 · 3

States,

o

Frequency of parent·child contact is not a simple function of living together under the same roof, since three countries (United States, Great Britain, and Den ma rk) report remarkably similar interaction rates though differing markedly in living arrange· ments . See Exhibit 23 . 3, lines (1) and (3); com· pare Exhibit 7' 12. ( Stehouwer, 1965, p. 157)

o

However, parents with children who live locally are much more likely to see the ch ildren often (more than once a week) than parents whose ch ildren live out of town . ( R osow, 1967, pp. 214- 216; based

on 1,200 OP 62 +, Cleveland; emotional dependence of the parent controlled)

Nature of interaction with children, three countries, 1967

Per cent reporting particular living arrangements and relationships with chilldren Arrangements and relationships Proximity of children (1) Children in same household (2) Nearest child at more than 1 hour's transport distance Contact with children (3) Have seen at least 1 child today or yesterday (4) Have stayed overnight with child within last 12 months (5) Have had children staying overnight within last 12 months Help to children (6) Those able to do anything for children (7) Those able to do anything for grandchildren" Help from children (8) Received a regular money allowance within last 12 months (9) Received occasional money gifts within last 12 months

N=

OP with living children

United States

Denmark

Britain

20.1 12.5

41.9 11.0

27.6 16.4

62 .3

69 .3

65.0

20.0

29.5

42.9

20.1

26.2

46.0

27.7 13.3

46.9 32.8

52.5 49.6

2.5

4.1

4.2

6.2

20.3

34.9

( 2 ,012 )

a Percentage computed only for those who have gra ndchildren . Denmark N Un ited States N = 1873 .

( 1,911 )

(2,012 )

= 1845, Britian N = 1719 , and

Source : Stehouwer. 1965. p. 157 (a dapted) ; cross · national study of 2 .500 OP 65+ in each of 3 countries , 1962 .

542

With children

Frequency of contact with children, by number of children, London working class

EXHIBIT 23 '4

No. of children (a) 1 2 3-4 5 or more

Average contacts Average contact per week with per child all children per week (b)

(c)

Total children ( d)

5.2 8.5 11.7 19.1

5.2 4.2 3.4 3.1

26 78 158 364

Total

26 39 45 57

OP (e)

o

Parent·child interaction appears also to be reo lated to the family structure . For example, in a London working class district, frequency of contact tends to be higher with daughters than with sons, to be higher with the youngest than with the oldest son or daughter (even when both are married) , and to increase with the number of children in the family. See Exhibit 23' 4, column (b). However, the contacts per child tend to de· crease with increasing family size, suggesting more intense (if less extensive) parent·child ties where the OP has only one or two children. See Exhibit 23 ' 4, column (c) . (Townsend, 1957, pp , 38, 87-88; 200 OP 65 +, 19541955 ) In the Un ited States, OP are more likely to be visited at least once a week by their children if the OP are married couples or widowed w omen rather than widowed men. ( Langford, 1962, p . 14; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 se-

lected, primarily urban, areas

of the United

States , 1958 )

Source : Townsend , 1957 , p. 87 (adapted) ; 200 OP 65+, London working class distric t, 1954 · 1955 .

FAMILY: INTERACTION

543

o

send, 1957, p . 104 . Shanas , 1962, p . 140; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 +, United States, 1957 )

Retirement, when it affects parent·child inter· action at all, may have a slight tendency to increase it. In contrast with 28 per cent of retirees reporting that they see more of their children and grandchildren since their retirement, 13 per cent reo port seeing them less . (The balance do not reo port any change.) ( Harris, 1965- b; United

States poll ) B•1•b

With children-in-law

OP's contacts with sons·in·law and daughters·in· law appear (at least in one London working·class district) to occur less frequently than with their own married children , but somewhat more often if the · OP has no own child of the same sex. ( Townsend ,

1957, pp. 85- 87; 200 OP 65 +, 1954- 1955) B•1•c

o

With other relatives

Seeing adult children often means seeing grand-

children at the same time. For example, in London, 58 per cent of OP 65 + saw both children and grandchildren every day or nearly every day. ( Town send, 1957, pp. 111;

B •1•d

Altogether, most OP, with or without children, main· tain contacts with relatives, though the frequency varies with the geographical (as well as ge nealogi· cal) closeness of the OP's relatives, his ties to home and community, and other factors.

o For example, in London, 89 per cent of OP 65 + saw at least one relat ive (other than the spouse) every day or nearly every day. (Townsend, 1957, p . 111 ; 200 OP 65 +, w orking-class district, 19541955 ) o

Apart from relatives in their own households, nearly half of OP 65 + in the United States have some relative stop by to see them regularly enough to be able to depend on the contact. See Exhibit 23·5.

Four-fifths of those OP h aving no one stop by regularly live in the same household with a spouse, children , or others . NOTE:

o

Wh ile such regular visitors are primarily the OP's children, a good many OP whose children stop in· frequently are visited daily by other relatives . See Exhibit 23 . 6. ( Langford, 1962, pp . 12, 14;

( Youman s, 1962, pp. 15- 17; 250 OP 60 +, in a rural and urban area, 1959 )

over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958 )

200 OP 65 +, working-clas s district, 19541955 ) Seeing brothers and sisters seems less preva· lent, on the whole, than seeing children (Kentucky).

However, sibling interaction may occur more often among OP without surviving children than among those with surviving children. (Town-

544

With children

Total kinship interaction

o

The OP's contact with relatives appears to be strengthened by his other family and community

supports.

EXHIBIT 23 · 5

Frequency of stopping by to see older people ( percentage

distribution)

Frequency

Someon e

Daily Once or twice a week Less than once a week No one in this group stopped No one stopped

35 29 6

Total

Friend

Other

22 19 3 26

10 8 1 51

4 7 3 56

66

30

30

30

30

30

100

100

100

100

100

( 4,926)

( 4,926 )

Number reporting

Person who stopped Neighbor Relative

( 4,926 )

( 4,926)

3 1

*

(4,926)

· Less than 0 .5 per cent.

Source : Langford , 1962, p. 14 ; over 5 ,000 OASDI beneficiar ies in 4 selected - primarily urban - areas of the U.S. , 1958 .

For example, relatives are, on the whole, espe· cially likely to stop by regularly (United States) to see those OP who know many, rather than few, other families in the neighborhood; who own rather than rent their homes; who head their own households (especially if their children also live there) rather than live as guests in others' homes; and who are married rather than widowed or single (particularly men). (At the same time, those few OP who have no telephones, are also especially likely to be visited daily by relatives.) ( Langf01'd, 1962, pp. 15,43) Interaction with relatives is also more frequent (Philadelphia working class) among married and even widowed OP than among the separated, divorced, and never married (when propinquity, genealogical closeness, and size of kin network are taken into account). ( Rosenberg, 1967, p.

127; those with kin in the area from 1,600 white working-class men and women aged 45 to 79, 1965 )

EXHIBIT 23 · 6

Frequency of relatives' versus children's visits

to older people Living in own household Frequency of children's visits Daily Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Less often or never

Not living in own household

Number reporting

Per cent visited by relatives daily

Number reporting

Per cent visited by relatives daily

680 1,147 562 371

75 17 10 5

80 168 106 101

53 18 10 8

Source : Langford , 1962, p. 14 ; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected - primarily urban - areas of the U.S., 195'8 .

FAMILY: INTERACTION

545

o

Proximity also affects kinship interaction. In Philadelphia, frequency of contact with rela · tives is clearly a function of living nearby and only secondarily of the closeness of blood ties. See Exhibit 23·7. In Kentucky, OP's contacts with both children and siblings decreased as the intervening distance increased (from less than 9 to over 250 miles). However, regardless of proximity, contacts were rarer among rural than among urban OP (perhaps because of greater transportation difficulties in the country). (Youmans, 1962, pp. 14-17; 1,250 OP 60 +, in a rural and

an urban area, Kentucky, 1959 ) In London, relatives living in the same block or nearby are seen more often than those living at a distance. (Townsend, 1957, p. 39)

o

Contacts with relatives seem also more common among OP in higher, rather than lower, socioeconomic levels.

EXHIBIT 23· 7 Frequency of kinship interaction, by geographical and genealogical distance , Philadelphia working class

Geographical and genealogical distance Same block Close kin b Distant kin 1-5 blocks Close kin Distant kin 6 or more blocks Close kin Distant kin

No. of times seen by respondent during past 7 days (in raw numbers) 7 or Total more Average relatives'

2

3

4

5

6

31 115

4 43

4 31

4 4

11 21

11

7

93 199

5.0 3.8

167 489

160 448

88 232

39 99

28 32

24 51

6 10

97 198

2.6 2.0

537 1,514

1,286 1,175 5,495 2,799

192 399

108 211

32 56

36 67

15 21

106 101

1.0 0.6

2,950 9,149

0

1

9 67 95 444

14,806

Total contacts • With relatives who live outside of respondents' households but i n the Ph iladelph ia metropolitan area . bClose kin consist of parents, children, siblings; all other relatives are distant.

Among OP 60+ in New York City, seeing children as often as once a week is more prevalent in high than in low socioeconomic levels (though seeing other relatives does not vary). (Kutner et al. , 1956, pp. 116-117; 500 OP 60+, New

York City, 1952) In the Philadelphia working class, those with higher versus lower incomes have more interaction with kin (with propinquity, genealogical closeness, and size of kin network controlled). (Rosen-

berg, 1967, pp. 116-118; breadwinners with kin in the area from 1,600 white working-class men and women aged 45 to 79, 1965) Propinquity to at least one child varies little by income, though it is relatively less among OP from white-collar backgrounds (Chapter 7, B . 1 . d).

NOTE:

546 Total kinship interaction

Source : Rosenberg, 1967. p. 107 ; those with kill women , aged 45 to 79. Ph ilad elphia . 1965 .

In

the areas from 1.600 wh ite working class men and

EXHIBIT 23 · 8

Congruity of family assistance norms with reported behavior Per cent

Per cent

of OP

of OP Norms

who say children should

Visit their parents frequently After leaving home, keep in close contact

84 94

Even when children have families of their own, they should keep in close contact Take care of their parents when they are ill If parents need financial assistance, children should be expected to help (great deal: 5%; some: 44%) Help their parents Live close by

93 60 49

42 15

Behavior

w ho say their children do

Children see them often Since leaving home, all their children have kept in close contact All their children who have families have kept in close contact Help when someone is ill Give advice on business or money matters Give financial help All their children offered financial help All their children live close enough so that parents can see them whenever they want to

76 86

B" I " e

Attitudes toward seeing relatives

Roughly paralleling the extent of kinship interaction are OP's expectations of frequent contact with children and other relatives,

o

Most OP say that children should, even when they have families of their own, keep in close contact with their parents. See Exhibit 23' 8. ( Streib, 1958, p , 55; 750 retired males aged 69, w ith living

spouse, who have children, 1957 )

o

86

A minority of OP (slightly more women than men) said they did not see their families as often as they wanted. ( Hunter and Maurice , 1953, pp.

80

50-51 ; 150 OP 65 +, Grand Rapids, 1953 )

37 28 57 50

The expressed desire to see more of children seems to be a realistic expression of deprivation. The less the OP does see his children, the more he wants to see them. ( Rosow, 1967, p. 103;

based on 1,200 OP 62 +, selected apartment buildings, Cleveland )

Source: Streib , 1958 , p. 55 ; 750 ret ired males aged 69 living with spouse who have children , 1957 .

FAMILY: INTERACTION

547

EXHIBIT 23 · 9 Preferred living arrangements for capable older people,' by respondent's actual living arrangements (percentage distribution) Living in own household

Selected living situations By themselves, away from relatives By themselves, near relatives With their families Total Number reporting

Not living in own household

Total

Alone or with spouse only

With children

With other relatives

31

33

38

16

25

40

52

56

59

46

51

17

11

3

38

100

100

100

Total

(4,954)

(4,091 )

(2,919)

With children

With other relatives

With nonrelatives

17

10

18

46

54

34

29

39

44

24

6

49

61

43

10

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

(649)

(312)

(211 )

(863)

(547)

(190)

(126)

With nonrelatives

Total

• An swers to a quest ion as to the best living arrangement for people over 65 who ca n take care of themselves .

Source : Beyer and Wood s, 1963, p. 19 (adapted) : over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries on 4 selected - primarily urban - areas of the U.S., 1958 .

548

B. 1 · f ments

Attitudes toward joint living arrange-

In practice, however, satisfaction with their own living arrangements may be somewhat lower (about 70 per cent) among OP living entirely alone than among those living with spouses or with children (about 90 per cent). ( Hunter and

However, living in the same household with children or other relatives is not generally favored by OP, though this resistance may be modified under various conditions_

See

Chapter 7, B - 4' e, for comparable public attitudes.

o

Few OP 65 + prefer to live with relatives rather than in their own homes. Only 8 per cent say they themselves would most like to live in the home of a child or relative. See Exhibit 25' 6. (Shanas, 1962, p. 103; 1,700

noninstitutionalized OP 65 +, United States, 1957 ) 17 per cent select living with their families as the best arrangement for people 65 + who can take care of themselves. See Exhibit 23' 9. ( Beyer

and Woods , 1963, pp. 19-20; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States , 1958)

Maurice , 1953, p. 50 ; 150 OP 65+, Grand Rapids, 1953 ) NOTE: Those OP 65 + who do live alone or apart from relatives (some one-sixth of the men and one-third of the women) are a selected and comparatively hardy lot.

o

OP are also more likely to favor living with their families if their health is poor, if they have reached advanced old age (though only among those OP already living with relatives), and if they are widowed (particularly widowed men) rather than married . ( Beyer and Wood s, 1963, pp. 19- 21)

o

Even if the OP is ill or disabled, his moving in with relatives is not widely recommended. For example, 23 per cent of OP 65 + select living with their families as the best living arrangement for people 65 + who can no longer care for themselves; whereas 39 per cent favor own homes with nursing care, and another 38 per cent favor nursing homes. ( Beyer and Woods , 1963, p . 22)

o

OP's preferences for living with relatives vary sharply with their actual living arrangements. Advocacy of living with relatives is far greater among OP already living (either as hosts or guests) in the same households with relatives (especially with their children) than among older ind ividuals or couples living alone. See Exhibit 23' 9. Such advocacy is also greater among OP already living as guests in others' households than among OP in their own homes. See Exhibit 23 . 9.

See

Chapter 25. section 3, for OP's attitudes toward nursing homes and other institutional living arrangements.

o

In the event of the OP's incapacity, preferences for living arrangements are closely associated with income (as well as with the other factors noted on this page).

( Beyer and Woods , 1963, p. 19)

FAMILY: INTERACTION

549

The higher the OP's income, the less likely he is to favor living with families, but the more likely he is to favor his own home with nursing care. See Exhibit 23 • 10. ( Beyer and Woods , 1963, p. 23 ) B' 2

HELP AND SERVICES

OP's ties to their relatives, and to their children in particular, are by no means limited to visiting. There are also widespread exchanges of material support of various amounts and kinds, ranging from financial contributions and care in illness to baby-sitting and help with housework and home repairs.

EXHIBIT 23 ' 10 Preferred living arrangements for incapacitated older people,' by income (percentage distribution) Household composition and selected living situations All respondents Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting Living alone or with spouse only Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting Living with children Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting Living with other relatives Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting Living with nonrelatives Own homes with nursing care With their families NurSing homes Number reporting

Income Under $1,000

$1,000$1 ,999

29 33 38

37 25 38

$2,000$2,999

41 20 39

(901 ) (1,756) (1,012 ) 36 21 43 ( 337 )

24 48 28 (373)

41 18 41

(1,043) 27 47 26

(405)

44 16 40

( 660) 31 35 34 (196)

$3,000

and over

46 15 39

(820) 49 10 41 (584)

35 35 30 (117)

29 33 38

32 30 38

40 23 37

38 28 34

(118)

(1 68)

(87)

( 76)

46 12 42

53 12 35

(69)

(43)

27 14 59 (73 )

36 16 48

( 140)

' Answers to a question as to the best living arrangement for people over 65 who are no longer able to take care of themselves . Source : Beyer and Woods , 1963 , p. 23 (adapted) ; over 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected - pr imarily urban - areas of the U.S., 1958.

550 Attitudes toward joint living arrangements

EXHIBIT 23 ' 11

Reciprocity of help between older people and

their children' Per cent of OP who report each type of help

Type of help Help when someone is ill Parents help children Ch ildren help parents Give financial help Parents help children Children help parents Give advice on business or money matters Parents help children Children help parents Give valuable gifts Parents help children Children help parents Provide a home Parents help children Children help parents Baby-sitting and child care (on part of parents)

N=

Retired Income Income less than more than $300 $150

Working Income Income less than more than $200' $600

B' 2' a

Reciprocity

Contrary to the often-held theory of a one-way flow of contributions to OP, the flow of support between aged parents and their adult offspring appears to be two-directional, from parent to child or from child to parent as need and opportunity dictate.

o

92 89

83 79

84 75

86 69

60 39

64 20

53 34

78 21

52 45

60 34

50 31

66 24

22 27

31 19

19 25

36 18

29 24 50

14 6 50

9 12 53

13 9

( 95)

(145)

(32)

Help and services exchanged take numerous forms, as suggested , for example, in Exhibit 23 • 11.

( Streib, 1958, p. 57; selected income categories from sample of 1,300 retired and employed males aged 69, 1957 )

44 (131 )

• As reported by men aged 69 . bpercentages based on fewer than 50 cases.

Source: Streib . 1958. p. 57 ; selected Income categories fro m sample of 1.300 re ti re d an d employed males aged 69 . 1957 .

FAMILY: HELP AND SERVICES

551

D Altogether (United States, 1962), the proportions of OP who give help to their children tend to exceed the proportions who receive help from their children . (Shanas, 1966, Table V; 2,500 OP 65+)

EXHIBIT 23 · 12 their children

D By occupational background of the OP, giving help to children is more widespread among whitecollar workers (68 per cent) than among the working class or among agricultural workers (57 to 58 per cent) ; whereas receiving help is more widespread among agricultural workers (62 per cent) than among other types (49 to 52 per cent) of workers.

D By sex of the OP, male and female parents are

of reports by parents and

Per cent of OP and children who report each type of contact and aid

Both parents and their children agree that, in many respects, the balance of family support tends in this direction . See Exhibit 23· 12. ( Streib, 1965-b, p. 472; subsample of 291 retired males aged 69 and an adult child of

each)

Congruity

Type of contact and aid Visit frequently Ask to visit often Write often Take care when ill Give financial help Live close Give advice on business Provide home None of above

N=

Contact and aid given by parents Reported Reported by by parents children

74 74 53 51 48 45 37 9 (2!!.1)

69 78 39 56 38 50 33 8 3 (291 )

Contact and aid given by children Reported R eported by by parents children

74 74 53 37 10 46 20 5 6 (291 )

72 81 29 46 12 47 31 8 2 (291 )

about equally likely to give help to children, but females are more likely than males to receive it (regardless of occupational background). ( Shanas , 1966, Table V; 2,500 OP 65+, United States, 1962 )

D By country, parent-offspring assistance shows marked variation (unlike frequency of contact, which varies little). See Exhibit 23· 3; compare lines (6) to (9) with line (3). For example, the proportions of OP reporting that they have been able to help their children or their grandchildren or that they have received financial assistance from children are consistently lower in Den mark than in either the United States or Great Britain (a difference possibly associated with cross-national variations in pensio n systems or home care services). ( Stehouwer, 1965, pp. 157- 159; cross-national study of 2,500 OP 65+ in each of 3 countries, 1962 )

552

Reciprocity

Source : Streib. 1965 · b. p. 472 ; su bsample of 291 retired males aged 69 and an adult child of each .

B •2 •b

Financial support

Part of the assistance exchanged by aged parents and adult children is financial, although the monetary value is difficult to assess, particularly in connection with joint living arrangements. Here again, the two-way flow of contributions seems to be operative. See, for example, Exhibit 23 - 11.

D Although regular money allowances to parents are rare, over one-third of OP 65 + in the United States (and smaller fractions in Great Britain and Denmark) report receiving occasional money gifts from their children . See Exhibit 23' 3, lines (8) and (9) . ( Stehouwer, 1965, pp. 157-158; crossnational study of 2 ,500 OP 65+ in each of 3 countries, 1962)

D Similarly, over one-third of a United States crosssection sample of people aged 45+ report contributing at least partially to the financial support of their parents or parents-i n-law (1957). ( Shanas, 1962, p . 169; persons with living parents or parents-in-law from 2 ,500 adults 21 + ) And 31 per cent of a later United States crosssection (1964) of adults of all ages say that they know someone who has an older parent dependent on them (though only 19 per cent report that someone as being close to them). (Erskine, un-

shared housing arrangements (involving some 28 per cent of OP 65 + in 1957). Such support takes the form of free rent, food, or assistance with care of home or children. One clue to the direction of such support is that over half of those OP who share homes with their children are themselves the household heads (see Chapter 7, B . 2 • c). ( Shanas, 1962, p . 96; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+, United

States , 1957 ) The designation as head may sometim es constitute a mere courtesy title .

CAUTION:

B •2 •C

Emergency help

In illness or other emergency, relatives (young as well as old, as ind icated in Exhibit 23 • 11) consti tute a primary resource for one another.

D In a health crisis, most OP (some 80 per cent) named a child or other relative, apart from the spouse, from whom they would seek help in making arrangements. (Among the others were 5 per cent who had no responsible individual to turn to.) Those na ming their children constituted 65 per cent of total OP 65 + , or 85 per cent of OP having grown children .

published; based on Louis Harris and Associates, 1964 )

Daughters (or daughters-i n-law) were named twice as often as sons (or sons-i n-law) by both ma le and female parents. ( Shanas, 1962, pp.

D When OP account for income actually received, however, cash contributions from relatives or

109, 111- 113; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 +, United States, 1957 )

friends are received by only 3 per cent of couples and 5 per cent of nonmarried individ uals, amounting altogether to barely 1 per cent of OP's aggregate income (see Chapter 4, A . 1 . b). (Eps tein, 3/ 1964,

pp. 6- 7; 1963 Survey of the Aged)

D A substantial portion of the support both to and from older parents is undoubtedly concealed i n

D OP living alone are also likely, in the event of accident or sudden sickness, to turn to relatives for help (51 per cent of the women and 39 per cent of the men) . See Exhibit 24 • 11. ( Langford, 1962, pp . 15- 16; over 5 ,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United State s, 1958 )

FAMILY: HELP AND SERVICES

553

B ·2 ·d

Norms versus behavior

OP generally do not want help from their children, though they themselves are less likely to expect it than their children to offer it.

o

Only 7 per cent of retirees (and 5 per cent of United States adults not yet retired) say they expect some financial help from their children after retirement. ( Harris , 1965- b; United States poll) See Chapter 4. D' 3 • b. for public attitudes toward financial responsibility for OP.

o

The belief that children or relatives (rather than government or the OP themselves) should take care of OP when they are no longer working is expressed by about one·fourth of OP themselves, but by 40 per cent of the responsible individuals to whom the OP would turn for help in a health crisis. See Exhibit 23' 13. ( Shanas , 1962, pp. 132- 134; 1,700

noninstitutionalized OP 65 + and 1,400 responsible individuals, United States, 1957)

o

Moreover, children's reported behavior in offering financial aid or helping in case of illness exceeds the expectations of parents. See Exhibit 23' 8 .

(Streib , 1958, p. 55; 750 retired males aged 69 living with spouse who have children, 1957) B ·3

SOLIDARITY AND STRAIN

Affectional bonds also hold the OP to his family network. At the same time, strains (though not extensively studied) undoubtedly arise from such sources as the proliferation of in-laws and descendent kin, the norms requiring intergenerational independence, or the arrangements for joint living under certain conditions.

554

Norms versus behavior

B ·3 ·a

Ties to children

While close parent·ch ild ties seem important to both OP and their offspring, the latter feel closer to their new family of procreation than to their family of orientation.

o

Both aged parents and their adult children say, for example. that they form a close family grou p, that they would like to be in still closer touch, and that ties of affection are no less important than financial help as the major filial responsibility.

o

However, parents are more likely than adult children to stress each of these points .

o

Moreover, in contrast with the proportion of adult offspring (six out of ten) who describe their rela· tions to parents as very close, a larger proportion (nine out of ten) describe their relations to their own children as very close. (Streib , 1965- b, pp.

471-472; subsample of 291 retired males aged 69 and an adult child of each ) B ·3 · b Parental dependence The emotional dependence of OP on their adult children appears to vary only slightly according to the OP's sex, age beyond 65, health status, or whether or not he is widowed; but it appears to be somewhat less pronounced among OP who are separated from their children (who live alone or in a different locality) than among those with children close by. ( Rosow, 1967, pp. 204- 213; based on

1,200 OP 62 +, Cleveland; scale of emotional dependence based on answers to questions about parent-child devotion, contact, enjoyment, and so on)

EXHIBIT 23 · 13 Preferred sources ( percentage distribution)

Who should take care of older people?Total Should provide for themselves Children or relatives Employer pension plan Government through social security and other methods Other; no answer

N=

of financial

B . 3 •C

support for older people

Satis fa ction with the parental Tole

See Chapter 15. 5' c and 5' d. f or parenthood a nd life satisfaction.

OP with

Public OP with All no living responsible cross children individuals b section

OP

living children

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

23 .7 26.2 3.9 41.3

22.9 25.9 3.9 42.4

26.6 27.1 4.2 37.5

17.9 40.1 5.6 34.3

16.6 33.2 5.5 42.7

4 .8

4 .9

4.7

2.1

2.0

Total

(1 ,734)

( 1,350 )

(384 )

( 1,405)

( 2,567)

In assessing their roles as parents, OP 55 + apparently feel at least as satisfied and adequate as younger parents do. There are differences between old and young in the reported sources of parental difficulties (unlike reported marital difficulties, point A 2 a) with OP less often stressing difficulties with the interpersonal aspects of the role.

o

OP 55 +, when compared with youn ger people tend to be somewhat more likely (as are those aged 45 to 54) to express a positive attitude toward parenthood and the changes involved . See Exhibit

23·14.

' Based on answers to the question : " Wh o do you think should take care of older people when they are no longer working? Wh ich of those do you think should take the most responsibility?" b Ind ividuals to whom OP say they would turn for help in a health crisis. Source : Shanas. 1962. p. 133 (adapted) ; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+ . 1,400 respons ible i ndividuals . and a cross ·section of adults 21 +. U.S.. 1957. Reprinted by permission of Harvard University Press . Copyright . 1962 . by the President and Fellows of Harvard College .

EXHIBIT 23 · 14

Reaction toward parenthoodPositive Neutral Negative Not ascertained Total Number of people

Satisfaction as a parent ( percentage distribution) Age of respondent 55+

21-34

35-44

45-54

40 38 21 1

42 39 17 2

54 30 14 2

51 30 14 5

100

100

100

100

(579)

(466)

( 361 )

( 533)

'Coded from manifest con tent of the change first mentioned in answer to the question : Think ing about a man ' s ( woman 's) life. how is a man's (woman ' s) life changed by having children? Source : Gurin et al .• 1960 . pp . 118 . 137 ( adapted ); parents in U.S. sample of 2 .500 adults 21 +.1957 .

FAMILY: SOLIDARITY AND STRAIN

555

OP 55+ tend to be less likely to report problems experienced in raising their children. See Exhibit 23·15. They are also less likely to have felt inadequate as parents, though here the difference seems to be more closely related to education and sex than to age per se (compare Exhibit 13 . 11 and Chap· ter 13, 7 . b).

o

The hinds of problems and inadequacies reported by OP 55 + differ from those of younger parents. See Exhibit 23 . 16. have been comparatively mOTe concerned than younger parents with physical care and material provision for their children, but less concerned with interpersonal matters (such as discipline, obedience, and tolerance).

Reported problems in raising children (percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 23 · 15

Age of respondent 45-54

Reported problems'

21-34

Mention problems No problems Not ascertained

78

76

78

67

21 1

23 1

21 1

32 1

100

100

100

100

(579 )

(466)

(361)

(533 )

Total Number of people

35-44

55 +

OP 55+

• Based on answers to the question : Most parents have had some problems in rais ing their children . What are the ma in problems you ·ve had in ra ising your children?

Such age differences tend to persist regardless of the parent's sex or educational level. (CuTin

et al., 1960, pp . 136- 141 ; United States sample

of 2,500 adults 21+, 1957) The salience of interpersonal problems and introspection about parenthood may either shift over the life cycle or differ by cohorts (generations) as cultural values change.

INTERPRETATION :

Source : Gurin e/ al .. 1960 . pp . 118 . 137 : parents 1957.

556

Satisfaction with the parental Tole

In

U.S. sample of 2.500 adults 21

+.

EXHIBIT 23· 16 Kinds of problems encountered in the parental role (percentage distribution) Problems

Inadequacies Content of problems or sources of feelings of inadequacy

Physical care; material provisions Child's nonfamily adjustment Obedience; discipline Parent-child affiliative relationship Lack of tolerance for child's behavior Other Not ascertained Total Number of people

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

Age

21-34

35-44

45-54

55+

21-34

35-44

45-54

55+

17

18

25

29

12 20 37

11

28 14 17 5

9 25 9 20 8

31 18 25 10

32 28 25 6

45 18 13 5

3

10 30 18 19 5

30 10 33 9 16 2

14 2

7 2

14 5

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

(198)

(175)

(123)

(150)

(457)

(360)

(284)

(363)

11

Source: Gurin e/ al .. 1960. p . 139.

FAMilY: SOLIDARITY AND STRAIN

557

B• 3' d

Ties to other relatives

Scattered studies suggest a special relationship of OP to their grandchildren, while sibling linkages are generally less close than those to descendant (or possibly to ascendant) kin.

o

The quality of relationships to grandchildren seems to depend on such factors as the OP's age (and that of his grandchild) or his authority in the family structure. Relations of older grandparents (65 + ) as compared with younger grandparents (under 65) are more likely to be formal and frequent, and less likely to be fun-seeking. ( Neugarten and Wein-

B' 3' e

Upward occupational mobility of the offspring, generally consistent with family norms, appears not to interfere with intergenerational solidarity, while the downward mobility or retirement of the OP himself may sometimes intensify kinship ties.

o

OP generally accept the achiev ement norm for their children while recognizing its implications for geographical mobility and its possible adverse effects. They tend to agree on such views as the following: That it is most important that children consider getting ahead in life no matter where it takes them

stein, 1964, p. 203; 70 pairs of grandparents , Chicago ) Closeness and indulgence between grandparent and grandchildren occur in those societies where the grandparent dissociates himself from authority in the family; but when he does exercise authority over parents, relations with grandchildren tend to be formal. ( Apple, 1956, pp.

656- 663 ; ethnographical reports on 75 societies)

o

Sibling ties appear less strong than conjugal

ties. For example, relations with brothers and sisters were described as close less often than parentchild relations by OP (and also by their children).

( Streib, 1965- b, p . 471 ; subsample of 291 retired males aged 69 and an adult child of each)

o Case studies of OP's relationships to their aged parents suggest that frictions may tend to decrease rather than increase as the offspring reaches later maturity. ( Fried and Stern, 1948, pp. 46-47; 9 OP with living parents from case studies of

75 subjects aged 50 +)

558

Ties to other relatives

Social mobility and retirement

That children should not be expected to live close by (Exhibit 23 . 8) But that getting ahead can be a bad thing if it keeps the family from being close

o

The child's upward mobility does not necessarily disturb intergenerational cohesion as suggested by scattered findings. Aged parents of successful rather than unsuccessful children more often report that children keep in close contact, offer fi nancial help, and are willing to make sacrifices for their parents.

( Streib, 1958, pp. 49, 51 , 55; 750 retired males aged 69 living with spouse who have children, 1957 ) In the London working class, sons (but not daughters) achieving an occupational level higher than their parents' were at least as likely as those remaining in the working class to see their parents daily. (Townsend , 1957, pp. 92- 93; 200 OP 65+, 1954- 1955)

o

The retirement of the OP operates in some families to strengthen solidarity. For example, as reported by the adult child, the father's retirement, though causing little change in family relations, has produced some tendency toward bringing the father closer to his imme· diate family, and improving the way members of the family get along together. ( Streib, 1965-b, p . 475; adult children of 291 retired males, 1957)

o

In Philadelphia, working·class members with a history of declining earn ings show greater solidarity with kin than those with stable or increasing incomes (kinship solidarity defined as sociabil ity preference for kin over friends, having moved to live near relatives, and having a charismatic relative) . ( Rosenberg, 1967, pp. 122- 123; breadwinners with living kin from 1 ,600 white working-class men and women aged 45- 79, 1965 ) RESEARCH NEEDS

1 How do family roles differ with advancing age from the 60's into the 80's?

2 What strains and stresses develop between older people and their children and childrenin-law? Does the older person's disability exacerbate strains in his relationship with his children Or with his spouse? How are such strains handled?

3 Does widowhood affect the older person's physical condition and the care accorded to him? 4 Will increasing economic security and educational attainment afford mOre adequate prep-

aration in the future for the family roles old age?

of

5 Do younger cohorts today have greater personal involvement in their marital and parental roles than the cohorts now grown old?

Works cited in Chapter 23 Apple, Dorrian, 1956. "The Social Structure of Grandparenthood," American Anthropologist, 58, pp. 656-663. Beyer, Glenn H., and Margaret E. Woods, 1963. "Living and Activity Patterns of the Aged," Research Report No. 6, Ithaca, N.Y.: Center for Housing and Environmental Studies, Cornell University. Blood, Robert 0 ., Jr. , and Donald M. Wolfe, 1960.

Husbands and Wives: The Dynamics of Married Living , New York: The Free Press. Dublin, Louis I., 1963. Suicide: A Sociological and Statistical Study, New York: Ronald Press Co. Epstein, Lenore A., 3 / 1964. " Income of the Aged in 1962: First Findings of the 1963 Survey of the Aged," Social Security Bulletin, 27, pp. 3-24. Erskine, Hazel Gaudet. Public Opinion Quarterly collection of national poll items (unpubl ished) . Fried, Edrita G. , and Karl Stern, 1948. " The Situation of the Aged Within the Family," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 18, pp. 3154.

* Gurin,

Gerald , Joseph Veroff, and Sheila Feld, 1960. Americans View Their Mental Health: A Nationwide Interview Study, New York; Basic Books, Inc. Publishers.

Harris, Louis, 1965-b. "Thoughts of Loneliness Haunt Elderly Americans," The Washington Post, November 29, 1965. • Suggested addit ional reading.

Hunter, Woodrow W., and Helen Maurice, 1953. Older People T ell Their Story, Ann Arbor, Mich .: Institute for Human Adjustment Division of Gerontology. ' Kelly, E. Lowell , 1955. "Consistency of the Adult Personality, " American Psychologist, 10, pp_ 659-68l. Kerckhoff, Alan C., 1965. "Nuclear and Extended Family Relationships: A Normative and Behavioral Analysis," in Shanas, Ethel, and Gordon Streib, editors, Social Structure and the Family: Generational Relations, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., pp. 93-112. Kutner, Bernard, et aI., 1956. Five Hundred Over Sixty: A Community Survey on Aging, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

* Langford,

Marilyn, 1962. "Community Aspects of Housing for the Aged ," Research Report No. 5, Ithaca, New York: Center for Housing and Environmental Studies, Cornell Univers ity.

Lipman, Aaron , 1962. " Role Conceptions of Couples in Retirement, " in Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, editors, Social and Psychological A spects of Aging , New York: Columbia University Press, pp . 475-485. Neugarten, Bernice L. , and Karol K. Weinstein 1964. "The Changing American Grandparent: : Journal of Marriage and the Family, 26, pp. 199-204. Rosenberg, George S., 1967. Poverty, Aging and Social Isolation, Washington : Bureau of Social Science Research , Inc.

of the Aged, New York: The Free Press . * Shanas, Ethel , 1962. The Health of Older People: A Social Survey, Cambridge: Harvard UniverRosow, Irving, 1967. Social Integration

slty Press. - - - , 1966. "Family Help Patterns and Social Class in Three Countries." Presented at the Meetings of the American Sociological Associa tion , Miami.

FAMilY: SOLIDARITY AND STRAIN

559

Shanas, Ethel, and Gordon Streib, editors, 1965.

Youmans, E. Grant, 1962. Leisure-Time Activities

Social Structure and the Family : Generational Relations, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren·

of Older Persons in Selected Rural and Urban Areas of Kentucky, Progress Report

tice·Hall, Inc.

115, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Kentucky.

" Shanas, Ethel, et aI., 1968. Old People in Three Industrial Societies, New York: Atherton Press (in press) . Shurtleff, D., 3 / 1955. "Mortality and Marital Sta· tus," Public Health Reports, 70.

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

Spiegelman, Mortimer, 1966. "Significant Mortality and Morbidity Trends rn the Un ited States Since 1900," Bryn Mawr, Pa .: The American College of Life Underwriters.

Mervyn W . Susser CLark Tibbitts

" Stehouwer, Jan, 1965. "Relations between Gen· erations and the Three·Generation Household in Denmark," in Shanas, Ethel, and Gordon Streib, editors, Social Structure and the Family: Generational Relations, Englewood Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice·Hall, Inc., pp. 142-162. Streib, Gordon, 1958. "Family Patterns in Retire· ment, " Journal of Social Issues , 24, pp. 46-60. " - - - , 1965-b. "Intergenerational Relations: Per· spectives of the Two Generations on the Older Parent," Journal of Marriage and the FamilY, 27, pp. 469-476. Sussman, Marvin B., 1955. " Activity Patterns of Post·Parental Couples and Their Relationship to Family Continuity," Marriage and Family Living, 17, pp. 338-341. Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, editors, 1962.

Social and Psychological Aspects of Aging, New York: Columbia University Press. " Townsend, Peter, 1957. The Family Life of Old People , London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Tuckman, Jacob, and Irving Lorge, 1953. Retire-

ment and the Industrial Worker: Prospect and Reality, New York: Columbia University, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College.

560

Worhs cited

Friends and neighbors play an important part in the lives of many older people, often providing help and services as well as informal contact with the world outside the home. They are, however, generally less important to older people than children and other relatives , serving more as a complement than as a substitute for kinship association.

