Advances in Personality Assessment : Volume 4 9781317838432, 1317838432, 9781315825625

Table of contents :
Content: Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
1. Psychological Assessment and Clinical Practice: Problems and Prospects
Background and Current Status
Assessment and Psychotherapy
An Agenda for Clinical Assessment
Concluding Remarks
2. Concurrent Validation After 20 Years: The Implications of Personality Stability for Its Assessment
Stability of Mean Levels
Alternative Interpretations
Validation Over Time
An Example: The NEO Model
Some Implications and Issues
Summary
3. The Assessment of Marital Happiness
Dimensions of Marital Happiness. Determinants of Marital HappinessRepression Orientation and Marital Happiness
Method
Results
Discussion
4. Current Developments in MMPl Use: An International Perspective
Use of the MMPI in Nigeria
Use of the MMPI in Poland
Use of the MMPI in the People's Republic of China
Use of the MMPI in the Soviet Union
5. A Consolidated Version of the MMPI in Japan
Evaluations of Existing Data
Toward a Consolidated Version
Directions for Future Research
6. Cross-Cultural Considerations for the Translation and Adaptation of the Chinese MMPI in Hong Kong
Trarlslation Refinement. Translation EquivalenceMMPI Profiles of Normals in Hong Kong
Item Endorsement Patterns
Item Desirability
Studies on Psychiatric Patients and Prisoners
Implications for the Use of MMPI with Nonwestern Cultures
7. Adaption of the MMPI in Greece: Translation, Standardization, and Cross-Cultural Comparison
Translation
Bilingual Study
Standardization
Discussion
Clinical Application
Recent Developments
Summary
8. Use of the MMPI in Chile
Goals and Structure of the Research Project
Study 1 : Standardization Study
Study 2: Cross-Cultural Comparisons. Study 3: Preliminary Validation StudyStudy 4: Construct Validity of the MMPI in the Chilean Target Population
Study 5: Predictive validity Study
Study 6: Stability of Self Report Behavior
Study 7: Prediction of Type of Psychological Decompensation from Self-Report at University Entrance
Study 8: Concurrent Validity of the MMPI Profile Classification System
Final Comments
Author Index
Subject Index.

Citation preview

ADVANCES IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT Volume 4

Edited by

James N. Butcher Charles D. Spielberger

\

Routledge Taylor &. Francis Group

ADVANCES IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT Volum e 4

T h is p a g e in tentionally left blank

ADVANCES IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT Volum e 4

Edited by jam es N. Butcher University o f Minnesota Charles D . Spielberger University o f South Florida

¡1 Routledge Taylor & Francis Croup New York London

First Published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 365 Broadway Hillsdale, New Jersey 07642 Transferred to Digital Printing 2009 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex, BN3 2FA Copyright © 1985 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISSN ISBN

0278 2367 0-89859-341-7

Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality o f this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent.

Contents

Preface

ix

1. Psychological A ssessm ent and Clinical Practice: Problems and Prospects Paul McReynolds Background and C u rre n t S tatus Assessm ent and Psychotherapy An A genda for C linical A ssessm ent C oncluding Rem arks 23

2 10 16

2. Concurrent Validation After 20 Years: The Im plications o f Personality Stability for Its Assessm ent Paul T. Costa, Jr. and Robert R. McCrae

31

Stability o f M ean Levels 34 A lternative In terp retatio n s 36 V alidation O ver T im e 39 An Exam ple: T he N E O M odel 40 Some Im plications and Issues 49 Sum m ary 51

v

CONTENTS

T h e A ssessm en t o f Marital H ap p in ess 55

Yacov Rofe D im en sio n s of' M a rita l H a p p in e ss 55 D e te rm in a n ts o f M a rita l H a p p in e ss 56 R epressio n O rie n ta tio n a n d M a rita l H a p p in e ss M eth o d 58 R esults 62 D iscussion 74

57

C urrent D evelop m en ts in MM PI U se: An International P ersp ective 83

James N . Butcher U se U se U se U se

o f th e M M P I in N ig e ria 85 o f th e M M P I in P o lan d 90 o f th e M M P I in th e P eo p le’s R ep u b lic o f C h in a o f th e M M P I in th e Soviet U n io n 92

91

A C onsolidated V ersion o f the M M PI in Japan 95

Lee Anna Clark E v a lu a tio n s o f E x istin g D a ta T o w a rd a C o n so lid a te d V ersio n D irectio n s for F u tu re R e search

98 103 127

C ross-C ultural C onsideration s for the T ranslation and A daptation o f the C h in ese MM PI in H o n g K ong 131

Fanny M . Cheung T ra n s la tio n R efin em en t 133 T ra n sla tio n E q u iv ale n c e 134 M M P I Profiles o f N o rm a ls in H o n g K o n g Ite m E n d o rse m e n t P a tte rn s 140 Item D esirab ility 145 S tudies on P sy c h ia tric P a tie n ts a n d P riso n ers Im p lic atio n s for th e U se o f M M P I w ith N o n w estern C u ltu re s 154

135

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CONTENTS

7. Adaption o f the MMPI in Greece: Translation, Standardization, and Cross-Cultural Com parison Nikolas Manos T ra n sla tio n 160 B ilingual S tudy 161 S tan d ard iz a tio n 163 D iscussion 195 C linical A pplication 199 R ecent D evelopm ents 205 S um m ary 205

8. U se o f the MMPI in C hile Fernando J . Rissetti and Sergio G. Malles G oals an d S tru c tu re of the R esearch P roject 210 S tudy 1: S ta n d a rd iz a tio n S tudy 211 S tudy 2: C ro ss-C u ltu ral C o m p ariso n s 215 S tudy 3: P relim in ary V alid atio n S tu d y 219 Study 4: C o n stru c t V alidity of th e M M P I in the C hilean T a rg e t P o p u latio n 221 S tudy 5: P redictive V alid ity S tu d y 239 S tudy 6: S tab ility of' Sell' R ep o rt B ehavior 248 S tudy 7: P rediction of T y p e o f Psychological D ecom pensation from S elf-R eport at U niversity E n tra n c e 250 S tudy 8: C o n cu rre n t V alid ity o f the M M P I Profile C lassification System 252 Final C o m m en ts 254

Author Index

259

Subject Index

265

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Preface

T h e p rim ary goal o f this series is to d issem in ate inform ation a b o u t m ajor new research o r app lied developm ents in the field o f personality assess­ m ent. W e are striving to p resen t a b ro ad ran g e o f topics in personality assessm ent th a t reflect the diverse view points an d various assessm ent strategies th a t m ake u p the field. T h e series is devoted to several types o f contribution s: relevant reviews o f research areas and theoretical articles; em pirical research studies; intensive case studies; an d articles describing new, well developed assessm ent techniques. V olum e 4 begins w ith an in terestin g overview p a p e r by M cR eynolds, from the U niversity o f N ev ad a, w ho traces som e o f the recent develop­ m ents in the field o f personality assessm ent a n d provides a concise analysis o f several issues b earin g on the future o f p ersonality assessm ent. C osta an d M cC rae, from the G erontology R esearch C e n te r at the N ational In stitu te on A ging, provide a su b sta n tial co n trib u tio n to the field of personality assessm ent research in their article dealin g w ith co n cu rren t validation o f personality assessm ent research after 20 years. T h e ir article deals w ith personality stab ility over tim e an d provides an extensive em p ir­ ical analysis o f this im p o rta n t assessm ent problem . Y acov Rofe o f B ar Ilan U niversity in Israel, in an extensive p resen tatio n o f his w ork in m arital ad ju stm en t, discusses his ap p ro a ch to the assessm ent o f m arital happiness. T h is volum e differs som ew hat from the previous three volum es in the series w hich generally contained c h ap te rs w ith heterogeneous content.

X

PREFACE

Several o f the articles in V olum e 4 focus on a single them e— in tern atio n al applications o f personality assessm ent. Specifically, it con tain s several invited articles w hich detail som e o f the extensive in tern a tio n a l w ork being conducted on the M in n eso ta M u ltip h asic Personality In ventory. T h e first article o f this series by B u tch er provides an overview o f the recent devel­ o pm ents in the use o f the M M P I in tern atio n ally . T h is article provides an u p d ate on M M P I tran slatio n s a n d cross-national M M P I research to Kis previous work, Handbook o f Cross-National M M P I Research, w ritten in col­ laboration w ith Paolo P ancheri o f the U niversity o f Rom e. T h is article also serves as an in tro d u ctio n to the M M P I projects described in the chapters th a t follow. In the next ch ap ter, M anos, from the D e p a rtm en t o f Psychiatry o f the U niversity o f T hessaloniki in G reece, describes the developm ent o f the G reek version o f the M M P I an d details som e o f the subsequent em pirical research on the M M P I in G reece, show ing th a t the in stru m en t perform s exceptionally well in th a t setting. C h eu n g , from the C hinese U niversity o f H ong K ong, details h er original d evelopm ent stu d ­ ies on the C hinese version o f the M M P I in H ong K o n g an d som e o f the studies she has conducted to evaluate the tran slatio n . H e r tran slatio n o f the M M P I in C hinese has been a d ap te d for use in T h e P eople’s R epublic o f C h in a, in p a rt because o f the g reat care she took in h er a d a p ta tio n procedures. C lark, in the D e p artm en t o f Psychiatry a t W ash in g to n U n i­ versity in St. Louis, describes a large scale project designed to consolidate work on the Jap an ese M M P I. In the final ch ap te r, R issetti an d M altes, o f the C atholic U niversity o f C hile in S antiago, C hile, describe th eir work on the translatio n , developm ent a n d sta n d a rd iz a tio n o f the M M P I in C hile. In add itio n , R issetti an d M altes rep o rt the results o f a n u m b e r o f studies using the M M P I for clinical p rediction in the S tu d en t H ea lth Service o f the C ath o lic U niversity o f C hile.

James N. Butcher Charles l). Spielberger

ADVANCES IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT V olum e 4

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Psychological Assessment and Clinical Practice: Problems and Prospects

Paul M cR eyn o ld s1 University o f Nevada, Reno

It was approxim ately a h u n d red years ago th a t psychological assessm ent, as a scientific enterprise, got u n d e r way. In the la tte r 1870s and early 1880s F rancis G allon carried o u t a n u m b er o f studies on in d iv id u al dif­ ferences (M cR eynolds, 1981) th a t laid the basis for the d evelopm ent o f system atic, m eaningful m ethods for the m easu rem en t o f persons. It is therefore fitting, as we en te r into the second cen tu ry o f o u r discipline, th a t we exam ine its c u rren t statu s, problem s, and prospects. A ssessm ent is, o f course, a very b ro ad field— indeed, it has grow n to proportions th a t G alton an d his younger associate, Ja m e s M cK een C attell, could scarcely have envisioned— but I will lim it my rem ark s in this p ap er to one area o f assessm ent, nam ely, psychological assessm ent in clinical practice. T his p a rtic u la r area, though it did not o rig in ate w ith G alton, began only slightly later. In 1896 tw o events occurred th a t wc m ay think of as m arking its inception: In this year, in P h ilad elp h ia, L ig h tn er VVitmer founded the first psychological clinic, devoted to providing tre a tm en t for retarded and d istu rb ed ch ild ren , and necessarily involving child assess­ m ent; and in Paris, Alfred B inet an d V ictor H en ri p u blished a p ap er, “ La Psychologie In d iv id u elle,” th a t set the stage for the forthcom ing intensive developm ent of intelligence tests. T h e n in 1907 the first clinical psychology

'This paper is a revised and updated version of an address presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Personality Assessment, March 13, 1981, in San Diego. 1

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jo u rn a l, The Psychological Clinic (G arfield , 1982), w as e sta b lish e d , u n d e r the ed ito rsh ip o f W itm e r, a n d b eg an ca rry in g a v arie ty o f p a p e rs on the clinical assessm en t o f c h ild ren . As is ev id en t from this b rie f h isto rical in tro d u c tio n , clinical p sy ch o ­ logical assessm en t h as been w ith us for a long tim e. M y focus in this p a p e r, how ever, is not on its early h isto ry (for fu rth e r h isto rical a c c o u n ts see M cR ey n o ld s, 1975, in p ress), b u t ra th e r on its p re se n t sta tu s a n d on the pro sp ects for its fu tu re. S pecifically, I w ish to ex am in e th e role of assessm en t in clinical p rac tic e , to co n sid e r som e o f th e p ro b lem s th a t s ta n d in the w ay o f assessm en t p la y in g a m o re activ e a n d helpful fu n ctio n in such p ractice , a n d to offer som e sugg estio n s th a t m ay im p ro v e c e rtain asp ects o f clinical assessm en t.

BACKGROUND AND CURRENT STATUS C linical psychology is a very div erse field, a n d the n a tu re a n d p u rp o ses o f assessm en t v ary g re a tly from one clinical fu n ctio n to a n o th e r. T h u s, assessm ent p ractices differ c o n sid erab ly am o n g th e classical a re a s o f d ia g ­ nosis, progno sis an d tre a tm e n t; a n d — from a n o th e r p ersp ectiv e— am o n g p riv ate p ra c titio n e rs, p sychologists in m e n ta l h e a lth clinics, a n d p sy ­ chologists in p sy c h ia tric h o sp itals. S im ilarly , a ssessm en t p ro c e d u res vary m ark ed ly as a fu n ctio n o f th e ta rg e t clientele— w h e th e r in fa n ts, c h ild re n , ad olescents, in d iv id u a l a d u lts, couples, o r fam ilies. I will n ot a tte m p t in this p a p e r to sy ste m a tic a lly review the role an d sta tu s o f a ssessm en t in all the different areas in w hich psychological services arc provided. In stead , I will a d o p t a m ore global view , a n d will focus on c e rta in c o n tro v ersial asp ects o f clinical assessm en t, in p a rtic u la r on its role in tre a tm e n t— especially p sy ch o th e ra p y . It is g enerally agreed th a t assessm en t, a t least in th e form o f p sy ch o ­ logical tests, no lo n g er o ccupies th e c e n tra l p lace in th e tre a tm e n t o rie n te d activities o f clinical p sychologists th a t it once d id , a n d this d e c re m e n t has led to a n u m b e r o f p a p ers a n a ly z in g a n d co m m e n tin g on th e chan g e. Before review ing these p a p e rs it will be helpful to briefly su m m ariz e the situ atio n over the p a st several d ecad es. D espite its b e g in n in g s a ro u n d the tu rn o f th e cen tu ry , as n o ted above, clinical psychology grew ra th e r slowly until a fte r th e second W o rld W ar. D uring the long p re-W W II p eriod assessm en t w as th e p rim a ry raison d ’etre o f clinical psychology, in d eed , a ssessm en t, esp ecially th e a d m in is­ tra tio n o f tests, w as w h at clin ical p sychologists d id . F ollow ing W W II,

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PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND CLINICAL PRACTICE

3

for reasons th at wc need not go into here, the profession o f clinical psy­ chology expanded very rapidly, both in the n u m b er o f clinicians an d in its functions. T o a m uch g rea ic rd c g rc e th an heretofore psychologists found them selves directly involved in the tre a tm en t o f p atien ts. It w as only n atu ral, then, given th eir fam iliarity w ith, and th e ir investm ent in tests, th at the role of test results in diagnosing p atien ts, in d elin eatin g p atien t dynam ics, and in providing helpful inform ation to the p sy ch o th erap ist, would be em phasized. T h is w as (he case, and the m ajor in stru m e n ts then available to the clinician— prim arily the R orschach, the T A T , the VVechsler-Bellevuc, the S tanford-B inet, and the M M P I— w ere b ro u g h t forth and assiduously applied to the g rea te r u n d e rsta n d in g o f the stren g th s, w eak­ nesses, and dynam ics o f individual cases. This era, in w hich m an y of today’s leaders w ere tra in ed — I am speaking now of the la tte r 1940s and early 1950s— was one o f un p aralleled accep tan ce, o ptim ism an d e x u b er­ ance about the clinical utility o f tests, p artic u la rly those w hich p u rp o rte d to afford an insight into p a tie n ts’ d y n am ic p ersonality stru ctu res. However, the en th u siasm a m o n g psychologists for tests began to w ane in the latter 1950s, as skepticism arose in m an y q u a rte rs a b o u t the actu a l clinical utility of tests. T h is skepticism , in som e instances a dow n rig h t rejection of tests would be a m ore accu rate w ay o f p u ttin g it, was due to a num b er of factors, w hich I will consider presently. At this point, how ever, I w ould like to briefly sum m arize the grow ing evidence, beginning in the latter 1950s, for an in creasing am bivalence a m o n g clinical psychologists concerning the usefulness o f tests. T h e first specific notice o f this in the literatu re, so far as I am aw are, was a sh o rt note by C arso n in 1958, decrying the a p p a re n t tendency o f psychologists in som e in te rn sh ip in sta l­ lations to dow nplay the im portance o f testing. In 1960, M cehl rep o rted on a survey conducted by G lueck and himself. T h e y collected d a ta from 168 psychotherapists, rep resen tin g a variety o f o rien tatio n s, in o rd e r to get an idea o f how im p o rtan t th erap ists considered tests such as the R orschach an d T A T to be. T o th eir dism ay only 17%— ab o u t o ne-sixth— o f the respondents believed th a t th erap y is speeded up by ad v an ce know l­ edge obtained th rough tests. H inkle, Nelson and M iller (1968), in 1966, sent out a q u estio n n a ire on test usage to 500 psychologists engaged in the priv ate p ractice o f psy­ chotherapy. A nalysis o f 247 usable retu rn s in d icated th a t 34% o f the therapists never used tests, an d a n o th e r 35% used them in less th a n h a lf their cases. In o th er w ords, fewer th an a th ird o f the psychologists used tests in any su b stan tial way. F u rth e r, these figures reflect the practices o f those who retu rn ed the forms, and it is p ro b ab ly safe to assum e th a t those

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w ho d id not re tu rn th em u tilized tests even less. G arfield a n d K u rtz (1976), in th eir surv ey o f 855 re p re se n ta tiv e A m erican clin ical psychologists, rep o rte d th a t w h ereas th e m e a n p erc e n ta g e o f tim e sp e n t in th e ra p y an d b eh av io r m o d ification w as 32.42, only 9 .7 9 % o f th e ir tim e w as d ev o ted to diag no sis a n d assessm en t. W a d e a n d B ak er (1977; see also G arfield , 1978, an d B aker a n d W a d e, 1978), based on a m u c h sm aller b u t so m ew h at analo g o u s survey, found rcsp o n d ees to re p o rt sp e n d in g 14.5% o f th e ir professional tim e in testin g . T h e ir d a ta (see also W ad e, B aker, M o rto n , an d B aker, 1978) in d ic a te d th a t o f th e clients seen for all p u rp o ses 35% w ere given ob jectiv e tests a n d 2 0 .5 % w ere given pro jectiv e tests. T h e p a p e r docs n ot specify th e a m o u n t o f o v erla p b etw een these tw o cate g o ries, b u t it seem s safe to co n clu d e th a t few er th a n 5 0 % o f all clien ts w ere ad m in iste re d tests. T h e g re a te r usage im p lied by this su rv ey , as c o m p are d w ith the M eehl a n d G lueck survey, is p re su m a b ly d u e to th e fact th a t W ad e a n d B ak er in clu d ed all kinds o f clinical psychologists, w h ereas M eehl a n d G lueck q u estio n ed only, p sy ch o th e ra p ists. All th e surveys, how ever, su p p o rte d th e g en eral feeling o f a d cclin c in clin ical testin g d u rin g the la te r 1950s, 60s, a n d 70s. A n a d d itio n a l in d ica tio n o f this tren d w as th e gro w in g te n d e n c y o f clinical psychology g ra d u a te p ro g ra m s to d c em p h a siz e tra in in g in assess­ m ent in th eir c u rric u la (A lex a n d er & B asow itz, 1965; G a rfield & K u rtz , 1973; L evitt, 1973; M cC ully , 1965; S h em b e rg & K celcy, 1970; T h e le n , V arb le, & J o h n s o n , 1968). S till a n o th e r sign o f d ecreased test usage w as the calc u latio n by H o lt (1967) th a t w h ereas in 1955 D ivision 12 (C lin ical) o f the A PA d ev o ted 6 3 % o f its co n v en tio n tim e to d iag n o stic testin g , by 1965 th is w as rcd u ced to 3 8 % . By 1974, acco rd in g to C le v ela n d (1976), this valu e h a d d eclin ed to a m ere 7% . T h e dcclin e in th e p erceived im p o rta n c e o f te stin g a m o n g m an y cli­ nicians in evitab ly fostered c o n sid erab le d iscussion a n d co n tro v ersy (B ersoiT, 1973; B reger, 1968; C lev elan d , 1976; H o lt, 1967; Iv n ik , 1977; Levy & Fox, 1975; L ew andow ski & S accuzzo, 1976; M ceh l, 1959; R o sen w ald , 1963; T a lle n t, 1965; W ein e r, 1972), as som e p sychologists d efen d ed a n d o th e rs d e n ig ra te d the role o f tests in clin ical p racticc. A g lan ce a t th e titles o f som e o f the key p a p e rs (e.g., those ju s t cited by C lev elan d ; L ew an d o w sk i & S accuzzo; Levy & Fox; Ivnik; a n d W ein e r) will p o in t u p the ex trem e b ifu rcatio n o f o p in io n s. T h e follow ing q u o ta tio n s , w hich illu s tra te th e problem , are not atypical: R osenw ald (1963):

. . critics are asked w hether

tests a re w o rth w h ile at all. B oth w ith in th e profession a n d o u tsid e, testin g has becom e ta in te d w ith am b iv a le n c e a n d co m p ro m ise ” (p. 222); H olt (1967): “ D iag n o stic testin g today is in a fu n k ” (p. 444); a n d C lev elan d

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PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND CLINICAL PRACTICE

5

(1976): “T o pu t it b luntly, psychological testing is viewed today, especially by the younger gen eratio n o f clinicians, as a bore, a chore often detailed to the lowest m an on the professional totem pole . . (p. 310). A point frequently m ade by exponents o f clinical tests is th a t despite the tendency o f m any professionals to d e-em phasize them , they continue to be in dem an d at the consum er end, i.e., by clinics, hospitals and in public service positions. T h e re is considerable tru th to this assertion. M cC ully (1965) surveyed APA in tern sh ip facilities a ro u n d the country and found th at th eir d irectors strongly su p p o rted train in g in assessm ent; a sim ilar result was rep o rted by L evitt (1973). Levy and Fox (1975) sent a questionnaire to 383 em ployers placing jo b notices in the APA Employment Bulletin d u rin g one cale n d ar year (1971-72); o f the 334 w ho responded, 90.5% expected ap p lican ts to be skilled in testing. T w o papers in the latter ’60s directly concerned the use o f tests in applied settings at th a t time: B aum eister (1967) reported th at the m ajor role o f psychologists in in sti­ tutions for the retard ed was assessm ent, and W ellner (1968), in a survey o f state m ental hospital directors, found th a t they considered testin g to be the m ajor responsibility of psychologists in their facilities (though they— the directors— felt th a t the psychologists them selves w ould rate testing as less im p o rtan t). Several studies in the ’70s focussed on the opinions o f psych iatrists and oth er users o f clinical assessm ent concerning the value o f tests. M oore, B obblitt, and W ild m an (1968) o b tain ed q u estio n n aire d a ta from 140 psy­ chiatrists in the S o u th eastern U n ited States. R esults indicated th a t 62% of the respondees felt a test rep o rt to be o f considerable value, th o u g h not essential; 52% used psychological rep o rts in less th an 20% o f th eir cases; an d 43% considered tests and p sychiatric interview s o f equal validity. Sm yth and ReznikofT (1971) questioned 57 p sychiatrists o f diverse back­ g rounds, and obtain ed m oderately positive responses: w hile only 14% requested testing for personality dy n am ics and intelligence, 37% felt tests useful for diagnostic assistance, and an ad d itio n al 21 % considered tests helpful in d eterm in in g o rganic involvem ent. T h e attitu d e s o f p sy ch o an ­ alysts tow ard clinical testing in 1952, and again in 1970, were surveyed by O live (1972). H er d a ta show ed a decline (from 82 to 64) o f the p e r­ centage of analysts who utilized test services. H ow ever, som e changes were in the opposite direction: th u s, th ere w as an increase (from 35 to 44) in the percentage o f analy sts w ho felt th a t a good psychological rep o rt could shorten the length o f therapy. 1 note, p aren th etically , th a t both these values are considerably higher th an the 17% obtain ed by M eehl and Glueck (M eehl, 1960) which has been frequently cited in the literature.

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It w ould seem , on b alan c e, th a t the d e c re m e n t in clinical te stin g d u rin g the 60s a n d 70s w as n o t as g rea t as its critics so m etim es c laim ed . N ev e r­ theless, th ere w as d e a rly som e d is e n c h a n tm e n t w ith testin g , a n d w e m ay now ask, W h a t w ere th e reaso n s for th is ch an g e? Though u n d o u b te d ly m an y factors w ere involved (C lev elan d , 1976; H o lt, 1967; K o rc h in & S c h u ld b e rg , 1981; L c w a n d o w sk i, 1976; R o se n w a ld , 1963), th e m o re im p o rta n t o f these can , I th in k , be d iv id ed in to tw o m ain classcs. F irst, test ad eq u acy : Som e clin ician s, w hile n ot in p rin c ip le o p p o sed to tests, felt th a t av ailab le in s tru m e n ts w ere insufficiently valid o r useful to ju stify th eir em p lo y m en t in clinical settin g s. S econd, test a p p ro p ria te n e ss: M a n y th e ra p ists felt th a t th e use o f tests w as in c o n g ru e n t w ith , if n ot a c tu a lly inim ical to tre a tm e n t, even w hen th e tests w ere v alid. I will con sid er th e q u e stio n s o f test v a lid ity a n d u tility first. A large n u m b e r o f v alid ity stu d ie s on specific tests w ere p erfo rm ed in th e 1950s a n d 1960s. M ost o f these w ere o f the p red ictiv e type, a n d th e c rite ria involved w ere often o f d u b io u s v alue. I will n ot review these stu d ie s h ere, except to say th a t th e ir resu lts, ta k e n in th eir e n tire ty , w ere a m b ig u o u s a n d inconclusive. T h e ir n et effect, how ever, w as to raise serio u s sk ep ticism a b o u t the u tility o f tests, p a rtic u la rly p ro jectiv e tests (T h e lc n , V a rb le , & Jo h n s o n , 1968), in clinical settin g s. T h re e early stu d ies a tta c k e d th e pro b lem o f test u tility in a m ore d ire c t w ay. T h e ir a u th o rs reaso ned th a t th e key issue w ith test re p o rts is the ex ten t to w hich they influence the ju d g m e n t a n d d ecisio n s o f test users, in these in sta n ce s p sy c h ia trists. T h is u n d e rly in g assu m p tio n seem s to me very su sp ect, since h ig h ly in a c c u ra te tests could co n ceiv ab ly be very in flu­ en tial, an d h ighly a c c u ra te tests o f little im p o rt; nev erth eless, th e resu lts are in terestin g . H a rtla g e , F re e m a n , H o rin e, a n d W a lto n (1968) d eriv ed a list o f 55 in fo rm atio n item s th a t m ay a p p e a r on psychological re p o rts, an d the freq u en cy w ith w hich they a p p e a r. T h e y th e n asked fo u r p sy ­ c h iatrists to ra te th e p e rc en tag e o f a total tre a tm e n t p la n they could fo rm u late on th e basis o f each item . T h e c o rre la tio n b etw een decisio n al utility an d freq u en cy o f item s in test re p o rts w as — .50. T h e a u th o rs in te rp re t this to in d icate th a t tests a re o f little v alu e , b u t su ch a n inference a p p e a rs in ap p ro p ria te : if a sy m p to m is so g larin g (e.g ., alco h o lism or senility) th a t an en tire tre a tm e n t p la n could be b ased on it then a p sy­ chological lest re p o rt is usu ally u n n ecessary to m ak e it m an ifest. P re su m ­ ab ly the valu e o f a test is larg ely in id en tify in g p a tie n t featu re s th a t are not obvious. T h e stu d y is also seriously Hawed by th e N (4) o f p sy c h ia trist ju d g es.

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Affleck and S trid er ( 19 7 1) found th a t in the ju d g m e n t o f an unspecified num b er of test referrers— m ostly p sy ch iatric residents— 52% of the 311 test reports surveyed had at least som e influence on p atien t m a n ag e m en t decisions. T h o u g h this result is encouraging to test exponents, I question its assum ption th a t testing is not useful unless it frequently affects tre a t­ m ent. T h is w ould be like saying th a t tests for can cer lack value because they are generally negative. In a som ew hat sim ilar stu d y , A d am s (1972) exam ined the effects o f psychological reports on the diagnoses assigned to p atients by three psy ch iatrists and three psychiatric residents. In 51% o f 137 cases the test rep o rts su p p o rted the p sy ch iatrists’ ju d g m e n ts, in 30% the tests co n trad icted th eir ju d g m e n ts, an d in only 16% did the tests possibly change th eir ju d g m en ts. A dam s, focussing on the 16% , in te r­ preted his d a ta to in dicate th a t the tests were o f little utility, but such a conclusion seem s u n w arran ted . F irst,th e tests m ay well have been correct, and the p sychiatrists w rong, in som e o f the 30% category; second, it is not su rp risin g th a t the agreem ent category w as 5 1 % — indeed, one would have to conclude th at eith er the p sy ch iatrists or the tests, or both, were very poor indeed had this figure been m uch sm aller; and finally, testing should not be d ep reciated if, for c ertain psy­ chiatrists, it changes th eir ju d g m e n t only occasionally— certainly, m edical laboratory tests w hich are crucial 16% of the tim e w ould be considered highly useful. H istorically, studies show ing th a t tests do not necessarily p redict psy­ chiatric ju d g m e n t no d o u b t played a su b sta n tia l role in leading m any psychologists to dcem phasize tests, b u t in my ju d g m e n t m ost such studies arc o f lim ited value. Not only arc there serious questions, in m any studies, ab o u t (he num b er and so phistication o f p sy ch iatrists utilized and o f the validity o f psychiatric ju d g m e n t, b u t m ore basically, one w onders if this criterion is w hat we are really trying to get a t th rough tests. As M cehl (1959) put it: “ I f I w ant to know w hat the psy ch iatrist is going to call p atien t Jo n es w hom he has ju s t finished interview ing, the obvious way to find out is to leave my little cubicle w ith its R orschach and M u itip h asic m aterials and walk dow n the hall an d ask the p sy ch iatrist w hat he is going to call the p a tie n t” (p. 110). T he second, an d m ore influential, reason for the g ra d u al decline in the prestige o f clinical testing d u rin g the three decades preceding the 1980s was the question o f the ap p ro p riaten ess o f tests in tre a tm e n t oriented practice. T his was a d rastic, an d som ew hat p aradoxical shift. Previously, psychologists w ho did little th erap y had insisted to m edical therap ists,

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including analysts, th a t testing was an essential aspect o f good th e rap e u tic practice; now th at psychologists were them selves deeply involved in th e r­ apy, they took the position— at least m any o f them d id — th a t testing was not only unnecessary, but was actually detrim ental to therapy. T h is change, how ever, w as not hypocritical; ra th e r, it cam e a b o u t because o f two pow ­ erful m ovem ents in psychology. T h e first w as w h at we m ay refer to as the Rogerian revolution. As is well know n, R ogers’ highly influential nondirective an d clientcentered positions strongly discouraged the use of tests as an integral p a rt o f therapy, on the g ro u n d s th a t such a pro ced u re im plies th a t the th e ra p ist will function as an expert w ho is p rep ared to solve the client’s problem s, a view com pletely at variance w ith R ogers’ conception o f th erap y . B ecause of the popularity o f R ogers’ th erap eu tic a p p ro ach ; because, after all, he was a psychologist; an d because his a p p ro ach a p p eared a t ju s t the lim e it did, its deem phasizing influence on clinical testing was profound. E ven­ tually, o f course, there w as a reaction to R ogers’ h u m an istic o rien ta tio n — this counter-position w as behavior th erap y . B ut the early beh av io r th erap y m ovem ent also disavow ed clinical testing, p erh ap s even m ore strongly th an the R ogerians did, though for different reasons. T h e net effect of these two powerful tren d s in clinical psychology was to m ake the idea o f using tests in connection w ith th erap y seem in a p p ro p ria te, old-fashioned, and out o f touch. I m ust qualify this conclusion slightly by noting th at the a tte n u atio n of conventional psychological testing bro u g h t ab o u t by the client-centered and behavioral o rien tatio n s was pro b ab ly never as g reat, in practice, as (he theoretical positions o f these orien tatio n s would im ply. In the case o f behavior therapy this in terp re tatio n is d o cum ented by the fact th at psychologists identifying them selves as beh av io r th erap ists reported actually em ploying sta n d a rd psychological tests, in the la tte r 1970s at least, to a notab le degree (Ford an d K endall, 1979; Sw an & M cD onald, 1978; W ade & Baker, 1977; W ade, B aker & H a rtm a n , 1979). N ever­ theless, there can be no question but (hat the gen eral im p o rt o f the R oger­ ian an d behavioral innovations w as to discourage the em ploym ent o f classical tests. So far I have discussed the course o f clinical assessm ent up to the present period, an d the m ajor reasons for som e decline in its popularity . We m ay now inq u ire as to its cu rre n t position: W h at is the sta tu s of assessm ent in the 1980s?

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T h o u g h th e a n sw e r to this q u e stio n is p e rh a p s so m e w h a t co n je c tu ra l, the av ailab le evidence in d ic ate s th a t testin g , a n d p a rtic u la rly a ssessm en t in the b ro a d e r sense, is m ak in g a com eb ack . T h e re is n o reaso n to believe th a t testing has becom e, o r ev er ag ain will be, th e p rim a ry fu n ctio n o f th e m odal clinical p sychologist, b u t it seem s eq u ally o b v io u s th a t th e tren d to w ard d eem p h a sis o f th e a ssessm en t fu n ctio n h as been te rm in a te d an d reversed. T h e m ost re ce n t survey o f th e activ ities o f clin ical psych o lo g ists in A m erica (N orcross & P ro ch ask a, 1982a), b ased on th e q u e stio n n a ire responses o f 479 m em b ers o f D ivision 12 (C lin ical) o f th e A m eric a n P sy­ chological A ssociation, in d icates th a t clin ician s sp en d a n av e ra g e o f 13.2% o f th e ir tim e in d iag n o sis a n d assessm en t; this c o n tra sts w ith th e 9.79 v alu e rep o rte d by G arfield a n d K u rtz (1976), as n o ted e arlie r in th is p a p e r. S everal recen t surveys o f testin g p ra c tic e s in E u ro p e a n c o u n tries (E v ers & Z aal, 1982; K lein , 1980; K o sco & H la v e n k a , 1980; K u lc sa r & P itariv , 1981; P o o rtin g a, C o etsier, M eu ris, M iller, S am so n o w itz, S cisd ed o s, & Schlcgel, 1982; W itzlack , 1982) have also been re p o rte d . O v e ra ll, th e im p o rt o f these su rv ey s is th a t clin ical te stin g in E u ro p e is th riv in g a n d is, if a n y th in g , m o re w idely u tilized th a n prev io u sly ; a n ex ceptio n to this g en erality is th a t th ere is co n sid e ra b le d iv erg en ce am o n g E u ro p e a n c o u n ­ tries co n cern in g ev alu a tio n o f p ro jectiv e testing. Som e evidence o f a softer n a tu re is also av ailab le . T h e larg e n u m b e r o f new books, book series a n d jo u rn a ls in th e field o f a ssessm en t th a t h av e a p p e a re d in recen t y ears a re in d ica tiv e o f an in creasin g g en eral in te re st in clinical assessm en t. A nd follow ing th e e a rlie r p ro c e d u re s, I c a lc u la te d the p ercen t o f D ivision 12\s 1982 C o n v e n tio n tim e d ev o ted to a ssessm en t, a n d o b ta in e d a v alu e o f 2 6 % . T h is c o n tra sts w ith rep o rte d v alu es o f 38% in 1965 (H o lt, 1967) an d 7% in 1974 (C lev e lan d , 1976). M y im p ressio n is th a t th e co n tro v ersy co n cern in g th e u tility o f clin ical tests has larg ely su b sid ed . N o d o u b t inform ed o p in io n s still differ so m e­ w h at, b u t th ere seem s w ith al to 'b e a g e n eral co n sen su s th a t assessm en t has a m eanin g fu l role to play in clin ical p ra c tic e . T h is p o sitio n is reflected in the fact th a t th e a c c re d ita tio n sta n d a rd s o f th e A m erican P sychological A ssociation now req u ire th a t d o cto ra l clinical s tu d e n ts be tra in e d in assess­ m ent. I m yself have o b serv ed — a d m itte d ly , th is c a n n o t c o u n t as p e rsu asiv e e v id e n c e — t h a t c o n te m p o r a r y g r a d u a t e s tu d e n ts fr e q u e n tly b e c o m e extrem ely in te re ste d in p a rtic u la r are a s o f assessm en t, in a w ay th a t did n o t o ccu r a few y ears ago. O n th e w hole, it w ould seem th a t th e re is an in creased aw aren ess o f the v alu es o f assessm en t, a n d th a t a b e tte r b a la n c e

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th a n form erly has been achieved betw een assessm en t an d in te rv e n tio n in clinical p ractice.

ASSESSMENT AND PSYCHOTHERAPY A re tests helpful to th e th e ra p ist? A m azin g ly , th e re h as been little research on this cru cial q u estio n . M o st o f th e research th a t h as been d o n e consists o f surveys o f th e ra p is t’s o p in io n s o f th e v alu e o f tests; tw o stu d ies (M e ch l, 1960; O live, 1972) th a t I review ed ea rlie r a p p ro a c h th e p ro b lem in this w ay, an d w ith ra th e r differen t findings, as n o ted . S u ch su rv ey s a rc , o f course, in tere stin g , b u t they h av e th e o b vious lim ita tio n o f n ot e v a lu a tin g w h e th e r o r n ot test d a ta a re actu a lly h elpful, an d they a re su b je c t to unknow n biases, h alo effects, a n d social d e sira b ility factors. O n e w ay in w h ich it is often held th a t tests can be useful to a th e ra p is t— p e rh a p s the m ost co n v e n tio n al w ay— is th ro u g h p re th e ra p y testin g . T h e a d v an ce in fo rm atio n p ro v id ed by tests can h elp th e th e ra p ist, so it is reasoned, to get u n d e r w ay faster a n d m ore effectively. T h is a ssu m p tio n has not been d irectly tested , b u t som e d a ta collected by M cch l (1960) an d his associates arc relev an t. T h e specific q u e stio n a d d re sse d w as how long it takes for a th e ra p is t’s im ag e o f his p a tie n t to co nverge in to a stab le p ictu re. T h e im p licatio n o f this q u e stio n for a ssessm en t is th a t if th e ra p ists get to know th e ir p a tie n ts well a fte r only a few sessions, th en p re th e ra p y testing w ould be less help fu l, w h ereas if m an y sessions are re q u ire d before th e ra p ists gain a good u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e ir p a tie n ts , th en p re th e ra p y testin g w ould be m ore helpful. T h e q u e stio n w as in v estig ated by ru n n in g c o rrelatio n s b etw een th e ra p ists’ Q -so rts on th e ir p a tie n ts a fte r 24 sessions an d th e ir e a rlie r Q -so rts after 1, 2, 4, 8, a n d 16 sessions. T h e resu lts in d icated th a t th e ra p ists ra th e r q uickly d ev elo p a settled p ic tu re o f th eir p a tien ts, lead in g M eehl to co n clu d e , “ If, after tw o o r four h o u rs o f th e r­ a p e u tic interv iew in g , th e th e ra p ist ten d s to a rriv e a t a sta b le im ag e o f th e p a tie n t w hich is n o t very differen t from th e one he w ill h av e a fte r 24 co n tac ts, an d if th a t final im age is p re tty a c c u ra te , th e test w ould need to have very high v alid ity before we c ou ld ju stify th e e x p e n d itu re o f skilled psychological tim e in giving, sco rin g , in te rp re tin g , a n d c o m m u n ic a tin g it”' (p. 22). Before ac ce p tin g th e resu lts o f this stu d y as d efinitive, ho w ev er, we o u g h t to be a w a re o f its lim itatio n s. E v id en tly only four th e ra p ists w ere involved, so we w ould w ish to be very carefu l o f a n y b ro a d g en e ra liz a tio n s.

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A lso, th e re p ea te d Q -so rt design raises th e q u estio n o f how m u ch the th e ra p ists w ere b iased , in m ak in g one so rt, by th e ir p rio r so rts. F u rth e r, the m a g n itu d e o f the co rrelatio n s th a t o n e w ould ex p ect in a d esig n o f this kind is largely a fu n ctio n o f the c o n tc n i o f th e Q -so rt item s— w hich w as unspecified, e.g ., one w ould a n tic ip a te th a t ju d g m e n ts o f m an ifest behav iors w ould becom e sta b le very q uick ly, b u t th a t u n d e rs ta n d in g s o f d eep er a n d possibly rep ressed tra its w ould be rev ealed m u ch m ore slowly. F in ally , th ere is the pro b lem o f th e criterio n: T h e re is no real a ssu ran c e th a t a th e ra p is t’s ju d g m e n ts a b o u t a p a tie n t, sim p ly b ecau se th ey becam e sta b le , a re a c c u ratc ; th ey m ay , on th e c o n tra ry , re p rese n t a k ind o f “ in v alid p re m a tu re ‘freezing’,” as M cehl (1959, p. 118) o b served . Even if we tak e th e resu lts o f th e stu d y a t face v a lu e it does n ot follow th a t p re th e ra p y testin g is p ointless. T h o u g h c o rre la tio n coefficients arc n ot p resen ted by M ech l, I infer, from his p a p e r (M e c h l, 1960, Fig. 1, p. 21) th a t the co rrelatio n b etw een the 8 session an d th e 24 session sorts w as, for the th e ra p ist illu strate d , a b o u t .77; sq u a rin g this v alu e in d ic a tes th a t only a b o u t 6 0 % o f th e v aria n c e w as ex p la in e d , clearly leav in g p len ty o f w ork for a d v a n ce testin g to do. I conclud e, th en , th a t M c c h l’s d a ta do n ot pro v id e solid evidence ag ain st p re th c ra p y assessm en t in eases w h ere th e tre a tm e n t will consist o f 24 o r m ore sessions. A nd it sh o u ld be re m e m b e re d th a t in m an y , p ro b ab ly m ost, in sta n ce s tre a tm e n t in clu d es m u ch few er th a n 24 sessions, so th a t p re -th e ra p y testin g co u ld , in p rin c ip le a t least, be o f c o n sid erab le value. F u rth e r, even in long term th e ra p y , ru n n in g so m etim es in to a h u n d re d o r m ore sessions, an y a ssu m p tio n th a t th e th e ra p ist ev en tu a lly com cs to know th e p a tie n t so perfectly th a t a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n o r suggestions a re pointless w ould seem q u ite u n w a rra n te d ; certa in ly in psy­ ch o d y n am ic th e rap ie s th e re is an o n g o in g process o f d isco v ery th a t c o n ­ tinues u n til th e ra p y is te rm in a te d . T h e best w ay to d e te rm in e if assessm en t is helpful in p sy c h o th e ra p y w ould be to atta c k th e pro b lem e m p irically , th ro u g h stu d ie s specifically designed to an sw e r th e q u estio n . U n fo rtu n a te ly , such stu d ie s, so far as I am aw are, do n o t exist. T h e reaso n for th is lack is p ro b a b ly th a t research in this a re a w ould be excessively difficult to c a rry o u t. H o w ev er, it m ay be useful at this p o in t to co n sid er som e o f the p ro b lem s th a t w o uld be involved in re search on th e u tility o f assessm en t for p sy c h o th e ra p y . S uch an e x a m in atio n sh o u ld serve a t least to clarify th e p ro b lem a n d to h ig h lig h t the key issues. W e will begin w ith a c o n c e p tu al an aly sis o f the fu n ctio n s o f assessm en t in the service o f p sy c h o th e ra p y . I sh o u ld in d ic a te a t th e o u tse t th a t o u r

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interest here is not in the use o f assessm ent techniques to ev alu ate th e r­ ap eu tic outcom e or process— th a t is a different m a tte r alto g eth er. R ath er, ou r present focus is on ways in w hich assessm ent can c o n trib u te to the effectiveness o f ongoing personal therapy. F inally, I need to specify th a t by “ assessm ent” I am referring to system atic test or o b serv atio n al tech ­ niques w hich have as their m ajor pu rp o se the g ath erin g of technical infor­ m ation; I m ake this point because it needs to be acknow ledged th a t the distinction betw een th erap y and assessm ent in its b ro ad er sense is not alw ays clear. T h e ra p ists are, in a sense, alw ays assessing their clients, on the basis of the clien t’s behavior in therapy, and the significance o f this m ode o f assessm ent is no t a t issue. From the tem poral perspective, assessm ent procedures in the service o f therapy m ay be carried o u t in advance o f th erap y — p re -th erap y test­ ing— or d u rin g th erap y (testing m ay o f course also be cond u cted at the term ination o f th erap y , b u t this p ro ced u re obviously can n o t c o n trib u te to the course o f the com pleted th erap y , though it m ay influence the th e rap ist in work w ith later clients). P re-th erap y testing m ay serve any of several purposes: (1) to o b tain inform ation concerning the clien t-th erap ist m atch: Is the client ready for therapy? W h a t kind (sex, age, o rien tatio n ) of th e r­ apist w ould be ap p ro p riate? (2) to provide d a ta on certain key client characteristics. In practice, this m eans testing to identify or, m ore fre­ q uently, to rule out c ertain crucial factors, the presence o r absence of w hich w ould have im p o rta n t im plications for the co n d u ct o f th erap y , such as m ental re ta rd a tio n , th o u g h t d isorders, p aran o id tren d s, n eu ro p sy ­ chological involvem ent, and sociopathic personality; (3) to o b tain d iag ­ nostic know ledge th a t m ay be relevant in d eterm in in g w hat type o f th erap y to undertake; an d (4) to provide inform ation concerning the b ackground problem s, personality stru c tu re and personality d ynam ics o f the client, w hich can be utilized by the th e rap ist in p lan n in g treatm en t. A ssessm ent d u rin g the course o f psy ch o th erap y m ay serve any o f the following functions: (1) to fu rn ish inform ation on the progress of therapy; (2) to help the th erap ist to d eterm in e— w hen there seem s to be an inexpli­ cable blockage in tre a tm e n t— if he or she is m issing som ething; and (3) to assess certain hypotheses th a t the th e ra p ist m ay have developed co n cern ­ ing the client’s personality dynam ics. E m pirical studies o f assessm ent an d th erap y w ould need to take account of the specific purposes o f the testing; the question o f w h eth er testing is or is not useful to th erap y is, as such, not answ erab le— ra th e r, the aim w ould be to be able to say th a t u n d e r such an d such conditions a given test o r test b attery would pro b ab ly serve a p a rtic u la r function. I f a study

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o f the utility of assessm ent in therapy w ere to take the form o f co m p arin g two groups of clients, one being served by testing and the o th e r not, there are a n u m b er o f factors on w hich the two tre a tm e n t groups should be equated. O ne of these, of course, would be the characteristics o f the clients— the n atu re and intensity o f their problem s, th e ir d u ra tio n in th erap y , and their attitu d es tow ard therapy and tow ard being tested. A n o th er factor would be the type o f their therapy, and related to this, the a ttitu d e s of the th erap ists tow ard, and their skills in the use o f tests. It w ould be necessary in such a study to m ake sure th a t a sufficient n u m b e r o f th e r­ apists, as well as clients, w ere included. C learly, research on assessm ent and therapy would be highly com plex; m odest a tte m p ts, how ever, w ould be no m ore difficult than research on o th er aspects o f th erap y . A possible beginning parad ig m w ould be to have each o f a n u m b er o f th erap ists select two clients w ith roughly sim ilar problem s; then to provide the th erap ist w ith test d a ta on only one o f the clients, d eterm in ed random ly; a n d finally, to evaluate the effectiveness, if any, o f the testing. Not only has there been little research on the th erap e u tic u tility of assessm ent, b u t am azingly little has been w ritten on the subject. O n e looks in vain for books presen tin g the accu m u lated w isdom on the topic. O f the m any books on the co nduct o f th erap y , none, so far as I am aw are, include a ch a p te r advising the th e ra p ist on w hen to seek the aid o f tests, w hat tests to choose, how to integrate test d a ta into the ongoing th erap y process, and related issues. A nd sim ilarly, o f the w ide range of books on assessm ent, none— unless I have m issed them — include a ch ap te r on this im p o rtan t topic. T o be su re, occasional jo u rn a l articles (e.g., A p p leb au m , 1969; B latt, 1975) tre at the subject in a helpful, though very lim ited way, an d som e test m an u als include suggestions as to how p a rtic u la r tests m ay c ontribute to th erap y , bu t even these arc very sparse. T h is general lacu n a can hardly be due to a lack o f experience on the p a rt of th erap ists in utilizing tests, since there arc in n u m erab le clinicians w ho routinely em ploy tests in connection w ith their th erap eu tic endeavors. R ath er, the lack is due, I believe, to a co n tin u in g trad itio n th a t rigidly and unnecessarily separates the processes o f assessm ent and tre a tm en t, so th a t the end purpose o f assessm ent is seen as the w riting o f a “ psychological re p o rt.” W h a t is needed is a closer alliance betw een, an d a fuller in teg ratio n of, the processes o f assessm ent and therapy. T h e foregoing p a rag ra p h applies to p sy ch o th erap y in the conventional sense, in w hich the aim is to deal constructively w ith the personal p ro b ­ lems, anxieties, and psychological grow th of the clicnt. It obviously does not apply to instances o f vocational an d ed u catio n al counseling, in w hich

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a p titu d e an d in te re st tests n ecessarily p lay a c e n tra l role. M o re im p o rta n t, it does n o t ap p ly , at least not w ith full force, to tw o pow erful co n te m p o ra ry m o vem ents in psychological tre a tm e n t— h u m a n istic th e ra p y a n d b e h a v io r therapy. T h e hum anistic perspective now includes several diverse branches, in clu d in g ex isten tialism a n d phen o m en o lo g y ; th o u g h it has a n u m b e r o f lo rb ears, it is closely related histo rically to th e clicnt c en te red R o g erian tra d itio n . In recen t y ears, certa in m em b ers o f th is m o v em en t (B row n, 1972; D a n a & L ccch, 1974; F isch er, 1979), esch ew in g (lie e a rlie r position th a t assessm en t is in im ical to th e ra p y , have been d e v elo p in g a new p erson o rien ted ap p ro a c h to assessm en t, w h ich fits very co n g en ially w ith p sy ­ c h o th erap y . T h e m ain th ru st o f this o rie n ta tio n is on th e u n iq u e w ays o f ex p erien cin g o f th e client. T h e a p p ro a c h , w hich p e rh a p s h as been d ev e l­ oped m ost sy stem atically by F isch er (1973, 1979), em p h asizes th e co lla b ­ o rativ e role o f th e clicnt a n d th e assesso r in th e assessm en t process (B aker, 1964; D a n a & G ra h a m , 1976; F ischer, 1970; F isch er & B rodsky, 1978). T h o u g h not all th e ra p ists in this b ro a d o rie n ta tio n c a rry o u t assessm en t p ro ced u res w ith th e ir clien ts, an d th o u g h few new a ssessm en t te ch n iq u es in this con tex t have yet been d ev elo p ed , the n ew er p h en o m en o lo g ical stan ce is clearly a n im p o rta n t tren d in th e in te g ra tio n o f assessm en t a n d th erap y . B ehavior th e ra p y , in its early d ay s, stro n g ly rejected assessm en t p ro ­ ced u res, even th o u g h the d ev elo p m e n t o f fear survey sc h ed u les for use in d esen sitizatio n th e ra p y d a te s from die 1960s (D ickson, 1975). As (he y ears p assed, an d as th e v a rie ty o f clinical p ro b lem s ad d re sse d by b e h av io r th e ra p ists in creased , th e p ro b lem o f assessm en t received, a t first p erfu n c ­ tory, an d la te r co n c e n tra te d a tte n tio n . A div erse a rra y o f b eh av io ral assessm ent p ro ce d u re s, for a w ide ran g e o f tre a tm e n t p ro b le m s, h as now been dev elo ped (B arlo w , 1981; G a m b rill, 1978; H erse n & B cllack, 1976; K en d a ll & H ollon,

1981). T h o u g h

these te c h n iq u e s, for the

m ost p a rt, d ilfer d ra stic a lly from th e m ore c o n v en tio n al p sychological tests, they are eq u ally a p t in sta n ce s o f assessm en t. A nd w h ereas c o n ­ v en tio n al tests an d co n v en tio n al v erb al th e rap ie s d eveloped sep a rate ly , w ith the resu lt th at (he pro b lem o f in te g ra tin g them has been a diffi­ cult one, this h as never been a pro b lem for b eh av io ral assessm en t and th erap y . T h e

reason

is th a t

b eh av io ral a ssessm en t,

from

its very

b eginning, h as existed p rim a rily as an a d ju n c t to, a n d for th e p u rp o se o f facilitatin g tre a tm e n t (N elson,

1983). T h e in te g ra tio n o f assess­

m ent a n d th e ra p y is also em p h asized in L a z a ru s ’s m u ltim o d a l th e ra p y (H a m m o n d & S tan field , 1976; L a z a ru s, 1976), a d e riv a tiv e o f th e b e h a v ­ ioral o rien ta tio n .