24 FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS

Several tendencies are suggested by the scattered findings . (1) Friendships and neighborly relations tend to be maintained well into later life. (2) The higher the socioeconomic status of older people , the more likely they are to have friends. (3) The longer the older person has lived in the same neighborhood, the more extensive his ties to neighborhood friends become. (4) Older people tend , though by no means exclusively, to have friends who are simi lar to themselves in status characteristics (notably age) that reflect common experiences or values. Beyond this, however, many important questions remain. To what extent do new relationships with friends and neighbors develop as the older person retires, as his spouse dies, or as his children and old friends (or he himself) move away? To what extent is continuing friendship dependent upon joint participation in common activities (for example , at work or in voluntary associations)? How significant to the older person is the network of distant friends who no longer live within the boundaries of his im mediate neighborhood? Will this distant network become larger as today's cohorts of geographically mobile young people grow old? And if so , how will connections with distant friends be maintained?

THE DATA The comparatively few studies of older people's friendships have met with the inherent difficulties of distinguish ing between friends and neighbors and of encompassing the wide array of friendships many aged individuals have accumulated over their lifetime. Suggestive insights are afforded by some data of national scope, on the one hand, and by controlled analyses of highly selected samples, on the other. However, there is little information either on life-cycle changes or on differences between older and younger people in the society today.

5 61

1 FRIENDSHIP PARTICIPATION 2 THE NEIGHBORHOOD CONTEXT 3 RELATION TO OTHER ROLES 4 HOMOPHILY 5 HELP AND SERVICES 6

OLDER PEOPLE'S ATTITUDES

1

the roles of friend or neighbor (Kansas City).

FRIENDSHIP PARTICIPATION

The reported extent of older people's associations with friends and neighbors varies from study to study, depend ing on local conditions and the measures used . Amon g the factors apparently related to the nature and frequency of an older person ' s friendsh ip participation are his socioeconomic level and his health , but not his sex or his age (at least up to 70 or 75).

(Cumming and Henry, 1961 , p. 41 ; 200 subjects aged 50 to 90 ) Proportions of working-class respondents who are isolated from friends. See Exhibit 24' 1.

( Rosenberg , 1967, p. 20; 1,600 w hite w orkingclass men and w omen aged 45 to 79, Philadelphia, 1965 )

o

However, OP in advanced old age (beyond 70 or 75) seem less likely than other OP to: Visit often with friends (Grand Rapids) . ( Hunter

1

Extent

and Maurice, 1953, p. 43; 150 OP 65+, 1953)

OP's interaction with non relatives is substantial, though typically less than interaction with relatives. For example, studies show the following:

Have extensive association with close friends (New York City and Elmira, New York) ( Blau,

1961 , pp. 429-430; 500 OP 60+ in each city, 1951 - 1953; Guttman scale of friendship participation )

o

In the United States, about 40 per cent of OP visit neighbors as often as once a week (whereas over 80 per cent had seen at least one of 1 Over the life cycle their children within the week) . ( Shanas, 1962, p . The majority of OP report decreased friendship par99; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+, United ticipation with aging, although a minority may have States, 1957 ) more friends now than ever before. In a London working-class district, 66 per cent of About two-thirds of OP 65 + (United States) say OP 65 + see a friend or neighbor as often as once they have fewer friends now than they had at age a month (but 97 per cent see a relative as often as once a month). (Townsend, 1957, p. 12 1; 200 40. ( Shanas, 1962, p. 100; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+, 1957. Similar finding in Smith, OP 65+, 1954- 1955)

65 +

o

o

1966, p. 232; 14 0 OP 65+, Southern city)

1

The age pattern

Association with friends and neighbors tends to be maintai ned into advanced old age, with losses of old friendships partially replaced by formation of new ones. Various studies indicate the followin g:

o

Sma" and inconsistent differences appear between m iddle-aged people and OP in : Proportions of men and women who are active in

562

Extent

o

Many expla in that friends have died or moved away, that they have less opportunity to make friends now, or that it is more difficult to get about.

( Shanas, 1962, p. 100 . A lso T ownsend, 1957, p. 133; 200 OP 65+, London w orking-class district, 1954-1955)

o

Yet loss of old friends is offset by the acqu isition of new ones. ( Z borowski and Eyde, 1962, pp.

426, 428; 200 v olunteer subjects 50+ )

Isolation from friends , Philadelphia working class

EXHIBIT 24 · 1

And more than 40 per cent of OP in one sample (Iowa) say they now have more friends than they ever had. (Martel and Morris , p . 53; 1,350 OP

Per cent isolated from friends b

Age and poverty level'

65+ 34.4 39.8

Poor (369) Solvent (299)

55-64

60+ in 13 counties, 1960 ) 1 •d

Friendship appears to be more widespread in the middle class than in the lower class.

o

Various findings point to a class difference. OP are more likely to have good friends now if they belong to the middle class rather than to the working class (Cleveland). See Exhibit 24' 2. ( Rosow, 1967, p. 59; 1,200 OP 62+, selected

39.2 34.2

Poor (125) Solvent (345) 54 or less Poor (71) Solvent ( 387)

Socioeconomic status

32.4 28.2

apartment buildings) OP are more likely to have friends and to visit them often if they are in upper rather than lower socioeconomic strata (New York City). ( Kutner et al., 1956, p. 117; 500 OP 60+ , 1952)

'The "poor" are from families with income less than $3 .000 . bDid not visit with or speak to a friend or neighbor during the preceding week (visits during work hours excluded). Note : Numbers in parentheses are bases for the percentages .

OP are more likely to visit friends often if their income is more than needed rather than if it is barely enough to get along on (Grand Rapids). ( Hunter and Maurice , 1953, p. 44; 150 OP

Source : Rosenberg , 1967 . pp . 13 - 20 (adapted); 1,600 white working class men and women , aged 45 to 79. 1965 .

65+, 1953)

EXHIBIT 24 · 2

Friendship, by social class,

Cleveland Per cent reporting fewer than four good friends

Social class Working class Middle class

Age under 75

Age 75 +

39 (164) 16 (620)

41 ( 152 ) 24 (233)

o

Within the working class, however, poverty (versus solvency) makes no appreciable difference in isolation from friends or neigh bors during the week preceding the study (Philadelphia). See Exhibit 24' l. ( Rosenberg, 1967, p . 20; 1,600 white working-class men and women aged 45 to 79, 1965 )

Note : Numbers in parentheses are bases for the percentages.

Source : Rosow, 1967, p. 59 ( adapted) ; 1.200 OP 62+ , selected apartment buildings . Copyright 1967 by THE FREE PRESS . A Division of the Mac millan Company .

CD

FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS: FRIENDSHIP PARTICIPATfON

563

Having most friends in the neighborhood, by occupation and income

EXHIBIT 24 ·3

Per cent of older people 65 and over who have most of their friends in the neighborhood Per cent with most of friends near

Number reporting Occupation Farmers and farm managers Laborers Operatives and service workers Clerical and sales workers and craftsmen Professional, proprietors, and managers Income (living in own household) Under $1,000 $1,000-$1,999 $2,000-$2,999 $3,000-$4,999 $5,000 and over

242 246 1,286 1,437

67 55 48 39

741

39

548 1,539 981 536 297

57 48 48 41 38

Source : Lang ford , 1962, p. 1 1 (adapted); over 5,000 OASDI benefic iar ies in 4 selec ted primarily ur ban - area s of the U.S" 1958 .

EXHIBIT 24 ·4 Knowing families in the neighborhood, by length of residence and marital status Per cent of older people 65 and over who know nine or more families in the neighborhood well enough to call on

Marital status Couples Widowed, single women Widowed, single men

Total Per cent Number who knew report9 or more ing families 2,309 1,942 717

36 25 29

Less than 5 Per cent Number who knew report9 or more ing families 258 333 118

13 8 4

No . of years in neighborhood 5- 19 20 or more Per cent Per cent Number who knew Number who knew report9 or more report9 or more ing families ing families 661 589 201

25 18 21

1,390 1,020 398

Source : Langford , 1962 , p. 6 ( adapted) ; over 5 ,000 OASD I beneficiaries in 4 selected - primarily urban - areas of the U.S., 1958 .

564

Socioeconomic status

45 35 41

1· e

Sex

There is little difference among older men and women in the proportions: Who visit neighbors (United States) ( Shanas ,

Friends as neighbors

OP's friends often live nearby as neighbors, a tendency that is especially marked at the lower socioeconomic levels .

1962, p . 100; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65 + , 1957 )

D Nearly half of OP 65 + say that most of their friends live in the neighborhood.

Who possess close friends , have friends in the vicinity, or see their friends often (Grand Rapids)

come. See Exhibit 24 . 3.

( Hlmter and Maurice, 1953, pp . 41-42; 150 OP 65 + , 1953) 1•f

Health

Visiting with friends is more frequent (Grand Rapids) among OP: Who are in good rather than poor health Who are mobile rather than confined to their homes ( Hunter and Maurice, 1953, p . 43; 150

OP 65+ , 1953 ) 2

2 •a

D This proportion declines steadily with rising inD The proportion varies also with the OP's former occupation, being highest for farmers and lowest for white-collar workers. See Exh ibit 24' 3. ( Langford , 1962, pp . 10- 11 ; ove1' 5,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily tn'ban, aTeas of the United States, 1958 )

D In a working-class sample (Philadelphia), nearly three-fourths of the persons who saw any friends in the previous week reported that all their friends lived on their own block. ( RosenbeTg , 1967, pp. 1819; 1,600 w hite wOTking-class m en and women aged 45 to 79, 1965 )

THE NEIGHBORHOOD CONTEXT

Association with friends is powerfully affected not only by the aged individual's own socioeconomic status or health but also by the character of the neighborhood in which he lives, the kinds of neighbors it affords, and in particular, the duration of his neighborhood ties. To be sure, not all an older person's friends live in the immediate vicinity. Yet proximity, which tends in general to foster i nteraction, may be especially important for those older people who have difficu lty getting around or who are unaccustomed (as many low-status older people are) to maintaining friendships across geographical distance. See Chapter 6, especially A ' 3' a, B ' 6 • a, C' 3 • e, and C' 4 . c, for the older person 's residential context.

2 •b

Length of Tesidence

Having neighborhood friends is notably affected by the length of time the OP has lived in the neighborhood.

D Proportions having most of their friends in the neighborhood rise from 15 per cent among OP who have lived in the neighborhood for less than five years to 58 per cent among residents of twenty years or more.

D Similarly, proportions knowing nine or more families well enough to call on rise sharply by length of residence. See Exhibit 24 . 4; compare percentages across. ( Langf01·d, 1962, pp . 6, 10; oveT 5,000

OASDI beneficiaTies in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958 )

FRIENDS AN D NEIGHBORS: FRIENDSHIP PARTICIPATION

565

o

Conversely, OP with neighborhood friends are

less willing to move than other OP. See Exhibit 6' 27. (Langford, 1962, p . 37)

Average number of friendly neighbors, by concentration of older people in same apartment building, Cleveland

EXHIBIT 24 · 5

And among OP forced to relocate, those preferring their former neighborhood say friends are what they miss most. (Niebanck and Pope,

1965, p. 138; 50 elderly households relocated through urban renewal, Philadelphia, 1963) See

Chapter 6, C, for patterns of mobility among OP.

o

However, those OP who do move (most have lived in the same neighborhood at least twenty years; see Langford, 1962, p. 4) are not ordinarily bereft of friendships.

Proportion of older people 62 and over in building Normal (1-15

Social class Working class Middle class

per cent) 1.48 1.33

Concentrated (33-49 per cent)

Dense (50 per cent and over)

1.46

2.12 1.64

For example, about four·fifths of OP living in a neighborhood less than five years knew at least one nearby family well enough to call on. ( Lang-

ford, 1962, p. 6 ) Over one·half the recent movers into one public retirement housing project had made at least four new friends during the previous year. ( Rosow, 1967, pp. 63- 64; 1,200 OP 62+ , se-

lected apartment buildings, Cleveland ) 2 •c

Size of community

Neighborhood ties are also related to the size of the community in which the OP lives, tend ing to be somewhat fewer in the larger places (Chapter 6, A' 3' a).

o

OP 65 + living i n large cities are less likely than those i n smaller communities to: Know nine or more families in the neighborhood well enough to call on (Exhibit 6 . 4) Have most of their friends in the neighborhood (Exhibit 6 . 5) ( Langford, 1962, p. 7; over 5,000

OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States , 1958)

566

Length of residence

Source : Rosow. 1967 . p . 71 (adapted) ; 1.200 OP 62+, selected apartment buildings . Copyright 1967 by THE FREE PRESS . A Division of the Macm illan Company.

CD

EXHIBIT 24 ' 6 Friendship patterns, by mean age in neighborhood, Philadelphia working class Percentage distribution of poor versus solvent working-class males 65 and over

Friendship patterns Mean age in n eighborhood Poor OP" 0-34 years ( 61 ) 35-44 years ( 58 ) 45 + years ( 33 )

Isolates·

Friends beyond n eig hborhood b

Friends within neighborhoodc

Total

41.0 31.0 27.3

24.6 15.5 6.1

34.4 53.4 66.7

100.0 100.0 100.0

31.5 49.3 38.7

19.2 20.3 29.0

49.3 30.4 32.3

100.0 100.0 100.0

Solvent OP

0-34 years ( 73 ) 35-44 years ( 69 ) 45+ years (31 )

• Did not visit or speak to a fr iend or neighbor during the preceding week (visits during work hours excluded) . bAi l fr iends live more than a block away . ' At least one friend lives on OP's own block . d " Poor " older persons are from families with income less than $3 ,000 . Note : Numbers in parentheses are bases for the percentages .

o

OP 60 + living in a rural as compared with those living in an urban area (Kentucky) are more likely to say they know people in the community well (92 per cent versus 65 per cent) , but they are no more likely to visit often with friends and neighbors. ( Y oumans, 1962, p. 23; 1,250 OP 60+, 1959)

2· d

So cial composition

Also consequential for the friendship relations of OP is the availability in the vicinity of others who are similar to themselves in respect to such background characteristics as age, socioeconomic status, widowhood, or retirement (section 4).

o

Having other OP nearby appears to foster local friendships , at least among certain OP. For example, in Cleveland , OP living in the same apartment building with more rather than fewer elderly neighbors are more likely to visit or associate with neighbors often and to have large numbers of local friends . See Exhibit 24' 5. ( Rosow, 1967, pp. 70-71 , 79-81 ; 1,200 OP 62+, se-

lected apartment buildings) In Chicago, OP in age- homogeneous housing are more closely associated with friends and neighbors than are those in age-heterogeneous housing. (Messer, 1966, p. 6; 250 OP 62+; associa-

tion scores on 4 items) The effect of age concentration is difficult to separate in these analyses from t he effects of other related variables (for example, all moving at the same time or sharing a common experience in special housing projects).

CAUTION:

Source : Rosenberg , 1967 , p. 54 (ada pted ); from sample of 1.600 white work ing class men and women , aged 45 to 79 , 1965 .

However, among working-class ma les in Phila· delph ia, local friendsh ips tend to increase with the mean age of neighborhood residents among the poor, but to decrease among the solvent. See Exhibit 24' 6.

FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS: THE NEIGHBORHOOD CONTEXT

567

Thus, the economically advantaged OP in the working class appear to have more friends within the neighborhood if they are surrounded by the young. ( Rosenberg , 1967, p . 54; males

65+ from sample of 1,600 white worhingclass men and women aged 45 to 79, 1965)

o

For certain OP, the socioeconomic character of the neighborhood is related to association with friends . In the Philadelphia working class, the solvent (but not the poor) older men are increasingly likely to have neighborhood friends as the income level of the neighborhood rises. See Exhibit 24 . 7. ( Rosenberg, 1967, pp. 30-35)

EXHIBIT 24 ' 7

Friendship patterns, by neighborhood income level, Philadelphia

w orking class Percentage distribution of poor versus solvent working-class males 65 and over

Mean yearly family income of neighborhood

Isolates'

Friendship patterns Friends Friends beyond within b neighborhood neighborhood'

Total

Poor Op d $4,000 or less (41) $4,001-$5,000 ( 54 ) $5,001 or more (57)

26.8 33 .3 40.4

9 .8 18.5 21.1

63.4 48.1 38.6

100.0 100.0 100.0

Solvent OP $4,000 or less (22 ) $4,001-$5,000 (77) $5,001 or more ( 74)

54.5 45.5 29.7

18.2 26.0 17.6

27.3 28.6 52.7

100.0 100.0 100.0

• Did not vis;"t or speak to a friend or neighbor during the preceding week (visits dUring work hours excluded) . bAli friends live more than a block away . C At least one friend lives on OP ' s own block . d .. poor " older persons are from families with income less than $3.000 . Note : Numbers in parentheses are bases for the percentages .

Source : Rosenberg . 1967 . p. 34 (adapted) ; from sample of 1.600 white working class men and women aged 45 to 79 . 1965 .

568

Social composition

o

EXHIBIT 24 • 8 Friendship patterns , by income level and mean age in the neighborhood, Philadelphia w orking class Percentage distribution of poor versus solvent working·class men and women 65 and over

Both the age and the income of the surrounding residents appear to be independently related to the friendship patterns of OP (when the two are examined jointly) . See Exhibit 24 . 8.

Age·income composition" of the neighborhood Young-Wealthy Old-Wealthy Old-Poor Young-Poor Friendship pattern s Isolates' Friends beyond the neighborhood" Friends within the neighborhood ' Total

Poor" Solvent OP OP ( 181 ) (141 )

Poor OP (43)

Solvent OP (36)

Poor OP

Poor OP ( 86 )

Solvent OP

(59)

Solvent OP (30 )

However, the relationship to age is clearly more pronounced than the relationship to income, suggesting that the age structure of the neighborhood may be a key factor affecting OP's friendships . ( Rosenberg , 1967, p . 61)

(92)

30.4 9.4

44.7 21.3

30.2 18.6

38.9 22 .2

39.0 18.6

36.7 13.3

41.9 18.6

33.7 18.5

60 .2

34.0

51.2

38.9

42.4

50.0

39.5

47.8

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

' A " poor" neighborhood has a mean family income of $5,000 or less ; and an " old" neighborhood has a mean neighborhood age of 35 years or more. bA "poo r " older person is one from a fam ily with i ncome less than $3 ,000 . ' Did not visi t or speak to a fr iend or neighbor during the preceding week (visits during work hours excluded) . d All fr iends live more than a block away . • At least one friend lives on OP's own block . Note: Numbers in parentheses are base s for th e percentages.

o

OP suffering critical role losses are most likely to have friends if situated near others who have encountered similar losses . In New York City and in Elmira , New York, associations with close friends are more extensive among widowed OP in contexts where widowhood is more rather than less prevalent (in upper SES); and among retired OP in contexts where retirement is more rather than less prevalent (amon g men). ( Blau, 1961 , pp . 434, 436-437; 500 OP 60+, Elmira, New York, 1951 - 1952, and 500 OP 60+, N ew York City, 1952- 1953;

sex, age, SES h eld constant in the analysis )

Source : Ro sen berg, 1967 , p. 61 (adapted ); from sample of 1.600 white working class men and women aged 45 to 79 , 1965 .

FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS: THE NEIGHBORHOOD CONTEXT

569

3

RELATION TO OTHER ROLES

Is the older person's friendship participation either facilitated or hindered by his continuing participation in other major life roles? Here the evidence is tenuous and somewhat contradictory. Thus it is not clear, as is sometimes supposed, that widowhood or retirement serve to intensify the older person's association with nonkin. CAUTION:

In the absence of longitudinal studies, there

is little indication whether or not changes in friend-

ship follow as the consequence of changes in other roles .

3•a

Marital status

Married OP seem to associate with friends as much as or more than widowed or single OP.

While being married may directly facilitate friendship relations, married OP are also more likely than the widowed to be younger and to live in their own homes.

INTERPRETATION:

D Couples are somewhat more likely than widowed or single OP to know nine or more families well enough to calion (particularly if they are new arrivals in the vicinity) . See Exhibit 24, 4; read percentages down. ( Langford, 1962, pp. 6-7; over

5 ,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States, 1958)

D Widowed OP see friends less frequently than married OP (Grand Rapids). ( Hunter and Maurice , 1953, p . 47; 150 OP 65+, 1953)

D More than half of a sample of younger widows say they see friends less now than when their husbands were alive (just as they engage less in most other activities). (Evans , 1966, pp. 147- 148; 400

570

Marital status

widows, average age 45, selected United States cities , 1965 )

D However, in a london working-class district, more widowed and single OP than married OP report contact with friends. ( Townsend, 1957, p . 124; 200 OP 65+, 1954- 1955 ) 3' b

Parental status

Whether or not OP have close ties to their adult children may have little to do with their friendship patterns. Yet, when parental bonds are weak or missing, friends and neighbors may become relatively more im portant.

D For example, frequency of contact with neighbors (Cleveland) is unrelated to whether or not children are seen often. However, among the more disadvantaged OP (those with decrements in marital status, employment, income, or health), frequency of contact with neighbors is inversely related to contact with children who live nearby. ( Rosow, 1967, pp.

218, 227; OP with children from sample of 1,200 OP 62+, selected apartment buildings) D An inverse relationship appears also in the london workin g class, where OP without daughters nearby are more likely than other OP to exchange visits with neighbors a nd friends . ( Townsend,

1957, p . 150; 200 OP 65+ , 1954- 1955 )

D In another study (of male retirees , United States), affective ties of OP to their children tend to be positively related to having personal friends or going around with a cl ique. ( Knox, 1965, pp. 228- 229; mail questionnaires returned by 1,000 retirees from 1 company)

D OP's most frequent visitors are their children or, if childless, their neighbors. ( Shanas, 1962, p. 100; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+ , 1957 )

EXHIBIT 24 • 9

Age homophily

3 •c

Per cent of men' who say most of their friends are the same age (or younger or older) than themselves

Older Younger Same Older and younger No answer Total

=

100%

Retirement status

Accordin g to one small study, retired men had made fewer new friends during the previous ten years than me n who were still working. ( Zborowski and

Age

Age

Age

Total

18-24

25-34

35-49

Age 50-64

65+

Eyde , 1962, p . 426; 200 volunteer subjects 50+)

13.7 17.9 45.5 22.7 .2

35.8 8.8 44.5 10.9 .0

25.1 10.8 45.9 17.9 .3

12.3 14.4 48.8 24.4 .1

6.5 23.3 44.7 25.5 .0

3.0 32.3 37.9 26.0 .7

INTERPRETATION:

(137)

(390)

(724)

(494)

(269)

(2,014)

Age

While retirem ent may separate a man from his occupational associates, retired OP also tend to be in poorer health and have less educ ation than those w ho are still working.

4

" The age pattern for women is roughly similar .

HOMOPHILY

Whatever may affect the extent of older people's friendships, one factor, homophily, clearly influ ences who their friends are. Thus, among older peo· pie (as among people of all ages) friendships tend to form and endure among similar persons, those alike in age or other characteristics that signal mutuality of experience, tastes, or activities. Compare Chapter 25, 4' d , for the relation between friendshi p and participation in common activities among older people in inst itutions.

4 •a

Age similarity

Friendships occur often , though by no means ex· clusively, among age peers.

o

Various studies of OP show age homoph ily. Nearly 40 per cent of OP 65 + report that most of their friends are the same age as themselves (United States). See Exhibit 24' 9 , ( Batten,

Barton , Durstine, and Osborn , Inc. , unpub. lished, Table IXA ; telephone interviews with 4 ,000 urban men and women aged 18+, 1966) The majority of OP's neighborhood friendships are with other OP (Cleveland). ( Rosow, 1967, Source : Batten . Barton . Durstine, and Osborn , Inc . (unpublished) . Table IXA (adapted) ; telephone interviews with 4,000 urban men and women 18+ ,1966 .

pp. 71 - 72; 1,200 OP 62+ , selected apartment buildings)

FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS: RELATION TO OTHER ROLES

571

Most working-class OP 65 to 74 have at least one f riend in the sa m e age category (Ph iladel ph ia). ( Rosenberg, 1967, p. 94; from sample of

1,600 white working-class men and women aged 45 to 79, 1965)

o

However, having age peers as friends declines so mewhat at the oldest ages (no doubt because friend s die or move away). Th is has been observed in the United States. See Exhibit 24, 9. ( Batten, Barton, Durstine, and

Osborn, Inc. , unpublished, T able IXA) Th is has also been observed in Ph iladelphia . ( Rosenberg, 1967, p. 94 )

o

And OP are by no means bereft of younger friends . For example, substantial m inorities report: That they have at least one younger person as a friend ( Rosenberg, 1967, p . 99 ) That most of their friends are youn ger than they are, thou gh how much younger is not specified (Exh ibit 24' 9) ( Batten, Barton, Durstine, and

Osborn , Inc., unpublished, T able IXA) That they visit youn ger people in the neighborhood at least once a week (a tendency more pronounced among OP living in their own households t ha n amon g those living with others) . See Exhibit 24, 10. ( Lang ford, 1962, p. 8; over 5,000 OASDI bene ficiaries in 4 selected, pri-

marily urban, areas of the United States, 1958 ) OP living in their own hou seholds have lived in t he neig h borhoo d longer than recent arrivals and know m ore families ( Langford, 1962, pp .4,B).

INTERPRETATION:

EXHIBIT 24, 10 Older people's visiting w ith younger people in t he neigh borhood ( percentage distribution ) No. of wee k ly visits

3 or more lor 2 None' Total Number reportin g

Total

Living in own household

N ot living in own hou sehold

24 29 47

26 29 45

17 28 55

100

100

100

( 5,047)

( 4 ,149 )

' Includes those who visited with younger people in neighborhood less than once a week or not at all.

Source : Langford. 196 2. p. 8 : ove r 5.000 OASDI beneficiar ies in 4 selected - primarily urban - areas of the U .S.. 1958.

EXHIBIT 24' 11 Sources of em ergen cy h elp fo r w idowed or sing le older people liv in g alone Per cent who would t urn to each source of help

Source

of help Relative Doctor Neighbor Friend Other Number reporting

W omen

51 30 28 11 7

( 904 )

Men

39 31 27 13 11 (299 )

So u rce : Langfo rd . 1962 . p. 16 (adapted) : widowed and single persons from sample of over 5.000 OASDI beneficiar ies in 4 selected - primarily urban - areas of the U.S.. 1958 .

572

Age similarity

( 898)

o

Here again the social context is important, and having OP as friends depends partly on proximity (point 2 • d).

111- 113; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+, 1957 ) In Clevela nd, OP (typically cared for by relatives or other household members) are likely to be helped by neighbors or friends if they live alone.

For example, as the mean age of people in the neighborhood rises, OP 65 to 74 (Philadelphia) are increasingly likely to have at least one age peer as a friend, but decreasingly likely to have some younger friends. (Rosenberg , 1967, pp.

( Rosow, 1967, pp . 157- 158, 159- 161 ; 1,200 OP 62+ , selected apartment buildings) In Vienna, four or five out of ten OP would expect neighbors to perform such services as shopping or calling a doctor, though only one or two expect help with nursing or housekeeping. ( Rosenmayr and Ki:ickeis , 1962, p . 499; 92 OP 65+)

94,99)

4· b

Other similarities

Similarities between individuals in respects other than age are undoubtedly conducive to friendship .

o

One study shows, for example, that the majority of OP's friendships are characterized by similarity in sex, marital status, and social class. ( Rosow, 1967, p . 76; 1,200 OP 62+ , selected apartment

buildings, Cleveland) 5

HELP AND SERVICES

The functions of friendship, though partly socia l, also include assistance of various kinds, particularly within the neighborhood. For most older people, however, friends and neighbors are a less·utilized resource than relatives.

o

Among widowed and single OP living alone (United States) , over one·fourth would turn to a neighbor in an emergency and over one·tenth would turn to a friend . See Exhibit 24' 11. ( Lang-

ford , 1962, p. 16; from sample of over 5 ,000 OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United State s, 1958 )

o For OP without available kin, even such ordinary services as carrying messages or doing shopping may be performed by nonrelatives (for example, in London, for 51 per cent of OP without daughters but for only 24 per cent of OP with daughters at hand) . ( Townsend, 1957, p. 131 ; 200 OP 65+ ,

w orking-class district, 1954- 1955 )

o 5· a

Emergency assistance

Neighbors are particularly important in emergencies or for OP living alone.

o

In case of illness, OP report that they would do the following: In the United States, 10 per cent of OP (mainly those without grown children) say they would turn to a friend or neighbor. (Shanas , 1962, pp.

However, turning to friends or neighbors for

financial assistance is rare. ( Rosow, 1967, p . 170) 5· b

Regular contacts

Neighbors also serve as points of contact with the outside world, indirectly checking on the well -being of many OP. Nearly one-third of OP 65 + report that a friend or neighbor stops by regularly to see them (though relatives comprise the major group who perform this service) .

FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS: HOMOPHILY

5 73

o

Neighbors are especially likely to stop by regularly when the OP knows a large number of families in the neighborhood or lives in a smaller (rather than a larger) community. ( Langford, 1962,

pp. 13, 43; over 5 ,000 OASDI beneficiaTies in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States , 1958 ) 5 •c

6 •b

Individuals differ in extent of satisfaction with their friendship ties, with minorities of OP expressing the wish for further association.

o

Dissatisfaction with the frequency of contact with friends or neighbors is evinced by: A small fraction of California OP on old-age assistance (Exhibit 19' 14) ( Pinner et al., 1959,

Help from older people

OP themselves often assist their neighbors.

p . 86; mail questionnaire Teturns from over 3,000 OP, 1952- 1953 )

o

For example, among OP 60 + in Kentucky, 53 per cent in a rural area and 32 per cent in an urban area reported helping friends and neighbors (help in case of illness, help with work, transportation, food, and being a good neighbor generally). ( Youmans, 1962, pp . 22-23; 1,250 OP 60+ , in a rural

One-fourth of OP 60+ in Iowa ( Martel and MOTTis, p . 53; 1,350 OP 60 + in 13 counties, 1960 )

o

OLDER PEOPLE'S ATTITUDES

On the whole, the majority of older people seem

The desire for more f1'iends is voiced by: Nearly half of OP 65 + in Grand Rapids ( Hunter and Maurice, 1953, p . 45; 150 OP, 1953)

and an uTban area, 1959 ) 6

Satisfaction with friendship

One-third of OP 62 + in Cleveland

o

This desire for more friends (Cleveland) does not vary with frequency of contact with neighbors.

satisfied with their relationships with friends, although the ties may be less significant or close than ties to children.

But it is associated with morale (half of those with low morale, but only one-fourth of those with high morale, express desire for more friendships) . ( Rosow, 1967, pp. 103-104, 117; 1,200 OP

6 •a

62+ , selected apartment buildings)

Significance of friendship

Friendships are a source of pleasure to OP, even if less salient than family relationships.

o

Four-fifths of OP name visiting or talking with friends among the things they most liked to do (Iowa). ( Martel and Morris , p . 53; 1,350 OP 60+

in 13 counties, 1960 )

o

However, feelings of loyalty and closeness seem less strong toward friends and neigh bors than toward adult children (Cleveland). ( Rosow, 1967, pp. 176- 181 ; 1,200 OP 62+ , selected apartment

buildings; based on choices in hypothetical situations) 574

Regular contacts

RESEARCH NEEDS

of older people compare with those of younger segments of the population? How do they change over the life cycle?

1 How do friendship patterns

2 If socioeconomic status genemlly affects association with friends , is this in part due to education? Will the increasingly we ll-educated

future cohorts of older people be better integrated into friendship networks? 3 To what extent does age-homogeneous retirement housing contribute to the life satisfaction of older people if it thereby segregates them from relatives or from like-minded younger people? 4 In w hat ways can friendships substitute for the qualitatively more important family relationships?

5 What are the consequences for older people's friendships , both current and past, of moving from their previously established residences?

Batten, Barton, Durstine, and Osborn, Inc., 10; 1966.

Report: An Investigation of People's Feelings on Age. BBD&O Research Memorandum (un· published). lena Sm ith, 1961. "Structural Constraints on Friendships in Old Age," American Sociological Review, 26, pp. 429-439.

Cumming, Elaine, and William

E. Henry,

1961.

Growing Old: Th e Process of Disengagement, New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers. Evans, Franklin B., 1966. "When Death Us Do Part: The Problems and Adjustment of Middle Class American Widows" (unpublished) . Hunter, Woodrow W., and Helen Maurice, 1953. Older People Tell Their Story, Ann Arbor, Mich .: Institute for Human Adjustment, Division of Gerontology. Knox, William E., 1965. Filial Bonds: The Corre• Suggested additional reading

Arbor, Mich .: University Microfilms, Inc. Kutner, Bernard , et aI. , 1956. Five Hundred Over Sixty: A Community Survey on Aging, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

* Langford,

Sm ith, Joel, 1966. "The Narrowing Social World of the Aged," in Simpson, Ida Harper, and John C. McKinney, editors, Social Aspects of Aging, Durham , N.C.: Duke University Press, pp. 226242. Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, editors, 1962.

Social and Psychological Aspects of Aging,

Marilyn , 1962. " Community Aspects of Housing for the Aged," Research Report No. 5, Ithaca, N.Y. : Center for Housing and Environ· mental Studies, Cornell University.

Townsend , Peter, 1957. The Family Life of Old People, London : Routled ge and Kegan Paul.

Martel , Martin U., and W. W. Morris, Life After

Youmans, E. Grant, 1962. Leisure-Time Activities

Sixty in Iowa: A Report on the 1960 Survey,

of Older Persons in Selected Rural and Urban Areas of Kentucky, Progress Report 115,

Iowa Commission for Sen ior Citizens. Messer, Mark, 1966. "Engagement with Disengage· ment: The Effects of Age Concentration" (un published) . Niebanck, Paul L., and John B. Pope, 1965. The Elderly in Older Urban Areas, Philadelphia: Institute for Environmental Studies, Un iversity of Pennsylvania.

New York: Columbia Un iversity Press.

Kentucky Agricu ltural Experiment Station, Lexington, Kentucky. lborowski, Mark, and Lorraine D. Eyde, 1962. " Agi ng and Social Participation," Journal of Gerontology, 17, pp. 424-430.

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

Works cited in Chapter 24

* Blau,

lates of the R etired Father's Perception of Solidarity with His Adult Children, Ann

Pinner, Frank A., Paul Jacobs, and Philip Selznick, 1959 . Old Age and Political Behavior, Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.

Irving Rosow

Clark Tibbitts

* Rosenberg,

George S. , 1967. Poverty, Aging and Social Isolation, Wash i ngton: Bureau of Social Science Research , Inc.

Rosenmayr, Leopold , and Eva K6ckeis, 1962. "Family Relations and Social Contacts of the Aged in Vienna ," in Tibbitts, Clark, and Wilma Donahue, editors, Social and Psychological Aspects of Aging, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 492-500.

* Rosow,

Irving, 1967. Social Integration of the Aged, New York: The Free Press.

Shanas, Ethel, 1962. The Health of Older People : A Social Survey, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Sim pson , Ida Harper, and John C. McKinney, ed itors, 1966. Social Aspects of Aging, Durham , N.C.: Duke University Press . FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS

575

While only about 4 per cent of all older people over sixty-five are institutionalized, in absolute numbers this represents 615,000 persons (in 1960) who must learn roles appropriate to hospitals, nursing homes, or homes for the aged and who require considerable societal allocations of money and manpower. As the number of the very old in the population increases, these roles, and their costs to individuals and to society, may assume importance well beyond their present scope.

25 ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS

The prevailing image of institutional life is largely negative. To the older person, the institution symbolizes the end of mastery over his fate as well as the turning away of society from him-a mutual withdrawal. To many professionals dealing with the problems of older people , the social structure of a total institution seems to require a degree of depersonalization and loss of autonomy destructive of self-esteem and even of life itself. How accurately do these images reflect current conditions? Certainly the aged in institutions constitute the relatively disadvantaged in terms of health, social ties, and economic resources . Moreover, many institutions fail to provide facilities for privacy, activity, or social life that are adequate by professional or state licensing standards. However, there is little clear evidence concerning the precise effects of institutional living, that is, which facets may be detrimental and which may be beneficial, to what types of inmates, and how these processes work. Can some aspects be changed without interfering with the basic capacity of the home or hospital for care and treatment? How, indeed, would these older people have fared outside the institution? Are there viable alternatives in the community for those in need of protective services? See Chapter 6, B - 7 , for the societal context of older people in institutions.

1

THE DATA Research available to answer such questions is of uneven quality. Studies by the National Center for Health Statistics provide statistics about institutions for the aged and their residents. A nationwide British study offers insights into reasons for institutionalization and the nature of institutional life, though the findings may be peculiar to the British situation. A few longitudinal studies follow the lives of residents over time (from several months to a year),

577

WHO ARE THE INSTITUTIONALIZED?

2

PROCESSES LEADING TO INSTITUTIONALIZATION

3

ATTITUDES TOWARD INSTITUTIONS

4

LIFE IN THE INSTITUTION

5

CONSEQUENCES

and at least one intensive study utilizes retrospective histories of patients to reconstruct the processes leading to institutionalization. Findings from the majority of studies have limited applicability, however. Samples are often restricted to a few selected institutions or types of institutions, to single areas, or to inmates able to answer questions . Analyses often make inferences about effects of institutionalization without adequate or rigorously matched control groups. Some studies merely offer qualitative description. And even the large-scale statistics compiled by the United States government suffer from differences of definition (for example, the classifications reported in section 1 of this chapter are not directly comparable with those reported in Chapter 6, 8 - 7).

578

EXHIBIT 25 · 1 Rates of residency in institutions of various types, United States , 1963 ( per 1,000 )

Age

Total

T otal Male Fem ale

(a) Nursing and personal care homes All ages, 20 + 4.5 3.2 5.6

T otal

White Male Female

N onwhite T otal Male Fem ale

4.8

3.4

6.0

1.7

1.8

1.7

0.6 8.1 41.7 157.7

0.7 6.9 30.5 111.9

0.6 9.1 49.9 185.8

0.6 5.9 13.8 41.8

0.7 6.2 12.4 40.4

0.5 5.6 15.0 42.9

(b) Geriatric and chronic disease "hospitals'" 0.7 0.8 0.6 0 .7 All ages, 20 +

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.8

0.5

20-64 65-74 75-84 85+

0.6 7.9 39.6 148.4

0.2 1.6 4.5 14.2

0.3 2.4 4.5 13.2

0.1 1.0 4.5 14.8

0.3 2.3 3.5 6.7

0.4 3.3 4.6 4.7

0.2 1.5 2.6 8.2

(c) long·stay mental hospitals 3.9 4.9 All ages 4.4

4.1

4.4

3.7

7.0

8.9

5.3

2.1 4.6 6.3 8.4 10.5

2.6 5.0 6.5 9.3 9.7

1.6

4.9 8.8 10.7 12.7 14.8

6.8

4.3 6.0 7.7 11.1

11.0 12.1 14.6 16.1

3.2 6.9 9.4 11.1 13.7

15-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75 +

2.4 5.0 6.7 8.8 10.8

0.3 2.5 4.5 12.4

0.6 8.8 47.5 175.1

0.1 1.1 4.4 14.3

20-64 65- 74 75-84 85 +

0.2 1.7 4.4 13.6

0.7 6.8 29.1 105.6

3.1 5.6 7.0 9.7 10.2

1.8 4.6 6.3 8.0 11.3

''' Hosp itals'' include only geriatric and chronic disease hospitals and chronic disease wards and nursing home units of general hospitals .

1

WHO ARE THE INSTITUTIONALIZED?

Why is it that certa in older people, but not others, enter a hospital or a home? Not surprisingly, those segments of the aged population overrepresented in institutions are the very old, the economically and socially disadvantaged, and the physically and men· tally impa ired . Such characteristics do not in them selves, however, constitute the sole basis for institut ionalization , since other older people in quite sim ilar circumstances are mainta ined in the com mun ity.

Com pare Ch apter 16, A' 3, for institution alization of older people with menta l disorders.

1· a

Demographic ch aracteristics

The proportions of OP (in the United States) who are institutionalized vary markedly by age, sex, and color.

o

With advancing age beyond 65, rates of institu tional ization increase sharply, notably among OP 85 +. See Exhibit 6·19. ( 1960 Census of Popula-

tion, PC( 2 )-8A, Inmates of Institutions , pp. 3, 5,7) These age· related increases in rates apply to each of the major types of long-stay institu t io ns. See Exhibit 25· 1. (National Center f OT Health

Statistics, 1965, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 12, No.2, pp. 4, 13; N o.3, p. 5) Definitions used by t he N ational Center for Health Statistics and reported in this chapter differ somewhat from the Census definitions reported in Chapter 6, B . 7.

NOTE:

Source : National Center for Health Statistics. 1965. p. 5 (adapted).

Vita/and Health Statis tics.

Series 12. No. 2. pp. 4 . 13: No. 3.

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS: WHO ARE THE INSTITUTIONALIZED?

579

o

By sex, female rates of institutionalization are generally higher than male rates for OP at all ages. See Exhibit 25 • 1.

o

By color, nonwhite rates are lower than white rates among OP in nursing and personal care homes, but nonwhite rates are higher than white rates in mental institutions. See Exhibit 25 • 1. (Na-

tional Center for Health Statistics, 1965, Vital and Health· StatistiCS, Series 12, No.1, p. 3; No . 2 , pp. 4 , 13; No.3 , pp. 3, 5) Types of institutions differ in various respects, such as ownership. Most nursing and personal care homes are privately' owned; whereas nearly all mental hospit(lls (and most of the geriatric and chronic disease "hospitals") are public or nonprofit institutions.

NOTE:

1 •b

Social and economic characteristics

o

OP in institutions are comparatively disadvantaged financially. For example, in the Un ited States (1963) , nearly half of those in institutions for the aged and chronically' ill were on public assistance. ( Na-

tional Center for Health Statistics, 1966, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 12, No.4 , pp. 11 14, 21 ) In New York City (1957 to 1960), nearly onefourth of the OP admitted to state mental hospitals were receiving welfare assistance as the major source of income at the time of admission.

( Goldfarb, 1961 - a, p . 179; from sample of 2 ,000 admissions 64+ to New York City institutions)

o

These proportio ns of institutionalized OP contrast with the smaller proportions of OP 65+ in the United States as a whole who receive public assistance (8 per cent of married couples and 17 per cent of the non married). See Exhibit 4' 3.

tion, PC ( 2)-8A, Inmates of Institutions, pp . 26, 34. 1960 Census of Population, Vol . I , Part 1, p . 424; for population estimates; age and sex controlled in the analysis)

o

OP in institutions are comparatively less likely to have living children. ( Townsend, 1962, p. 290;

530 new residents aged 60+ in old-age homes, Great Britain, 1957- 1961 , compared with total population of pensionable age. Similar finding among sample of long-term patients 65+ in 1 California mental hospital; reported by Scott and Devereaux, 1963, p . 188)

Demographic characteristics

thal, 1964-a, p . 6; 500 OP 60+, first admissions to psychiatric screening ward, San Francisco, 1959, compared with Census data on all OP 60+ in San Francisco)

OP who are in institutions, when compared with their counterparts in the community, tend to have fewer family ties and fewer financial resources. OP in institutions are comparatively less likely to have a living spouse. ( 1960 Census of Popula-

580

o

OP in institutions are comparatively more likely to live alone (prior to institutionalization). (Lowen-

( Epstein, 3/ 1964, p . 6; based on 1963 Survey

of the Aged) 1 •c

PhYSical and mental health

Many OP in institutions are mentally or physically impaired and require some form of protection, supervision, or treatment. However, there is no necessary relationship between impairment and institutional ization.

Health characteristics of residents 65 and over, of institution, United States , 1963

EXHIBIT 25' 2

by type

Per cent of residents with selected health characteristics

Health characteristic Out of bed Walks unassisted Continent No serious hearing problem No serious vision problem Always aware of surroundings

Institution Nursing and personal Mental care homes hospitals

82 81

79 89 91 38

55

57 72 83 79 49

o

In nursing and personal care homes (and also in geriatric hospitals, not shown in Exhibit 25· 2), only about half the OP are not bedridden, are able to walk unassisted, and are not mentally confused; and nearly three-fourths are continent. See Exhibit 25·2.

o

In mental institutions, mental confusion is more widespread, although some 80 per cent of OP are out of bed , able to walk, and continent. See Exhibit

25·2.

Source : National Center for Health Statistics. 1965 . Vitaland HealthStatistics . Series 12 . No . 3 . p. 12 (adapted) .

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS: WHO ARE THE INSTITUTIONALIZED?

58 1

o

The proportions having disabilities, both physical and mental, increase with age. See Exhibit 25' 3, for example. (Nationa l Center for Health Statis-

tics, 1965, Vital and Health Statistics, Series 12, No.2, p . 8, 14,26-27,36- 37; No.3, pp. 11 - 12, 20-21) Exhibits 25' 2 and 25' 3, w hich show the prevalence of each disability separately, do not indicate how many OP suffer from at least one disability.

EXHIBIT 25 ·3

Health characteristics of residents , by age, United States , 1963

Nursing and personal care homes' Pa rti al disability

No d isa bility

Comp lete disability

CAUTION:

Continence status

Walking status

o

611

(Go ldfarb, 1961-b, p. 253) In Belfast, Ireland, from one-fourth to one-third of the new admissions to a mental hospital and to a geriatric hospital, respectively, were found, upon testing, to have been misplaced. ( Kidd,

171

601

77 17

221

171

73

231

50

I

I

22

I

I

I 70

116

68

281

I~

91

2~

1

1

1 Mental status

Bed status

141

62 1

IJ

I 27

I

131

I~

Under 65 611

124

581

126

IJ

55 65 to 74

161

50 75 to 84

49

o

20

40

I

3J

85 and over

I

I

I

60

80

100

Percent age distribu tion

43

211

o Age

20

40

I I I

321

181

361

211

I

I

1

60

80

100

Perc entage distribution

• Sim ilar age patterns appear also in other Iypes of institutions ( National Center for Health Statistics. 1965 . Vital and Health Statistics . Ser ies 12. No.2 . p. 14 ; No. 3. pp . 20- 21) .

Source : National Center for Health Statist ics. 1965 . Vi tal and Health Statistics. Ser ies 12. No . 2. p. 8 .

Physical and mental health

~

85 and over

1962, pp. 68-74; 100 new admissions 60+ to each type of hospital)

582

IJ

75 to 84

Residents may sometimes be placed inappropriately for the state of their health, either in the wrong type of institution or in an institution where they might be better off (given supportive services) in their own homes. For example, in New York City, not all (89 per cent) of the patients 64+ in mental hospitals were rated certifiable (hospitalization was legally and medically justifiable), and in more than half of the certifiable cases, psychiatrists would have recommended other disposition, if available.

l3t

65 to 74

In New York City institutions, for example, as severity of physical impairment increases, the proportion of cases with moderate or severe mental impairment tends also to increase. See Exhibit 25' 4. (Go ldfarb, 1961-b, p. 256; 1,100

o

821 5

20t Under 65

Physical disability tends to go with mental disability among residents.

admissions to New York City institutions, 1957- 1960; 1 exception)

14t

166

EXHIBIT 25 ·4

o

Mental versus physical status of the

institutionalized Per cent of old people in each category showing severe or moderate mental restriction

Type of institution

Physical restriction' Marked None or m oderate 68 81 97

42

Old·age homes Nursing homes State hospitals

71 81

Considerable numbers of impa ired (even seriously impaired) OP are maintained in the community, even thou gh disability is undoubtedly more pervasive inside than outside of institutions . For example, among noninstitutionalized OP 65 + in the United States (1957) 7 to 8 per cent were bedfast or housebound, twice the number of OP in United States institutions. ( Shanas, 1965, p,

Complete 82 83 91

240; national sample) Psychotic OP 65 + who live in the community have been observed to outnumber those in institutions (Baltimore, Syracuse, and Newcastle, England) . (See Chapter 16, A· 3 • c.) ( Pasamanick, 1962, p , 569. New Y ork S tate Depart-

• Physical restriction of activity due to disease or impa irment.

Source : Goldfarb, 1961 · b, p. 256 ( adapted) ; 1, 100 OP 64+ , admitted to New York City Institutio" S, 1957 - 1960 . Reprinted by permission of the publ isher.

ment of Mental H ygiene, 1960, p. 73. Kay et al" 1964-a, pp , 151 - 152)

o

Self-maintenance among older people living in the community and in the hospital

EXHIBIT 25 • 5

Per cent with selected levels of self-maintenance

Level of self-maintenance

Community sample, by psychiatric disabilitySeverely Moderately Well disabled disabled

Ho spital sample

What enables such large numbers of incapacitated OP to res ide in the community? One com parison of mentally impaired OP inside and outside the hospital points to the capacity for self-maintenance as the most noteworthy difference. See Ex· hibit 25·5. ( Lowenthal and Berkman, 1967, pp,

142- 144; nearly 1,200 OP 60+ , community residents and m ental hospital admissions, San Francisco, 1960 ) 2

Dresses self, selects clothes Gets about neighborhood (or further) Has no safety problems, indoors or outdoors Takes full responsibility for own health Manages own money

N = 100%

99 96 97

90 75 91

91 79 86

37 32 18

95 94

79 78

82 84

9 19

(60)

( 33 )

( 507)

(534)

PROCESSES lEADING TO INSTITUTIONALIZATION

Scattered accounts of the lives of patients during the several years precedin g admission suggest that inst itutionalization often arises from a deteriorating balance between the older person's capacities and the sources of care or support available to him .

• Degree of psychiatric d isability rated on the basis of interviews conducted by psychiatrists and ' social scientists .

Source : Lowenthal and Berkman , 1967, p. 143 ; nearly 1 ,200 OP 60+ , community res idents and mental hospital admissions , San Franci sco, 1959 · 1960 ,

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS: WHO ARE THE INSTITUTIONALIZED?

583

2" a

Attempted alternatives

Do OP enter institutions primarily because they have been abandoned by their relatives? While entry is associated with prior living arrangements, it may not be directly influenced by them; and in many instances, alternatives to institutionalization have first been sought.

o

Rates of first admission to psychiatric facilities for OP 65 + are lower for persons living in house· holds with relatives or friends than for those living alone or in group quarters. (Kramer et al., 1967,

pp . 28- 29, 89; all admissions for Maryland, 1960- 1961)

o

According to retrospective histories of older pa· tients admitted to a psychiatric ward (San Francisco), entry into an institution is typically not precipitous, but tends to be preceded by a period of mental illness in which other methods of care are tried. Symptoms of mental disorder were present for at least a year in two·thirds of the cases. In over half the cases, alternatives to hospitalization were tried, including added support to cur· rent living arrangements, moving the OP to the home of relatives, or professional treatment. ( Lowenthal, 1964- a, pp. 32, 195- 200; 500 OP

60+, first a,dmissions to psychiatric screening ward, San Francisco, 1959 )

o

High residential mobility prior to admission has been noted (as possibly reflecting attempts to find substitute accommodations) in the following instances: Among residents of two old·age homes in the fifteen years preceding institutionalization ( Dick et al., 1964, p . 97; 200 OP 63+)

584

Attempted alternatives

Among new residents of British old-age homes in the three years prior to admission (Town-

send, 1962, p. 295; 530 new residents aged 60+ in old-age homes, Great Britain, 19571961) 2"b

Precipitants to institutionalization

The immediate cause of institutionalization appears to vary somewhat with the type of institution. For mental patients, the most common reason cited is harmful or disruptive behavior; for entrants to old· age homes, major factors include loss of residence and the inability of others to provide support.

o

Among admissions to a psychiatric screening ward (San Francisco) , reports from responsible individuals cited changes in the patient (such as potentially or actually harmful behavior, disturbances of thought or feeling, and physical changes) and changes in the environment (such as ability or willingness of others to continue to care for the patient). ( Lowenthal, 1964- a, p . 57; 500 OP 60+,

first admissions to psychiatric screening ward, San Francisco, 1959 )

o

Among entrants to old-age homes (Britain), onefourth had lost their accommodations prior to admission (and lower proportions of these entrants were incapacitated than proportions of new admissions who had not been homeless). One·third had lost sources of help. (Some entrants had been living with others who themselves became ill or too old and infirm to care for the patient; other entra nts reported friction, strain, or other difficulties with those with whom they had been living.) (Townsend, 1962, pp.

302- 326; 530 new residents aged 60+ in oldage homes, Great Britain, 1957- 1961)

Preferred living arrangements for older people (percentage distribution)

EXHIBIT 25 . 6

Living arrangem ents preferred and liked least

Preferences of older people 65 +" Persons Persons with with no living living children children Total

3

See Chapter 23, B· 1· f, for older people's attitudes toward alternative living arrangements.

Older people and, to a somewhat lesser degree, their families, hold generally negative views of living in an institution. To some extent, these attitudes seem related to the aging individual's desire to stay with his family or to avoid residential change_ To some extent also, they may reflect the image of the poor farm or the almshouse of an earlier era (which raises the possibility that future cohorts of older people might respond more positively to institutional care and living arrangements provided that improvements are made) .

Pre ferences of crosssection of adults'

Preferred Total Own home Home of child or relative Home for aged No answer

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

83.3 7.5

83.3 7.7

83.0 7.0

74.1 11.6

2.9 6.3

2.7 6.3

3.6 6.3

13.4 1.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

1.4 31.3

1.3 29.3

1.8 38.2

6.0 47.2

61.0 6.3

63.1 6.3

53.6 6.3

44.4 2.4

(384)

(2,567)

Uked least Total Own home Home of child or relative Home for aged No answer

N=

(1,734)

(1 ,350)

ATTITUDES TOWARD INSTITUTIONS

3· a

Older people's preferences

OP, even when unable to care for themselves, are generally averse to the idea of institutional living, preferring to live at home or with relatives. D For example, only 3 per cent of OP 65 + say they would most like to live in a home for the aged; whereas 61 per cent would like this plan least of all. See Exhibit 25·6. ( Shanas, 1962, p. 103; 1,700

• In answer to the question: Here ' s a list of places where older people could live - in their own home , in the home of child ren or other relatives , or in a home for the aged . If it were completely up to you, which of these would you like most to live in? Which would you like least? bQuestion modified to refer to " best ( worst ) place for an older person to live."

noninstitutionalized 1957)

OP

65+,

United

States,

D A minority of OP 65 + (38 per cent) think that a nursing home is the best living arrangement for people over 65 who can no longer care for them selves. ( Beyer and Woods , 1963, p . 22; over

5,000 noninstitutionalized OASDI beneficiaries in 4 selected, primarily urban, areas of the United States , 1958) Sou rce : Shanas , 1962, pp. 103 , 172 (ada pted ) ; cross -section sample of 2 ,500 adults 21 + U.S., 1957 . Reprinted by permission of Harvard University Press . Copyright. 1962 , by the President and Fellows of Harvard College.

,

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS: ATTITUDES TOWARD INSTITUTIONS

585

o

o

Some two-thirds of the aged patients arriving at a psychiatric screening ward preferred to return to noninstitutional living. ( Lowenthal, 1964- a, pp . 153- 156, 249; 500 OP 60+ , fiTst admissions to

Most resistant to institutional living, and con versely most disposed to live in their own or their family's homes, are such categories of OP as these: OP who have children (as compared with those who do not) (Exhibit 25 . 6)

psychiatTic sCTeening waTd, San Fl'ancisco , 1959 )

o

OP's aversion to institutional living is more marked than the aversion of the public at large, of whom less than half oppose homes for the aged. See Exhibit 25' 6. ( Shanas , 1962, p. 172; CTOSS-

OP who live with (rather than apart from) their children ( Shanas, 1962, pp. 103- 104; 1,700

noninstitutionalized OP 65+, United States, 1957 )

section sample of 2 ,500 adults 21+ , 1957 )

o

OP who live with their husbands or wives (in contrast with widowed OP, especially men)

OP's aversion to institutional living is also more marked than the aversion of their responsible relatives (of whom, for example, only 17 per cent preferred a return to noninstitutional living for OP in the psychiatric screening ward). ( Lowenthal,

OP who own (rather than rent) their homes

( Beyer and Woods , 1963, pp. 22, 24; over 5,000 noninstitutionalized OASDI beneficiaries in 4 sele cted, pTimaTily uTban, areas of the United States, 1958)

1964- a, p . 249; Tesponsible collatemls of 300 patients from 500 OP 60+ , fil'st admissions to a psychiatTic screening w aTd, San Fmncisco, 1959 ) See Chapter 7, B' 4' e, for public attitudes toward living arra ngements for OP.

3 • b

EXpTeSsed l'easons

OP who oppose living in an institution explain, for example, that such a move constitutes a sacrifice of their independence, a prelude to death (the last change they will ever experience) , and a rejection by their children (among those who have children).

( Shanas, 1962, p . 103; 1,700 noninstitutionalized OP 65+, United States, 1957 ) 3 •c

Associated chamctel'istics

More revealing, perhaps, than overt explanations for rejecting institutionalization are the underlying tendencies for those OP who have social supports to want to cling to them , especially in the oldest age categories.

586

Older people's preferences

o

.

The more advanced the OP's age, the less he favors living in an institution such as a nursing home. See Exhibit 25 . 7. And the more advanced the OP's age, the more he prefers his existing living arran gements, either with relatives, (c) and (d) in Exhibit 25 . 7, or in his own home with nursing care, (b) and (e) in Exhibit 25' 7 . ( BeyeT and Wood s, 1963, p. 24 )

Advancing age may re flect either greater imminence of de pendency, cohort (ge nerational) differences in OP's images of institutional arrangements, or a tendency for the particularly hardy and self-sufficient to survive to advanced old age .

INTERPRETATION:

3 •d

PTe feTences veTs us disposition s to act

A negative attitude toward institutions does not, however, necessarily preclude the OP's conside:ing these as a realistic possibility .

EXHIBIT 25 . 7

by age

Household composition and selected living situations (a) All respondents Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting (b) Living alone or with spouse only Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting (c) Living with children Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting (d) Livi ng with other relatives Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting (e) Living with nonrelatives Own homes with nursing care With their families Nursing homes Number reporting It

o

Preferred living arrangements for incapacitated older people,-

of respondent ( percentage distribution ) 65-69

38 21 41

(1,831 ) 42 15 43

( 1,222) 29 38 33

(354) 34 22 44

( 159) 33 19 48

( 96)

Age of respondent 75-79

70-74

38 23 39

(1,571 ) 43 17 40

( 939 ) 27 43 30

(348) 33 27 40

( 168 ) 34 12 54

( 116 )

80+

40 25 35

40 28 32

( 950 )

( 520)

46 14 40

( 517 ) 25 51 24

( 229)

48 15 37

( 242 ) 29 47 24

( 181 )

38 32 30

36 39 25

( 87)

(56)

46 13 41

46 10 44

( 117 )

( 41)

Answers to a question as to the best liVing arrangement for people over 65 who are no longer able to take care

of themselves.

Sou rce: Beyer and Woods. 1963. p. 24 (adapted ): over 5.000 nonlnstltutlonallZed OASDI beneficiaries In 4 selected primarily urban areas of the U .S.. 1958 .

In one study (New York City), for example, while neither applicants for social welfare services nor elderly nonapplicants preferred to live in an old-age home, the majority of the applicants (but less than 10 per cent of the nonapplicants) had entertained the idea of moving to such a home, and one-fourth had actually done something about it. ( Blenkner

et al. , 1964, p. 60; 100 applicants aged 60+ versus 100 OP 60+ not applying, 1957 ) 4

LIFE IN THE INSTITUTION

To what degree are the negative attitudes of older people toward institutions justified? Though the evidence is highly fragmentary, residents of institutions appear to be less active, on the whole, and less involved in social relationships than those older people who live in the community_ Such constraints o n institutional living seem to arise not only from the personal characteristics and health status of the older people themselves but also from inhibiting conditions existing in many institutions; for, as several experimental programs have demonstrated, appropriate environmental manipulation can raise the level of involvement among institutionalized older people, even those who are severely disabled.

4•a

The setting

Descriptive and evaluative studies of selected facilities point to numerous negative features of existing institutions.

o

British old -age homes are ge nerally lacking in physical plant, staff facilities, and provisions for meaningful activity, freedom , or autonomy in the daily lives of residents . ( Townsend, 1962, lJP. 218-

224; sample of 173 Tesidential institutions and homes faT the aged, England and Wales)

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS: ATIITUDES TOWARD INSTITUTIONS

587

o

send, 1962, p. 242; reports by those in charge

Among nursing homes (Illinois, 1964), the majority have no organized activity or rehabilitation programs, and only half arrange for such routine physical examinations as X rays or blood tests _ (Kramer

of old-age homes, Great Britain , 1957- 1961 ) Most residents in several old -age homes (New York) had no clear idea in advance of what institutional life would be like, even in the one home that encouraged pre-admission visits. ( Taietz ,

and Sondag, 1964, p. 90; 118 nursing homes)

o

Among old-age homes (California, 1964), half have no medical care provisions and nearly half have no recreation program. (Wal kley et al. , 1966,

pp. 18, 78-80; sample of 284 institutions licensed by the state)

o

In institutions of various types, opportunities for privacy are often restricted. (Coe, 1965, pp. 228-

231; 3 selected institutions)

4 •b

Socialization

How are OP prepared for their roles in institutions? Do other residents play roles in transmitting norms of institutional life through informal relationships (as with roommate or table-partner)? How operative are formal systems of rewards and punishments (such as threats of expulsion of physical restraints) or staff use of informal sanctions (such as reprimands, privileges, or playing favorites) in obtaining conformity to staff-defined norms such as obedience, refraining from complaints, or participation in activities? Various descriptive accounts suggest that the socialization process varies with the purpose and character of the institution, while a few more precise studies direct attention to such impediments as lack of prior knowledge about institutional roles or a previous life of social isolation.

o

There is evidence of a lack

of anticipatory so-

cialization. For example, visits by prospective residents prior to admission are not common practice in over three-fourths of British old-age homes. ( Town-

588

The setting

1953, pp . 28, 217; 200 residents capable of being interviewed, median age 77 to 80 , 1950 )

o

New inmates to a home for the aged and infirm seem to have most difficulty in learning institutional norms if they had been isolates (rather than nonisolates) during their adulthood or in the year prior to admission or if the norms to be learned refer to the social organization of the home (such as names of club leaders or attitudes of other residents) rather than to daily routines (such as eating or permission to go outside) . (Granick and Nahe-

mow, 1961 , pp. 298-300; 100 consecutive new admissions , known psychotics excluded from admissions, 1958- 1959 ) 4 •C

Activity

See point 5 - d for the effect of activity programs on the daily functioning of OP.

Institutionalized OP tend to be less active than community OP both in useful tasks and in leisure pursuits. Yet many express interest in such activities or apparently could be motivated to be more active.

o

Useful occupations engage comparatively small proportions of the OP in institutions. Very few (15 per cent) of the new residents in British old-age homes participate in regular tasks (such as gardening or making beds), but another 29 per cent say they would like to do helpful tasks, and almost half had prepared their own meals prior to admission. ( Townsend, 1962, p .

340; 530 new residents aged 60+ in old-age homes, Great Britain, 1957- 1961 )

EXHIBIT 25 ·8

Finding enough to keep occupied in an old age home, by incapacity for self-care (percentage distribution) Finding enough to keep occupied

Degree of incapacity None or slight

Moderate

Severe

Total residents

Men Enough Uncertain Not enough Total Number

53.0 1.7 45.3

50.0 15.0 35.0

50.0 8.8 41.2

51.8 5.8 42.4

100

100

100

100

( 117)

(40)

(34)

(191 )

65.1 5.3 29.6 100

Total Number

residents medically classified as too disabled for assignment)

o

Leisure activities are also relatively rare among

OP in institutions.

Women Enough Uncertain Not enough

Even among disabled OP, nearly three·fourths reached an established standard of performance when given special attention and rewards. ( Filer and O'Connell, 1962, p . 55; VA domiCiliary

(132)

49.3 5 .8 44.9

48.0 12.3 39.7

57.4 5 .9 36.7

100

100

100

( 69)

(73)

( 274)

Over one·third of the new residents in British old· age homes say they do not have enough to keep themselves occupied ; among women (but not among men), this is related to impairment. See Exhibit 25 • 8. Less than one·fourth of all residents in these homes have a pastime that occupies them as much as two hours a week. (Townsend, 1962, pp. 340, 525; 8 ,000 residents 60+ in old-age

homes, including 530 new residents , Great Britain, 1957-1961 ) Leisure activity is less widespread among old· age·home residents than among community cen· ter members. ( Chalfen, 1956, pp. 266-269; 200 OP 65+) Similarly leisure activity is less widespread among nursing home residents than among community OP (Austin, Texas). ( Scott, 1955, p . 542; 80

nursing home residents , mean age 78, judged capable of being interviewed, and 100 community residents matched on sex and age , 1952)

Source : Townsend . 1962. p. 525 ( adapted ): 530 new residents aged 60+ in old age homes. Great Britain . 1957 · 1961.

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS: LIFE IN THE INSTITUTION

589

4•d

Social relations

OP in institutions are less likely than other OP to have regular contact with friends and relatives living in the community, and congregate living does not automatically enhance social relations within the institution, even among the healthy and ambula· tory. Internal friendships seem to be stimulated by spatial proximity and by group activities but reo sisted by individuals with a history of previous social isolation.

o

Associations with the outside community are

not extensive among i nstitutionalized OP. Only a minority of new res ide nts of old·age homes (Britain) rece ive vis its from relatives or friends as often as once a week (with frequency related to having relat ives nearby or to the health status of the OP). Even amo ng residents capable of walking un· aided, only about one·third leave the area of the home as ofte n as once a week (Britain) . (Townsend, 1962, pp. 343, 347; 530 new residents aged 60+, in old-age homes, Great Britain, 1957- 1961 ) There is less contact with family and friends (relative t o contact at age 55) among residents of nursing homes than among commu nity OP (Austin, Texas). (Scott, 1955, p. 542; 80 7wrsing home residents, m ean age 78 , judged capable of being inte7'viewed, and 100 community

Tesidents matched on sex and age, 1952) Residents in a retirement home (United States Midwest city) are less likely than applica nts to the home to interact with friends or participate in church and community activities outside the home. ( AndeTson, 1965, 1J. 255; 100 Tesidents and 60 applicants to TetiTement home )

o

Within the institution , close social relations are re latively uncommon in old ·age homes.

590

Social Te/atiolls

This was observed in Great Britain (where 18 per cent have close friends). (T ownsend, 1962, p. 348; 530 new 7'esidents aged 60 +, 1957-1961 ) This was also observed in Detroit, Michigan . ( Donahue et al., 1953, pp. 658- 659; 75 healthy, ambulatoTY OP 60+ )

o

Social interaction within the institution is as· sociated with such factors as the followin g:

Activity programs. For exam ple, in two homes where an experimental program of g roup activi· ties was initiated, but not in a third home where there was no such program , residents became increasin gly likely to say they would like to visit with one another. ( Donahue et aI. , 1953, p. 662; 75 healthy, ambulatoTY OP 60+ in homes

for the aged studied at .2 time periods 6 months a1Jart, Detroit; sociometric measures) Spatial

p1"Oximity. For example, friendship choices, especially mutual choices, were highest among residents living on the same floor . ( Friedman, 1966, p. 568; 60 healthy women residents aged 68+ in an old-age home with elevator, communal dining Toom ; room assignm ent random and no change after admission; length of Tesidence held constant) Previous sociability . For example, difficulties encountered by residents in their interactio n with one another tended to increase with the extent of their social isolation prior to admission. (T ec and Granich, 1959- 1960, p . 299; 100 residents of old-age home, 50 of whom were later trans-

fen'ed to m ental hospital)

4· e

Priv acy

Most OP desire privacy in living arrangements (thou gh most lack it ), at least in Great Britain .

D Among new residents of British old·age homes, where only 6 per cent had single rooms, two·thirds of those sharing expressed a preference for a pri· vate room. (Townsend, 1962, p . 352; 530 OP aged 60+ , 1957- 1961 )

5

CONSEQUENCES

What happens to the older person once he is con· fronted with life in the institution? On the one hand, the institution may provide needed protective servi· ces, cushion the impact of isolation and physical deterioration, and offer physical, drug, or psychiatric therapy. On the other hand , institutional life may foster dependency, assault the older person's sense of self·worth, encourage passivity, and possibly even lessen his chances of survival. No full assessment of such effects is possible from the data at hand, since the studies are small in scope and too often compare the institutionalized with other older peo· pie who are not only outside an institution but also healthier and more socially advantaged. Available findings, though by no means consistent, do suggest how conditions within the institution might be changed (for example, by providing opportunities for social interaction or useful work) in order to min imize certain of the adverse effects.

5·

a Length of stay

OP' s terms of residence in institutions vary widely, with some individuals already moribund at the time of admission .

D On the average, residents aged 65+ had been in the institution (since the time of last adm ission) approximately three years in nursing and personal care homes, a similar period in geriatric and ch ronic disease hospitals, and from twelve to fourteen years

in mental hospitals. ( National Center for Health Statistics , 1965, Vital and Health Statistics , Series 12, No . 2 , pp . 6, 25, 34 ; No . 3 , pp. 6 , 18)

Many older patients in mental hospitals were admitted before age 65 and have grown old in the hospital. See Chapter 16, A' 3' a.

INTERP RETATI ON:

D Among OP admitted to public mental hospitals, marital status affects the chances of being released . The married are (particularly the within the first ( Krame1', 1966,

more likely than the non married never·married) to be released few months after admission. pp. 11 - 15; data for 13 states,

1960; functional psychoses only ) 5•b

SW'vival

Mortality rates of OP in institutions are higher than those of OP generally, clustering in the period im· mediately following admission and among OP with physical or mental disorders. However, the causes of these high rates have not been established. Do they result from institutionalization? Or do they reo suit from the physical and mental condition of the OP at the time they are institutionalized? Unfor· tunately, few studies compare death rates of insti· tutionalized OP with rates of noninstitutionalized OP who are similar on other strategic characteristics. And even if institutional ization were proven to be the crucial factor, two d ifferent aspects may be im· plicated: the character of the institutional life per se and the stress of change in any form .

D OP admitted to institutions die at excessively high rates during the first year. Various studies reo port the followin g: In several mental hospita ls, from one·third to more than one·half the older residents had died with in one year of ad mission . (W hittier and

Williams , 1956; review of 5 studies covering 18,000 hospitalized, psychiatrically ill aged, 1925- 1955; Loche, 1962; follow-up of cohorts of hospital patients with diseases of senium, Ohio ; both reported by Mensh, 1963, pp. 101 102 ) In an old·age home, death rates among residents during the first year after admission were more than twice as high as for the same population while it was on the waiting list (a period of from one month to three years) . ( Lieberman, 1961 , pp. 516-517; all 700 applicants admitted 1947

to 1959 ) And in other institutions, mortality rates were found to be especially high in the first three months following admission. ( Camargo and Preston , 1945, p . 169; 700 first admis sions of OP 65+ to Maryland state mental hospitals, 1938- 1940 . ]o sephy, 1949, p. 186; admissions

70+ to Chicago State Hospital , 1935- 1937, 1945- 1947 )

D In mental hospitals, early mortality has been ob· served to be especially high among OP who suffer from serious physical illness or acute organic con· fusional state, who are in advanced old age, or who are male rather than female (regardless of age) . ( Kay et al., 1956, pp . 134- 135, 138; followu p of 200 unselected patients admitted t o an observ ation w ard for m ental patients , Great Britain . Similar fin dings by Mal zberg, 1952; Camargo an d Preston , 1945; reporte d by Lieberman, 1961 , pp. 515, 519 )

D Abnormally high first·year death rates appear less pronounced in old·age homes than in nursing homes, where patients are characte ri ze~ by greate r physical impa irment. ( Goldfarb, 1958; reported by LieIJermal1. 1961 , p . 51 5 )

ROLES IN INSTITUTION S: LIFE IN THE INSTITUTION

591

o

In one old-age home, however, early mortality does not appear to be clearly associated either with poor physical health or with age at first admission, a finding interpreted to suggest that other, still unexplored factors may account for the apparent connection between institutionalization and survival. ( Lieberman, 1961 , pp. 515-519; all 700

EXHIBIT 25 .9

Anticipated and actual death rates during first year following relocation from a nursing home (per 100 ) Age

Anticipated mortality>

Actual mortality

applicants admitted 1947 to 1959 )

Under 70

o

70-79 80-89 90 +

13 19 28 28

20 33 45 30

All 70+

23

38

All ages

19

32

That relocation itself may have an effect (apart from any possible consequences of institutional living) is suggested by studies comparing death rates in the same or similar institutions before and after all residents were required to move. However, any relocation effect may be contingent upon prior physical or mental disorder. Among patients relocated from a nursing home that closed down, death rates exceeded the rates anticipated if the home had remained open . See Exhibit 25 . 9.

"Based on age · specific death rates among residents for the 10 years prior to the closing of the home .

In this case, the highest death rates following relocation were among helpless and psychotic or near-psychotic patients. (A ldrich and Mend-

koff, 1963, pp . 187-188; 180 transfers aged 35 to 90+ from a home for the chronically disabled. Aldrich, 1964, p. 93 ) In another sample of relocated nursing home patients, f irst-year death rates were comparatively high among only those patients having brain syndrome or impairment of physical function .

( Goldfarb, Shahinian, and Turner, 1967; 61 relocatees from 5 nursing homes, New York City, compared with samples from homes remaining in operation; reported by Geriatric Focus, 1967,pp. 1, 6 )

Source : Aldrich and Mendkoff. 1963 . p. 188; 180 transfers aged 35 to 90+ from a home for the chronically disabled .

592

Survival

1965, pp. 254- 256; 100 residents and 60 applicants to retirement home) Self-concept, as between residents of a modern old-age institution and members of a recreational day center (Tuckman et al., 1961 , p. 320; 100

man, 1965, pp _494-495; 45 women 61+) 5 •c

Life satisfaction and self-image

65+ from New York City institutions and 100 community residents 65 +, New York City; self-derogatory remarks on mirror reflection test) Morale ( Scott, 1955, p . 542; 80 nursing home residents mean age 78 judged capable of being interviewed and 100 community residents matched on sex and age, Texas , 1952; Havighurst-Cavan Scale ) Feelings of loneliness (Townsend, 1962, p . 350; 530 new residents aged 60+ in old-age homes, Great Britain, compared with community samples, 1957- 1961) Preoccupation with the past ( Fink, 1957, p . 41; 30 males 50+ from county infirmary and matched sample from community)

o

In other studies, however, no significant differences were noted between institutionalized and community residents, in terms of the following:

Nor did the self-image of residents relate to the type of institution (whether old-age home, nursing home, or state mental hospital) . ( Pollack et al. , 1962, p. 406; attitudes of 600 residents, New

Adjustment, as between residents of a Catholic old-age home and members of an Elders Club

( Lepkowski, 1956, pp. 188- 189; 130 OP 60+ , attitude questions and Havighurst-Cavan Scale )

o

Self-i mage ( Pollack et al., 1962, p. 406; 600 OP

plant rated by local inspector, and operators' attitudes based on questionnaire filled out by operators of nursing homes, Texas )

OP 53+; human figure drawings test)

Although many OP in institutions appear to have low morale or poor self-estimates, there is little evidence that such attitudes are the direct result of i nstitutiona lization _ In some studies, institutionalized OP are found to have more negative views of life than community residents, in terms, for example, of the following:

Yet no significant relationship was found in another study between adjustment of nursing home residents and the physical plant of the institution or the attitudes of the operators. (Scott, 1955, p. 545; attitudes of 80 residents ; physical

Self-concept, as between residents and applicants to a Midwest retirement home (Anderson,

And among relatively healthy women relocated from one old-age home to another, death rates within eighteen weeks did not differ sign ificantly from those for the previous fifteen years (though illness rates did increase)_ ( Miller and Lieber-

Why are there such inconsistencies in the findings of different studies? Perhaps the relatively negative views of the residents appear only w hen comparisons are made with all community residents, rather than with groups selected to be similar in regard to health, family ties, or other important respects.