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V iew ed ov er its e n tire sp e c tru m , w h a t is th e fu tu re for th e ra p y rela te d assessm ent? T h e an sw er to th is q u estio n d e p e n d s in larg e p a rt on th e p o ssib ility of ad v an ces in te st-th e ra p y technology, w hich I will d iscu ss in th e next section, b u t even w ith o u t a n y new d e v elo p m e n ts th e o utlook, in m y ju d g ­ m ent, is for in creased use o f a ssessm en t by th e ra p ists. T h e re a re several reasons for this p red ictio n . O n e reaso n we have a lre a d y o b serv ed — n am ely , th e in creased ten d en c y o f h u m a n istic a n d b e h av io r th e ra p ists, p a rtic u la rly th e la tte r, to utilize assessm en t p ro ced u res. P a re n th etica lly , it is in terestin g , n o t to say ironic, th a t these two o rie n ta tio n s, w hich o rig in ally so v e h e m e n tly rejected assess­ m en t, a re now in som e resp ects m ore positive to w ard it th a n is m ore ira d itio n a l th e ra p y . A n im p o rta n t factor favoring in creased te stin g by th e ra p ists is th e tre n d to w ard co lla b o ra tiv e a ssessm en t, b o th in th e U .S. a n d in E u ro p e . T h is p ro ced u re, w h ich I rela te d e a rlie r to th e h u m a n istic o rie n ta tio n , is by no m eans lim ited to th a t p ersp ectiv e, a n d is in creasin g ly em p lo y ed by a v ariety o f th era p ists. In th is a p p ro a c h , w h ich we m ay , to p a ra p h ra s e R ogers, ap tly d esig n a te as “ c lien t-cen tered a sse ssm e n t,” th e test is n ot conceived as a tech n ical in s tru m e n t in te n d e d to yield priv ileg ed in fo r­ m atio n to the th e ra p ist, b u t ra th e r as a tool th ro u g h w h ich th e clicn t m ay com e to a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f w ho he o r she is, a n d how he o r she sees an d copes w ith the w orld. M a n y s ta n d a rd p e rso n a lity in v en to ries, projective te ch n iq u e s, a n d checklists c an be used in th is w ay. T h u s , a J u n g ia n a n a ly st w hom I know uses the M y ers-B rig g s T y p e In d ic a to r w ith couples, not o nly to h elp each p erson to g ain self in sig h t, b u t also to h elp each spouse to u n d e rs ta n d b e tte r w h a t h is /h e r p a rtn e r at th is p erio d in life is in trin sic ally like. A n assessm en t te c h n iq u e th a t is p a rtic u la rly a d a p t­ ab le to th e ra p y sessions is ro lep lay in g , in d eed , th is use p ro v id es a good ex am p le o f how th e sam e p ro c e d u re can a t th e sam e tim e serve th e aim s of b o th assessm en t a n d th e ra p y . I will briefly m en tio n tw o o th e r d ev elo p m en ts th a t su g g est a com ing in crem en t in th e ra p y -re la te d assessm en t. O n e o f these is th e fact th a t 30% of clinical psychologists now hold a p sy ch o d y n a m ic o rie n ta tio n (N orcross & P ro ch ask a, 1982b). T h is is in c o n tra st to th e 16% re p o rte d by G arfield an d K u rtz in 1976 (o b ta in e d by co m b in in g th e ir v alu es for “ p sy c h o a n ­ aly tic ” an d “ n e o -F re u d ia n ” ). Sincc th e p sy c h o d y n am ic p e rsp ectiv e is tr a ­ ditio n ally asso ciate d w ith testin g , p a rtic u la rly p ro jcctiv c testin g , this in crem en t w o uld seem to presag e in creased th e ra p y re la te d a ssessm en t. T h e o th e r new factor is th e ra p id a d v an c es th a t are b ein g m a d e in m a c h in e

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adm inistered testing, which soon— if not indeed already-—will be able to routinely provide im m ediate test scores and profiles. Since one of the problem s in therapy testing has been the long delay in feedback, this new developm ent will make testing in connection w ith therapy m uch more practicable.

AN AGENDA FOR CLINICAL ASSESSMENT Regardless o f the status of current instrum ents for clinical assessm ent, and of the outlook for their use in the future, it would be widely agreed that there is an urgent need for im provem ents in assessm ent techniques. In this section I wish to examine the possibilities for such im provem ent, and to put forth several general suggestions tow ard th at end. It is a striking fact th at most o f the m ost-used tests are quite old; the Rorschach dates back to 1921, the T A T to 1935, the B ender-G estalt to 1938, and the M M P I to 1940. I'he VVechsler and Stanford-B inet scales, though revised, are also quite venerable. There is, o f course, nothing wrong with persisting with techniques that work well, and one would not w ant to discard a test sim ply because it is old; indeed, their accum ulated lore should be quite valuable. F urther, certain techniques, such as perhaps the B ender-G estalt, are presum ably independent of cultural changes and so would be expected to have considerable longevity. Also, it is im portant to note th at recent years have witnessed a n um ber o f new creative test developm ents, particularly in the area of neuropsychology. Still, it cannot be denied that for most clinical testing the old standbys still hold the field alm ost exclusively. It is interesting, in this connection, to look at the d ata reported in various surveys and exam inations of test use over the years (L outtit & Browne, 1947; Sundberg, 1971; L ubin, W allis, & Paine, 1971; Brown & M cG uire, 1976; Reynolds & S undberg, 1976); doing so, one sees the sam e instrum ents listed at or near the top tim e after time. T h is consistency should not be taken to m ean th at present tests are so good th a t there is no room for im provem ent. As an illustration of the contrary, it would be generally agreed th at on the basis o f present-day technology a b etter inventory for psychopathology than the M M P I could be, and perhaps has been built. T he T A T , though still widely em ployed, is hardly the sam e instrum ent it used to be, because though the pictures have not changed, the general culture has. (O ne o f my recent students, considering utilizing

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the T A T in a research project, found co n tem p o rary college stu d en ts to consider the pictures “q u a in t,” and m ade o th e r plan s). It is, to be sure, a truism to say th a t it w ould be d esirab le to have assessm ent in strum en ts of increased accuracy and relevance, b u t three recent developm ents add urgency to this need. T h e first o f these concerns assessm ent and p sychotherapy. R esearch carried out som e years ago (Fiedler, 1950) indicated th a t all form s of psychotherapy are basically alike; a logical corollary o f this conclusion w ould be th a t it m akes little difference w hat type o f th erap y is provided for a given client for a given problem ; and if this is so, then obviously assessm ent can have no m eaningful role in d eterm in in g th e m ore a p p ro ­ priate type of psychotherapy. M ost o f the research since th a t tim e, how ­ ever, has indicated clear differences in th erap eu tic m odalities (B ru n in k & Schroeder, 1979). Indeed, the existence o f such differences is obvious from the fact th a t a n u m b er o f studies (A bram ow itz, A bram ow itz, R oback, & Jack so n , 1974; B iran & W ilson, 1981; G oldfried, L in eh an , & S m ith, 1978; M eichenbaum , G ilm ore, & F edoravicius, 1971; P aul, 1966) have o b tain ed differences in effecti\'eness am ong different p sy ch o th erap eu tic m ethods: such differences could hard ly be o b tain ed if the different th erap ies were in fact the sam e. It is also notew orthy th a t in a recent survey o f clinicians (N orcross & Prochaska, 1982b) less th a n 2% believe th a t a th e ra p ist’s theoretical o rien tatio n seldom o r never influences his or h er practice. It seem s clear, as S tru p p and Bergin (1969) pu t it, th a t “ the th erap y o f the future will consist o f a set o f specific techniques th a t can be differ­ entially applied u n d er specifiable conditions to specific problem s, sym p­ tom s, or cases” (p. 18). Sim ilar reco m m en d atio n s have been m ade by Paul (1969) and K iesler (1971). M ore recently, B ender (1979), on theo­ retical grounds, has related five different p sy ch o th erap eu tic ap p ro ach es to different client-problem com binations. O n the em pirical side, there is a grow ing body o f evidence to su p p o rt the g en eralizatio n th at certain treatm en t ap p ro ach es are m ore effective for certain client problem s th an are certain o th er treatm en ts. T h is kind o f relatio n sh ip , w hich is usually conceptualized in term s o f a client by treatm en t in teractio n , has been clearly delineated in a n u m b er o f recent studies. T h u s, M eich en b au m , G ilm ore, and F edoravicius (1971) found insight and desensitization treatm en ts to be differentially effective for different form s o f speech anxiety; A bram ow itz, A bram ow itz, R oback, an d Jack so n (1974) reported directive an d non-directive th erap ies to be differentially ap p ro p riate dep en d in g on w h eth er the client was internally or externally oriented; S h a h a r and M erbaum (1981) o b tain ed som e evidence for the

18

M cRe y n o l d s

differential u tility o f d e sen sitiza tio n an d cognitive re s tru c tu rin g th e ra p y in treating subjects m anifesting interpersonal anxiety in two different ways; E ld er, E delstein , a n d F rem o u w (1981) found som e su p p o rt for a clicnt by tre a tm e n t in te ra c tio n in th e ir c o m p a riso n o f resp o n se a c q u isitio n an d cognitive re s tru c tu rin g tre a tm e n ts in clien ts d iv id ed in to tw o levels o f social anxiety ; a n d D am stecg t a n d C hristoffersen (1982) p resen te d evi­ den ce sug gestin g th a t clients high in tra it self-consciousness w ould b enefit m ost from tre a tm e n t focussing on p ro b lem -so lv in g stra teg ies, w h ereas clients low in self-consciousness w ould gain m ore from relevant discussions. T h e im p o rt o f these a n d o th er, sim ila r stu d ie s is to em p h a size th e p o te n tia l significance o f p re -th e ra p y a ssessm en t in id en tify ing th e a p p ro ­ p ria te th e ra p e u tic a p p ro a c h for given cases. It is in th is con tex t th a t the concept o f “ tre a tm e n t v a lid ity ,” recen tly p ro p o sed by N elson a n d H ay es (1979; N elson, 1983) is v alu a b le . T re a tm e n t v a lid ity is n o t a fu n d a m e n ta lly different type o f valid ity , in th e sense th a t, for ex am p le, crite rio n v alidity an d c o n stru c t v alid ity arc; ra th e r, it refers to a given a p p lic a tio n o f the notion o f v alid ity , n am ely , to th e e x ten t to w hich a given p re -th e ra p y assessm en t p ro c ed u re en h a n c e s o u tco m e. T h e a ssessm en t p ro c e d u res em ployed to cate g o rize clien ts in all o f th e ab o v e stu d ies c an be view ed in th is persp ectiv e. F u rth e r exam ples are fu rn ish ed by G h esn ey a n d T a sto ’s (1975) stu d y on d ifferential tre a tm e n ts for differen t classes o f d y s­ m e n o rrh ea; a stu d y by T ro w e r, Y ard ley , B ry a n t, a n d S h aw (1978) com paring social skills training w ith desensitization in two classes o f p atients m anifesting p ro b lem s in social relatio n s; th e w ork o f O s t, J e r re m a lm , a n d Jo h a n s so n (1981) c o n tra stin g th e effectiveness o f social skills tra in in g a n d relax atio n th e ra p y in th e tre a tm e n t o f two types o f social p h o b ia; a n d a stu d y by M c K n ig h t, N elson, H ay es, a n d J a r r e t (in press) sh o w in g d if­ ferential effectiveness o f social skills tra in in g a n d cogn itiv e th e ra p y in tw o classes o f depressives. T h o u g h th e co n c ep t o f tre a tm e n t v a lid ity w as p u t forth w ith specific reference to b eh a v io ra l a ssessm en t it a p p e a rs to be ap p lic a b le to all form s of p re -th e ra p y assessm en t. T h e first c u rre n t d ev e lo p m e n t, th en , th a t p o in ts u p th e need for im p ro v ­ ing the ro u tin e av a ila b ility a n d a p p lic a b ility of clin ical a ssessm en t p ro ­ cedures is the gro w in g ten d en c y to w ard tre a tm e n t specificity. A second im p o rta n t d ev elo p m en t co n cern s p sy ch iatric d iag n o ses. W h en I w as a beg in n in g h o sp ital psychologist we w o uld go to g re a t le n g th s to m ake certain th a t o u r test d iag n o ses w ere a c c u ra te , a n d this w as th e g en eral a ttitu d e o f clinical psychologists o f th a t tim e. T h e re w as, how ever, a certain pointlessn ess to this diligence, since the d iag n o ses, h o w ev er a rriv e d at, m ad e little difference in th e tre a tm e n ts th e p a tie n ts received. T h is g en erality , w hich w as m ore o r less tru e ev ery w h ere, w as o n e o f th e m ajo r

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factors in d ep ressin g the en th u sia sm for clinical testin g . It is im p o rta n t to em phasize, how ever, th a t th e u n d e rly in g prem ise ju s t sta le d is no longer valid; n o w ad ay s— w hen different d ru g s, on the basis o f solid ev id en ce, are ra tio n a lly p rescrib ed for d ifferent d iso rd e rs— d iag n o se s clearly d o m ak e a difference. T h is fact seem s c e rta in to rein v ig o ra te p sy ch o d ia g n o stic testin g , p artic u la rly if tests a re designed o r revised to focus d irectly on the n oso­ logical q u estio n s re lev a n t to tre a tm e n t. T h is co nclusion is n ot o b v iated by the fact th a t a c c u ra te d iag n o ses c an g en erally be m a d e solely on the basis o f p sy c h iatric interview s. T h is is n o t alw ays the case, a n d th e re is som e evidence (A p p e lb a u m , 1976, 1977) th a t test d iag n o ses a re m ore a c c u ra te th a n in terv iew d iag n o ses; in a n y event, u tiliz atio n o f b o th sources o f in fo rm atio n is clearly the w isest course. A th ird tren d in clinical psychological p ra c tic e th a t seem s c e rta in to increase the need for, an d to en la rg e th e scope of, assessm en t is th e g ro w in g em p h asis on th e psychological c o n c o m ita n ts o f p h y sical h ea lth . A s K orchin a n d S ch u ld b e rg (1981) have cogently o b serv ed , the fields o f n e u ro ­ psychology, p sy ch o p h arm aco lo g y a n d b e h av io r m ed icin e a re im p o rta n t developing areas for assessm en t technology. As p sychologists c am e to d eal th era p e u tic a lly w ith a w id er ra n g e o f p a tie n ts , it becom es in creasin g ly im p o rta n t for them to take acc o u n t, th ro u g h a p p ro p ria te a ssessm en t in stru m e n ts, o f the psychological asp ects o f illnesses an d inju ries. T h e se arc som e o f th e c u rre n ts in c o n te m p o ra ry clinical p ra c tic e w hich, in c o m b in atio n w ith th e tre n d s 1 n o ted in th e p rece d in g sectio n , p o in t to a n increased role, o r at least an in creased n eed , for a ssessm en t. It is extrem ely unlikely th a t this need c an be fully m et by th e o ld e r g e n e ra tio n o f tests th a t have been s ta n d a rd for so long. It is th erefo re e n c o u rag in g to note th a t a n u m b e r o f new in stru m e n ts , in c lu d in g the P e rso n ality In v e n ­ tory for C h ild re n (W irt & L a c h a r, 1981), the M illon C lin ical M u ltia x ia l In v e n to ry (M illo n , 1977), th e M illon B eh av io ra l H e alth In v en to ry (M il­ lon, G reen , & M eag h e r, 1981), the K au fm an A ssessm ent B attery for C h ild re n (K a u fm a n & K a u fm a n , 1983), a n d th e B asic P e rso n ality In v e n ­ tory (Jackso n , 1976), have recen tly been d eveloped. In a d d itio n , recen t revisions of, o r a lte rn ativ e s to som e o f th e classic tests in c lu d in g th e R o r­ sch ach (W ien er-L cv y & E x n cr, 1981), the S tro n g V 'lP (C a m p b e ll & H a n ­ sen, 1981), the W A IS (W ech sler, 1981), a n d th e T A T (R itzier, S h ark ey , & C h u d y , 1980; R o b erts & M c A rth u r, 1982), a rc now a v ailab le. It is possible th a t we are on th e th re sh o ld o f a w id esp read rev ita liz atio n o f clinical psychological testing. In recogn itio n o f th e need for fu rth e r ad v a n c e s in clinical assessm en t, I w ould like now to ofer a few g en eral su g g estio n s for p o ten tia l im p ro v e ­ m ents in the design a n d use o f clinical tests. T h e se su g g estio n s are d eriv ed

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from factors u n iq ue to the clinical situ atio n , an d take for g ran ted the im portance o f such psychom etric qualities as reliability an d validity, and the availability o f a p p ro p ria te norm s. T h e first area th a t 1 wish to discuss is the im provem ent of therapy related assessm ent. In my opinion d ra stic advances in the uses o f tests in th era p y aw ait the developm ent o f new in stru m en ts specifically designed to m eet the specific needs o f therapists. It is a signal fact th a t all o f the m ajor personological an d psychopathological tests w ere designed to provide highly general personality descriptions a n d /o r d iagnostic categorizations, a n d it is p erhaps not su rp risin g th a t such tests m ay not furnish the kinds o f inform ation a b o u t given clients th a t th erap ists need to know . It w ould seem a good idea to begin anew by co nducting a survey to identify therapyrelated questions, and then designing tests to answ er these p a rtic u la r questions. Ideally, the test results should speak d irectly to the specific problem s o f the client, ra th e r th an in g eneral, a b stra c t term s— in o th er w ords, the test d a ta should be p ertin en t to the in form ational needs o f the therapist. In my view m any th erap ists reject tests not because they con­ sider the tests invalid, b u t because the test d a ta often seem so far rem oved from the specific th erap eu tic q uestions a t issue. F o r exam ple, a test m ight say som ething a b o u t general feelings o f hostility or anxiety in the client, or ab o u t the clien t’s typical coping m echanism s, w hereas w hat the th er­ apist w ould like to know is m ore a b o u t the clien t’s presen t feeling o f hostility, his cu rren t anxieties, and the w ays th at he is a tte m p tin g to cope w ith his here and now problem s. T h ere are several im p o rta n t factors th a t a prospective test designer in this area m ight well keep in m ind. T ests are m ore likely to be used by a th erapist, o th er things being equal, if they can be self-adm inistered, as is the case w ith m any pencil an d p a p er in stru m en ts. It is also highly desirab le that die tests be reasonably brief. A n o th er highly salien t feature is th at, if possible, the test have considerable face validity, o r m eaningfulness, to the client— in o th er w ords, th a t the test item s seem relev an t to the client. A special problem in th erap y , w hich 1 discussed earlier, is th a t o f predicting w hat type o f th erap y w ould be m ost effective for a given client w ith a given problem . T h is task will u n d o u b ted ly becom e m ore u rg en t as the variety of therap ies becom es m ore sop h isticated . F u rth e r, it is a task for w hich sta n d a rd assessm ent batteries a p p e a r little suited, so th a t new an d a p p ro p ria te in stru m en ts will have to be developed. As a step in this direction my colleagues and I (M cR eynolds, E y m an , & W h ite, in press), w orking from a theory w hich posits th a t clinical anxieties are basically o f two types (M cR eynolds, 1976), have developed a test designed

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to in d icate w h e th e r given in sta n c e s o f a n x iety are p re d o m in a n tly cognitive o r co n d itio n ed . It is h o p ed th a t this d evice will prove useful in assig n in g clients to p a rtic u la r th erap ies. A n o th er im p o rta n t fu n ctio n o f tests in p sy c h o th e ra p y , also d iscu ssed earlier, is co llab o rativ e, o r clien t c en te red testin g . As n o ted abo v e, th e b asic th em e in this a p p ro a c h is for th e th e ra p ist a n d client to go over test results to g eth er, in o rd e r to p ro v id e a bencficial le a rn in g ex p erien ce for the client. W h ile m an y c u rre n t tests can be em ployed in th is w ay, none, so far as I know , w ere specifically d esig n ed for such use, a n d m a n y w idely used tests, e.g., the 16PI-' a n d th e M M P I, b ecau se o f th e tech n ical ja rg o n involved in th e ir scale labels, a re p o o r c a n d id a te s for u n d e rs ta n d in g by clients. Ideally , client cen te red tests w o uld be d esig n ed in su ch a w ay as to pro v id e re lev a n t psychological in fo rm a tio n in term s th a t w o uld be u n d e rs ta n d a b le a n d m ean in g fu l to th e clicn t w ith o u t extensive in te rp re ­ tatio n s by th e th erap ist. T h e second a re a o f test d ev elo p m en t th a t I w an t to c o m m e n t on is d iag n o stic testin g . T h e M M P I h as o f co u rse d o n e y eo m an service in this field for several d ecad es, a n d h as a c c u m u la te d a n a b u n d a n c e o f useful in te rp re tiv e b ack g ro u n d d a ta . N ev erth eless, th e need for u p -to -d a te d ia g ­ nostic tests is o b vious a n d u rg en t. It is possible, b u t n o t yet d e m o n s tra te d , th a t the C lin ical A nalysis Q u e stio n n a ire (C A Q ) (K ru g , 1980), th e M illon C lin ical M u ltia x ial In v e n to ry (M C M I) (M illo n , 1977), o r th e B asic P e r­ sonality In v en to ry (B P I) (Jack so n , 1976) m ay m eet this need. In any event, th e re a re several c h ara c te ristic s th a t a b ro ad g au g e d ia g n o stic test should obviously have. Its scales sh o u ld be co n g ru e n t w ith c o n te m p o ra ry psychopathological theory and practice, so th a t it is unnecessary to attem p t d u b io u s tra n sla tio n s from the test v a ria b le s to c u rre n t nosological c a te ­ gories. F u rth e r, th e test sh o u ld be a d d ressed to differen tial d iag n o ses th a t b ear on sign ifican t tre a tm e n t decisions. A n d finally, th e test sh o u ld be reaso n ab ly sh o rt. O n e reaso n th a t th e M M P I is n ot m o re freq u en tly ad m in iste re d to seriously d is tu rb e d a n d w ith d ra w n p a tie n ts is th a t it is so long an d lab o rio u s for th em to co m plete. T h e th ird a n d last a rea o f assessm en t on w h ic h I will c o m m en t is “ interactional assessm ent.” T h is is the term th at I have used (M cR eynolds, 1979, 1982) to refer to system atic assessm ent procedures w hich take account o f b oth in tra p e rso n a l a n d situ a tio n a l factors in th e assessm en t o f persons. In m y o p inio n in te ra c tio n a l assessm en t re p re se n ts a p o te n tia lly pow erful new d irectio n for clinical assessm en t, a n d m erits o u r closest stu d y . T ra d itio n a lly , clin ical a ssessm en t, in its fu n ctio n o f p re d ic tin g the b ehavior, p erfo rm an ce, o r sta te o f a given in d iv id u al, h as focussed alm o st

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exclusively on e v a lu a tin g th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f th a t in d iv id u a l (W ein er, 1972). In p o in t o f fact, how ever, it is u n iv ersally recognized th a t th e a c tu a l beh av io r o f an in d iv id u al is a jo in t function o f both in tra p e rso n a l an d situ a tio n a l factors, a n d this p ersp ectiv e, w h ich h a s a long h isto ry , h as in recen t years led to extensive re se a rc h an d th eo re tic a l d ev elo p m e n t (E n d le r & M ag n u sso n , 1976; M ag n u sso n , 1981). W e need n ot review th is re search here, b u t it is ra th e r o b vious th a t p red ictiv e assessm en t w o uld be g rea tly im proved if it w ere possible to take a c c u ra te a n d sy stem a tic a c co u n t o f situ atio n al as well as in tra p e rso n a l factors, a n d to b rin g these to g e th e r in an a p p ro p ria te overall fo rm u la tio n . T hough e m p iric a l su p p o rt for this g en eralizatio n is sp arse, I know o f tw o re p o rts w h ich d e m o n s tra te th a t clinical ou tco m e can be b e tte r u n d e rsto o d w hen b o th p erso n a n d en v i­ ronm ental variables are taken into account. Paul an d L entz (1977) reviewed a n u m b e r o f stu d ies w hich p o in ted u p th e key role o f b o th p erso n an d en v iro n m en ta l factors in the p o st-h o sp ita l a d ju s tm e n t o f d isc h a rg e d m e n ­ tal p atien ts. A nd B ra u c h t (1979) h a s re cen tly d e m o n s tra te d th a t an u n d e r­ sta n d in g o f suicide a tte m p ts can be e n h a n c e d by a n in te ra c tio n a l a n aly sis of e n v iro n m en tal a n d in tra p e rso n a l d e te rm in a n ts. It is, o f course, a long ste p from stu d ies o f th is kind to ro u tin e clinical ex am in atio n s o f in d iv id u a l cases in w h ich p red ictiv e assessm en ts are b ased on en v iro n m e n ta l o r situ a tio n a l facto rs as well as on p erso n facto rs. Y et th e idea o f in te ra c tio n a l a ssessm en t is h ard ly new . F o r m a n y y ears cli­ nicians, in m ak in g p red ictio n s as to how a p a tie n t w ould a d ju s t in a given se ttin g , have a tte m p te d to tak e som e ac c o u n t o f th e n a tu re o f th a t settin g . A nd w h en ev er a n assesso r co n sid ers w h e th e r a client h av in g c e rta in c h a r­ acte ristics w ould p erform b e tte r in, say, situ a tio n A ra th e r th a n in situ a tio n B o r situ a tio n C , he is, in effect, c arry in g o u t a n inform al in te ra c tio n a l assessm ent. W h a t w ould clearly be d e sira b le is th e d e v elo p m e n t o f so p h istica ted tech n iq u es for sy stem atically o b ta in in g a n d c o m b in in g p e rtin e n t clien t, or p a tie n t d a ta a n d relev an t e n v iro n m e n ta l o r situ atio n d a ta in ro u tin e clinical assessm en t. S u ch an acc o m p lish m e n t w ould g re a tly w id en th e scope a n d in crease th e p recisio n o f assessm en t. M u c h re m a in s to be d o n e before this goal is re ac h e d , b u t c e rtain p re lim in a ry step s, m ostly o f a co n cep tu al n a tu re , h av e been tak en . O n e th eo retica l a p p ro a c h is in term s of “p erso n -en v iro n m erit lit” (F re n c h , R o d g ers, & C o b b , 1974; P erv in , 1967, 1968), on th e g e n eral a ssu m p tio n th a t th e m o re c o n g ru c n t th e c h a r­ acteristics o f a p erso n a re to the q u a litie s o f a given e n v iro n m e n t, the b e tte r the perso n w ould a d ju s t to th a t situ a tio n . This a p p ro a c h h as a lre a d y been utilized successfully in clinical a ssessm en ts o f the a d ju s tm e n t o f

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elderly perso n s in g iven en v iro n m e n ts (K a h a n a , L ain g , & F elto n , 1980; N eh rk e, T u rn e r,C o h e n , W h itb o u rn e , M o rg a n ti, & H u lic k a , 1981). BersofT an d his associates (B ersolf, 1973; Berso(T& G rieg er, 1971; E lle tt & BersofT, 1976), u n d e r th e ru b ric o f “ p sy c h o situ a tio n a l a ss e ssm e n t” have p ro p o sed an o rie n ta tio n to assessm en t b ased largely on in terv iew in g a n d sy ste m a tic o b serv atio n s. Ivey (1980) h as recen tly a rg u e d for g re a te r e m p h a sis on p e r s o n - e n v ir o n m e n t

“ t r a n s a c t io n s ”

in

c o u n s e lin g

p s y c h o lo g y .

I

(M cR eynold s, 1979) h av e suggested several d ifferen t bases on w h ich perso n -situ atio n assessm en t technology m ig h t be, a n d to som e e x te n t has been developed. As a lre a d y n o te d , I have em ployed th e term in te ra c tio n a l assessm en t as a g en eric term for a p p ro a c h e s o f this type. T h o u g h the covering term is n o t o f cru c ia l im p o rta n c e , “ in te ra c tio n a l a sse ssm e n t” does have the ad v a n ta g e s o f b ein g in keeping w ith a m a jo r c o n te m p o ra ry m ov em en t in psychology, an d o f not b ein g tied to a n y p a rtic u la r clinical o rien tatio n .

CONCLUDING REMARKS W e h ave ex am in ed som e o f the p ro b lem s a n d som e o f th e p ro sp ec ts for the use o f assessm en t tech n iq u es in clinical p ra c tic e. I h av e in d ica ted it as m y view th a t th e e ra o f h eate d co n tro v ersy c o n c e rn in g th e role o f assessm en t in p ra c tic e is for the m ost p a rt b eh in d us, a n d th a t th ere is now a g e n e ra l o p en n ess to th e v alu es o f assessm en t tech n o lo g y . T h is is o f course not to suggest th a t tests sh o u ld be utilized in d isc rim in a te ly o r thoughtlessly ; in d eed , it is e le m e n ta ry th a t clin ical asse ssm e n t is n o t an end in itself, b u t is useful only to the ex te n t th a t it c o n trib u te s, o r p rom ises to c o n trib u te , e ith e r d irectly o r in d ire ctly , to client w elfare. In th e long ru n assessm en t p ro ced u res w h ich fail to m eet this c rite rio n will n o t, a n d sh o u ld not, be em ployed. F u rth e r, th e re a rc m an y re m a in in g p ro b lem s a n d issues co n cern in g su ch m a tte rs as w hich tests sh o u ld be used, w hen they should be used, how they sh o u ld be used, a n d th e like, b u t in g en eral it w ould seem th a t th e q u estio n : A re tests useful? h a s been tra n sfo rm e d in to the q u est for b e tte r, m ore re le v a n t, a n d m ore efficient m e th o d s o f assessm ent. In sh o rt, th ere is n o th in g w ro n g w ith a ssessm en t th a t b e tte r assessm ent ca n n o t cure. It is im p o rta n t, in this co n n ectio n , th a t a ssessm en t m eth o d o lo g y keep pace w ith ad v a n ce s in d iag n o stic p ra c tic es a n d in te rv e n tio n tech n iq u es; as the fo rm er ch an g e, so m u ch a ssessm en t if it is p ro p e rly to serve its function. T h e d e v elo p m en t o f new te st in s tru m e n ts , a n d th e u p d a tin g o f

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o ld e r o n es, h o w ev er, re q u ire s e x te n d e d p re lim in a ry te s tin g a n d e x te n siv e co llectio n o f n o rm a tiv e d a ta , a n d ca n b e a n e x tre m e ly e x p e n siv e p ro cess. S ince th e a v a ila b ility o f a d e q u a te tests n o t o n ly serv es th e p ro fe ssio n a l n eed s o f p sy c h o lo g ists, b u t a lso c o n trib u te s to th e w elfa re o f so c iety , it is to be h o p e d th a t th e re will be a g re a te r w illin g n e ss o n th e p a r t o f th e p u b lic ag en cies to u n d e rw rite te st d e v e lo p m e n t p ro je c ts. A d v an ces in a ss e ssm e n t te c h n o lo g y , h o w ev er, a rc o f little a v a il u n less th e re is s tro n g in te re s t in u sin g th e m o n th e p a rt o f p ra c titio n e rs . S u c h a re c e p tiv e a ltitu d e re q u ire s a w illin g n e ss to in v e st c o n s id e ra b le tim e a n d effort in le a rn in g n ew m e th o d s, as w ell a s th e c a p a c ity o n o c c a sio n to forego o r m o d ify a p p ro a c h e s th a t a re a lre a d y fa m ilia r. H o w e v e r, su c h a n a ttitu d e c a n pay h u g e d iv id e n d s.

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Jack so n , D. The Basic Personality Inventory. Port H u ro n , M ichigan: R esearch Psy­ chologists Press, in press. K ahana, E., L a in g .J., & Felton, B. J. A lternative models o f person-environm ent fit: Prediction of m orale in three hom es for the aged. Journal o f Gerontology, 1980, 35, 584-595. K aufm an, A. S., & K aufm an, N. I.. The Kaufman Assessment Battery Jor Children. C ircle Pines, M innesota: A m erican G u id an ce Service, 1983. K endall, I*. C. & H ollon, S. I). Assessment strategies for cognitive-behavioral interventions. New York: A cadem ic Press, 1981. Kiesler, D. J . E xperim ental designs in psychotherapy research. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. G arfield (E ds.), Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. N ew York: W iley, 1971. K lein, S. U ses o f test m ethods in H u ngary. Newsletter o f the International Test Com­ mission, 1980, 14, 17-20. K orchin, S. }., & Schuldberg, D. T h e future o f clinical assessm ent. American Psychologist, 1981, 36, 1147-1158. Kosco, J ., & H lavenka, V. T h e system o f g u id an ce an d counselling in the Slovak Socialist R epublic a n d the conception o f psychological diagnostics. Newsletter o f the International lest Commission, 1980, 13, 3-1 I. K rug, S. E. Clinical Analysis Questionnaire Manual. C h am p aig n, Illinois: In stitu te for Personality an d Ability T estin g , 1980. K ulcsar, T ., & P itariu, H. Points of view concerning psychological testing in R om ania. Newsletter of the International lest Commission, 1981, 15, 33-34. L azarus, A. Multimodal behavior therapy. New York: Springer, 1976. L evitt, E. E. In tern sh ip versus cam pus: 1964 and 1971. Professional Psychology, 1973, 4, 129-132. Levy, M. R., & Fox, H . M . Psychological testing is alive an d well. Professional Psychology, 1975, 6', 420-424. I.ew andow ski, 1). G ., & Saccuzzo, D. 1’. T h e decline o f psychological testing. Professional Psychology, 1976, 7, 177-184. L outtit, C. M ., & Browne, C. G. Psychom etric in stru m en t in psychological clinics. Journal o f Consulting Psychology, 1947, II, 49—54. L ubin, B., W allis, R. R., & Paine, C. P attern s o f psychological lest usage in the U nited States: 1935-1969. Professional Psychology, 1971, 2, 70-74. M agnusson, D. (E d.) Toward a psychology o f situations: An interactional perspective. H illsdale, NJ: L aw rence E rlbaum A ssociates, 1981. M cC ully, R. S. C u rre n t attitu d es a b o u t projective techniques in APA approved internsh ip training centers. Journal o f Projective Techniques and Personality Assess­ ment, 1965, 29, 27 i -280. M cK night, D. L., N elson, R. O ., H ayes, S. C ., & J a r re tt, R. B. T h e im portance of treating individually-assessed response classes in the am elioration o f d ep re s­ sion. In press. McReynolds, P. Historical antecedents of personality assessment. In P. M cReynolds (E d.), Advances in psychological assessment. (Vol. 3), San Francisco: Jossey-B ass, 1975. M cR eynolds, P. A ssim ilation and anxiety. In M. Z uckerm an & C. D. Spielberger (E ds.), Emotions and anxiety. H illsdale, NJ: L aw rence E rlbaum A ssociates, 1976.

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M cR eynolds, P. T h e case for interactional assessm ent, Behavioral Assessment, 1979, /, 237-247. M cR eynolds, P. In tro d u ctio n . In P. M cR eynolds (E d.) Advances in psychological assessment. (Vol. 5)., 1981, S an Francisco: Jossey-Bass. M cR eynolds, P. T h e future o f psychological assessm ent. International Review o j Applied Psychology, 1982, 31, 117-139. M cR eynolds, P. H istory o f assessm ent in clinical and educational settings. In R. O . Nelson & S. C. H ayes (E ds.), Conceptual foundations o f behavioral assessment. New York: G uilford, in press. M cR eynolds, P., E ym an, J ., & W hite, P. An inventory for m easuring cognitive anxiety and conditioned anxiety. U npublished p ap er, 1983. M eehl, P. E. Sonic rum inations on the v alidation of clinical procedures. Canadian Journal o f Psychology, 1959, 13, 102-128. M eehl, P. E. T h e cognitive activity of the clinician. American Psychologist, 1960, 15, 19-27. M eichenbaum , D. II., G ilm ore, J . B., & Fedoravicius, A. G ro u p insight versus group desensitization in treatin g speech anxiety .Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1971, 36’, 410-421. M illon, T . M C M I: Millon Clinical Multihaxial Inventory Manual. M inneapolis: N ational C o m p u ter System s, 1977. M illon, T ., G reen, C .J ., & M eagher, R. B. Millón Behavior Health Inventory Manual. M inneapolis: N ational C o m p u ter System s, 1981. M oore, C. M., B obliu, W. E., & W ildm an, R. W . P sychiatric im pressions o f psychological reports. Journal o f Clinical Psychology, 1968, 24, 373-376. N ehrke, M . F., T u rn e r, R. R., C ohen, S. II., W h itb o u rn c, S. K ., M o rg an ti, J . B., & H ulicka, I. M . T o w ard a m odel o f person-environm ent congruence: D evel­ opm ent o f the E P P IS . Experimental Aging Research, 1981, 7, 373-379. N elson, R. O . B ehavioral assessm ent: Past, present, an d future. Behavioral .4 j « k menl, 1983, 5, 195-206. N elson, R. O ., & H ayes, S. C. Som e cu rren t dim ensions o f behavioral assessm ent. Behavioral Assessment, 1979, I, 1-16. N orcross, J . C ., & Prochaska, J . O . A natio n al survey o f clinical psychologists: C haracteristics and activities. The Clinical Psychologist, 1982, 35(2), 1-8. (a) N orcross, J . C ., & Prochaska, J . O . A natio n al survey of clinical psychologists: Affiliations and orientations. The Clinical Psychologist, 1982, 35(3), 1-6. (b) O live, H . Psychoanalysts’ opinions o f psychologists’ reports: 1952 and 1970. Jour­ nal o f Clinical Psychology, 1972, 28, 50-54. O st, L. G., Jc rrc m alm , A., & Johansson, J . Individual response p a tte rn s and the effects of different behavioral m ethods in the treatm en t o f social phobia. Behavior Research and Therapy, 1981, 19, 1-16. Paul, G . L. Insight versus desensitization in psychotherapy. Stanford, CA: S tanford U niversity Press, 1966 Paul, G. L. B ehavior m odification research: Design an d tactics. In C . M. Franks (E d .), Behavior therapy: Appraisal and status. New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1969. Paul, G. 1.. & Lentz, R. Psychosocial treatment o f chronic mental patients. C am bridge, MA: H arv ard U niversity Press, 1977.

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Pervin, L. Perform ance an d satisfaction as a function o f individual-environm ent fit. Psychological llulletin, I968, 69, 56-58. Pcrvin, L. A. A tw enty-college study o f stu d en t X college interaction using T A P E (T ransactional A nalysis o f Personality and E n vironm ent): R ationale, reliabil­ ity, and validity. Journal o f Educational Psychology, 1967, 5H, 290-302. Poortinga, Y. H ., C oetsier, P., M euris, G ., M iller, K. M ., Sam sonow itz, V., Seisdedos, N ., & Schlegel, J . A survey o f attitu d e s tow ard tests am ong psy­ chologists in six W estern E uropean countries. International Review o f Applied Psychology, 1982, 31, 7-24. Reynolds, W. M ., & S undberg, N . 1). R ecent research trends in testing. Journal o f Personality Assessment, 1976, 40, 228-233. R itzier, B. A., Sharkey, K . J ., & C h u d y , J . b\ A com prehensive projective a lte r­ native to the T A T . Journal o f Personality Assessment, 1980, 44, 358-362. R oberts, G . E., & M cA rth u r, D. S. Roberts Apperception Test fo r Children Manual. I.os Angeles: W estern Psychological Services, 1982. R osenw ald, G. C. Psychodiagnostics and its discontents. Psychiatry, 1963, 26, 2 2 2 240. S h ah ar, A., & M erb au m , M. T h e in teractio n betw een subject ch aracteristics and self-control procedures in the treatm en t o f interpersonal anxiety. Cognitive 'Ther­ apy and Research, 1981, 5, 221-224. Shem berg, K ., & K eeley, S. Psychodiagnostic train in g in the academ ic setting: Past and present. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1970, 34, 205-211. Shem berg, K ., & Keeley, S. T rain in g practices and satisfaction w ith prein tern sh ip preparatio n . Professional Psychology, 1974, 5, 98-105. Sm yth, R.. & Reznikoff, M . A ttitudes o f psychiatrists tow ard the usefulness of psychodiagnostic reports. Professional Psychology, 1971, 2, 283-288. S trupp, H ., & Bergin, A. E. Som e em pirical an d conceptual bases for coordinated research in psychotherapy: A critical review of issues, trends, an d evidence. International Journal o f Psychiatry, 1969, 7, 18-90. Sundberg, N. D. T h e practice o f psychological testing in clinical services in the U nited States. American Psychologist, 1971, 16, 79-83. Sw an, G. E., & M acD onald, M . L. B ehavior th erapy in practice: A n ational survey o f behavior therapists. Behavior Therapy, 1978, 9, 799-807. T allen t, N. C linical psychological testing: A review of prem ises, practices and prom ises. Journal o f Projective Techniques and Personality Assessment, 1965, 29, 4 1 8 435. T helen, M . H., V arble, D. L., & Jo h n so n , J. A ttitu d es of academ ic clinical psy­ chologists tow ard projective techniques. American Psychologist, 1968 , 23, 517521. ' Trow er, P., Y ardley, K ., B ryant, B. M ., & Shaw , P. T h e tre a tm en t of social failure: A com parison of an xiety-reduction and skills-acquisition procedures on two social problem s. Behavior Modification, 1978, 2, 41-60. W ade, T . C ., & Baker, T . B. O pin io n s and use of psychological tests: A survey of clinical psychologists. American Psychologist, 1977, 32, 874-882. W ade, T . C ., Baker, T . B., & H artm an n , D. P. B ehavior th erap ists’ self-reported views and practices. The Behavior therapist, 1979, 2, 3 -6. W ade, T . C., Baker, T . B., M orton, T . I.., & Baker, L. J . T h e status of psychological

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testing in clinical psychology: Relationships between test use and professional activities and orientations, journal o f Personality Assessment, 1978, 42, 3-10. W echsler, I). Manual for the Wechster Adult Intelligence Scale— Revised. New York: Psychological C orporation, 1981. W einer, I. B. Does psychodiagnosis have a future? Journal o f Personality Assessment, 1972, 36, 534-546. W ellner, A. M . Survey o f psychology services in state m ental hospitals. American Psychologist, 1968, 23, 377-380. W einer-Levy, D., & Exner, J. E. T h e R orschach C om prehensive System: An overview. In P. M cR eynolds (E d.), Advances in psychological assessment. (Vol. 5)., San Francisco: Jossey-B ass, 1981. W irt, R. D., & L achar, D. T h e Personality Inventory for children: D evelopm ent and clinical applications. I n P. M cR eynolds (E d.), Advances in psychological assess­ ment, (Vol. 5)., 1981, San Francisco: Jossey-B ass. W itzlack, G . T heory and practice in the construction an d application o f psycho­ diagnostic procedures in the G erm an D em ocratic R epublic. International Review o f Applied Psychology, 1982, 31, 55-73.