INTERPRETATION:

o

Subjective orientations of residents may depend in part on the character of the institutiona l setting (although here again the evidence is inconsistent). For example, the satisfaction of residents with the old-age home is associated with outside ratings of the quality of the home (Britain and New York State) . ( Townsend, 1962, pp. 215, 225-226,

359- 360; attitudes· of 530 new residents; homes rated on basis of physical facilities, staffing and services, means of occupation, social activity, and freedom in daily life. Taietz, 1953, pp . 34-37; attitudes of 200 residents in 3 New York homes rated on basis of private rooms, counseling services, spending money, activities; analysis controlled on various factors)

York City ) 5 •d

Programs and treatment

Several scientific experiments, designed to test the effects on institutional life of various programs (ranging from work programs to psychotherapy), suggest that such environmental manipulation can influence the behavior and attitudes of elderly residents, both healthy and im pa ired.

Since some programs combine an assortment of therapies, it is difficult to isolate those aspects that are most effective or even to determine whether it is the program or merely the centering of attention on the OP that produces t he observed e ffects.

CAUTION :

o

Among mental patients. Programs combining recreation, sheltered workshops, and increased responsibility resulted, after five months, in increased responsibility for self-care, improved instrumental skills, and greater sociability (in the experimental group but not in the control group). ( Gottesman, 1966, p . 571; experimental versus regular hospital wards of 80 patients each, average age 60, 70 per cent schizophrenic, hospitalized an average of 18 years)

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS: CONSEQUENCES

593

o

Among disabled veterans. A program of useful work was followed by improved adjustment (social, work, and leisure) among participants in the program as compared with nonparticipants. (Filer and O'Connell, 1962, p. 55; 70 pairs of men, average age 63, matched on age, medical diagnosis , and degree of disability; VA Center, 1956; Havighurst scales )

o

Among residents of an old-age home. Participants in a program of regular, paid work had higher adjustment scores than nonparticipants. ( Kleemeier, 1951 , p . 378; 170 male residents of a fraternal home for the aged, median age 76; adjustment measured by Havighurst-Cavan scale; self-rated health held constant in the analysis)

5 What will be the effect of such national legislation as Medicare on the proportions of older people institutionalized and on the quality of care received?

Works cited in Chapter 25 Aldrich, C. Kn ight, 1964. "Personality Factors and Mortality in the Relocation of the Aged," The Gerontologist, 4, pp. 92-93. Aldrich, C. Knight, and Ethel Mendkoff, 1963. "Re· location of the Aged and Disabled : A Mortality Study," Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 11, pp. 185-194. Anderson, Nancy Newman, 1965. "Institutionaliza· tion, Interaction, and Self-Conception in Aging," in Rose, Arnold M., and Warren A. Peterson, editors, Older People and Their Social World, Ph iladelphia: F. A. Davis Co., pp. 245-257.

RESEARCH NEEDS 1 What is the relative importance of physical or mental impairment versus social and economic factors in influencing the decision to '" Bennett, Ruth, 1963. "The Meaning of Institutional Life," The Gerontologist, 3, pp. 117-125. enter an institution or the subsequent adapta'" Bennett, Ruth, and Lucille Nahemow, 1965. "Instition to institutional life? 2 What factors affect the older person's atti-

tudes toward institutionalization? Are these changing over time? 3 What policies and practices are most bene. th . n't fi cial to the older peop 1e l"' wmg m e ms ution? Can. the more effective demo~stration '" and expenmental programs be put mto general practice? How do types of institutions differ in such respects?

tutional Totality and Criteria of Social Adjustment in Residence for the Aged," Journal of Social Issues , 21, pp. 44-78.

Beyer, Glenn H., and Margaret E. Woods, 1963. "Living and Activity Patterns of the Aged," Research Report No.6, Ithaca, New York: Center for Housing and Environmental Studies, Cornell University. Blenkner, Margaret, 1966. "The Place of the Nursing Home Among Community Resources," presented at a symposium on "The Future Direction of Nursing Homes in Meeting Mental Health Needs of the Aged," Boston Society for Gerontological Psychiatry.

4 Can institutional living be made as satis, 1967. "Environmental Change and the factory (socially and psychologically) as living '" - - -Aging Individual," The Gerontologist, 7, pp. in the community for the frail, confused, or 101-105. isolated older person? • Suggested additional reading 594

Programs and treatment

* Blenkner,

Margaret, Juli us Jahn, and Edna Wasser,

1964. Serving the Aging, Community Service Society of New York. Camargo, Oswaldo, and George H. Preston, 1945. "What Happens to Patients Who are Hospitalized for the First Time When Over Sixty-Five Years of Age," American Journal of Psychiatry, 102, pp. 168-173. Chalfen, Leo, 1956_ "Leisure-Time Adjustment of the Aged: II. Activities and Interests and Some Factors Influencing Choice," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 88, pp_ 261-276. Coe, Rodney M., 1965. "Self-Conception and Institutionalization," in Rose, Arnold M., and Warren Peterson, editors, Older People and Their Social World , Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co., pp. 225-243. Dick, Harry R., Hiram J. Friedsam, and Cora Ann Marti n, 1964. "Residential Patterns of Aged Persons Prior to Institutionalization," JouTnal of Man-iage and the Family, 26, pp. 96-98.

* Donahue,

Wilma , 1963. "Rehabilitation of LongTerm Aged Patients," in Williams, Richard H., Clark Tibbitts, and Wilma Donahue, editors, Processes of Aging, I, New York: Atherton Press, pp. 541-565.

Donahue, Wilma, Woodrow W. Hunter, and Dorothy Coons, 1953. " A Study of the Socialization of Old People," GeriatTics , 8, pp. 656-666. Epstein, Lenore A. , 3 / 1964. "Income of the Aged in 1962: First Findings of the 1963 Survey of the Aged," Social Security Bulletin, 27, pp. 3-24_ Filer, Richard N., and Desmond D. O'Connell , 1962. " A Useful Contribution Climate for the Aging," Journal of Gerontology, 17, pp. 51-57. Fink, H. H., 1957. "The Relationship of Time Perspective to Age, Institutionalization, and Activity," Journal of Gerontology, 12, pp. 414417. Friedman, Edward P. , 1966. "Spatial Proximity and Social Interaction in a Home for the Aged," Journal of Gerontology, 21, pp. 566-570.

Goldfarb, Alvin I., 1958. "Summarization of Activities for the Year 1958," Report to the Commission of Mental Hygiene of New York State (mimeographed) . - - - , 1961-a. "Mental Health in the Institution," The Gerontologist, I, pp. 178-184. - - - , 1961-b. "Current Trends in the Management of the Psychiatrically III Aged ," in Hoch, Paul H., and Joseph lubin, editors, Psychopathology of Aging, New York: Grune and Stratton. DO. 248-265 . Goldfarb, Alvin I., Siroon P. Shahinian, and Helen TUrner, 1966. "Death Rates in Relocated Aged Residents of Nursing Homes." Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Gerontological Society, New York. Gottesman, Leonard E., 1966. "The Response of Long-Hospitalized Aged Psychiatric Patients to Milieu Treatment," Proceedings, 7th Interna tional Congress of Gerontology, Vienna, 8, pp. 569-57l. Granick, Ruth, and Lucille D. Nahemow, 1961. "Preadmission Isolation as a Factor in Adjustment to an Old Age Home," in Hoch, Paul H., and Joseph lubin, editors, Psychopathology of Aging, New York: Grune and Stratton , pp. 285-302. Hoch, Paul H., and Joseph lubin, editors, 1961. Psychopathology of Aging, New York: Grune and Stratton.

Kidd, Cecil B. , 1962. "Criteria for Admission of the Elderly to Geriatric and Psychiatric Units," Journal of Mental Science, 108, pp. 68-74. Kleemeier, Robert W., 1951. "The Effect of a Work Program on Adjustment Attitudes in an Aged Population," Journal of Gerontology, 6, pp. 372-379. Kramer, Charles H., and Roger F. Sondag, 1964. "Medical Care of Nursing Home Patients," Th e GeTontologist , 4, pp. 89-91. Kramer, Morton, 1966. "Some Implications of Trends in the Usage of Psychiatric Facilities for Community Mental Health Programs and Related Research ," Chevy Chase, Md .: Office of Biometry, National Institute of Mental Health. Kramer, Morton, Carl Taube, and Sheldon Starr, 1967. "Patterns of Use of Psychiatric Facilities by the Aged: Current Status, Trends, and Implications." Presented at the American Psychiatric Association Regional Research Conference on Aging in Modern Society, San FranciSCO, California. Lepkowski, J. Richard, 1956. "The Attitudes and Adjustment of Institutionalized and Non institutionalized Catholic Aged ," Journal of Gerontology, 2, pp. 185-19l. Lieberman, Morton A., 1961. "The Relationship of Mortality Rates to Entrance to a Home for the Aged," Geriatrics, 16, pp. 515-519.

Josephy, Herman, 1949. "Analysis of Mortality and Locke, Ben l ., 1962. "Hospitalization of Mental DisCauses of Death in a Mental Hospital," Amerieases of the Sen ium ," Journal of Gerontolcan Journal of Psychiatry, 106, pp. 185-189. ogy, 17, pp . 381-384. Kay, D. W. K., Vera Norris, and Felix Post, 1956. ~' Lowenthal, Marjorie Fiske, 1964-a. Lives in Dis"Prognosis in Psychiatric Disorders of the tress: The Paths of the Elderly to the PsyElderly," Journal of Mental Science, 102, pp. chiatric Ward, New York: Basic Books, Inc_ 129-140. Lowenthal, Marjorie Fiske, Paul L. Berkman, and Associates, 1967. Aging and Mental Disorder Kay, D. W. K. , P. Beam ish, and Martin Roth , 1964-a. in San Francisco, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, "Old Age Mental Disorders in NewcastleInc. upon-Tyne, Part I: A Study of Prevalence,"

British Journal of Psychiatry, 110, pp. 146158.

Malzberg, B., 1952. "Further Studies in Mortality Among Patients with Mental Disease," Etrait

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS

595

du IV Congress, International de la Medicine d'Assurance sur la Vie, Stockholm. Mensh , Ivan Norman, 1963. "Studies of Older Psy· chiatric Patients," The Gerontologist, 3, pp. 100-104. Miller, David , and Morton A. Lieberman , 1965. "The Relationship of Affect State and Adaptive Capacity to Reactions to Stress," Journal of Gerontology, 20, pp. 492-497.

* National

Center for Health Statistics, 1965. "Insti· tutions for the Aged and Chronically III," Vital and Health Statistics, PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 12, No.1, Public Health Service, Wash· ington: Government Printing Office.

* ---,

1965. "Characteristics of Residents in In· stitutions for the Aged and Chronically III, U.S., April-June, 1963," Vital and Health Statistics , PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 12, No.2, Pub· lic Health Service, Washington: Government Printing Office.

* ---,

1965. "Characteristics of Patients in Men· tal Hospitals, " Vital and Health Statistics, PHS Pub. No. 1000, Series 12, No.3, Public Health Service, Washington: Government Printing Of· fice.

* ---,

1966. "Util ization of Institutions Aged and Chronically III," Vital and Statistics, PHS Pub . No. 1000, Series 4, Public Health Service, Washington: ment Printing Office.

for the

Health 12, No. Govern·

Scott, Frances Gillespie, 1955. "Factors in the Personal Adjustment of Institutionalized and Noninstitutionalized Aged," American SOCiological Review, 20, pp. 538-546. Scott, T., and C. P. Devereaux, 1963. "Relatives' Role in the Habilitation of Elderly Psychiatric Patients," Journal of Gerontology, 18, pp. 185-190. Shanas, Ethel, 1962. The Health of Older People: A Social Survey, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. - - - , 1965. "Health Care and Health Services for the Aged," The Gerontologist, 5, pp. 240-276. Taietz, Philip, 1953. Administrative Practices and Personal Adjustment, Bulletin 899, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. Tec, Nechama, and Ruth Gran ick, 1959-1960. "Social Isolation and Difficulties in Social Interaction of Residents of a Home for the Aged," Social Problems, 7, pp. 226-232.

* Townsend, Peter, 1962. The Last Refuge: A Survey of Residential In stitutions and Homes for the Aged in England and Wales, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Tuckman , Jacob, Irving Lorge, and Frederic D. Zeman, 1961. "The Self-Image in Aging," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 99, pp. 317321.

Pasamanick, Benjamin, 1962. "A Survey of Mental Disease in an Urban Population, VI: An Ap· proach to Total Prevalence by Age," Mental Hygiene, 46, pp. 567-572.

- - - , 1960 Census of Population, PC(2)-8A, In-

Pollack, M., et aI., 1962. "Perception of Self in Institutionalized Aged Subjects: I. Response Patterns to Mirror Reflection," Journal of Gerontology, 17, pp. 405-408.

Walkley, Rosabelle Price, et aI., 1966. Retirement Housing in California, San Francisco: Diablo Press.

Rose, Arnold M., and Warren A. Peterson, editors,

1965. Older People and Their Social World, Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co. • Suggested additio nal reading

596

Works cited

United States Bureau of the Census, 1960 Census of Population, Vol. I, Part 1.

mates of Institutions.

Whittier, J. R., and D. Williams, 1956. "The Coincidence and Constancy of Mortality Figures for Aged Psychotic Patients Admitted to State Hos-

pitals," Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 124, pp. 618-620. Will iams, Richard H., Clark Tibbitts, and Wilma Donahue, editors, 1963. Processes of Aging, I, New York: Atherton Press.

CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

Margaret Blenkner A lvin I. Goldfarb

Mervyn W . Susser Clark Tibbitts

Detailed table of contents of volum e one 1

A' 1 • b A•1•c

INTRODUCTION: A SYNOPSIS

1

THE AGE STRUCTURE, 2

The The The Age Age Age Age Age

demographic base, 3 organic base, 3 educationa l bac/'ground, 4 and the economy, 5 and the polity, 5 and religion, 5 and the family , 6 and friendship, 6

Dangers of misinterpretation, 7 Problem s of life-cycle analysis, 7 Some suggestive findings, 9

A' 5

SUCCESSIVE COHORTS AND SOCIAL CHANGE, 9

Part 1 Sociocultural contex ts 13 2

THE POPU LATION

I

THE POPULATION OF OLDER PEOPLE, 16 I - a United States, 1960, 16 1 - b Trends , 16 1 - c Sex, 18 1 - d Color, 20 I - e Nativity, 20

15

2

AGE COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION, 21 2 - a United States, 1960,21 2 • b Trends, 22

3

LONGEVITY OF INDIVIDUALS, 24 3' a Trends, 25 3 . b B y sex, 30 3 • c B y marital status, 32 3 . d B y color, 33 3'1

3

A A' I

B y occupational level, 34 Geographical differences, 35

WORK AND RETI REMENT

C' 2

PATTERNS OF WORK, 46 Part-time worh, 46 A ' 3'a A · 3·b Part-year worh , 46 A '3' c Unemployment, 47 A ' 3'd Occupational changes, 48

4

B'2

B' 3

B' 4

THE STRUCTURE OF OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES, 53 B'2'a Changing industrial composition, 53 B·2·b Decline of agriculture, 53 B ·2·c Decline in self-employment, 54 B ·2·d Changing size of firm, 54 B·2 · e Upgrading of the w or/, role, 55 Tec/mological change and automation, 55 B ' 2'1

A'4

INCOME OVER THE LIFE CYCLE, 83 Cohort analysis, 83

BAssets,85 B·l

THE ASSETS OF OLDER PEOP LE, 85

B ' I· a B' 1 • b B ' 1· c

B·2

THE AGE PATTERN OF ASSET HOLDING, 89 B ' 2.a Net worth of olde r versus younger

families, 89 Componen ts of assets of older versu s younger families, 91 B . 2 • c Debts of older versus younger families, 93 B' 3

CHANGES IN NET WORTH , 94 B' 3 ' a In 1960- 1961 , 94 B ' 3' b Comparison with 1950, 95

C

C C'I

Societal patterns of leisure, 63

THE INCREASE IN LEISURE TIME, 63 C, I • a Hours of w orh per weeh, 64

Total assets of older lJeop le, 85 Older people's debts, 86 Components of older people's assets, 87

B•2. b

Pensions, 59 R etirement practices, 61 Hiring practices, 62

39

Sources of income, 72

OLDER PEOPLE WITHIN THE INCOM E STRUCTURE, 74 A ' 2' a Income of older versus younger peop le, 75 A • 2 • b Adjustments in income measures, 77 A ' 2 • c Famil y characteristics associated with income, 79

Reported changes in a given year, 84 Post-retirement estima tes, 84

COMPETITIVE QUALI FICATIONS OF OLDER WORKERS, 57 B . 3 •a H ealth and psychophysical fitness, 57 B • 3 . b Education , 58 B' 3 . c R etraining, 59 PERSONN EL POLICIES AND PRACTICES, 59

THE INCOME OF OLDER PEOPLE, 70 A' 1 . a Olde r individua ls and couples, 71

TRENDS AND PROSPECTS, 79 A' 3•a Changing income of older peop le, 79 A' 3 • b Changing sources of income, 80 A' 3' c Changing income of older versus younger people, 81 A • 3 • d Age composition of income classes, 83

Factors associated with retirement, 51

MANPOWER SUPPLY AND DEMAND, 51 The supply of manpower, 51

69 Income , 70

FINANCES

A' 1 . b A ·2

Productivity, 53 Relation to unemployment, 53

The age pattern of work and retirement, 40

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF MEN, 40 A • I . a United States, 1960, 40

A '1

Wor/Ling days per year, 64 Industria l and occupational variations, 64

TRENDS IN LEISURE PURSUITS, 65 C-2 'a Outdoor recreation, 65 C'2 ' b Entertainment and cultural pursuits, 65

A

OLDER PEOPLE WITHIN TH E TOTAL LABOR FORCE, 51 Age composition of the labor for ce, 51 A ' 5' a A·5·b Occupational concentrations, 51

B B'1

C· 1 . b C . 1.c

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATI ON OF WOMEN, 43 A' 2 ' a United States, 1960,43 A ' 2 · b Trends, 44 A ' 2 . c Worh -Hfe histories, 45

CHARACTERISTICS OF OLDER WORKERS, 49 A' 4' a Education, 49 A . 4 . b Occupation, 50 A' 4 · c Residence, 51 A ' 4 . d Marital s tatus, 51 A' 4 ' e Color, 51

LIFE CYCLES, 7

3.e

Cross -cultural similarities, 41 Trend s, 42

C' I

Spending and saving , 95

THE AGE PATTERN OF SPENDING AND SAVING, 95 C . 1 • a Expenditures of older versus younger

families, 95

Detailed table of contents

597

The ratio of expenditures to income, 96 Some factors associated with spending and saving, 98 C . 1 . d Spending and saving through the life cycle, 100 C' 1 . e Reasons for saving, 101

6 A' 1

PLACE OF RESIDENCE OF OLDER PEOPLE, 122 A • 1 . a Urban areas, 122

THE COMPONENTS OF CONSUMPTION, 101 C . 2 . a Diversity of consumption in younger

A ' 2

CONCENTRATIONS OF OLDER PEOPLE, 122 A ' 2· a Differences by size of place, 123

C' 1 . b

THE RESIDENTIAL SETTING 121

C. 1.c

C' 2

versus older families, 102 C • 2 . b Leisure·time expenditures, 103 C' 2 • c Personal health expenditures, 103 C' 3

THE QUESTION OF INCOME ADEQUACY, 104 C' 3 • a Standard budgets, 104 C' 3 . b Older persons' standards, 104

D D'l

A' 1· b

A' 2' b A ' 2' c

A' 3

PUBLIC PROGRAMS FOR FINANCIAL SECURITY, 105 D . 1 . a Old-age assistance, 105

Old-age and survivors insurance, 105 Income tax provisions, 105

D' 2

STATUTORY RESPONSIBILITY OF CHILDREN FOR THEIR PARENTS, 105

D' 3

PUBLIC ATTITUDES, 106 D' 3 . a Support for goventment programs, 106 D•3 . b D•3 .c

B Hou sing, 128

B· 2

LENGTH OF OCCUPANCY, 131 B ' 2 ' a Among older people, 131

B . 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF OLDER PEOPLE'S HOUSING, 132 B' 3 . a Age of the structure, 132 B ' 3' b Quality, 132

B' 1 . d

B .2 •b

EDUCATION 111

2' b

2' c

3

Detailed table of contents

Life-cycle changes, 117

Differences among older people, 130

By marital status, 132

Value, 132 Type of structure, 132 Living space, 133

B' 4

HOUSING OF OWNERS, RENTERS, AND GUESTS, 134 B . 4 . a Owners versus renters, 134

B· 5

HOUSING OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF OLDER PEOPLE,135 B ' 5· a By age beyond 60, 135

B ' 4' b

B. 5 •b B.5.c B . 5 . d

In relative tenns, 115 Within families, 115

EDUCATION OVER THE LIFE CYCLE, 116 4 . a Modes of participation, 116 4 . b Participation and fonnal education, 117 4 . c The age pattern, 117 4' d

598

B' 3 . c B · 3 . d B •3 •e

TRENDS, 114 3' a In absolute terms, 114 3 •b 3' c

4

Age composition of educational categories, 114 Cross -cultural differences, 114

Transportation and walking, 128 Other activities, 128

OWNERSHIP, 129 B . 1 . a Extent of ownership, 129 B' 1 . b Age differences, 130 B' 1 . c Trends , 130

Public versus family responsibility, 106 Individual responsibility, 106

OLDER PEOPLE WITHIN THE EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE, 113 2· a The age pattern of education, 113

Urban-Tllral and fann differences, 123 Differences by states, 124

B·l

THE EDUCATION OF OLDER PEOPLE, 112 1 . a Educational attainment, 112 l ' b Variations among older people, 112 1 . c The foreign born, 113 2

Rural areas, 122

OLDER PEOPLE WITHIN THE COMMUNITY SETTING, 125 A' 3 . a Relationships with neighbors, 125 A ' 3 . b Use of community facilities, 127 A' 3 . c A· 3' d

Social norms, 105

D' 1 . b D' 1 . c

5

A Geographic distribution , 122

B' 5 . e

B·6

Older people as guests, 134

By marital status, 135 By income, 135 By color, 136 By health status, 136

OLDER PEOPLE AND THEIR HOMES, 136 B' 6 · a Housing and social activities, 136 B .6 . b

B· 6 . c

Household management, 138 Housing and health, 139

B ·7

OLDER PEOPLE IN INSTITUTIONS, 141

B ' 7'a B·7·b B'7'c B·8

TRENDS IN MARITAL STATUS, 160 A' 2' a Changes in individual status, 161 A' 2 . b Changes in family status, 162

A' 3

THE CHANGING ROLE OF MORTALITY, 163 A' 3' a Marital dis solution by death, 163 A ' 3 ' b DUTation of marriage, 164 A . 3 . c Age at widowhood, 165 A' 3 . d Chances that a wi fe will survive heT

RetiTement housing, 142 Federal pTogTams, 142 Reactions to public housing, 142

husband, 166 A' 3' e Duration of widow hood, 166

Mobility, 143

C

B

THE AGE PATTERN OF MOBILITY, 143

C' I . a

C·1 ·b

Five·yeaT Tates, 143 Annual Tates , 144

C ·2

THE DIRECTION OF MOBILITY, 144 C ' 2 . a Local moving veTSUS migTation, 145 C' 2· b B y sta tes, 146

C '3

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOVERS, 147

C ' 2· c

C' 3· a C• C• C' C' C '

C·4

A'2

PROGRAMS, 142

B'8'a B'8'b B ' 8'c

C' I

Institutions in geneTal, 141 Homes fOT the aged, 142 TTends, 142

3 3 3 3 3

.b •c .d •e .t

B ·1

Marital and household status, 147 LaboT fOTce status, 149 Socioeconomic status, 150 Home owneTship, 150 NeighboThood friendships, 150 Mobile veTSUS stationary individuals, 151

B'2

Economic reasons., 153

Ties to people and community, 153 Moving veTS us wanting to move, 153

C'5

OTHER HOUSING ADJUSTMENTS, 153

C' 6

ENFORCED RELOCATION, 154

B'3

Extent of uTban Tenewal, 154 ChaTacteri stics of oldeT people undeT uTban Tenewal, 154 C· 6 . c Some consequences of TeZocation fOT oldeT people, 154

C.6.b

7

THE FAMILY

A A'l

157

The families of older people, 158

FAMILY STATUS, 158

A' I . a A' 1 . b

A•1•c

A' I . d A. 1•e

A. I . f

Marital status and age, 158 Sex diffeTences in marital status, 159 PaTental status, 160 GTandpaTental status, 160 GTeat'gTandpaTental status, 160 Sibling status, 160

Living inside and outside families, 167 Living with husband OT wi fe, 168 Living with childTen, 169 PToximity to childTen, 170 Living with otheT Telatives, 171

1· a I . b I' c

B·4

FOT humans, 188 FOT otheT species, 189 VaTiabiZit y, 189

2

HEREDITARY FACTORS IN LONGEVITY, 189 2' a ChiLdTen VeTsus paTents, 189 2 . b Id entical twins, 190 2' c Selectiv e bTeeding, 190 2' d H ybTids v eTSUS pUTebTeds, 190

3

RADIATION AND AGING, 190 3' a In animals, 191 3' b In humans, 191

4

AUTOIMMUNITY AND AGING, 191

4· 4· 4' 4.

MAINTAINING OWN HOUSEHOLD, 171

5

a b

c d

Indexes of autoimmunity, 192 Autoimmune lesions, 192 Experimental immune disease, 192 Leading causes of death, 192

DIET AND AGING, 192

5· a 5' b

5· c

Caloric intalle and longevity, 192 Caloric intalle and aging, 192 Weight and longevity, 1 92

6

STRESS, 192

9

MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN THE POPULATION 195

TRENDS IN LIVING ARRANG EMENTS, 175

B . 3 . a MOTe oldeT people living with husband OT wife, 176 B · 3 . b FeweT oldeT people living with Telatives, 176 B • 3 • c MOTe oldeT people as heads of house· holds, 176 B' 3 . d MOTe oldeT heads outside of family gTOUpS, 178 B' 3 • e Decline in paTents as hosts to young adult offspring, 178 B •3 •f Recent decline in oldeT people a s guest. of theiT childTen, 180 B' 3 • g Decline in 10dgeTs and ToomeTs, 180 B' 3' h No long·term decline in multigeneTation households, 180

C' 6 · a

187

LIVING IN FAMILI ES, 167

Extent of maintaining own household, 172 OldeT people as heads in single· geneTation households, 173 B' 2 . c Household heads in combined households, 173 B' 2· d OldeT people as Telatives of the head, 174 B . 2 . e Relatives living in households of oldeT people, 174

Housing, 152

THE NATURE OF AGING

TH E AGE PATTERN OF MORTALITY, 188

B.2. a B.2•b

ATTITUDES TOWARD MOVING, 151

C·4 ·a C·4 ·b C·4 ·c C·4 ·d

8

Living arrangements of older people, 167

B ·1·a B·I·b B·I · c B·I · d B·I · e

By size of place, 146

Part 2 The organism 185

ASSOCIATED FACTORS, 181 B' 4' a Health, 181 B· 4 . b Income, 182 B' 4· c Occupational bacllgTound, 182 B' 4' d RUTal,uTban Te sidence, 182 B' 4 ' e Norm s, 182

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY, 197

1.a 1. b

1.c I .d I . e

2

The age palteTn, 197 TTends, 197 Sex diffeTences, 200 DiffeTences by occupational level, 202 FutuTe possibilities, 202

MORBIDITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES, 204 2' a ChTonic conditions as a whole, 205 2 . b Impairment, 206 2' c ChTonic dis ease, 210 2 . d Acute conditions, 210 2 . e Sex diffeTences in chTonic and acute

conditions, 211 f Disability, 2 12 g Disability and chTonic conditions, 214 h TTend s in health, 215 i Medical caTe, 217

2' 2' 2. 2'

Detailed table of contents

599

10

PHYSICAL CHANGES 221

1

CONN ECTIVE TISSUE, 222

1.a 1.b

1.

C

1.d 2

3

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, 223 2 . a Brain weight, 223 2 • b Brain substance, 224 2 . C Lipofuscin, 224 2 . d Slowing of nervous impulses, 224

3•e

4

4•b

5

5•b

5.

3•b 3.C 3' d

PHYSIOLOGIC FUNCTIONING, 229 4 . a Decline of functioning, 230

4.b

4.C

Decline in homeostatic mechanisms, 231 Endocrine glands, 232

C

5' d

BEHAVIORAL CHANGES 241

1

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION, 242 1 . a Vision , 242 1 . b Audition, 246 1 • C Taste and smeLL, 248 1 . d Pain, 248

Vibration sense, 249 Touch, 249 Kinesthesia and weight discrimination, 249 1 . h Time perception, 249 1 . i Visual perception of dimension and direction, 249 1.j Perception of incomplete, concealed, and ambiguous form , 249

12

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND NEEDS 275

1

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS, 276

1.a 1.C 1· d 1.e 1.f 1.g 1•h 2

1.e 1.f 1 .g

2

2 •a 2 •C 2.d 2· e

2· f

3. b

3.

Muscular strength, 250 Reaction time, 251 Movement time, 252 Complex experimental tasILs, 252 Automobile driving, 252 The nature of performance changes, 254

C

Cross·section studies, 255 Test components, 255 Longitudinal studies, early and middle

years, 256

Detailed table of contents

2 •a 2 •C

Power need, 283 Achievement need, 283 Affiliation need, 284

EARLY LIFE·CYCLE CHANGES, 284

Vocational interest, 284 Values, personality characteristics, and attitudes, 284 3 • C Sociability, 284 3•a

3 •b

13

THE SELF 289 SENSE OF UNIQUENESS, 290

2

OVER·ALL EVALUATION, 290

2 •a 2•b 2· C

INTELLIGENCE, 255

3.a

600

MOTIVES AND NEEDS, 283 2•b

3

Rigidity, 276 Restraint, 277 Cautiousness, 278 Passivity,278 Concern with self, 278 Emotionality, 281 Personality structure, 283 The role of intelligence, 283

PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS, 250 2•b

3

DrinILing, 263 SmoILing, 264

Part 3 The personality 273

1•b

11

Marital coitus, 259 Other forms of sexual activity, 260 Sexual capacity, 261 Other associated factors, 261

DRINKING AND SMOKING, 263

6.a 6· b

Changes in heart tissue, 225 Volume of cardiac output, 226 Distribution of cardiac output, 227 Arteriosclerosis, 227

Memo"), 258 Learning, 258

SEX, 258

5 •a

6

Longitudinal studies, Later years, 256 Associated factors, 257

MEMORY AND LEARNING, 258

4' a

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, 225

3 ' a

4

Amount of collagen, 222 Amount of ground substance, 222 Character of collagen, 222 Elastin, 222

3•d

3

Strong points, 290 Shortcomings, 291 Self·acceptance, 291

HEALTH, 292 3 . a Self'assessment, 292 3 . b Comparison with peers, 293

3'c 3'd 3'e

4

5

4

6•b

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS, 300 7 • a Marriage, 300 7· b Parenthood, 301 7· C Social shills, 301 GENERAL ADJUSTMENT, 302

9

SELF·CONFIDENCE, 302 9 . a In middle age, 302 9 ' b In old age, 302

12

14

4. b

4· c

AGE IDENTIFICATION, 302 10' a Felt age of older people, 303 10' b Relation to actual age, 304 10 . c R e lation to peTceived change, 305 10 • d Relation to health, 305 10 • e Relation to socioeconomic status, 305 10 • f Relation to role participation, 305 10' g Denial of old age, 305 POPULAR STEREOTYPES OF OLD PEOPLE, 306 11 · a Distinctive characteristics of the aged, 306 11 . b Public views versus older peoples' views, 306 POPULAR STEREOTYPES OF OLD AGE, 309 12 • a Evaluation of life stages, 309 12· b Criteria of old age, 310 12 • c Awareness of aging, 311

LIFE ATTITUDES

1•d 1.e

5·c 5'd

Views of health services, 319 Health care, 320 Factors in health care, 321

Concern with the externa l situation, 328 The sense of fatality , 329 Anomie, 330

2

Past versus future, 331 The sense of futurity , 331 Positive versus negative views, 331 Pas sage of time, 332

DEATH ,332 6 • a Concern with death, 333 6' b Death and immortality, 334 6 .c Po sitive versus negative views, 335 6.d Preparation for death, 336 6 .e Professional help, 337

LIFE SATISFACTION

341

1.c

Fantasy behavior, 343

1 . d

WOTTlJ, 343

1.e

Life·cycle changes, 345

HEALTH,345

2.a 2 .b

2· c 2•d

3

3' c

5

THE SELF-IMAGE, 356

7.a 7•b

16

Health and life satis faction, 345 Life·c ycle changes, 346 WOTTlj about health, 347 Health as a source of happiness, 348

A·l

Self-image and life satisfaction, 356 Self-image versus situational factors, 356

MENTAL DISORDER AND DEVIANCE TYPES OF DISORDER, 363 Organic disorders, 364 A' 1. a

A · l·b A'I'c A'2

361

Mental disorder, 363 Functional versus organic disorders, 366 Mental illness in general, 369

AGE PATTERNS, 370 A ' 2' a Psychotic disorders, 370 A' 2 . b Neurotic disorders , 373 A • 2 • c Symptoms experienced as physical

illness, 373 Symptoms experienced as psychological disturbance, 374

A •2 •d

A'3

INSTITUTIONALIZATION AND TREATMENT, 375

A ' 3'a A ·3· b A ' 3'c A · 3·d A ·3 · e A' 3' f A·4

In mental hospitals, 375 In other types of institutions, 378 Living at home, 380 Clinics and doctors, 381 Age as a factor in care, 382 Trends, 382

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS, 385

A•4•a A' 4· b A' 4' c

Sex, 386 Socioeconomic status, 388 Marital status, 391

SOCIOECONOMIC STAnis, 348

3.a 3 •b 4

7

ACTIVITY IN GENERAL, 353 6 . a Activity and life satisfaction, 353 6 ' b Life-cycle changes, 354 6 . c Disengagement, 355

A

OVER-ALL SATISFACTION, 342 1.a Happine ss, 342 1. b Morale, 343

315

HEALTH AND ILLNESS, 317 1· a Concern with h ealth, 317 1 • b V iews of health, 318

1.c

5' b

15

Attitude toward assistance, 326 Handling of personal problems, 327

PAST AND FUTURE, 331

5'a

6

6

THE LARGER ENVIRONMENT, 328

4.a

Moral and virtuous stereotypes, 299 Personality traits, 299

8

11

3 ' b

5

Views of mental illness, 324 Attitude toward treatment, 324

PERSONAL PROBLEMS, 326

3' a

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS, 299

6· a

10

2. b

ACHIEVEMENT, 297

Job performance, 297 Intelligence, 297 Salience of education, 298 Salience of achievement, 298

MENTAL ILLNESS AND DEVIANCE, 324

2· a 3

5' b 5.C 5.d

7

2

BODY IMAGE, 294 4' a Appearance as a shortcoming, 295 4 . b Somatic concern, 295

5' a

6

Relation to actual health, 293 Life·cycle changes, 294 Associated fa ctors, 294

Socioeconomic status and life satisfaction, 348 Life·cycle changes, 348 Financial .'c oncerns, 348

B

SUICIDE, 392 B. 1. a The age pattern, 392 B. 1. b Rates by age and sex, 393 B' 1 'c Sex differences, 394 B' 1 . d Rates for age and sex, by marital status, 394 B. 1. e Marital status differences, 395 B. 1 •f Color, 396 B. 1.g The meaning of suicide, 396 B' 1· h Trends, 398

B·2

CRIME,399 B •2 . a The age pattern, 399

WORK AND RETIREMENT, 350 4 . a Adjustment to worh , 350 4 . b Retirement and life satisfaction, 350 4· c Life-cycle changes, 351 THE FAMILY, 352

5' a 5. 5. 5• 5·

b c d

e

Adjustment to marriage, 352 Marital status and life satis fa ction, 352 Adjustment to parenthood, 353 Parenthood and life satisfaction, 353 Hou sing, 353

Suicide and crime, 392

B' 1

Detailed table of contents 601

B · 2·b Sex differences, 400 B·2·c Types of offense, 401 B·2·d Life·cycle changes, 402

B·2

CREATIVE PRODUCTIVITY OVER THE LIFE CYCLE, 435 B· 2 . a Peahs in middle years, 435

B· 2 . b B · 2· c

Part 4 Social roles 17

407

B· 3

ROLES OVER THE LIFE CYCLE, 410

1· a 1. b

1· c

Shifts in the role stnLcture, 410 Role salience, 411 Changes in life eX1Jectancy, 412

2

THE AGE PATTERN OF ACTIVITY, 413

3

SUBJECTIVE ASPECTS, 415 3· a Feelings of loneliness, 415 3 . b Loss of affection, 415 3· c Feelings of uselessness, 416 3· d Role assessment, 416

4

4.d

ACTIVITY LEVELS OVER THE LIFE CYCLE, 418 5· a Activity, 418 5 . b Social participation, 418 5· c I solation, 419

18

WORK AND RETIREMENT A

A·2

HOUSEWORK: A SPECIAL CASE, 425

B·l

JOB PERFORMANCE, 426 B· 1 . a Productivity, 427 B . 1 . b Attendance at worh, 429 B· 1 . c Job stabilitlJ, 431 B· 1 . d Worh injuries, 432

The retirement role, 442

C•1•d

C. 1.e C· 1· f

General acceptance, 443 Financial outlooh, 444 Socioeconomic factors, 445 Age as a factor, 445 Planning for retirement, 446 Trends, 447

C·2

THE RETIREMENT DECISION , 447 C . 2 . a Voluntary retirement, 448 C · 2· b Health as a factor , 449 C • 2 . c Attitudes toward worh, 450 C . 2 . d Attitudes toward leisure, 450 C . 2 . e Income as a factor, 451

C·3

WORK AFTER RETIREMENT, 452 C . 3 . a Continuation of worh, 452 C . 3 • b

C·4

C.4 . b

C·4·c C · 4·d C·4·e C· 4· f

19

Return to worh, 452

ADAPTATION TO RETIREMENT, 453

C· 4 . a

The worlt role, 426

Female applicants: a special case, 434 Indirect measures, 434

Interest in learning, 440 On·the·job training, 441

RETIREMENT IN PROSPECT, 443

C•1. a C· 1 . b C. 1.c

Worh versus retirement, 422

B · 1 . e B· 1 . f

Detailed table of contents

421

EXPECTED YEARS OF WORK AND RETIREMENT, 422 A • 1 . a Expectancies in 1960, 422 A· 1 . b Trends, 424 A· 1 . c Cross·cultural differences, 424

B

602

C C·l

Commitment, 438 Adaptation, 438 Job satisfaction, 438 Aspirations, 439 Feelin9s of adequacy, 439 The meaning of w orh, 440

OCCUPATIONAL LEARNING, 440

B· 4 . a B· 4 . b

Health, 416 Socioeconomic status, 416 Role lJatterns, 417 Individual differences, 418

5

A·l

B·4

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH ACTIVITY, 416

4· a 4· b 4.c

ATTITUDES TOWARD WORK, 438

B·3·a B·3·b B·3·c B·3 · d B·3·e B·3 . f

THE STRUCTURE OF ROLES 409

Later life lJroductivity, 435 Contributions of the later years, 436

General acceptance, 453 H ealth, 454 Income, 454 Loss of the worh role, 456 Adjustment, 457 Social participation, 458

POLITICAL ROLES

463

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND INTEREST, 464 1 . a The age pattern of votin9 participation, 464 1 . b Voting participation, by age and sex, 466 1 . c Voting participation, by age and

education, 467

I •d I .e I .f

2

Additional characteristics of older voters, 468 Political associations, 468 Political interest, 468

3.b

3' c

4· e 5

Republicans in the United States, 471 Conservativ es in Great Britain, 471 Differences amon9 cohorts, 471 Life·cycle differences, 472

5' d

7

RELIGION AND LIFE SATISFACTION, 496 7.a Adjustment, 496 7•b Loneliness, 496

LEADERSHIP IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS, 475 National leadership, 475 5.b State and local offices, 477

8

SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS, 496 8 .a Concentrations of older people, 497 8. b Religious programs for older people, 497

5' a

5· c 5 •d

5•e 6

Community leadership, 477 Leadership in primitive societies, 478 Personal influence, 478

483

RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION, 484 1.a Extent of identification, 484 1 . b Preferences, 485 1.c Church membership, 485 I . d Intra faith marriage and friendship, 485

21

2 2 2 2 2 2

•b .c .d .e •f .g

2· h

Among older people, 485 The age pattern in general, 486 Attendance and religious preference, 487 Attendance and sex, 488 Religious activity of the physically ab le, 488 A multivariate analysis, 489 Attendance over the life cycle, 489 Societal trends in attendance, 490

RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS, 490

3' a 3•b

Membership, 490 Religious leadership , 490

VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS

THE PATTERN OF ACTIVITIES, 515 2•a Major activities, 515 2. b Idleness, 516 2· c Life-cycle changes, 516

3

VISITING, 517 3' a Among older people 65 and over, 517 3' b Older people versus younger people, 518

4

MASS MEDIA, 518

4 . a Television, 518 4 ' bReading, 521 4· c Movies, concerts, and sports events, 523 4' d Content preferences, 524 5

6

HOBBIES, STUDYING, AND CULTURAL PURSUITS, 526 5· a Handiwork, crafts, and hobbies, 526 5 .b Adult education, 526 5 . c Other cultural pursuits, 527 OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES, 527

2

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMBERS, 506 2.a Social integration, 506 2•b Adjustment, 507

3

TYPES OF ASSOCIATIO N S, 507 3' a Among older people, 507 3 •b Older people.., . us li:Junger people, 507 3' c Relation to ret 'uml'nt, 508

4

SPECIAL CLUBS FOR OLDER PEOPLE, 508 4 .a Participation, 508 4 . b A case example, 508 4 . c Legislation, 509

5

NORMS, 509

22

LEISURE ROLES

6' b

501

MEMBERSHIP, 502 1. a The age pattern of membership, 502 1. b M embership, by age and sex, 504 1. c M embe rs h.ilJ and socioeconomic status, 504 I •d ParticilJation, 506 1. e Changes over the life cycle, 506

CHURCH ATTENDANCE, 485

2· a

Older people's views of religion, 498

Sex differences, 514 Other factors, 514

2

6 .a

Political movements, 478

20 RELIGIOUS ROLES

3

8' c

THE IMPACT OF OLDER PEOPLE ON THE POLITICAL SYSTEM, 478 6.a Age composition of the electorate, 478 6 . b

2

Belief in God, 493 Belief in immortality, 493 Creedal orientation, 493 Trends, 493

4.b

POLITICAL IDEOLOGY, 473 4 . a When older people are more conservative

I .c I .d

BELIEFS, 493

5.a 5· b 5' c

IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION , 494 6.a Among older people, 494 6.b Older people versus younger people, 495 6 . c Life-cycle changes, 495

than younger people, 473 When older people are less conservative than younger people, 475 4 · c Individual variations amon9 older people, 475

5

4.d

Practices and attitudes, 490 Devotional orientation, 491 Time spent on worship and meditation, 491 Religious education, 493 Religiolls knowledge, 493

6

3.d

4

4. b

4.c

PARTY AFFILIATION, 471

3.a

PERSONAL OBSERVANCES, 490

4.a

POLITICAL COMMITMENT, 469 2•a Strength of partisanship, 469 2.b Partisanship, age, and duration of party

identification, 470 3

4

7

8

VACATION AND TRAVEL, 532 7 . a Vacations and outings, 532 7. b Foreign travel, 532 ATTITUDES TOWARD LEISURE, 533

8 .a 8 . b

23

Personal assessments, 533 Public attitudes toward leisure, 533

FAMILY

A A'I

Outdoor recreation away from home, 529 Gardening, 531

Marital roles , 538

MUTUAL ACTIVITY OF HUSBAND AND WIFE, 538 A•1•a Shared activities, 538 A' I . b Help and services, 538

A• I •c A·2

TIME FOR LEISURE, 513 I' a Among older lJeople 65 and over, 513

I . bOlder l1eople versus younger people, 513

A' 3

Decision malting, 538

QUALITY OF THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP, 539 A.2•a Satisfaction, 539 A•2 •b Relation to retirement, 540 A•2 •c

511

537

Personality congruence, 540

WIDOWHOOD, 540 A' 3.a Mortality, 540 A•3 . b

A' 3 . c

Sense of bereavement, 540 Anticil,atory responses, 540

Detailed table of contents 603

B B· 1

Parental and other family roles, 541

INTERACTION, 541 B . 1 . a With children, 541 B . 1 • b With children-in-law, 544 B . 1 • c With other relatives, 544 B • 1 • d Total hinship interaction, 544 B • 1 . e Attitudes toward seeing relatives, 547 B . 1.f Attitudes toward joint living arrange-

25

2

2. b

HELP AND SERVICES, 550

B· 2 . a

Reci procity, 551 Financial SUPPOTt, 553 EmeTgency help, 553 B · 2· d Norms v ersus behavior, 554

3

B •3

24

SOLIDARITY AND STRAIN, 554 B • 3 • a Ties to children, 554 B . 3 . b Parental dependence, 554 B • 3 • c Satisfaction with the parental role, 555 B • 3 • d Ties to other relatives, 558 B • 3 • e Social mobility and retirement, 558

FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS 561 FRIENDSHIP PARTICIPATION, 562 1 . a Extent, 562 1 . b The age pattern, 562 1 . C Over the life cycle, 562 1 . d Socioeconomic statlls, 563 1· e Sex, 565 1•f Health, 565

2

THE NEIGHBORHOOD CONTEXT, 565 2 . a Friends as neighboTs, 565

2· b 2· c 2•d 3

RELATION TO OTHER ROLES, 570

3.a 3•b

3· c 4

Detailed table of contents

Emergency assistance, 573 Regular contacts, 573 Help from older people, 574

OLDER PEOPLE'S ATTITUDES, 574

6· a 6· b

604

Age similarity, 571 Other similarities, 573

HELP AND SERVICES, 573

5· a 5· b 5· C 6

Marital statlls, 570 PaTental status, 570 Retirement status, 571

HOMOPHILY, 571

4· a 4· b 5

Length of residence, 565 Size of community, 566 Social composition, 567

Significance of friendship , 574 Satisfa ctioll with friendship , 574

3•d 4

Demographic characteristics, 579 Social and economic chaTacteristics, 580 Physical and mental health, 580

Attempted alternativ es, 584 PTecipitants to institutionalization, 584

ATTITUDES TOWARD INSTITUTIONS, 585

3· a 3· b 3.c

B •2-b B•2. c

ARE THE INSTITUTIONALIZED?, 579

PROCESSES LEADING TO INSTITUTIONALIZATION, 583

2.a

ments,549 B· 2

ROLES IN INSTITUTIONS 577 WHO 1.a 1•b 1.c

Older people's preferences, 585 Ex pressed reasons, 586 Associated characteristics, 586 Preferences v ersus dispositions to act, 586

LIFE IN THE INSTITUTION, 587

a The setting, 587 b Socialization, 588 c Activity, 588 d Social relations, 590 4 . e Privacy, 590

4. 4· 4· 4· 5

CONSEQUENCES, 591

5· a 5· b 5 •c

Length of stay, 591 Survival, 591 Life satisfaction and self-image, 593 5 • d Programs and treatment, 593

SUBJECT INDEX*

Ab senteeism , 429-430, 430 Accidents as cause of death, 196-197, 196. 198. 199. 201 at work, 432-433, 433 SEE ALSO : Injury automobile, 253, 253 gain in life expectancy if reduced, 203 Accommodat io n of eye, 245, 245 Achievement, 8, 284 need, 282. 283-284 SEE ALSO : Self-image and achievement norm , 558 self-assessment of, 297-298 SEE ALSO : Aspiration ACTH and adrenal cortex hormones, 233 Acti vity, 346, 346. 353-356, 413-414, 416-418 and access to relatives and friends, 417-418 and color, 417 and concern with death, 334 and education, 4, 417 and employment status, 418 and health , 294, 295. 416 , 417 and household status, 418 and intelligence, 355 and living arrangements, 142,417 and loneliness, 415, 415 and marital status, 417,417. 538 and occupation, 417, 417 and residential stability, 417, 417 • Numbers in bold face refer to exhibits

and sex, 417 and size of place, 127. 128 and socioeconomic status, 416-417 and time orientation, 331-332 and uselessness, feelings of, 416 attitudes toward, 416 hours spent on, 513. 514 individual differences, 418 in institutions, 587-590, 589 leisure, 515 life-cycle changes, 352-353, 352. 418-419 outdoor, 527-531, 528-529. 530 patterns of, 515-517 politica l , 468 restrictions of SEE: Disability satisfaction with, 416-418 SEE ALSO : Interaction Acute brain syndrome, 375. 376. 378. 379 Acute conditions, 210-211 , 211 SEE ALSO : Morbidity Adequacy of income SEE: In come adequacy Adequacy, sense of, 7, 439-440, 439 as parent, 4, 301, 301. 555-556 in job performance, 297, 439, 439 in m a rriage , 4 , 300, 300 in socia l relationships, 300-301 i ntellectual, 297-298 SEE ALSO : Self-evaluation; Self-image Adju stment and age identification, 356 and health, 347 and religion , 496 and vo luntary association membership, 507 ma rita I, 352, 539-40, 539 of residents in old -age home, 593 pa rental , 353 self-assessment of, 302 to reti rement, 453-458, 456. 457. 459 to work, 350, 438 SEE ALSO : Happiness; Morale; Satisfaction Adrenal cortex hormones, 233 Adrenal gland function , 233 Adult education, 116- 119, 116. 117. 118. 119. 440, 441. 493,

506, 516. 526- 527 SEE ALSO: Job training; Leisure. educational activities; Retraining Advancement, ex pectation of, 440 Affection, loss of, 354, 415, 415 SEE ALSO : Isolation

Affective expression, 281-282, 281 Affiliation need, 282, 284 Age composition of population, 3, 21-24,2 1. 23 Age di sc rimination in hiring SEE: H iring Aged , stereotypes of, 7, 306-30B SEE ALSO : Stereotypes of old age Age homogeneity and friendship, 566. 567, 567. 571-573,

571,572 Age identification, 7, 302-305, 303 a nd actual age, 304-305, 304 and cautiousness, 278 and fantasy behavior, 356, 357, 357 and friendship, 304. 305 and future orientation, 305 and health, 305, 346 and morale, 356 and perceived changes in self, 305 and psychiatric symptoms, 305 and role pa rticipation , 305 and satisfaction, 356 and socioecono mic status (SES), 305 and widowhood, 305 views of others' assessment, 303 Age pigment SEE: Lipofuscin Age strata, 2-3 Age structure of society, 2-7 Aging, awareness of, 311 Aggression, 284 Agricu lture, effect of decline on retirement, 53- 54 Alcoholic beverages, use of SEE: Drinking; Drunkenness Alcoholism , 264, 368 SEE ALSO : Drinking; Drunkenness Amyloid deposits and aging, 192 Androgens , 233 Aneurysm , definition, 227 Anger, 281. 282 Annoyance , 281 Annuities, 73, 90, 93 Anom ie, 330, 330 Antibodies and aging, 192 Anticipatory socialization for institutional roles, 588 Anxiety, 374, 388 SEE ALSO: Worry Apartments SEE: Housing Arrests, 399, 399, 401 Arteria l occlusion, 227 Arteries, changes in , 227-229

Subject index

605

Arteriosclerosis, 196, 198, 227-229 Arteriosclerosis, cerebral SEE: Cerebral arteriosclerosis Arthritis and rheumatism , 210, 210, 215, 215 Arts , creative output, 435, 435, 436 Aspiration , 439 SEE ALSO : Achievement Assets, 85-95 and income, 88 f inancial , 87-88 , 87, 88, 90, 91-93 investment, 87, 90, 92- 93 life-cycle patterns, 89-95 liquid, 87, 88 , 90, 92 marketable securities, 87-88, 87, 90, 92 prorated over expected life, 85 tangible , 90 SEE ALSO: Automobile ownership; Home equity; Home ownership Assistance, attitudes toward, 326-327 Associations, voluntary SEE: Voluntary associations Asthma and hay fever, 210, 2 10 Atherosclerosis, 227-229, 228 SEE ALS O: A rteriosclerosis; Cerebral arteriosclerosis; Coronary heart disease Atherosclerotic plaque, 227 Attitudes indicating rigidity, 276 SEE ALSO: Conservatism over life cycle, 284, 285 political, 473-475 public SEE: Norms toward body, 295-296 toward change, 473 toward criminals, 325 towa rd death , 332-337 toward dental care, 320, 321 toward deviance, 324-325 toward doctors, 319-320, 319, 322, 323 toward friendships , 574 toward health, 317-323 toward health services, 319-320 towa rd hel p, 326-327, 554, 555 toward hospitals, 319, 319 towa rd illness, 317-323 toward institutions, 585-5 87 toward interactio n with relatives, 547 toward leisure, 533 toward livi ng arrangements, 548, 549-550 toward mental hospitals, 324

606

Subject index

toward mental illness, 324-325, 325 toward moving, 150, 151, 151, 152, 153, 566 toward nonconformity, 473-475, 473 toward nursing homes, 140, 585-586 towa rd old -age homes, 585-586 toward parental role, 555-557 toward Peace Corps , 475 toward personal problems, 326-327 toward psychiatrists, 324 toward public housing, 142 toward racial integration, 474, 474 toward residence, among relocated persons, 155 toward television, 521 toward work, 438-440, 445 , 450 Audible frequency, 246-247, 246 Audition, 246-248 Auditory impairment, 206, 206, 207, 208, 208, 277, 366 Auditory perception, 248 Auditory threshold , 247, 247 Autoimmune lesions, 192 Autoimmunity and aging, 191-192 Automation , effect on demand for older workers, 55-56 Automobile accidents, 253, 253 drivers, licensed, 254 driving, 252-254, 516, 528, 529, 530, 531 ownership, 92, 128 Average length of life SEE: Expectation of life Back, impairment of, 206, 207, 208 Bank accounts or depOSits SEE: Assets, liquid Basal metabolic rate, changes in, 230, 230 Bathing SEE: Personal care Bed -disability days SEE: Disability Behavior, tests of rigidity, 276 Behavioral changes, 3-4, 241-272 Bereavement SEE : Widowhood Bible reading, 6, 490-491, 496 Bicycling, 530 Binocular acuity, 242 SEE ALSO : Visual acuity Biological aging, 185-194 and autoimmunity, 191-192 and caloric intake, 192, 192, 193 and diet, 192 and radia tion , 190-191

and stress, 192-193 Biological base of age structure, 3-4 Births, 17,2 2 SEE A LSO; Fertility Blindness, 206 , 208 Blood, acidity, 231 Blood group, and myocardial infarction, 229 Blood sugar values, 231 Blue collar SEE; Occupation Boating, 530 Body concern and self-ratings of health, 294, 295 i mage, 294-296 water content, changes in , 230, 230 Bond ownership SEE; Securities Books as source of health information, 321 reading, 516, 521 SEE ALSO; Reading Boredom, 281 , 282 Brain anatomical changes in, 364-365 SEE A LSO ; Mental disorders , organic cavities, in c rease with age, 223 damage , and psychomotor performance changes, 254 disease, senile, 364-365, 364, 376, 378 substance, 224 syndrome s, 3 80

SEE ALSO; Cerebral arteriosclerosis; Mental diso rders, organic; Se n ile brai n disease waves , and psychomotor performance changes, 254 we~ht changes i n , 223, 2 23 volume, changes in, 223 Breathing capacity, 230, 230 Bronchitis, 202, 210, 2 10 Brother SEE; Sibl ings Business equity, 90, 93 SEE ALSO ; Assets , financial

Calcium , in arteries, 227 Caloric intake and aging, 192, 192, 193 and longevity, 192 Camping, 530 Cancer, 4 and aging, 192 as cause of death, 196, 197, 198, 198, 199, 201

g ain in life expectancy if reduced, 20 3 Cardiac change, 2 25- 226 Cardiac disease SEE; Heart disease Cardiac output, 226-2 27 , 226, 230 , 230 Cardiovascular diseases, as cause of death, 200 Cardiovascular-renal diseases as cause of death , 199, 227 g a in in life expectancy if reduced, 203 , 203 Cardiovascular system, changes in, 225-229 Carefulness SEE; Cautiousness Catholic SEE; Religiou s preferences Cautiousness, 254, 278 SEE ALSO; Reaction time Cemetery a rrangements , 337 Centenarian , desire to become, 310 Central nervous system , changes with age, 223-226 Cerebral arteriosclerosis, 364-365, 364-365, 372 , 375, 376,

378, 379, 380, 387 SEE ALSO ; Mental disorders , organic; Senile brain disease Cerebra l atrophy, 364, 364-365 SEE ALSO ; Mental disorders, organic Cerebral blood flow , changes in , 227 Cerebral hemorrhage, 4, 198, 198 Change, attitude toward , 473- 475 Children, 160 and attitude s tow a rd institutions, 586 and attitudes toward moving, 152, 153 and disengagement, 3 55 a nd financial ass istance, 553, 555 as overnight guests , 135 departure of, 162, 162 emotional dependence of pa rents on , 554 exc ha nges of help and services with, 542, 550-554 in household of OP, 168, 175, 175, 178-179 i nterac tion with, 6, 353, 541-544, 541 , 542, 543, 545, 547 legal responsibility for aged parents, 105-106 living with , 168, 169- 170, 169, 171, 173-175, 173, 178-

179, 181-183 of institutionalized , 580 problem s in rai s ing, 556, 5 56, 557 proximity to , 6, 169, 170-171, 353, 541-544, 542, 547,

554, 558- 559 ties to, 554, 558-559 vis its with, 353, 545, 547 SEE ALSO; Parental status; Parenthood; Relatives Children -in-Iaw, interaction with , 544 Cholesterol , and athero sclerosis, 229 Chromosomal aberrations, and aging, 190-191 , 191

Chronic brain syndrome , 369 , 375-378, 375 , 376, 378, 380,

381 , 385, 386 SEE A LSO; Cerebral arteriosclerosis; Mental disorders, organic; Senile brain disease Chronic conditions, 3-4, 181, 205-218, 205, 345 and disability, 214-215 , 2 14 and expenditures for medicines , 2 18 and living arrangements , 181, 181 and sex, 205, 211 trends in , 215-216 SEE ALSO ; Chronic disease; Health; Illness; Impairments; Morbidity Chronic disease , 210, 2 10 and hexosamine/ collagen ratio , 222 , 223 SEE ALSO; Chronic co nditions; I mpairments Chronic disease hospitals, mentally disordered in, 378- 380 Chronic noninfectious diseases , as cause of death, 197,

198-200 Church activities, 128, 506, 507-508, 507, 5 15 by si ze of place, 127 hours spent on , 513 SEE ALSO; Voluntary associations Church attendance, 6, 485-490, 486 and a djustment, 496 and health, 488, 489-490 and income , 489-490 and marital status, 489-490 and religious preference, 487 , 487 and sex, 488, 488 life-cycle pattern , 489-490, 489 trends in , 490 Churc h membership, 485 Churc hes, residential proximity, 127 Cigarette smoking, 264- 265 Cirrhos is of liver, a s cause of death, 196 City , central SEE ; Residence, central cities Ci v ic organ izations , membership, 507-508 , 507 SEE ALSO; Voluntary associations Clothing, 102, 102, 296 Club activities , 507 , 515 SEE ALSO; Voluntary associations Clubs for OP, 508- 509 Cohort succession and social change, 2, 9-11 uniqueness of, 3 Coitus , marital , 259-260, 259 , 260, 262 Collagen changes in, 222 , 223 increase in myo cardium, 226 Co llege attendance

S ubject index

607

SEE: Edu cation Color, 20, 20 and activity, 417 and aging of population , 24 and education, 112, 112 and enforced relocation , 154 a nd home ownership, 131 and housing, characteristics of, 136 and income, 83 and institutionalization, 579, 580 and labor force status, 48, 51 and mortality, 27, 28, 33 and preparation for death, 337 and suicide, 396, 396 and voting, 468 Community effect on residents, 125, 126 leadership, 477-478 pa rticipation, 504--505 SEE A LSO: Community ties; Social participation size and neighborhood ties, 125-126, 566-567 ties and attitudes towa rd moving, 152, 153 ties and housing, 138 Community facilities and attitudes toward moving, 152, 153 desired use, 127 importance, 128 use of, 127-128, 127 Compulsory retirement, 55, 61-62, 448-449, 448 Concert attendance, 516, 523 Conformity, 284 Congenital malformations, as cause of death, 196 Connective tissue aging of and exposure to adiation, 191 changes with age, 222-223, 223 in myocardium , 226 Conservatism, 5, 473-4:15 in stereotypes of aged, 308, 308 Conservative pa rty identification SEE: Political party identification Consistency, 276, 285 Consumption SEE: Spending Coordination, sensorimotor, 252 Coronary heart disease, 201, 202, 229 SEE ALSO: Atherosclerosis; Heart disease Crafts, SI S, 526 Creativity, 435-437, 435, 436, 437 Cri me , 399-403 explanations of reduction in old age, 399 group offenses vs. single offenders, 401

608

Subject index

life·cycle changes, 402-403 sex comparisons, 400 types of offense, 401 SEE ALSO : Deviance Criminal s, attitudes toward, 325 Critical flicker fusion, 245 Cross-section data and analysis of age structure , 2 Crowding SEE: Housing, living space Cultural pursu its, 65 , 526-527 SEE ALSO : Le is ure Dancing, 516 Darkness, threshold for adaptation to, 244, 244 Deafness SEE: Auditory impairment Death anticipation of, 352 attitudes toward, 332-337, 334, 335 causes of, 4, 192, 196-203, 198, 396-397 concern with, 333-334, 333 fea r of and stereotype of aged, 306 image of, 334 nearness of and time orientation, 331 of spouse SEE: Marriage, dissolution by death; Widowhood preparation for, 336-337, 336, 3 37 rates, possibility of further decline, 202-203, 20 2 SEE ALSO: Mortality Debt, 86, 90, 93-94, 94 SEE ALSO : Liabilities Decision making in family, 583 Demand for older workers, relation to technological change,

55-56 Democratic pa rty identification SEE: Political party identification Demographic aspects of age structure, 3 SEE ALSO : Population Dental care, 218 attitude toward, 320, 321 expenditures , 10 3, 104 visits to dentist, 320 SEE ALSO: Edentulous persons Dependence on c hildren, emotional , 554 Depression, psychological , 345, 346, 346 SEE ALSO : Unhappiness; Worry Deprivation, relative, 9, 10-11 Depth perception, 249 Deviance, 361-406 attitudes towa rd , 324-325 SEE ALSO : Crime

Diabetes, 210, 210 and atherosclerosis, 229 and aging, 192 as cause of death, 198 Diarrh ea, as cause of death, 198 Diet and atherosclerosis, 229 and biologica l aging, 192 interest in, 321 Digestive illnesses, 211 Digit symbols, test performance, 257 Disability, 3, 57, 212-213, 21 2, 433, 433 and absenteeism, 430 and chronic conditions, 214-215, 214 and employment status, 57, 57,213 and expenditures for medicine, 218 and income, 2 12, 213 and mental health, 366 and sex, 57, 212, 212-213 and urban-rural residence, 213 causes of, 215 of institutionalized, 580-583 SEE ALSO : Illness; Impairments; I njury; Morbidity Disabled, preferred living arrangements, 587 Discrimination in hiring SEE: Hiring Disease SEE: Morbidity Disengagement, 355-356, 355 SEE ALSO : Activity; Interaction; Role loss; Withdrawa l Disorderly conduct, 401 SEE ALSO : Crime Dividends, 72-74, 72, 73, 85 Doctors attitudes toward, 319-320, 319, 322, 32 3 expenditures for, 103, 104 private treatment of mentally disordered , 381-382 visits to, 3, 217, 217, 320 Dogmatism , 276 Dressing SEE: Personal care Drinking, 263-264, 263 SEE ALSO : Alcoholism; Drunkenness Drivers , licensed SEE: Automobile drivers Driving SEE: Automobile driving Drunke nn ess, 401, 401, 403 SEE ALSO : A lcoholism Dwellings SEE: Housing

Dying, self-image of, 292 Dying, self-concern among , 280 Earnings, 72-74, 72, 73, 80, 80 Economic deprivation and adjustment to not working, 456 and fee lings of job deprivation , 456-457 feelings of, 454- 456, 4 55 Economic status SEE: Income ; Socioeconomic status Economic sector and age, 5 Edentulous persons, 209, 209 Education, 4-5, 11, 111-120 adult education, 116-119, 116, 117, 118, 119, 440, 441 ,

492, 506, 5 16, 526-527 SEE A LSO: Job trai n ing; Leisure, education al activities; Retraining and activity, 4, 417 and color, 112 and concern with world situation, 328, 328 and death, orientations to, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 337 and financial concerns, 348, 349 and happiness, 4, 342, 348 and help, attitudes toward, 326, 326 and income, 4, 79, 83 and job training, 442 and labor force status, 48, 49-50, 49 and learning, interest in, 4, 526-527, 527 and marital adjustment, 4, 300, 352 and mental disorder, 388, 389, 389, 390 and optimism, 4 and outdoor recreation , 530 and parental role, adjustme nt to, 4, 353, 556 and psychomotor performance, 254 and radio content preferences, 525 and reading, 4, 521 and residential mobility, 150 and reti rement, 4, 445 and self-concern, 280 and self- image, 290, 291, 298, 298, 299 and sex, 112 and television viewing, 518 and tolerance of nonconformists, 473 and unemployment, 55 and urban-rural residence, 112 and vacations, 532 and voluntary association m emberstJip, 4, 504-505, 506 and voting, 467-468, 467 and worry, 344, 348 college attendance, 114 fixed nature of, 5

lack of as perceived shortcoming, 298, 298 life-c ycle patterns, 116-119 of labor force , 55, 58-59, 58 of occupations over time, 55 religious, 493 trends, 114-115, 114, 11 5 within families, 115 SEE ALSO: Job training; Occupatio nal training; Retraini ng Elastin , 222, 226 Elderly, self-perception as SEE: Age identification Electorate, agi ng of, 478 SEE ALS O: Voting Embezzlement, 401 , 403 SEE ALS O: Crime Emboli , definition, 227 Embolic infarctions, definition, 227 Emergency help, 553, 573 Emotionality, 281-282 Employment and changing industrial composition, 53 Employment history, and m ental disorder, 367 Employment status and activ ity, 418 and age identification, 304 and attitudes toward moving, 153 and disability, 57, 57, 213 and income, 72-74, 74, 79, 80-81, 451 and morale, 351 and parent-child reciprocity, 551 and residential mobility, 149 and satisfaction, 350-351, 351 effect of retraining, 59 SEE ALSO: Labor force status; Unemployment; Work Endocardium, changes in, 226 Endocrine g lan ds, changes in output, 232-233 Energy, 369 Enteritis, as cause of death, 196, 198 Entertaining, 137, 513, 515 Entertainment, 65 SEE ALSO: Leisure Environment at large, attitudes toward, 328-330 Estrogen leve l, 228, 233 ExerCise, 321 Expectation of life, 6, 24-35, 422 and color, 28, 33 and geographical differences, 35 and marital status, 32-33 and occupational level, 34 and sex, 28, 29, 30-32, 30, 31 for married couples, 164, 164 potential gains in, 203, 203

Subject index

609

through specified life stages , 412 trends, 28, 29, 30, 412 Expenditures SEE: Spending Extraversion , 279, 280 Extremist movements, 478-479 Extremities, impairment of, 206, 207, 208, 215 Eye accommodation, 245, 245

Falls, resulting in impairment, 207 Family, 6, 157-184 affectiona I bonds, 554-559 and satisfaction , 352-353 as source of help with persona l problems, 327, 3 27 composition and living space, 134 cycle, 162 decision making, 538 enjoyment, i n stereotype of aged, 306 income SEE: I ncome living in, 167-171 responsibility, public opinion, 106 roles , 541-559 size and finances, 77, 95, 97, 99 , 99 size and living space, 134 solidarity, 554-559 status , 158-160, 162, 162 strain, 554-559 structure, and interaction with childre n, 538 Fantasy behavior, 343, 353, 356 , 357 , 357 Farm residence SEE: Residence, farm Fatality , sense of, 329 Federal housing gra nts, 142 Female hormone SEE: Estrogen Fertility, 3, 19, 22 , 24 SEE ALSO: Births Finances, 5, 69-107 as reason for relinquishing home own ers h ip, 138-139 Financial assets SEE: Assets, fi n ancial Financial assistance, 553 , 554, 555, 573 SEE A LSO: I ncome Financial concerns, 348-350 , 348 Financial expectations of retire m ent, 444-446 Financial mainten ance and social norm s, 105-106 Financial security, pub lic programs , 105 Fingers, absence of, 206, 208 Firm, changing size in relation to retirement, 54-55

61 0

Subject index

SEE AL SO: Retirement, factors associated with Fishing, 529-531, 529 Flexibility SEE: Rigidity Focal damage, microscopic, 364, 364-365 Food , expenditures for, 102, 102 Foreign birth SEE: Immigration; Nativity Foreign travel, 532 Forgery, 403 SEE ALSO: Crime Fraternal associations, 507-508, 507 SEE ALSO : Voluntary associations Fraud , 401 , 403 SEE ALSO : Crime Friends, 561-575 acquisition of, 562-563 as neighbors, 565 as overnight guests , 137 as source of help with perso na l problems, 327, 327 financial assistance, 72-74, 73 help and services, 573-574 loss of, 562-563 visits to O P, 545 SEE ALSO: Friendships; Neig h borhood; Neigh bors Friendships, 6-7 and age homogeneity, 567, 571-573, 571 and age identification, 304, 305 and homophily, 6, 571-574, 571 and life-cycle changes, 562-563 and neighborhood, 565-569 and proximity, 573, 590 and socioeconomic status, 563 and stereotype of aged, 306 attitudes toward, 574 intrafaith , 485 relation to other roles, 570-571 satisfaction , 574 SEE ALSO : Frie nds; Neighborhood; Neighbors Frigidity, 262, 262 SEE ALS O: Orgasm Funeral arrangements, 337, 337 Futu re 0 rientation SEE: Time orientation Gambling, 401, 401 SEE ALSO : Crime Games, indoor, 516 Gamma globulins and aging, 192 Ga rdening, 137, 138, 513, 515 , 515, 516, 531 Gastritis , as cause of death , 196

Genealogical distance, and interaction with relatives, 546 Genetic factors in longevity SEE: Longevity Geographic differences in mortality, 35 Geographic distribution of O P, 122-124 Geographic location and attitudes toward moving, 152, 153 Geriatric hospitals characteristics of residents , 579 health of patients , 581 length of stay, 591 mentally disordered in, 375-385 misplacement in, 582-583 God, bel ief in, 492, 493 Golden Age Clubs, 508-509 Golgi apparatus, c hanges with age in, 224 Gonadotropins , 233 Government control, attitudes toward , 473-475 Government employees' retirement program, 80 Grandchildren in household of O P, 171, 175, 175, 180 interaction with, 544 t ies to, 558 Grandpare ntal status, 160 Gratificati on SEE: Satisfaction Great-grandparenta l status, 160 Ground substance, 222, 223 Growth hormone , 233

Handiwork, 51 3, 515, 526 Happiness, 7, 342, 342, 348 , 349, 349, 350 and education, 4 a nd time, passage of, 332 life-cycle changes, 345 marital, 352, 539-540, 539 SEE ALSO : Adjustment, marital SEE ALSO: Adjustment; Anomie; M orale; Satisfaction; U nhappiness Hay fever and asthma, 210, 210 Health , 3-4, 58, 346-347, 346, 347 and activity, 416, 417 and attitudes toward living arrangements, 140 and attitudes toward moving, 152 and church atte ndance, 488 , 489-490 and death, concern with, 333 and emotional dependence of parents on childre n , 554 and friendship participation, 565 and household tasks, 139-140, 139, 140 and housing, 136, 136, 139-140 and intelligence test performance , 257

and labor force status, 56-57, 450 and leisure time available, 514 and life satisfaction, 345-348, 355 , 356, 357 and living arrangements, 181 , 181, 549-550 and morale, 344, 351, 351 and occupation, 4 50 and outdoor recreation , 530 and public criteria of old age, 311 and retirement , 448, 449-450, 449, 454, 455 and sexual performance, 262 and social activity, 354-356 and vacations, 532 and work attendance, 430 and work status, 3 51 attitudes toward, 317-324 concern with, 294, 295, 317-318, 317 crises, and emergency help, 553 expectations, 318 expenditures, 101,103-104, 103 information , 321, 3 2 1 med"ical evaluation of, 293-294,293 , 346, 357, 365-376 of institutionalized , 580-583 , 581 , 591-593 physical, in relation to mental health, 366 self-ratings of, 292-294, 293, 295, 305, 346, 3 45-347, 368,

368 self vs_ physician's ratings, 9, 293, 293-294, 357 stereotype of aged, 307, 307 trends in, 3-4, 215-216 worry about, 346,347-348, 347 SEE ALSO: Disease; I llness; I mpairment; M orbidity H ea Ith ca re, 320-323, 3 20 SEE ALSO: Med ica l care Health services use of, 321-323, 322, 3 23 views of, 319-320 SEE A LSO: Medical care Hearing SEE: Audition Hearing loss SEE: Aud ito ry impairment Heart attack, definition , 227 Heart disease, 4, 210, 2 10 as cause of death , 196, 197, 198, 198, 200, 201 as cause of disability, 214-215, 215 H ea rt rates, 231-232 Heart tissue, changes in, 225-226 Help and services attitudes toward, 326-327 emergency, 572 exchange between spouses, 538 exchange with children, 542, 547, 550-554, 551 , 552

exchange with friends and n eighbors, 573-574 exchange with relatives , 550-554 Hereditary factors i n atherosclerosis, 229 Hereditary factors in longevity, 189-190 Hexosamine / collagen ratio, 222, 223 High blood pressure , 210, 210 and aging, 192 and coronary heart disease, 229 as cause of death , 201 as cause of disability, 2 15 Hiking, 530 Hiring practices, 62-63, 62 Hobbies, 516, 517, 526 Hoi idays , 64 SEE ALSO : Leisure Home equity, 85, 86, 87, 87, 90, 91 SEE ALSO : Home ownership Home improvement, 153 Homeostatic mechanisms, changes in, 231-232 Home ownership, 91-92, 91, 129-131, 129 , 130 and attitudes toward institutions, 586 and attitudes towa rd living arrangements, 140 a nd attitudes toward moving, 151 and color, 131 and enforced relocation, 154 and entertaining, 137 and housing characteristics, 134-135 and gardening, 137 and income, 131 and interaction with relatives, 544-546 and marital status, 131 and residential mobility, 150 and television set ownership, 519 and television viewing, 519 and voluntary association membership, 50 3 and willingness to move , 150, 151 relinquishment of, 139 trends, 130 SEE ALSO: Home equity Home repairs, expenditures for, 138 Home rehabilitation grants, Federal , 142 Homes SEE : H ousing Homes for the aged SEE: Institutions; Nursing and perso n al care homes; O ldage homes Home study, 440, 441 Homicide, as cause of death , 196, 201 Homophily in friendships, 6, 571-573, 571 Hormones, 232-233 Horseback riding, 530

Subject index

6 11

Hospitals attitudes toward, 319, 319 care,217,21 7, 320 expenditures, 103 SEE ALSO: Chronic disease hospitals; Geriatric hospitals; Institutions Hours of work, 64 Household composition, 6, 175-180 children in, 168, 169-170, 169, 171, 173-175, 173, 175, 178-179 combined, 168, 169-170, 171, 173-174 grandchildren in, 171, 175, 175, 180 married couple, 175, 176, 176 multigeneration, 170, 180 primary individuals, 167-168, 167, 178, 178 relatives in, 77-78, 78, 171, 174, 174-175, 175, 176, 179, 180, 181-183, 181 single generation , 173 SEE ALSO : Living arrangements Household equipment, 134 Household furnishings, 102, 102 Household operation , expenditures for, 102, 102 Household status, 6 and activity, 418 and housing, 134 and income, 79 and interaction with relatives, 544-546 and residential mobility, 147-148, 148 and willingness to move, 150 female as head, 79, 172, 176, 177 older person as guest, 134-135, 171-175, 174, 180 older person as head, 134-135, 168, 171-179, 172, 173, 175, 177 Household tasks, 138, 139, 350, 425, 425 and health, 139-140, 139, 140 participation of husband , 352, 538 satisfaction with, 349 time spent on, 513, 514, 514 Housing, 128-142 age of structure, 131, 132, 134, 135, 135 and attitudes toward moving, 152, 152 and color, 136 and community ties, 138 and entertaining, 137, 137 and gardening, 137 and health, 136, 139-140 and household status, 134-135, 137 and income, 135 a nd marital status, 135 and ownership, 134, 137, l38 and room rentals, l39