2

Concurrent Validation After 20 Years: The Implications of Personality Stability for Its Assessment

Paul T. Costa, Jr. Robert R. M cCrae Gerontology Research Center N ational Institute on Aging, N IH

Som ew here in the definition o f “ tra ils” given by m osl textbooks the phrase “ en during dispositions” is likely to be found. T h ese w ords m ean th a t traits are to be distinguished from m oods o r o th er tem p o rary states (Spielberger, 1972) th at m ay affect a person. T ra its are tho u g h t o f as being c h a ra c ­ teristic, not of situations, seasons, or times o f day, b u t o f the individual at a p articu la r point in his o r h e r life. B ut do these ch aracteristics them selves en d u re, o r do they change? T h a t is not a m a tte r o f definition, b u t an em pirical q uestion. W h en g er­ ontologists first began to exam ine the evidence on this q uestion, their answ ers w ere m ixed. A thorough and balan ced review by one o f the sem inal w riters in the field o f aging and personality, B ernice N eu g arten (1964, p. 188), cam e to the conclusion th at “ m easures taken a t long tim e intervals tend to pro d u ce statistically reliable b u t relatively low c o rrela ­ tions . . . . the im plication is th a t there is a t least as m uch ch an g e as stab ility .” T o d ay we have the benefit o f two decades o f new evidence on this question, including the results o f a n u m b er o f m ajor long itu d in al studies published in the last six years. O n the basis o f this new d a ta , a new conclusion is in order: In the course o f no rm al aging, there is strong evidence of stability in the individual, an d no consistent evidence at all o f system atic change w ith age. T h is conclusion is based not sim ply on m ore d a ta , b u t on b e tte r q u a lity d a ta . In the early sixties, p ersonality research w as m ore often conducted w ith instrum en ts o f du b io u s validity and low reliability. C o n sid er, for 31

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in stan ce, the sta b ility coefficients for th e needs for a c h ie v e m e n t, affiliation, pow er, a n d ag gression re p o rte d by Skolnick (1966). O v e r a 2 0 -y ear sp an from adolescence to a d u lth o o d , th e needs for po w er (r = .34, p < .01, n = 44) a n d ag gression (r = .27, p < .05) show ed sig n ifican t rete st co r­ relations in m en, as did the need for achievem ent (r = .24, p < .05, n = 49) in w om en. O th e r c o rrelatio n s d id n ot rc ac h significance. W e see h e re th e kind o f “sta tistic a lly reliab le b u t relativ ely low c o rre la tio n s” th a t N e u ­ g a rte n based h e r co nclusions on. O f course, h ig h e r sta b ility is g e n erally found after th e p eriod o f adolesen cc; b u t p e rh a p s m o re im p o rta n t, T A T scores arc noto rio u sly u n reliab le. C o rre la tio n s no h ig h e r th a n this a re often seen in rete sts given weeks o r m o n th s a p a rt (W in te r & S te w a rt, 1977). In fact, in view o f th e reliab ility o f these m easu res, one m ig h t in te rp re t Sko ln ick ’s d a ta as stro n g evid en ce o f stab ility . M o re d irec t evidence, how ever, is now a v a ila b le from sev eral stu d ies. I-con, G illu m , G illu m , a n d G o u ze (1979) e x am in ed th e 30 y e a r stab ility o f M M FI scores for a sam p le o f 71 m en in itially teste d at age 49. S tab ility coefficients ra n g e d from .28 for h y p o ch o n d ria sis a n d sc h iz o p h re n ia scales to .74 for social in tro v ersio n , w ith a m ed ian co rre la tio n o f .40. All co r­ relatio n s w ere sta tistic a lly sig n ifican t. T h e w ide ra n g e o f re test c o rrelatio n s in this d a ta set m ig h t be in te rp re te d to m ea n th a t som e tra its, like in tro v ­ ersion, are sta b le , w h ereas o th e rs, like sc h iz o p h ren ia, a re no t. Hut an a lte rn a tiv e e x p la n a tio n is to be found in th e n a tu re o f th e in s tru m e n t a n d the sam ple. T h e M M P I is a m e a su re o f p sy ch o p ath o lo g y , n o t n o rm a l p erso n ality . In a n o rm a l sam p le (like L e o n ’s), th e ra n g e on m an y scales is too restric ted to show s u b s ta n tia l c o rrelatio n s. S cales w ith m ore “ n o r­ m a l” c o n te n t, in c lu d in g m a s c u lin ity /fe m in in ity (r = .58) a n d so cial introversion (r = .74) show m uch h ig h e r co rrelatio n s. If this h y p o th esis is co rrect, we w o uld expect u n ifo rm ly h igh c o rre la ­ tions w hen we ex am in e n o rm a l su b jects u sin g a n o rm a l p e rso n a lity in v e n ­ tory such as th e G Z T S . T a b le 2.1 (C o sta , M c C ra e , & A re n b e rg , 1980) show s d a ta from the B altim o re L o n g itu d in a l S tu d y o f A ging, w h ich has been co n d u cte d a t th e G ero n to lo g y R esearch C e n te r for th e p a st 25 y ears on a w ell-ed u cated an d gen erally h e alth y g ro u p o f m ale v o lu n te e rs (d a ta collection on w om en began only in 1978). Six y e a r rete st c o rre la tio n s for m en initially classified as y o u n g (1 7 -4 4 ), m id d le (4 5 -5 9 ) a n d old (6 0 -8 5 ) arc given in this table. S tab ility coefficients for su ch d iv erse tra its as sociability, e m o tio n a l sta b ility , th o u g h tfu ln e ss, a n d m a scu lin ity are all .7 to .8. N ote also th a t w h at we m ig h t call th e “ s ta b iliz a tio n ” o f p erso n ality occu rs early in a d u lth o o d : the y o u n g e r m en a re no less sta b le th a n th e older.

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

33

TABLE 2.1 Six-Year Retest Coefficients for GZTS Scales in D ifferent A ge Groups

G Z T S Scale G en eral activity R estra in t A scendance Sociability E m otional stab ility O b jectiv ity Friendliness T houghtfulness Personal relations M ascu lin ity

Total Group'

Young (17-44)''

Middle (45-59)'

Old (60-85)"

83 71

79 68 79 85 84 69 78 84 71 77

86 69 84 83 72 73 78 70 75 70

83 70 80 68 77 70 75 75 73 76

82 81 74 71 77 72 73 75

Note: A d ap ted from C o sta , M cC ra c , & A rcn b erg , 1980. All co rre la tio n s significant a t p < .001; d ecim al p o in ts o m itted . “N = 385 —427. hN = 125— 137. 'N = 1 6 0 —173. rtA; = 9 9 - 1 2 0 .

By lo n g itu d in a l sta n d a rd s, six y e ars is n o t a very extensive in terv al. B ut m uch th e sam e resu lts w ere found w hen d a ta from a seco n d re test, tw elve y ears la te r, w ere a n aly z ed . S tab ility coefficients ran g ed from .59 to .87, a n d all w ere sig n ifican t a t the .001 level. S tro n g as these d a ta m ay be, th ey a re n ot th e u p p e r lim it o f sta b ility . Block (1971) h a s a rg u e d th a t we sh o u ld ro u tin ely co rrect for a tte n u a tio n d u e to u n reliab ility . E ven th o u g h th e G Z T S is in h e ren tly m o re reliab le th a n T A T m easu res, it loo h a s an elem en t o f e rro r, a n d a set o f fo rm u las developed by H eise (1969) allow us to e stim a te w h a t th e sta b ility o f “ tr u e ” scorcs w ould be. U sin g these co rrec tio n s, th e e stim a te d sta b ility coeffi­ cients ra n g e d from .80 to 1.00, w ith a m e d ia n o f .91 for th e ten scales. G iven perfect m e asu res o f th e G Z T S tra ils, these a re th e retest co rre la tio n s we w ould cxpect to find a fter 12 years. T h e se findings h av e now been re p lic a ted in a n u m b e r o f o th e r stu d ies, in clu d in g th e l)u k c L o n g itu d in a l S tu d y (S iegler, G eo rg e, & O k u n , 1979) an d the N o rm a tiv e A ging S tu d y in B oston (C o sta & M c C ra e , 1977) w h ere co rrelatio n s as high as .84 w ere seen over a p erio d o f 10 y ears. In re tro ­ spect, we can arg u e th a t th e co nclusion o f sta b ility in a d u lt p e rso n ality w as reach ed by a n o th e r re se a rc h e r 30 y ears ago, in a so m ew h a t differen t context. T h e best early lo n g itu d in al stu d ies o f o b jectiv e test p e rfo rm a n ce w ere co n d u cte d in th e a re a o f v o c a tio n a l in te re sts by th e g re a t p io n e e r in th a t field, E. K. S tro n g . G iv en th e elose asso ciatio n o f p e rso n a lity w ith vo catio n al in te re sts (C o sta , F o z a rd , & M c C ra e , 1977; H o lla n d , 1966), it

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is n ot surprisin g to h ear th a t “A lthough perm an en ce is less for young m en th an for older, it is still rem arkably high for young m en. T h e correlation o f . . . .72 for 19 y ear old college freshm en over an interval o f 19 years is evidence o f high p erm anency o f in terest” (S trong, 1951, p. 91). W e can add th a t it is also evidence o f the stab ility o f personality.

STABILITY OF MEAN LEVELS T h e retest correlations described so far arc m easures o f one form o f sta ­ bility. T h ey show th a t the relative o rd erin g o f individuals on a p ersonality m easure changes little from tim e to time. B ut they do not rule ou t the possibility th a t everyone is changing. T his p h enom enon is seen in the area o f cognitive d evelopm ent am o n g ch ild ren , w here m arked grow th in in tel­ lectual ability is seen from age 5 to age 15, b u t w here relative ind iv id u al differences are preserved; the b rig h t 5 year old is likely to be the b rig h t 15 year old. Physiological dcclinc in functions like vital cap acity would probably show a sim ilar p a tte rn o f g roup change bu t high retest stability. O n the o th er h a n d , it is also possible th a t there are no system atic changes in personality traits, an d th at m ost ind iv id u als m a in ta in the sam e absolute level o f most traits. W e need only exam ine g roup m eans in o rd er to d eterm in e if th ere are m atu ratio n al increases o r decreases in traits, and th u s cross-sectional studies m ight give useful inform ation on this point. A n u m b e r o f early cross-sectional studies had suggested th at there m ight be d evelopm ental changes in personality, alth o u g h the results w ere often in co n sisten t (N eug arten , 1977), and could generally be a ttrib u te d to sam p lin g biases o r generational differences. A lthough they too have som e in terp re ta tiv e p ro b ­ lems, longitu d in al studies provide a m uch so u n d er basis for discovering age-related changes. By m easuring the sam e individuals repeatedly, we can use them as th eir own controls, and avoid the problem s o f subjects w ho represent different pop u latio n s, or were socialized in different his­ torical periods. B etter yet are studies th a t longitudinally follow individuals initially o f different ages. Both cross-sectional an d lo ngitudinal analyses can be conducted on these d a ta , an d we can feel relatively confident th at an effect is due to aging w hen both cross-sectional age differences and longitudinal age changes are significant. P robably the best study o f changes in m ean levels o f perso n ality traits w as conducted by D ouglas and A renberg (1978) on the G Z T S d a ta for

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

35

w hich retest correlations w ere p resented in T a b le 2.1. In ad d itio n to crosssectional and long itu d in al analyses, D ouglas a n d A ren b erg also em ployed cross-sequential designs (Schaie, 1977), w hich provide yet a n o th er way to estim ate age changes, in d ep en d e n t o f the possible “ p ractice effects” introduced by longitudinal m ethods. Som e o f the scales show ed g e n e ra ­ tional differences or the effects of tim e o f m easu rem en t, b u t only two o f the ten G Z T S scales— general activity and m asculinity— show ed p a tte rn s o f results th at could be in terp re ted as m a tu ratio n al change. A nd alth o u g h statistically significant, the m ag n itu d e o f these changes was so sm all (ab o u t one eighth o f one sta n d a rd deviation over 6 years) as to be o f no practical consequence. T hese findings are typical o f the results o f lo n g itu d in al studies. In an analysis o f the 16PF in the N orm ative A ging Study (C osta & M cC rae, 1978), we found three scales w ith cross-sectional differences an d two w ith longitudinal changes, bu t none th at show ed both. T h a t m ean t th a t the cross-sectional differences w ere p robably gen eratio n al differences, and the longitudinal changes w ere p robably due to practice effects, tim e o f m easuresm ent differences, or sim ple error. T w o th ird s o f the scales show ed n eith er age differences nor changes. T h e 16PF was also used by Siegler, G eorge, and O k u n (1979) in ex am ­ ining personality at the Duke Longitudinal study. O lder generations scored lower on the 16PF m easure o f intelligence, prob ab ly because they are less well educated , an d everyone im proved on taking the intelligence test for a second time. M en becam e less guilt prone an d w om en m ore g uilt prone over the course o f the study , but this sex by tim e in teractio n has never been replicated elsew here and is p ro b ab ly due to chance. In the o th e r 14 scales there is an u n m istak ab le p attern : No age o r cohort differences, no age or tim e of m easu rem en t changes. Leon et al. also noted little change in the m ean level o f M M P I scales over a th irty -y ear period. T hese findings co n trad ict som e stereotypes of aging th a t dep ict old age as a tim e o f u b iq u ito u s decline. H a ir goes, teeth go, m em ory goes— w hy not personality? O f coursc, there arc age-associated conditions, such as dem entia, th a t m ay have a profound im p act on perso n ality functioning. But in the absence o f these conditions, p ersonality does not ord in arily change, an d in fact a m arked change in perso nality m ay be a sign o f organic pathology. As a general rule, old people do no t su ccu m b to d ep res­ sion or w ithd raw into introversion, o r becom e increasingly conservative w ith age. N either do they becom e m ore wise o r mellow or em otionally integrated. Some people at all ages show each o f these ch aracteristics, and

36

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those w ho show th e m in old age a rc m o st p ro b a b ly th e sam e ones w ho show ed them in th e ir y o u th .

ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATIONS W hen we b eg an to p ub lish these fin d in g s a n d con clu sio n s w e w ere m et w ith m ore th a n a little scep ticism . M a n y rese a rc h e rs found o u r co n clu sio n s h a rd to believe, a n d suggested a n u m b e r o f a lte rn a tiv e in te rp re ta tio n s o f the d a ta th a t m ig h t a c c o u n t for th e resu lts. In e v ita b ly , the m eth o d o lo g y cam e u n d e r close sc ru tin y , an d a n u m b e r o f o b jectio n s w ere raised to the use o f self-report in stru m e n ts for th e m e a su re m e n t o f p erso n ality . W e therefore co n d u cte d a series o f an aly ses d esigned to tell us if the stab ility we th o u g h t w e saw w as d u e to som e a rtifa ct. First we co n sid ered the p ro b lem o f resp o n se sets. In d iv id u a ls d iffer in the c a n d o r w ith w hich they an sw e r p erso n a lity q u e stio n n a ire s, a n d social d esirab ility has been seen as a n im p o rta n t d e te rm in a n t o f test responses (C row ne & M arlo w e, 1964; E d w ard s, 1957). In d iv id u a ls also co n sisten tly differ in stylistic h a b its o f resp o n d in g re g ard less o f item c o n ten t: som e people agree w ith alm o st an y s ta te m e n t, som e use e x trem e resp o n se c a t­ egories, an d som e prefer n e u tra l answ ers. It h as been p ro p o sed th a t it is these stylistic v a ria b les th a t are sta b le , n o t p erso n a lity . T h e acq u ie scer of today will be th e a c q u ie sc c r o f to m o rro w , so o f co u rse he will receive the sam e scores. Frankly, this is n ot a very p lau sib le a rg u m e n t. D ifferen t q u e stio n n aire s typically involve d ifferen t resp o n se fo rm ats as well as d ifferen t item s, a n d sh are in com m on only th e su b sta n tiv e co n te n t. So it w ould be h a rd to explain w hy, for ex am p le, 16PF E x trav e rsió n p re d ic ts E y sen ck’s EP1 E x trav e rsió n ten y ears la te r, as it does (C o sta & M c C ra c , 1977). B u t d a ta are b e tte r th a n a rg u m e n ts, so we set o u t to test th e resp o n se set hy po th esis. In p a rtic u la r, we w an te d to know if th e h igh re te st c o rrelatio n s we found over 6 y ears in th e G Z T S w ere inflated by th e in fluence o f stab le response sets. T o d o this we re c a lc u la ted the re te st coefficients p a rtia llin g o u t the v aria n ce due. to resp o n se styles (C o sta , M cC ra e , & A ren b erg , 1983). A lthough the G Z T S itself has som e built-in response tendency m eas­ ures, we could not p ro p e rly use th e m , because they arc b ased on th e sam e item s as the tra it scales. I f a n in d iv id u a l e n d o rsed th e sam e item on two occasions, we could n o t tell w h e th e r th a t co n sisten cy sh o u ld be a ttrib u te d to the stab ility o f th e tra it or th e resp o n se style. L uckily, how ever, we also had resp o n se style m e asu res from o th e r in stru m e n ts. F ro m the E ysenck

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

37

Personality Inventory (E P I; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964) Lie scale we obtained a m easure of social desirability; from the N E O Inventory (M cC rac & C osta, 1983), a personality q u estio n n aire we have developed, we had m easures o f acquiescence and extrem e responding. U n d e r the hypothesis th at stability of personality is m erely stab ility o f response sets, rem oving the variance a ttrib u ta b le to social desirability, acquiescence, an d extrem e responding should su b stan tially reduce retest coefficients. In fact, how ­ ever, partiallin g ou t these stylistic v ariables did not reduce stab ility coef­ ficients at all. It w ould a p p e a r th a t stable response sets can n o t explain aw ay stability in personality. A second argum ent offered to explain consistent questionnaire responses is based on m em ory. P erh ap s people, w an tin g to a p p e ar consistent, recall how they responded the last tim e and sim ply rep eat th eir perform ance. A gain, this arg u m en t is not convincing: W hy w ould so m any people w ant so badly to a p p e a r consistent? A nd how could they rem em b er specific item responses over so long an interval? A gain, an em pirical stu d y can be allow ed the last w ord (W oodruff, 1983). In 1969 W o o d ru lf retested u n d er two conditions subjects w ho had taken the C alifornia T est o f Personality 25 y ears earlier. F irst they w ere asked to com plete the q u estio n n aire as it cu rren tly applied to them — the norm al instructions for test ad m in istratio n . A few m o n th s later, how ever, they w ere again given the q u estio n n aire, an d this tim e they w ere asked to fill it out as they recalled filling it ou t in 1944. T h ey w ere specifically instructed to use their m em ories to be as consistent as possible. W'hen the lest was ad m in istered in the usual w ay, retest correlations were m oderate for both m en (r = .58, p < .001, n = 53) an d w om en (r = .65,p < .001, n = 24). But w hen asked to rely on m em ory, subjects did m uch worse, w ith correlations o f only .17 (n = 30, ns) for m en, and .45 (n = 18, p < .05) for w om en. T h is is a p articu larly intrig u in g finding. Not only does it elim inate the m em ory hypothesis from the in terp re ta tio n of stability d a ta — it also illustrates a profound fact a b o u t recollection. If you w ant to know w hat you were like 25 years ago, you are m uch more likely to be correct if you describe y ourself as you are today th an if you rely on your m em ory. R eaders w ho are sceptical of the conclusion of stability because of recollections o f change in th eir ow n lives should bew are the distortions an d exaggerations in troduced by m em ory. Finally, we considered one last artifa ct th a t could account for stability. People respond to personality questio n n aires on the basis of the w ay they see themselves— their self-image or self-concept. But w hat if the self concept is crystallized early in life? people m ay go on thinking o f them selves as

38

COSTA AND McCRAE

they w ere in young ad u lth o o d , w hen in fact they m ay have been changing grad u ally all along. U nlike the previous arg u m en ts, this one is plausible. C linical case studies show th a t aspects o f the self can change w ith o u t a concom itant change in the self-concept, and the phen o m en o n o f a crys­ tallized self-concept has been noted by leading self-concept theorists (R osenberg, 1979). F u rth er, this criticism , if su stain ed , w ould com pletely u n d erm in e the d ata collected for years by longitudinal researchers. N o im p ro v em en t in self-report m easures, no experim ental condition o f ad m in istra tio n can disprove this hypothesis. As long as we rem ain in the realm o f self-reports, we are inescapably in the g rip o f the self-concept. At this point research we had been conducting on spouse ratin g s of personality becam e useful. T h e re is no theoretical reason to suppose th a t h u sb an d s’ or wives’ views o f their spouses’ p ersonalities arc crystallized; instead, they are likely to be responsive to the observable b eh av io r o f their spouses, an d to any changes in it th a t have ap p eared over the years. U n d er this assu m p tio n , the correlatio n o f spouse ratin g s w ith age should give an indication o f age changes in perso n ality com pletely in d ep en d e n t of the self-concept. But cross-sectional correlations o f age w ith spo u se-related personality show ed very sm all effects, none replicated across sexes. M ore elab o rate analyses, repo rted at length elsew here (M cC rae & C o sta, 1982b), suggest that even the sm all correlatio n s observed are pro b ab ly due to sam p lin g bias or cohort effects ra th e r th a n aging. C learly, a b etter basis for the conclusion w ould be longitudinal spouseratings; and in som e respects, it would be b etter yet to seek o utside opinions of experts a t two different points in the life span. T h a t is exactly w hat Ja c k Block (1971) has done in his Lives Through Time. A team o f experts rated the adolescents in the Berkeley studies on the C alifo rn ia Q -S o rt; a different team rated them as 30 year olds. T h e co rrelatio n s o f the two sorts, indicating the degree o f agreem ent in the relative o rd erin g o f traits w ithin the individual a t two tim es, are alm ost all m o d erate to high in both m en an d w om en. D espite the fact th a t different ra ters w ere used, and despite the fact th at adolescents are co m pared w ith ad u lts, the evi­ dence for stab ility is clear. It is equally clear th a t the self-concept o f the individual can n o t account for these findings, since ratings are based on o th ers’ im pressions, not one’s own self-concept. R atings and self-reports are in su b stan tia l ag reem en t (M cC rae, 1982); thus, we can re tu rn to selfreport m ethods and m easures w ith som e assu ran ce th a t they arc not sim ply records o f how personality w as a t the tim e o f som e hypothetical c ry sta l­ lization. Self-report m ethods, w hen used on volunteers w ho have little

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

39

reason to d is to rt th e ir responses, a p p e a r to give a n a c c u ra te acco u n t o f p erso n ality as it is, a n d b o th self-reports a n d ra tin g s c o n c u r in d e m o n ­ stra tin g co n sid erab le sta b ility in a w ide ran g e of p e rso n a lity tra its.

VALIDATION OVER TIME T h e m ost rad ic al s ta te m e n t o f th e sta b ility p o sitio n w o uld claim th a t the p o in t at w hich p e rso n a lity is m ea su re d is irre le v a n t. O n c e the in d iv id u a l has reach ed full a d u lth o o d — say, by ag e 30— a single m e a su re m e n t o f p erso n ality w ould suffice for a lifetim e. L ike eye color, d a te o f b irth , or years o f e d u c a tio n , p e rso n ality m ight be co n sid ered a c o n sta n t in th e life o f the individ u al. T h e re arc, o f co u rse, a n u m b e r o f reaso n s to sto p sh o rt o f so sw eep in g a sta n d . It assum es a p erfect co rre la tio n o f tests over tim e, a co n d itio n rarely observed even w hen co rrectio n s for u n re lia b ility are m ad e. It also assu m es th a t th ere are no circu m stan c es u n d e r w hich p e rso n a lity m ig h t reg u larly be ex p ected to ch an g e. E vid en ce to d a te show s o nly th a t the events en co u n te red over th e co u rse o f a lifetim e by v o lu n te e r su b jec ts do not sy stem atica lly p ro d u c e ch an g e. B ut o th e r circ u m sta n c e s, su ch as th e r­ a p e u tic in te rv e n tio n s, c ata cly sm ic ev en ts, o r severe illnesses, m ig h t affect traits. T h e lo n g itu d in a l stu d y o f p erso n a lity in a d u lth o o d is sim p ly too y o ung a field to ru le o u t these possibilities. O n the o th e r h a n d , if we tu rn from the in d iv id u a l to th e g ro u p , m u ch stro n g e r a rg u m e n ts can be m ad e. O n a n ag g re g ate level, th ere a p p e a r to be good g ro u n d s for c laim in g th a t th e tim e a t w h ich m e a su re m e n ts arc m ad e should n ot affect th e resu lts; a n d in p a rtic u la r, th e re la tio n s betw een different tests o u g h t not to d e p e n d on th e tim es w hen they a re a d m in is­ tered. D a ta collected in th e 1960s m ig h t be used to v a lid a te tests c rea te d in the 1970s, ju s t as if th e a d m in is tra tio n h ad been co n tem p o ran e o u s. T im e in terv al does m a tte r, how ever, w hen it is too sh o rt. T e sts a d m in ­ istered a t th e sam e sittin g , o r w ith in a few d ay s o f each o th e r, m ay sh are the kinds o f d isto rtin g influences w h ich lead to re te st u n reliab ility . R ecen t events m ay have te m p o rarily elevated o r d ep re sse d su b je c ts’ m oods; the circu m stan ces o f th e testin g situ a tio n m ay in d u c e an x iety o r defensiveness; the close p ro x im ity o f th e tests m ay lead su b jects to a tte m p t to be c o n ­ sistent. W h en ev er tw o tests a re given a t th e sam e tim e— th e u su al p ro ­ cedure w hen a tte m p tin g to v a lid a te new m e a su re s— it can be p resu m ed th a t co rrelatio n s betw een the tw o w ill be inflated by these elem en ts. In this ease, som e o f the sourccs o f u n re lia b ility a rtifa c tu a lly in c re a se, ra th e r th an decrease, th e c o rre la tio n b etw een tests.

40

COSTA AND McCRAE

For these reasons, it could be offered as a general rule th a t studies of convergent validity should req u ire as m an y differences in ad m in istratio n o f test and criterion as possible: D ifferent ex p erim en ters, different loca­ tions, different times of day and seasons o f adm inistration should be sought. U n d er these conditions, we could be confident th a t the observed co rre­ lations were no t spuriously inflated by tra n sie n t and situ atio n ally d e p e n d ­ en t m oods. In the rest o f this ch a p te r we will present d a ta b earin g on the co n stru ct validation o f a new personality q u estio n n aire, the N E O (A 'euroticism /sxtraversion-O penness) In ventory. T h e m easures w ith w hich it will be correlated were collected by o th e r investigators, u n d er d ifferent conditions of ad m in istratio n , an d they w ere ad m in istered from 2 to 21 years earlier. Because personality is stable, how ever, the logic will be th a t o f a co n cu rren t validational study.

AN EXAMPLE: THE NEO MODEL T h e studies to be rep o rted here were m ade possible by the w ork o f inves­ tigators who collected d a ta over a period a p p ro ach in g a q u a rte r cen tu ry, and by the com m itm ent o f the subjects. P articip an ts in the stu d y are m em bers o f the B altim ore L o n g itu d in al Study o f A ging (B L SA ), a com ­ m unity dw elling, generally h ealth y g roup o f volunteers w ho have agreed to re tu rn for testing at reg u lar intervals. T h e sam ple has been recru ited continuously since 1958, w ith m ost new subjects referred by friends or relatives already in the study. U n til 1978, all p a rticip an ts w ere m en, an d only d a ta from m en are rep o rted here. S ubjects are well ed u cated , w ith 93% high school g ra d u ates and 71% college g ra d u a tes; n early one fourth have d o ctorate level degrees. S ubjects range in age from 21 to 91. T h e criteria o f p rim ary interest are from the G uilford—Z im m erm an T em p eram en t Survey (G Z T S ; G uilford, Z im m erm an , & G uilford, 1976), adm inistered to subjects from 1959-1979 on th eir first o r second visit to the G erontology R esearch C en ter. T h e G Z T S was scored acco rd in g to sta n d ard instructions, according to w hich individuals w ho used the “ ? ” response for m ore than 3 of the 30 item s in any scale were considered to have m issing d a ta for th at scale (D ouglas & A renberg, 1978). C o n se­ quently, correlations with G Z T S scales are based on a varying n u m b er of cases, although all cases for w hom d a ta were com plete are used in the analyses. A lthough it was su bsequently readm inistered, for purposes of sim plicity, only first a d m in istratio n d a ta is analyzed here.

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

41

O v e r the sam e p eriod o f tim e, d a ta w ere also collected on th e C o rn ell M edical In d ex (C M I; B ro d m a n , E rd m a n n , L o rg e, & W olff, 1949). T w elv e sections deal w ith p h y sical sy m p to m s a n d six w ith p sy c h ia tric sy m p to m s; these can be su m m ed to scorc to tal p hysical a n d p sy c h ia tric c o m p la in ts. Scores from th e W 'AIS V o c a b u la ry scale a n d th e A rm y A lp h a to ta l (C o sta & Shock, 1980) collected in th e sam e tw o -d ecad c p erio d a re also used. All o f these m ea su res a re to be used to co n sid e r th e co n v e rg en t an d d isc rim in a n t v alid ity o f th re e p e rso n ality in s tru m e n ts a d m in iste re d in the p a st 2 y ears. F orm A o f th e E P I, w ith scales for E x tra v e rsió n , N eu ro ticism , a n d L ie, w as m ailed to su b jects to be co m p leted a t h o m e in S e p tem b e r, 1979. T h e N E O In v e n to ry , w h ich will be th e o b ject o f th e m ajo r an aly ses, w as m ailed to su b jects in F e b ru a ry , 1980, a n d th e N E O R a tin g F o rm w as co m p leted a t hom e in A u g u st, 1980, by spouses o f su b jects w hose h u sb a n d s o r w ives w ere also p a rtic ip a n ts in th e B LSA . B ccausc som e sp o u ses d id n ot p a rtic ip a te , ra tin g d a ta a re a v a ila b le for only a su b se t o f su b jects. The N E O In v e n to ry m ea su re s six facets, o r asp e c ts, o f th re e g lo b al d o m ain s o f p erso n ality . N eu ro ticism is re p re se n te d by a n x iety , h o stility , d ep ressio n , self-consciousness, im p u lsiv en ess, a n d v u ln e ra b ility . E x tra ­ versión in clu d es scales for w a rm th , g reg a rio u sn e ss, a ssertiv en ess, activ ity , excitem en t seeking, an d positive em o tio n s. O p e n n e ss to E x p erie n ce is m easu red in th e a re a s o f fan tasy , a esth etics, feelings, ac tio n s, id eas, an d values. T o ta l scores for th e th re e d o m a in s are o b ta in e d by su m m in g the scores o f the six facets in each. D a ta on re lia b ility a n d facto r stru c tu re are given elsew here (M c C ra e & C o sta , 1983), a n d m u ltim e th o d v alid a tio n u sing spouse ra tin g s h a s been re p o rte d (M c C ra e , 1982). T h e p re se n t analyses p rov id e evidence o f v alid ity a g a in st different c rite ria; in a d d itio n , since the co n stru c t v alid ity o f th e N E O scales is a lre a d y fairly well e s ta b ­ lished, they p ro v id e a d e m o n stra tio n o f th e feasibility o f u sin g d a ta col­ lected several y ears p reviously in v a lid a tio n stu d ies.

Correlations From Two Decades T ab le 2.2 gives the correlations betw een G Z T S scales adm inistered betw een 1966 a n d 1979 a n d N E O facets a d m in iste re d in 1980, at least o n e y e a r after the last G Z T S . T h e av erag e in terv al b etw een the tw o tests w as 9 . 1 years. D esp ite th is co n sid erab le lapse o f tim e, c o n stru c t v alid ity is very m uch in evidence. G e n e ra l a ctiv ity from th e G Z T S is m ost stro n g ly co r­ related w ith N E O activity; G Z T S a sc e n d a n c e w ith N E O assertiv en ess; G Z T S sociability w ith N E O w a rm th ; G Z T S em o tio n al sta b ility a n d o b je c ­ tivity (negatively) w ith N E O anx iety ; G Z T S frien d lin ess (n eg ativ ely ) w ith

TABLE 2.2 Correlations Between GZTS Scales Adm inistered 1966-1979 And NEO Facets Adm inistered in 1980

rsj

G Z T S Scales

G reg ario u sn ess Assertiveness Activityj E x c ite m e n t Seeking Positive E m otions O p e n n ess: F a n ta sy A esthetics Feelings A ctions Ideas V a lu es

-14 23** -04 - 1 2 12

-31*** 11

- 0 1

-2 4 * * - 0 2

-04 -3 5 * * * 08 -08

31*** 34*** 61*** 4 I ** *

-2 5 * * * -1 4 -1 8 * —34***

32***

-2 8** *

07 19* 2 2 * 2 2 **

- 1 2

12 10

10 0 0 - 1 0

13 - 1 2

T

S

E

0

E

-2 5 * * 07

-2 5 ***

-67*** _47***

-55 *** _44***

- 3 1*** —ry^***

17 04

-3 8** * -37*** 16 -4 4 ***

-3 8 *** -3 3** * II -3 4* **

-58*** -55*** _44***

-5 2 * * * -46*** -31*** -3 8 * * *

-2 6** -2 5** -4 6 * * * -03

11

31*** 41*** 61*** 2 0 * 42*** 27**

56*** 52*** 41***

2 0

10

03

R

A

10

26** 31*** 3j*** 2 9

***

23**

- 1 2

*** 30***

2 1

-06 26** 2 1 ** o *

N euroticism : Anxiety H ostility D epression Self-Consciousness Im pulsiveness V u ln e ra b ility E xtraversion: W a r m th

C

IO

N E O facets

08 -0 5

-39*** 18* 17

15 16 15

*

-13 10

-3 0 * * * 19* -09 03 07 -14

08 -05 - 2 0

-16 -3 3 * * * -06

01

-08 07 -

2 0

15 -06 05 08 -13

*

_ 2 2 ** 13 -2 4 * * 0 0

05 - 1 1

0 2

-06 01

P

M

- 31 *** -2 6 * * _29***

-2 8 * * * -2 4 ** -2 6** -2 6 ** -13

- 2 2 ** -2 7 * * - 1 0

10

-2 3 * * 01 01

16

0 0

01

0 0

-08

-05

01

10

-0 7

2 2 ** 3 1***

-

31*** 09 35*** 19*

-03

12

2 2

06 - 1 2

08 09 - 1 1

06 0 2

05 **

- 0 2 0 0

-15 24** 11 0 0

Note: G Z T S scales a rc G en eral activity (G ), R estraint (R ). A sce n d an c e (A), Sociability (S), E m o tio n a l sta b ility (E ), O b je c tiv ity (O ), F rien d lin ess (F), T h o u g h tfu ln e ss (T ), Personal Relations (P), a n d M a sc u lin ity (M ). N = 138 to 152. D ecim al p o in ts o m itte d . *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

43

N E O hostility; G Z T S thoughtfulness w ith N E O openness to ideas. At a more global level, the G Z T S E xtraversión scales (G, A, and S) are cor­ related chiefly w ith N E O E xtraversión scales; G Z T S E m otional H ealth scales (E, O , F, P, and M ) show consistent negative correlations with N EO Neuroticism scales. Finally, the m agnitude o f the correlations requires com m cnt: A lm ost all cxceed .30, an d several reach .60. C o n sidering the som ew hat dilferent conceptions u nderlying the two in stru m e n ts, these arc large correlations. But perhaps m ore im pressive d a ta are given in T ab ic 2.3. Here the sam e correlations are presented for subjects w ho first com pleted the G Z T S in the period from 1959-1966. A t least 14, an d as m any as 21 years sep arate the two testing sessions; yet the correlations in T a b le 2.3 arc alm ost identical to those in T a b le 2.2. O f the 86 significant correlations in T ab le 2.2, 67 (or 77% ) are also significant in T a b le 2.3. C o rrelatio n s for scales in the N euroticism dom ain a p p e a r to be som ew hat sm aller in T ab le 2.3 th an in T ab le 2.2, b u t those in the E xtraversión dom ain are as large or larger. Indeed , a correlation o f .66 is seen betw een G Z T S activity and N E O activity in a sam ple o f over 140 m en after an average interval o f 17.8 years. In in terp re tin g and co m paring these two tables, it m ust be recalled th at two different sam ples a re involved. Even ran d o m sam ples are bound to differ in som e respects, and these two groups o f m en are hard ly random sam ples. T h e re is som e reason to believe th a t the initial g roup o f volunteers differed system atically in intelligence and a d ju stm e n t from later volun­ teers, and these differences m ight influence the correlations betw een the G Z T S an d N E O . In view o f this, the sim ilarities betw een the two tables are even m ore rem arkable. F u rth e r analyses will com bine subjects from the entire interval 1959-1979. A joint factor analysis o f the two in stru m en ts can d em o n strate con­ vergence a t the dom ain level. Flic average in terv al betw een G Z T S and N E O ad m in istratio n s was 13.5 years for the 235 men w ith com plete d a ta on both instru m en ts. T h e G Z T S has been show n to have three factors in a scries o f analyses (G uilford, Z im m erm an , & G uilford, 1976); the sam e three factors were found in the present sam ple (M cC rae, C osta, & A renberg, 1980). W e in terp re ted as N euroticism a factor G uilford labeled Em otional H ea lth , and identified o u r ow n E xtraversión w ith his Social A ctivity factor. T h e third factor in the G Z T S , callcd T h in k in g In tro v ­ ersion, ap p eared to be the w eakest o f the three, since the two scales m aking it up, restrain t an d thoughtfulness, show only a very sm all sim ple co r­ relation. W e believe th a t re stra in t is m ore akin to low excitem ent seeking, a facct of Extraversión; and that thoughtfulness may be related to Openness.

TABLE 2.3 Correlations Between GZTS Scales Adm inistered 1959-1966 And NEO Facets Adm inistered in 1980 G Z T S Scales N E O Facets N euroticism : A nxiety Hostility D epression Self-Consciousness Im pu lsiveness V u ln e ra b ility E xtraversión: W a r m th G reg ariou sness A ssertiveness Activity E x citem en t Seeking Positive E m o tio n s O p e n n ess: F a n ta sy A esthetics Feelings A ctions Ideas V alues

G

-07 08

R

05

-2 4**

-1 1

01

-2 5 * * -1 7 *

-09 -2 6 * *

29*** 3 9 * **

- 0 2

56*** 32*** 2 0 * 27***

47*** 57*** 53***

04 16 25**

0 2

-0 1

-33***

-2 6 * *

- 1 0

33***

0 0

-3 3 * * * -1 9 *

-09

01

- 0 2

2 1

27**

-09 *

01

- 0 2

-14 31***

-03

- 1 0

15

- 1 0

-5 3* ** - 2 2 **

06 -35***

-14

*** 9 -j * * *

-2 8 * * * -2 5 ** _36***

01

6 6

E

S

-20* - 40*** -03 -3 9** *

-1 1

24** 28*** 47***

A

11

17* 19* 08 - 0 2

37*** 42*** -04 06 23** 2 1 *

-4 4** * _9 -j * * * _42 * * *

12 0 2

03 -2 8** * -07 —2 2 **

01

18* -08

05

0 0

E

0

- 2 1 ** -1 8 * 10

38*** 27*** 14 15 07 -23 ** -0 5 -15 2 5 ** - 1 2

07

-3 0 * * * -3 9 * * * —28*** -21* -2 7 *** 03 01

-06 -1 5 -16* -2 4 * * -1 1

-04 -04 _2^** 10

08 01

>

T

11

-07 01

03

P

M

-2 6 * * -2 4**

- 1 2

-3 2 * * * j ** *

-1 8 * - 2 2 **

- 1 0

-20* -16

-06

16

09

-03

-15

2 0

-0 1

13 04

- 1 0

-

2 0

*

0 0

-1 7 * 07 17* 2 2 ** 38*** - 0 1

35*** - 0 1

- 0 2 -0 1

-09

*

- 1 2

0 2 12

08 06 -07 0 0

- 0 2

- 1 2

-09 13 03 09

- 1 0

07 -0 4 05

Note: G Z T S scales a rc G e n era l activity (G ), R e strain t (R ), A sce n d an c e (A), Sociability (S), E m o tio n a l sta b ility (K), O b je c tiv ity ( O ) , F rien dliness (F ), T h o u g h tfu ln e s s ( T ), Personal R elatio ns (P), a n d M a sc u lin ity (M ). N = 140 to 152. D ecim al p o in ts o m itte d . *p < .05; **p < .01; ***/? < .001.

2.

S T A B ILIT Y A N D A S S E S S M E N T

45

TABLE 2.4 Joint Factor Loadings for GZTS Scales Administered 1959-1979 and NEO Facets Administered 1980

Neuroticism GZTS Scales General activity Restraint Ascendance Sociability Emotional stability Objectivity Friendliness Thoughtfulness Personal relations Masculinity NEO Facets Anxiety Hostility Depression Self-Consciousness Impulsiveness Vulnerability

64 -50 67 67 -75 -77 -63

Openness

35

-38 67

-57 -41

77 67 76 66 62 48

Warmth Gregariousness Assertiveness Activity Excitement seeking Positive emotions Fantasy Aesthetics Feelings Actions Ideas Values

Factors Extraversión

-35 -47 48 67 71 60 64 59

37 32

49 67 63 40 72 46

Note: Varimax-rotated principle components for 235 men. Decimal points omitted; load­ ings less than .30 not shown.

These conceptual correspondences arc fully corroborated em pirically by the three-factor solution presented in T able 2.4. In fact, the em ergence o f Neuroticism , Extraversión, and O penness factors across two different instruments administered decades apart is a dram atic confirmation o f two ideas we have been advancing for several years: that these are three major dom ains of personality, and (hat personality is stable.

46

COSTA AND McCRAE

Correlates of Three Domains T a b le 2.5 p resen ts a b ro a d e r a rra y o f c o rre la te s in a so m ew h a t sim plified form . In place o f the specific scalcs o f th e G Z T S , second o rd e r d o m a in scores are used. A N e u ro ticism sco re w as fo rm ed by reflectin g a n d su m ­ m ing em otio n al sta b ility , o b jectiv ity , frien d lin ess, a n d p e rso n a l relatio n s; a n d an E x trav e rsió n score w as form ed by su m m in g g en eral activ ity , a scen d an ce, so ciab ility a n d (reflected) re s tra in t. T h e th o u g h tfu ln e ss scale is used to rep re sen t th e th ird factor. S u m m a ry scores from th e G M I a n d m easures o f in tellig en ce a n d e d u c a tio n are also in clu d ed . In a d d itio n to th e N E O In v e n to ry , T a b le 2.5 also p resen ts co rre latio n s w ith the tw o o th e r p erso n ality m ea su res a d m in iste re d in th e p a st tw o years: the E P I a n d the N E O R atin g s. O v e ra ll d o m ain scores h a v e been used, a n d the co lu m n s h av e been o rg an ize d by d o m a in to facilita te c o m ­ p ariso n s across in stru m e n ts. R esults are c lea r a n d in k eeping w ith e x p ec ta tio n s a b o u t th e n a tu re o f the co n stru cts. N eu ro ticism is sig n ifican tly re la te d to (or, to p reserv e th e tim e sequence, p re d ic ted by) G Z T S N eu ro tic ism , an d C M I p h ysical a n d p sy ch iatric co m p la in ts. It is u n re la te d to m easu res o f in tellig en ce o r e d u ­ cation. E x trav ersió n is stro n g ly co rre la ted w ith G Z T S E x tra v e rsió n , a n d th e re is som e su g g estio n th a t in tro v erts are m o re in tellig en t, a t least in this sam p le. E x tra v e rsió n is u n re la te d to C M I c o m p lain ts. O p e n n e ss to E xperience, as m e a su re d by th e N E O self-rep o rts a n d sp o u se ra tin g s, is clearly re late d to G Z T S th o u g h tfu ln e ss, a n d show s a te n d en c y to be asso ­ ciated w ith E x tra v e rsió n ; it is su b sta n tia lly in d e p e n d e n t o f C M I co m ­ p lain ts. O p e n n e ss is also co rre la te d w ith m e a su res o f intellig en ce a n d ed u catio n (cf. C o sta & M c C ra e , 1978). N ote, how ever, th a t th e c o rre la ­ tions arc n o t sufficiently larg e to p erm it th e in te rp re ta tio n th a t O p en n e ss is nothing hut intelligence. F or com p leten ess, we h av e also in clu d ed th e Lie scale o f th e F P I, w hich show s sm all c o rre la tio n s w ith G Z T S N eu ro tic ism a n d C M I P sy c h iatric co m p lain ts. A lth o u g h this m ig h t be in te rp re te d as ev id en ce th a t these m easu res a re so m ew h at d isto rte d by th e influence o f social d e sira b ility , o th e r analyses suggest th a t the Lie scale is in ste a d su b sta n tiv e ly rela te d to N euroticism (M c C ra e & C o sta , 1983). C o rrelatio n s w ith N E O ra tin g s a re g en erally sm a lle r th a n th o se w ith self-rep orts, a n d occasionally fail to reach sta tistic a l sig n ifican ce, in p a rt b ecause they a rc based on co n sid e ra b ly few er cases. C o n sid e rin g th a t the co rrelatio n s show n h e re cross in stru m e n ts, m e th o d s o f m e a su re m e n t, a n d 2 to 20 years, how ever, th e p a tte rn o f resu lts sh o u ld be co n v in cin g . T h e

TABLE 2.5 Correlations of NEO, NEO Rating, and EPI Scores Adm inistered in 1979-1980 W ith GZTS, CMI, and intelligence Measures Adm inistered 1959-1979 Neuroticism NEO Self G Z T S Factors1 N euroticism E xtraversión T h o u g h tfu ln e s s C M I Sections' Physical Psychiatric Intelligence W A IS V o c a b u la ry A r m y A lp h a T otal E d u ca tio n

27** 03 -04

34*** 41***

15

05 - 1 0

EPI

NEO Rating

61*** -19** 03

- 0 2

Extraversión

15

-06 -0 7 - 1 2

*** -1 7 ** ,7** 6 6

41*** 46***

-0 1

04 - 0 1

NEO • Self

-0 1

70*** - 0 1

Openness

NEO Rating

-0 5 59*** -08

EPI

01 6 6

***

-14

NEO Self

08 19** 36***

-

1 2

*

07 -08

-

2 0

***

- 1 0

-2 9** *

29***

-14

-2 5 * * *

32*** 9 4 ***

•06

-16 ** - 0 1

2 0

*

Lie

NEO Rating

2 2

*

- 1 0

- 1 0

-1 6 * *

-08

1 2

-0 5

05

14 05

28**

- 1 1

-2 8 * * *

17 26**

0 0

*

EPI

2 7

**

31***

01

_9 j *** - 0 1

Note: D ecim al p o in ts om irted. ;\V = 2 5 8 -3 0 0 for N E O Self-reports, 103-125 for S pouse ratings, 2 8 8 -3 3 0 for E P I. TV = 303 for N E O Self-reports, 123 for S pouse ra tin g s, 332 for E P I . *'N — 2 6 1 -3 1 6 for N E O Self-reports, 104-130 for S pouse rating s, 286-351 for E P I . *p < .05; **p < .01; ***/> < . 001 .

48

COSTA AND McCRAE

c o rrelatio n o f .59 betw een G Z T S E x tra v e rsió n a n d sp o u se -ra te d N E O E x trav e rsió n is p a rtic u la rly rem ark a b le . F inally, T a b le 2.6 gives c o rre la tio n s b etw een in d iv id u a l C M I p sy c h i­ atric section scores a n d N E O N eu ro ticism facets. Since p sy c h ia tric sy m p ­ tom s are th e e x trem e ex pression o f n o rm a l N eu ro ticism , w e w o u ld expect m ost o f the co rre la tio n s to be p ositive. E x a m in a tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l sections, how ever, gives an o p p o rtu n ity to chcck th e d is c rim in a n t v alid ity o f the N E O N cu ro ticism facets. T h e C M I is a less th a n ideal in s tru m e n t for assessing p sy c h iatric sy m p ­ tom s, an d a n u m b e r o f su p e rio r m easu res, like th e S C L -9 0 (D cro g atis, 1977), now exist. In 1959, ho w ev er, w hen d a ta collection b eg an at the B LSA , it w as n o t a b a d choicc. As a criterio n a g a in st w hich to v a lid ate the N E O scales, its c h ie f d ra w b a c k is th a t m an y o f th e item s rcfiect such severe p atho lo g y th a t en d o rse m e n t frequencies a re very low. O u t o f a possible total o f 45 item s, th e a v erag e BLSA p a rtic ip a n t en d o rse d only 2.23. In a d d itio n , som e o f th e d e sc rip tiv e lab els given to th e scales are so m ew h at m islead in g : S en sitiv ity refers to “ to u c h in e ss” o r irrita b ility , a n d tension involves severe signs o f a n x iety in c lu d in g n ig h tm a re s a n d b rea k in g o u t in a cold sw eat. In view o f these co n sid eratio n s, th e evid en ce o f d is c rim in a n t v alid ity w ithin the d o m a in o f N cu ro ticism is fairly stro n g . C M I in a d e q u a c y an d tension are m o st stro n g ly re late d to N E O v u ln era b ility ; C M I d ep ressio n to N E O d ep ressio n a n d self-consciousncss; C M I an x ie ty to N E O anx iety ; an d C M I sen sitiv ity to N E O hostility . T h e o nly u n ex p ected fin d in g is w ith C M I a n g e r, w h ich is m ore h ighly co rre late d w ith N E O an x iety , d ep ressio n , a n d self-consciousness th a n w ith N E O hostility .

TABLE 2.6 Correlations of CM I Psychiatric Sections A dm inistered 19 59-1 979 W ith NEO Neuroticism Facets A dm inistered 1980

Inadequacy

Cornell Medical Index “ Moods and Feelings" Depression Anxiety Anger Sensitivity

Tension

N E O Neurolicism A nxiety H ostility D epression Self-C onsciousness Im pulsiveness V u ln erab ility

0-! 2Q*** 27*** 10 34***

27*** 24***

27*** 2 i* **

32*** 32*** 10 29***

15** 11 11 12*

35*** 28*** 32*** 2 < .05; **p < .01; **mp < .001.

30*** 15* 24*** 25*** 10 *51***

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

49

SOME IMPLICATIONS AND ISSUES

Historical Effects on Test Data As the v alu e o f lo n g itu d in al stu d ies becom es m o re a p p a re n t, w e can ex p ect m ore researc h ers to collect a n d a rch iv e p e rso n ality d a ta , o r to re trie v e an d retest su b ject p o p u la tio n s m e a su re d som e tim e before (e.g., W oodruff, 1983). L o n g itu d in a l m e tho d o lo g ists have p o in ted o u t th a t th ere are p o te n ­ tial p ro b lem s in the use o f su ch d a ta , since th e m e a n in g o f th e test m ay have ch an g ed in th e in te rv e n in g years. T h is p h en o m e n o n c an read ily be envisioned in the case o f a ttitu d in a l research : a ttitu d e s to w a rd w om en th a t w ere rad ic a l in th e 1950s m ight be m idd le o f th e ro a d to d ay . In the case o f p erso n ality m easu res, this co n cern a p p e a rs to be less well founded. O v e r the p ast 20 y ears, scales m e a su rin g the m a jo r d im e n ­ sions o f p erso n ality d o n o t a p p e a r to h av e a ltere d in m e a n in g su b sta n tia lly . S ubjects today a p p e a r to resp o n d to test item s in m u ch th e sam e w ay as they d id in th e 1950s an d 1960s. B asic asp ects o f te m p e ra m e n t are re la ­ tively im perv io u s to h isto rical ch an g es, an d lo n g itu d in al re search can use p erso n ality d a ta collected a t e a rlie r p eriods w ith som e confidence th a t (he m ean in g o f test item s has n o t ch an g ed . In d eed , it seem s m ore likely th a t w h a t m ay h av e ch a n g e d is o u r con­ ceptualization o f w h a t o ld e r tests m easu re. F or ex am p le, th e B e rn rc u te r (1933) in v en to ry c o n ta in e d a scale lab elled “ in tro v e rsio n ” th a t w e m ig h t now con cep tu a liz e in stea d as social a n x iety , a p a rt o f N eu ro ticism . Such h ypotheses a re testab le ifw e re a d m in iste r o ld e r in s tru m e n ts a n d re v a lid a te th em ag ain st b e tte r co n cep tu a liz ed a n d p sy ch o m etrically m o re so p h isti­ cated m easu res. Since th e relatio n s b etw een tests a p p e a r to c h an g e little over an in terv a l o f years, we could use th e resu lts o f c o n te m p o ra ry stu d ie s to re in te rp re t o ld er findings o n the basis o f o u r c u rre n t u n d e rs ta n d in g o f the n a tu re o f th e c o n stru cts they m easu re.