612

Subject index

and social activities, 136-138 changed use of rooms, 153 characteristics of, 132-l34 expenditures for, 102, 102 federal programs, 142 home improvement, 153 length of occupancy, 130, 131-132, 131 living space, 131, 133-134, 133, 135-136, 135 number of rooms, 134, 135 overnight guests, 137 persons per room, 130, 131 programs, 142 publi c, 142 quality, 130, 131, 132, 134, 135-136, 136, 150 reti rement, 142 rooms per person, 133 unit, definition, 132 units in structure, 131, 132-133, 134 value of, 130, 131, 132, 134, 135-136 worry about, 353 Hunting, 528-529, 531 Hypertension, 210, 210 and aging, 192 and coronary heart disease, 229 as cause of death, 201 as cause of disability, 215 Hypochondrias is, and concern with death, 333 Hysteria, and concern with death, 334 Ideology, political, 473-475 Idleness, 515, 516, 517 Illitera cy, 112, 113, 114 SEE ALSO : Educatio n Illness and absenteeism, 430, 430 and help from friends and neighbors, 573 attitudes toward, 317-323 expectation of, 318 mental SEE: Mental disorder perceived advantage of, 318 physical , and mental disorders, 366-367, 366, 367 SEE ALSO : Disability; Impairme nts; Inj ury; Morbidity Immigration, 11, 17, 19,22,24 SEE ALSO : Migration Immortality, belief in, 334, 493 Immune disease, experimental, 192 Impairments, 3, 206-209, 206, 208 cause of disability, 215 sex compariso ns, 207, 211 Impotence, sexual, 261

I mprisonment, 400 SEE AL SO: Crime; Re cidiv ism I mpulsiveness SEE: Restraint Income, 5, 69-85 adequac~

104-105

and assets of OP, 86, 88, 93 and children, proximity to, 171 and church attendance, 489-490 and disability, 212, 213 and education, 4 and employment status, 72-74, 74, 79, 80-81, 451 and enforced relocation, 154-155 and entertaini ng , 137 and gardening, 137, 531 and health service use, 323 and home ownership, 139 and housework, 425, 425 and housing characteristics, 135, 135 and idleness, 517 and isol ation from friends, 563 and life satisfaction, 348 and living arrangements, 182, 549-550 and mental disorder, 390 and neighborhood friends , 564, 565 and recre atio n , outdoor, 530 and reading, 517 and residential mobility, 150 and retirement, 444, 445, 451 , 454-456 SEE ALSO : Earnings; Finances; Pensions and savi ng, 96-101 and spe nd ing, 96-101 , 96, 97, 99, 102 and tele visio n set ownership, 518, 519 and television viewing, 519 and vacations, 532 and visiting, 517, 517 and voluntary association membership, 503, 504-505 and voting, 468 fixed, 84-85 inequality, 76, 76, 83 level of neighborhood and friendships, 563, 568, 569 I ife-cycie pattern, 8, 83-85 measures, adjustments in , 77-78 , 77 non money, 78 of institutionalized , 580 requirement, estimated, 454-456 satisfaction with, 104-105 sources of, 72-74, 72,73, 80-81 trends, 79-83 SEE ALSO: Earnings I ncome tax advantages for OP, 105

I ncontinence and mental health , 366 I ndustrialization, and labor force participation , 41 I ndustry change, relation to retirement, 53- 57 composition, changes in, 53 SEE A LSO: Retireme nt, factors associated with effect on leisure time, 64-65 output per m an-hour, 426 relation to hiring, 63 I nfarction, definition , 227 I nfectious diseases, 197, 198-200, 211 Influence, personal, 478 Influe nza and p n eumonia, 196, 198-200, 198, 199, 203 I nformation, test scores, 255, 255 I njury, 207, 207, 211, 211 , 432--433, 433 I n-law, living with , 174 I nstallment debt SEE: Debt I nstitutionalization, 371 , 384- 385 and sex, 384-385 and widowhood, 386 alternatives, attempted, 584 consequences of, 591-594 of mentally disordered, 371, 375-385, 380,381 prior living arrangements, 580 , 584 pro cesses leading to, 583-584 trends in, 384-385 I nstitutionalized characteristics of, 579-583 demographic characteristics of, 579 family ties of, 580 financial resources of, 580 health of, 580-583, 581 , 591-593 life satisfaction of, 593 prior mobility of, 148, 148 self-image of, 593 social participation of, 590 time orientation of, 331 I nstitutions, 141-142 activity in, 587-590, 589 attitudes towa rd , 585-587 characteristics of and o rie ntatio n of residents, 593 characteristics of reside nts, 579-583, 579 leisure activities in, 588-589 length of stay in, 591 life in, 587-591 medical care in, 588 misplacement of patients in, 582 mortality in , 591-593 physical facilities of, 587 privacy in, 588, 590-591

programs, experimental, 593-594 residence in, 141, 142, 148, 167 roles in, 577-596 socialization to roles in , 588 treatment in , 593-594 useful occupations in , 588-589 I nsurance, effect o n hiring p ractices, 62 SEE A LSO: life in surance Intelligence, 255-257 and activity, 355 and life satisfaction, 355 and perso n ality, 283 life-c ycle vs . cross-section analysis , 8, 257 self-ratings of, 297-298, 297 SEE ALSO: Learning; M emory I ntelligence tests, 255-257 I nteraction, 353-354, 413-414, 413, 414 amount, 415 and mental disorder, 368 and public housing, 142 of institutiona lized with friends and relatio ns, 590 total kinship, 544-546 with children, 6, 353, 541-544, 541 , 542, 543, 545, 547 with children·in·law, 544 with frie n ds a n d neig h bors, 562-565 with grandchildren, 544 with relatives, 541-550, 546 with siblings, 544 SEE ALSO: Activity; Socia l participation I ntercourse, genital SEE: Coitus, marital Interest (financial), 72-74, 72, 73, 85 Internal migration (intercounty), 143, 145 I nterpersonal relations SEE: Interaction I ntolerance of ambiguity, 276 Intoxication SEE: Alcoholism; D runken n ess Introversion, 279, 279 I nvalidism , 216, 216 SEE A LSO: D isability Inventory of research criteria for selection, vii limitations of evidence, vii I nvestment assets, 87, 90, 92-93 SEE ALS O: Assets, financial; Securit ies I rritab ility, 281, 281 Isolation, 414, 415, 567, 568, 569, 588 and health service use, 322, 322 and loss of affectio n , 415 and self-ra tings of health, 294

Subject index

613

from friends, 562, 563 life-cycle pattern, 419 Jewish SEE: Rel ig ious preferences Job adjustment, 438-440 aspirations, 439 , 440 attitudes toW!! rd , 439 changes, 48-49, 43 1 deprivation, feelings of, 456-457 heavy, 434 performance, 58, 426-434, 427, 428 SEE A LSO: Organic changes performance , employer attitudes , 62, 63 performance, feelings of adequacy, 297, 439, 439 satisfaction , 349, 438-439, 439 stability, 431-432 SEE ALSO: Job changes; Occupational mobility time stress in, 434, 434 training, 56, 58, 59, 441-442 , 443 SEE A LSO : Education , adult turnover, 432 SEE ALSO: Job changes ; Occupation , change of; Occu pational mqbility Joint survival of spouses, 6, 10, 162-164, 164 Kidney(s) changes in blood flow, 227 filtration rate of, 230 plasma flow, 230 Kin , Kinship SEE: Relatives Kinesthesia, 249 Labor force age composition of, 51 educational level of, 55, 58-59, 58 Labor force participation SEE: Labor force status Labor force status, 5, 40, 46, 48, 49, 56,40-57, 80-81 and color, 48, 51 and education, 48, 49-50 , 49 and health , 56-57 and income, 77, 78 and industrialization , 41 and life insurance ownership, 93 and marital status , 48, 51 and occupation , 50, 50- 51 and pensions, 61

6 14

Subjec t ind ex

and residence, 48, 50 and residential mobility, 149 and satisfaction, 350-351 and unemployment, 53 and voting, 468 cross-cultural , 41 farm vs _ nonfarm , 53-54 sex campa rison, 48, 49 trends, 42-43, 42, 43, 44, 44, 45-46, 45, 52 SEE ALSO: Employment; Retirement; Unemployment; Work ; Work experience Labor reserve, 46, 49, 50 Leadership, 5 community, 477-478 national , 475-477 political, 475-478, 476, 477 primitive societies, 478 religious, 490 state and local , 477 Learning, 4, 258, 441-442 interest in, 4, 440, 441 , 526, 527 occupational, 440-442 SEE ALSO: Adult education; Job training; Retraining; Study Legal responsibility of children for parents, 105-106 Legislation , old age and age composition of electorate, 478 Leisure, 5, 64, 511-535 activities, 65 , 468, 515-517 , 5 15 activities, hou rs spent on , 514 activities, in institutions , 588-589 activities. life-cycle changes, 516-517 attitudes, 448, 450, 533 mass media usage, 518-526 roles, 511- 535 societal patterns of, 63-65 time available, 63-65, 5 12, 513-514 time available, effect of industry, 64-65 time available, effect of occupation , 64-65 time ex penditures, 103 SEE ALSO: Recreation, expenditures for visiting. 517-518 SEE ALSO: Voluntary association membership Leukemia , as cause of death , 202 Liabilities, 94, 94, 95 SEE ALSO : Debt Life attitudes, 315-339 SEE ALSO : Attitudes Life cycle analysis, problems of, 7-9 of individuals, 1-2, 7-9 roles, 410- 41 2

Life expectancy, 6, 24--35, 4 22 and color, 28, 33 and geog raphical differences, 35 and marital status, 32- 33 and occ upat ional level, 34 and sex, 28, 29, 30, 31, 30-32 for married couples, 164, 164 potential ga ins in , 203 , 203 through specified life stages, 412 trends , 28, 29, 30, 412 Life goals, 411 Life insurance, 90, 9 2, 93 , 334, 337 Life sat isfact ion , 341-359 and activity, 353- 356 and fami ly , 352-353 and health, 345-348 and retirement, 350- 351 and self-image , 356-357 and socioeconomic status, 348-350 and work, 350-352 of institutionalized, 593 SEE ALSO : Sat isfaction Life span , 25 correlation of children 's with parents' , 189 correlation with chromosomal aberrations, 191 of twi ns, 190_ 190 sex comparisons, 201 Life stages, evaluation of, 309-310, 309 Limbs, impai rment of, 206, 207, 208 Lim itation of activity

SEE: Disab i lity Lipid material , in arteries, 227 Lipides, in endocardium , 226 Lipofuscin , 224 , 225, 225 Liquid assets, 87, 88 , 90, 92 SEE ALSO : Assets, fina ncial Living arrangements, 6 , 167-183, 167, 168, 549 and activity, 417- 418, 417 and attitudes toward institutions, 586 and entertaini ng , 137 and finan c ial suppo rt, 553 and gardening, 137 and health , 181 , 181 and idleness, 517 and income, 182 and interaction , 414, 542 and reading, 517 and television set ownership, 51 8, 519 and television viewing, 518-520, 519 and views of death , 336 a nd visiting, 517

as lodger, 180, 180 as primary individual, 168, 178 as re sident employee, 180, 180 as roomer, 180, 180 associated factors, 181- 183 attitudes toward, 550 in group quarters, 141, 148, 167, 180 in families, 167, 167-171 living alone, 6, 167, 168, 168, 171, 181, 553, 572, 573 preferred , 548, 549-550 , 585- 586, 585, 587 p rior to inst itutio nalization, 580, 584 socia l no rms, 182- 183 trends, 175- 180 w ith children , 168, 169-170 , 169, 171, 173-175, 173, 178-

179, 181- 183 with gra ndchildren, 171 with in-laws , 174 with relatives, 77-78, 78, 171, 174--175, 174, 175, 176,

179, 180, 181-183, 181 with siblings, 171 , 171, 174, 174, 179 w ith spouse , 168, 171, 176, 176,417 SEE ALSO : Household; In stitutions Living space, 131, 133-134, 133, 135, 135, 136 SEE A LSO: Housing Loans for housing elderly, 142 Lodger, living as, 180 Lodges, fraternal and religious, 506 , 507-508, 507 SEE A LSO : Volu ntary associations Loneli ness, 281 and activity, 354, 415, 415 and menta l disorder, 368, 368 and religion , 496 and volunta ry associat ion membership, 507 feel ings of, among institutionalized, 593 SEE ALSO : Isolat ion Longevity, 24--35, 540 and caloric i ntake, 192 and marital status , 32-33 and mental d isorders, effect on prevale nce of, 382-385 and restraint, 278 and selective breeding, 190 and sex, 30- 32 and weight, 192 hereditary factors in , 189-190 hybrids vs _ pure-breds, 190 trends , 25- 30 SEE ALSO : Life expectancy ; Life spa n ; Mortality Longitud inal study, 7-9 Loss of affection , 354, 415 , 415 SEE ALSO: I solation Loss of fri ends, 562

Loss of roles, 341 , 456-457 , 456, 563 SE E ALSO: Disengage m ent Lung cancer, as cause of death , 201 McLain movement, 478-479, 479 Magazines as source of health informatio n, 321, 321 entertainment value of, 522 importance of, 522 reading of, 521 Male hormone SEE: Androgen Malignant neoplasms SEE : Cancer Managerial workers SEE: Occupation Mandatory retirement age SEE: Compu lsory retirement M anpower supp ly, 51-53 M arital status, 158, 158, 159, 161, 162 and activity, 417 and age identification, 304, 305 and assets, 86 , 86, 87-88, 87, 88 and children , emotional dependence on , 554 and children , proximity to, 170- 171 and church attendance , 489-490 and debt, personal , 86 and friendship pa rt icipation, 570, 573 and help, 573 and home ownership, 87-88, 87, 131 and household status, 172, 173, 173 a nd housework, 425 and housi ng, 132, 135 a nd income, 71-74 , 71 , 73, 74,81 and institutional ization , 580 and interaction with re latives, 544-546 and introversion, 279 and job deprivation , feelings of, 456-457 and labor force status, 48, 51 and life satisfaction, 352-353 and living arrangements , 169- 170, 171, 173, 173,549-550 and mental disorder, 367, 390, 391-392, 391 and net worth, 88 and resident ia l mobility, 147, 147- 148 , 150, 151 and sex, 158, 159 and sexual activity, 259-261 , 260 and su ic ide, 394-396, 394, 395, 540 and television set ownership, 518, 519 and television viewing, 519 and visiting, 517

Subject index

615

and volu ntary association membership, 506 trends, 160-162, 161 SEE ALSO : Widowhood Marriage activity of partners, 538 adjustment in, 352, 539-540, 539 dissolution by death, 163, 163 SEE ALSO : Widowhood duration of, 164 feelings of inadequacy about, 300, 300, 539, 539 happiness in, 352, 539- 540, 539 intrafaith, 485 mutual aid of partners, 538 problems in , 539 roles in , 538-541, 539 satisfaction with relationship, 539-540 sexual activity in, 259-260, 259, 260, 262 Mass media, 5 and health information, 321 and politic~1 interest, 468 use of, 518-526 SEE ALSO : Books; Magazines; Movies; Newspapers; Radio ; Television Mastery, sense of, 341 Masturbation, 260-261, 260 Maternal mortality, 198, 201 Meals, 513, 514 Medical care, 217-218 expenditures for, 102, 102 SEE ALSO : Health expenditures in institutions, 588 Medicare, 5,323 Med icine, 320, 320 expenditures for, 103, 104, 218, 218 Memory, 4, 258 Menopause and vaginal changes, 261 SEE ALSO: Female hormones Mental disorder, 363-392 and disability, 215, 580-583, 583 and education, 388, 389, 389, 390 and employment history, 367 and family history, 367, 368, 368 and income, 390 and marital status, 367, 390, 391-392, 391 and physical illness, 366-367, 366, 367, 368, 373-374 and retirement, 367 and sex, 371, 386-388, 388, 390 and social activity, 368, 368 and socioeconom ic status, 388-390, 388, 390 and symptoms of aging, 369, 369 attitudes toward, 324-325, 325

616

Subject index

demographic factors in, 385-392 first admission rates to hospitals, 378, 378, 379, 386 functional, 366-368, 366, 367, 368, 372 organic, 363-369, 364-365,366, 367, 368,372 physical referents, 388, 390 prevalence, 371 previous history of, 367, 368 psychological referents, 374 trends, 382-385 SEE ALSO : Oeviance Mental hea Ith, 366, 368 clinics, 381-382, 381 of institutionalized, 580-583, 581 SEE ALSO : Mental disorder Mental hospitals attitudes toward, 324 characteristics of residents, 579 experimental programs, 593-594 first admission, 378, 379, 386, 387 health of patients, 580-583, 581 income of patients, 580 length of stay in, 10, 591 misplacement in , 582 mortality in, 591-593 precipitants to admission , 584 residence in, 141, 375-378, 375, 381, 384, 384-385 SEE ALSO: In stitutionalized sex comparison of residence rates, 376-377, 386, 387 SEE ALSO: In stitutions; Mentally disordered Mentally disordered and self-maintenance, 583, 583 duration of symptoms prior to institutionalization, 584 in institutions, 371, 375-385, 380, 381 noninstitutionalized, 371, 372, 380-381, 380, 383, 383,

583 private treatment by doctors, 381-382 psych iatric ca re, 382, 383 residence of, 375-385 treatment of, 375-385 SEE ALSO: Mental disorder; Mental hospitals Middle age, public criteria of, 311 M igration, 17, 143, 145 SEE ALSO : Immigration; Residential mobility Mobility SEE: Occupational mobility; Residential mobility; Social mobility Morale, 343, 343 and desire for friends, 574 and disengagement, 355-356, 355 and employment, 350-351, 351 and health, 345-346, 344, 351

and marital relationship. 352 and marital status. 352-353 and parenthood. 353 and public housing. 142 and retirement. 350-351. 351 and self·image. 356-357. 357 and sex. 343 and socioecono m ic status. 348. 351, 357 of institutionalized. 593 of widowed. 540 SEE ALSO: Adjustment; Happiness; Satisfaction Moral worth . and self·image. 299. 299 Morbidity. 204-218 definition. 195 effect of retirement on. 454 sex comparisons. 2ll trends in. 215-216 SEE ALSO: Health ; Illness Mortality. 3. 22. 24-25. 163-165. 188-189. 195-203. 199 and color. 26-27. 28. 33 and intelligence test performance. 256-257 and marital status. 32-33. 32, 33, 540 and occupational level. 34. 34, 202 and retirement. 454 geographic differences in. 35 in institutions. 591-593. 592 rates. and Gompertz function. 188-189. 188, 189 rates. possibility of further reduction. 202-203. 202 sex comparisons. 3. 19. 27, 28, 30-32. 32, 33, 34, 200-

201. 200, 591-593 trends. 17. 25-30. 25. 26-27. 28, 32. 32, 33, 34, 197-200.

198 SEE ALSO: Life expectancy; Life span; Longevity Mortgage debt SEE: Debt Mortgage insurance for rental housing. 142 Motivation and intelligence test performance. 257 psychomotof performance. 254 Motives. 283-284 Movement time. 252 Movers. characteristics of. 147-151 SEE ALSO: Residential mobility Movie attendance. 516, 520, 523. 523 Moving SEE: Residential mobility Muscle sense SEE: Kinesthesia Muscular strength. 3-4. 250 Musical activity. 516 Myocardial degeneration. as cause of death. 202

Myocardia l infarction and blood grouP. 229 definition. 227 Myocardium. changes in, 226

Nativity. 20. 20, 24. ll3 SEE ALSO : Immigration Need(s). personality. 282, 283-284 Negro SEE: Color Neighborhood composition and friendship. 567-569. 573 characteristics. and attitudes toward moving. 152. 152 friendships. 6- 7. 125-126. 125, 126, 150. 151, 154-155.

564. 565-569 ties, 138 SEE ALSO: Community; Friends; Friendships; Neighbors Neighbors. 124-126. 125, 126, 545. 561-575 SEE ALSO : Friends; Friendships; Neighborhood Nephritis. as cause of death. 198 Nerve cells. changes in. 223-224 Nerve conduction velocity. changes in. 230. 230 Nerve tissues. changes in. 364 Nervous impulses. slowing of. 224-225 Net worth. 89-91. 89. 94-95. 94 SEE ALSO: Assets; Debt Neurofibrillary change. 364-365 Neuroglia. increase with age. 224 Neuron s

SEE: Nerve cells Neurosis. 372. 373. 373. 375. 376. 378. 379, 380. 380 and concern with death. 334 definition. 363 sex comparison. 386-388 Newspapers as source of health information. 321. 321 content preferences. 524-526 entertainment value. 522, 523 importance. 522, 523 reading of. 521 Nissl material. changes with age. 224 Nonconformity. attitude toward. 473-475. 473 Nonwhite SEE: Color Norms family responsibility. 106. 547. 554 financial maintenance of OP. 105-106 individual responsibility. 106 living arrangements. 182-183 leisure. 533

voluntary association membership. 509 SEE ALSO : Stereotypes Nuclear family. 6 Numerical ability. 255 Nursing and personal care homes activity programs. 587-588 adjustment of residents In. 593 as preferred living arrangement. 549-550. 550 attitudes toward. 140. 585-586 characteristics of residents. 579 health of residents. 580-583, 581. 582 leisu re activity in. 588-589 length of stay in, 591 medical care in. 588 mentally disordered in. 378-380 mortality in. 591-593. 592 social participation of residents. 587-588 SEE ALSO: Institutions; Old·age homes OASDI (O ASDHI) SEE: Social security Obesity and atherosclerosis. 229 Occlusion of artery. 227 Occupation(s) and activity. 417. 417 and children. 160. 171. 182. 522 and conservatism. 473-475 and health. 295. 450 and hiring. 63 and income. 77. 79 and labor force participation. 50-51. 50 and mo rta I ity. 34. 34, 202 and ne ighborhood friends. 564. 565 and retirement. 445. 456-457 and voting. 468 changes of. 48-49. 431, 452 educational levels of. over time. 55 effect on leisure time. 64-65 output per man·hour. 426 SEE ALSO : Industry; Socioeconomic status; Work Occupational associations. membership. 507 SEE ALSO: Voluntary associations Occupational concentrations of older workers. 50. 51 Occupational learning. 440-442 SEE ALSO: Adult education; Job training; Retrain i ng Occupatio nal mobility. 48-49 SEE ALSO : Social mobility Occupational satisfaction SEE: Job satisfaction Occupationa l training. 58 SEE ALSO : Education; Job training; Retrain ing

Subject index

617

Occu pational st ructure" relation to retirement, 53-57 Offspring SEE: Children Old, self' perception as SEE: Age ident ification Old age den ial of, 305 evaluation of, 309-310 public criteria of, 310-311, 311 stereotypes of, 309-311 SEE ALSO : Stereotypes of aged Old Age and Survivors Insurance SEE: Social security Old·age assistance SEE: Public assistance Old ·age homes, 141, 142, 182 activity in, 587-590, 589 adjustment of residents, 593 attitudes towa rd , 585-586 desire for privacy in, 590-591 medical care in , 588 mortality in, 591-593 physical facilities of, 587 prior residential mobility of resident, 584 reasons for admission , 584 satisfaction with, 593 self·image of residents, 593 social participation of residents, 590 work programs in , 593-594 SEE ALSO: Nursing and persona l care homes Old·age pensions SEE: Pensions; Social security Old Age , Survivors , and Disability I nsura nce SEE: Social security Old Age, Survivors , Disability, and Healt h In su rance SEE: Social security Older workers characteristics of, 49-51 competitive qualifications of, 57-59 SEE A LSO: Morbidity Olfactory sensitivity, 248 Opera attendance, 516 Opinion , public SEE: Norms; Stereotypes Optimism, 4, 353, 444-445 Organic aging, 3-4, 185-194 and autoimmunity, 191-192 and caloric intake, 192, 192 and diet, 192 and radiation , 190-191 and stress, 192-193

618

Subject i ndex

Organic mental disorders SEE: Mental disorde rs, orga n ic Orgasm in women, 261, 262, 262 Outdoor activities, 65, 512, 527-531, 528-529, 530 away from home , 529-531 preferences, 531 trends , 531 Outings , 513, 515, 532 Output, per man·hour, 426 Ovarian function, 233 Pain, 248 Paralysis, 206, 208, 208 Paranoia, paranoid state, 364-365, 380 SEE ALSO : Mental disorders; Psychosis, functional Paraphrenia, 380 Parenchymal cells, decline in , 230 Parental role(s), 541-559 adjustment, 353 feelings of inadequacy, 301, 301 problems of, 557 satisfaction with, 353, 555-557, 555 SEE ALSO: Ch i ldren Parental status, 160, 570 SEE ALSO : Children Parent·child interaction SEE: Interaction, with children Parents of old people, 171, 174-1 75, 174, 175, 558 Party affiliation SEE: Political party identification Pa rty identification SEE: Political party identificatio n Passivity, 278, 284, 327 SEE ALSO: Mastery Past orientation SEE: Time orie ntation Peace Corps, attitudes toward, 475 Pensioner organizatio ns, 478-479 Pensions, 59-61, 72-74, 72, 73 private, 55, 59-60, 60, 61, 63, 72-74, 72, 73, 8 1, 84-85, 100 public opinion , 106 relation to retirement, 55 , 61 SEE A LSO: Social secu rity Peptic ulcer, 210, 210 Perception, 3-4, 242-249 of dimension, 249 of direction , 249 of incomplete, concealed and ambig uous form , 249 of time , 249 of vert icality, 249

Performance changes, ex planations f or, 254 Performance , measure of in intelligence test, 255 Personal care expenditures for, 102 hours spent on, 51 3, 514 products u sed, 296 Personal care homes SEE: Nursing homes Personal debt SEE: Debt Personal influence, 478 Personality, 275-287 and intelligence, 283 characteristics in self-image, 299 congruence of marital pair, 540 dimensions, 276-283 life-cycle changes, 284, 285 rigidity, 276-277 structu re, 283 Personality disorders, 376, 378 SEE ALSO : Mental disorders Personal problems, 326-327 SEE ALSO: Unhappiness; Worry Personnel policies and practices, related to retirement, 59-

63 SEE ALSO : Hiring; Pensions; Retirement, compulsory; Retirement, factors associated with Pessimism , 329, 329, 331 Physical activity, and coronary heart disease, 229 Physical changes, 3-4, 221-239 Physical disability SEE: Disability Physical examination, 320, 321 Physicians attitudes toward, 319-320, 319, 322, 323 expenditures for, 103, 104 private treatment of mentally disordered, 381-382 visits to , 3, 2 17, 217, 320 Physiological base of age structure, 3 Physiological functioning changes, 229-233, 230 concern with, 280, 333 Picnics, 528-529 , 529, 531 Pituitary gland hormones , 233 Planning for retirement, 446-447, 446 Pneumonia and influenza as cause of death, 196, 198-200, 198, 199 gain in life expectancy if reduced, 203 Political activity, 468 Political associations, 468 , 507 SEE ALSO: Political roles; Voluntary associations

Political attitudes, 473-475 Political commitment, 469-470 Political ideology, 473-475 Political information , 468 Political interest, 464-468 Pol itical leadership, 5, 476, 477-478, 477 national, 475-477 state and local , 477 trends, 475-477 Political movements, 478-479 Polit ica l organizations SEE : Political associations Political participation, 464-468 Political partisanship SEE: Politica l party identificatio n Political party identification, 5, 469, 469, 470, 471-473 and socioeconomic status, 471 cohort analysis, 10, 471-472 duration of, 470, 470 life-cycle differences, 472 Polit ica l roles , 5, 463-482 Political system, and age, 5, 478-479 Population, 15-37 age composition, 3, 21-24, 21 , 23 aging of, 3, 21-24, 2 1 births , 17, 22 color, 20, 20 , 24 fertility, 3, 19, 22, 24 immigration , 11, 17, 19, 22, 24 migration , 17, 143, 145 mortality SEE: Mortality nativity, 20, 20, 24 of older people, 16-20 projections, 17, 17, 19 sex, 3, 18- 19, 18, 19, 24, 124 trends, 16-17, 16, 18- 19, 20 , 22-24 Power in family , 538 Power needs, 282, 283 Prayer, 6, 327, 327, 491 Presbycousis , 246-248 Primary individuals, 167-168, 167, 178, 178 Privacy, in institutions, 588, 590-591 Private pensions SEE: Pensions, private Problems , personal, 326-32 7 SEE ALSO : U nhappiness; Worry Productivity creative, 435- 437, 435, 436, 437 increases in , 53 of workers , 7, 426, 427-429

Professional associations, membership, 507 SEE A LSO : Voluntary associations Professional help attitudes towa rd, 326, 326 use of, 327 SEE ALSO: Psychiatric care; -Psychiatrists Professiona l workers SEE: Occupatio n Profit-s haring, 60 Protein fibers , changes with age, 222-223 Protestant SEE: Religious preferences Proximity and social relatio n ships SEE: Residential proximity Psychiatric care, 382, 383 Psychiatric patients, 381 SEE ALS O: Mentally disordered Psych iatric symptoms, and age identification , 305 Psychiatrists, attitudes toward, 324 Psychological depressio n, 345, 346, 346 SEE ALSO : Unhappiness; Worry Psychomotor skills, 250-254 Psychoneu rosis SEE: Neurosis Psychological disorders SEE: Mental disorders Psyc hophysiologica l disorders, 363, 374 sex comparison of, 386-388 Psyc hosis , 370-373, 370, 382 affective, 364-365 definition, 363 fun ctional , 364-365, 366-368, 375-378, 375, 376, 378,

379, 385 organic SEE: Cerebral arteriosclerosis; Chronic brain syndrome; Mental disorders, organic; Senile brain disease; Sen i le psychos is paranoid , paranoid state, 364-365, 380 schizophrenic, 364-365, 366-368, 376, 378, 380, 386 sex comparison of rates, 386-387 SEE ALSO: Mental disorders Psychosomatic disorders, 363 Psychotics, 380-381, 383, 583 SEE ALSO : Psychoses Public assistance, 72-74, 72, 73, 80, 91, 10 5 for institutionalized, 580 Public housing, 142 Public opi n ion SE E: Norms; Stereotypes Public performances, attendance at, 523-524 Publ ic programs f or f inancial security, 105

Subject index

619

Public views of the aged SEE: Norms; Stereotypes Punitive treatment preferences regarding deviance, 325, 325 Pu rchasing power, 79 SEE ALSO: Income

Race SEE: Color Racial integration, attitudes toward, 474, 474 Rad iatio n and aging, 190-191 Radio, 515 content preferences, 524-526, 525 entertainme nt value, 522 health information, 321, 321 i m po rta nce of, 522 listeni ng, 517, 525 religious services, 489-490 Railroad Employees National Pension As sociation, 478 Railroad retirement insurance, 80 Reaction time, 251-252, 251 Reading, 515, 515, 517, 521-523 and education, 4 and income, 517 and livi ng arra ngements, 517 books, 516, 521 hours spent on , 513, 514 magazines, 516 newspapers, 468 of Bible, 6, 491, 496 sex comparisons, 517 Reasoning, 255 Recidivism , 402, 402 SEE ALSO : Crime; I mprisonment Reciprocity, between parents and children, 551-552, 551 SEE ALSO : Help and services Records, listening to, 516. Recreat io n expenditures for, 65, 102, 102 outdoor, 65, 512, 527-531, 528-529, 530 SEE ALSO: Leisu re Region (geographic locatio n) SEE: Residence Relative deprivation, 9, 10-11 Re latives, 167 absence of and help from non relatives, 573 and disengagement, 355 as overnight gu ests, 137 exchange of help and services, 72-74, 73, 550-554, 555 in household, 174-175, 175, 178-179 interactio n with, 541-550, 546

620

Subject index

living with, 77-78, 78, 171, 174-175, 174, 175, 176, 179, 180, 181-183, 181 ties to, 558 visits to older people, 545 SEE ALSO : Children Rel igion, 5-6 and adjustment, 496 and loneliness, 496 and satisfaction, 496 and views of death, 334, 336 importance of, 494-496, 494 interest in, 495 life·cycle pattern in importance, 495-496 views of, 498 Religious association membersh i p, 490, 507-508, 507 SEE ALSO: Volunta ry associations Religious attitudes, 490-491 , 491 Rel igious beliefs, 493 Religious bias, 473-475 Rel igious education, 493 SEE ALSO : Adult education Religious groups, age composition of, 497 Religious identification, 484-485, 484 Religious knowledge, 493 Religious leadership, 490 Religious observance church attendance, 6, 485-490, 486 personal , 490-492, 491 , 513, 515 Religious preference, 485 and church attendance, 487, 487 and concentration of older people, 497 Religious programs for older people, 497-498 Religious roles, 483-500 salience of, 494 Relocatio n and mortality among institutionalized, 592 and ne ighborhood friends, 155, 565-566 assistance, Federal, 142 enforced, 154-155 Remarriage rates, 160 Renal function, changes in, 230 SEE ALSO : Kidneys Rent gross, 131 income from, 72-74, 72, 73, 85 supplements, Federal , 142 Renters , 129 attitudes toward living arrangements, 140 housing of, 134 willingness to move, 150, 151 SEE ALSO : Home ow nership

Repub lica n party identification SEE: Poli tical party identificat ion Research findings , criteria for selection, vii Resea rch findings, limitations, vii Residence , 121-156 and admission to mental hospitals, 391 and attitudes toward schoo l integrat io n , 474, 474 and neighbors, relationships with , 124-126, 125, 126,

564, 565-566 and self-image, 292 and voting, 468 central city, 122, 122, 123 farm, 123-124, 123, 146 in institutions, 142, 141-142, 148, 167 in mental hosp itals, 375-378, 375, 381, 382-385, 384-385 of mentally disordered, 375-385 sex ratios , 124 size of place, 122, 123 states, 124, 124 suburban, 123 urban-rural, 122-124, 122, 123 SEE AL SO: Urban-rural differences SEE ALSO : Community; Housing; Neighborhood Res ide nt employee, living arrangement as, 180 Residential concentratio ns of older people, 122-124 Re sidential mobility, 143-155 abroad, 145 and education, 150 and employment status, 149 and home ownerShip, 150 and household status, 146, 147-148 and income, 150 and labor force status, 149 and living in group quarters, 148 and marital status, 147-148 and neighborhood frie nds, 565-566 and size of place, 146 and socioeco nomic status, 150 annual rates , 144, 144 attitudes toward , 150, 151-153, 151, 152, 566 between states, 145, 146 cohort differences, 10, 146, 147 five-year rates, 143, 143 internal migration (i ntercounty), 143, 145, 145, 147, 148 intracounty, 143, 144, 145, 145, 147, 148 life-cycle patterns, 146 prior to institutionalization , 148, 584 repeated, 151 Residential proximity and friendship, 573 and social pa rti ci pation in old-age home, 590

to children, 6, 169, 170-17 1, 353, 541-544, 542, 547, 554,

558-559 to relatives, 544-546, 546 Re side ntia l relocation and mortality among institutionalized, 592 and neighborhood friends , 155, 565-566 assista nce, Federal , 142 enforced, 154-155 SEE ALSO: Reside ntial mobility Respiratory function, changes in, 230 Respiratory illnesses , 211, 211 SEE ALSO: Pneumonia and influenza Restra int, 277-278 Re stricted activity days SEE: Disability Restrictions of activity SEE: Disability Retirement , 39-68, 357, 421-462 adjustment to, 353, 453-458, 456, 457, 459 SEE ALSO: H appiness; Morale; Sat isfactio n age desired, 443-444, 443 age expected, 443-444, 443 age, in pens ion plans, 6 1 and age identification , 305 and c hange in structure of occupations and industries,

53-57 a nd changing size of f irm , 54-55 a nd c hildren, ties to , 544, 554-559 and decline in self-employment, 54 and decline of agriculture, 53-54

and disability, 57, 57 and disengagement, 356 and economic deprivat ion , feelings of, 454-456, 455 and education, 4, 445 and fantasy behavior, 357 and friendship participation, 563, 571 and health, 448, 449-450 , 454, 455 and housework, sharing of, 538 and income, 445 , 451, 454-456 SEE ALSO: Earnings; Fin ances; Pen sio n s and leisure attitudes, 448, 450 and marital relationship, 540 and mental disorder, 367 and mora le, 351 and morbidity, 454 and mortality, 454 and occupation , 456-457 and personnel policies a nd practices, 59-63 and residential mobility, 149 and satisfaction (general), 350-35 1, 356 and saving, 100, 101 , 101

and social participation , 418, 457-458 and trends in manpower supply a nd demand, 51-53 and voting, 468 a nd willingness to move, 151 and work attitudes , 445, 450 assessment of, 453-454, 453 compulso ry, 55 , 6 1-62, 448-449, 448 decision, 447-451 financial expectations, 444-446 meaning of, 447 planning, 446-447 , 446, 458 priorattHude~

443-447 , 444

reasons fo r, 448, 449 role, 442-458 trends, associated factors , 51-63 trends, attitudes , 447 trends, reasons for, 449 voluntary, 448-449, 448 Retirement benefits SEE: Pensions; Social security Retirement counseling programs, 446-447 Retirement hou s ing, 142 Retirement life expecta n cy , 42 2-424 , 423, 424 Retirement practices of firms, 61-62 S EE ALSO : Personnel policies and practices Retraining, 56, 59, 443 SEE ALSO: Educat io n, adult; J ob training Rheumatism and arthritis, 2 10, 210, 215, 215, 276-277, 277 Rigidity and hearing, 276 and intelligence, 283 SEE ALSO : Conservatism; Perception Role(s). 6- 7 f a m ilia l, 541-559 in institutions , 577-596 SEE ALSO : Mental disorders; Residence leisure , 511-535 loss of, 305, 341, 456-457, 456, 563 SEE ALSO : D isengagement; Loss of roles marital, 538-541 number of, 353, 413-414, 413, 415 over life cycle, 410-412 parental, 541-559 patterns, and activity, 417-418 political, 463- 482 partiCipation and age identification, 305 salience, 411 structure, 409- 420, 410 SEE ALSO : Activi ty ; In teraction Roomer, living arrangements as, 180 Rooms per person

Subject illd ex

621

SEE: Housing, living space Rural residence SEE: Residence; U rban -rural differences

Satisfaction, 7 , 341-359 and activity, 353-356, 416-418, 417 and health, 345-348 and religion, 496 and retirement, 350-352 and self-image, 356-357 and socioeconomic status, 348-350 and work, 349, 350-352, 438-439, 439 life -cycle changes, 345, 346-347, 348, 351, 354-355, 354,

459 family, 352-353 friendship , 574 income, 104-105 living arrangement, 417 marital relationship, 539-540 parenta l role, 555, 555-557 ALSO : Adjustme nt; Happi ness; Morale; Self-evalua tion Saving, 94-95, 105 attitudes toward, 100, 101, 101 life-cycle pattern, 100-101, 100 Schizophrenia, 364-365, 366-368, 376, 378, 380 SEE ALSO: Mental disorders; Psyc hosis, functional Scholarship , 7 , 435 , 435, 436 SEE ALSO : Education School, hours spent in, 514 SEE ALSO : Education Science, creative output, 435, 435, 436 Securities , marketable, 87-88 , 87, 90, 92 SEE ALSO : Assets, financial Self, the, 289-313 Self-acceptance, 291-292 Self-concern, 278-279 among dying, 280 Self-confidence, 302 SEE ALSO: Cautiousness Self-employment, 54 SEE ALSO : Occupation; Retirement Self-evaluation, 290-292, 291 ,353 Self-expectations, changes in , 9 Self-focus SEE: Self-concern Self-image, 289-313 and achievement, 297-298 and activity, 353 and life-cycle analysis , 8-9 with with with with with with SEE

622

Sub ject index

and life satisfactio n , 356-357 a n d morale, 357 as moral , 299, 299 appearance, 295 education as a shortcoming, 298, 298 of dying, 292 of institutionalized, 593 personal characteristics in, 299 shortcomings, 290, 291 strong points, 290 Self-maintenance among mentally disordered , 583, 583 and activity in old -age homes, 589 Senile brain disease, 364-365, 364, 376, 378 SEE ALSO : Cerebral arteriosc lerosis; Chronic brain syndrome ; Mental disorders, orga n ic; Senile psych osis Senile brain syndrome, 375, 379, 387 SEE ALS O: Chronic brain syndrome Senile plaque formatio n , 364, 364-365 Senile psychosis, 365 , 372, 383 Sen io r centers, 508-509 Seniority, 55, 61-62 Sensation , 242-249 Sensorimotor coordination, 4, 252 Sensory acuity, and intelligen ce test performa n ce, 2 57 Sensory skills, 3 Service organizations, membership, 507-508 SEE ALSO: Voluntary associatio n s Sex comparisons absenteeism, 430 achievement need , 28 2, 283-284 activity, 417 acute conditions, 211, 211 affi I iation need , 282, 284 age identification, 303 assets, 86, 87, 88 atherosclerosis, 228, 2 28 children, emotio nal depe nde nce on, 554 children, proximity to , 174 chronic brain syndromes, 386 chronic conditions, 205, 211 church attendance, 488 , 488 crime, 400 d isa bility, 57, 212-213, 212 education, 49-50, 58, 112, 112, 116, 117,298 eva luation of life stages , 309 ex pectatio ns of life, 30-32 friendsh i p participation, 565, 573 garden i ng, 531 hea lth expenditures, 103, 103-104 heal th, self-ratings of, 292-293, 295

home equity, 87 hospital care, 217 housework, 425, 425 idleness, 517 impairments, 207, 211 income, 71, 71, 73, 73, 74,75, 75, 80 institutionalization , 384-385, 386-388, 579-580, 579 interaction, 41 3 introversion, 279 job changing, 43 1 job performance, 434 labor force status, 40-51, 40, 42, 48, 49 leisure time available, 512, 514 life span, 201 living arrangements, 167-168, 167, 168, 172, 174, 174,

180 living space, 134 longevity, 30-32 marital adjustment, 300, 352 marital status, 158, 159-160, 159 mental disorder, 365, 371, 386-388, 388, 390 medicine, expenditures for, 218,218 mental hospital residence, 376, 386, 387 moral worth as a strong point, 299 morale, 343, 343, 355 morbidity, 211 mortality, 3, 19, 27, 28, 30-32, 32, 33, 34, 196, 200-201,

200, 591-593 motivation , 282 old age , public criteria of, 310-311, 311 outdoor recreation, 528-529 parental adjustment, 353 parental role, satisfaction with, 555-556 parent-child exc hange of aid, 551-552 physician visits, 217, 2 17 power need, 28 2, 283 psychoneurotic symptoms, 386-388 psychophysiological disorders, 386-388 psychosis, 38,6 reading, 517 religion, importance of, 494 religious identification, 484 religious associations, membershi p in, 490 residence, 123 residential mobility, 144, 147, 148 self-image, 29 1, 292 self-confidence, 302 sexual activity, 260-261, 260 shortcomings , admission of, 290 still births, 200-201, 200 study, preferred method of, 441

suicide, 393-394, 394, 396 visual acuity, 242, 24 3 visiting, 517 , 517, 565 voluntary association membershi p , 503, 504, 504 voting, 466-467 , 466 weight, desire for change in, 296 widowhood, 165 work attendance, 429 work -life expectancy, 422-424, 422 Sex offenses, 401 Sex of population, 3, 18-19, 18, 19, 24, 124 Sex ratio , 3, 18-19, 19, 124 Sexual behavior, 258- 262 and stereotype of aged, 306 associated factors , 261-262 capacity, 7, 261 history, 262 responsiveness in women , 262 stimulation, physiologic responses, 261 Shopping, hours spent on, 513, 514 Siblings, 160 and disengagement, 355 interaction with, 544 living with, 171, 171, 174, 174, 179 ties, 558 SEE ALSO: Relatives Sight impairment SEE: Visual impairment Sightseeing, 529, 528-529 ,530, 531

Smell, se nse of, 248 Smoking, 264-265, 265 and attitudes toward disease, 265 and coronary heart disease, 229 Sociability, 279-280, 284 SEE ALSO: I nteraction; Social P!3rticipation Social change and cohort succession, 2, 9-11 Social class SEE: Socioeconomic status Social insurance SEE: Government employees' retirement program; Railroad retirement insurance; Social security (OAS DI , OASDH I); Veterans' benefits Social integration, and voluntary association membership,

Similarities, te st performance, 255, 257

and labor force participation, 61 attitudes toward as source of financial help, 55 5 proportions receiving payment, 59 public opinion, 106 Social ties SEE: Children; Family; Friends; Friendships; Interaction ; Neighbors; Relati v es Society as composite of cohorts, 1-2 Socioeconomic status (SES) and activity, 355, 416-417 and age identification , 305 and friendship, 563, 563, 573 and health, 294, 344, 351 and health service use , 322-323, 3 22 and interaction , 414, 544-546 and life satisfact ion, 345, 348-350, 351, 353, 355 and mental disorder, 388-390, 388, 390 and morale, 344, 345, 351, 353, 356, 357 and political party identification, 471 and residential mobility, 150 and self-image, 292, 356 and stereotypes of old age, 310

Similarity in friendship SEE: Homophily Sister; brother SEE: Siblings Size of firm changes over time, 55 pension and profit-sharing plans; 60 relation to hiring, 63 relation to retirement, 54~55, 61 Size of place and activity, 127, 128 and distribution of older popU latio n , 122, 122-123 and neighborhood ties, 566-567 and neighbors, relationships with, 125-126, 125, 126 and residential mobility, 146 and transportation and walking, 127, 128 and use of commu n ity facilities, 127 SEE ALSO : Residence; Urban -rural differences Skills, psychomotor, 250-254 Sleep, 513, 514, 515

506 Social mobility and ties to childre n , 554 Social norms SEE: Norms Social participation and retirement, 418, 457-458 life -cycle pattern, 418-419 of institutionalized , 590 SEE ALSO: Children ; Family; FriendS; Friendships; I nteraction; Neighbors; Relatives; Roles; Sociability Socialization to roles in i nstitutions, 588 Social relationships, feelings of adequacy about, 300-301 Social responsibil ity, 280 Soc ial security, 5, 72-74 , 72, 73, 74, 80-81, 80, 84, 85, 105,

452

Subjec t index

623

and visiting friends, 563 and voluntary association membership, 504-505, 505 and work status, 351 of neighborhood, and friendships, 563 of relocated households , 154 SEE ALSO: Education; In come; Occupation Somatic chromosomal aberrations, and aging, 190-191, 191 Somatic concern SEE: Body, attitude toward Speech defects, 206, 208 Speech discrimination, 24B Speed of response in intelligence tests, 257 SEE ALSO: Reaction time Spending, 95-105 life-cycle pattern, 100-101, 100 Sports, 515, 516 attendance at events, 516, 523-524 hours spent on, 513 Spouse, living with, 16B, 171, 176 Spouses, joint survival of, 6, 10, 160-164, 164 Standard budget, 104 Standard of living, 104-105 States, concentration of OP, 124, 124 Status of aged, evaluation of, 309-310, 310 Stereotypes of aged, 7, 306-30B Stereotypes of old age, 7, 309-311 SEE ALSO: Attitude toward death; Time orientation Stillbirths, sex ratio of, 200-201, 200 Stock ownership SEE: Securities Strength, muscular, 250, 250 Stress and biological aging, 192-193 Stroke, 227 Study at home, 440, 441 Studying, 526 SEE ALSO: Adult education Suburbs SEE: Residence Suicide , 392-399, 393 and color, 396, 396 and marital status , 394-396, 394,395, 540 and sex, 393-394, 394, 396 as cause of death, 196, 201, 396-397 in old people , problem in explanation, 392 meaning of, 396-397 proportion of completed to attempted, 397, 397 trends, 39B, 398 SEE ALSO : Deviance; Mental disorder Survival SEE: Life expectancy; Mortality Swimming, 530, 531

624

Sl l bject i ndex

Tangible assets, 90 SEE ALSO: Automobile ownership; Home ownership Taste,24B Technological change and older workers, 55-56 Teeth , loss of SEE: Edentulous persons Television attitude toward, 521 religious services, 4B9-490 content preferences, 524-526, 524 entertainment value, 522 health information, 320, 321 importance of, 522 set ownership, 134, 51B, 519 viewing, 46B, 513, 515, 515, 516, 517, 51B-52 1, 519, 520 Theater attendance, 516, 524 Theft, 401 , 401 ~403 SEE ALSO: Crime Thrombus, definition, 227 Thyroid hormone, 232-233 Thyroid-stimulating hormone, 233 Time, available for leisure, 513-514 Time orientation, 305, 331-332, 593 Time, passage of SEE: Time orientation; Time perception Time perception, 249 Time stress in job, 434,434 Toes, absence of, 206, 208 Touch, 249 Townsend movement, 47B-479 Training, on-the-job, 441-442 SEE ALSO : Adult education; Job training; Retraining Transportation expenditures for, 102, 102 use of and size of place, 128 Travel, 514, 532 Treatment of mentally disordered SEE: Mentally disordered, treatment Trunk, impairments of, 206, 207, 208 Tuberculosis, as cause of death, 19B-200, 198, 199, 201, 202 Unemployment, 47-4B, 47, 53, 55, 149 SEE ALSO: Employment; Labor force status; Retirement; Work Unemployment i nsurance, 73 Unhappiness, 327, 327, 342, 342, 346 SEE ALSO: Depression , psychological; Happiness; Worry Uniqueness, sense of, 290 United States Savings Bonds SEE: Assets, liquid

Urban renewal, 153 Urban residence SEE: Residence; Urba n-rural differences Urban -rural differences disability, 213 education , 112, 112 friendship ties, 566-567 health attitudes, 322 labor force participation, 48, 51 living arrangements, 182 mortality, 35 neighborhood ties, 566-567 SEE ALSO: Residence Uselessness, feelings of, 354-416 Vacations, 64, 532 SEE ALSO: Leisure Vagrancy,401,401 SEE ALSO : Crime Values, over life cycle, 284, 285 SEE ALSO: Attitudes Vascular changes, 364, 364-365, 366 Vascular disease, and aging, 192 Vascular lesions of the central nervou s system, as cause of death, 196, 197 Verbal ability, 255 Veterans' benefits, 72, 73, 80 Veteran s' organizations, membership, 507, 507 Vibration sense, 249 Vision , visual, 242-245 acuity, 242-243, 242, 243 impairment, 206, 206,207,208,208,215, 366 perception, 249 Visits, visiting, 515, 515, 516, 517-518 and health , 565 and income, 517 and living arrangements, 517 and sex, 517 by children, parents' wishes vs_ children's behavior, 547 by relatives, 544-546 hou rs spent on, 513, 514 to institutionalized, 590 to older people, 138, 545 with friends, 562, 563 with neighbors, 562, 565 with younger people in neighborhood, 572 SEE ALSO : Interaction Vital capacity of lungs, 230, 230 Vocabula ry, test performance, 255, 257 Vocational interests over life cycle, 284, 285 SEE ALSO: Work, commitment to

Voluntary association membership, 468, 490, 501-510, 502, 515, 516 and adjustment, 507 and education, 4, 504-505, 506 and employment, 506 and home ownership, 503 and income, 503 and marital status, 506 and sex, 503, 504, 507 and social integration, 506 and size of community, 128 and socioeconomic status, 504-505, 505 life-cycle pattllrns, 506 time spent on, 506, 513 types of, 507-509, 507 Voluntary retirement, 448-449, 448 Voting, 5, 464-468, 464, 465, 466, 467 Walking (Walks), 515, 528-529, 529-531, 530 and size of place , 127, 128 hours spent on , 513 War, concern with, 328, 328 Water skiing, 530 Weight and longevity, 192 desire to change , 296, 296 discrimination, 249 White SEE: Color White co ll ar SEE: Occupation Widowhood , 162, 163, 165-166, 165, 540-541 and age identification, 305 and disengagement, 356 and family cycle, 162 and fantasy behavior, 357 and friendship participation, 569 and life satisfaction, 352-353, 356 and mental disorder, 367, 390, 391, 392 and morale, 352-353, 540 anticipation of, 540-541 SEE ALSO: Ma rita I status Will, m aki ng of, 337, 337 Withdrawal, 374 Work , 39-68, 421-462 adjustme nt to, 350, 438, 439 after retirement, 452-454 and satisfaction , 350-351 SEE ALSO : Employment status; Job satisfaction attendance, 429-430, 429, 430 attitudes tow a rd, 438:'440, 445, 450

commitment to, 438 hou rs of, 64, 64, 514 injuries, 432-433, 433 meaning of, 440 part-time, 46, 452 part-year, 46-47 plans, among men not at work, 452 rate, 232 role, 55, 295, 426-442 SEE ALSO : Employment; Job; Labor force status; Occupation ; Unempl oyment Workers c haracteristics, 49-51 productivity, 7, 53 , 426, 427-429 Work force SEE: Labor force Working days per year, 64 Work-life expectancy, 52-53, 62, 422-424, 422 SEE ALSO: Life expectancy; Retirement life expectancy World situation, concern with, 328, 328 Worry, 7, 342, 343-344, 344 about finances, 349-350 about health , 322, 346, 347-348, 347 about housing, 353 about job, 350 and attitudes toward assistance, 327 and education , 348 and marital status, -352 handling of, 327 life-cycle changes, 345 SEE ALSO: An xiety; Depression, psychological; Personal problems; Unh appi ness Worth , sense of SEE: Self-evaluation; Self-image Writing, 513, 515

Subject index

625

NAME INDEX*

Ash, Phillip, 447 , 460 Auerbach Corporation , 56, 65 Aurelius, Mildred G. , viii Axelrod, M., 50 2, 506, 510 Axelrod, Seymour, 249 , 266, 306, 312 Babbie, Earl R., 499 Back, Kurt W., 296, 310, 312, 321, 325, 329, 338, 344, 347,

349, 350, 353, 358, 461 Baltes, Paul, 257, 271 Bancroft, Gertrude, 53 , 65, 431 , 460 Banfield , W. G., 222, 234 Banta, A. M. , 193 Barkin, S., 434, 460 Barron , Milton L., 303, 305, 312, 421 , 489, 490, 494, 496 ,

499 , 500 Basowitz, H., 249, 258, 266, 270, 278, 286 Batten , Barton , Durstine, and Osborn , Inc., 303, 305, 309

311, 312, 345, 358, 571 , 572, 575 Ad a ir, G. S., 237 Adams, Anne, 249, 271 Albert, A., 233 , 234 Albrecht, Ruth, 160, 183, 353, 356, 359, 507, 509, 510 See: Havighurst·Cava n· Burgess·A lbrecht In dexes Albright, F., 233, 238 Aldrich, C. Knight, 592, 594 Alex, M ., 237 Alexander, F., 235 Alleger, Daniel E., 330, 338, 339 Aliport·Vernon Scale of Values, 285, 496 Alman , R. W., 235 American I nstitute of Public Opinion, 268, 296, 310, 311,

312, 321, 329, 334, 344, 347, 349, 350, 353, 471 , 473, 485, 490, 491, 493, 502, 504 Ames, L. B., 257, 271 Anderson, Nancy Newman, 590, 593, 594 Anderson, R. E., 191, 193 Andrew, N. V., 222 , 234 Andrew, Warren, 222, 224, 234 Appel, E. M ., 223, 234 Appel, F. W., 223, 234 Apple, Dorrian , 558, 559 Arenberg, David, 258, 266 Argyle, Michael , 483, 499 Arizona, University of. See: University of A rizona Armour Automation Committee, 55, 65 Aronson, A. H ., 61, 65 Aschner, Bertha M ., 194 • Pages in bold face refer to exhibits .

Baul c h, Norma , 506, 510 Baumert, Gerhard , 169, 182, 183 Baumol , William J. , 524, 533 Bayley, Nancy, 256 , 266 Beach , F. A ., 261, 266 Beam ish, P. , 380, 404, 595 Behrman , H. T., 233, 234 Belbin , R. M ., 434, 460 Bell , Anne, 256, 266 Bell , Daniel, 480, 481 Bell , E. T., 192, 193, 229, 234 Bell, R. G., 192, 194 Bell , Wendell, 505, 510 Bellin, Seymour S., 390, 391, 392, 403 Bell is, 251 Bendig, A. W., 277 , 279 , 286 Bennett, Ruth , 594 Berelson , Bernard R. , 468, 472, 478, 480 Beresfo rd, John C., 170, 179, 180, 181 , 183, 184 Berg, Benjamin N., 192, 193 Berkman, Paul L., 368, 369, 390, 391, 392, 405, 583, 595 Berkowitz, Bernard , 257, 266 Bern reuler Personality I nventory, 284, 285, 302 Berns, Aline W., 192, 193 Bernstein, Merton C., 84, 107 Bertelsen , S., 222, 234 Bessman , A. N ., 235 Beyer, Glenn H ., 131 , 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,

140, 153, 155, 182, 183, 4 25, 460, 491, 499, 503, 504, 506, 510, 511 , 51 3, SIS, 516, 517, 518, 519, 521, 526, 531, 533 , 548, 549 , 550, 559, 585, 586, 587, 594 Bhattacharya , S. K., 192, 193

Bick , M . W., 266 Bilash, I. , 248, 255, 266, 268 Binet, L., 266 , 271 Birren, James E., 36, 193, 194, 219, 224, 234, 235, 237, 238,

244, 248, 249, 250, 252, 266, 267, 269, 270, 272, 286, 287, 312, 313, 338, 339, 403, 460, 461 , 534, 535 Bishop, J. M ., 226, 239 Bjorkerud, Soren, 235 Bjorksten, J., 222, 235 Blankstein , S. S., 272 Blau, Zena Smith, 303, 304, 305, 312, 562, 569 Blenkner, Margaret, 587, 595, 596 Blood , Robert 0 ., Jr., 538, 559 Bloom, Kenneth L., 292, 312 Blumenthal, Herman T., 192, 193 Boernke, Carol, 434, 462 Bogue, Donald J., 24, 36, 42, 44, 55, 64, 65 , 113, 120, 201 , 219 Boler, Deetje, 356, 359 Boling, L. , 237 Bondareft, William, 223, 224, 235 Botha, M . C., 229 , 235 Bottari , P. M., 233, 235 Botwinick, Jack, 249 , 252, 254, 257, 261, 266, 267, 272, 278, 286 Bourliere , F., 266, 271 Bourne, G. H ., 235 , 259, 267 Bousck, E. J ., 226, 237 Bowen, William J., 524, 533 Bradway, K. P. , 256 , 267 Brady, Dorothy S. , 83, 107 Brandfonbrener, M .. 230, 235, 238 Braun, Harry W ., 258, 267, 269 Brebner, J ., 249 , 267 Breen , W. J., 248, 270 Bregger, John E., 54, 66 Breslow, L. , 229 , 235 Bright, James , 56 , 66 Brim, Orville G., Jr., viii, 257 , 267, 297, 298, 312, 313 Brinley, J . F. , 249, 252, 254, 267 British I nstitute of Public Opinion, 311, 471 Britton , Joseph H ., 509 , 510 Broadbent, D. E., 258, 267 Brody, H ., 223, 235 Bromley, Dennis, 257 , 258, 267 B ronte·Stewa rt, B. , 229, 235 Brower,. F. Beatrice, 61 , 66 Brown, Ruth A., 252, 254, 267 Brozek, Josef, 245, 267 , 279 , 286 , 302, 312 Bucc iante, L. , 222, 235 Buec hley, R., 229, 235

N ame index

627

Buhler, Charlotte, 410, 419, 421, 437, 460 Burgess·Cavan ·Havighurst Inventory, 496 See: Havighurst·Cavan·Burgess·Albrecht Indexes Burgess , Ernest W., 36, 105, 107, 109, 160, 168, 169, 183,

338, 403, 404, 405, 480, 481, 496, 499, 510, 534 See: Havighurst·Cavan·Burgess·Albrecht Indexes Burke, 250 Burnet, F. M ., 192, 193 Burns, Evel ine M., 107 Bush , Chilton R., 518, 521, 525, 526, 534 Busse, Ewald W., 262, 267, 280, 286, 312, 345, 358, 364,

403 , 406 Butler, Robert N., 305, 313 Byrd, Eugene , 248, 267 Cain, Leonard D., Jr., 3, 11 Caird, W. K., 258, 269 Calden , George , 279, 286 Caldwell, B. M ., 233, 235 California Department of Highway Patrol , 253, 267 Camargo, Oswaldo, 591, 595 Cameron, N., 249, 272 Cammermeyer, J ., 224, 235 Campbell , Angus , 465, 469, 470, 471 , 472, 473, 475, 480 Campbell, Kathryne H., 248, 271 Canadian Depa rtment of Labor, Economics and Research Branch , 427, 428 , 442 , 460 Canestra ri , R. E., 258, 267 Cantri l, Hadley, 106, 107, 311, 312, 334, 338, 471, 475, 480,

491, 493 , 495, 498, 499, 521 , 523, 524, 526, 527 , 531 , 532, 533, 534 Ca rdwell , E. S., Jr., 224, 234 Carp, Frances Merchant, 142, 155 Casarett , George W. , 193 Cason, Hulsey, 281, 286 Cathca rt, 250 Catholic Digest, The , 483, 485, 486, 490, 492, 493, 494, 495, 497, 499 Cavan ·Havighu rst Inventory. See : Havighurst·Cavan·Burgess· Albre cht Indexes Cavan, Ruth S., 331, 338, 341, 356, 358, 409, 419 , 483, 496,

499 , 507 See : Havighurst·Cavan· Burgess·Albrecht Indexes Census of Housing, 1960. See: U .S. Bureau of the Census Census of Population . See: U.S. Bureau of the Census Centers, R. , 480 Cesa · Bian chi, 251 Chabanis , 225 Chalfen, Leo, 589, 595 Chapman, James, 258, 270 Chapman , W. P., 248, 267

628

Name index

Charcot, J. M., 224, 235 Charles, Don C., 249, 257, 272 Chen , Yung·Ping, 105, 107 Chieffi, M., 233 , 235 Chown, Sheila M., 267, 276, 278, 280, 283, 286, 434 , 438,

461 Christenson, Cornelia V., 261, 267 Christian , Alice M ., 257, 267 Churchill, Betty C., 55, 66 Chvapil, M. , 222, 235 Ciba Foundation, 235 Ciocco , A. , 200, 219, 246, 267 Clague, Ewan , 64, 67 Clark, Arnold M ., 193, 201, 219 Clark, Lincoln H .. 107 Clarke , M. F., 190, 193 Clausen, John A., 406 Clawson , B. J., 229, 234 Clay, H . M ., 429, 460 Cleland , Courtney B .. viii Clyde Moody Scale, 282 Coe , Rodney M ., 588, 595 Cohen , Bernice H ., 229, 239 Cohen, H. , 229 , 235 Cohen, Louis D., 249, 266 Cohen , T., 248, 267 Cohen, Zelda, viii Coleman, Richard , 478, 480 Colgan, C. M. , 245, 267 Columbia University, 56, 66 Comalli, Peter E., Jr., 249, 268, 272 Comfort, A., 190, 193 Community Council of Greater New York, 104 Comrey Personality Inventory, 283 Conger, Louis H., Jr., 120 Connecticut Motor Vehicle Department, 253 Conrad , H. S., 255, 257, 269 Converse, Philip E., 480 Conwell, Margaret, 385,404 Cook, M . G., 397, 405 Coons , Dorothy, 595 Cooper, Marcia , 405 Cooper, R. M ., 248, 268 Corcoran, A. C., 233, 239 Cornell Study of Occupational Retirement, 421 Corsellis, J. A. N., 364, 365, 403 Corso, John F., 247, 268 Cosh , J. A. , 249, 268 Cottrell, Fred , 480 Cotugno, Harry, viii Cowdry, E. V., 194, 235

Cowgill, Don ald 0., 506, 510 Cowhig, James D., 485, 487, 499 Cox, R. C., 222, 235 Craik, F. I., 278, 286 Crawford, M . D., 229, 237 Cressey, Donald R. , 405 , 406 Critchley, M ., 223, 235 Crittenden, John, 472, 473, 480 Crockett, Jean A., 107 Crook, M. N., 249, 268 Cross, E. , 192, 193 Crossman, E. R. F. W., 252, 268 Crowley, C., 191, 193 Cumming, Ela ine, 355, 358, 409, 413, 419, 562 , 575 Cummins, James F., 255, 268 Cunningham, Scott, 296 CUTTent Population RepoTts. See : U.S. Bureau of the Census Current Population Survey. See: U.S. Bureau of the Census Curtis, H . J ., 191, 193, 194 Czechoslovakian Institute of Public Opinion, 491, 493 Dahlberg, Gunnar, 402, 403 Danish Gallup Institute, 516, 533 Darville, F. T., Jr., 233, 235 Das, B. C., 192, 193 Daughaday, W. H. , 233, 235 David, Martin , 79, 108 Davies , D. F., 227, 235 Davies, D. R., 258, 269 Davis, H . F., 237 Dawber, T. R., 229, 235 Dean, Lois R. , 281, 282, 286, 348, 358 de Grazia , Sebastian, 65, 66, 514, 532, 534 de la Mare, G. C. , 429, 460 Demming, J. A., 257, 268 Dennis, Wayne, 421 , 435, 436, 437, 460, 462, 534 Deringer, M . K., 192, 193 DeSilva, 251 Devereaux, C. P., 580 , 596 deVyver, Frank T., 108, 109, 156 Dibner, Andrew S., 255 , 268, 333, 334, 339 Dick , Harry R., 584, 595 Dickinson, Frank G., 478, 480 Diedric h, J ., 488, 499 Dimitroff, S. P., 228, 233, 238 DIVO In stitute, 168, 182, 183 Dix, Arthur, 472, 481 Dodge , Joan S., 297, 312 Don ahue, Wilma, 66, 67, 68, 155, 156, 183, 184, 286, 287,

405 , 460, 461, 462, 480, 481, 482 , 559 , 575, 590, 595 , 596

Donders, 245 Doppelt, J. E., 257, 268 Dorfman , Robert, 50, 67, 80, 109, 171, 182,450, 453,462 Dorfman , R. I. , 233 , 235 Dovenmuehle, R. H., 280, 286 Downing, J oo 508, 510 Dribben, I. S., 222, 235 Duane, 245 Dublin , Lou is I., 25 , 33, 36, 200, 219, 394, 395, 396, 403 , 540, 559 Duhl, L. J oo 155 Duncan , Otis Dudley, 36, 37, 219, 220 Dunn, T. B., 192, 193 Durkee, Nanc~ 305, 313, 331, 339 Durkheim , Emile, 395, 396, 398, 403

Ersk ine, Hazel Gaudet, 264, 265, 268, 308, 310, 312, 329, 338, 439, 447, 455, 460, 468, 471, 474, 475, 481, 485, 490, 491 , 493 , 498, 499, 553, 559 Eson, Morris E., 331, 338 Evans, Franklin B. , 570, 575 Eyde, Lorraine D., 562, 571 , 575 Eysenc k, H. J. , 471, 475 , 481

Ferriss, Abbott L., 534, 535 Festinger, Leon, 128, 155 Fichter, J . H., 483, 499 Fieandt, 251 Filer, Richard N., 589, 594, 595 Fink, H. H., 331, 338, 593, 595 Fischer, Roland, 248 Fisher, Janet A. , 8 2, 88, 98, 107 Fisher, M. B., 244, 270 Folk, Hugh , 59, 67 Folsom, James M., 66 Force, Maryanne T., 505, 510 Ford Found ation , The, viii Ford , Phyllis Moo 533, 534 Forsaith , Bel, 461 Fortune Magazine, 65, 66 Fortune Poll, 264, 439 Foskett, J . M., 505, 510 Fox, Charlotte, 266 Frankel , Godfrey, 509, 510 Freed m a n, Alfred M., 403 Freedman , R., 502 , 506, 510 Freeman, H., 233, 235 Freeman, Howard E., 310, 313, 324, 330, 333, 334, 338, 339, 354, 359, 409 , 415, 420 Freeman , Joseph T., 197, 198, 219 Freidson , Eliot, 320, 321 , 338 Fried , Edrita G., 558, 559 Fried , Marc, 154, 155 Friedfeld , L., 233, 236 Friedman , Alfred S. , 282, 286 Friedman , Edward P. , 590, 595 Friedmann, Eugene A., 440, 460 Fried s am , Hira m J ., 595 Froomkin, Joseph, 85 , 107 Fukuy a ma, Yoshio , 491, 493, 499 Fu rchtgott, Ernest, 248, 269

Fal e k, Arthur, 193, 194, 257, 269 Fa ris , Robert L. , 11 Farkas, Magda , 249, 268 Farnsworth, P. R. , 267 , 268, 286 Faunce, William A., 56, 66, 478, 481 Fazekas , J . F., 227, 235 Federal Burea u of Investigation, 362, 399,401,402, 403 Federal Res erve System, 70, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 107, 139, 155 Feifel , H., 249 , 268 Feld , Sheila, 31 2, 338, 358, 404, 461 , 559 Feldman, Jacob J., 320 , 321, 338 Fels Resea rch Institute, 256 Ferguson , C. E. , 66

Gaffney, G. W., 232 , 236 Gagnon , John H., 261 , 267 Ga ll a way. Lowell E., 44, 53,61 , 66, 451 , 460 Gall u p, George, 345, 358, 494, 499 Ga ll u p Poll , 264, 265, 310, 447, 455 Galton , 250, 251 Gan zler, Henry, 257, 268 Ga rdner, E., 223, 236 Ga rfield, .C. I. , 233, 237 Ga rfinkel , Lawrence , 265, 269 Garfinkle, Stuart, 431, 460 Garwood , F., 253, 268 Gatenby, J. B., 224, 236

Edwa rds, Allan E., 283, 286 Eisdorfer, Carl , 257 , 258, 268, 277, 281, 283, 286, 306, 312, 339, 345, 359, 416, 417, 418, 420 Eldersveld , Samuel J., 469, 481 Ellis, R. S., 223, 235 Emmers, R., 224, 239 Engle, E. T., 234, 235, 238 Enhoffer, Ell e n, viii Enterline, Philip E., 32, 36, 201, 219 Enzer, N., 272 Epstein, Lenore A., 59 , 60, 66, 71, 72, 73, 74, 80, 81, 85, 104, 105, 107, 131, 132, 150, 155, 170, 171, 176, 182, 183, 213 , 219. 553, 559, 580, 595 Erhart, Marion F., viii

Gedda, L. , 193, 194 Gergen , Kenneth J ., 296, 310, 312, 321, 325, 329, 338, 344, 347, 349, 350, 353, 358 Gershberg, H., 233, 236 Gertman , Samuel , 248 , 267 Gibbs , Jack P., 393, 395, 403 , 406 Giese, F., 305, 312 Gilbert, Jeanne G., 257, 258, 268 Gildem eister, M., 246, 268 Gini Index of Inequal ity (or Concentration), 76, 83 Gitman, L. , 248, 267 Gittler, R. D., 233, 236 Gladis, Mic hael , 258, 269 Glanville , Edward V., 248, 269 Gla s er, Daniel, 402, 404, 406 Glass , Bentley, 188, 189, 193 Glass, David C., 267, 312 Gl ick, Paul C., 162, 183, 485 , 499 Gloc k, Charles Y., 490 , 499, 500 Goethe , 437 Goldberg, C., 229, 235 Golde, Peggy, 306, 312 Goldfa rb, Al vin I. , 378, 404, 580, 582, 583, 591 , 592 , 595, 596 Go ldfarb, W., 252, 269 Goldhamer, Herbert, 383, 384, 404 Goldscheider, Calvin, 151, 153, 156 Goldste in , Sidney, 46, 49, 50, 51, 66, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 10~ 101, 10 ~ 107, 10~ 109, 149, 155, 155 Gompertz plot (function), 188, 189, 192 Goodell, Helen, 269 Gordon , Marga ret S., 49, 53, 54, 55, 59 , 61, 66, 80, 81, 84, 98, 105, 108, 445, 451, 460, 462 Gore, I. , 227, 236 Gottesman, Leonard E., 593, 595 Gran ick, Ruth , 588 , 590 , 595, 596 Gra nick, Sa mue l, 282, 28 6 Gray, H., 279 , 280, 286 Gray, Robert M., 496 , 499 Great Britain , Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance, 451, 460 Green , L. R., 249 , 272 Greenfeld, Norman , 331, 338 Griew, Soo 252, 258, 269 Groen , J ., 229, 236 Gro nd in, F ra n ~ oi s· X a vier, viii Groom, D., 227, 236 Gross, 'J ., 222, 236 Groth , Sverker, 402 , 404 Gruenberg, E. M. , 233, 236 Gudiksen , Karen S ., 292 , 313

Name index

629

Guilford·Martin Personnel Inventory, 434 Guilford·Zimmerman Temperament Survey, 277, 279, 286 Guralnick, L , 34, 36 Gurin, Gerald , 290, 291, 292, 295, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301,

302, 312, 326, 327, 338, 342, 343, 344, 348, 349, 350, 352, 353, 358, 373, 374, 382, 388, 390, 404, 438, 439, 440, 461, 539, 540, 555, 556, 557, 559 Gutmann , David L, 278, 283, 284, 286, 287 Guttman Scale, 305, 343, 344, 351, 357, 455, 459, 562 Halfon , Arlene, viii Hall, C. E., 192, 193 Hall, G. Stanley, 483, 499 Hall, 0. , 192, 193 H alstead, W., 257, 269 Hamilton, Mary Alice, 249, 270 Hammond, E. Cuyler, 229, 236, 265, 269 Hammond, Phillip E., 500 Hamovitc h, Maurice, 142, 155 Hansen , Gary D., 516, 517, 533, 535 Hansen, P. From , 359, 419 Hardt, Robert H ., 390, 391, 392, 403 Hardy, J. D., 248, 269 Harmison , Charles R., 192, 193 Harms, J. W. , 223, 236 Harris , Louis, 443, 444, 445, 447, 452, 453, 454, 461, 541 ,

544, 554, 559 See: Louis Harris Poll Hauser, P. M., 30, 36 Hausknecht, Murray, 468, 481, 490, 499, 502, 504, 505, 507,

508, 510 Havighurst·Cavan·Burgess·Albrecht Indexes, 345, 347, 353,

354, 356, 419, 496, 507, 593, 594 Havighurst, Robert J ., 160, 183, 332, 338, 341, 359, 409, 413 , 416, 418, 419, 440, 460, 461 , 478, 481, 488, 495, 496, 499, 503, 507, 508, 516,517,533,534 He alth Information Foundation, 217, 219 Hebb, D. O., 409, 419 Hecht, S., 244, 269 Heglin, H. J ., 276, 286 Heimer, R. , 192, 193 Heinrich, A., 223, 236 Hellerstein, H . K., 229, 237 Hendin, Herbert, 397, 404 Henneman , P. H ., 233, 239 Henry, William E., 279, 286, 287, 355, 358, 409, 562, 575 Henshaw, P. S., 191, 193 Hermalin, Albert I., 22, 36 Hermann , H .. 224, 236

630

Nam e index

353, 356, 467, 468, 509, 510,

Heron, Alastair, 258, 267, 278, 280, 286, 434, 438, 461 Heron, W., 409 , 419 Hertig, A. T. , 239 Hess, Beth, viii Hesto n, W. E., 192, 193 Heym an, Dorothy K., 294, 312 Hickler, Roger B. , 236 Hiestand, Dale L, 68 Higgins, Gertrude M ., viii Higgin so n, J. , 229, 236 Hill, Evan , 345, 358,494, 499 Hirst, A. E., 227, 236 Hoch, Paul H., 286, 404, 405 , 595 Hoff, H ., 223, 236 Hoffman, C. S .. 249, 269 Hoffman, M. M. , 239 Hofstetter, H. W .. 245, 269 Hokanson , Jack E., 279, 286 Hollingshead, August B., 382, 404 Holmes, M. C., 192, 193 H oltzman, Abrah am, 478, 481 Hopf, A ., 521, 534 Horn, A., 269 Horn, D., 229, 236 Horton, John E., 475, 481 Hoyt, G. C., 506, 510 Hulicka, T. M ., 258, 269 Human Sciences Re search, Inc., 56, 66 Hunter, Woodrow W., 489, 490, 499, 514, 533, 534, 547, 549,