Accumulating Data on a Single Sample W hen we b eg an to w ork w ith lo n g itu d in a l stu d ie s a n d th e ir pools o f indefinitely rete sta b le su b jects, we soon realized th a t one o f th e ir m ajo r stre n g th s h a d u sually been overlooked by th e a d v o c ate s o f lo n g itu d in a l research . O n c e a b a tte ry o f m ea su res h as been collected on a sa m p le , th e ad d itio n o f each new m e a su re p e rm its an e n tire stu d y on th e re latio n s o f th at m easu re to all the o th e rs. T h e 101st scale m ay tak e only a few m in u tes

50

COSTA AND McCRAE

to ad m in iste r, b u t it will p ro v id e in fo rm atio n o n 100 d ifferen t co n v erg en t o r d isc rim in a n t relatio n s. In ste a d o f g a th e rin g a new sam p le w h en ev er one w ishes to in v estig ate th e re la tio n b etw een tw o tests, a d m in is te rin g new tests to th e sam e su b jects p rev io u sly teste d becom es in creasin g ly p ro fitab le w ith each new m easu re. Som e research ers have recognized this fact a n d a tte m p te d to c a p ita liz e on it by u n d e rta k in g m assive testin g p ro g ra m s in a few d ay s o r weeks (e.g., G o an , 1974). In ad d itio n to b ein g ex trem ely b u rd e n so m e to su b jects, this strateg y suffers from th e p o ssible co n fo u n d in g effects o f te m p o ra ry states o r situ a tio n a l influences th a t all th e tests will sh a re in co m m o n . It is b o th m ore h u m a n e a n d m ore in fo rm a tiv e to stre tc h th e p erio d o f d a ta g a th e rin g o u t over a p erio d o f m o n th s o r years. T h e d a ta in this c h a p te r suggest th a t su ch a stra te g y m ig h t w ell be c arried o u t over d ecad es. P erso n ality resea rc h e rs m ig h t select a g ro u p o f su bjects an d test them every 6 m o n th s for 50 y ears, u sin g w h a te v e r p e r­ so nality m easu res a n d c o n stru c ts seem ed m ost a p p ro p ria te at the tim e. T h e result w ould be a n im m en se arch iv e o f in fo rm a tio n , p ro v id in g d efin ­ itive studies on th e relatio n s b etw een tra its a n d th e ir successive o p e ra ­ tio n alizatio n s. In a d d itio n , o f co u rse, it w ould be a longitudinal reco rd , allow ing stu d ies o f a n tec ed e n ts a n d o u tco m es th a t w o uld be in v a lu a b le in show ing th e influence o f p e rso n a lity on th e sh a p in g o f th e life course (M c C ra e & C o sta , 1982a). O f course, th e a c c u m u la tio n o f so m u c h d a ta on a single sa m p le w ould p resen t c e rta in sta tistica l p ro b lem s. T h e p ro b a b ility o f sp u rio u s c o rre la ­ tions w ould be hig h , a n d resea rc h ers w ould need to a d o p t strin g e n t p ro b ­ ab ility re q u ire m e n ts a n d rely heavily on in te rn a l re p lica tio n . In a d d itio n , the sam p le itse lf w ould have to be very larg e— p ro b a b ly several th o u sa n d to begin w ith — a n d o u g h t c e rta in ly to be m ore re p re se n ta tiv e o f th e p o p ­ u latio n in g en eral th a n m ost lo n g itu d in al stu d ies have been. B ut these kinds o f p o p u latio n s d o exist (e.g., B ach m an , O ’M alley , & J o h n s to n , 1978), and system atic study o f them w ould be well w orth the effort involved in re c ru itin g a n d m a in ta in in g th e sam p le.

Stability in the Individual F in ally , the sta b ility o f p erso n a lity is sufficiently high to w a rra n t ju d ic io u s use o f p erso n a lity d a ta as a p a rt o f in d iv id u a ls’ p e rm a n e n t re co rd s. P h y ­ sicians, for ex am p le, m ig h t w a n t to in clu d e p erso n ality scores tak en in y oung ad u lth o o d as p a rt o f th e sta n d a rd m edical h isto ry . W ith som e tra in in g in psychology, this in fo rm atio n m ig h t be o f use to th e p h y sician

2.

STABILITY AND ASSESSMENT

51

in d ea lin g w ith his o r h e r p a tie n t, for ex a m p le , in in te rp re tin g th e signif­ icance o f m edical c o m p la in ts (C o sta, F leg, M c C ra e , & I.a k a tta , 1982; C o sta & M cC ra e , 1980b). In ad d itio n , d o c u m e n te d c h an g es in p e rso n ality m ig h t pro v id e useful d ia g n o stic in fo rm atio n in som e cases. C e rta in ly the research a p p lica tio n s a re a ttra c tiv e : W ith su ch reco rd s o n m ost o f th e p o p u latio n , we could resolve once a n d for all m a n y q u e stio n s a b o u t th e m edical co nseq u en ces o f such d isp o sitio n s as a n x iety , d e p re ssio n , im p u l­ siveness, o r a ctiv ity level. A lth o u g h these kinds o f reco rd s a re freq u en tly kept in E u ro p e, A m e r­ icans have tra d itio n a lly been w ary o f official dossiers on them , a n d the po ten tial for ab u se is sign ifican t: A n in d iv id u a l w ho scored h igh on a m easu re o f n eu ro ticism once, a t age 25, m ig h t be lab eled “n e u ro tic ” for a lifetim e. T ra in e d p sychologists have to be re m in d e d th a t all scores are su b ject to e rro r o f m e a su re m en t, a n d th a t n eu ro tic ism is a normal p e rso n ­ ality dim ension; laym en could easily m isu n d erstan d this inform ation. Even the sim ple s ta te m e n t th a t p erso n ality is sta b le can be d a n g e ro u s if it confirm s people in m istak en p re co n cep tio n s o r d ep riv es in d iv id u a ls o f h o p e for p erso n al g ro w th a n d fulfillm ent. T h e se e th ical issues will b ecom e in creasin g ly sa lie n t as th e evidence o f sta b ility in p erso n a lity a c c u m u la te s.

SUM M ARY A n u m b e r o f p revious articles h av e pro v id ed evidence on th e sta b ility o f p erso n ality tra its, an d a few (e.g ., C o sta & M c C ra e , 1980a) h av e used lo n g itu d in al d a ta to show th a t p e rso n ality v a riab les p re c e d e d , an d th u s m ay have caused, la te r o u tco m es. As far as we know , ho w ev er, this a rtic le p resen ts the first sy stem atic a tte m p t to assess th e co n v e rg en t a n d d is­ c rim in a n t v alid ity o f a p erso n ality in v e n to ry u sing c rite ria collected as m u ch as 20 y e ars before. T h e resu lts show stro n g p a tte rn s o f c o n stru c t v alidity for th e N E O In v e n to ry a n d N E O R a tin g F o rm , esp ecially since the co rrelatio n s c a n n o t be d u e to tra n sie n t states o r situ a tio n a l influences sh ared in com m o n by th e m e a su re a n d th e c rite ria . In d ire ctly , th e resu lts a lso re a ffirm th e c o n c lu s io n th a t p e r s o n a lity is e x tr e m e ly s ta b le in ad u lth o o d .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Portions of this paper were presented by the senior author at a seminar given to the Departm ent of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences (Paul M cHugh, M.D., Chairm an), John Hopkins University School of Medicine, on November 1, 1982.

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W e gratefully acknowlege the contrib u tio n s o f investigators and technicians in the B altim ore L ongitudinal Study o f Aging, p articu larly Dr. N a th an Shock, “fath er” of the BLSA, lor the collection of m uch o f the d a ta reported here.

References B achm an, J . C ., O ’M alley, P. M ., & Jo h n sto n , J . Adolescence lo adulthood: Change and stability in the lives o f young men. A nn A rbor, M I: In stitu te for Social R esearch, 1978. B ernreuter, R. G. T h e theory and construction o f the Personality Inventory. Jour­ nal o f Social Psychology, 1933, 4, 387-405. Block, J . Lives through time. Berkeley, CA: B ancroft Books, 1971. B rodrnan, K., E rd m an n , A. J ., J r ., L orge, I., & W olff, H. G. T h e C ornell M edical Index: An ad ju n ct to m edical interview . Journal o f the American Medical Association, 1949, 140, 530-534. C oan, R. W . The optimal personality. New York: C olum bia U niversity Press, 1974. C osta, P. T ., J r ., Meg, J . L., M cC rae, R. R ., & L ak a tta , E. G. N euroticism , cor­ onary artery disease a n d chest pain com plaints: C ross-sectional and longitu­ dinal studies. Experimental Aging Research, 1982, 8, 37-44. C osta, P. T ., J r ., Fozard, J . L . , & M cC rae, R. R. Personological in terp re tatio n of factors from the S trong V ocational In terest Blank scales. Journal o f Vocational Behavior, 1977, 10, 231-243. C osta, P. T ., J r ., & M cC rae, R. R. Age differences in personality stru c tu re revis­ ited: Studies in validity, stability, an d change. Aging and Human Development, 1977, 8, 261-275. C o sta , P. T ., J r . , & M c C ra e , R. R. O b je c tiv e p e rs o n a lity a s s e s s m e n t. In M. S toran d t, I. C. Siegler, & M. F. Elias (E ds.), The clinical psychology o f aging. New York: Plenum Press, 1978. C osta, P. T ., J r ., & M cC rae, R. R. T h e influence o f extraversión an d neuroticism on subjective well-being: H appy and u n h ap p y people. Journal o f Personality and Social Pscyhology, 1980, 38, 668-678. (a) C osta, P. T ., J r ., & M cC rae, R. R. Som atic com plaints in m ales as a function o f age and neuroticism : A longitudinal analysis. Journal o f Behavioral Medicine, 1980, 3, 245-257. (b) C osta, P. 1., J r ., M cC rae, R. R., & A renberg, D. E n d u rin g dispositions in ad u lt males. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 1980, 38, 793-800. C osta, P. T ., J r ., M cC rae, R. R ., & A renberg, D. R ecent research on personality and aging. In K. W . Schaie (E d.), Longitudinal studies o f adult psychological devel­ opment. New York: G uilford Press, 1983. C osta, P. T ., J r ., & Shock, N. W . New longitudinal d a ta on the question o f w hether hypertension influences intellectual perform ance. In M . F. Elias & D. II. P. Streeten (E ds.), Hypertension and cognitive processes. M t. D esert, M E: Beech-H ili P ublishers, 1980. C row ne, I)., & M arlow e, D. The approval motive. New York: W iley, 1964.

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D erogatis, L. R. S C I -90 Manual-1. Baltim ore: L eonard R. D erogatis, 1977. D ouglas, K ., & A renberg, D. Age changes, cohort differences, and cu ltu ral change on the G u ilfo rd -Z im m erm an T em p eram en t Survey .Journal oj Gerontology, 1978, 33, 737-747. E dw ards, A. L. The social desirability variable in personality assessment and research. New’ York: D ryden, 1957. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. Manual o f the Eysenck Personality Inventory. L on­ don: U niversity Press, 1964. G uilford, J . S., Z im m erm an, W . S., & G uilford, J . P. The Guiljord-Zimmerman Temperament Survey Handbook: Twenty-five years o f research and application. San Diego, CA: Ed IT S P ublishers, 1976. Heise, D. R. S ep aratin g reliability an d stability in test-re te st correlation. American Sociological Review, 1969, 34, 93-101. H olland, J . L. The psychology o f vocational choice: A theory o f personality types and model environments. W alth am , MA: Blaisdell, 1966. Leon, R. R., G illum , B., G illum , R., & G ouze, M . Personality stability an d change over a 30 year period— m iddle age to old age. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1979, 23, 245-259. M cC rae, R. R. C onsensual validation o f personality traits: E vidence from selfreports an d ratings. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 1982, 43, 293-303. M cC rae, R. R., & C osta, P. T ., J r . Aging, the life course, and m odels o f p erson­ ality. In T . Field (E d .), Review o f human development. New York: W iley, 1982. (a) M cC rae, R. R .: & C osta, P T ., Jr. T h e self-concept and the stability o f personality: C ross-sectional com parisons o f self-reports a n d ratings. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 1982, 43, 1282-1292. (b) M cC rae, R. R., & C osta, P. T ., J r . Jo in t factors in self-reports an d ratings: N euroticism , extraversión, an d openness to experience. Personality and Individual Differences, 1983, 4, 245-255. M cC rae, R. R., & C osta, P. T ., J r . Social d esirability scales: M ore substances than style. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1983, 51, 882-888. M cC rae, R. R., C osta, P. T ., J r ., & A renberg, D. C onstan cy o f ad u lt personality stru ctu re in males: L ongitudinal, cross-sectional and tim es o f m easurem ent analyses. Journal o f Gerontology, 1980, 35, 877-883. N eugarten, B. L. Personality change over the ad u lt years. In J . E. B irren (E d.), Relations o f development and aging. Springfield, II.: C harles C Thomas, 1964. N eugarten, B. L. Personality an d aging. In J . E. Birron & K. W . Schaie (E ds.), Handbook o f the psychology o f aging. New York: V an N ostran d Reinhold, 1977. R osenberg, M . Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books, 1979. Schaie, K. W. Q uasi-experim ental research designs in the psychology of aging. In J . E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (E ds.), Handbook o f the psychology o f aging. New York: V an N ostrand R einhold, 1977. Siegler, I. C ., G eorge, L. K ., & O k u n , M. A. C ross-sequential analysis of adult personality. Developmental Psychology, 1979, 15, 350-351. Skolnick, A. Stability and in terrelationships of them atic test im agery over tw enty years. Child Development, 1966, 37, 389-396.

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Spielberger, C. D. A nxiety as an em otional state. In C. D. Spielberger (E d .), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research, Vol. I. New York: A cadem ic Press, 1972. Strong, E. K., J r . P erm anence of in terest scores over 22 years, journal o f Applied Psychology, 1951, 35, 89-91. W inter, D. G., & S tew art, A. Pow er m otive reliability as a function o f retest instructions. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977 , 45, 436-440. W oodruff, D. S. T h e role o f m em ory in personality continuity: A 25 year followup. Experimental Aging Research, 1983, 9, 31-34.

3

The Assessment of Marital Happiness

YA C O V ROFÉ Bar-llan University Ramat-Gan, Israel

T h is research was aim ed at: (1) exam ining the p rim ary dim ensions of m arital happiness: (2) ascertain in g w h eth er the relatio n sh ip s betw een variables th at have been show n to be related to m arital hap p in ess in previous studies are genuine, o r w h eth er the relatio n sh ip s can be a ttrib ­ uted to a n o th er variab le w hich is correlated w ith bo th v ariables; (3) ex am ­ ining the association betw een the personality dim ension o f re p ressio n sensitization (R-S) and m arital happiness.

DIMENSIONS OF MARITAL HAPPINESS D espite a large n u m b er o f studies on m arital h ap p in ess review ed by B arry (1970), Hicks and Platt (1970), and Laws (1971), the p rim ary dim ensions o f m artial happiness have still rem ained unclear. O rd e n and B rad b u rn (1968) proposed a m odel in w hich m arital hap p in ess was believed to be com posed o f two in d ep en d en t dim ensions. O n e dim ension reflected m a r­ ital satisfactions and the o th e r m arital tensions. O rd e n and B rad b u rn (1968), as well as M arini (1976), in ex am in ing this m odel found a weak and negative correlation betw een these two dim ensions, yet each was correlated m oderately in the expected directio n w ith m arital happiness. M arini, how ever, found th a t an o th e r im p o rta n t aspect o f m a rital h a p p i­ ness was m arital com panionship, i.e., the a m o u n t o f tim e spouses spent doing things together. This v ariab le w as positively related to m arital happiness and the dim ension of satisfactions, b u t negatively related to the 55

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dim ension of tensions. Thus, these findings in dicate th a t m arital hap p in ess is com posed o f m ore th a n two dim ensions. It ap p ears th at the two most im p o rtan t aspects o f m arital hap p in ess are sexual satisfaction and feelings of love. H ow ever, O rd e n an d B rad h u rn (1968) and M a rin i (1976) did not include in their m arital h ap p in ess scales any item w hich directly concerncd itself w ith these two basic aspects. W ith regard to sexual satisfaction O rd c n and B rad b u rn stated th a t they used indirect questions for exam ining this aspect o f m arital life because direct questions in a personal interview a b o u t this in tim a te a rea o f m arita l life m ay lead to invalid responses. T h is a rg u m en t m ay be applied also to alm ost all areas o f m arital life because they too are very personal and intim ate. H ow ever, the indirect questions m ay lead to less valid responses since the questions m ay not exam ine w h at they w ere designed to exam ine. O n e purpose o f the p resen t research was to reexam ine the d im ensions of m arital happiness. It was assum ed th at feelings of love an d sexual satisfaction are the m ost im p o rta n t aspects o f m a rita l h appiness. For investigating this, d irect questions a b o u t these an d o th er areas o f m arital life, as well as the scales of O rd e n an d B rad b u rn (1968) an d M arin i (1976) were used in two se p arate studies. I'he first study was co nducted in a hospital using w om en w ho had given b irth the previous day. 1’he entire interview was p resented as an integral p a rt o f the ho sp ital record and the im portance o f honest responses w as em phasized. It w as assum ed th a t being in an ob stetric d e p a rtm e n t, w here the w om en are m ore p ro n e to disclose to the m edical staff, w ould encourage honest responses. In the second study the subjects were m arried couples w ho w ere asked to com ­ plete questio n n aires an d re tu rn them by m ail w ith o u t any identifying d ata. A gain, it w as assum ed th a t an o n y m ity w ould en courage honest responses. A nother reason for conducting this stu d y was to exam ine w h eth er being interview ed in a hospital ju s t after delivery affected su b jects’ responses in the first study, an d also to exam ine differences betw een wives and h u s­ bands w ith regard to the dim ensions o f m arital happiness.

DETERMINANTS OF MARITAL HAPPINESS E xam ination o f the lite ra tu re reveals th a t the m a rita l h ap p in ess investi­ gators exam ined the effects o f the following five v ariab les on m arital h a p ­ piness: (1) L en g th o f m arriag e (Blood, 1967; B urr, 1970; Figlcy, 1973;

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L uckey, 1966; S pan ier, Lewis, & C ole, 1975); (2) N u m b er o f children (H urley & Palonen, 1967; Luckey & Bain, 1970; R enne, 1970; Rollins & F eldm an, 1970); (3) W o m en ’s em ploym ent (A xelson, 1973; Burke & W eir, 1976; G om pbell, C onverse, & R odgers, 1976; G over, 1963; N ye, 1961; O rden & B radburn, 1969; W right, 1978); (4) Socio-economic level (reviews by B arry, 1970, H icks & P latt, 1970); and (5) Personality (B arry , 1970; Hicks & P latt, 1970). In most cases, the m arital happiness stu d ies “ exam ined only a single linkage a t a tim e, p erh ap s co ntrolling for the effect o f one o th e r v a ria b le ” (M iller, 1976, p. 643), even (hough the general know ledge in this area indicates th at the above m entioned variab les are not in d ep en d e n t o f one another. T h u s, one o f the purposes o f the present research w as to p artial out re d u n d a n t inform ation provided, and thereby assess the ex ten t o f the relationship betw een each o f the above v ariables an d m arital h appiness.

REPRESSION ORIENTATION AND MARITAL HAPPINESS B arry (1970) in his review on m a rita l happiness sum m arizes C o ser’s view (1956) on repression as follows: “ In close relationships . . . hostility and differences are inevitable . . . . The closer the relatio n sh ip , the m ore intense the potential conflict since the whole person is involved in the relationship an d is thus th reaten ed m ore severely by conflict. In such a situ atio n , if conflicts o r hostility are sup p ressed , they are likely to th rea ten the w hole root o f the relationship w hen they do break out into the o p e n .” (B arry, 1970, p. 47-48). H ow ever, alth o u g h this p sychoanalytic view is stronglyheld by num erous psychologists, there is not enough em pirical d a ta to justify it. First, there is not enough d a ta to su p p o rt F re u d ’s cath arsis theory (Feshbach, 1970). V arious investigators who exam ined this theory (B an d u ra, 1965; B erkow itz & G reen, 1967; Biblow, 1970; R abinow itz & Shouval, 1977) show ed th a t aggressive activity, including aggressive fan ­ tasy, m ay increase, ra th e r than decrease, the aggressive drive. Second, the results o f investigations on repressors and sensitizers suggest th at the form er are b etter ad ju sted individuals th an the la tte r (B assett & T av o rm ina, 1976; Byrne, S tein b erg & S chw artz, 1968; Pellcgrinc, 1971; Rofe & Lcwin, 1979). T h ird , it m ay be arg u ed th a t an in d iv id u al endow ed w ith an ability to repress o r overlook u n h ap p y m arital events m ay expe­ rience greate r m artial happiness as co m pared w ith a person w ho is too aw are o f or sensitive to such events. T h is is because in m any cases the

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conflicts betw een the spouses are m inor, or m ay seem so w hen the in d i­ vidual has distance from them . In a d d itio n , the personal h ab its an d c h a r­ acteristics of the p a rtn e r are n early alw ays inconsistent w ith the ideal im age the individual has internalized. M oreover, a c a th a rtic release o f hostility as suggested by C oser (sec B arry, 1970, p. 4 7-48) m ay resu lt in retaliation and negativism . T h u s, it was expected th a t no t only w ould repressors rep o rt g re ate r m arital satisfaction th a n sensitizers, b u t th a t the spouses o f the repressors, irrespective o f th eir ow n personality type, w ould experience m ore h a p ­ piness th an the spouses o f sensitizers. F u rth erm o re, since m ales are m ore repressive than females (Rofe and Lew in, 1980; S chw artz, 1972; T em p o n e & L am b, 1967) it w as expected th a t w ithin each fam ily h u sb a n d s w ould perceive their m arital relatio n sh ip s as h a p p ie r th an w ould th eir wives. It w as also hypothesized th a t the p ersonality type o f the h u sb a n d would be m ore strongly related to m arital hap p in ess th an the p ersonality type o f the wife. T h is expectation is consistent w ith a n u m b er o f studies in this area m entioned by B arry (1970).

METHOD

Subjects and Procedure

First Study. Subjects in the first stu d y w ere 220 w om en w ho com peted the research questio n n aires a day after ch ild b irth w hile h ospitalized at the Z alalon H ospital, T el Aviv. T h e q u estio n n aires were given by research assistants w ho presented them selves as p a rt o f the h ospital stall'. T h e w om en were encouraged to give honest responses a n d w ere told th a t their responses w ould be com pletely confidential. T h e research assistan t was present d u rin g the tim e the w om en com pleted the q u estio n n aires so th at he could clarify an y th in g th a t was no t clear to them . T h e age ran g e o f these w om en w as 19-42 years, the m ean w as 27.3 years, an d the sta n d a rd deviation was 4.95. T h ree indices were used to d eterm in e the w om ens’ socio-econom ic level: Level o f education (p rim ary school, secondary school, and h igher level of ed ucation), w om ens’ o ccupation (nonprofessional w orkers, skilled w ork­ ers, and w hite collar w orkers) and h u sb a n d ’s o ccupation (blue collar w orkers, w hite collar w orkers an d academ ics). Subjects w ere categorized

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in to th ree socio-econom ic levels on the basis o f a v erag e scores on th e th ree indices. T h e c o rrela tio n s betw een th e th ree indices a n d th e av e ra g e scores w ere .80, .77 a n d .70. T h e 27% w ith th e low est av e ra g e scores w ere d esig n ated as low er class, 30.5% w ith th e h ig h est scores as u p p e r class a n d re m a in d e r as m id d le class. T h is w as th e closest possible c ate g o riza tio n to 2 5 % - 5 0 % - 2 5 % . Second Study.

S u b jects in th e second stu d y w ere 450 m a rrie d co u p les

from m id d le class a re a s in T e l Aviv. T h e re search q u e stio n n a ire s w ith sta m p e d envelopes w ere given to th e su b jects a t th e ir h o m es by a resea rc h a ssista n t a n d th ey w ere asked to co m p lete a n d re tu rn th e m w ith in a w eek. T h e ra tio n a le o f th e stu d y in g e n eral term s w as ex p lain ed to a t least one spouse a n d th e im p o rta n c e o f a c c u ra te resp o n ses w as em p h asiz e d . T h e subjects w ere told th a t in a c c u ra te resp on ses w ould be d e trim e n ta l to the stu d y . I f only one o f th e spouses w as p re se n t, h e /sh e w as ask ed to pass the in stru ctio n s to th e ir spouse. T h e se in s tru c tio n s w ere also w ritte n on the front page o f th e q u e stio n n a ire s. T h e y w ere ask ed to co m p le te the q u e stio n n a ire s in d e p e n d e n tly a n d re tu rn th em in d e p e n d e n tly a n d a n o n ­ ym ously. A special code allow ed th e a u th o r to id entify h u sb a n d a n d wife q u estio n n aires for each co u p le. T h e 172 m en a n d 184 w om en w ho co m ­ pleted the q u e stio n n a ire s in clu d ed 163 m a rrie d couples. T h e age ran g e o f these su b jects w as 2 0 -7 4 y ears, th e m e a n w as 35.7, an d the s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n w as 9.68; 4 .8 % h ad a prim ary1 school e d u ­ catio n , 41.4% h ad a se c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n a n d 5 3 .8 % h a d h ig h e r levels o f ed u catio n . T h e q u e stio n n a ire s w ere d is trib u te d in m id d le class area s only, so in this stu d y we d id n o t ex am in e th e effect o f socio-econom ic level on m a rita l h ap p in ess. In o rd e r to ex am in e th e effect o f length o f m a rria g e , th e w om en in cach stu d y w ere d iv id ed in to th re e gro u p s: O n e g ro u p in clu d ed 2 5 % o f the subjects w ith a sh o rt len g th o f m a rria g e , th e n ext w ere 5 0 % w ith a m ed iu m length o f m a rria g e , a n d th e th ird g ro u p w ere 2 5 % w ith th e h ig h est length o f m arriag e.

Measures Subjects w ere asked to co m p lete th e satisfactio n s a n d ten sio n s scales o f O rd e n an d B ra d b u rn (1968), a m a rita l h a p p in e ss scale d ev elo p e d by the p resen t a u th o r, a n d the revised versio n o f th e R -S (R e p re ssio n -se n sitization) scale (Byrne, B arry & Nelson, 1963). W e also included the questions

60

ROFE

asked by M arini (1976) reg ard in g the a m o u n t o f tim e spouses spend doing things together. T h e satisfactions scale w as divided into two subscales: “ M arriag e C o m ­ p an io n sh ip ” and “ M arriag e S ociability” , as w as done by O rd e n and B ra d ­ bu rn (1968). C o m p an io n sh ip refers to enjoyable activities spouses do together an d it consisted o f the following five items: S p ending an evening ju s t ch attin g w ith each oth er, having a good laugh to g eth er o r sh arin g a joke, driving o r w alking for pleasure, doing som ething the o th e r p a rtic ­ ularly appreciates, being affectionate tow ard each other. M arriag e sociability dealt w ith the extent th a t spouses engage in social recreation an d it consisted o f four items: V isiting friends together, eating out in a re s ta u ra n t together, e n tertain in g friends, going o u t to a movie, discotheque, or o th er e n tertain m en t. T h e tension scale consisted o f ten item s ab o u t things couples m ay disagree on: (1) tiredness, (2) irrita tin g personal habits, (3) household expenses, (4) absence from hom e, (5) use o f leisure tim e, (6) tim e spent w ith friends, (7) the p a rtn e rs’ jo b , (8) expression o f love, (9) y o u r own fam ily, (10) y our p a rtn e r’s family. O n both satisfactions and tension scales, y es/n o responses were given. T o m ake the analyses m ore convenient, responses to the satisfactions scale were reversed so th a t hig h er score on both scales in d icated m ore positive m arital relationships. U sing the in tern a l consistency p ro ced u re o f N ovic an d Lewis (1967), we found that the alp h a’s scores for the satisfactions scale were .64 (n = 213) in the first stu d y a n d .74 (n = 349) in the second stu d y . T h e scores for tensions scales in both studies, respectively, w ere .70 (n = 191) and .64 (n = 351). T h e a u th o r’s m arital happiness scale consisted o f 14 item s in th e first study and 22 item s in the second stu d y . T h e se item s arc specified below — the 14 item s used in both studies are m arked by asterisks. 1*. T o w hat extent are you satisfied w ith y our sexual life? 2*. T o w hat extent is y our h u sb an d o r wife satisfied w ith y o u r sexual life? 3*. T o w hat extent do you ab stain from h aving sexual relationships? 4*. Do you so m etim es h av e th o u g h ts a b o u t e x tra m a r ita l sex u al relationships? 5*. T o w hat extent is there m u tu a l u n d e rsta n d in g betw een you and your partn er?

3.

THE ASSESSMENT OF MARITAL HAPPINESS

61

6 . T o w hat extent does y our p a rtn e r think th a t there is m u tu al u n d ersta n d in g betw een you an d him /h er? 7 . T o w hat ex ten t are you satisfied w ith the physical ap p e a ra n c e of your partn er? 8 . T o w hat extent is y our p a rtn e r, in y o u r opinion, satisfied w ith yo u r physical appcarance? 9*. T o w hat exten t do you love y our p artn er? 10 . T o w h at extent does y our p artn e r, in y our opinion, love you? 11 . T o w h at extent are you satisfied w ith your m arriage? 12 . T o w h at extent is y o u r p artn er, in y o u r opinion, satisfied w ith your m arriage? 13*. T o w h at extent are there d isagreem ents betw een you an d y our p artn er a b o u t financial m atters? 14*. T o w h at extent are there d isagreem ents betw een you an d y our p a rtn e r a b o u t housekeeping? 15*. T o w h at extent are there q u arre ls betw een you an d y o u r partn er? 16*. T o w h at ex ten t w ere th ere q u arrels betw een you an d y o u r p a rtn e r ab o u t your children? 17*. H ave you ever considered sep ara tin g from y our p artn er? 18*. T akin g all things into consideration, to w h at ex ten t arc you h ap p y w ith y o u r m arriage? 19 . T ak in g all things into consideration, to w h at extent is y o u r p a rtn e r happy w ith your m arriag e, in yo u r opinion? 20 . T ak in g all things into consid eratio n , to w hat extent have y o u r expectations o f the m arria g e been fulfilled? 21 . T ak in g all things into consid eratio n , to w h at extent have your p a rtn e r’s expectations o f the m arriag e been fulfilled? 22. H ow m uch tim e do you spend on the w hole do in g various activities together w ith your partner? O n all item s responses w ere given on three o r four poin t interval scales, except item # 4 w here the responses were yes/no. In addition , subjects com pleted the R -S scale (B yrne, B arry, & N elson, 1963). T h e reliability o f the H ebrew version o f the scale w as .91 (Rofe, Lewin, & Padeh, 1977). In each stu d y the 25% w ith the lowest scores w ere categorized as repressors, 25% w ith the highest scores as sensitizers and the rem ain d er as interm ed iates. T h is m ethod o f categ o rizatio n has been used by o th er investigators (see C’h a b o t’s Review, 1973). In the second stu dy we included subjects w ho did not com plete the R~S scale.

62

ROFE

RESULTS

Dimension of Marital Happiness

Author’s Questionnaire. Four factor analyses w ere perform ed on the su b ­ je c ts ’ responses to the a u th o r’s q u estio n n aire. T h e first analysis w as on the w om en’s responses in the first stu d y . T h e rem ain in g three analyses were on subjects’ responses in the second study: O n e analysis w as for w om en's responses, one for m e n ’s responses, an d one for all subjects. These analyses are presented in Table 3.1. In all the analyses the sam e three m ajor factors w ere found. 'The first factor w as concerned w ith feelings o f love, happiness and satisfaction from m arriage (item s 9 -12, 20, 21). It is w orthw hile to in d icate th a t in all these analyses thoughts o f sep aratio n (item 17) correlated highly w ith this factor. A nother factor in these analyses w as sexual satisfaction (item s 1, 2). In the first stu d y this w as the first factor. In the second study this was the second factor for m en, b u t the th ird factor for w om en. F or m en sexual satisfaction correlated highly w ith satisfaction from p a rtn e r’s physical ap p caran ce (item 7) an d feelings o f love (item s 9, 10); for w om en sexual satisfaction w as not related to o th er item s. A nother com m on factor in all the analyses w as disag reem en ts ab o u t m oney, children, housekeeping, an d q u a rre ls (item s 13-15). In the first study this was the th ird factor, an d in the second this w as the second factor for the w om en and the fourth for the m en. Correlations between Dimensions o f Marital Happiness. 'Table 3.2 presents the correlations betw een these factors a n d d im ensions o f satisfactions and its two com ponents (sociability an d co m p an io n sh ip ), dim ensions o f ten ­ sions and the am ount of time spouses spend in doing various things together. 'Table 3.2 shows th a t the correlations w ere generally lower. T h e rela­ tively high correlations were betw een dim ension o f satisfaction an d its two com ponents, and betw een dim ension o f tensions an d disagreem ents.

Determinants of Marital Happiness Six in depend e n t v ariables w ere exam ined in this research: (1) W ives’ Personality— WP (repressors, interm ed iates, sensitizors); (2) H u sb a n d ’s Personality— H P (repressors, in term ed iates, sensitizors); (3) Socio-Economic. Level— SE L (low, m edium , high); (4) N u m b e r o f C h ild ren — N C

TABLE 3.1 Factors Loadings for the A uthors' Marital Happiness Scares (Part I) First Study

Second Study Women

Women

A ll

I

2

3

I

9

3

4

1

2

3

.32 .16

.71

.21

.14

.61 .41

- . 0 0

.37

.32 .30

.35

.04 .39

.88 .67

.12

.76 .37

.33 .25

.38

.01

—

-

-

—

—

—

—

-

-

-

-

—

—

.22

.11

.16

.30

.39 .33

Items

.22

-

.50

-

—

.30

.43

.22

.76 .71

.27 .27

4

I

2

3

.14

.81 .69

—

.35 .31 -

—

—

—

—

-

—

-

.45 .28

.57 .89

.16 .11

.70 .66

.28 .29

.28 .30

.21

—

—

-

—

—

.40

.0 0

.17

.39

.15

.64

.06

.10

.42

.03

.30

-

-

-

.11

.15

.11

.55

.23

.36

.07

.13

.29

.09

.22

.78

.06

—

—

—

.65

.17

.29

.52 .58 .76 .72

.19 .23

.50 .39

.06 .05 .35 .35 .41 .56

.18 .39 .06 .40

.20

.79 .71 .81 .68 .15 .13

.22

.77

.32 .08

.01

.58 .49 .35 .29 .04

.27 .23 .24 .38 .08

.18

.11

.61 .60

.78 .76 .80 .77 .05 .14

.05 .08 .35 .34 .48 .53

.05 -.0 4 .18

.38 .45 .24

.47

.50 .41 .29

.03 .04 .26

.39 .24 .52

.08

.35 .32 .03

.43 .16 .51

.51 .41 .27

.16 .10

.05 .49

.11

.11

.76

.06 .23 .12

.18 .05

- . 0 0

.15 - .0 1 .12

-.0 6

.01

.26

- .02

.39 .27 .18

- . 0 0 .10

r

.15 .21

o

—

CO

1. Subjects Sexual Satisfaction 2. P a r t n e r ’s Sexual Satisfaction 3. A bstinence from Sexual R elations 4 .* T h o u g h ts o f Sex o utside o f M a rria g e 5. M u tu a l U n d e r s ta n d in g 6 . M u tu a l U n d e r s ta n d in g A c co rd in g to the P a rtn e r 7. Satisfaction from P a r tn e r ’s Physical A p p e a ra n c e 8 . S atisfaction o f ihe P a r t n e r ’s Physical A p p e a ra n c e of Subject 9. Feelings o f Love T o w a r d P a rtn e r 10. Feelings o f Love to w a rd S u b ject 1 1 . Satisfaction from M a rria g e 12. P a r tn e r 's Satisfaction o f M a rria g e 13. D isa g ree m en ts a b o u t M oney 14. D isag reem en ts about H ou sek eep in g 15. Q u a r r e ls 16. D isagreem ents a b o u t C h ild re n 17. T h o u g h ts o f S e p a ra tio n

Men

.22 .2 0 .22 .12

.05 .04 .07 .19

CD

w

(Continued)

o

TABLE 3.1 (Continued) Second Study

First Study Women

¡8. Subject's Overall Happiness 19. P a r tn e r 's O v e ra ll H a p p in e ss 20. F ulfillm ent o f S u b je c t’s E x pectatio ns o f M a rria g e 21. Fulfillm ent o f P a r tn e r ’s E x p ec ta tio n s o f M a rria g e P ercentag e o f E x p la in e d V a ria n c e

Men

A ll

I

2

3

I

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

.58

.42 —

-

—

.37 .28 .36

.06 .30

—

.76 .73 .77

.27

—

.24 -

.12

.72 .74 .80

.39 .26 .29

.24 .34 .14

.14 .17 .23

.73 .74 .72

.34 .42

.25 .23 .23

—

—

—

.64

.28

.16

.38

.70

.21

.23

.29

.67

.35

.22

37.4

10.0

9.2

49.6

7.0

6.5

5.8

48.3

8.1

5.7

5.6

48.8

7.4

5.9

*T his item w as tre a te d se p ara tely b ecau se its factor loadings w ere q u ite low.

.15 .25

2 Lo CO

Items

Women

3

3.

THE ASSESSMENT OF MARITAL HAPPINESS

65

TABLE 3.2 Correlations betw een the Dim ensions of M arital Happiness Variables 1. Feelings o f Love an d H a p p in ess 2. Sexual Satisfaction 3. D isagreem ents 4. D im ension o f Satisfactions 5. S ociability 6. C o m p a n io n sh ip 7. T en sio n s 8. T im e Spent T o g e th e r

3

4

.17** (.19***)

.15* (.28***)

-

.13* (0 1 )

2 .13* (0.9*) -

6

7

8

.15* (.06)

.10 (.42***)

.24*** (.34***)

(.34***)

.26*** (.16***)

.20** (.10*)

.25*** (.17***)

.31*** (.06)

(-.0 0 )

.01 (.10*)

.10 (.13**)

.43*** (.41***)

(.19***)

.89*** (.85***)

.81*** (.83***)

.20** (.13**)

(.28***)

.17** (.04)

(.12**)

-

-

-

-

.06 (.13**)

5

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

.46*** (.41***)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

.17*** .17***

-

-

-

(.34***)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

(28.***)

—

-

_

—

~

-

—

*P < .05 01

**P
l. No d e v e l o p m e n t a l o r t r a n s la tio n d a t a a re

A the ns, Greece

Description

available.

In d i a (H in d i, M a r a t h i , a n d Gujrati)

D e p a r t m e n t o f Psychiatry Se th G.S. M edical College and K i n g E d w a r d V I I Medical Hospital

S h u b h a S. T h a t t e

T h e M M P I h a s been tr a n s la te d into th r e e lan g u a g es for use in In d ia. At p resen t d a t a a re being collected on n o r m a l s in o r d e r to c o m p a r e with the 1200 p a ti e n t r ec o rds t h a t h a ve been obtained.

Parel, Bo m b ay

Ja p an e se

Unpublished

Lee A n n a Clark W a s h i n g t o n University D e p a r t m e n t o f Ps ych iatry

See d escriptio n in this volume.

Korean

K o r e a n T e s t i n g C e n te r

B u m - M o C h u n g , W ee K y o C h in , C h u n g - K y o o n Lee, a n d K i Suk K im

A revision o f early ve rsions was d e velo p ed in 1964. I t e m studies were used to g u i d e b e tt e r transla tio n. R e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n on 1057 subjects was accomplished.

L it h u a n i a n

K a u n a s Medical In stitu te

G o s t a u tas A n t a n a s a n d Bajoras J o n a s

Pacifican a n d Fijian

University o f S o u t h Pacific SUVA

E u g e n e Dw yer

H a s d e v elop ed version o f the M M P I

106 H o ld e n Street Fitzrov* N o r th V ictoria, A us tra lia

for use in priest selection.

Polish

W iskad-M M PI University o f K r a k o w

Mieczyslaw C h o y no w sk i Revised: Z e n o m e n a Pluzek

M M P I de le te d 60 items from the English a n d a d d e d a b o u t 200 items. R ese arch o n n o r m a l s , sc hizo phrenics, depressive, alcoholics a n d criminals.

Rese arch C e n te r for D e lin quency

Iza K orz ew n ik ow

P u b lish e d in 1968 a n d item con te nt w a s altere d only slightly from English version.

Polish

o f th e M in istry o f J u s t i c e

{Continued)

TABLE 4.1 (C o n tin u e d ) Language

Pub Iisher/ Resea reher

Translator/ Researcher

Description

Polish

I ) e p a r tm e n t o f ( ’linical

T o m a s / Kocowski

T r a n s l a t e d the M M P I from English but used on ly 348 items.

Psychology A d a m Mickiewicz University Pozna n Polish

D e p a r t m e n t o f Psychology Polish A c ade m y o f Sciences Poznan

Jacek Paluchowski and Jer/.y J a k u b o w s k i

T r a n s l a t i o n work in clud ing back transla tion a n d b ilingual s t u d y is c om p lete d. S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n is presen 11y u n d e r w a y .

R uss ian

U n p u b lish e d

F. Berezin a n d M . M iro sh n ik o v

T r a n s l a t e d a b o u t 380 item s o f the M M P I . T h e test is used in a p sychiatric hospital in Moscow.

Russ ian

U n published

Lid ia M u t s c h n i k

T r a n s l a t e d all 550 M M P I ite m s but n o a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to r e s t a n d a r d i z e o n R u s s i a n p o p ulation s. T h i s M M P I version was used tor c o s m o n a u t selection a n d for selecting O l y m p i c athletes.

Russian

Bekhterev Psychological Institute L e n in g rad

Iossif M. T o n k o n o g y i

T h i s R u ss ian version o f the M M P I has b e co m e the most widely used t r a n s la tio n for p sychiatric settings.

Spa nish (U.S.)

University of M i n n e s o t a Press (in press)

Rosa G a r c i a , Alex Azan , in collaboratio n with N o r m a n H o f f m a n n a n d J a m e s Bu tch er

S p a n ish t r a n s la tio n for H isp a n ic A m e r i c a n s living in the U nited States. T r a n s l a t i o n , b a ck tran sla tio n a n d bilingual studies a r e complete. N e w s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n is in progress.

Spanish (Chile an)

U n iv e rs id a d C a tó l i c a de Chile

Rissetti, Malte s, Hermosilla, C a n a s , G a r c i a , a n d B u tch e r

T r a n s l a t i o n a n d e q uiv a le n cy studies c o m p lete d . Several va lidatio n studies u n d e rw a y .

Thai

Unpublished

l.a-O r Pongpanich and J a m e s B u tche r, U n iv e rs ity of M in n e so ta

A p r e l i m i n a r y version o f the M M P I in T h a i h a s been p r e p a r e d a n d two b ack trans la tion stu d ies h a v e been used to a ssu r e tr a n s la ti o n a d eq u a cy . S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n a n d validation research will be c o n d u c t e d in T h a i l a n d in 1980 81.

T u r k is h

Uni versity o f H a c e teppe

Nese Eroi a n d Isik Savasir

R esearch o n T u r k i s h M M P I has e stab lis h ed T u r k i s h n o r m s a n d factor validity.

V ie tn a m e se

Unpublished-Experimental

Dr. T h i e u a n d J . D o n a ld C o h o n , a n d Philip E r d b e r g , I n d o c h in e se M e n t a l H e alth Project, San Fra ncisco, C alifornia, a n d J a m e s B u tch e r, Uni versity of M i n n e s o t a

I'he V i e t n a m e s e version o f the M M P I was t r a n s la te d by Dr. T h i e u . Back tran sla tio n stud ies were c o n d u c t e d by J a m e s B u t c h e r with the ass istance of H a T u o n g in M i n n e a p o l is . T h e origin al tra nsla tion was altered to a cc o un t for the initial t r a n s la tio n p ro b lem s.

A t a b u la tio n o f previously describe d M M P I tran s la tio ns c an be found in A pp e n d ix A o f B u t c h e r a n d P a n c h eri (1976).

00 CD

90

BUTCHER

USE OF THE MMPI IN THE PHILIPPINES T h e M M P I w as first used in th e P h ilip p in es in 1957 (D ionisio, 1957) a n d has been used extensively since then (A lcu az-R ey es, 1981; D iy, 1967; De L eon, 1977). M u ch o f th e M M P I test use involves th e s ta n d a rd A m erican version since m a n y F ilipinos re a d a n d sp eak E n g lish w ell. T h e M M P I has been used for a n u m b e r o f assessm en t p ro b lem s in clu d in g : clinical diagnosis, selection o f stu d e n ts for m edical school, v o c a tio n a l co u n selin g , court referrals, school problem s, industrial screening, an d research (AlcuazR eyes, 1981). T h e M M P I has also been tra n s la te d in to F ilip in o (T a g a lo g ) by G alv ez (1971), a n d studied by Lazo (1974). H owever, the translation is not believed to be an e q u iv a le n t one d u e to tra n sla tio n p ro b le m s (A lcu az-R ey es, 1981).

USE OF THE MMPI IN POLAND P aluchow ski (1981) recen tly p ro v id ed d etails o f several Polish M M P I tra n sla tio n p ro jects an d re search p ro g ra m s. He d a te d th e first use o f th e M M P I in P o lan d to 1951 w hen th e orig in al tra n sla tio n by M ieczyslaw C hoy now ski, a t th e L a b o ra to ry o f th e S ta te H osp ital lo r th e M e n tally III in K o b ie rz y n -K ra k o w , w as c o m p leted . T h e tra n sla tio n w as a m o d ificatio n o f the M M P I, in w h ich a b o u t 60 item s o f th e A m erican v ersion w ere deleted an d an a d d itio n a l tw o h u n d re d item s w ere in c lu d e d . Polish n o rm s w ere not av ailab le , a n d th e M in n e so ta n o rm s a p p e a re d to w ork well w ith Polish p o p u la tio n s. C h oynow ski m odified th is early v ersion in 1964 by sim plifying th e la n g u ag e a n d im p ro v in g th e item tra n sla tio n . A fter C h o y ­ now ski left P o lan d this tra n sla tio n received little re se a rc h a tte n tio n . In 1968, a seco n d tra n sla tio n o f th e M M P I w as c o m p leted by Iza K orzew nilow , o f th e R esearch C e n te r for D elin q u en c y o f th e M in istry o f Ju s tic e . T h is tra n sla tio n m o re closely follow ed th e A m e ric a n version o f the test a n d in clu d ed few a ltered item s. H o w ev er, Paluchow 'ski (1981) n oted th a t this Polish version w as n ot w idely used in P o lan d . A third Polish version o f the M M P I w as developed by T o m asz Kocowski in 1965. K ocow ski w as in the D e p a rtm e n t o f C lin ical P sychology a t th e A dam M ickiew icz U n iv ersity in P o zn an . T h is tra n sla tio n c o n tain ed only 348 item s a n d elim in a te d som e o f th e item s on th e basic clinical scales. C o n seq u en tly , it w as n ot p o ssible to use e sta b lish e d M M P I w ork in o th e r co u n tries in th e in te rp re ta tio n o f this version.

4.

MMPI USE: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

91

T h e m ost recen t M M P I tra n sla tio n p ro g ra m w as co n d u cte d by J a c e k P aluchow ski o f th e D e p a rtm e n t o f P sychology o f the Polish A cad em y o f Sciences in P o zn an . P alu ch o w sk i’s (1981) w ork w ith th e M M P I h ad as its aim the tra n sla tio n an d sta n d a rd iz a tio n o f th e in s tru m e n t for clinical use w ith Polish p a tie n ts. H e b eg an his tra n sla tio n pro ject in 1979 u sing a co m m ittee tra n sla tio n a p p ro a c h follow ing b o th th e o rig in a l E nglish version a n d th e M M P I-S a a rb ru c k e n . T h e tra n sla tio n pro ject in clu d ed a n u m b e r o f stu d ies on item a p p ro p ria te n e ss a n d item eq u iv a len ce w ith th e o riginal M M P I. B oth back tra n sla tio n stu d ies a n d b iling ual c o m p a riso n s have been u n d e rta k e n . T h e M M FI p ro ject te a m p lan s to collect a s ta n d ­ ard iz a tio n on w hich to c o n d u ct fu rth e r eq u iv alen cy stu d ie s a n d d ev elo p Polish norm s.

USE OF THE MMPI IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA In 1978, w hen b ro a d e n ed scientific co o p e ra tio n b etw een th e P eo p le’s R ep u b lic o f C h in a a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s becam e a re a lity , sev eral p sy­ chologists in C h in a expressed a n in terest in a d a p tin g the M M P I for use in p sy ch iatric facilities in C h in a .1 S ong W eizh en , a psy ch o lo g ist at B eijing U n iv ersity , d irec ted th e M M P I a d a p ta tio n p ro ject. T h e H o n g K o n g tr a n s ­ lation o f the M M P I, dev elo p ed by F a n n y C h e u n g (Z h a n g M ia o q u in g ), w as review ed by th e B eijing re se a rc h g ro u p a n d a d a p te d for use in m a in ­ la n d C h in a. T h e B eijing re se a rc h g ro u p c o n d u cte d an in itial stu d y o f th e C h in e se M M P I to d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e su b jects could u n d e rs ta n d a n d re sp o n d a p p ro p ria te ly to th e M M P I item s a n d w h e th e r th e M M P I m e asu re d co n stru cts w ere a p p ro p ria te to C h in e se people (S ong 1981). A to tal o f 224 subjects, in clu d in g 132 n o rm a l su b jects (62 m ales) a n d 92 sc h izo p h ren ics (47 m ales) w ere a d m in iste re d the M M P I. T h e resu lts o f th e stu d y w ere enco u rag in g . T h e n o rm al su b je c ts’ M M P I profiles w ere g e n erally w ith in the n o rm al ra n g e for A m e ric an su b jects, w ith elev atio n s o f S cales I) a n d Sc. This is c o m p a ra b le w ith o th e r o rie n ta l n o rm al p o p u la tio n s th a t have been stu d ied (B u tc h er a n d P an c h eri, 1976). T h e sc h iz o p h re n ic su b jects in the stu d y h a d sig n ifican tly h ig h e r scores on the Pa a n d Sc scales sim ila r

'Professor C. C. Ching of Beijing University contacted Jam es Butcher of the University of Minnesota to establish a collaborative project to adapt the M M PI in Beijing.

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to sch izo p h re n ic g ro u p s in th e U n ite d S tates. As a resu lt o ft his p re lim in a ry research on th e M M P I in Beijing, th e test w as fu rth e r revised a n d p lan s w ere m ad e to collect a large s ta n d a rd iz a tio n sam p le th ro u g h o u t o th e r p rovinces in C h in a . R ecent p u b lic atio n s in C h in ese p sychological jo u r n a ls (Z h a o an d T a n g , 1982) suggest th a t th e M M P I is also b ein g used by psych o lo g ists in o th e r C h in ese cities for b o th em p irical stu d y a n d lo r clinical ev a lu a tio n s. A recen t p u b lic a tio n (T h e N a tio n a l C o o rd in a tio n G ro u p o f th e M M P I , 1982) su m m ariz e d th e resu lts o f a n atio n w id e ev alu a tio n o f th e M M P I in C h in a: Through our trial of its use, both the reliability and the validity of this inventory proved themselves to be high. It is of definite value to be used in our country with the necessary modifications. Furthermore, it is of particular value in diagnosis in psychiatric clinics . . . (p. 458)

USE OF THE MMPI IN THE SOVIET U N IO N 2 Personality assessm en t w as b a n n ed in th e S oviet U n io n d u rin g th e 1930s an d has only recen tly been re in tro d u c e d . In te re st in p erso n a lity assess­ m ent using p e rso n ality q u e stio n n a ire s w as rek in d led d u rin g th e 1970s w hen several differen t M M P I p ro jects w ere in itiate d . T h e re is still very little p u b lish ed in fo rm atio n on th e Soviet M M P I p ro jects since th e g o v ­ ern m e n t does n o t allow p u b lic atio n o f sta n d a rd iz e d test d a ta . O n e o f th e e a rly a d a p ta tio n s o f th e M M P I , by F. B e re z in a n d M . M iro sh n ik o v o f M oscow , w as d ev elo p e d for use in a p sy c h ia tric h o s­ p ital. T h e test tra n sla to rs a p p a re n tly a d a p te d th e test item s for th e R u ssian cu ltu re an d o m itted a n u m b e r o f item s th a t they believed w'ere in a p p ro ­ p ria te for R u ssian su b jects. B erezin a n d M iro sh n ik o v c o n d u c te d som e n o rm ativ e d a ta on the sta n d a rd iz a tio n b u t this version is n ot used m u ch o u tsid e the h o sp ital in w hich it w as d eveloped. A second tra n sla tio n o f th e M M P I in R ussia w as d o n e by L id ia M u tschnik. T h is tra n sla tio n in clu d ed all 550 item s b u t no efforts to sta n d a rd iz e the test on R u ssian p o p u la tio n s w as m ad e. T h e A m e rica n scale a n d code in fo rm atio n w as reco m m e n d ed for use in th e test in te rp re ta tio n a n d a

‘Information on the use of the M M PI in the Soviet Union was provided by Jaan Valsiner.

4.

MMPI USE: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

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b rie f d e s c rip tio n o f th e u se o f th e te s t w as p u b lis h e d . T h is v e rsio n o f th e R u ssia n M M P I h a s re p o rte d ly b e e n w id ely u sed in th e S o v iet U n io n , for e x a m p le , to select S o v iet c o s m o n a u ts a n d in p r e p a r a tio n o f th e S oviet a th le tic te a m s for O ly m p ic g am e s. R e p o rte d ly th e m o st w id ely u sed R u ssia n tr a n s la tio n o f th e M M P I w as tr a n s la te d a t th e B ek h te re v P sy c h o lo g ic al I n s titu te in L e n in g ra d by Io ssif M . T o n k o n o g y i. T h is R u ssia n v e rsio n is a d ire c t tr a n s la tio n o f th e full 550 M M P I item s. A n ta n a s G o s h ta u ta s o f th e D e p a rtm e n t o f P s y c h ia try , K a u n a s M e d ic a l I n s titu te in L ith u a n ia o f th e U S S R d e v e lo p e d th e L ith u a n ia n v e rsio n o f th e M M P I , u sin g th e o rig in a l E n g lish la n g u a g e v e rsio n a n d th e B e k h te re v In s titu te tr a n s la tio n o f th e M M P I. J a a n V a lsin e r d e v e lo p e d th e E s to n ia n tr a n s la tio n o f th e M M P I in 1 9 7 2 1973 by d ire c tly tr a n s la tin g th e ite m s from th e E n g lish v e rsio n a n d a d a p t­ ing it for E s to n ia n c u ltu re . T h is tr a n s la tio n w as d e v e lo p e d for use a t th e T a r tu P sy ch o n c u ro lo g ic H o sp ita l. T h e p ro je c ts d e sc rib e d in th is c h a p te r a n d th e c h a p te rs d e ta ilin g M M P I w ork in C h ile , G re e c e, H o n g K o n g , a n d J a p a n h ig h lig h t th e e x p a n d in g use o f th e M M P I a ro u n d th e w o rld . W ith in c re a se d sc ie n tific c o m m u ­ n ic a tio n a n d th e g ro w in g n ee d for a ss e ssm e n t in s tru m e n ts a m o n g p ro fe s­ sio n als in m a n y c o u n trie s, th e M M P I is likely to e n jo y a n ev en m o re e x p a n d e d ro le in p e rs o n a lity a sse ssm e n t.

REFERENCES Alcuaz-Reyes, C. The use of the M M P I in the Philippines. P aper given at the Seventh International Conference on Personality Assessment, H onolulu, H aw aii, 1981. Brislin, R. W ., Lonner, W. J ., & T horndike, R. M. Cross-cultural research methods. New York: Wiley, 1973. Butcher, J . N. & Pancheri, P. Handbook o f cross-national M M P I research. M inne­ apolis: University of M innesota Press, 1976. Butcher, J . N. & Clark, L. A. Recent trends in cross-cultural M M P I research. In J . N. Butcher (Ed.) New developments in the use o f the MMPI . M inneapolis: University of M innesota Press, 1979. C attell, R. B., Schm idt, 1- & Pawlik, K. Cross cultural com parisons (U .S.A., Japan, A ustria) of the personality structures of 10 to 14 year olds in objective tests. Social Behavior and Personality, 1973, I, 182-211. D ahlstrom , W. G., W elsh, G. S., & D ahlstrom , 1,. E. An M M P I handbook-Volume I. M inneapolis: University of M innesota Press, 1972. D ahlstrom , W. G., Welsh, G. S., & D ahlstrom , L. E. An M M P I handbook. Volume II. M inneapolis: University o f M innesota Press, 1975.

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D eLeon, M . D. Personal and psychological factors related to the control o f the sm oking h abit through h y p n o th erap y . U n p ublished M an u scrip t, 1977. D ionisio, M. R. A comparative study o f personality traits o f army officers and enlisted men. U npublished M asters T hesis, U niversity o f the P hilippines, Q uezon C ity , 1957. Diy, C. The M M P I : ¿4 study o f its prognostic and evaluative value as an instrument in the University o f the Philippines College o f Medicine. U n p u b lish ed M an u scrip t, 1967. Eysenck, H. J ., & Eysenck, S. Recent advances in the cross-cultural study of personality. In J . N. B utcher and S. D. Spielberger (E ds.) Advances in personality assessment. Volume 2. H illsdale, NJ: L aw rence E rlb au m A ssociates, 1983. G alvez, J . A. Philippino translation o f the M M P I . U n p u blish ed M an u scrip t, 1971. G ough, H. G. A cross-cultural study o f achievem ent m otivation. Journal o f Applied Psychology, 1964, 48, 191-196. G ough, H . G . C ross-cultural valid atio n o f a m easure o f asocial behavior. Psycho­ logical Reports, 1965, 17, 379-387. G ough, H. G ., C heu, K ., & C hung, Y. V alid atio n of the C P I Fem ininity Scale in K orea. Psychological Reports, 1968, 22, 155-160. G rah am , J . R. The M M P I : A practical guide. New York: T h e O xford Press, 1977. H ofstede, G . Culture’s consequences: InternationaI differences in work-related values. L on­ don: Sage Publications, 1980. Lazo, L. A comparison o f translation equivalence indices. M asters T hesis in Psychology, U niversity of the P hilippines, 1974. Lynn. R. Personality and national character. London: P ergam on, 1971. I.ynn, R. C ross-cultural differences in neuroticism , extraversión an d psychoticism . In R. Lynn (E d .), Dimensions o f personality. London: Pergam on, 1981. N ational C o ordination G ro u p o f M M P I. T h e revision, em ploym ent and evalu­ ation of M M P I in C h in a. Acta P.ychologica Sinica. 1982, 4. 449-458. O debunm i, A. Possible use o f the M M P I in N igeria. P aper given at the Seventh International Conference on Personality Assessment. H onolulu, H aw aii, 1981. Paluchow ski, J . R ecent M M PI developm ents in Poland. P ap er given at the Seventh International Conference on Personality Assessment. H onolulu, H aw aii, 1981. Poortinga, Y. II., C oetsier, P., M euris, G ., M iller, K. M ., S am sonow itz, V., Seisdedos, N. and S ch lcg el.J. A survey of a ttitu d es tow ard tests am o n g psychol­ ogists in six W estern European countries. International Review o f Applied Psychology, 1982 , 32, 7-24. Song, W. A pplication o f the M innesota M u ltip h asic P ersonality Inventory in som e areas of the People’s R epublic o f C hin a. P ap er given at the Seventh International Conjerence on Personality Assessment. H onolulu, H aw aii, 1981. Spielberger, C . 1)., & D iaz-G uerrero, R. Cross-cultural anxiety. London: W iley, 1976. Sundberg, N. The use o f the M M P I for cross-cultural p ersonality study, fournal o f Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1956, 52, 281-283. V alsiner, J . T h e ad ap ta tio n s o f the M M P I in the Soviet U nion. M im eographed m aterials, 1982. Z hao, Jie-C h en g , T a n g , Sheng-gin et. al. P rim ary study o f the M M P I in S hanghai. Information on Psychological Sciences, 1982, 6, 22-28.

A Consolidated Version of the MMPI in Japan

Lee A nna Clark Washington University School o f M edicine

Ja p a n e s e is one of the first languages into w hich the M M P I was tran sla te d , and there is no d o u b t th a t th ere are a g re a te r n u m b e r o f tran sla tio n s into Ja p a n e s e than into any o th er language. F rom its beginning in 1950, the “ translation fever” reached its peak in the late 1950s an d early 1960s. Som e o f the versions w ere developed because th eir au th o rs found existing tran slatio n s unsatisfactory. In o th er eases, the research ers were pro b ab ly u naw are o f previous efforts. T h e tran slatio n s vary on a co n tin u u m from strictly literal through different degrees o f c u ltu ral a d a p ta tio n . Som e were renorm ed or even rescaled, w hile oth ers utilize both U .S. norm s an d existing scales. S hort forms were also developed. H id a n o (cited in B u tch er & P ancheri, 1976) has estim ated th a t there are 15 tran slatio n s o f the M M P I item pool in J a p a n . A t least nine o f these are av ailab le in research form or have been published. T h e translatio n “fad ” has now ab a te d , w ith no entirely new tran slatio n s ap p earin g in a t least ten years, alth o u g h som e tran slato rs con tin u e to revise their versions. M ost recently, in the late 1970s, A be— the prim ary a u th o r o f the M M P I J a p a n S ta n d a rd E dition— ap p o in ted a com m ittee of five psychologists' to reconsider his tran slatio n . P resently, a t least three versions rem ain in use, eith er clinically or in research form, and a fourth is being used in sufficiently altered form th a t its a u th o rs renam ed it the T P I — T okyo Personality In ventory (H id an o , H ira ta , H ori, N ag atsu k a, T subogam i, & F u ru saw a, 1964).

'Ilaruakira Kitamura, Osamu Kokubun, Masasuke Kuroda, Naohiro Ono, and Masahiro Ooyama. 95

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I f these different tra n sla tio n s h ad been e sta b lish ed as p a ra lle l form s, they could be used in te rc h a n g e a b ly in re se a rc h w ith o u t n eg ativ e co nse­ quence. L acking th is d e m o n s tra tio n , ho w ev er, m ax im ally c u m u la tiv e research w ould en tail use o f a single version. T o d a te , u n fo rtu n a te ly , in v estig ato rs o r team s h av e c arried o u t re search on th e ir versions w ith o u t c o m p a rin g resu lts across v ersions o r in v e stig atin g th e tra n s la tio n s ’ re la ­ tio n sh ip to th e E n g lish orig in al. C o n se q u en tly , p e rso n a lity research w ith in J a p a n w ith th e M M P I h as re m a in e d fra g m e n te d , a n d c ro s s-cu ltu ra l p e r­ so n ality stu d y h as n ot been a d v a n c e d . F or clin ical use as w ell as for research , it is d e sira b le to c o n so lid ate th e ex istin g v ersio n s in to a single form . A be (1979) state s th a t th e M M P I is rarely used by J a p a n e s e p sy ­ ch iatrists, b u t it is possib le th a t good re search on a s ta n d a rd v ersio n w ould m ake the test m ore a ttra c tiv e a n d useful to p ra c tic in g clin ician s. In J u ly , 1979, th e S ix th In te rn a tio n a l C o n feren ce on P erso n a lity A ssess­ m ent w as held in K y o to ,J a p a n . A u th o rs o f a n u m b e r o f th e m ajo r J a p a n e s e M M P I tra n sla tio n s w ere p re se n t a t th e conference. T h e y m et w ith m e a n d several lead in g U .S . M M P I re se a rc h e rs to d iscu ss th e issue o f m u ltip le tra n sla tio n s, a n d p ro b lem s s u rro u n d in g th e possib ility o f d e v elo p in g a conso lid ated version. T h e g en eral o p in io n w as th a t a lth o u g h a single tra n sla tio n w o uld be d e sira b le for cu m u la tiv e re se a rc h a n d sta n d a rd iz e d clinical w ork, its d e v elo p m en t w o uld re q u ire m u ch tim e a n d involve c o n ­ sid erab le difficulties, su ch as co o rd in a tio n o f a n a tio n a l co m m itte e . T h u s, no J a p a n e s e sch o la rs w ere p re p a re d to co m m it th em selv es to a p ro ject. B ccausc 1 had com e to J a p a n specifically for th e p u rp o se o f in v e stig atin g the possibility o f c o n so lid atio n , how ever, they a g reed to c o o p erate w ith m y research co m p a rin g th e existing tra n sla tio n s a n d c re a tin g a d ra ft o f a co nsolidated v ersio n , w ith th e u n d e rs ta n d in g th a t th e resu lts w o u ld be used as the basis o f fu tu re d iscu ssio n s (C lark , 1979). T h u s , th e p re se n t stu d y w as u n d e rta k e n to e v alu a te th e c u rre n t sta te o f th e M M P I in J a p a n , an d to begin th e process o f c o n so lid atio n in to a single v ersio n . I con sid ered it im p o rta n t to d ev elo p a tra n sla tio n th a t b u ilt u p o n existing w ork, th a t w ould be a c ce p ta b le to all p o te n tia l users, p a rtic u la rly those researc h ers w ho h ad p reviously tra n sla te d th e test, b u t th a t also w as faithful to p rin c ip le s o f c ro ss-c u ltu ra l m etho d o lo g y n o t fully dev elo p ed w hen m an y o f th e e arlie r tra n sla tio n s w ere c o n stru c te d . In p a rtic u la r, w hile several o f th e tra n sla tio n s did a lte r som e item s for c u ltu ra l reaso n s, m ost o f th em w ere based on th e p rin cip le o f form al lin g u istic eq u iv alen ce, w hich holds th a t it is im p o rta n t to re ta in th e literal m e a n in g o f o rig in al in stru m e n t insofar as possible.

5.

THE MMPI IN JAPAN

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As cross-cultural m ethodology an d theory has ad v an ced , how ever, func­ tional, conceptual, an d ultim ately m etric equivalence have been viewed as m ore im p o rtan t. Briefly, behaviors arc functionally equivalent w hen the purpose o f the responses is the sam e across cu ltu res, regardless of w hether the overt behaviors are sim ilar or not (e.g., shaking h an d s in the U.S. an d bow ing in J a p a n are b o th greetings). C o n cep tu al equivalence is a p roperty o f m easuring in stru m en ts, an d is the cro ss-cu ltu ral extension o f the construct v alidation process— Do the stim uli possess the sam e m ean ­ ing lo the subjects; are they m easuring the sam e thing? M etric equivalence is seen w hen the original a n d tran slated versions possess the sam e psy­ chom etric properties at both the item a n d scale level. T h a t is, the item difficulties, preference values, or endorsem ent percentages are c o m p a ra ­ ble, an d , most im p o rta n t, the in stru m en ts are stru ctu ra lly the sam e— they contain the sam e basic factors w ith essentially the sam e factor loadings. W hen in stru m en ts have conceptual equivalence, as d em o n strated by h av ­ ing m etric equivalence, the co n stru cts being m easu red are also said to have dim ensional identity (F rijda a n d Ja h o d a , 1966). T h a t is, they arc the sam e in their fu n d am en tal aspects, an d it is valid to co m p are the cultures along the dim ension. W ith o u t this d em o n stra ted iden tity , one cannot be sure that one is not com paring the proverbial apples and oranges. T hese advances, how ever, had little effect on the stale o f the art in J a p a n . O n e set o f investigators a t T okyo U niversity did a tte m p t to produce a tran slatio n w ith item s cultu rally ad ju sted so as to be psychologically equivalent to the U .S. item s. T h o se researchers, how ever, concluded th at the M M P I per se was not so easily a d a p ta b le to J a p a n , an d preferred to produce their own em pirically derived in stru m en t, the T P I. T h u s, no previous tran slatio n o f the M M P I into Ja p a n e s e based on the principles o f functional, conceptual, or m etric equivalence rem ain ed in active use. Abe asked me to review the co m m ittee’s initial draft and ev alu a te it for accuracy o f tran slatio n . T h e ir concerns w ere: (1) to u n d e rstan d the literal m eanin g o f the original; (2) to express th a t m eaning in a style easily un d erstan d ab le by the average Ja p a n e se ; an d (3) to cap tu re the psycho­ logical im plication o f each item in Ja p a n e s e if th a t differed from a literal translation. In exchange for this aid, they agreed to have th eir draft included in m y co m p arativ e research. Inclusion o f this version w ould clearly en h an ce the research bccausc it would be: (a) a recent tran slatio n , taking into acco u n t the presen t day J a p a n e se situ atio n , a ra th e r different one from the 1950s; (b) done by a com m ittee th a t had know ledge o f an d , therefore, the benefit of previous

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tran slatio n effort; (c) based on the prin cip le o f psychological ra th e r th a n linguistic equivalence; and (d) the only tra n sla tio n done w ith the collab ­ o ration o f an A m erican psychologist w ho also knew Ja p a n e se . T hese advantages proved stro n g enough, and the co m m ittee’s goals were sim ilar enough to those o f this project, th a t a revision o f th eir d raft ultim ately formed the basis o f the presen t C onso lid ated V ersion.

EVALUATION OF EXISTING DATA

Scale Level Comparisons T h e first problem in ev alu atin g the m any different tran sla tio n s was to establish w hether they were in fact parallel forms. If so, w ere they con­ ceptually equivalent to the original an d valid in Ja p a n ? If not, w as any­ one o f the versions equivalent and valid, o r w as there the need for fu rth er w ork on the translation? T h e need for renorm ing was also a consid eratio n . T h e first stage o f the research, therefore, involved collection o f as manydifferent tran slatio n s as possible, together w ith any existing psychom etric d a ta on them . I was able to acquire a total o f 16 versions o f 10 tran slatio n s. V arious psychom etric d a ta w ere availab le for 8 versions o f 5 tran slatio n s. A verage profiles for each tran slatio n , and in som e cases for different sam ples on the sam e tran slatio n , were d raw n up. A lthough profile elevation differed am ong sam ples and tran slatio n s, the g eneral profile sh ap e w as strikingly sim ilar across all sam ples an d tran slatio n s. T h e largest differences th at ap peared betw een any two profiles were on the sam e tran slatio n , m aking it clear th a t sam ple differences ra th e r th a n tran slatio n differences were the m ajor source o f variatio n . I concluded th a t the vario u s tran sla tio n s show ed reasonable parallel form reliability, an d th a t no one tran slatio n ap p eared m ore valid th a n the others. It rem ained necessary to establish their equivalence to the original and their validity in J a p a n . T h e first step in investigating equivalence was the co m p ariso n o f av er­ age profiles from the two cultures. Because the various J a p a n e s e profiles proved so sim ilar in shape, they were com bined for com parison to U .S. d ata. T hese profiles are show n in Fig. 5.1 together w ith average U .S. profiles. Flic entire profile is elevated in the Ja p a n e s e (except for scalc K , and scales M a and M f in fem ales). Scales D and Sc have 'l’-scores above 70 in m ales, an d above 65 in fem ales. Scales F and Pi are also above 65 in

Females

STANDARD

SCORES

Hales

SCALES Japanese medians U.S. samples FIG. 5.1. CD CD

----------------

Average profiles of J a p a n e s e a n d U n i t e d States s a m p le s

{‘'Source: G o ld b e rg , r ep o rte d in D a h l s t r o m ct al., 1975 N = 310 (males ); 425 (females)

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m ales. Since these elev atio n s clearly do n ot reflect clinical levels o f p sy ­ c h o p ath o lo g y in th e a v erag e J a p a n e s e , how ever, it w o uld at least be n ec­ essary to rcn o rm th e M M FI in o rd e r to use it as a n aid to p sy ch o d iag n osis for J a p a n e s e p o p u latio n s. D ifferences in scale m ean s alone, w hile sug g estiv e, do n ot necessarily in d icate th a t th e J a p a n e s e tra n sla tio n s a rc n o n c q u iv a lc n t. Such evidence m u st com e from a stu d y o f th e stru c tu re o f th e tra n sla te d in s tru m e n t. T h e only d irect s tru c tu ra l d a ta a v a ila b le w ere the b asic scale in te rc o rre la tio n s for the D oshish a U n iv ersity tra n sla tio n , rep o rte d in B u tc h e r a n d P a n c h eri (1976). T h e D o sh ish a tra n sla tio n is, in c id en ta lly , th e m ost literal o f all the tra n sla tio n s, faithfully a d h e rin g to the o rig in al in as m u c h d e ta il as possible. It th u s p ro v id es a good test o f w h e th e r the M M F I in its orig in al form is ap p lic a b le to J a p a n e s e . A p rin cip a l co m p o n e n ts facto r an aly sis w as p erfo rm ed u sin g th e d a ta av ailab le, a n d w as c o m p a red to facto r an aly ses o f U .S . d a ta . T h is will be considered la te r in som e d etail. Suffice it to say th a t the co n v erg en ce o f th e J a p a n e s e a n d U .S . facto r stru c tu re s w as sufficiently h ig h to in d ic ate th a t the test w as n o t co m p letely in a p p ro p ria te for J a p a n e s e , y et it w as n ot so high th a t a literal tra n sla tio n a p p e a re d a p p lic a b le .

Item Level Comparisons A n o th e r m eth o d for c o m p a rin g tra n sla tio n s u tilized item e n d o rse m e n t frequencies (IE F s ), o r th e p e rc e n t o f a sam p le re sp o n d in g “T r u e ” to th e item . In g en eral, an IE F difference o f a b o u t 15% is co n sid ered “e x tre m e ” (B u tch er & F a n c h eri, 1976). E x trem e IE F differences within a c u ltu re on the sam e tra n sla tio n reflect sam p le differences. E x tre m e differences acro ss c u ltu res, how ever, m ay in d ic a te n o t only sam p le differences, b u t also tra n sla tio n p ro b lem s, o r c u ltu ra l differences. If several tra n sla tio n s o f an item all hav e ro ughly th e sam e IE F (i.e., are m etrica lly e q u iv a le n t) in the new c u ltu re, a difference from the o rig in al c u ltu re ’s IE F su g g ests tru e cu ltu ra l v a ria tio n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , if th e IE F v aries w idely across tra n sla tio n s in th e new c u ltu re , th is m ay be d u e to c u ltu ra l, tra n sla tio n , a n d /o r sam p le differences, a n d fu rth e r d a ta is n eed ed to clarify the situ ­ ation. Since IE F s w ere a v a ila b le for a to ta l o f 10 sa m p les on five tra n s ­ lations, as w ell as six U .S . sam p les on th e o rig in al E n g lish , it w as possible, for som e item s, to d e te rm in e th e so u rce o f IE F d ifferences. In som e cases, tra n sla tio n differences w ere ju d g e d to be th e p rim a ry facto r a c c o u n tin g for the v a ria tio n am o n g th e J a p a n e s e IE F s, so th a t m e tric eq u iv alen ce o f a p a rtic u la r item tra n sla tio n could be tak en into

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acco u n t in selectin g th e v ersion m ost closely re p lic a tin g the psychological m ean in g o f th e o rig in al. In o th e r cases, th e d a ta in d ic ate d th a t c u ltu ra l differences w ere involved. T h a t is, th e v ario u s item tra n sla tio n s w ere m etrically e q u iv a le n t to e ach o th e r h u t n o t to th e o rig in a l, th u s the b e h a v ­ ior re p resen te d by the item w as p ro b a b ly n o t fu n ctio n ally e q u iv a le n t across the tw o c u ltu res, a n d som e a lte ra tio n o f the item w as n eccssary to ach iev e co n cep tu al eq u iv alen ce. F o r m an y item s, th erefo re, the first step b eyond looking a t ex istin g d a ta w as w o rking w ith th e c o m m itte e to p ro d u c e a tra n sla tio n b ased on psychological p rin cip les o f eq u iv a le n c e ra th e r th an strictly lin g u istic ones. T h e re w ere several d ifferen t types o f a lte ra tio n n ecessary. O fte n , the item c o n te n t w as re la ted to the sam e c o n stru c t in b o th c u ltu re s, b u t the base ra te o f the b eh a v io r w as d is c re p a n t, so th a t th e stre n g th o f th e item needed revision. F o r ex am p le, the item “ W h ile in tra in s, busses, etc., 1 often talk to stra n g e rs ,” related to th e co n stru c t Social In tro v ersio n in J a p a n as in th e U .S ., b u t th e freq u en cy o f th e b e h a v io r in J a p a n w as m u ch low er: A b o u t 10% o f college s tu d e n ts en d o rsed th e item c o m p a re d to 50% o f U .S . stu d e n ts. T h u s, one h a d to be m u ch m ore e x tra v c rtc d , even to the p o in t o f b eing socially insensitive, in J a p a n to en d o rse the literally tra n sla te d item . T h is a d d e d an u n w a n te d c o n n o ta tio n . A lte rin g the frequency w o rd “o ften ” to “ so m etim es” w as p re d ic te d to raise the IE F , m ak in g th e item c o n c e p tu ally m ore e q u iv a le n t to th e o rig in a l, a n d less likely to be m e a su rin g so m e th in g like social insensitivity. Som e item s w ith d e v ia n t I E F s re q u ire d revision d u e to d iffering c u ltu ra l a ttitu d e s. F o r exam ple, th e item “ M y sex life is sa tisfa c to ry ,” w hen d irec tly tra n sla te d , d rew a larg e c a n n o t say resp o n se (m e d ia n 17% in m ales, 34% in fem ales; ran g es, 6 -2 8 % an d 1 5 -7 1 % , resp ectiv ely ). It w as p re d ic ted th a t a m ore g en tly w o rd ed v ersio n , “ T h e re is n o th in g p a rtic u la rly w rong w ith m y sex life,” w ould resu lt in less refusal, as well as a n IE F co m p a ra b le to the U .S. R eligious item s, on th e o th e r h a n d , w ere th o u g h t to re q u ire co m p lete rew riting. T h e y w ere rcfram ed in term s o f c u ltu ra l v alu es a n d cu sto m s ra th e r th a n in s titu tio n a liz e d religion. F o r ex am p le, “ I believe in G o d ” w as revised to “ I believe th a t even to d ay giri (d u ty to o th e rs) a n d ninjo (com passion ) arc im p o rta n t.” B ecause o f the em p iric a l n a tu re o f th e M M P I ’s c o n stru c tio n , it w as not possible to id entify all o f th e re lev an t p a ra m e te rs w hen co n sid e rin g c u ltu ra l alte ra tio n o f a n item . T h e c o m m ittee a n d I w ere g u id e d by scale m em b ersh ip , o vert c o n te n t, a n d clin ical ju d g m e n t o f w h a t th e item w as m easu rin g . T h e se w ere g en erally co n sid ered sufficient to id en tify th e m ajo r

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aspects o f'th e item . D u rin g this process o f cu ltu ra lly a d ju stin g item s, th e im p o rtan ce o f u sing Ja p a n e s e -E n g lish b ilin g u als— som e o f w hom w ere n ativ e in each la n g u ag e— w as m ost evident. As an ex am p le o f the p ro b le m s th u s av o id ed , Ite m 10 “ I seem to have a lu m p in m y th ro a t m u ch o f the tim e” h ad p rev io u sly been tra n sla te d in su ch a w ay as to evoke th e id ea o f som e h a rd o b ject ca u g h t in th e back o f o n e ’s th ro a t. "While this m ay n ot be a bad tra n sla tio n if one is fam iliar w ith the E nglish ex pression an d th e feeling o f em o tio n a lity asso ciate d w ith it, for m ost sp eak ers o f J a p a n e s e it a p p a re n tly m a d e sense o n ly as a d escrip tio n o f an o d d p hysical sta te . As su ch , it w ould o b viously have very different c o rrelates from th e E nglish version. The E nglish version a p p e a re d to be a stra ig h tfo rw ard sta te m e n t to th e m em b ers o f th e com m itec— n o n n a tiv e sp eak ers u n a w a re o f th e E nglish id io m — a n d th u s th ere w as som e resistan ce to a looser tra n sla tio n . H o w ev er, a fter m u ltip le e x p la ­ natio n s, p lacin g e m p h asis on th e fact th a t th e item scores on scales 3 a n d 7 (ra th e r th a n say 1 or 8, w h ich m ig h t be ex p cctcd if it d e scrib e d a b iz arre o r u n u su al physical c o n d itio n ), this resistan c e w as o vercom e. A version w hich back tra n sla te s literally as “ I alw ay s feel m y b re ast is full” w as su b s titu te d . T h is p h ra s e in J a p a n e s e c a rric s an e q u iv a le n t feeling o f b eing close to tears as th e o rig in al docs in E nglish. It is th u s an “ id e a l” tr a n s ­ lation, becau se it m a in ta in s th e em o tio n al m e a n in g u sin g a p hysical expression, su b s titu tin g one idiom for a n o th e r. W e w ere seldom so for­ tu n a te as to find such cx act eq u iv ale n ts, how ever, a n d m a n y co m p ro m ises had to be m ad e. In m ost cases this m e a n t p re se rv in g th e “ u n d e rly in g ” m ean in g ra th e r th a n th e overt co n te n t. T o use the ab o v e ex am p le, if such a physical expression o f em o tio n a lity d id not exist in J a p a n , it w o uld have been n ecessary to s u b s titu te a sen ten ce su ch as “ I often feel close to te a rs,” sacrificing th e m ean s (a so m atic feeling) for th e end (an affective s ta te ­ m e n t). T o th e ex te n t th a t this is n ecessary , p sychological eq u iv a len ce suffers. N evertheless, it is still su p e rio r to follow ing th e su rface m e an in g exactly, w hich in m a n y cases (in clu d in g this one) w o uld resu lt in loss of psychological eq u iv alen ce a lto g eth er. It is in tere stin g to n ote in this c o n n ectio n th a t few o f th e a d ju s tm e n ts m ad e w ere rad ic a l c u ltu ra l revisions o f item s, l ’he m o st th a t su ch ch an g es w ere n eeded w as on scale M f— 10% o f th e item s. T h is in d ic a te s th a t, by an d large, th e item c o n te n t o f th e M M P I is a p p ro p ria te for J a p a n e s e . W h a t needs to be tak en in to a c c o u n t is m o re th e relativ e freq u en cy or accep tab ility of th e b eh av io rs in J a p a n , w ith th e fu n ctio n o f th e b eh av io rs p e r se rem ain in g fairly c o n sta n t across cu ltu res.

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TOWARD A CONSOLIDATED VERSION Follow ing d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c o m m ittee tra n sla tio n , tw o types o f item level d a ta w ere collected to ev a lu a te it an d th e o th e r ex istin g versions: ( 1) su b je c ts’ ratin g s o f the m o st u n d e rs ta n d a b le v e rsio n 2 an d (2) ad d itio n a l IF F d a ta .

Rating Study Methods.

B ecause o f th e larg e n u m b e r o f M M P I item s an d th e ir co m ­

plexity, it w as im p o ssib le to o b ta in ra tin g s on each clau se o f every item for all tra n sla tio n s. A v ariety o f step s w ere ta k e n to red u ce th e n u m b e r o f co m p ariso n s to be m ade. 1. O n ly th e 383 clinical item s (item s sco rin g on one o f th e 10 clinical scales o r 3 v alid ity scales) w ere in clu d ed . 2. T h e item s w ere review ed to d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e re w ere an y for w hich: (a) th e tra n sla tio n s w ere sim ilar en o u g h th a t they d id n o t need com p ariso n ; o r (b) only o n e tra n sla tio n w as a d e q u a te , so th a t no c o m ­ pariso n w as n eccssary . A p p ro x im a tely 100 item s fell into one o f these two categories. T h e ju d g e m e n t c o n cern in g a d e q u a c y o f tra n sla tio n w as m ad e in m ost cases by th e a u th o r. If th ere w as a n y d o u b t, th e ite m ’s m ea n in g an d tra n sla tio n w ere d iscu ssed w ith th e co m m ittee. 3. As d escrib ed previously, a lth o u g h 10 tra n sla tio n s h a d been o b ta in e d , psy ch o m etric d a ta th a t could aid in e sta b lish in g eq u iv alen ce o r v alid ity w ere av ailab le for only five. T h ere fo re , th e u n d e rs ta n d a b ility ra tin g stu d y focused prim arily on these tra n sla tio n s. In m an y cases, th e o th e r tr a n s ­ lations w ere th e sam e as o r sim ila r to one o f the five. In som e eases, one o f the o th e r tra n sla tio n s w as d ifferent a n d in te re stin g en o u g h to w a rra n t inclusion in th e co m p ariso n . T h e final n u m b e r o f item s w as 426, involving 619 co m p a riso n s. T h e se w ere divided in to five g ro u p s o f a p p ro x im a te ly 85 item s each (ra n g e = 84—87). N o M M P I item a p p e a re d m ore th a n once in a g iv en g ro u p . T h e

■'Pilot testing determined that this task was meaningful to subjects, and that there were no sex or regional differences in the ratings. It also established the most acceptable gram matical and stylistic form for the inventory’s items.

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five g ro u p s o f item s w ere ra n d o m ly d is trib u te d to the su b jects, so th a t each su b ject ra ted a p p ro x im a te ly 85 item s co n ta in in g 124 co m p a riso n s (ran g e = 118-127). Subjects.

S u b jects w ere psychology u n d e rg ra d u a te s tu d e n ts at D o sh ­

isha U n iv ersity o r D o sh ish a W o m e n ’s C ollege, 178 m ales a n d 326 fem ales. Since the g ro u p s o f item s w ere ra n d o m ly d is trib u te d , a b o u t 100 su b jects (ran g e 97 -1 0 4 ) co m p leted each g ro u p . Results.

T h e resu lts o f th e in d iv id u a l item tra n sla tio n c o m p ariso n r a t­

ings will not be d iscu sse d , as they involve d istin c tio n s am o n g J a p a n e s e w ords an d p h rases. M e an s a n d s ta n d a rd d ev ia tio n s w ere c o m p u te d for each choice ra te d , a n d tw o-tailed ¿-tests w ere p erfo rm ed for a n y to p -ra te d p a ir in w hich the difference w as sm all. L a rg e r differences w ere p resu m ed to be significan t, d u e to th e larg e n u m b e r o f su b jects. N o n sig n ifican t differences w ere found in 173 o f th e 619 co m p a riso n sets. In these cases, if one o f the choices w as a tra n sla tio n m a d e by th e co m m itte e, th a t choice w as selected for use in the C o n so lid a te d V ersion. In alm o st all o th e r cases, th e h ig h er (or h ig h est) ra te d choice w as sclccted. W ith two e x cep tio n s, no tra n sla tio n w as sclccted th a t w as ra te d below 2.67 (th e u p p e r o n e th ird o f the u n d e rs ta n d a b ility scale). A ll o f th e m ain tra n sla tio n s w ere well re p re se n ted in th e final selection. In this sense, the resu ltin g C o n so lid a ted V ersion d eserv es its n am e.

Item Endorsement Frequency Study I A m ajo r pro b lem in c o m p a rin g th e ex istin g IE F d a ta w as th a t item s ta ­ tistics are often q u ite influenced by the p a rtic u la r sam p le. T h u s , in th e case o f d isc re p a n t IE F s across different tra n sla tio n s , it w as n ot alw ays c lea r w h e th e r the v a ria tio n w as d u e to sam p les o r tra n sla tio n s . Sincc th ere w ere n o d a ta for m ore th a n o n e tra n sla tio n on th e sam e sa m p le , it w as n o t possible to se p a ra te o u t these effects. T h e re fo re , for 27 p ro b le m item s, several tra n sla tio n s w ere tested on a single sa m p le . F u rth e rm o re , since the co m m itte e ’s tra n sla tio n s h a d n ev er been tested , th e ir new item tra n s ­ lations w ere also in clu d ed for e x am in atio n . Methods.

A to tal o f 339 item versions w ere p rese n te d . A lte rn a te v er­

sions o f the sam e item w ere sp aced as far a p a rt as possible. S ta n d a rd M M P I in stru c tio n s w ere u sed , except th a t su b jects w ere w a rn e d th a t very

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sim ilar item s w ould a p p e a r, a n d th ey sh o u ld a n sw er each in d e p e n d e n tly , not referrin g back to th eir p rev io u s responses. Subjects.

S u b jects w ere psychology u n d e rg ra d u a te stu d e n ts at O sa k a

E d u catio n al U n iv e rsity , 53 m ales an d 105 fem ales. A verage age: m ales, 20.4 years (ran g e 19—27); fem ales, 19.4 (ran g e: 18-22). Results.

T h e in d iv id u a l IE F s will n ot be rep o rte d . O f in te re st is th a t

the m eth o d w as successful in id en tify in g th e so u rce o f IE F differences. For som e item s, d iffering tra n sla tio n h ad little effect, in d ic a tin g th a t p re ­ viously found differences w ere d u e to sam p le c h a ra c te ristic s. F o r o th e r item s, d iffering tra n sla tio n s sh o w ed a m ark e d cffect, a n d b ecau se th is d a ta h ad been g a th e re d on a single sa m p le , th e so u rce o f v a ria tio n w as clearly the tra n sla tio n s them selves. M a n y of th e new ly tra n s la te d item s pro v ed to be e q u iv a len t to th e U .S . o rig in als in term s o f th e ir IE F s. A few w ere show n to be n o n e q u iv alc n t, so th e item n eed ed to be tra n s la te d oncc a g a in , o r a t least so m ew h at revised.

IEF Study II W hen the resu lts o f th e ra tin g stu d y a n d IE F S tu d y I (w hich w ere b eing co n d u cte d sim u lta n e o u sly ) w ere ex am in ed , it b ecam e c le a r th a t som e item s still n eed ed to be im p ro v ed , a n d th e re w as n o t yet en o u g h in fo r­ m atio n on o th e r item s to d ecid e w hich version w as th e best possible. F or exam ple, the u n d e rs ta n d a b ility ra tin g s so m etim es id en tified as m ost u n d e rs ta n d a b le a v ersion for w hich th ere w ere no I F T d a ta , leav in g u n a n ­ sw ered the q u estio n o f th a t ite m ’s eq u iv a le n c e to th e o rig in a l. In o th e r cases, the m ost u n d e rs ta n d a b le version p ro v ed to h av e a hig h ly d is c re p a n t IE F a n d n eed ed revision. In m o st su ch cases, it w as n ecessary only to a lte r the stre n g th o f th e item . Also, as m e n tio n e d , a few o f th e new tr a n s ­ lations h a d been sh o w n to need revision, a n d no d a ta existed for these fu rth e r revisions. T h erefo re, a th ird set o f d a ta w as g a th e re d as a final check before co m p ilin g th e C o n so lid a te d V ersion. Methods.

T h e m eth o d w as id en tic a l to th a t o f IE F S tu d y I, e x cep t th a t

only one version o f each o f 122 item s w as in c lu d e d . T h ere fo re , no special in s tru ctio n s w ere n eed ed , a n d s ta n d a rd M M P I in s tru c tio n s w ere used. Subjects.

S u b jects w ere psychology g ra d u a te a n d u n d e rg ra d u a te s tu ­

d en ts at K an sei G a k u in , 58 m ales a n d 50 fem ales. It w as u n fo rtu n a te th a t

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th e sam e sam p le used before could n o t be used a g a in , b cca u sc u sin g a different sam p le re in tro d u c e d th e co n fo u n d in g o f sa m p le a n d tra n sla tio n . A verage age: m ales, 21.3 y ears (ran g e 19-25); fem ales, 20.9 y e ars (ran g e 19-23).

Results.

G en erally sp eak in g , th e resu lts clarified th e existing p ro b lem s,

i.e., re tra n sla tio n s, revisions, a n d versions id entified as m o st u n d e rs ta n d ­ able w ere found to be a d e q u a te in term s o f IE F e q u iv alen ce to th e o rig in als. A very few item s re m a in e d th a t w ere show n to be in a d e q u a te o r q u e s­ tio n ab le. T h e se w ere a lte re d once m o re before in clu sio n in th e C o n so li­ d a te d V ersio n , b u t w ere not tested fu rth e r a t this tim e.

INTEGRATION OF DATA FOR FINAL SELECTION In selecting th e final item tra n sla tio n s , all o f the facto rs d iscu ssed ab o v e— u n d c rs ta n d a b ility , scale m e m b e rsh ip , p re d ic ted base ra te o f th e b e h a v io r (IE F ), an d c u ltu ra l attitu d es-—w ere co n sid ered . F o r ex am p le, a litera l tra n sla tio n o f th e item “ M y relativ es a rc n early all in sy m p a th y w ith m e ,” w hich scores false on scale Pd, back tra n sla te d as “ M y relativ es n e a rly all p ity m e,” a n d as such d rew a larg e c a n n o t say resp o n se (av erag e, a b o u t 2 7 % ; ran g e, 1 9 -3 2 % ). R evised versio n s w h ich back tra n sla te d as “ M y relatives n early all u n d e rs ta n d m y h e a rt a n d m in d ” o r “ . . . a rc w arm to w ard s m e ” h a d a low ca n n o t say p e rc e n ta g e (0 - 3 % ), b u t resu lte d in an IE F m uch h ig h er th a n in th e U .S . (U .S . ra n g e , 3 0 -5 4 % ; J a p a n e s e ran g e, 74—8 6 % ). T w o o th e r tra n sla tio n s, “ M y relativ es n e arly all sy m ­ p a th iz e w ith m e ” (“w hen a p p ro p r ia te ” im p lie d ), a n d “ . . . u n d e rs ta n d a n d sy m p a th iz e w ith m e ” h a d a p p ro p ria te IE F s (ra n g e 33—6 2 % ) an d m ore reaso n a b le c a n n o t say p e rcen tag es (ran g e , 4—1 4 % ), b u t w ere ra te d m ore difficult to u n d e rsta n d (x = 2.8). F in ally , a tra n sla tio n w as w ritte n th a t w as still th o u g h t to re la te to p sy ch o p ath ic d ev ian ce, th e c o n stru c t m easu red by scalc Pd, w as h ighly ra ted for u n d e rsta rid a b ility (x = 1.99), an d w as p red icted to have a n a p p ro p ria te IE F . It back tra n sla te d as “ All my relatives alw ay s a p p ro v e o f w h at I d o .” T h is tra n sla tio n p ro v ed a c c e p t­ able, w ith an IE F o f 4 0 % in m ales, 4 4 % in fem ales, a n d 0 % c a n n o t say. A lth o u g h the stu d ie s d esc rib e d h ad focuscd solely on th e clinical item s, som e o f th e d a ta w ere re lev an t to th e n o nclin ical (re sea rc h ) item s as well. U tilizin g these d a ta , te n ta tiv e revisions o f th e n o n clin ical item s w ere also m ad e. O th erw ise , w hen no new d a ta existed, th e c o m m itte e v ersio n o r

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the best existing tran slatio n d eterm in ed on the basis o f IE F d a ta alone was selected.

FIELD TEST OF THE CONSOLIDATED VERSION l'hc purpose of field testing w as to investigate bo th the reliability o f the C onsolidated V ersion, an d its equivalence to the original. T o these ends, three related studies, w hich are best rep o rted together, w ere conducted w ith norm al (college) p o pulations— two involving m onolingual Ja p a n e s e , an d a third w ith Jap an ese-E n g lish bilinguals. T h e procedures and subjects of all three studies are first presented, followed by the results and discussion.

Procedures Normative Group Study. T h e Consolidated Version o f the Jap an ese M M P I w as printed in booklet form. S ta n d a rd M M P I in stru ctio n s w ere used. T h e test w as adm in istered in groups. As the stu d en ts w ere fam iliar w ith truefalse personality q u estio n n aires in general, and m any o f them w ith (he M M P I in p articu lar, n eith er extensive ex p lanation o f the test’s p urpose and form at, nor p ractice trials w ere necessary. D epending on the level o f know ledge o f the subjects, how ever, som e discussion o f the test and the research w as m ade, and subjects w ere en couraged to ask questions. In the case o f psychology stu d en ts, interested stu d e n ts w ere given feedback by sending their test scores to their in stru cto rs. Monolingual Test-Retest. A su b g ro u p o f the su b jects retook the test one week later. O n second testing, only the clinical item s werfe answ ered. Subjects were in stru cted to ap p ro ach the test as if they w ere taking it for the first tim e, not to try to rem em ber w hat they had answ ered before. Bilingual Test-Retest. A different su b g ro u p o f the su b jects— those who w ere English m ajors or in ad v an ced E nglish classcs o r clubs— took the test once in Ja p a n e se and oncc in E nglish. T h e o rd er o f p resen tatio n w as coun terb alan ced and ran d o m ly assigned, and the retest in terval w as again one week. Subjects were in stru cted not to use a d ictio n ary , and to skip an item if they did not u n d erstan d its m ean in g in English. S ubjects w ere inform ed th a t the Ja p a n e s e version w as not a d irect tran slatio n o f the E nglish, and th a t they should not try to rem em b er the previous version on retesting, but should answ er the second tim e in d ep en d en tly o f the first.

108

CLARK

Subjects Normative Group.

S u b jects w ere stu d e n ts at a n u m b e r o f in stitu tio n s:

two ju n io r colleges, th ree four y e a r colleges o r u n iv ersities, a n d o n e m edical school. All w ere lo cated in H o k k aid o , th e n o rth e rn m o st J a p a n e s e isla n d , cxcept for D o sh ish a U n iv e rsity in K y o to . All w ere u rb a n , cxcept for E iyo J u n io r C ollege, w hich w as lo eated in a sm all to w n a b o u t 15 m iles o u tsid e o f S ap p o ro , th e c a p ita l o f H o k k aid o . T h e su b jects w ere o b ta in e d th ro u g h p erso n al c o n ta c ts w ith in s tru c to rs, w ho eith e r v o lu n tee re d th e ir classes’ p a rtic ip a tio n in e x ch an g e for test feedback, o r asked for v o lu n tee rs from th e ir classcs. A fter proto co ls w ith o b vious erro rs (su ch as sk ip p in g an e n tire page) w ere o m itte d , th e to tal o f su b jects w as 287 m ales a n d 197 fem ales. O f these, four m ales w ere e lim in a ted b ecau se they h a d a raw F score o f 30 o r above. Since F is often m o re elev a ted in tra n sla te d versio n s th a n in th e o riginal, this relativ ely strin g e n t crite rio n for ex clusion w as chosen in o rd e r n o t to throw o u t an y valid profiles w hich h ad e lev a ted F scorcs d u e sim p ly to cu ltu ra l v a ria tio n . T h e four profiles th u s iden tified a p p e a re d in v alid by o th e r c riteria as w ell, e.g., th ey w ere saw -toothecl a n d resem b le d profiles o f m alin g erin g su b jects in th e U .S . T h e av era g e age o f su b jects w as 19.1 in m ales (SD = 1.2, ra n g e = 18-26), a n d 19.5 in fem ales (SD = 1.42, ran g e = 18-34). Monolingual Test-Retest Group.