559, 562, 563, 565, 570, 574, 575, 595 Hurley, Peter L., 385, 404 Hutchinson , Bertram , 504, 506, 507, 510 Hyman, Herbert H., 474, 481 Imus, A., 234, 238 Ingegnieros, S., 168, 183 Inghe, Gunnar, 402, 403, 404 Ingle, L., 192, 193 Inglis, James, 258, 269 Institute of Life In surance, 81, 84, 104, 108, 134, 156, 446,

461 International Association of Gerontology, 269 International Labour Office. See: United Nations International Research Associates , 493 Israel, Robert A., 406

413, 419,

Jacobs, Paul , 481, 575 Jacobson , Paul H .. 33, 36, 163, 164, 165, 166, 183 Jaffe, Abram J., 53, 66, 68 Jahn , Julius, 595 Jalavisto, Eeva, 189, 193, 249, 269

Janson , Carl ·Gunnar, 68, 406 Jarvik, Lissy F., 31, 36, 190, 193, 194, 201, 219, 257, 269 Jayne, E. P., 225, 236 Jeffcoate, G. 0. , 253, 268 Jeffers, Frances C., 294, 302, 312, 336, 339 Jennings, M. Kent, 478, 481 John Birch Society, 479 Johnson, C. E., 234 Johnson, L C., 239 Johnson , Marilyn E., viii, 463-482, 483-500 Johnson, V irginia E., 261, 262, 270 Johnson, W. M., 236 Johnston, Dennis F., 55, 66 Johnstone , John W. C., 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 439, 440,

441, 461, 493, 499, 526, 527, 533, 534 Jones, H arold E., 255, 256, 257, 269 Jones, L W. , 305, 312 Josephy, Herman, 591, 595

Kallmann , Franz J., 31, 36, 189, 190, 193, 194, 201, 219,

257, 269 Kamin, L. J ., 257, 269 Kannel, W. B., 229, 235 Kaplan, Arnold R., 248, 269 Kaplan, H. I., 403 Kaplan , Oscar J., 256, 269, 404 Kastenbaum , Robert, 269, 270, 305, 313, 331, 335, 339 Katona, George, 100, 101, 108, 444, 445, 446, 461 Katz , Elihu, 478, 481 Kay, D. W. K., 366, 368, 372, 373, 380, 381, 382, 386, 404,

405, 583, 591, 595 Kay, H ., 252, 269 Keech, M. K., 222, 236 Kelley, H. Gilbert, viii Kellogg, V. L, 192, 194 Kelly, E. Lowell , 284, 285, 286, 302, 313, 438, 461, 496, 499,

540, 559 Kendall, P., 521, 524 , 526, 534 Kennedy, Miriam, 462 Kerckhoff, Alan C., 352, 353, 359, 538, 559 Kerr, Barbara , viii

Kety, S. S., 227, 236 Keys, A., 229, 236, 245, 267 Ki bler, Mary 0. , 256, 272 Kidd , Ceci I B., 582, 595 Kimbrell, G. McA ., 248, 269 King, H . F., 433, 461 Kinsell, L. W., 229, 237 Kinsey, Alfred C., 259, 260 , 261, 262, 269 Kirc hner, Wayne K., 258, 269

Kleem eie r, Robert W., 66, 257, 269, 270, 404, 410, 419, 460,

46 1, 510, 534, 594, 595 Knox, Alan B., 419, 420 Knox, William E., 570, 575 K6ckeis, Eva , 169, 183, 573, 575 Koga, 251 Kogan , Nathan, 278, 286, 287, 289, 292, 302, 306, 309, 312, 313, 331 , 335, 336, 339 Kohn , R. R., 222, 226, 237 Koneff, H., 224, 237 Konttinen , A., 229, 237 Korchin , S. J., 249 , 258, 266, 270, 278, 286 Kosa, J., 359, 462 Kossoris, Max, 429, 430, 433, 461 Kountz, W. B., 233, 237 Kramer, Charles H., 595 Kramer, Morton , 384, 385, 404, 405 , 406, 584, 588, 591, 595 Krauss, Robert M., 68, 194, 220, 272 Kreps, Juanita M., 52, 53, 64, 66, 67, 68, 107, 108, 109, 451, 461 Kristjanson, G. Albert, 352, 353, 356, 359 Krut, l. H., 229, 235 Kuhlen , Raymond G., 120, 286 , 287, 309, 313, 411 , 419 Ku t ner, Bernard , 293, 294, 303, 305, 308, 313, 319, 322, 323, 330, 331, 339, 343, 346, 347, 348, 350, 352, 353, 354, 356, 357, 359, 414, 415, 416 , 419, 508, 510, 540, 546, 559, 563, 575 Kuznets, Simon S., 69, 108, 176, 177, 183 Labella, Frank S., 222, 237 Laidl aw, R. W. , 249, 270 Laird , D. A., 248, 270 Lake, Wilfred S., 155, 156 Lakin , Martin, 281, 286 Landahl, Herbert D., 249 , 270 Landis, J. T., 345, 359 Landowne, M. , 227, 235, 237 Langford, Marilyn, 125, 126, 127, 128, 138, 150, 151, 152,

153, 156, 543, 544, 545, 553, 559, 564, 565, 566, 570, 572, 573, 574, 575 Lansing, Albert I., 192, 194, 222, 237, 238 Lans ing, Alice K., 509, 510 Larrabee , Eric, 66, 67, 534, 535 Larsen, C. D., 193 Larson , Olaf F., 505,506,508, 510 La rsson , K., 261, 270 Larsson , Tage , 216, 220, 383, 405 Lasagna, Louis, 339 Lauer, A. R., 253, 270 Lawson , J. S., 258, 270

Lazarsfeld, Paul F., 472, 478, 480, 481, 521, 523, 524, 526,

McKinney, John C., 108, 109, 156, 312, 313, 338, 339, 359,

461, 575

534 Lazerwitz, Bernard, 487, 499 Lehman, Harvey C., 421, 437, 461, 476, 477, 481, 490, 499 Leighton, Alexander H., 373, 374, 386, 387, 388, 404 Lemkau , Paul, 383, 405 Lenski, Gerhard, 485, 499 Lenzer, Anthony, 146, 156 Leonard, J. A., 252, 270 Lepkowski, J. Richard, 593, 595 Lesse, H., 224, 239 Lev, M., 226, 237 Levin, F. M., 192, 193 Levy, Marguerite, 500 Lieberman, Morton A. , 280, 286, 292, 313, 331, 333, 339,

McLain Movement, 479 McMillan, J. B., 226, 237 McNamara , Robert l., 507, 510 McPhee, William N., 472, 480 Maddox, George l., 294, 295, 313, 345, 346, 353, 354, 355,

591, 592, 593, 595, 596 Liebhafsky, E. E., 67 Liebow, I. M., 229, 237 Lindberg, Torgny, 402, 403 , 404 Lindsay, W. Gary, 222, 237 Lindsley., Ogden R. , 266, 270 Link, H. C., 521, 534

Marden , C. F., 263, 271 Marden , Philip W., 337, 339 Margen, S., 237 Mark, Jerome A., 428, 429, 430, 432, 461 Marks, H. H., 229, 238 Marmorston, J. , 239 Marple , Clare H ., 276, 287 Marshall, Andrew W., 383, 384, 404 Martel, Marti n U., 440, 455, 461, 563, 574, 575 Martin, Clyde E., 269 Martin, Cora Ann, 595 Mart in , Walter T .. 395, 404 Massachusetts, Census of, 179 Master, A. M., 233, 237 Masters, William H., 261 , 262, 270, 272 Mather, William G., 509, 510 Math iasen , Geneva, 497, 499 Maurice, Helen , 489, 490, 499, 514, 533, 534, 547, 549, 559,

Linton, Ralph, 2, 11 Lipman, Aaron , 337, 339, 538, 540, 559 Lipset, Seymour Martin, 472, 479 , 481 Little, K., 222, 235 Livson, Florine, 359 Locke, Ben Z., 389, 391, 392, 405 , 591, 595 Logan, W. P. D., 34, 35, 36, 202 , 219 Long, Cia rence D., 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 67 Loranger, A. W., 245, 270 Lorge, Irving, 193, 276, 287, 289, 304, 306, 308, 313, 506,

510, 540, 560, 596

.

Lotka, Alfred J., 36, 219 Louis Harris and Associates, 553 Louis Harris Poll, 308, 443, 444, 445, 447, 452, 453, 454,

541 , 544 Lowenthal , Marjorie Fiske, 356, 359, 367, 368, 369, 382, 390,

391 , 392, 405, 416, 417, 419, 580, 583, 584, 586, 595 Lumia, V., 248, 270 Lu ria, S., 222, 235 Luterman, David, 270 Lydall, H. F., 98, 108 McCann , C. W., 489, 490 , 499 McCay, Clive M., 192, 194 McClosky Scale, 473 McConnell, John W., 108 McFarland , Ross A., 244, 253,254,270,433, 461 McGhie, Andrew, 258, 270 McKain, W. C. , 506, 510

359, 416, 417,418, 419, 420 Madigan, F. C., 200, 219 Magladery, John W. , 224, 225, 237 Malzberg, Benjamin, 384, 405, 591, 595 Mandlebaum, J., 244, 269 Manpower Development and Training Act, 59 ManpoweT RepoTt of the PTesident, 42, 44, 47, 53, 58, 59,

61 , 67

562, 563, 565, 570, 574, 575 Maves , Paul B., 489, 490, 499 Maxwell, A. E., 255, 270 Maynard·Smith, A., 190, 193 Melrose, Jay, 248, 270 Mendkoff, Ethel , 592, 594 Mensh, Ivan Norman, 591, 596 Merriam, Ida C., 108 Merton , Robert K. , 403, 405 Mesolella, V., 248, 270 Messer, Mark, 567, 575 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 29, 35, 36, 192, 194,

196, 197, 199, 200, 203, 220 Meyer, B. J., 227, 237 Meyersohn, Rolf, 66, 67, 518, 519, 521, 523, 526, 534, 535 Michaels, G. D., 237 Michigan , University of. See: University of Michigan Mieding, Ca rolyn , 239

N ame index

63 1

Miles, Catherine C., 255, 257, 271 Miles, W. R. , 249, 251 , 252 , 255 , 271 Miller, David, 593, 596 Miller, Herman P., 75, 76, 79, 82, 83, 108 Miller, J . H ., 267 M iller, Warren E., 480 Minnesota Department of Employment Security, 55, 56, 67 Minnesota Poll , 264, 265, 271 M i siak , H. , 245 , 270, 271 Mitc hell, J . R. A., 228, 237 Mobe rg, Da vi d 0., 400, 405, 496, 499 , 500 Montoye, H . J. , 252 , 271 Moody, Clyde (Scale). See: Clyde Moody Scale M oo re, F. J ., 239 Mo o re , Ma ry E.. viii , 185, 187-194, 195-220, 221-239, 241-

272 Moo re, R. A., 222, 237 Moore, Wilbert E., 37, 68 Morant, 251 Morel, F. , 223, 237 Morgan, Ja mes N., 76, 78, 79 , 104, 108, 109, 133, 134, 135,

156, 183, 444, 445, 446, 456, 461 Morris, J . N ., 229, 237 Morris, W. W ., 440, 455, 461, 563, 574, 575 Morrison , Denton E., 352, 353, 356, 359 Morrison , L. R., 224, 23 7 Morse, Nancy C., 446, 461 Mors ell , J o hn , 47 2, 481 M o rton , Lin da, viii Moseley, H . G., 433, 462 Moses , Campbell, 237 Mulford , H arold A., 263, 264, 271 Mull, John D., 222, 237 Munnichs, Joep, 415, 420 Murch ison, C., 271 Murray, Janet H. , 85 , 107, 108, 109, 131, 132, 150, 155, 170,

171 , 176, 183,213,219 Murray, M . R., 224, 237 Murrell, K. F. H ., 428, 461 Myers, Robert J. , 157, 183, 454, 461, 462 Nahemow, Lucille D., 588, 594, 595 Nation a l Advi sory Committee, Whit e House Confe rence on Aging, 497 , 500 Nation a l Cente r for Health Statistics, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,

36, 103, 104, 108, 196, 198, 202, 207, 210, 212, 213, 2 14, 215, 2 17, 218, 220, 242, 243, 264, 271, 320, 339, 36 1, 378, 392, 396, 397, 399, 405, 430,461, 577, 579, 580, 581, 582, 591, 596 Heal th Exa mination Survey, 204, 219 H eal th Int erview Survey, 204, 205, 219

632

N Clme index

Vital and Health Stati stic s, 25, 26-27, 37, 103, 104, 108, 202, 207, 210, 212-213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 220, 242, 243, 264, 271 , 3 20, 339, 378, 396, 399, 405, 430, 461, 579, 580, 581, 58~ 591 , 596 Vital Stati stics of the United States, 220, 392, 397 Vital Stati sti cs S pecial Report, 398, 399 National Commission on Tech nology, Autom ation, and Eco· nomic Progress, 67 N ati o na l Committee on the Aging, 451 , 461 N atio n a l Coun c il on the Agi ng, v i ii, 107 National H ealth Education Committee, 227, 237 Nat ional Industrial Conference Board, 62, 67, 103, 109 National Institute of Mental H ealth, 365, 375, 376, 377,

378, 379, 381 , 384, 385, 386, 387, 391, 392, 405 National Manpower Council, 44, 45, 67 National Office of Vi tal Statistics, 199, 394, 395, 540 National Opinion Research Center, 502, 504, 507 National Recreation Survey. See: Outdoor Recreation Re· sources Review Commission National Safety Council, 254, 433, 461 National Survey of Fishing and Hunting. See: U.S. Depart· ment of the Interior, Fish an d W i ldlife Service Neal , Miron W ., 365 , 405 Neugarten, Bernice L., 276, 278, 279, 281, 283, 284, 286,

287, 310, 313, 353, 359, 419, 558, 559 Neulinger, John , 267 , 31 2 Newman, Gustave , 259, 262 , 271 Newsham , L. G. S., 239 New York State Department of M enta l Hygi ene, 371, 380,

381, 389, 405, 583 Nic hol s, Cl aude R., 259, 262, 271, 339 Nieban c k , Paul L. , 128, 154, 155, 156, 513, 534, 566, 575 Nikkila, E. A. , 229, 237 Ni s bet, J. D., 256, 271 , 403 Nisbet, Robert A. , 404, 405 Norris, A . H., 224, 230, 231, 237 Norris, Vera , 595 O'Connell, Desmond D., 589, 594, 595 O' Connor, C. M ., 193, 194 Oden , Melita H ., 256, 266 O' Doherty, Brian M ., 433 , 461 Oken, D. F., 226, 237 Opinion Research Corporation, 486, 515, 516, 518, 519, 520,

52 1, 523,

5 2 ~ 52~

531, 534

Opton, Edward , Jr., 272 Orbach , Harold L. , 61, 67, 107, 109, 460, 487, 488, 489, 500 O' Rei lly, Cha rles T. , 488, 495, 496, 500 Orma , E. , 269 Orshansky, Mollie, 104, 109 Ot rs Mental Test s, 256

Outdoor Recreation for America. See: Outdoo r Rec reation Resources Review Commission Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, 67, 511,

512, 513, 514, 524, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 534, 535 Outdoor R ecreation for America, 65 , 67, 530, 531, 535 National Recreation Survey, 512, 513, 514, 524, 528-529, 530, 531, 532 , 534 Owens, W. A., 256, 271 Pacaud , S., 254, 271 Page, I. H ., 233 , 239 Paisley, Wi lliam G., 525, 535 Palmore, Erdman, 50, 62, 67, 80, 109, 421, 442, 448, 449,

450, 452, 453, 461 Pare, W. P., 193, 194 Parke, Robert, Jr., 162, 183 Parker, Edwin B ., 525, 535 Parmeswara n, E. G., 249, 271 Parsons, Talcott, 2, 11 Partridge, J., 237 Partridge, S. M ., 222, 237 Pasamanick, Benjamin, 370, 372, 373, 380, 382, 387, 388,

405, 583, 596 Patek, Arth ur J. , Jr. , 194,239,272 Paterson , Don ald G., 257, 267 Pearl , R., 189, 194 Pelz, K., 257 , 271 Peplar, W. J ., 229 , 236 Perlin, Seymour, 305, 313 Perlman , R. M. , 271 Pestalozza , G., 248, 271 Peterson , Paul G., 359 Peterson , Ray M., 109 Peterson , Warren A., 310, 313, 420, 500, 510, 594, 595, 596 Phillips, Bernard S., 304, 305, 308, 313, 343, 350, 353, 356,

357, 359 Pierso n , W. R. , 252, 271 Pihlblad, C. Terence, 507, 510 Pike, F., 257, 271 Pincus, G., 233, 234, 23 5, 238 Pinner, Frank A. , 478, 479, 481 , 506, 510, 574, 575 Pittman , James A., Jr., 238 Pollack, Earl S., 378, 405 , 406 Pollack, M ., 292, 313, 593, 596 Pollak, Otto, 460 Pollock, Kenneth, 331, 339 Polner, Walter, 478, 481 Pomeroy, W ardell B ., 269 Pope, John B., 128, 154, 155, 156, 513, 534, 566, 575 Post, Fe l ix , 595 Powesl and , P. F., 46 1

President's Commission o n Law Enforce m e nt a nd Administration of Justice, 399, 401, 405 President' s Committee on Corporate Pe nsio n Fu nds, 60, 81 P ressey, S . L. , 257, 268 Presthus , Robert, 477, 481 Preston, Caroline E., 292, 313 Preston , George H., 591 , 595 Prioreschi, P., 192, 194 Pryor, Edward, 180, 183 Quetelet, A., 400, 405 Rabbitt, Patrick M. A., 254, 27 1 Railroad Employees Natio na l Pe nsion Association, 478 Railroad Ret irement Act of 1934, 478 Ram, J . Sri, 222, 237 Ramamurthi, P. V., 249, 271 Ramasarma, G. B., 237 Randall, Ollie A., viii Ra ndall, Raymond V., 234, 238 Rasmussen, G. L., 224, 238 Raven Progressive Matrices, 283 Redlic h, Fredri ck C., 382, 404 Reed, Homer B. C., Jr. , 254, 271 Registrar-General for Engla nd and Wales, 397, 398, 405 Reichard, Suzanne , 353, 359 Reifenstein, E. C., 233, 238 Reigrotzki, Erich, 467, 468, 48 1, 488, 500, 503, 510 Reiss, A. , 49, 67 Reissman , Leonard , 284, 287 Reitan, Ralph M., 254, 271 Reitman, 281 Remmers' Generalized Attitude S cales, 285 Rheinstein, Max, 105, 106, 109 Rhudick, Paul J. , 333, 334, 339 Richardson, Arthur H., 310, 313, 323, 330, 333, 334, 354, 359, 409, 414, 415, 416, 417, 420 Richter, C. P., 248, 271 Riegel, Klaus F., 275, 276, 287 Riesman, David, 533, 535 Riley, John W., Jr., viii, 263, 271, 280, 287, 318, 328, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 339, 348, 349, 359, 494, 500 Riley, John W., II I, 194, 239 Ringer, Benjamin B., 499 Riss , W., 272 Rivera, Ramon J., 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 439, 440, 461, 493, 499, 526, 527, 533, 534 Rivin, A. U., 228, 233, 238 Rivlin, Alice M., 170, 179, 180, 181, 183 Robbin , J. S ., 249, 252, 254, 267

339,

332, 495,

441,

Roberts, E., 237 Rollerson , E., 222, 226, 237 Ronge, H., 248, 271 Rony, H. R. , 233, 238 Roper, Elmo , 468, 482 Roper Poll , 296, 321, 325, 329, 491, 533 Rorschach Ink Blot Test, 275, 277, 283, 286 Rose, Arno ld M., 420, 500, 508, 510, 535, 594, 595, 596 Rosee , B., Graf de la, 247, 271 Rosen, Jacqueli ne L. , 281, 287 Rosenberg, George S. , 545, 546, 559, 562, 563, 565, 567, 568, 569, 57 2, 573, 575 Rosenberg, Gilbert, 249, 271 Rosenheim, Margaret Keeney, 105, 109 Rose nmayr, Leopold, 169, 183, 573, 575 Rosenthal , F., 271 Rosenthal, T. B. , 237 Rosow, Irving, 126, 153, 156, 542, 547, 554, 559, 563, 566, 567 , 570, 571, 573, 574, 575 Ross, Arthur M., 67 Rosset, Edward, 21, 37 Roth, Barbara, viii Roth, Martin, 380, 404, 595 Ruch, F. L., 252, 258, 271 Rudd, E., 192, 193 Rudzinska, M. A., 192, 194 Ruger, 250 Russ, S ., 191, 194 Russell Sage Foundation, viii Rutgers-The State University, viii Ryder, Norman B., 3, 10, 11 Saben, Samuel, 47, 48, 67 Sainsbury, Peter, 397, 398, 405 Salk, Lee, 462 Sallick, Richard, 406 Salmon, W. D., 235 Samuels , L. T., 233, 238 Sanders, K., 229, 238 Scarr, H. A., 278, 283, 287 Schaie, K. Warner, 9, 11, 257, 271 , 276, 277, 280, 283 , 287 Schapiro, H. B., 267 Schaw, L. C., 279, 287 Schein, Virginia E., viii, 275-288 Schludermann, E., 248, 272 Schmid, Calvin F., 39 7, 405 Schmidhauser, J ohn R., 477, 481 Schmidt, John , 347, 359 Schneider, Clement J ., 454, 457, 461 Schnore, Leo F., 485, 487, 499 Schober, F. W. , 246, 272

Schorr, Alvin L., 105, 109 Schramm, Wilbur, 468, 481, 509, 510, 518, 521, 525, 526, 535 Schulz, James H., 68, 79 , 109 Sc hwartz, C. J ., 228, 23 7 Scotch, Norman A., 409, 416, 417, 420 Scott, Frances Gillespie, 496, 500, 589, 590, 593, 596 Scott, G. M., 191 , 194 Scott, Margaret R., viii Scott, T., 580, 596 Select Subcommittee on Labor of the Committee on Edu cation and Labor, House of Representatives, 88th Congress, 1963, 64, 67 Sellin , Thorsten, 400, 402, 403, 405, 406 Selye, H., 192, 194 Selznic k, Philip, 481, 510, 575 Shahinian , Siroon P., 592, 595 Shan as, Ethel, 106, 108, 109, 156, 157, 160, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 181, 182, 183, 184, 293, 307, 3 11, 313, 319, 320, 323, 339, 496, 500 , 537, 538 , 542 , 544, 549, 552 , 553, 554, 555, 559, 560, 562 Sheatsley, Paul B_, 292, 293, 307, 313, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 323, 339, 474, 481 Sheldon, Eleanor Bernert, 37, 68 Sheldon, Henry D., 17, 22, 23, 25, 37, 42, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 67, 120, 123, 156, 160, 184,477, 481 Shepard , W. P., 229, 238 Shepherd, R. D., 429, 460 Sheppard, Harold L., 67, 478, 481 Sherma n , E. D., 248, 272 Shields, E., 283 , 287 Shipley, Reginald A., 233, 235, 238 Shock, Nathan W., 108, 109, 189, 193, 194, 219, 220, 224, 22 7, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237, 238, 239, 267, 272, 461 Shore , I. , 248, 271 Shukin, Alexey, 276, 287 Shultz, Edwin B., 447 , 461 Shurtleff, D., 32, 37, 540, 560 Shy rock, Henry S ., Jr., 144, 156 Sietelberger, F. , 223, 236, 565, 570, 573, 575 , 583, 585, 586, 596 Shelton, Floren ce C., 306, 3 13, 335, 339 Sills, David L. , 510 Silverman, I. , 278, 287 Silverstone, F. A., 231, 238 Simmons, Leo , 114, 120, 478, 481 Simon , Alexa nder, 365, 405 Simon , J . Richard, 252, 272 Simonson, E., 245, 272 S im plex Group Intelligence Test, 256 Simpson, George, 403

Name ind ex

633

Simpson , Hoke S., 108, 109, 183, 184 Simpson , Ida Harper, 312, 338, 339, 359, 445, 447, 457, 461,

575 Sinex, F. Marott, 239 Singleton , W. T. , 252, 272 Sjogren , Torsten , 21 6, 220, 383, 405 Slater, P. E. , 278, 283, 287 Slavick, Fred , 53, 60, 61, 67 Slonaker, J. R., 261, 272 Smigel, Erwin 0 ., 67, 68 Smith, G. V., 239 Smith , Joel , 562, 575 Smith, L. E. , 231, 239 Smith, M. W., 438, 461 Smith , R. A. , 234 Smith, Sallie, viii Smucker, M . Joseph, 478, 481 Sobel, H ., 222, 223, 239 Sobel, I rvin, 47, 59, 67 Social Security Administration , 61, 70, 86, 87, 88, 109, 421,

451 Social Security Bulletin, 54, 66, 67, 107, 109, 559, 595 Soc iety of Actuaries, 192, 229, 239 Sociology Department, Rutgers Un iversity, viii Somers, Gerald G., 59, 67 Sondag, Roger F., 588, 595 Sondage s: Revue Franc;a ise de L'Opinion Pu blique, 332, 339 Sontag, Lester W., 256, 272 Spaulding, John A. , 403 Spengler, Joseph J., 36, 37, 64, 67, 219, 220 Spiegelman , Mortimer, 25, 28, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 57, 67,

198, 205, 207, 211, 212, 213, 219, 220, 412, 420, 540, 560 Srivanij , P., 224, 239 Srole Ind ex, 330 Srole , Leo, 375, 381, 382, 383, 388, 405 Stanford·B inet, 256 Stanford Research Institute, 55, 67 Stanley, J., 227, 237 Stark, Rodney, 493, 500 Starr, Bernice , viii Starr, Sheldon , 404, 595 Stehouwer, Jan , 137, 156, 160, 169, 170, 171, 184, 538, 541,

542, 552, 553, 560 Steiner, Gary A., 468, 481, 518, 519 , 521, 522, 523, 524, 525 ,

535 Steiner, Peter 0 ., 50, 67, 80, 109, 171 , 182, 184, 450, 453,

462 Stengel, E., 397, 405 Stern , James, 55 , 67 Stern , Karl , 558, 559

634

Name index

Steven, D. M ., 244, 272 Stevenson, K. G., 191 , 194 Stieve, H ., 222, 239 Stoessiger, 250 Stokes, Donald E., 480 Storey, Ruth T., 509, 510, 517, 535 Stouffer, Samuel A. , 473, 481 Stout, A. P., 224, 237 Strehler, Bernard L. , 188, 193, 194, 219, 220, 224, 225, 234,

235, 238, 239 Streib, Gordon F., 104, 108, 109, 156, 184, 313, 344, 345,

348, 350, 351, 359, 418, 420, 421, 449, 450, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 462, 489, 500, 547, 551, 552, 554, 558, 559, 560 Strong, Edward K., Jr., 284, 285, 287, 438, 462 Strong, L. C., 190, 194 Strong's Vocational I nterest Blank (o r Inventory), 284, 285, 438 Strother, Charles R., 257,271, 277, 287 Such man, Edward A., 293, 294, 305, 313, 346, 347, 348, 357, 359 Sulkin, N. M ., 224, 239 Surgeon General 's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health, 265 Survey of Consumer Finances. See: University of Michigan Surwilio, W. W., 249, 254, 272 Susser, Mervyn W., viii , 37, 68, 194, 220, 239, 406, 560, 596 Sussman, Marvin B., 538, 560 Sutherland , Edwin H ., 405 Sveri , Knut, 400, 401, 406 Svolos , Sebastia , 67 Swedish Institute for Public Opinion, 495, 500, 517, 535 Sweetser, Donian Apple, 170, 184 Swenson , Wendell M ., 280, 287, 336, 339 Szafran, J., 252, 268, 272

Taeuber, Conrad , 16, 18, 20, 21, 35, 37, 68, 109, 113, 120,

156, 157, 161, 178, 184 Taeuber, I rene B., 18, 20, 21, 35, 37, 113, 120, 157, 161, 184 Taeuber, Karl E., 146, 147, 156 Taietz, Philip, 505, 506, 508, 510, 588, 593, 596 Talland , George A. , 258, 272, 276, 287 Tanz, F., 257, 269 Taube, Carl, 404, 595 Taves, Marvin J ., 496, 500, 516, 517, 533, 535 Tawast, M ., 269 Taylor, C., 276, 287 Taylor, R. D., 233, 239 Teasdall, R. D., 237 Tec, Nechama , 590, 596

Tejada, C., 227, 239 Tejmar, J ., 249, 272 Television Bureau of Advertising, Inc., 519, 521, 535 Terman Group Test, 256 Thomas, Caro l ine B., 229, 239 Thom as, J ames M ., 249, 257, 272 Thompson, C. W., 256, 267 Thompson , Larry W., 252, 267, 272 Thompson, W. E., 347, 348, 350, 351 , 359, 421, 445, 447 ,

449, 450 , 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 462, 475, 481 Thum in, Fred J., 434, 462 Thurstone Att itude Scales, 276, 287 Ti bbitts, Cla rk, viii, 37, 66, 67, 68, 107, 108, 109, 120, 155,

156, 183, 184, 286, 287, 405, 420, 460, 461, 462, 478, 480, 481 , 482, 499, 500, 510, 535, 559, 560, 575, 595, 596 Tietze, Christopher, 405 Tingsten, Herbert, 467, 482 Tobin, Sheldon S. , 353, 359, 419 Toby, Jackson , 406 Toby, Marc ia L., xx Toffler, Alvin, 65, 67 Townsend Movement, 478, 479 Townsend, Peter, 160, 169, 170, 171, 184, 508, 510, 543,

544, 546, 558, 560, 562, 570, 573, 575, 580, 584, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 593, 596 Tuckman , Jacob, 289, 304, 306, 308, 313, 332, 339, 506, 510, 540, 560, 593 , 596 Tuckman ·Lorge Questionnaire, 306 Tuke , W. S., 235 Tune , G. Sidney, 270 Turnbull, J ohn G. , 109 Turner, Helen , 592, 595 Tyhurst, James S. , 454, 462

Uffl and, 250 United Community Services of Metropolitan Boston , 154,

156 Un ited Nations, 15, 18, 22, 30, 31, 37, 477 Department of Economic and Social Affa irs, 37, 41 , 43,

44, 52, 53, 67, 68 , 104, 109, 424, 462, 482 International Labour Office, 39, 61 Office of Public Information , 37 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,

39 World Health Organization, 361, 393, 394, 398, 406 United Presbyterian Church, 498, 500 United States Administratio n on Aging, 18, 37, 218, 220 Un ited States Bureau of the Census, 15, 16, 18, 28, 37, 42,

45, 54, 55 , 57 , 59, 61, 64, 68 , 70, 82, 83 , 108, 109, 120,

156, 158, 167, 171, 179, 184, 406, 463, 477, 482, 500, 511, 596 Census of Housing, 121, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, l35, 136, 150, 154, 156 Census of Population, 18, 20, 21, 24, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 68, 75, 78, 109, 112, 113, 114, 115, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 130, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 156, 159, 161, 165, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 184,400, 478, 482, 579, 580, 596 Current Population Reports, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 37, 42, 52, 64, 68, 77, 79, 81, 82, 109, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 120, 121, 130, 144, 150, 152, 153, 156, 158, 159, 160, 167, 168, 172, 184, 376, 377, 378, 379, 386, 387, 406, 464, 466, 467, 468, 478 , 482, 483, 484, 497, 500 Current Population Survey, 70, 75, 76, 79, 83, 147 Historical Statistics of the United States, 16, 20, 37 Income of the Elderly Population, 78 United States Bureau of Employment Security, 55, 63, 68, 432, 462 United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 55, 56, 62, 64, 67, 68, 70, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 427, 428, 429 , 441, 442, 462 Monthly Report on the Labor Force, 64, 68 Su rvey of Consu mer Expend itu res , 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103 United States Department of Agriculture, 70, 95, 97, 102 Consumer Expenditure Survey Report, 95, 97, 102 United States Department of Commerce, 55 Un ited States Department of the Interior, Fi s h and Wildlife Service, 531, 534, 535 National Survey of Fishing and Hunting, 531 , 534, 535 Un ited States Department of Labor, 58 United States Employment Service, 63 Un ited States Labor Force Survey, 431 Un ited States National Health Survey, 57, 184, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 217, 220, 292, 320, 339 Health Statistics, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 217, 220 United States Passport Office, 532 Un ited States Public Health Service, 385, 398, 399 Division of Hospital and Medical Facilities, 385, 406 National Office of Vital Statistics, 406 United States Senate, Special Committee on Aging, 60, 68, 81, 109, 142, 156 University of Arizona , viii

University of Michigan, Su rvey Research Center, 70, 78, 79, 104, 109, 156, 469, 487 Survey of Consumer Finances, 70, 75, 78, 82, 84, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 101, 109, 130, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 156

Upton , A. C., 191, 194

Valaoras, Vasilios G., 21, 36, 37 Valenstein , E. S., 261 , 272 Van Arsdol, Maurice D., 397, 405 Van ce, R. B., 200, 219 Va rgas, R.. 30, 36 Vaschide, N., 248, 272 Vasey, Judith, viii Vernon . See: Aliport·Vernon Scale of Values Veroff, Joseph, 282, 283, 284, 287, 312, 338, 358, 404, 461, 559 Verville, E., 249, 272 Verzar, F., 222, 239 Veterans Admini stratio n Center, 584 Vide beck, Richard, 419, 420 Vital and Health Statistics. See: National Center for Health Statistics Vital Statistics of the United States. See : National Center for Health Statistics Vital Statistics Special Report. See: National Ce nter for Health Statistics Vogt, C., 224, 239 Vogt, 0., 224, 239 von Buttlar·Brentano, K., 224, 239 von Mering, Otto , 521 , 535 von Mollendorff, 239

Wackwitz , J . D., 429 , 462 Wade, O. l., 226, 239 Wagman, I. H., 224, 230, 237, 239 Wagner, Edwin E. , 277, 279 , 287 Wahl, Sylvia G., 132, 155, 182, 183 Wahren, W., 224, 239 Wa lford, R. l., 192, 194 Walker, J ames, 427, 428, 429, 462 Walkley, Rosabelle Price, 142, 156, 588, 596 Wall, P. D. , 224, 234 Wallace, W. l., 257, 268 Wallach , Michael A., 249, 272 , 278, 286, 287, 292, 302, 309, 313, 331, 336, 339 Walla ch, S., 233, 239 Walters, M. B., 233, 237 Wapner, Seymour, 268 Ward , J. A., Inc., 514, 535 Wa sser, Edn a, 595 Wayner, M. J ., 224, 239 Webber, Irving l., 506, 510 Wechsler, D., 255, 272

Wech s ler Adult Intelligence Scale, 256, 257 Wechsler·Believue Intelligence Scale, 256, 257 Wedderburn , Dorothy Cole, 71 , 109 We instein, Karol K., 558, 559 Weiss, Al fred D., 244, 245, 246, 247, 272 Weiss, R. l. , 258, 269 We iss, Robert S ., 446, 461 We itzma n, Murray S., 68 Welford , Al an T., 250, 251, 258, 270, 272, 278, 287, 441, 442, 443, 462 Welsh , Oliver l., 270 Weniger, Frederick l., 521, 535 Werner, He inz, 268 West Virginia Employment Service, 59 Whan , F., 526, 535 Whatley, Charles D., 324, 339 White, David M., 468, 481, 525, 526, 535 White House Conference on Agi ng, 1961, 133 Whittier, J. R., 591, 596 Wi ddicombe, Stacey H., Jr., viii Wigdor, B. T., 258, 272 Wilansky, D. l., 232, 239 Wilcock, Ri cha rd C., 47, 67 Wilder, R. M., 248 , 272 Wildi , E.. 223, 237 Wilensky, Harold, 65, 68, 510 Will iams, D., 591, 596 Willi ams, Richard H., 66, 67 , 68, 353, 359, 405, 462 , 595, 596 Willoughby, R. R., 255, 258, 272, 279, 287 Wi lner, Daniel M. , 142, 156 Wime r, R. E., 258, 272 Windle, W. F., 234, 238 Wine, David B., 283 , 286 Winsto n, Ellen, 383 Winter, J . Alan, 194, 220 Winter, M. D., 227, 239 Wirths, Claudine G., 353, 359 Wirtz , W. Willard, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 68, 426, 427, 442, 462 Wittenberg, Angela , 434, 462 Wolfbein , Seymour l., 47, 48, 51, 53, 61, 67 , 68, 424, 462 Wolfe , Don ald M., 538, 559 Wolfe, J. M., 222, 235 Wolff, H. G., 269 Wall , E. , 222, 239 Wolstenholme, G. E. W., 193, 198 Wonderlic Personnel Test, 434 Wood, T. R., 194 Woods, Margaret E., 137, 138, 139, 140, 153, 155,

429, 434,

420, 461,

116, 120,

422, 423,

425, 460,

Name index

635

491, 499, 503, 504, 506, 510, 5ll, 513, SIS, 516, 517, 518, 519, 521, 526, 531, 533, 548, 549, 550, 559, 585, 586, 587, 594 Woodward, Julian L., 324, 325, 339, 468, 482 World Health Organization, See: Un ited Nations Yarrow, Marian R., 339 Yiengst, M. J., 230, 231 , 237, 238 Youman s, E. Grant, 105, 109, 322 , 339, 455 , 462, 517 , 533,

535, 544, 546, 560, 567, 574, 575 Young, Donald R. , viii, 37, 68 Yo ung, W. C., 272 Zborowski, Mark, 562, 571, 575 Zeiler, A. F. , 433, 462 Zeman , Frederic D., 596 Zimmer, Basil G., 155 Zimmerman . See: Guilford·Zimmerman Temperament Survey Zobel, H., 249, 272 Zola , I rving Kenneth, 305, 313 Zubek, J . P. , 248, 255, 256, 266, 268, 272 Zubin , Joseph, 286, 404, 405, 595 Zuckerman , Harriet , 462

636

N ame i ndex