As w ith th e n o rm a tiv e g ro u p , th ese s u b ­

je c ts w ere eith er v o lu n tee re d by th e ir in s tru c to r (E iyo J u n io r C ollege, N = 112 fem ales) o r v o lu n tee re d th e ir tim e (H o k k a id o U n iv ersity , N = 20 m ales, 3 fem ales). T h e av erag e age o f this su b g ro u p w as 18.5 in m ales (SD = .61, ra n g e = 18-20), a n d 19.3 in fem ales (SD = .55, ran g e =

18-22). T h e re test

g ro u p w as th u s slightly y o u n g er a n d m o re h o m o g en eo u s as to age th a n th e n o rm ativ e sam p le (significant only in m ales, p < .001), b u t this sh o u ld hav e little o r no cffcct on the g cn cra liz ab ility o f th e re lia b ility resu lts. Bilingual Test-Retest Group.

T h irty four m ales a n d 53 fem ales p a rtic i­

p a te d in the b ilin g u al te st-re test. O f these, five m ales an d four fem ales e ith e r left 30 o r m ore item s o f th e E n g lish b la n k , o r o b ta in e d a ra w F score o f 25 or m ore on th e E nglish. T h e se su b jects w ere elim in a te d , as these w ere taken to in d ic ate a n in a d e q u a te level o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f E n g ­ lish, leaving a final A7o f 29 m ales a n d 49 fem ales. O f these, 15 m ales an d 24 fem ales took th e J a p a n e s e version first, a n d 14 m ales a n d 25 fem ales took the E nglish first.

5.

THE MMPI IN JAPAN

10 9

T h e average age for m ales was 20.8 (SD = 2.0, ran g e = 18-25), and for fem ales was 19.5 (SD = .90, range - 18-22). A gain the difference from the age o f the n orm ative g ro u p is significant in m ales (p < .001), but this should m ake little o r no difference in in terp re ta tio n . A lthough there m ay have been a few exceptions, for the m ost p a rt these subjects w ould be classified as co m p o u n d bilinguals, being n a tiv e ja p a n e s e who learned their English in classes in J a p a n . It w ould h av e been pref­ erable to utilize coo rd in ate bilinguals— those w ho learned each language in its own cu ltu ra l context— b u t the av ailable n u m b e r o f such subjects w as so sm all as to have p ro h ib ited any d a ta analyses. It w as decided th a t using com pound bilinguals was b e tte r th a n having none at all. F or a discussion o f the c o m p o u n d /co o rd in ate distin ctio n , see A nderson, 1976; Ervin and O sgood, 1954; M a c n a m a ra , 1967; an d M arsh , 1967.

Results and Discussion Since the translatio n process had been carried out w ith the goal o f m etric equivalence in m ind, it w as hoped th a t the C o nsolidated V ersion w ould prove equivalent to the original using a n u m b er o f psy ch o m etric indices, at the scale level as well as at the item level. T h e high degree o f success achieved through these m ore rigorous tran slatio n procedures is clear from the results to follow. F our types o f analyses w ere perform ed to d eterm in e w h eth er the C o n ­ solidated V ersion had achieved the goal of im proving equivalence to the original over previous versions: (1) factor analyses; (2) test-retest cor­ re la tio n s ; (3) c o m p a ris o n o f item e n d o rs e m e n t fre q u e n c ie s; a n d (4) analyses o f scale m eans an d sta n d a rd deviations. W h ere a p p ro p riate , these analyses w ere carried o u t on the n o rm ativ e g ro u p a n d both the m onolingual an d bilingual test-retest groups. T o highlight the c o m p a ra ­ bility o f the q u ality o f the C o n so lid ated V ersion to o th er M M P I tra n s­ lations, a n u m b e r o f the resu lts w ere co m p ared not only to U .S. d a ta bu t to d a ta reported by B u tcher an d P ancheri (1976) on six sam ples from various countries aro u n d the w orld.

Factor Analyses U.S. M M P I Factor Structure. In o rd er to co m p are J a p a n e s e an d U .S. d ata factor analytically, it is first necessary to d eterm in e the U .S. stru c tu re, indeed to ascertain w h eth er a consensus U .S . stru c tu re exists to w hich

110

CLARK

the J a p a n e s e m ay be c o m p a re d . T h e q u estio n o f how m u ch co n g ru en ce is to be reaso n ab ly expected a m o n g facto r stru c tu re s o f th e M M P I in different cu ltu re s is a com plex one. T o b eg in w ith , a c e rta in a m o u n t of con g ru en ce across c u ltu re s is b u ilt in to th e scales, in th e form o f item o verlap. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e M M P I w as not facto r a n a ly tic a lly d eriv ed . E ach scale w as d eriv ed in d e p e n d e n tly a n d e m p irically , th ro u g h c o m p a r­ ison o f a n o rm a l a n d crite rio n g ro u p , w ith o u t re g a rd for th e re la tio n sh ip s am o n g the scales. T h u s, it w ould n o t be su rp risin g if th e facto r stru c tu re sh o u ld vary so m ew h at from p o p u la tio n to p o p u la tio n , even w ith in the U .S . I f the in te rn a l s tru c tu re o f th e lest in a n o th e r c u ltu re (or su b c u ltu re in th e U .S .) w ere rad ically d ifferen t, ho w ev er, one m ig h t w o n d e r a b o u t th e a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f th e test o r ihc tra n sla tio n for th a t g ro u p . M in o r differences in the facto r s tru c tu re , on the o th e r h a n d , sh o u ld n o t d isco u rag e us from fu rth e r cro ss-c u ltu ra l ex p lo ra tio n s, a lth o u g h d e m o n s tra tio n o f convergence is certa in ly w elcom e. A review o f th e U .S. M M P I facto r a n a ly tic lite ra tu re reveals at least 16 studies. In te re stin g ly e n o u g h , how ever, no n e o f th e stu d ie s a re strictly c o m p arab le in te rm s o f th e v a ria b le s th a t w ere in clu d ed . T h e re is also v ariatio n in th e type o f facto r an aly sis o r ro ta tio n , th e n u m b e r o f factors e x tra c te d , th e p o p u la tio n em p lo y ed , a n d th e q u a lity o f th e stu d ies. B ecause o f this div ersity , it w as possible to d eriv e only a very ro u g h co n sen su s stru c tu re , a n d th ere w as no a p p ro p ria te w ay to q u a n tify th e tw o b ro a d factors th a t d id a p p e a r lo r c o m p a riso n w ith th e C o n so lid a te d V ersio n . T h erefo re, it w as d ecid ed to utilize an y c o m p lete c o rre la tio n m atric e s re p o rte d , a n d to p erform facto r a n aly ses using th e sam e scales a n d m e th ­ ods for b o th U .S . a n d J a p a n e s e d a ta . A m ong th e U .S. fac to r a n a ly tic lite ra tu re , tw o sets o f c o rre la tio n m a t­ rices for m ales (K a sse b a u m , C o u ch , a n d S later, 1959; G o ld b e rg , rep o rte d in D a h lstro m , W elsh, an d D a h lstro m , 1975) a n d o n e for fem ales (G o ld ­ berg, rep o rte d in D ah lstro m et al., 1975) w h ich c o n ta in e d scales L, K , F, a n d U s to S i w ere found. T h e se c o rrela tio n m atric es w ere su b jec ted to a p rin c ip a l co m p o n en ts a n aly sis w ith v a rim a x ro ta tio n . T h e K a ise r-G u ttm an criterio n (G u ttm a n , 1954; K a ise r & C affrcy, 1965) in d ica ted th re e factors for b o th th e m ale sa m p le s a n d four for the fem ales. T h e scree test (C attell, 1966) show ed a m ajo r b reak a fte r th e first la rg e g e n e ra l facto r in all sam p les. S u b se q u e n t m in o r b reak s a p p e a re d a fter th re e factors in all sam p les, a n d a d d itio n a lly a fte r four factors in G o ld b e rg ’s m ale sam p le. T herefore b o th th e th ree an d fo u r-facto r so lu tio n s w ere c o m p u te d in each case a n d w ere ex am in ed for th e ir co n g ru e n ce across stu d ies. The threefactor solutio n show ed a far cle a re r co n v erg en ce a n d so is th e o n e chosen

5.

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for p re se n ta tio n here. T h e scale load in g s on these factors, a n d th e p e rc e n t o f v a rian ce a c c o u n te d for by e ach , a re p re se n te d in T a b le 5.1. A lth o u g h th ere is som e sam p le v a ria tio n , F a c to r A is p rim a rily re p ­ resen ted by scales Si, D , Pt, F, Sc, a n d M f w ith scale K d efin in g the o p p o site pole. T h is is the factor usu ally called g en eral p sy ch o p ath o lo g y , m a la d ju stm e n t, n cu ro ticism , A nx iety (A , W elsh , 1956), o r Ego R esiliency (E R , Block, 1965). T h e second facto r is p rim a rily defined by scales M a, Sc, Pi, F, a n d Pd, w ith L a n d K m ark in g the o th e r en d . T h is facto r h as been called R epression (R, W elsh , 1956) a n d Ego C o n tro l (E C -5, B lock, 1965). T h e th ird facto r is p rim arily re p re se n ted by Hy, Pa, Hs, a n d Pd. T h is factor seem s to m e a su re c h arac te ro lo g ica l featu res: so m a tiz atio n o r externalizing . T o test th e deg ree to w hich th e sa m p les con v erg ed o b jectiv ely , c o rre ­ lation coefficients for each set o f factor loadings w ere com puted first betw een th e tw o m ale sam p les a n d th en b etw een th e m ean lo ad in g s o f th e m ale sam ples a n d th e fem ale sam p le. O n th e th ree facto rs, th e c o rre la tio n s TABLE 5.1 M M PI Scale Loadings on Three Factors Extracted From Three United States Data Sets Factor A Sample

or I. -o r' F 65 K -66 H< 42 77 D -0 6 Hy 58 Pi 57 Mf Pa 41 Pi 85 80 Sc 12 Ma Si 88 % o f V arian ce A ccounted For 35.5

(2)" -1 5 43 -7 3 56 71 -0 4 23 39

12 83 67

-11 90

29.1

Factor ft Sample

(3)' 07 30 -3 6

21 72 -1 9

01 33 16 49 28 -4 5 90

17.7

Factor C Sample

(2)

0)

(2)

(31

0)

-6 2 31 -4 2

-5 5 48 -5 2 29

-5 8 60 -7 8 45 13 -1 6 45 -0 8

29

22

15

12

42 28 45 37 77 63 49 09 17 29

22

20 -20 -0 9 45

10 -0 7 31 43 85 -1 4

15.2

-20 -3 2

10 10

27 64 33 94 35

21

04 41 55

11

33

72 84

12 12

86 -11

22

18.6

27.8

76

23 -1 7

'K asseb au rn et al. (1959), m ales, N = 160. ''G oldberg, rep o rted in D a h lstro m et al. (1975). m ales, N = 3+0. ‘G o ld b erg , rep o rted in D ah lstro m et al. (1975), fem ales, N = 425. “'D ecim al points h ave been o m itted .

15.0

20 07

19.3

(3)

19 56 44

86 55 44 64 30 27 18 -0 8

18.9

112

CLARK

betw een the m ale sa m p les w ere .92, .97, a n d .72, resp ectiv ely , in d ic a tin g th a t co m b in in g th e tw o sam p les lor co m p a riso n w ith th e fem ales w as ju stified . T h e c o rrelatio n coefficients for th e th ree factors b etw een the m ale a n d fem ale load in g s w ere .85, .91, a n d .95, resp ectiv ely , co n firm in g th a t the stru c tu re w as re p lic ate d across sexes. Factor Structure o f a Previous Japanese Translation.

B u tc h e r a n d P a n c h eri

(1976) rep o rte d o n th e fac to r stru c tu re o f a p rev io u s J a p a n e s e tra n sla tio n (D o sh ish a U n iv ersity ). T h e y e x tra c te d fo u r factors a n d a tte m p te d a one to one m a tc h o f all fo u r across sexes a n d w ith th e ir o th e r n a tio n a l sam p les, w ith the resu lt th a t several factors d id n ot m a tc h as w ell as m ig h t be hoped. It w as th erefo re d ecided to re a n a ly z e the d a ta (B u tch e r a n d P a n c h ­ eri re p o rt the c o rre latio n m a tric e s), e x tra c t th ree factors, a n d in v e stig ate the c o m p a ra b ility o f these facto rs b o th betw een the sexes on th e D o sh ish a tra n sla tio n , an d w ith th e U .S. a n d C o n so lid a te d V ersion stru c tu re s. T h e K a ise r-G u ttm a n c rite rio n a n d th e scree lest each in d ic a te d th a t eith e r th ree o r four factors w ere p o ssible so lu tio n s, so th is w as co n sid ered an a p p ro p ria te p ro ced u re. T h e scale lo ad in g s on the th re e facto rs a n d the p ercen tag e o f v a ria n c e a c co u n ted for by each facto r arc p resen te d in T a b le 5.2. T h e facto rs have been re a rra n g e d as n ecessary for m a tc h in g p u rp o ses. TABLE 5.2 Factor Loadings on Three Factors Extracted from the Doshisha University Translation Factor A

I. F K Hi lì l ly Pd Mf Pa Pi Sc Ma Si % o f V arian ce A cco u n ted f o r

/•'actor B

M

F

-0 3 ''

-20

02

28 -51 26 74 05 32

-1 7 44 89 41 33 4G

At -7 2 -0 4 -8 2 -0 5

00 -4 4

00

21

21 01

52 27 --46 75

70 48 -1 5 92

07 09 51 38 26 44

20.7

21.1

15.9

“D ecim al p o in ts have been o m itted .

¡•'actor C F

M

F

-68 21

06 80 -2 3 63

-01 68

-7 3 08 -2 4 -2 7 15 -3 6 07 40 54 77 05 18.2

12 55 61 28 78 56 81

-0 4 78 44 85 70

12

08

76 45 57 31 09

30.3

28.5

68

5.

THE MMPI IN JAPAN

113

T h e first facto r is p rim a rily m a rk e d by scales Si, D , a n d Pi. Scale K m ark s the o p p o site pole in fem ales o nly w hile scale M a m ark s th a t pole in m ales. By a n d larg e, this fac to r c an be id entified as the first “g e n eral m a la d ju s tm e n t” factor fo u n d in th e U .S. T h e second factor is p rim a rily m arked by scales Pi a n d Sc on o n e en d , a n d L a n d K on th e o th e r. A lth o u g h different in several p a rtic u la rs, th e m a jo r lo ad in g s on this facto r h e a r som e sim ilarity to th o se o f the second “re p re ssio n ” fac to r in th e U .S . F a c to r C is c h a racteriz ed by scales Pa, F, Hy. Hs, Sc, P d a n d Pi. T h is facto r can be m a tc h e d w ith th e th ird U .S . facto r, a lth o u g h it is a larg er, m ore g en eral factor in J a p a n . T h e co rre latio n coefficients c o m p u ted betw een th e m ale an d fem ale loadings on th e th ree factors are .82, .82, a n d .80, resp ectiv ely , sh o w in g good converg en ce betw een sexes, a lth o u g h n o t q u ite as high as b etw een U .S. m ales an d fem ales. T h e J a p a n e s e an d U .S . fem ales also show a stro n g convergence, w ith co rre la tio n s o f .89, .96, a n d .73 for th e th ree factors, respectively. T h e co n v erg en ce b etw een th e J a p a n e s e a n d U .S . m ales on this tra n sla tio n , how ever, is so m e w h a t low er. T h e coefficients for th e th ree factors a re .70, .70, a n d .29, resp ectiv ely , in d ic a tin g so m e lack o f e q u iv ­ alence betw een the stru c tu re s a n d th e n eed for m ore a d e q u a te tra n sla tio n . Factor Structure o f the Consolidated Version and Comparison to U.S. Data.

A

n u m b e r o f different an aly ses w ere ru n o n th e C o n so lid a te d V ersio n n o r­ m ative sam p les to d e te rm in e th e b est so lu tio n for use in co m p a riso n s w ith the U .S . a n d p rev io u s J a p a n e s e d a ta sets. T h e p rin c ip al c o m p o n e n ts an aly ses w ith th ree to five v a rim a x ro ta te d factors show ed th e g re a te st convergence across sexes. T h e K a ise r-G u ttm a n c rite rio n in d ic a te d th re e factors for m ales a n d four for fem ales. T h e scree test show ed a m a jo r b reak a fter the first larg e g en eral facto r in m ales, a n d a fter tw o fac to rs in fem ales. S u b se q u e n t m in o r b reak s a p p e a re d a fter th re e facto rs in m ales an d after four factors in fem ales. S ince a th re e -fac to r so lu tio n h a d pro v en best for b o th the U .S. a n d p rev io u s J a p a n e s e d a ta , it w as d e c id e d to ex tract th ree factors a n d test for c o m p a ra b ility to th e o th e r d a ta sets. T h e th ree-facto r so lu tio n s for b o th th e m ale an d fem ale n o rm a tiv e sam p les on the C o n so lid a ted V ersio n a re given in 'F ab le 5.3. T h e o rd e r o f th e factors has ag ain been re a rra n g e d as necessary to m ake the factors c o m p a ra b le to each o th e r (across sexes) a n d to th e o th e r d a ta sets. T h e p e rc e n ta g e o f v arian ce acco u n te d for by each facto r is also given in the table. T h e first facto r is p rim a rily c h a ra c te riz e d by scales Si, D , Pi. Sc, F, an d Hs, w ith scale K defin in g the o p p o site pole. T h is c o rresp o n d s to th e “g e n ­ eral m a la d ju s tm e n t” factor found earlier. S am p le differences (e.g., on scale

114

CLARK TABLE 5.3 Factor Loadings on Three Factors Extracted on the Consolidated Version N orm ative Groups Factor B

Factor A

(. F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pi Sc Ma Si % o f V a ria n ce A ccounted Kor

M

F

M

OR" 55

03 67

-66

-5 5 51 ao 09 18

11 16 69 60

-12 93 25.4

-4 3 39 71 03 34 04 23 56 61 -0 7 90

22.8

31 -71

11 -21 -4 0 32 -0 4 27 48 50 70 09 18.5

Factor C F

M

F

-6 4 32

07 49

-7 5 24 -1 3

02

22 22 11

46 -0 3 38 67 63 79

58 38 78 69 55 67 39 54 47

02

02

23.3

24.7

-21

63 48 87 51 53 60 30 36 17 -0 3

20.2

'D ecim al p o in ts h ave been o m itted .

Pa) o r possibly sex differences (e.g., scale K) a re as, o r m o re, p ro m in e n t th a n c u ltu ra l differences, w hich really a p p e a r only on scale M f. T h a t scale has m ild to m o d e ra te load in g s on this facto r in th e U .S ., b u t does n o t load on the facto r in th e J a p a n e s e d a ta . In c re a sin g scores on scale M f in the U .S . in d ic a te a g re a te r deg ree o f p assiv ity , as well as a n in te re st in trad itio n ally fem inine activ ities. T h is tra it is c o n tra ry to th e v a lu e placed on assertive self ex pression in th e U .S . T h u s, p assiv ity co v arics w ith in tro v ersio n {Si), d ep ressio n ( /)), an x ie ty {Pi), an d so o n , scales w hich m easu re the lack o f a b ility to en g ag e th e w orld activ ely a n d effectively— in su m , neu ro ticism . In J a p a n , on th e o th e r h a n d , th e ty p e o f p assiv ity m easu red by scale M f does n o t co v ary w ith these c h a ra c te ristic s. C e rta in ly th e J a p a n e s e a re well know n for p referrin g in d ire ctn e ss in th e ir p erso n al in teractio n s. In J a p a n , one c an be “ p a ssiv e ,” in th e A m eric a n sense o f lacking assertiv e self e xpression, w ith o u t b ein g w ith d ra w n a n d u n h a p p y , alth o u g h these ch a ra c te ristic s are co rre late d in th e U .S . T h e second facto r is m ark ed by scales M a, Sc, P t, a n d Pd w ith scales L a n d K on th e o th e r en d . T h is m ay be e q u a te d w ith th e second factor “re p ressio n ” o r “c o n tro l,” seen before. A g ain , sam p le differences (e.g ., on scale Hs) o r sex differences (e.g., scale Hy) a re ju s t as n o tic e ab le as c u ltu ra l

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115

differences (e.g., scale Pa h as m ild lo ad in g s on (his facto r in th e J a p a n e s e d a ta , b u t not in th e U .S .). F a c to r G is defined by scales Hy, Pa, H s, Pd, a n d M f. T h is ag ain seem s to be a facto r re p rese n tin g ch ara c te ro lo g ic a l e x tern ali/.atio n o r so m aticization. O n ly scales Pi a n d especially Sc sh o w a c u ltu ra l difference, lo ad in g on this facto r in th e J a p a n e s e , b ut n o t in th e U .S . T h e differences found on F acto rs B a n d C arc m in o r en o u g h th a t a tte m p ts a t in te rp re ta tio n w ould be highly sp ecu lativ e. T h e differences are p ro b a b ly as m u ch d u e to factors su ch as th e a tte n u a te d v a ria n c e on scalc Pa as to tru e cro ss-c u ltu ra l differences. Also, F a c to r C is sm a lle r in the U .S . th a n in J a p a n , a c c o u n tin g for 1 5 -2 0 % o f th e v a ria n c e in the form er, 2 0 -2 5 % o f th e v a rian c e in the la tter. T h u s , th e J a p a n e s e facto r is a larg er, m ore g en eral factor. It en co m p a sses a g re a te r v a rie ty o f p sy­ cho p ath o lo g y th a n the m ore lim ited a sp ect a p p e a rin g in the U .S . factor. W h en factors h av e size d isc re p a n c ie s o f this so rt, m an y o f th e load in g s will necessarily be d ifferent as well. T h e g en eral p a tte rn m ay be sim ilar, b u t the la rg er fac to r will h av e h ig h e r lo ad in g s o verall. T h is will ch an g e the m ean in g o f the facto r so m e w h a t, b u t ag a in it is n o t c le a r th a t this indicates an in te rp re ta b le cro ss-c u ltu ra l difference. T h e stru c tu re s o f J a p a n e s e m ales a n d fem ales a re q u ite sim ilar. T h e co rrelatio n coefficients b etw een sexes for th e th ree facto rs are .97, .99, a n d .83, respectively. C o n v erg en ce w ith th e U .S . stru c tu re w as also co n firm ed objectively. T h e co rre la tio n s for each facto r b etw een th e U .S . a n d J a p a n e s e m ales w ere .94, .93, a n d .72, respectively, a n d for fem ales w ere ,8(>, .95, a n d .98 respectively, d e m o n s tra tin g a re m a rk a b le co n v erg en ce o f th e facto r stru c tu re s— as good as o r b e tte r th a n th a t b etw een U .S . sam p les. Comparison o f the Old and Mew Japanese Factor Structures.

A few b rie f

com m ents a re in o rd e r to n o te th e m ain w ays in w h ich th e new tra n sla tio n has im proved the deg ree o f eq u iv alen ce to th e U .S . stru c tu re . F irst o f all, the size an d o rd e r o f the m a tc h e d factors arc m ore sim ila r in the new tra n sla tio n , a n d difference in th e size o f m a tc h e d factors is a g en eral in d icatio n o f lack o f sim ila rity b etw een facto r stru c tu re s. S eco n d , a lth o u g h m ost o f the m a jo r lo ad in g s in th e U .S ., o ld , a n d new J a p a n e s e facto rs are the sam e, th e facto rs o f the old version differ in m a n y m ore o f th e m ild to m o d erate lo ad in g s. A lso, a t least one p rim a ry lo a d in g o n each facto r is d isc re p a n t in the p rev io u s tra n s la tio n ’s s tru c tu re . T h ird , it is n o ta b le th a t the con g ru en ce b etw een the sexes is im p ro v ed by th e new tra n sla tio n . In terestin g ly , b ecau se th e ov erall co n v erg en ce is m o re clea r, th e one d if­ ference th a t em erges in the new stru c tu re (on scale M f) is m ore strik in g .

116

CLARK

In su m m ary , th e c o rrelatio n s a m o n g the stru c tu re s sp eak for them selves. The av erag e c o rrelatio n betw een th e U .S. a n d D o sh ish a tra n sla tio n factors w as .71, w hile betw een th e U .S. an d C o n so lid a te d V ersio n facto rs it is .90. Factor Structure o f English and Japanese Versions o f the M M P I Produced hy Bilinguals.

O n e final q u e stio n o f in te re st is w h e th e r th e in te rn a l stru c tu re

o f the test, in b o th E n g lish a n d Jap a n e se , as p ro d u ce d by b ilin g u als is co n g ru en t w'ith th e o th e r sam p les p resen te d . B ecause o f th e sm a lle r n u m ­ b er o f biling u al su b jects, it w as n ecessary to c o m b in e m ales a n d fem ales for this an aly sis, a n d th u s to e lim in ate scale M f In o rd e r to m axim ize co m p a ra b ility to th e o th e r stru c tu re s an aly zed , th e co m b in ed E n glish an d J a p a n e s e scale scores w ere su b jec ted to a p rin cip a l c o m p o n e n ts facto r analysis, w ith a varim ax rotation, and three factors were extracted. A lthough the K aiser-G u ttm an rule indicated th at up to six factors m ight be extracted, three factors w'as n ot a n u n re a so n a b le n u m b e r acco rd in g to th e scree test. T h e loadings o f th e E n g lish a n d J a p a n e s e C o n so lid a te d V ersio n scales on the th ree factors a re show n in T a b le 5.4. T h e p e rc e n ta g e o f v a ria n c e acco u n ted for by each facto r is also listed. G e n e ra lly sp e a k in g , th e factors th a t em erged rep licated th e th re e facto rs fo u n d in th e o th e r sam p les. O n F a c to r A, th e b ilin g u a ls’J a p a n e s e a n d E n g lish fac to r lo ad in g s w ere highly converg en t w ith each o th e r (r = .99), a n d w ith th e m e a n load ing s o f the th ree U .S. sam p les on th e first facto r (r = .93 in b o th cases). T h e o nly n o ta b le differences betw een th e tw o sets o f b ilin g u al lo ad in g s an d those o f the U .S . w ere on scales L a n d I), w'hile th e o nly c le a r diffcrencc betw een the b ilin g u a ls’ E nglish an d J a p a n e s e lo ad in g s on th is facto r w as on scale F. O n F a c to r B, the b ilin g u als’ factors w ere ag ain hig h ly co n v erg en t (r = .95). In this case, th e b ilin g u a ls’ J a p a n e s e fac to r w as slig h tly m ore sim ilar to th e U .S. (r = .90) th a n w as th e ir E n g lish fac to r (r = .86). A gain, the o nly n o tab le difference b etw een th e b ilin g u a ls’ seco n d factors and the U .S. was on scale /., while the bilinguals’ English loadings diverged on scales / 'a n d A' from th e o th e r tw o sets o f lo ad in g s. Scale Pa h a d lo ad in g s of different m a g n itu d e in each of th e th re e cases. In g en eral, how ever, th e salient loadin g s on this fac to r w ere th e sam e across sam p les. F o r F a c to r C , how ever, so m e w h a t d ifferen t resu lts em erg ed . T h e b il­ in g u als’ Jap an e se -E n g lish co rre la tio n on this fac to r w as .67, a n d ov erall th eir E nglish facto r w as m o re sim ila r to th e U .S . fa cto r (r = .80) th a n was th e ir Ja p a n ese facto r (r — .55). E x a m in atio n of th e sa lie n t lo ad in g s,

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117

TABLE 5.4 Factor Loadings of Bilinguals' English and Japanese M M PI Scale on Three Factors Factor A English L J a p a n e se L

-4 9 -1 -4 9

English F Ja p a n e se F

24 44

E nglish K J a p a n e se K

Faclor B -1 5

-20 68

Factor C 29 44

37

28 28

-7 0 -7 0

-2 6 -4 6

06 33

E nglish Us J a p a n e se Hs

15 26

46 37

69 55

English D J a p a n e se 1)

30 47

-0 4 -0 3

68

E nglish H y J a p a n e se H y

-1 6

-10

13 15

77 77

English Pd J a p a n e s e Pd

30 41

52 32

29 30

English Pa Ja p a n e s e Pa

15 23

71 36

25

E nglish Pi Ja p a n e s e Pi

61 74

51 42

29 18

E nglish Sc Ja p a n e s e Sc

50 71

73 44

23 18

-0 6

-02

83 72

-2 6

75 82

-20 -21

-3 2 28

English Ma Ja p a n e se Ma English Si J a p a n e se S i % o f V arian ce A ccounted For

22.5

19.9

70

21

10

17.5

'D e c im a l points have been o m itted .

how ever, in d ica ted th a t the tw o b ilin g u al facto rs w ere m o re sim ila r to each o th e r th a n e ith e r w as to th e U .S. th ird factor. T h e sa lien t lo ad in g s on F a c to r C in th e U .S. w ere on scales H y, Hs, Pd, a n d Pa, w hile for the b ilinguals they w ere on scales H y, Hs, a n d D. T h u s , th e b ilin g u a ls p ro ­ d u ced , in b o th lan g u ag es, a m ore so m atic th ird facto r th a n th e m ore g en eral e x te rn aliza tio n facto r found in th e U .S. In b ro ad o u tlin e, th e th re e factors fo und in th e U .S. a n d C o n so lid ate d V ersion n o rm ativ e g ro u p d a ta w ere rep licated in th e b ilin g u al d a ta . Since

118

CLARK

the basic stru c tu re is convergent across the different g roups, there is good reason to believe th a t bilinguals are not u n rep resen tativ e o f Japanese college stu d en ts as m easured by the M M P I.

Test-Retest Correlations fa b le 5.5 presents both the m onolingual an d bilingual test-retest co rre­ lations, together w ith co m p arab le U .S. d a ta . T h e U .S. stu d ies w ere done on sam ples of 42 m ales (B utcher & D ah lstro m , rep o rted in D ah lstro m et al., 1975) an d 55 fem ales (W indle, reported in D ah lstro m et al., 1975). T h e figures presented arc averaged over the two studies. For the Ja p a n e s e d a ta , m ales an d fem ales w ere com bined, except lor scale M f w hich was figured separately and then averaged, because the n u m b e r o f subjects was too sm all to w a rra n t se p a rate analayses by sex. Looking first a t the m onolingual Ja p a n e s e vs. U .S. d a ta , it can be seen th a t the reliability coefficients o f the tw o countries are clearly o f the sam e order, w ith the Ja p a n e se correlations being the sam e or hig h er for all scales cxcept L, K , and Pd. T h is is not su rp risin g , since the test, alth o u g h culturally ad justed, is basically a tran slatio n o f a test know n to have good reliability in its original form. Som e factors th a t m ight low er the reliability o f a test w hich is tran slate d and used in a n o th e r cu ltu re are differences TABLE 5.5 Test-Retest Correlations for United States, Norm ative Japanese, and Japanese-English Bilinguals Samples

L F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pi Sc Ma Si X

United States, N = 97''

Japanese-Japanese, N — 135

Japanese-English, N = 78

73h 73 85 69 77 67 81 72 65 83 81 71 83 75

71 73 78 78 83 72 7-1 78 69

51 58

68

88

69 59 58 61 59 44 75

87 78 85 78

59 82 63

“Sourcc: D ahlstrom el al., 1975; sec text lor details. ''Decimal points have been om itted.

66

5.

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11 9

in fam iliarity w ith testing or in test taking attitu d es, or obscu rity o f the translation. T h e form er do not exist betw een J a p a n an d the U .S ., at least in college populations, and the latter has clearly been circu m v en ted by the atten tio n p aid to m aking the C o nsolidated V ersion easy to u n d erstan d . T h e lowest correlation in bo th cases is on scale Pa, p ro b ab ly d u e to a tten u ated variance on th at scale in both cultures. T h e bilingual tcst-retcst correlations w ere first an alyzed for language o rd er effects, bu t none were found, so the d a ta w ere com bined for p re s­ en tation. T hese correlations arc som ew hat low er th a n the m onolingual ones. T h is is to be expected, given the nonliteral n a tu re o f the C onso lid ated Version tran slatio n , but they are still high enough to in d icate th a t the test has not been radically disto rted in tran slatio n . In o th e r w ords, if the test were linguistically equivalent, such as it w as w hen it was previously tran slated , we w ould expect bilingual test-retest correlations to be com ­ parab le to m onolingual ones, i.e., to be prim arily m easures o f the scale reliabilities. If linguistic equivalence were the goal, the degree o f sim ilarity betw een m onolingual an d bilingual test-retest co rrelatio n s w ould be a m easure o f the success in o b tain in g th at goal, th a t is, o f the accu racy o f translation. H ow ever, w hen the test has been tran slated so as to em phasize functional equivalence, the test-retest correlations will be a function not only o f the test’s reliability, but also o f the degree to w hich both the overt content o f the co n stru cts an d the m ean level o f the co n stru cts differ across cultures. T h e form er is m ore likely to affect the test-retest correlations than the latter. For exam ple, w hen the co n ten t is changed from “ I used to like d rop the h a n d k e rc h ie f’ to “ I used to like ‘c a t’s c ra d le ’ an d ‘beanb ags,” ’ the response o f bilinguals is m ore likely to differ th an if a frequency w ord has been changcd from “often” to “ som etim es.” H ow ever, although the distinction betw een linguistic and functional equivalence is im p o rtan t, if the two do not have a fair degree o f overlap, it becom es difficult to m ain tain th at the co n stru cts being m easured are the sam e. T h e m o derately high bilingual test-retest correlations attest to the fact th at this degree of overlap does exist, and th a t the co n stru cts m ay be taken as sim ilar in at least som e fun d am en tal aspects.

Item Endorsement Frequencies—Analysis of "Extreme Items" A nother m ethod used to investigate sim ilarities and differences am ong translations w as analysis o f the “ ex trem e” differences in item en d o rsem en t fre q u e n c ie s. B u tc h e r a n d P a n c h e ri (1976) c o m p u te d th e p e rc e n t o f “extrem e” item s— item s w ith a 15% or g re a ter en d o rsem en t difference

120

CLARK

from the U .S ., rep lica te d across sexes— on each scale for th e ir n a tio n a l sam ples (th e D o sh ish a U n iv e rsity J a p a n e s e v ersion p lu s th e six o th e r n a tio n a l sam p les). T h e ra n g e an d m ed ian p erc e n ta g e o f “ e x tre m e ” item s for the six n a tio n a l sam p les a re given in T a b le 5.6. T h e p e rc e n ta g e o f “e x tre m e ” item s in th e C o n so lid a te d V ersion (n o rm ativ e g ro u p ) a n d the D o sh ish a sam p le a re also p re se n ted in this tab le. As can be re a d ily seen, the p ercen ta g e o f “ e x trem e” item s in th e C o n so lid a te d V ersio n is q u ite sim ilar to th e cro ss-n a tio n a l m e d ia n , a n d is re d u ced in every ease from th a t o f the D o sh ish a sam p le. F o r som e scales, th e d ro p is cjuite d ra m a tic — from 38% to 13% for scale D , from 4 1 % to 2 1 % for scale Si. T h a t th ere should be su b sta n tia l im p ro v e m e n t is no su rp rise , since item en d o rse m e n t p ercen tag e w as one o f th e c riteria for selection o f item s for th e C o n so lid a te d V ersion. Scales K , Pa, a n d Pi show th e larg est n u m b e r o f “ e x tre m e ” item s. Scale Si, in sp ite o f its im p ro v e m e n t, re m a in s th e scale w ith th e fo u rth larg est percen tag e o f “ e x tre m e ” item s. T h e se fo u r scales (p lu s D , H y, M a, a n d H s, as w ell) w ere th e m ost d e v ia n t in th e D o sh ish a tra n sla tio n . T h u s, alth o u g h the C o n so lid a te d V ersio n show s an o verall im p ro v e m e n t, c e rta in

TABLE 5.6 Percent of Extrem e Items Per Scale in Six National Sam ples and T w o Japanese Versions 6 National Samples“

I. F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pi Sc Ma Si A verage O v er All Item s

Japanese Samples

Range

Median

C. K 1'

6 -2 6

15-25 3-3 4 10-40

16 9 24 3 18 14 16

13 9 33 18 13

8 -5 0 4 -3 4 6 -3 2 7 -30 7-27

19 15 li 18 15

20 21

38 38 26 37 4!

13-33

13.5

16

31

6-22 17-35

0-12

■■Source: B u tch er & P a n c h eri (1976). '’C o n so lid ated V ersion. ''D oshisha U n iv ersity tran slatio n .

20 16 18 23 23 15

D. u r

20 16 43 36 38 37 27

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121

scales have proved difficult to “ b rin g into lin e .” It is in te re stin g to note th a t the p e rc e n ta g e o f “e x tre m e ” item s on a scale d o cs n o t d irectly p re d ic t m ean differences on th e scale b etw een sam p les. F o r ex a m p le , on scale Hs, the p ercen tag e o f “ex tre m e ” item s is q u ite sm all for th e six n a tio n a l sa m ­ ples (3 % ), a n d so m ew h at m ore su b s ta n tia l for th e C o n so lid a te d V ersion (1 8 % ), b u t th e m ean o f scale H s is p ra c tic a lly id en tic a l for th e C o n so li­ d a te d V ersio n a n d th e six o th e r n a tio n a l sam p les (7.03 a n d 7.05, re sp e c­ tively, for m ales, a n d 6.72 an d 7.94, resp ectiv ely , for fem ales). Y et both are h ig h er th a n th e U .S . scale m e an — 3.79 for m ales, a n d 4.65 for fem ales. A p p a re n tly th e “ e x trem e” differences are m o re o r less b a la n c e d in cith er d irectio n in th e C o n so lid a te d V ersio n , w hile they te n d to be in o n e d ire c ­ tion in the cro ss-n a tio n a l sam p les. T h e m ean s for scale Pd on th e o th e r h a n d a rc n early id en tical for all th ree g ro u p s, yet th e p e rc e n ta g e o f “ e x tre m e ” item s is 16% for b o th th e C o n so lid a te d V ersio n a n d th e cro ss­ n a tio n a l sam p les, w h ich re p re se n t an a v erag e n u m b e r o f d e v ia n t item s. T h u s, th ere is no n e a t one to one re la tio n sh ip betw een ite m level a n d scale level differences, yet each is an in d ic a tio n o f a type o f c u ltu ra l difference o r a c u ltu ra l sim ilarity . O n e th in g w h ich m u st alw ay s be k ep t in m in d is th a t item s a re in h ere n tly u n reliab le. A lth o u g h item sta tistics c an be in d i­ catio n s o f p o in ts o f sim ila rity or difference, scale level sta tistics (m ean s, s ta n d a rd d ev iatio n s, a n d co rre latio n s) p ro v id e m ore reliab le resu lts for c ro ss-cu ltu ra l a n a ly s e s .. T h a t c e rta in scales c o n tin u ed to have a fair n u m b e r o f “ e x tre m e ” item s, even th o u g h tra n sla tio n had been d o n e w ith m in im izin g th ese in m in d , in d icates th a t th e p a rtic u la r b e h av io rs c o m p risin g these c o n stru c ts m ay be so m ew h at d ifferent, o r a t least h av e differing base ra te s, in th e tw o cu ltu res. As we have seen, they do n o t differ rad ically in th e ir re la tio n sh ip to o th e r scales, so th e difficulty does n ot lie in th e co n stru c ts them selves b u t in sm alle r differences in th e w ay in d iv id u al b eh av io rs re la te to or rep resen t th e co n stru ct.

Scale Means and Standard Deviations T a b le 5.7 p rese n ts m ean s a n d s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s o f th e m ale a n d fem ale n o rm a tiv e g ro u p s, an d T a b le 5.8 p resen ts U .S . d a ta for c o m p a r­ ison. Figure 5.2 p resen ts th e g ro u p profiles c o n stru c te d from th e d a ta . T h e U .S . d a ta are those used for c o m p a riso n e a rlie r (F ig u re 5.1) It can be readily seen th a t th e C o n so lid a ted V ersion n o rm a tiv e g ro u p profiles m ore closely a p p ro x im a te th e U .S. college s tu d e n t profiles th a n do th e

122

CLARK

TABLE 5.7 Japanese Normative (College) Group Scale Means and Standard Deviations8 Males, N = 283

L F K Hs D Hy Fd W Va Ft Sc Ma Si

Females, N = Ì97

Means

Standard Deviations

Means

Standard Deviations

3.62 7.10 14.7 7.03 21.7 22.6 16.9 25.9 10.7 15.8 16.1 16.7 29.4

1.94 4.71 4.83 4.19 6.00 4.61 4.75 4.80 3.40 8.02 8.50 4.50 9.49

3.42 6.22 14.7 6.72 22.4 22.1 17.1 36.1 10.8 15.6 14.7 16.8 30.2

1.96 4.04 4.45 4.04 5.18 4.30 4.87 4.29 3.39 7.07 8.21 4.50 7.62

"Values are raw scores w ithout K-correclion.

TABLE 5.8 Scale Means and Standard Deviations of a United States Normal College Sample3 Males, N = 340

L F K Hs D Hy Fd Mf Fa Ft Sc Ma Si

Females, N = 425

Means

Standard Deviations

Means

Standard Deviations

2.54 4.94 15.42 3.79 18.26 20.47 16.92 28.01 9.96 12.42 12.23 18.73 24.33

1.87 3.12 4.68 3.03 4,54 4.04 4.29 5.33 2.88 7.19 7.20 4.25 9.09

2.66 4.00 15.47 4.65 19.46 21.75 15.69 38.77 10.10 13.18 11.52 18.21 24.60

1.80 2.77 4.34 3.44 4.39 4.16 4.03 4.44 2.93 6.80 6.88 4.47 8.77

Source: Goldberg, reported in D ahlstrom , Welsh, & Dahlstrom (1975). ■‘Values given are raw scores w ithout K-corrcction.

Females

STANDARD

SCORES

Males

SCALES Japanese Consolidated Version U.S. samples3--------FIG. 5 .2 . N3 GO

M e a n profiles o f J a p a n e s e a n d U n ite d S ta te s college stu d e n ts (“S ource: G o ld b e rg , rep o rte d in D a h lstro m et a l., 1975)

124

CLARK

previous m edian profiles. In p articu lar, scale D has d ro p p ed a b o u t 14 Tscores in m ales an d 12 ¿ ’-scores in fem ales. O th e r scales low ered a t least 5 jT-scores in both m ales and fem ales include F, Hs, and .S’c. In fem ales, no scale show's a 7-score difference o f even 6 points. In m ales, th ree scales show differences in the T-score range o f 6 -9 points— scales Hs, D , and Sc— b u t even these diflcrcnces arc not im crp re ta b le in the norm al range. T h u s the new profiles are not clinically significantly different from the U .S. profiles, as w ere the previous ones. C om pariso n o f the sta n d a rd deviations reveals a very close congruence betw een the U .S. and J a p a n e s e d a ta . In both cultures, scales L , Hs, and Pa have the sm allest SD s (ap p ro x im ately 2 -4 ), an d scales Pt, Sc, an d Si have the greatest (ap proxim ately 7 -9 ). T h e o th e r scales are clustered in the interm ediate range (ap proxim ately 4—7). For further comparison, Fig. 5.3 shows the m edian profiles of six national sam ples: Israel, P akistan, M exico, C o sta Rica, Italy, and S w itzerland (B utcher & P ancheri, 1976). E x am in atio n o f the profiles show s a clear sim ilarity. T h e only scale w hich show s a T’-score difference o f 6 or m ore points in both sexes is ¿ — the cross-national score is 6.9 7’-scores higher in m ales and 8.4 7-scores higher in fem ales. Figure 5.4 show s th e Jap an ese-E n g lish test-retest profiles. T h e English profiles are m arkedly m ore elevated than the Ja p a n e s e , an d a p p e a r m ore sim ilar to the m edian profiles o f previous Ja p a n e se tran slatio n s (Fig. 5.1), th an to eith er the new Ja p a n e s e profiles o r the U .S. college profiles (Fig. 5.2). T h e Ja p a n e s e profiles, on the o th er h an d , are the sam e as the n o r­ m ative group profiles, and resem ble the U .S. college stu d e n t profiles (Fig. 5.2). T h is is an o th e r indication th a t the bilinguals are not u n rep resen tativ e o f Ja p a n e se college stu d en ts, at least as m easured by the M M P I. It also is fu rth er p ro o f o f the in ap p ro p riaten ess of the original E nglish version for Jap an ese. T o sum m arize, scale m eans an d sta n d a rd d eviations o f a college sam ple on the C onsolidated V ersion are sim ilar to both U .S . college scale m eans and SDs an d the m edians o f cross-national d a ta . T h ey are significantly im proved over those o f previous J a p a n e s e tran slatio n s, p a rtic u la rly for scale D and also scales F, Hs, an d Sc. A be (1959) devoted m uch o f a p ap er to explaining the m eaning o f the extrem e difference on scale D betw een Ja p a n e se and A m ericans in term s o f c u ltu ral differences in depression. In light o f the im proved situ atio n found w hen rigorous tran slatio n m ethods aim ed at psychological equivalence are em ployed, the m ost likely in te r­ pretation o f the previous elevations on scale D is in a p p ro p ria te tran slatio n . C o h o rt differences m ust be considered as an altern ativ e ex p lan a tio n , b u t

Males

STANDARD

SCORES

Females

SCALES FIG. 5.3.

ro Ol

M e d ian profiles o f six n a tio n a l samples'* ("Source: B u tc h e r & P a n c h e ri, 1976)

Females

Males

N) O)

N = 49

SCORES

lO O

-

90 80 70

STANDARD

\

A /'

/

^ x

60 50

/' - / ^

N

‘

^

\

\ ^

/

40 30 ... j .....j ..... 1..

L

F

K

-1__1.-1,-. i_L--1_1__1__ \ Hs D

Hy Pd Mf Po Pt Sc Mo S«

SCALES Japanese English FIG. 5 .4 .

1_

M e a n profiles o f b ilin g u a ls on J a p a n e s e an d E n g lish v ersio n s, 1 w eek te s t-re te st

5.

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127

the fact th at bilinguals’ English profiles m ore closely resem ble the m edian profiles constru cted from d a ta on previous literal tran slatio n s th a n the revised tran sla tio n ’s g ro u p profiles argues ag ain st this in te rp re ta tio n , and supports the notion th a t the cu ltu ral ad ju stm en ts m ade w ere b o th nec­ essary and ap p ro p riate.

DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH In conclusion, it does a p p e a r th a t the new C o nsolidated V ersion o f the M M P I in J a p a n is as reliable as the o riginal, an d th a t con cep tu al e q u iv ­ alence or dim ensional id entity, w hich was qu estio n ab le in previous tra n s­ lations, has been achieved. T h u s, the scales are m easures o f the sam e constructs in the two cultures. Since few m ean differences (an d no large or consistent ones) w ere found, it w ould be tem p tin g to conclude sim ply th a t Ja p a n e se an d A m erican college stu d en ts, on the average, possess the m easured traits to the sam e degree. H ow ever, it m u st be recalled th a t m any item s w ere altered , taking into acco u n t the base rate o f the beh av io r in Ja p a n . T herefore, it is im possible to co m p are the two cu ltu res directly using the C onso lid ated V ersion, since it has been, in effect, p artially renorm ed as well as cu ltu rally a d a p te d in the process o f tran slatio n . If the reason for tran sla tin g the M M P I w ere to create an in stru m e n t for m aking cross-cultural com parisons, this w ould be an u n fo rtu n a te state o f affairs. H ow ever, its p rim ary purpose is as an aid in d iagnosing psychopathology w ithin a culture. Since pathology is m easured relative to norm al behavior in a cou n try , the present tran slatio n is m ore suited to this aim . It has been m entioned th at it is necessary to d em o n strate d im en ­ sional identity before m aking cross-cultural com parisons, and th a t sim ilarity o f the factor stru c tu re o f a test in two cultu res is a m ajor in d i­ cation o f this req u ired com parability. T h is is certainly tru e w hen the in stru m en t being tran slated is in ten d ed to m easure specifically defined construct(s). In the case o f the M M P I, how ever, even m ore im p o rta n t than the question of w h eth er the scales show the sam e relatio n sh ip s to each o th er is w h eth er they show the sam e relatio n sh ips to the a p p ro p ria te criterion groups. T h a t is, m ore crucial th a n the issue o f w h eth er the test is m easuring “ the sam e th in g ” in J a p a n as in the U .S., is th a t o f how it functions in clinical settings. T h u s it is clinical d a ta th a t are now needed to evaluate fu rth er the success or failure o f the C o n so lid ated V ersion translation.

128

CLARK

T he next step, then, is an exam ination of w hether the test can, in fact, be used successfully to differentiate disturbed persons from norm al ones, and to make clinically useful distinctions am ong individuals m anifesting various types of psychopathology. It is unknown w hether all of the U.S. M M PI clinical research d a ta and lore will prove useful in J a p a n , but it is possible th at a portion of it will. Studies should be designed to investigate w hether some o f the more basic U.S. findings are applicable in Ja p a n . A lternatively, some fundam ental em pirical research in J a p a n m ay indicate consistency within that country, without reference to U.S. research. Finally, although some renorm ing was done as p art of the process of translation, further norm ative work m ay also prove necessary. As an exam ple of the first type of research needed, am ong the more salient of the U.S. findings is th at certain profile configurations, p artic­ ularly the tw o-point code types, occur with regularity in clinical settings and are readily associated with certain types o f pathology. D epressed patients frequently show the 2-7 code type, paranoid schizophrenic patients a 6-8, conversion hysterics a 1-3, and alcoholics a nu m b er of different code types all involving an elevated scale Pd, e.g., 4—8. Carefully diagnosed patient groups could be given the M M P I C onsolidated V ersion, and both their individual and group profiles exam ined for the frequency of the expected U.S. code types. If the U.S. findings were replicated, this would be the first indicator th at the M M P I was functioning in Ja p a n as it does in the U.S. (as well as validating the sim ilarity o fth e diagnostic procedures and categories used). If the findings were not replicated, a variety of alternative hypotheses could be proposed (differences in diagnostic p ro­ cedures or categories, in the presenting sym ptom s of sim ilar diagnostic groups in the two countries, or in how the M M P I is functioning, for exam ple), and system atically explored. In any case, the psychom etric properties of the C onsolidated Version as set forth here should prove useful in form ulating the hypotheses to be put to em pirical test. It is to be hoped that Jap an ese researchers will p u t aside their past loyalties to one or another previous translation, and join forces in inves­ tigating how the M M P I C onsolidated V ersion functions in Ja p a n , espe­ cially in clinical settings. A united effort would undoubtedly do more tow ard furthering our understanding of psychopathology across cultures and in Ja p a n , than could the work of several researchers independently using different instrum ents. C um ulative work in this area will proceed much more slowly w ithout the cooperation of all concerned.

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129

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T his chapter is based on a dissertation subm itted to the University of M innesota in partial fulfillment of the requirem ents for the degree o f D octor o f Philosophy. T he research was supported in p art by Jap an -U n ited States E ducational C om ­ mission (Fulbright) Fellowship, and by a g rant from the U niversity of M innesota C om puter C enter. T he author wishes to thank M itsukuni Abe and com m ittee, H aruyo H am a, Yoshinori M atsuyam a, T adashi H idano, and Y asuhisa H am a, as well as many others in Japan for their generous support and cooperation. I also wish to thank Jam es N. Butcher and Auke Tellegen for their com m ents on previous versions of the m anuscript.

REFERENCES Abe, M. M M PI o kanshite m ita Nichibeijin paasonarichi no hikaku. (C om par­ ison of personalities between Japanese and Americans through the M M P I). Owaki Yoshikazu Kyoju 35-nen kinen shinrigaku ronbunshu, 1959. Abe, M. Personal com m unication, Septem ber 28, 19/9. Anderson, R. B. W. Perspectives ori the role of interpreter. In R. W. Brislin (E d.), Translations: Applications and research. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976. Block, J. The Challenge o f Response Sets. New York: A ppleton-Century-Crofts, 1965. Butcher, J. S., & Pancheri, P. A handbook o f cross-national M M P I research. M inne­ apolis: U niversity of M innesota Press, 1976. C attell, R. B. T he scree test for the num ber o f factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1966, 1, 245-256. Clark, L. A. A study o f Jap an ese translations and use. Proceedings o f the Sixth International Conference on Personality Assessment. Kyoto, Japan, 1979, 247-249. D ahlstrom , W. G., W elsh, G. S., & D ahlstrom , L. E. An M M P I handbook, Vol. 2: Research and applications. M inneapolis, University of M innesota Press, 1975. Ervin, S., & Osgood, C. Second language learning and bilingualism, fournal o f Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1954, 49, Supplem ent, 139-146. Frijda, N., & Jah o d a , G. O n the scope and m ethods of cross-cultural research. International fournal of Psychology, 1966, 1, 109-127. G uttm an, L. A. Some necessary conditions lor com m on-factor analysis. Psychomelrika, 1954, 19, 149-161. Hidano, T ., H irata, H., Hori, H ., N agatsuka, W., T subogam i, H., & Furusawa, Y. T odaihan sogo seikaku kensa (T P I) o sakusei. (D evelopm ent o f the Tokyo Personality Inventory— T P I). Nihon Shinrigakkai Dai 28 Kai Taikai Happyoronbunshu, 1964. Kaiser, H. F., & Cafirey, J. A lpha factor analysis. Psychometrika, 1965, 30, 1-14. K assebaum , G. G., Couch, A. S., & Slater, P. E. T he factorial dim ensions of the M M PI. Journal o f Consulting Psychology, 1959, 23, 226-236. M acnam ara, J . T he bilingual’s linguistic performance: A psychological overview. Journal o f Social Issues, 1967 , 23, 58-77.

130

CLARK

M arsh, R. M . Comparative sociology. New York: H arc o u rt, Brace, & W orld, Inc., 1967. W elsh, G. S. F actor dim ensions A and R. In G. S. W elsh, & W. G . D ahlstrom (E ds.), Basic readings on the M M P I in medicine and psychology. M inneapolis: U n i­ versity o f M innesota Press, 1956.

6

Cross-Cultural Considerations for the Translation and Adaptation of the Chinese MMPI in Hong Kong

Fanny M. Cheung The Chinese University o f Hong Kong

T h e M M P I is one o f the personality tests th a t has rep eated ly proved its w orth in cross-cultural testing (sec B u tcher & P an ch eri, 1976). Y et, to d ate little has been rep o rted on an ad eq u ately stan d ard iz ed C hinese v er­ sion. E levated scores on several scales have been observed am ong C hinese college studen ts in the U .S. and in Singapore using the original English version o f the M M P I (Sue & Sue, 1974; K ad ri, 1971). R esults on a 350 item C hinese version of the G ro u p Form tra n slate d in T a iw a n suggested the necessity to rescale the inventory so th a t the m ean in g w ould fit C hinese cu ltu ral p atte rn s (L u, 1967). A n a tte m p t is herein rep o rted to develop a C hinese version in H ong K ong. Before tran slatin g the M M P I into C hinese, one m ay need to answ er the question: W hy a d a p t an in stru m en t from a n o th e r cu ltu re a n d not develop an indigenous instru m en t? T h e ad v an ta g e o f ad o p tin g an d a d a p tin g w ell-established in stru m en ts developed in the W est like the M M P I lies in the w ealth o f evidence accum ulated to su p p o rt the conceptual an d psychom etric p ro p erties o f these instrum en ts. In H ong K ong at present, few stan d ard iz ed C hinese in stru m en ts are av ailable to clinical psychologists w ho spend a su b sta n tia l proportion o f their w ork tim e on assessm ent. A d ap tatio n an d v alid atio n of well established in stru m en ts w hile g ath erin g em pirical su p p o rt for th eir utility m ay be m ore efficient th a n the large scale co n stru ctio n o f entirely new indigenous in stru m en ts at this stage o f the d evelopm ent o f the profession.

131

13 2

CHEUNG

In ad d itio n , a d a p tin g an established in stru m en t from the W est allows for cross-cultural com parisons on the co n stru ct dom ains m easu red by the equivalent in stru m en ts. T h e m eaning an d im plications o f the psycholog­ ical constructs m ay then be exam ined in the context o f different cultures. Verification and modification of these constructs in different cultures would enrich the know ledge ab o u t th eir cross-cultural ap p licab ility , as well as contribute to the enlargem ent o f the nom ological netw ork beh in d these constructs th a t have originated in W 'estern psychology. O ne practical reason for developing a stan d a rd iz e d C hinese M M P I stem s from its ready acceptance by m ental h ealth professionals in local settings. An established in stru m en t, like the M M P I, is often ad o p ted and utilized by clinicians before its cro ss-cu ltu ral a p p licab ility is d e m o n strated em pirically. B ecause o f the applied o rien tatio n o f test users, m uch e m p h a ­ sis has been placed on the external validity an d utility of a tran slate d in stru m en t. H ow ever, to justify the utilization o f the em p irical a n d in te r­ pretative body o f know ledge o f an established in stru m en t, the equivalence betw een the original in stru m en t and its tra n slate d version h as to be dem onstrated . C ross-cultu ral test ap p licatio n s assum e th a t there are eq u iv alen t u n d e r­ lying dim ensions in behavior along w hich groups an d individuals m ay be com pared. T h e com parison will be valid only if the sam e in stru m e n t or an equivalent in stru m en t is used in the different cultures. Berry an d D ascn (1974) proposed three kinds o f d em o n stratio n for the concept o f “eq uivalence” in cross-cultural com parisons: “C o n cep tu al equivalence” refers to the co m p arab ility in the m eaning of b eh av io r and m ay be ascertained by d em o n stratio n s o f tran sla tio n equivalence (B rislin, 1970). “ F unctional equivalence” is concerned w ith behaviors w hich serve sim ilar functions in different cultures. “ M etric equivalence” refers to the extent to w hich the psychom etric properties o f test d a ta o b tain ed from one culture are sim ilar to those obtain ed in a n o th e r cu ltu re. In the tra n s­ lation o f the M M P I into C hinese, the first concern is to establish the tran slatio n equivalence betw een the English and the C hin ese versions. R ecom m endations on test tran slatio n have been ex p ounded by manycross-cultural researchers (Berry, 1980; Brislin, 1970, 1980; B rislin, Lonner, & T h orn d ik e, 1973; Irvine & C arro ll, 1980; Sechrest, Fay, & Z aidi, 1972). B utcher and Pancheri (1976) specified some of the problem s involved in the tran slatio n and a d a p ta tio n o f the M M P I. T o im prove on the equiv­ alence o f a tran slated item w ith the original item , they suggested using a team ap p ro ac h to pro d u ce a “ com p o site” tran slatio n , using back tra n s­ lation, an d pretestin g the tran slatio n in a field study. As an em pirical

6.

CHINESE MMPI

133

check on the tran slatio n , they recom m end a co m parison o f item en d o rse­ m ent frequencies and the factor stru ctu res o f the tran sla te d in stru m en t w ith the original. Bilingual test-retest d a ta on the original an d the tra n s­ lated version w ould give a fu rth er check on their sim ilarity. B utcher and C lark (1979) proposed several guidelines for developing M M P I translatio n s an d pointed ou t pitfalls in using linguistically o r psy­ chologically incorrect versions. T h ey stressed the im p o rtan ce o f rep o rtin g the “ process” of tran slatio n , ra th e r th a n ju s t presen tin g the “ p ro d u c t” as a translated version. In form ation should be provided on tran slatio n dif­ ficulties, modified item s, an d in a p p ro p ria te item s in the targ et p opulation. Such inform ation w ould help test users in terp re t the “ p ro d u c t” o f tra n s­ lation m ore adequately.

TRANSLATION REFINEMENT T h e tran slatio n project on the C hinese M M P I w as begun in 1976 by Fanny M . C h eu n g and T h e o d o ra T in g at the C hinese U n iversity o f H ong K ong. V arious u n p u b lish ed versions o f the C hinese tran sla tio n , developed independently by individual clinicians or researchers in H ong K ong and in T aiw an , w ere taken into consideration. N o study has been rep o rted on the adequacy o f the tran slatio n in these earlier versions. Inaccu racies in connotative as well as den o tativ e m ean in g were found in m any o f the items. It w as necessary to revise the tran slatio n o f the en tire test. T h e tran slatio n was done on Form R .‘ A sim ple level of w ritten C hinese w hich could be und ersto o d by C hinese speaking different dialects was chosen. H ow ever, the linguistic expression was closest to C an to n ese an d m ay be m ore directly ap p licab le to H ong K ong. T h e revised C hinese tra n sla tio n was back tran slate d into English to check for linguistic equivalence. C u ltu ra l a d a p ta tio n s w ere m ad e w here a direct translatio n o f the item w ould have been less relev an t in H ong K ong. For exam ple, on item # 2 9 5 , Alice in Wonderland was chang ed to a p o p u lar C hinese folk story Journey to the West, a Story o f the Adventures o f the Monkey King, w hich is a sociopolitical satire well know n to youngsters. O n item # 9 5 , “going to the B ud d h ist tem p le” was included in a d d itio n to “going to ch u rc h ” to address n o n C h ristian religions.

'In this report, all MMPI items are referred to by their item numbers on Form R.

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Sm all groups o f subjects including college students, psychiatric p atients, a n d p ro b a tio n e rs w ere used to try o u t th e test item s. T h e su b jects w ere asked to in d ic ate difficulties in co m p re h e n sio n a n d re a d in g level. T h e 1976 tra n sla tio n w as fu rth e r revised on th e b asis o f item e n d o rse ­ m en t p ercen ta g e o f 358 s tu d e n t n u rses tested in 1977-78 (C h eu n g , 1979). Item s show in g e x trem e d iscrep an cies betw een H o n g K o n g a n d A m erican n o rm als w ere ex am in ed . Item s for w hich th e co n n o ta tiv e im p lica tio n of the tra n sla tio n w as different from th e m e a n in g o f ih e o rig in al item s w ere d uly co rrected in th e 1979 v ersion. T h e H o n g K o n g version has fu rth e r been co m p ared w ith a la te r version a d a p te d in th e P eo p le’s R ep u b lic o f C h in a (Song, 1981). T w o A m erican M M P I re s e a rc h ers2 w ere co n su lted w h ere item s on th e tw o tra n sla te d v ersions d iffered in m ean in g . T h e final version o f th e C h in ese M M P I w as a p ro d u c t o f c ro ss-cu ltu ra l c o llab o ratio n , b ased on in tu itiv e an d ra tio n a l, as w ell as em p iric a l d e c i­ sions. E fforts w ere m ad e to e n su re th a t the tra n sla tio n w o uld be co m ­ p a ra b le not only to th e A m erican o rig in a l v ersio n , b u t also to a sam elan g u ag e version d eveloped for use in a n o th e r C h in e se c u ltu ra l settin g .

TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE A carefully tra n sla te d test still n eed s to d e m o n s tra te th a t th e tra n sla te d version is eq u iv a le n t to its o rig in al version. O n e illu s tra tio n o f tra n sla tio n equ iv alen ce is to c o m p a re th e test resu lts o f th e sam e g ro u p o f su b jects on b o th versions o f th e test. E q u iv alen ce a n d re lia b ility o f th e C h in ese an d the E nglish v ersions o f th e M M P I w ere stu d ied in a te st-re te st design in 1979. E ighty m ale college stu d e n ts took p a rt in th e te st-re te st stu d y . All o f these s tu d e n ts w ere b ilin g u als a lth o u g h th e ir E n glish w o uld be slig h tly less fluent th a n th e ir C h in ese. S u b jects w ere ra n d o m ly assig n ed to o n e o f four test-retest cond itio n s: E n g lish -C h in e se (E -C ), C h in e se -E n g lish (CE ), C h in ese-C h in ese (C -C ) a n d E n g lish -E n g lish (E -E ). T h e tests w ere taken a t one w eek interv als. In o rd e r to check for carelessn ess a n d in co n sisten cy o f resp o n ses, th e F m in u s K index (G o u g h , 1950) o f + 10 a n d abo v e, a n d th e T R in d ex o f four an d abo v e w ere em p lo y ed to screen o u t inv alid pro to co ls. A fter sc ree n ­ ing, th ere re m ain ed 13 su b jects in th e E-C g ro u p , 15 in th e C -E g ro u p , 20 in the C -C g ro u p , a n d 13 in th e E -E gro u p .

¿J . N . B u tc h e r a n d R . 1). F o w le r.

6.

CHINESE MMPI

13 5

T h e average scale by scale correlations for the E-C an d C -E conditions w ere .69 an d .81 respectively. T hese correlations a p p ro ach ed th e m ag­ nitude o f the reliability coefficients on the C hinese an d the English versions (both .81). In a n o th e r test-retest reliability stu d y w ith 85 m ale & fem ale college stu d en ts in H ong K ong, the average reliability coefficient for the C hinese M M P I w as .86. In com parison, the average test-retest reliability o f a com parab le sam ple o f m ale college stu d en ts in the B u tch er and D ahlstrom 1964 study (in D ah lstro m , W elsh, & D ah lstro m , 1975, p. 254) w as .71. (T ab le 6.1). C orrelations betw een the English an d the C h in ese versions show ed th a t the degree o f equivalence o f the two versions w as fairly high. T h e p a tte rn o f correlations betw een the C hinese an d the E nglish versions w as com ­ patible w ith the test-retest reliability o f the earlier A m erican stu d ies (H a th ­ aw ay & M cK inley, 1967; D ah lstro m et al., 1975) an d the stab ility coefficients of the English and the C hinese versions o b tain ed in H ong Kong. Even w hen the C hinese M M P I was found to be eq u iv alen t to the E nglish version in tran slatio n , its functional relevance should be confirm ed before interp re tatio n s based on the A m erican norm could be ju stified . O n e dem o n stratio n is to com pare profiles o f norm als obtain ed on the C hinese M M P I w ith those o f A m erican norm als on the original M M P I.

MMPI PROFILES OF NORMALS IN HONG KONG From 1979 to 1981, valid M M P I profiles on 229 m ale and 163 female students from the C hinese U n iversity o f H ong K ong w ere collected using the 1979 C hinese version. T h e stu d en ts w ere recruited from the G eneral Psychology subject pool and incom ing freshm an stu d en ts. T h e ir m ajor subjects span n ed the different faculties w ith in the U niversity. T h e age range w as 18-26. Profiles o f a sim ilar g ro u p o f stu d en ts at the U niv ersity o f H ong K ong w ere collected for 98 m ale an d 20 fem ale d en tal stu d en ts in a different research project. Plotted ag ain st A m erican stu d en ts, g ro u p profiles for stu d en ts from the two universities in H ong K ong w ere co m p arab le w ith an overall elevation on scale F and m any o f the clinical scales, peaking on scales 8 and 2 (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2). It m ay be arg u ed th a t university stu d en ts co n stitu te an elite g ro u p in H ong K ong. A m ong a p o p u latio n o f over six million people, there are only two universities w ith a total en ro lm en t o f a b o u t 12,000. In clinical

TABLE 6.1 Test-Retest Correlations on MMPI Scales for Hong Kong and U.S. College Students

Scale L F

E C (N = 13) .80 .61 .77

K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si

.69 .77 .54 .46 .71 .73 .73 .64 .84 .64

Ave.

.69

EC CE CC EE

= = = =

Hong Kong Maies C E ( N = 15)

CC (1S = 20)

E E (N = 13)

.72 .94

.45 .95 .84 .75

.67 .84 .67 .81 .89 .8 8

.78 .8 6

.8 8 .8 6

.78 .93 .83 .35 .83 .80 .93

.8 8

Hong Kong Males & Females CC (N = 8 5 )

E E (TV—42)

.81

.6 6

.8 6

.84 .78

.84 .87 .87 .90

.8 6

.8 8

.90

.72 .49 .74 .79 .63 .83 .71

.8 6

.8 6

.92 .84 .76

.8 6

.8 6

.85

.81

.81

.81

.8 6

.87 .77 .69

E n g lish -C h in e se versions C h in e s e -E n g lish versions C h in e s e -C h in e s e versions E n g lish -E n g lish versions

'A s re p o rte d in D a h lstro m , W elsh, a n d D a h lstro n i (1975), p. 254.

.65 .69 .63 .77

.71 .81

.82 .92 .91 .75 .91

.8 8

U.S. M aies1

6.

CHINESE MMPI

137

SCALES _______ ..............

FIG. 6.1.

Chinese University of Hong Kong Males (N = 229) University of Hong Kong Males (N = 98) University of Minnesota Males (N = 1679) (Butcher & Pancheri, 1976, p. 100).

MMPI profiles of college males in Hong Kong and the U.S.

settings w here the M M P I will m ost likely be applied, only a sm all m inority of the clientele w ould have post-secondary education. T herefore, the C hinese M M P I was tried ou t w ith sm all groups o f factory w orkers. M ale an d fem ale w orkers were recruited th ro u g h the personnel d e p a rtm e n ts of factories and a few com m unity centers w here m any young factory w orkers g ath er for social activities. A criterion o f a t least p rim ary education (G rad e 6) was stip u lated to ensure th a t the w orkers were able to read an d com ­ prehend the lengthy questio n n aire. A fter screening for ran d o m checking, a total of 29 valid profiles w ere obtain ed for m ales an d 60 for females. T h e age range o f the w orkers w as 18-50, w ith m ost of the subjects in their 20s. T h e ir g ro u p profiles w ere sim ilar to those o b tain ed by the college

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SCALES Chinese University of Hong Kong Females (N = 163) University of Hong Kong Females (N = 20) University of Minnesota Females (N = 1603) (Butcher & Pancheri, 1976, p. 99)

FIG. 6.2. M M PI profiles of college females in Hong Kong and the U.S. (Butcher & Pancheri, 1976, p. 99).

stu d e n ts. Peaks on scales F, 8 a n d 2 w ere ag a in found (Fig. 6 .3 ). T h e co n sisten t p a tte rn o f profiles found am o n g differen t g ro u p s o f n o rm a ls in H ong K ong show s th a t elev a tio n s on th e clin ical scales m ay reflect a cu ltu ra l p a tte rn differen t from th e A m erican norm . A ccordin g to th e A m erican n o rm (G ra h a m , 1977), h ig h sco rers o n scale 8 ten d to be w ith d ra w n , seclusive, secretive, inaccessib le, a n d a p p e a r shy, aloof, a n d unin v olv ed . T h e y tend to avoid d ealin g w ith peo p le a n d w ith new situ a tio n s. U n a b le to express feelings, they ty p ically resp o n d to stress by w ith d ra w in g into d a y d re a m s an d fantasies. H ig h scorers on scale 2

6.

CHINESE MMPI

1 39

SCALES Male Factory Workers (N = 29) Female Factory Workers (N = 60) FIG . 6 .3

M M P I p ro file s o f fa c to ry w o rk e rs in H o n g K o n g .

are likely to be pessim istic a b o u t the future, and rep o rt self dep reciatio n , feelings o f uselessness an d inability to function in a v ariety o f situ atio n . T h e ir lifestyle m ay be ch aracterized by w ith d raw al, aloofness, an d lack o f in tim ate involvem ent w ith o th er people. T h ese ch aracteristics m ay reflect a lack o f self confidence and in the m ore extrem e case, g reat personal distress. In terp retatio n s based on the U .S. tw o-point code type suggest th at persons w ith the 8 -2 code are d ep en d en t, ineffective, and have difficulty being assertive. Sensitive to the reactions o f o thers, they tend to avoid close interperso n al relatio n sh ip an d keep people a t a d istan ce em otionally. A ccording to the A m erican norm , this lack o f m eaningful involvem ent w ith o th er people increases the feelings o f de sp a ir and w orthlessness.

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Such characteristics m ay be considered socially m alad ap tiv e in the A m erican society w hich favors m ore open expressions of feelings an d m ore assertive social interactions. How'ever, m ain tain in g personal d istan ce and denying personal achievem ents or capabilities m ay be considered d esirable social behavior for the C hinese (B ond, L eung & W an, 1982; H u, 1953; T seng & H su, 1970). R a th e r th an m aking clinical ju d g em e n ts on the basis of the A m erican norm , item en d o rsem en t p a tte rn s on the M M P I should be closely exam ined to u n d ersta n d w hy an d how som e o f the clinical scales were elevated.

ITEM ENDORSEMENT PATTERNS As an em pirically derived test, the M M P I consists of item s w hich d is­ crim inate betw een criterion g roups in term s o f their p a tte rn of item endorsem ent. In a d a p tin g the test to a different cu ltu ral setting, one basic question is: Do H ong K ong norm als respond to the item s on th e C hinese M M P I in the sam e d irection as A m erican no rm als do on the original M M P I? I f they show different en d o rsem en t p a tte rn s, w hich kind o f item s would they differ on? Item endorsem ent percentages o f 229 H ong K ong m ale an d 163 fem ale college studen ts on the C hinese M M P I w ere com pared w ith those o f M innesota college m ales and fem ales rep o rted by L oper, R o b ertso n , and Sw anson in 1968 (in B u tcher & P ancheri, 1976, ap p en d ix E ). T h e L oper et al. reference group has been used in item analyses o f o th e r cro ss-n atio n al M M P I com parisons on n o rm al sam ples (B utcher & P an ch eri, 1976, appendix F). In terco rrelatio n s on item en d o rsem en t frequencies w ere ru n am o n g four groups o f subjects: H ong K ong college m ales, H ong K ong college fem ales, M innesota college m ales, and M in n eso ta college fem ales. T h e six co rre­ lations would indicate the level o f concordance betw een sex an d betw een the two cultures. C orrelation s on the item en d o rsem en t frequencies show ed th a t the overall concordance rates betw een H ong K ong and M in n eso ta college stu d en ts w ere fairly high (T ab le 6.2). C o rrelatio n s betw een H o n g K ong m ales an d U .S. m ales, H ong K ong m ales an d U .S. fem ales w ere .73 and .69 respectively. For H ong K ong fem ales, the correlatio n s w ere lower; .67 w ith U .S. fem ales, and .60 w ith U .S. m ales. W ithin the sam e cu ltu re, m ale an d fem ale item en d o rsem en t p a tte rn s were very sim ilar. T h e correlation betw een m ale an d fem ale stu d en ts in

6.

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141

TABLE 6.2 Item Endorsem ent Correlations am ong Hong Kong and U.S. College Students Hong Kong Males (N = 229) H ong K o n g M ales H o n g K ong Fem ales U .S. M ales U .S . Fem ales

Hong Kong Females (N = 163) .89 —

U.S. Males' (N = 3278)

U.S. Females' (N = 2369;

.73 .60

.69 .67 .92

—

—

'Ite m e n d o rsem e n t percen tag es as rep o rted in B u tch er a n d P an ch eri (1976), ap p en d ix E.

H ong K o n g w as .89; th a t b etw een th e U .S . s tu d e n ts w as .92. W h ile sex differences w ere o b serv ed am o n g th e H o n g K o n g stu d e n ts, c ro s s-c u ltu ral differences betw een H o n g K o n g a n d U .S. s tu d e n ts a p p e a re d m o re p ro m ­ inent. T h e c u ltu ra l differences b etw een H o n g K o n g fem alek a n d U .S . fem ales w as p a rtic u la rly n o ta b le . T h e c o rre la tio n betw een th e tw o fem ale gro u p s w as .67, even low er th a n th e c o rre la tio n betw een H o n g K o n g college m ales a n d U .S . college fem ales (.69). T h e se cu ltu ra l differences w ere fu rth e r ex plored in term s o f th e differ­ ences in en d o rse m e n t o f in d iv id u a l item s. U sin g 20% difference in e n d o rse ­ m ent percentage as the cutoff as in o th er cross-national M M P I com parisons (B u tch er & P a n c h eri, 1976), 174 (3 1 % ) d isc re p a n t item s w ere iden tified in the co m p ariso n b etw een m ale stu d e n ts in H o n g K o n g a n d th e U .S. Betw een fem ale s tu d e n ts in H o n g K o n g a n d th e U .S ., th e re w ere 209 (3 7 % ) d isc re p a n t item s. A scale by scale p e rc e n ta g e listing o f d is c re p a n t item s is prese n te d in T a b le 6.3. F o r the m ales, th e p e rcen tag es o f d isc re p a n t item s on th e b asic scales ran g ed from 17% (scale F) to 4 0 % (scale L ). O n seven o f th e clin ical scales (Scales 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, a n d 0 ), a t least one th ird o f th e to ta l n u m b e r o f scale item s w ere found to be d is c re p a n t. B etw een th e fem ales, th e d iscrep an cies w ere m ore p ro n o u n c e d . Scale 2 show ed th e larg est p e r­ centage o f d is c re p a n t item s (5 0 % ), w hile the least d isc re p a n c y w as found on scale F (2 0 % ). N ine o f the 10 clinical scales (scales 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, an d 0) had a t least one th ird o f th e ir item s en d o rse d differen tly b etw een the two fem ale g ro u p s. Item s w ith “e x tre m e ” d iscre p an c ie s in en d o rse m e n t w ere su rv ey ed . B etw een the H o n g K o n g an d th e U .S . college m ales, th ere w ere 12 item s w ith over 5 0 % difference in en d o rse m e n t ra te (T a b le 6 .4 ). T h e m ost

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Scale

No. o f Items in Scale

I. F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si

15 64 30 34 60 60 50 60 40 48 78 46 70

No. o f Discrepant Item

6 II

8 9

21 20 12 17 14 17 30 18 23

Female

% 40 17 27 26 35 33 24 28 35 35 38 39 33

No. o f Discrepant Item

%

6

40

13 14

20

12 30 26 18 16 16

22 31

21 27

47 35 50 43 36 27 40 46 40 46 39

'Item s w ith > 20% difference in endorsem ent rate.

“ex trem e” item was item # 3 0 3 (64% difference) on w hich 78% o f the H ong K ong m ales indicated th a t they were so touchy on som e subjects th at they c a n ’t talk a b o u t them , as opposed to only 14% o f the U .S. m ales who would do the sam e. T h e o th er two highly “ex trem e” item s w ere # 4 0 and # 4 4 6 (both 61% difference). For the fem ale stu d en ts, the m ost “ex trem e” item w as # 4 9 4 (72% difference) on w hich 82% o f the fem ale stu d en ts in H o n g K o n g expressed fear of being in a closet o r a sm all closed place while only 10% o f A m erican fem ale studen ts had the sam e fear (T ab le 6.4). T h e o th e r tw'o m ost “ex trem e” item s were sim ilar to those for the m ales: item s # 4 4 6 (70% difference) and # 4 0 (69% difference). B etw een the fem ales, a to tal o f 24 item s were identified as d iscrep an t by over 50% . F u rth e r differences in item en d o rsem en t p a tte rn s m ay be observed in term s o f the n u m b e r o f item s left unansw ered in the H ong K ong sam ple. A m ong the H ong K ong college m ales, four item s were left unansw ered by m ore th an 10% o f the subjects. T h ese item s were related to sex (item s # 2 0 , 37, 302, an d 310). Six item s were left unansw ered by over 10% o f the fem ale stu d en ts, five o f w hich were related to sex (item s # 2 0 , 37, 302, 310, an d 558). T h e o th e r item was related to fam ily’s ap p ro v al o f work

TABLE 6.4 Endorsement Percentage and Desirability Rating of Extreme Items Am ong Hong Kong and U.S. College Students “Extreme ” Item N o.[ M

F

Hong Kong Endorsement % M

F

( N = 229) ( N = 163; 9 40 104 154

236

303 306

344

9 20 40 89 154 171 208 236 257 295 303 310 319 344 349 371

433

43 37 77 86 57 43 79 51 62 46 51 78 36 44 71 70 61 19 59

Desirability Rating

44 32 83 85 43 42 89 18 65 36 29 82 50 37 71 74 66 17 44

U.S. Endorsem ents 2 M

( N = 138; 4.57 5.69 4.91 5.99 5.36 5.91 5.78 4.02 4.82 5.68 5.54 5.08 4.82 6.08 4.36 4.37 5.48 4.72 5.43

F

( N — 3278j ( N = 2369j 96 85 16 36 6 95 36 62 11 94 52 14 93 87 29 13 13 56 8

Desirability° R a tin g

96 89 14 25 3 95 38 73 12 89 80 16 93 90 20 12 10 74 15

(N = 192; 6.81 6.86 3.42 4.84 2.11 7.40 3.89 5.70 3.02 7.00 5.80 3.28 5.10 7.13 3.52 3.02 3.78 6.96 3.62

143

(C ontinued)

TABLE 6.4 (C ontinued)

F

( N - 229) 446

494 510

446 448 462 484 494 510 533 547

32 59 83 53 60 66 37 63

Desirability Rating

F

M

II C7> O?

M

Hong Kong Endorsement %

—s

“Extreme ” Item N o .1

25 69 83 66 82 77 33 66

U .S. Endorsemenl% ' M

(N = 138; 4.86 4.99 5.38 5.31 5.20 5.12 4.40 5.18

F

( N —3 2 7 S ) ( N = 2369; 93 11 34 18 5 8 85 19

D esirability* R a tin g

(N = 192;

95

6.60

12 32 14 10

3.43 4.05 3.83 3.29 3.41 5.68

11 88 13

3.72

‘Item s w ith > 50% difference in e n d o rse m e n t rate . Item e n d o rsem e n t p e rc en ta g es as re p o rte d in B u tch e r & P a n c h eri (1 9 /6 ), a p p e n d ix E. 'D e sira b ility ra tin g as re p o rte d in D a h lstro m , W elsh , & D a h lstro m (1975), a p p e n d ix B. '7, tests for th e differences in d e sira b ility ra tin g s betw een H o n g K o n g a n d U .S . stu d e n ts w ere sig n ific an t at < .001 level for all item s ex cep t # 2 9 5 .

6.

CHINESE MMPI

14 5

choice (item # 4 2 ) w hich is still a m a tte r undecid ed by m an y college freshm en. A lthough the overall correlations on item en d o rsem en t frequencies betw een the H ong K ong an d the A m erican sam ples w ere show n to be m oderately high, cu ltu ral differences m ay be observed from the specific item s w ith d iscrep an t en d o rsem en t p ercentages, and from the high p er­ centage of discrep an t item s on m any o f the clinical scales, especially scales 2, 6, 7, 8, an d 9. E levated scores on scales 2 an d 8 have been noted in the group profiles for norm als in H ong K ong, as well as in o th e r countries including Israel, M exico, P akistan, C osta R ica, S pain and J a p a n (B utcher & P ancheri, 1976). F or the H ong K ong subjects, m ost o f the d iscrep an t item s on these two scales were related to low activity level an d social w ithdraw al. O n e m ay in terp re t such cross-cultural differences as a reflection of lethargy, diffidence, sensitivity, nonchalcnce, an d social re stra in t am ong C hinese. T his in terp re ta tio n is centered a ro u n d an A m erican perspective. T h e consistent p a tte rn o f elevation on scales 2 an d 8 am ong m ost crosscu ltu ral sam ples scored on the A m erican norm suggests th a t an altern ativ e in terp retatio n m ay be offered. C om p ariso n s betw een a U .S. collegc sam ple and o th er n atio n al groups (B utcher & P anchcri, 1976, p. 116) show ed that the concordance rates in item endorsem ent betw een o th e r A sian countries such as J a p a n an d P ak istan an d the U .S. norm w ere sim ilar to those obtained in H ong K ong. A m ericans, on the o th er h an d , m ay be seen by A sians as o p tim istic, b u o y an t, outgoing, action orien ted , and socially aggressive. C o m p ared to the A m erican norm , m ost o th e r cu ltu res ap p eared m ore “d ep ressed ,” “c o n stra in e d ,” an d “w ith d ra w n .”

ITEM DESIRABILITY Ju d g e m e n t o f deviance an d psychopathology m ay be based on the a c ce p t­ ability of certain behaviors in a cu ltu ral context. T h e desirab ility o f the behavior w ould in tu rn affcci the extent to w hich ind iv id u als w ould ad m it such behavior. C ross-cultu ral differences on the en d o rsem en t o f M M P I item s, p a rtic ­ ularly those related to social relationship and activity level, may be explained by the desirability a ttrib u te d to these item s. D esirability ratings o f M M P I item s were o b tain ed from 73 m ales and 65 female college stu d en ts in H ong Kong. T h e stu d e n ts w ere asked to rate the d esirability of a “T ru e ” response to each item on a scale from 1

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(V ery U n d esira b le) to 9 (V ery D esirab le). T h e m ean ra tin g s w ere c o m ­ p a re d to those o f an an alo g o u s A m erican college sa m p le o f 83 m ales an d 88 fem ales stu d ie d by M essick a n d J a c k s o n (in D a h lstro m , W elsh, & D a h lstro m , 1975, A p p en d ix B). D ifference o f over tw o p o in ts in m ea n d e sira b ility ra tin g w ere found on 11 item s. T h e H o n g K o n g college stu d e n ts ra te d th re e item s as m ore d esirab le o r less u n d e sira b le (item s # 6 9 , 104, a n d 339) a n d e ig h t item s as less d esira b le (item s # 9 , 37, 95, 213, 248, 258, 371, a n d 505). T h e se 11 item s a re scored m ain ly on scales 2, 4, 5, a n d 8. Since m ean scores on scale 2 a n d scale 8 h av e been co n siste n tly found to be elevated am o n g n o rm a ls in H o n g K on g , th e d e sira b ility ra tin g s on these tw o scales w ere ex am in ed in d etail. O n scale 2, differences in d e sira b ility ra tin g s o f o v er tw o p o in ts w ere found on th ree item s an d 21 o th e r item s on th is scale w ere ra te d d ifferently by at least one p o in t. O u t of 60 item s on scale 2, 24 item s (4 0 % ) yielded significant differences o f a t least one p o in t in d e sira b ility ra tin g b etw een the tw o college sam p les (T a b le 6.5) S im ilarly, on scale 8, tw o item s w ere ra te d as m o re d e sira b le by over tw o points am o n g th e H o n g K o n g stu d e n ts. D ifferences o f a t least one

TABLE 6.5 Desirability Rating of Scale 2 Items Rated Differently By Hong Kong and U.S. College Students U .S .1 (N = 171)

Hong Kong (N = 138) hem No.

Mean

9 95 104 138 182 207 208 236 248 259 271 285 296

4.57 4.94 5.36 5.47 3.81 6.43 4.02 4.82 4.01 5.42 5.09 4.58 5.52

i.d.

Mean

1.87 2.42

6.81 7.15

2.02

2.11

1.85 1.94 1.48 2.38 1.69 2.03 1.59 1.81 1.99 1.65

3.66 1.89 7.59 5.70 3.02 6.17 3.74 3.57 5.88 6.64

s.d. 2.05 2.09 1.85 1.56 1.60 1.15 1.47 1.05 1.67 1.26 1.47 1.30

1.10

2? 10.026 8.476 -1 4 .5 9 5 - 8.655 - 9.342 7.550 7.251 -1 0 .9 2 5 10.052 - 10.112 - 7.970 6.619 6.841

'D e sira b ility ra tin g as re p o rte d in D ah lstro m , W elsh, & D a h lstro m (1975), a p p en d ix B. 'All Z tests w ere significant a t < .001 level.

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ra tin g p o in t w ere found on 24 o th e r item s, y ield in g sig n ifican t differences on 26 o u t o f th e 78 item s (3 3 % ) on scale 8 (T a b le 6.6). Item s w hich w ere ra te d d ifferently in d e sira b ility m ay be g ro u p ed u n d e r several m ajo r c o n ten t categ o ries: A large g ro u p o f these item s w ere related to social b eh a v io r & in te rp e rso n a l re la tio n sh ip (e.g., item s # 5 2 , 233, 303, 307, 312, 333, 344, a n d 353). T h e H o n g K o n g stu d e n ts g e n erally p refe rre d to stay a p a rt from o th e rs, to keep o u t o f in te rp e rso n a l conflicts, to avoid a ttra c tin g atte n tio n , a n d w ere m ore w illing to to le ra te th e lack o f u n d e r­ sta n d in g by o th ers. T h e a ttitu d e o f n o n ch ale n c e , to th e p o in t o f stoicism , m ay be found in the second g ro u p o f d is c re p a n t item s (e.g. item s # 6 7 , 76, 104, 160, 248, 296, a n d 339). C ollege stu d e n ts in H o n g K o n g p lace d less im p o rta n c e on h a p p in ess. O n th e o th e r h a n d , d e a th w as n o t c o n sid ered to be ex trem ely negative. W o rries a n d tu rm o ils ten d to be to le ra te d as facts o f life. S u ch a ttitu d e s, w h ich m ay be co n sid ered p essim istic o r n ih ilistic in th e A m e r­ ican c u ltu re , m ay be re g a rd e d as p ra g m a tic a n d w o rldly in H o n g K ong. R elated to these n o n c h a le n t a ttitu d e s is th e H o n g K o n g s tu d e n ts ’ accep tan ce o f low a ro u sa l a n d low activ ity level (e.g. item s # 8 , 40, 41, 207, a n d 266). F u n -m a k in g a n d ex cite m e n t w ere n ot co n sid ered to be as d esirab le to th e college stu d e n ts in H o n g K o n g as to th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in the U .S . S im ilarly , th e H o n g K o n g stu d e n ts d id n ot find sta y in g in e rt an d d o in g n o th in g as u n d e sira b le . T o th e A m erican s, such b e h av io ra l styles m ay seem leth arg ic. T o th e C h in ese, in a c tiv ity m ay be a m ean s o f relax atio n an d rest a m id st th e b u stlin g u rb a n life in H o n g K ong.

TABLE 6.6 Desirability Rating of Scale 8 Items Rated Differently By Hong Kong and U.S. College Students U .S.' (N = 171)

Hong Kong (N = 138) Item No.

Mean

104 182 259 282 303 339 349

5.36 3.81 5.42 5.22 5.08 3.22 5.48

s.i.

Mean

2.02

2.11

1.94 1.59 1.78 1.60

1.89 3.74 3.54 3.28 1.19 3.78

1.86 1.75

s.d. 1.85 1.60 1.26 1.52

1.10 1.48 1.31

Z‘ -1 4 .5 9 5 - 9.342 - 10.112 - 8.797 -1 1 .2 4 4 -1 0 .4 3 0 - 9.470

'D e sirab ility ra tin g as re p o rte d in D a h tstro m , W elsh, & D a h lstro m (1975), ap p en d ix li. "'All 7, tests w ere significant a t < .001 level.

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T h e preferen ce for in a ctiv ity am o n g th e H o n g K o n g s tu d e n ts does n ot im ply th a t they te n d to d o n o th in g a n d w o uld give u p on difficult tasks. In s te a d , th ey recognize th e sense o f difficulty involved a n d ac c ep t th e need for m ak in g effort in w ork a n d in life. H a rd w ork a n d careful p la n n in g are n o t considered to be en tirely u n d e sira b le (e.g. item s # 8 9 , 259, 301, an d 343). T h e v irtu e o f m o d esty for the C h in e se m ay be m isc o n stru e d as self d ep reciatio n in th e A m erican cu ltu re . O n item s re la te d to th e assertio n o f o n e ’s ab ility , th e H o n g K o n g s tu d e n ts found it less d e sira b le to sta n d o u t a p a rt from o th e rs o r to ev a lu a te them selves as b e tte r. S im ilarly , they w ould n o t m in d th e need for self co n q u est o r criticism by o th e rs (e.g. item s # 9 , 102, 122, a n d 138). T h e H o n g K o n g s tu d e n ts also found it m ore a c c e p ta b le to a d m it th e ir physical illness, psychological p ro b lem s, as well as stra n g e b e h av io rs o r fears (e.g. item s # 1 5 4 , 156, 168, 182, 194, 236, 251, 349, a n d 352). H o w ­ ever, they ex p ressed m ore n eg ativ e view s to w ard h etero sex u a l b e h a v io r, alth o u g h close re latio n sh ip s w ith th e sam e sex w as n o t re g ard e d neg ativ ely (e.g., item s # 2 0 8 , 285, 302, a n d 310). S tu d ies on th e C h in ese M M P I have show n th a t item s on h etero sex u al re la tio n sh ip a n d sex u al b e h a v io r w ere left u n an sw e re d by a s u b s ta n tia l n u m b e r o f th e n o rm a l su b je c ts w ho felt too in ex p erien ced o r e m b a rra sse d to resp o n d to these item s. Item d esirab ility ra tin g s m ay ex p la in p a rt o f th e difference in item e n d o rsem en t found b etw een H o n g K o n g a n d A m eric a n college stu d e n ts. E x am in atio n o f th e e x trem e item s o b ta in e d in th e H o n g K o n g -U .S . item e n d o rsem en t c o m p ariso n show ed th a t on m ost o f th e item s w ith a d iffer­ ence o f over 5 0 % in e n d o rse m e n t, th e m ean d e sirab ility ra tin g s for the H o n g K ong a n d the A m erican g ro u p s w ere sig n ifican tly d ifferen t by over one ra tin g p o in t (T a b le 6.4). C o n te n t o f these ex trem e item s m ay also be g ro u p ed acco rd in g to th e above categ o ries. Ite m s # 1 7 1 , 303, 344, 448, an d 462 d escrib ed b e h av io rs re la te d to social av o id an c e w h ich w ere co n ­ sidered m ore d e sirab le a n d w ere e n d o rsed m o re freq u e n tly by th e H o n g K ong stu d en ts. A long th e sam e v ein, “ love to go to d a n c e s” (item # 3 7 1 ) w as considered m u ch less d e sira b le a n d w as en d o rsed a t a m u ch low er rate. N o n ch alen ce an d fatalism expressed in item s # 1 0 4 an d 547 w ere ra te d m uch m ore positively by th e H o n g K o n g stu d e n ts. T h e se p o sitiv e a ttitu d e s w ere reflected in th e h ig h e r en d o rse m e n t rate s for th e tw o item s. S im ilar response p a tte rn s w ere found in item s re la tin g to low a ctiv ity level (# 4 0 ) , m odesty ( # 9 a n d 257), ex ertio n o f effort (# 8 9 ) a n d ad m issio n o f p ro b lem s an d fears (item s # 1 5 4 , 236, 349, 484, 494, 510, a n d 533). Ite m s relate d

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to sex life (item s # 2 0 , 208, an d 310) w ere considered as less desirab le and endorsed m uch less frequently. O n e extrem e item reflected m ore explicit differences in social values. Few o f the H ong K ong stu d en ts expected policem en to be honest (# 4 4 6 ) and did not value this v irtue as strongly as th eir A m erican co u n terp a rts. C o rru p tio n am ong policem en has been a w ell-know n fact o f life in H ong K ong w hich p ro m p ted the G overnm ent to establish an in d ep en d e n t com ­ m ission again st c o rru p tio n a b o u t 10 years ago (Lee, 1981). T h e large difference found in the endorsem ent o f item # 2 9 5 am ong fem ales m ay reflect a problem in the tran slatio n and a d a p ta tio n process w hen a pop u lar C hinese classical novel w as chosen to replace Alice in Wonderland. M ore o f the A m erican fem ale stu d en ts th a n m ale stu d en ts have read the English novel w hereas m uch fewer H ong K ong fem ale th a n m ale stu d en ts have read the co u n te rp a rt C h in ese novel. T h e tw o cu ltu ra l groups did not differ significantly on the desirability ratin g o f this item. T h e endorsem en t difference for the females m ay reflect a difference in reading h ab its am ong the H ong K ong stu d en ts o r th e differential p o p u ­ larity o f the tw o novels am o n g m ale and fem ale stu d en ts. T h e observed differences in response tendencies and preferences on the M M P I item s betw een H ong K ong and A m erican stu d en ts m ay be su p ­ ported by o th er em pirical studies on the social a ttitu d e s an d behaviors of C hinese an d A m ericans. M odesty as a v irtue for the C hinese has been d e m o n strate d in studies of p erso n -attrib u tio n s and interpersonal values. Bond, Leung, an d W an (1982) found th a t in H ong K ong, stu d en ts w ere liked b e tte r w hen they attrib u ted their success to luck ra th e r than to th eir own p ersonal abilities. O n the o th er h and, self effacing attrib u tio n s w ere preferred w hen the C hinese stu d en ts were ad d ressin g th eir own failures. In daily social in te r­ actions, C hinese w ould often go th ro u g h the rituals o f denying their p e r­ sonal accom plishm ents, alth o u g h overt praises o f o th e rs’ abilities and accom plishm ents are expected. In a d d itio n to being a social ritu al, m o d ­ esty m ay also be a m anifestation o f in terp erso n al values. T a rw a te r (1966) com pared A m erican stu d en ts w ith C hinese stu d en ts in H ong K ong and T aiw an on an a d a p te d form o f G o rd o n ’s Survey o f In terp erso n al V alues. H e found th a t C hinese scored m uch low er th a n the A m ericans on R ec­ o g n itio n , S u p p o rt, a n d L e a d e rs h ip , b u t h ig h e r o n B en e v o le n c e a n d C onform ity. T h e subtle and in tricate styles o f social in teraction s am ong C hinese m ay be traced to the social philosophy o f m ain tain in g harm o n y (A bbott, 1970; Bodde, 1953). T h is em phasis in preserving g roup harm o n y an d the

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ten d en c y to avoid conflict have been in d ic a te d in stu d ie s o f co n fo rm ity a n d face-saving. W h ile C h in e se m ay often be seen to in clin e to w a rd co n ­ form ity, th e ir te n d en c y to conform differed from th a t o f A m erican s in term s o f g re a te r freq u en cy b u t m o re m o d e ra te e x te n t (M e a d e & B a rn a rd , 1973). C onfo rm ity b eh a v io r am o n g C h in e se m ay be seen as social s tr a t­ egies to circ u m v e n t open conflict by c o m p ro m isin g (S o lo m an , 1971). S im ­ ilarly, the C h in e se co n cep t o f face places th e co n cern o f th e fam ily o r th e collective ab o v e th a t o f th e in d iv id u al. G iv in g face to o th e rs is a m ean s o f p ro m o tin g g ro u p re la tio n sh ip a n d av o id in g e m b a rra ss m e n t (B ond & Lee, 1981; H o , 1976; K in g & B ond, in p ress). T ra d itio n a l C h in e se c u ltu re is co n tra ste d to A m eric a n c u ltu re in th a t th e C h in e se a re said to em p h a size social o rie n ta tio n w hile th e A m erican s em p h a size se lf o rie n ta tio n (Y an g , 1980). T ra d itio n a l p hilo so p h y h as p re sc rib e d m odels o f ideal p e rso n ality for the C hinese (Li & Y an g , 1973). C o n fu cian ism has p layed an im p o rta n t role in m o u ld in g th e v alu e o f h a rm o n y in C h in ese social re la tio n sh ip a n d beh av io r. B oth C o n fu cian ism a n d T a o ism p ro m o te p referen ce for peace, calm ness a n d fo reb earan ce. In a c tiv ity , a c c e p ta n ce o f fate a n d sto icism , view ed ag ain st these p h ilo so p h ical ideals, m ay be re g a rd e d as v irtu es. D espite th e influence o f w estern id eas in H o n g K o n g , it seem s th a t college stu d e n ts m ay still be u p h o ld in g m a n y o f th e tra d itio n a l v alu es in th e ir responses to th e M M P I item s. T h e h ig h e r e n d o rse m e n t te n d en c y am o n g H o n g K o n g stu d e n ts o n item s d ep ictin g physical ailm e n ts, p sychological p ro b le m s, a n d stra n g e b e h a v ­ iors m ay seem a n en ig m a a t first. C h in ese h av e often been d esc rib e d as reticen t a b o u t th e ir p erso n al p ro b lem s, esp ecially th o se o f p sychological n a tu re . C h in ese p a tie n ts h av e been n o ted to su p p re ss th e ir affective sy m p ­ tom s a n d p re se n t em o tio n al p ro b lem s in so m atic featu res (K le in m a n , 1977; T sen g , 1975). H ow ever, these stu d ies w ere p rim a rily b a sed on sy m p ­ tom p resen ta tio n a t m edical settin g s. C h e u n g , L a u , a n d W a ld m a n n (1 9 8 0 81) found th a t w hen p a tie n ts w ere asked d irectly a b o u t d ifferen t p sy ch o ­ logical an d affective featu res on a checklist, th ey w ere m o re likely to a d m it these features even th o u g h they d id n o t c o m p la in a b o u t th e m to the physician initially. In studies using self report q u estionnaires am o n g C hinese su b jects, the ad m issio n o f b o th so m atic a n d psychological p ro b le m s w ere found to be as high o r h ig h er th a n am o n g W e ste rn su b jec ts (C h e u n g , 1982; E ysenck & C h a n , 1982; Lee, 1980). T h e g re a te r re ad in e ss am o n g C h in ese su b jects to re p o rt p erso n al p ro b lem s in self re p o rt in v en to rie s th a n d u rin g a c tu a l co n su lta tio n suggests th a t the use o f these in v en to ries m ay provide su p p le m e n ta ry in fo rm atio n to w h a t m ay be d ire c tly g a th e re d

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in clinical interview s and observations. H ow ever, sexual b eh av io r rem ains a tabooed subject for m any C hin ese an d m ay not be readily revealed unless in a very confidential and tru stin g relatio n sh ip .

STUDIES ON PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS AND PRISONERS Elevations on the M M P I clinical scales arc often in te rp re ted as in d icatio n s o f pathology or deviance. H ow ever, sim ilar in te rp re tatio n s o f th e C hinese M M P I m ay be p re m a tu re given the finding th a t several clinical scales a re already elevated on the norm al profile. T h e extent to w hich scale elevations should be considered atypical and d ev ian t in H ong K ong need to be ascertain ed th rough v alid atio n studies involving criterion groups such as psychiatric p atien ts an d d elin q u en ts. It should be d em o n strated th at criterion g roups score higher th a n norm als on the clinical scales. Prelim inary progress has been m ad e in stu d y in g the profiles o f psy­ chiatric p atie n ts an d d elin q u en ts in H ong K ong. P sychiatric p atie n ts at several m ajor hospitals and psychiatric w ard s in general hospitals have been tested on the C hinese M M P I w hile th eir a tte n d in g psy chiatrists reported their sym ptom s on a checklist. D a ta collection is u n d erw ay to develop profiles o f different d iagnostic groups. P relim inary results on a sam ple o f 22 m ales and 17 females, m ostly having the diagnoses o f schiz­ oph ren ia and neurosis, show ed th a t the p a tie n ts’ profiles w ere even fu rth er elevated th an the norm als in H ong K ong, especially on scales F, 2, 6, 7, an d 8 despite the sm all sam ple size. A pilot study on a C hinese version o f the M M P I developed in the P eople’s R epublic o f C h in a , based on the tran slatio n version used in H ong K ong, show ed sim ilar profiles for m ain ­ land C hinese p sychiatric p atien ts (Song, 1981). T h e ir sam ple included 42 m ale and 45 fem ale schizophrenic p atien ts (Fig. 6.4). I'wo groups o f m ale delin q u en ts have been tested on the C h in ese M M P I in H ong Kong. T h e profiles o f 39 ad u lt prisoners an d 36 ju v e n ile d elin ­ quents u n d er pro b atio n arc p resented in Fig. 6.5. T h e priso n er sam ple consists o f young offenders aged 18-22 convicted o f theft, ro bbery, or com m on assault. T h e p ro b atio n ers w ere aged 12-16 and w ere convicted of theft, loitering, absen tin g from hom e, com m on assau lt, or u nderw orld society m em bership. T h e delin q u en t profiles resem bled those o f psychiatric p atie n ts w ith the exception o f the elevations on scales 4 and 9, an d even h igher elevations on scales 6, 7 and 8, suggesting antisocial tendencies an d difficulties w ith the law and au th o rity am ong these delin q u en ts. T h e ir scores on scales 4,

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SCALES __________ ----------------...................

FIG. 6.4.

Hong Kong Male Psychiatric Patients (N = 19) Hong Kong Female Psychiatric Patients (N = 15) PRC Male Psychiatric Patients (N = 42) (Song, 1981) PRC Female Psychiatric Patients (N = 45) (Song, 1981)

M M PI profiles of psychiatric patients in Hong Kong and China.

6, and 9 were ab o u t one sta n d ard deviation above the m ean scores o btained for th e college stu d en ts. D a ta collection w ith p a tie n ts a n d d e lin q u e n ts h a s m et w ith several pro b lem s in H o n g K ong. A len g th y p a p e r a n d pencil in v e n to ry like th e M M P I d e m a n d s a c e rta in level o f literacy from th e su b je c t n o t o nly to co m p reh en d th e co n te n t o f th e item s, b u t also to follow th e in s tru c tio n s an d to sit th ro u g h m an y h o u rs o f carefu l resp o n d in g . T h is d e m a n d c u r­ tailed the n u m b e r o f su ita b le su b jects since b o th th e h o sp italized p sy ch i­ atric p o p u la tio n an d the p riso n p o p u la tio n in H o n g K o n g a re b iased to w ard low er levels o f e d u c a tio n . E specially am o n g th e o ld e r age g ro u p s, m an y d o not have h ig h e r th a n p rim a ry e d u c a tio n o r a n y form al e d u ca tio n

6.

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15 3

SC A LES ____________ ------------FIG . 6 .5 .

Male prisoners (N = 39) Male juvenile delinquents (N = 36)

M M P I p ro file s o f p r is o n e r s a n d ju v e n ile d e lin q u e n ts in H o n g K o n g .

a t all. M an y o f the subjects tested were careless ab o u t filling o u t the inventory. As a result, m ore th a n h a lf o f the p sy ch iatric and d elin q u e n t subjects h ad to be elim inated due to invalid profiles. T h e understaffing and heavy w orkload am ong the personnel at the p sychiatric an d prison settings m ade recru itm en t o f subjects for research purposes all the m ore difficult. Both inm ates and sta ffh a v e to be convinced o f the potential utility of an in stru m en t w hich has yet to prove its a p p li­ cability to H ong K ong. A ttitu d es tow ard research an d testing w ere at tim es skeptical especially from the frontline w orkers. L arge scale d a ta collection has to be extended over a long tim e span. T hese problem s in d a ta collection have a b earin g on fu tu re ap p licatio n s o f the C hinese M M P1. Even after it has d em o n strated its relevance and

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v alid ity to H o n g K on g , th e length o f th e test a n d its d e m a n d for literacy will co n tin u e to pose o b stacles in soliciting co o p e ra tio n a n d co m p lia n c e from users. T e stin g tim e for p sy c h ia tric p a tie n ts an d d e lin q u e n ts u su ally ran g es from tw o to fo u r h o u rs. Q u e stio n s a b o u t th e item s a n d th e resp o n se fo rm at are often raised d u rin g th e testin g . M a n y p a tie n ts an d p riso n ers need to be cn co u rag e d p erio d ically to co m p lete th e e n tire in v e n to ry . T o im p ro v e on the a d m in is tra tio n p ro c e d u re , in d iv id u a l testin g w ith sta ff assistan ce to co m p lete th e in v en to ry , an d d is trib u tin g th e te stin g o v e r tw o o r th ree sessions m ay be n ecessary in p sy c h ia tric a n d p riso n settin g s. S tu d ies on p sy c h ia tric p a tie n ts in C h in a m ay p ro v id e ad d itio n a l in fo r­ m atio n on th e v a lid a tio n o f a sim ilar C h in ese M M P I v ersio n . N atio n w id e pilot testin g on th e C h in e se M M P I has been s ta rte d in th e P eo p le’s R e p u b ­ lic o f C h in a , u n d e r th e co o rd in a tio n o f th e In s titu te o f Psychology, C h in e se A cadem y o f Sciences. As re p o rte d in th e first w o rk in g co m m itte e m eetin g in 1981'\ a to tal o f 1791 n o rm a ls, 1301 sc h izo p h ren ics a n d 517 n eu ro tic s h av e been tested in difTerent p a rts o f C h in a . T h e resu lts a n d feedback from these field stu d ie s w ere used to refine th eir tra n sla tio n v ersio n . D a ta collection is expected to c o n tin u e for th e next few y e ars to esta b lish larg e scale n o rm s for use in C h in a .

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE USE OF MMPI WITH NONWESTERN CULTURES S tu d ies on th e C h in e se M M P I d e m o n s tra te d its tra n sla tio n eq u iv alen ce to the E nglish version a n d th e ov erall c o n c o rd an c e in item en d o rse m e n t betw een H ong K ong and A m erican norm als. H ow ever, elevations on scales 2, 8 a n d 7 have been found on n o rm a l profiles as h a v e been fo und co n ­ sistently in o ther cross-national M M P I studies (B utcher & P ancheri, 1976). E x a m in a tio n o f in d iv id u a l item e n d o rse m e n t p e rce n ta g es show ed th a t respo nses to m an y M M P I item s differed b etw een H o n g K o n g a n d A m e r­ ican n o rm als. C o m p a riso n s b etw een H o n g K o n g a n d A m e rica n s tu d e n ts show ed th a t different endorsem ent p attern s w ere found, particu larly am ong item s re la tin g to social in te ra c tio n , activ ity level, n o n c h a le n t a ttitu d e , modesty, sex, and adm ission o f personal problem s. R ath e r th an interpreting

'Personal communication with the M M PI Project at the Institu teo f Psychology in Beijing.

6.

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155

these responses in term s o f p sy ch o p ath o lo g y , c u ltu ra l differences in social norm s a n d values m ay be im p licated . D ifferences in item d e sira b ility ratin g s betw een H o n g K o n g a n d A m erican s tu d e n ts on m a n y o f th e d is­ c re p a n t item s su p p o rt this co n te n tio n . In th e in te rp re ta tio n o f C h in ese M M P I profiles scored on th e A m eric a n n o rm , th e elev a ted n o rm al profile a n d d is c re p a n t item s sh o u ld be tak en in to c o n sid eratio n . T h e s e findings p o in t to the im p o rta n c e o f e sta b lish in g c u ltu ra l b aselin es a n d ex te rn a l v alid atio n o f clinical profiles in th e C h in e se c u ltu re before th e C h in e se M M P I m ay be m eaningfully in te rp re te d . Few stu d ies on th e M M P I u sing C h in e se su b je c ts h av e been re p o rte d in the lite ra tu re . T h e few stu d ies w h ich in clu d ed C h in e se su b je c ts in the U .S . (Sue & Sue, 1974) a n d in o th e r p a rts o f th e w orld (L u , 1967; K a d ri, 1971; Song, 1981) all found p ro n o u n ce d M M P I scale elev a tio n s. S im ilar findings have been o b serv ed in o th e r c ro ss-n a tio n a l stu d ie s (B u tc h e r & P an ch eri, 1976) as well as in stu d ie s o f racial m in o rities in th e U .S. (G y n th er, 1972; S tra u ss, G y n th e r, & W allh erm fech tel, 1974). T h e call for estab lish in g se p a ra te M M P I n o rm s for differen t racial m in o rity g ro u p s has been co n ten d e d by re se a rc h w ith in th e U .S. w h ic h show ed no sig­ nificant race differences on th e M M P I w hen sex, age, e d u c a tio n , socio­ e c o n o m ic s t a tu s a n d o th e r d e m o g r a p h ic v a r ia b le s w e re c o n tr o lle d (B ertelson, M ark s & M ay , 1982; G y n th e r, 1972; G y n th e r & U llo m , 1976; P ritc h a rd & R o se n b latt, 1980; R o se n b la tt & P ritc h a rd , 1978; T s u s h im a & O n o ra to , 1982). Y et, the reality o f c o n tro llin g these so cio -d e m o g rap h ic v ariab les in societies o u tsid e th e U .S. is m o re d u b io u s. It m ay n o t be assu m ed th a t n o rm als a n d crite rio n g ro u p s in n o n W e ste rn cu ltu re s can be m a tch ed w ith A m erican su b jects. R a th e r, it w o uld be m o re a p p ro p ria te to stu d y v ario u s crite rio n g ro u p s as th ey arc in th ese c u ltu re s, a n d d evelop local em p irical c o rrelates. T h e sp irit o f em p iricism w hich w as e m b o d ied in the d ev elo p m e n t o f the M M P I as a v ersatile a n d h e u ristic asse ssm e n t in s tru m e n t sh o u ld prev ail in its a p p lic a tio n to d ifferen t g ro u p s o f su b jects across cu ltu res.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was funded by the Institute of Social Studies and the H umanities and was supported by the Social Research Centre of the Chinese University of Hong Kong.

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REFERENCES A bbot, K. A. Harmony and Individualism. T aipei: T h e O rie n t C u ltu ra l Service, 1970. B erry, J . W . In tro d u ctio n to m ethodology in H. C. T ria n d is & J . W . B erry (E ds.), Handbook o f Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol. 2: Methodology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1980. Berry, J . W . & D asen, P. (E ds.). Introduction to Culture and Cognition. London: M ethuen, 1974. B ertelson, A. D., M arks, P. A., & M ay, G . D. M M P I an d race: A controlled study. Journal o f Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 1982, 50 (2), 316-318. Bodde, D. H arm ony & conflict in C hinese philosophy. In A. F. W rig h t (E d .), Studies in Chinese Thought. C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago Press, 1953. Bond, M. H ., Leung, K ., & W an, K. C. T h e social im pact o f self-effacing a ttri­ butions: T h e C hinese case. Journal o f Social Psychology, 1982, 118, 157-166. Bond, M . H ., & Lee, P. W . H. Face saving in C hinese culture: a discussion and experim ental study o f H ong K ong stu d en ts. In A. K ing & R. Lee (eds.). Social Life and Development in Hong Kong. H ong K ong: C hinese U niversity Press, 1981. Brislin, R. W. Back tran slatio n for cross-cultural research. Journal o f Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1970, 1, 185-216. Brislin, R. W . T ran slatio n and content analysis o f oral an d w ritten m aterial. In H . C. T ria n d is & J . W. Berry (eds.). Handbook o f Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol. 2: Methodology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1980. Brislin, R. W ., L onner, W . J., & T h o rn d ik e, R. Cross-Cultural Research Methods. New York: W iley, 1973. ' B utcher, J . N ., & C lark, I,. A. R ecent trends in cross-cultural M M P I research and application. In J . N. B utcher (ed.) New Developments in the Use o f the M M P I. M inneapolis: U niversity o f M inn eso ta Press, 1979. B utcher, J . N., & Pancheri, P. Cross-National M M P I Research. M inneapolis: U n i­ versity o f M innesota Press, 1976. C heung, F. M . M M P I profiles and analyses o f norm als in H ong K ong. In J . N. B utcher, H . H am a, & Y. M atsu y am a (eds.) Proceedings o f the 6th International Conference on Personality Assessment, K yoto, Ja p a n : D oshisha U niv ersity , 1979. C heung, F. M. Psychological sym ptom s am ong C hinese in u rb an H ong K ong. Social Science and Medicine, 1982, 16, 1339-1344. C heung, F. M ., Lau, B. W . K ., & W ald m an n , E. S om atization am ong C hinese depressives in general practice. International Journal o f Psychiatry in Medicine, 198081, 10 (4), 361-374. D ahlstrom , W . G ., W elsh. G. S., and D ah lstro m , L. E. An M M P I Handbook, Vol. II. M inneapolis: U niversity o f M innesota Press, 1975. Eysenck, S. B., & C h a n , J . A com parative study o f personality in ad u lts and children: H ong K ong vs E ngland. Personality Individual Differences, 1982, 3, 153160. G rah am , J . R. The M M P I: A Practical Guide. New York: O xford U niversity Press, 1977. G ough, H. G. T h e F m inus K dissim ulation. Journal o f Consulting Psychology, 1950, 14, 408-413.

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G ynther, M . W hite norm s & black M M P Is: A prescription for discrim ination? Psychological Bulletin, 1972, 78, 386-402. G ynther, M. D., & U llom , J. O bjections to M M P I item s as a function o f in te r­ personal tru st, race & sex. Journal o f Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44 ( 6 ) , 1020 .

H athaw ay, S. R., & M cK inley, J . C. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Manual. New York: Psychological C o rp o ratio n , 1967. H o, D. Y. F. O n the concept o f face. American Journal o f Sociology, 1976, 81, 8 6 7 884. H su, F. L. K. Americans and Chinese: Two Ways o f Life. New York: A belard-Schum an, 1953. Irvine, S. H ., & C arroll, W . K. T estin g an d assessm ent across cultures: Issues in m ethodology and theory. In H . C. T rian d is & J . W Berry (eds.) Handbook o f Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol. 2: Methodology. Boston: Allyn & B acon, 1980. K adri, Z. N. The use o f the M M P I for personality study of Singapore students. British Journal o f Social and Clinical Psychology, 1971, 10, 90-91. King, A. Y. C. & Bond, M. H. A Contucian paradigm of men: A sociological view. In W. S. T seng & D. W u (eds.). Chinese Culture and Mental Health. New York: Academic Press, in press. K leinm an, A. M. D epression, som atization an d the “new cross-cultural p sychia­ try ” . Social Science and Medicine, 1977, II, 3-10. Lee, R. P. I.. Sex roles, social status, & psychiatric sym ptom s in u rb a n H ong K ong. In A. K lein m an , & T . Y. Lin (eds.), Normal & Abnormal Behavior in Chinese Culture. D ordrecht, H olland: D. Reidel, 1980, 273-289. Lee, R. P. L. (ed.) Corruption and Its Control in Hong Kong. H ong K ong: C hinese U niversity Press, 1981. Li, Y. Y., & Y ang, K. S. (eds.) Symposium on The Character o f the Chinese: An Interdisciplinary Approach. (In C hinese). T aipei: In stitu te of E thnology, A cadem ia Sinica, 1973. Lu, C. Y. A C hinese revision of M M P I lor the C hinese people. Psychology and Education (in C hinese), 1967, /, 20-36. M eade, R. D., & B arn ard , W . F. C onform ity and anti-conlbrm ity am ong A m er­ icans & C hinese. Journal o f Social Psychology, 1973, 89, 15-24. P ritchard, D. A., & R osenblatt, A. I. Racial bias in the M M P I: A m ethodological review. Journal o f Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 1980, 48, 263-267. R osenblatt, A. I., & P ritch ard , D. A. M oderators o f racial differences on the M M P I. Journal o f Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 1978, 46 (6), 1572-1573. Sechrest, L., Fay, T ., and Z aid a, S. Problem s of tran slatio n in cross-cultural research. Journal o f Cross-cultural Psychology, 1972, /, 41-56. Solom an, R. H . M ao’s Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture. Berkeley, C alifor­ nia: U niversity o f C alifornia Press, 1971. Song, W. Z. Application o f the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in some areas o f the People’s Republic o f China. P aper presented at the 7th In te rn atio n al C o n ­ ference on Personality A ssessm ent, H onolulu, H aw aii, F eb ru ary 27-28, 1981. S trauss, M . E., G ynther, M . D ., & W allherm fechtel, J . D ifferential m isdiagnosis of blacks and whites by the M M P I. Journal o f Personality Assessment, 1974, 38, 55-60.

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Sue, S., & Sue, D. W. M M P I com parisons betw een A sian-A m erican an d nonA sian students utilizing a stu d en t health psychiatric clinic. Journal o f Counseling Psychology, 1974, 21, 423-427. T arw ater, J . W . C hinese & A m erican stu d e n ts’ interpersonal values: A crosscultural com parison. Journal o f College Student Personnel, 1966, N ovem ber, 3 5 1 354. T seng, W. S. T h e n a tu re o f som atic com plaints am ong psychiatric patients: T he C hinese case. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 1975, 16, 237-245. Tseng, W. S., & H su, J . C hinese culture, personality form ation and m ental illness. The International Journal o f Social Psychiatry, 1970, 16 (1), 5-14. T su sh im a, W . T ., & O n o rato , V. A. C om parison o f M M P I scores o f white and Jap anese-A m erican m edical patients. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1982, 50 (1), 150-151. Y ang, K. S. Social o rientation and individual m odernity am ong C hinese stu d en ts in T aiw an: F u rth e r em pirical evidence. Journal o f Social Psychology, 1980.

7

Adaptation of the MMPI in Greece:Translation, Standardization, and Cross-Cultural Comparison

Nikolas Manos Department o f Psychiatry, University of Thessaloniki Medical School, Thessaloniki, Greece

Recent years have seen a broader developm ent of psychological and psy­ chiatric inventories and scales m easuring behavior, psychopathology, or personality characteristics. T h e methodology of their construction has followed several approaches: rational, em pirical, factor analytic or com ­ bined. But, regardless o f the methodological approach, recent studies have shown that there are no significant differences in the relative success of the m ethodology applied (B utcher & O w en, 1978). W hat is more im por­ tant for the validity of a personality assessm ent instrum ent is the external validation that it receives du rin g its developm ent. If the scalc docs not predict w hat it is supposed to, it is useless regardless of how interesting the content m ight be (B utcher & O w en, 1978). T he M M P I (an em pirically constructed test) has obtained greater external validation than any o ther personality test in use, as shown from the following observations:

(1) in the forty years since its construction the M M P I has been tran s­ lated in well over fifty countries around the world (B utcher & C lark, 1979); (2) over 200 books, articles, and theses on the M M P I are produced every year (Buros, 1972); (3) over 6,000 M M P I related references were reported in the M M P I H andbook of D ahlstrom , W elsh, and D ahlstrom (1975); 159

160

MANOS

(4) B utcher and O wen (1978) reviewed the personality test research between 1972 and 1977, using the M M P I, D PI and 16PF tests and found th at 84% o f the work was done using the M M P I; (5) th e M M P i ’s a b ility to p re d ic t p s y c h ia tric d ia g n o ses re m a in s rem arkable (H athaw ay & M cK inley, 1967). C ross-cultural factor analytic and discrim inant factor analytic studies on American and E uropean sam ples have shown th at the scales of the M M P I m easure reliably the sam e characteristics and psychopathology in several countries (B utcher & Panchcri, 1976). A recent review of the cross-cultural applications of the M M P I has shown active M M P I research taking place in such diverse countries as Israel, Pakistan, South Africa, Ja p a n , Mexico, Chile, Italy, A ustralia, K uw ait, and Poland. (B utcher & C lark, 1979). T hough the M M P I has been known in G reece for some tim e, and a num ber of psychologists or psychiatrists have attem pted to translate it from the original English test or from G erm an, French, and other tran s­ lated versions, no formal project had been undertaken to develop a th o r­ ough translation and standardization of the inventory. T h e potential utility of the M M PI in G reece led the a u th o r to decide to ad ap t it formally into Greek.

TRANSLATION T he translation followed the team approach (Brislin, 1970): two bilingual psychiatrists and two psychiatrists proficient in English translated each item into Greek sim ultaneously and by consensus. T he most im portant observations during the translation procedure were the following: (1) in order to achieve an equivalent translation, and also one capable of delecting cross-cultural differences, the translated version was kept meticulously close to the original (H athaw ay, 1970). T his was feasible, because there were no culturally irrelevant items or idioms dif­ ficult to translate into Greek. T hus, du rin g the translation, it becam e evident that the Greek culture was quite close to the A m erican, an d to W estern cultures in general. We did not encounter any of the difficulties described by the authors of translations in E astern cultures like Pakistan and J a p a n (B utcher & Pancheri, 1976). (2) Because o f the difficulties Greek subjects have with “ true-false” questions, it was decided to use Yes or No instead. (3) T here was some difficulty w ith negatively w orded

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161

statem ents, the sim ple negative becom ing d o u b le in o u r language (the sam e th a t w as observed in o th er countries as w ell). From the various options availab le to solve this p roblem (R osen, 1958), we chose to in co r­ porate an exp lan ato ry statem en t into the In stru c tio n s to the test. T his first tran slatio n was followed by a careful back tran sla tio n (W ern er & C am pbell, 1970, Sechrest, Fay, & Z aidi, 1972, B rislin, L o n ner, & T h orndike, 1973) in w hich nine bilinguals tran slated back into English ten p arts o f the G reek version, each p a rt com posed of 56 item s (one bilingual tran sla te d two p a rts— 112 item s). T h en a bilingual p sy ch iatrist checked every back tran slated item ag ain st the original, keeping only the com pletely m atch in g ones and retu rn in g to the tran slatio n team every n o nm atching item to be tran slated again and ag ain until the best m atch could be achieved. F inally, two bilingual G reek-A m erican m edical stu ­ dents, w ho were born and raised in the U n ited S tates b u t lived in G reece for six years, checked all tran slated item s again st the original and m ade a few final recom m endations to the bilingual psy chiatrist. T h e final form of the G reek version was o b tain ed w hen no item s needed retran slatio n . A field stud y w as designed to clarify its use. It w as d eterm in ed that: (1) T h e M M P I could be com pleted by G reek subjects w ithin an h our and a half. (2) Its com prehension d em an d ed at least nine years o f school­ ing. (3) D ouble negatives were a difficulty, but the ad d ed state m e n t in the In stru ctio n s was able to clarify the m eaning o f the item s.

BILINGUAL STUDY In o rd er to evaluate the reliability o f the tran slatio n a test-retest stu d y was conducted in w hich 26 bilinguals, all university ed u cated , took the M M P I in both G reek an d E nglish. T h e range o f stay in the S tates was three to 31 years. F ourteen bilinguals answ ered the G reek version first and twelve subjects took the E nglish version first. T h e two form s w ere com pleted in an average of 16 days w ith a range o f 7-45 days. T h e d a ta were analyzed by c o m p u te r.1 F irst, correlatio n coefficients betw een the scale scores o f the tw o versions w ere co m p u ted . T h e in terco rrelatio n s for

'T h e a n a ly s is o f th e d a t a w a s c o n d u c te d in th e U n iv e rs ity o f T h e s s a lo n ik i’s U N I V A C 1100 c o m p u te r . T h e p ro g r a m s u s e d w e re k in d ly o ffered b y D r. J . N . B u tc h e r o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f M in n e s o ta : C H E C K , O R D E R , T A L L Y , S T R E A M ­ L IN E D , S C O R E -M O D , a n d IT C O M m o d ifie d a p p r o p r ia te ly .

(B u tc h e r & P a n c h e r i, 1 9 7 6 ), a n d w e re

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MANOS

the G reek -E n g lish are given in T a b le 7.1 a lo n g w ith several o th e r testretest studies. T h e c o rrela tio n s o f th e G reck -E n g lish c o m p ariso n s are g e n ­ erally h igh (ra n g in g from .67 to .93) a n d co m p a re very fav o rab ly w'ith the o th e r test-rc te st stu d ies. A n item an aly sis w as also p erfo rm ed b etw een th e G reek a n d E n g lish responses. The item en dorsem ent stability betw een the two versions proved to be very high w ith 8 8 .7 % o f all th e item s e n d o rsed in th e sam e w ay in b o th the G reek an d E n g lish v ersio n o f th e test. T h is p e rc e n ta g e w as c o m p arab le to th e test-re te st item sta b ility re p o rte d for th e A m erican M M P I (Schofield, 1950; H o w a rd , 1964; G o ld b erg & J o n e s , 1969). F in ally , the M M P I profiles o f th e tw o v ersions w ere c o m p a re d by m ean s o f th reedigit h ig h -p o in t codes for in d iv id u a l p airs an d m ean profile c o n fig u ratio n s. T h e sim ilarity w as strik in g : 12 su b jects h a d id en tical h ig h -p o in t codes, tw o h ad one p o in t difference in one scale, n in e h a d one scale shift a n d three h a d a tw o scale shift. T h e m ea n profile co n fig u ra tio n s in th e testretest stu d y arc show n in F ig ure 7.1. A n in sp ectio n o f th ese profiles show s

TABLE 7.1 Com parison of Test-Retest Correlations betw een Greek-English Bilinguals, Hebrew-English Bilinguals, English-English Subjects, and G erm an, French, and Spanish Bilinguals

Scale L F K. Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si

CreekEnglish N = 26

llebrewEnglish N = 28

.82 .70

.71 .64

.88

.88

.69 .80 .67 .70 .72 .76 .91 .84 .82 .93

.51 .72 .62 .65

.86 .65

.88 .88 .72 .91

Composite o f Nine Studies English-English“

.66 .71 .69 . .59 .74 .62 .71 .80 .61 .77 .63 .70 —

Composite o f German-English French-English Spanish-English" .61 .62

.88 .65 .82

.66 .83 .75 .58 .81 .71 .74 .83

N ote: Source o f colum ns 2, 3 a n d 4: B u tch er an d P ancheri (1976). 'C o m p o site o b ta in e d by a v erag in g w eighted Z tra n sfo rm a tio n s o f r in stu d ie s o f no rm al subjects rep o rted in D a h lstro m a n d W elsh (1960). ’’C o m p o site o b ta in e d by av erag in g w eighted Z tra n sfo rm a tio n s o f r rep o rted by G latt (1969).

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163

OT HI

CC

o

o m Q OC < o 2 < I— V)

SCALES F IG . 7 .1 .

M e a n p ro f ile s o f b ilin g u a l S s (Nr = 2 6 ) w h o to o k th e M M P I in G r e e k

a n d in E n g lis h .

th a t th ey are q u ite c o m p a ra b le . T h u s, th e resu lts o f th e b ilin g u a l testre te st stu d y suggest th a t th e tra n sla tio n w as very reliab le a n d th e G reek version can be con sid ered an a lte rn a te form o f th e test.

STANDARDIZATION T h e sta n d a rd iz a tio n stu d y took p lace in th e city o f T h e ssa lo n ik i (second largest city in G reece, p o p u la tio n close to o n e m illion) lo cated in N o rth e rn G reece. A to ta l o f 512 su b jects, 255 m en a n d 257 w o m en , took th e G reek version o f the M M P I e ith e r in d iv id u ally o r in g ro u p s o f 10 to 30 people. Specific in stru c tio n s a n d a n e x p la n a tio n w ere w ritten on th e first page o f

164

MANOS TABLE 7.2 Age Distribution of the Greek Normal Sample Men

Women

Total

Age

N

%

N

%

N

%

16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-55 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65

61 95 27 26

23.92 37.25 10.59

85 82 29 36

11

2

7.84 3.53 2.75 1.18 1.96 0.78

146 177 56 62 31 16

28.52 34.57 10.94

20

33.07 31.91 11.28 14.01 4.28 2.72 0.39 1.95 0.39

255

100.00

257

10.20

9 7 3 5

TO TA L

7 I 5

1 -

-

100.00

12.11

8 8 6 2

6.05 3.13 1.56 1.56 1.17 0.39

512

100.00

TABLE 7.3 Distribution of the Greek Normal Subjects according to Education Men

Women

Total

Education

N

%

N

High-School Stud.

21

8.23

23

44

8.59

High-School Grad.

18

7.06

38

56

10.94

3

1.18

143

56.08

6 122

Technical College Students University Stud. Technical College Graduates University Grad. TO TA L

%

N

%

2.33

9

1.76

47.47

265

51.76

8

3.14

5

1.95

13

2.54

62

24.31

63

24.51

125

24.41

255

100.00

257

100.00

512

100.00

the test booklet. It was assum ed th a t the subjects as a g ro u p were free of psychiatric illness, since they w ere functioning in the com m u n ity , m ost of them as U niversity stu d en ts or professionals. T h e dem og rap h ic ch aracteristics o f the G reek no rm al sam p le are show n in T ab les 7.2-7.8. T h e age o f subjects is show n in T a b le 7.2, the ed u catio n of the sam ple is show n in T a b le 7.3, the o ccupation o f the sam p le is show n in T ab le 7.4, the statistics o f the sam ple relative to education a n d age are in T ab les 7.5 an d 7.6. A considerable variety o f o ccupations w as secured

7.

ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI IN GREECE

165

TABLE 7.4 Distribution of the Greek Normal Subjects according to Occupation Men Occupation

N

High School Stud. Techn. College Stud. University St. Professionals Other occupation

21 3 143 62 26 255

N

Women %

Total

N

%

N

%

8.93 1.18 56.08 24.31 10.20

23 6 122 63 43

8.95 2.34 47.47 24.51 16.73

44 9 265 125 69

8.59 1.76 51.76 24.41 13.48

100.00

¿57

100.00

512

100.00

TOTAL 49.80

%

50.20

100.00

TABLE 7.5 Distribution and Statistics of the Greek Normal Subjects according to their Educational Level Men

Women

Total

V f l/ jy p I CUTS OJ

Education 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

N

%

N

1 12 5 20 6 37 39 33 69 33

0.39 4.71 1.96 7.84 2.35 14.51 15.30 12.94 27.06 12.94

_

_

16 6 30 14 48 36 64 31 12

6.23 2.33 11.67 5.45 18.68 14.01 24.90 12.06 4.67

%

N

%

1 28 11 50 20 85 75 97 100 45

0.19 5.47 2.15 9.77 3.91 16.60 14.65 18.94 19.53 8.79

Statistics Median Mean SD SEM Variation Coef N

16.00 15.29 2.21 0.14 14.45 255

15.00 14.58 2.09 0.13 14.35 257

15.00 14.94 2.18 0.10 14.59 512

166

MANOS

TABLE 7.6 Age statistics of the Greek Normal Sample Statistics

Men

Women

Total

Median Mean SD SEM Variation Coef. N

24.00 27.61 10.03 0.63 36.33 255

23.00 25.33 8.03 0.50 31.71 257

23.00 26.47 9.15 0.40 34.56 512

TABLE 7.7 Mean Raw Scores (K and Non /C-Corrected), Standard Deviations, M aximum and M inim um Scores fo r Greek Normal Males (N = 255)

Scale L F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si Hs + Pd + Pt + Sc +

.5K .4K IK IK

Mean Raw Score

SD

Maximum Score

Minimum Score

4.624 9.067 11.765 7.627 23.976 21.004 19.361 26.769 10.694 16.706 19.329 19.200 31.063 13.510 24.067 28.471 31.094 21.553

2.467 5.607 4.323 4.488 4.784 4.736 5.239 4.665 3.917 8.819 10.101 4.894 7.722 4.258 4.888 6.631 7.978 4.599

13. 35. 24. 25. 40. 37. 36. 42. 27. 43. 52. 34. 51. 28. 40. 48. 56. 35.

0. 0. 3. 0. 13. 10. 8. 14. 2. 0. 2. 7. 14. 4. 11. 17. 16. 10.

in the sample: students, technicians, clerks, m usicians, businessm en, sec­ retaries, nurses, accountants, teachers, professors, physicians, engineers, lawyers, archeologists, judges, housewives, m erchants, m echanics, etc. Inspection o f these tables shows that the present sam ple is som ewhat better educated than the population— the average man or woman was

7.

ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI IN GREECE

167

TABLE 7.8 M ean Raw Scores (if and Non K-Corrected), Standard Deviations, M axim um and M in im um Scores for Greek N orm al Females (N = 257)

Scale L

Mean Raw Score 3.973 9.969 10.315 10.537 26.144 22.837 20.525 34.821

F K. Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt

12.121

St Ma Si H s + 5K Pd + 4K P i + IK Sc + IK

19.786 22.720 19.712 33.171 15.695 24.651 30.101 33.035 21.775

SD 2.043 5.675 3.858 5.374 5.181 5.560 5.716 4.001 4.370 8.729 11.435 5.088 7.436 5.059 5.485 6.985 9.736 4.813

Maximum Score

Minimum Score

9. 26. 23. 27. 42. 38. 34. 44. 25. 41. 51. 32. 52. 30. 38. 48. 61. 33.

0. 1.

2. 1. 13. 9. 5. 24. 2. 2.

1. 7. 16. 5. 8. 14. 15. 9.

a ro u n d 25 years old, h a d h ad 15 y ears o f sch o o lin g , a n d w as a s tu d e n t in the U n iv ersity o r a professional. M ean raw scores (K a n d n o n /^ -C o rre cte d ), s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s a n d the m axim um an d m inim um scores o f the norm al G reek sam ple arc dcpicted in T a b le s 7.7 a n d 7.8 (S corem od o u tp u t). T a b le s 7.9 a n d 7.10 show the scale co rrela tio n s o f the G reek sam p le (also S corcm od o u tp u t). It c an be easily seen th a t the la tte r are a n alo g o u s to th e A m e rica n scores in size an d d irection : e.g., high c o rrela tio n b etw een P d a n d Sc, very h ig h c o rre­ latio n betw een Pt a n d Sc, p o sitiv e c o rre latio n b etw een Pt a n d H sy D a n d Hy, negative c o rrelatio n betw een Pt or Sc a n d K. T h e d is trib u tio n s o f scores for the d ifferen t M M P I scales w ere also analo g o u s to th e A m erican sam p les: g en erally they a re sy m m e tric a l an d resem ble the n o rm al d is trib u tio n . T h e d is trib u tio n o f scale F i s positively skew ed an d th e d istrib u tio n s for scales Pt, Sc a n d Si a re very flat. Finally, T a b le s 7.11, 7.12, 7.13 a n d 7.14 re p re se n t T , a n d T> (K a n d non /¿-C orrected ) co nversion tab les, w h ich w ere p lo tted u sin g the ab o v e d escribed G reek norm s.

168

TABLE 7.9 Correlations between MMPI Scales for Greek Normal Males (N = 255)

I. F K Hy D Hy Pd M /M Pa Pt Sc Ma Si

L

F

K

Hs

D

1 .0 0 0

-.3 5 5 1 .0 0 0

-.1 6 1 .516 -.3 4 3

- .1 2 1

-.3 5 5 .476 - .1 6 4

.476 -.471

- .1 2 1

.150 -.4 1 2 -.0 4 9 -.2 4 7 -.4 4 7 -.4 6 7 -.3 7 3 -.1 6 4

-.471 .516 .363 .232 .631 .191 .645 .690 .809 .508 .315

1 .0 0 0

-.3 4 3 -.2 4 2 .190 -.3 6 0 -.1 0 3 -.3 7 5 - .6 8 6

-.651 -.4 1 8 -.361

1 .0 0 0

.450 .562 .471 .2 2 0

.489 .550 559 .291 .305

.363 -.2 4 2 .450 1 .0 0 0

.364 .425 .276 .349 .581 .490 -.0 0 9 .534

Hy .150 .232 .190 .562 .364 1 .0 0 0

.360 .391 .313 .175 .187 .049 .037

Pd -.4 1 2 .631 -.3 6 0 .471 .425 .360 1 .0 0 0

M /M -.0 4 9 .191 -.1 0 3 .2 2 0

.276 .391 .170

.170 .582 .650 .710

1 .0 0 0

.492 .234

.0 2 0

.279 .213 .218 .155

Pa -.2 4 7 .645 -.3 7 5 .489 .349 ..313 .582 .279 1 .0 0 0

.645 .683 .360 .267

PT -.4 4 7 .690 - .6 8 6

.550 .581 .175 .650 .213 .645 1 .0 0 0

.906 .464 .535

V

Ma

Si

-.4 6 7 .809 -.6 5 1 .559 .490 .187 .710 .218 .683 .906

-.3 7 3 .508

-.1 6 4

6

1 .0 0 0

.543 .479

1 .0 0 0

.315 -.361 .305 .534 .037 .234 .155 .267 .535 .479 -.0 6 7

-.0 6 7

1 .0 0 0

-.4 1 8 .291 -.0 0 9 .049 .492 .0 2 0

.360 .464 .543

TABLE 7.10 Correlations between MMPI Scales for Greek Normal Females (N = 257)

L F K Hs D Hy Pd M JF Pa PL

F

1 .0 0 0

-.2 6 6

.392

1 .0 0 0

-.4 0 6

-.4 0 6

1 .0 0 0

-.2 6 6 .392 -.2 4 9 -.1 9 7 - .1 1 2

-.3 0 0 .0 2 1

-.2 9 6 -.4 0 9 -.3 9 7 - .2 1 2

o

CO

f

Sc Ma Si

L

.461 .411 .374 .657 -.0 9 2 .652 .702 .830 .573 .299

K

-.3 3 7 -.2 5 7 .080 -.281 .006 -.3 5 0 -.6 2 5 -.5 7 4 -.421 -.3 3 9

Hs

D

-.2 4 9 .461 -.3 3 7

-.1 9 7 .411 -.2 5 7 .544

1 .0 0 0

.544 .695 .424 .055 .497 .608 .580 .362 .341

1 .0 0 0

.489 .443 .071 .430 .656 .533 .178 .481

Hy

Pd

- .1 1 2

-.3 0 0 .657 -.2 8 1 .424 .443 .481

.374 .080 .695 .489 1 .0 0 0

.481 .124 .429 .386 .422 .253 .108

1 .0 0 0

-.0 7 9 .669 .608 .694 .597 .094

M JF .0 2 1

-.0 9 2 .006 .055 .071 .124 -.0 7 9 1 .0 0 0

Pa

Pi

Sc

Ma

St

.296 .652 .350 .497 .430 .429 .669 -.0 4 6

-.4 0 9 .702 -.6 2 5 .608 .656 .386 .608 -.0 0 7

-.3 9 7

- .2 1 2

.830 -.5 7 4 .580 .533 .422 .694 -.0 4 8 .751 .890

.573 -.4 2 1 .362 .178 .253 .597 -.0 6 3 .513 .531 .637

-.1 8 0 .299 -.3 3 9 .341

-.0 4 6 -.0 0 7

1 .0 0 0

.6 6 6

.6 6 6

1 .0 0 0

-.0 4 8 -.0 6 3 .103

.751 .513 .192

.890 .531 .522

1 .0 0 0

.637 .400

.481 .108 .094

1.0 0 0

.103 .192 .522 .400 -.0 6 6

-.0 6 6

1 .0 0 0

169

TABLE 7.11 T-Score Conversion Table fo r Greek Males Non K - Corrected

F

K

Hs

D

Hy

Pd

M f

78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71

Pa

Pt

Sc

Ma

Si

Hs + K

Pd+ K

108 107 106 105 104

119 117 116 114 113

102 101 100

99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92

68

119 117 115

119 117 115

91. 90 89 8 8

87

113

8 6

111

85

Pl + K

120

103

70 69 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55

K - Correeted

1 0 0

99 98 97

111 110

108 107 105 104

95 94 93 91 90 89 87

102 101

8 6

85 84 82 81

119 117 115 113

99 98 96 95 93 92 90

Sc+ K 109 108 106 105 104 103 101 100

99 98 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 87 8 6

85 84 82 81 80

Ma + K

54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26

113

120

111

118 115 113

109 107 105 103 119 118 116 114

101

99 96 94 92 90

1 1 2 111

109 107 105 103

8 8 8 6

84 82 80 78

102 10 0

98 96 94 93 91 89 87 8 6

84 82 80 78

107 m 102

92 90 88

85 83 81

100

98 95 93 91 89

76 73 71 69 67 65 63 6 ) 59 57 55 53

111

109 107 105 103 101

99 96 94

108 106 104 102

108 107 105 103 101

99 97

88

95 93 91 89 87

8 6

8 6

84 82 80 77 75 73 71 69 67

84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70

65 63 61 58

6 6

92 90

6 8

65 63 61

10 0

98 96 93 91 89 87 85 83 81 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 63 61 59 57 55 53 50 48 46

120

117 115 112 109 107

85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 76 75 74 73 72 71 6 8

104

67

102

6 6

99 97

65 64

94 92 89 87

63 62 61 59

84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73

80 78 77 76 75 73 72 71 105 103

69

101

6 6

67 65 64 63 62 60 59 58 56 55 54 53 51 50 49 47 46 45

64 62

43 42

99 97

72 71 70 69

95 93 90

6 8

8 8

67 67 6 6

65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56

86

84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 6 8

111

8 8

109 107

87

105 103 101

6 8

119 117 115 112 1 1 0

108 105 103 100

98 96 93 91 89 8 6

84 82 79 77

99 97 95 93 91 89 87 85 83 81 79 76 74 72 70 6 8 6 6

64 62 60 58 56 54 52

85 84 82 81 79 78 76 75 73 72 70 69 67 6 6

64 63 61 60 58 57 55 54 52 51 49 48 46 45

79 77 76 75 74 72 71 70 69 67 6 6

65 64 62 61 60 59 57 56 55 54 52 51 50 49 47 46 45 44 42

116 114 111 1 1 0

108 105 103 101

99 97 94 92 90 8 8 8 6

84 81 79 77 75 73 71 6 8 6 6

64 62 60 57

(Continued)

TABLE 7.11 (C ontinued) N o n K-C orrected

L 24 23

22 21

20 19 18 17 16 15

92

14

8 8

13

84 80 76 72

12 11

10

9 8 7

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

F

K

77 75 73 71

78 76 74 71 69 67

69 6 8 6 6

64

6 8

64 60 56 52 47 43 39 35 31

62 61 59 57 55 53 52 50 48 46 45 43 41 39 37 36 34

64 62 60 57 55 53 51 48 46 44 41 39 37 34 32 30 27 25 23

Hs 8 6

84 82 80 78 75 73 71 69 6 6

64 62 60 58 55 53 51 49 46 44 42 40 37 35 33

K-Corrected

D

Hy

Pd

M f

Pa

Pt

5c

Ma

50 18 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 27 25 23

56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 39 37 35 33 31 29 27

59 57

44 42 40

84 81 79 76 74 71

58 57 56 55 54 53 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44

55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46

60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 27

21

25 23 2 0

55 53 51 49 47 45 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 23 21

38 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 2 0

69 6 6

64 61 58 56 53 51 48 46 43 41 38 35 33 30 28 25 23

42 41 40 39 38 37 36 34 33 32 31

45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31

25 23 21

Si 41 40 38 37 36 34 33 32 30 29 28 27 25 24 23 21 2 0

H s+ K 75 72 70 6 8

65 63 61 58 56 53 51 49 46 44 42 39 37 35 32 30 28 25 23 21

Pd+ K 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 33 31 29 27 25 23 21

Pt + K 43 42 40 39 37 36 34 33 31 30 28 27 25 24

Sc+ i 41 40 39 37 36 35 34 32 31 30 29 27

2 2

26 25 24

21

2 2 21 2 0

TABLE 7.12 T-Score Conversion Table fo r Greek Females K-C orrected

N o n K-Corrected w

ne

F

K

Hs

D

Hy

78 77 76

M f

Pa

Pt

Sc

Ma

Si

Hs + K

Pd + K

95 94 93 92 91 90 90 89

73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62

8 8

87 8 6

61 115 113

117

111

115 113

110

111

108

110

85 84 83 83 82 81 80 79

Pt + K 119 117 116 114 113

98 97 97 96

75 74

60 59 58 57 56

Fd

111 110

100

109 107

98 97 95

106 104 103

94 93 91 90 89 87

101

8 6

85 83 82 81

100

118 116 114 113 111

109 107

99 97 96 94 93 91 90 89 87

Sc + K

Ma + K

96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 8 8

87 8 6

85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74

(C ontinued)

174

TABLE 7.12 (Continued) Non K - Co rree.ted

Score 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31

L

F

K

Hs

1 19 117 115 113

Hy

106 104 102

108 106 104

100

102

98 96 94

101

92 90 8 8 8 6

112

84 83 81 79 77 75 73 71 69 67 65

110

108 106 105 103 101

99 98 96 94 92 91 89 87

D

92 90 8 8

63 61 59

99 97 95 93 92 90 8 8 8 6

84 83 81 79 77 75 74 72 70

Pd

M f

Pa

Pt

Sc

Ma

78 77

102 1 0 0

98 96 95 93 91 89 8 8 8 6

84 82 81 79 77 75 74

102

82 81 80 79 78 77 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 67

100

6 6

2 0 2 2

25 27 30 32 35 37 40 42 45 47

6 6

72 70

50 52 55 57

65

6 8

60

6 8

K - Co r reeted

114 112

109 107 105

98 95 93

65 64 63

76 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 69 6 8

67 6 6

65 64 63 62 62 61 60 59 58 57

Si

102

79 78 77 75 74 73 71 70 69 67

100

6 6

98 96 94 92 90 8 8 8 6

84 82 80 78 76 74 72

65 63 62 61 59 58 56 55 54 52 51 50 48 47

Hs + K

Pd+ K 105 104 102 100

114 112 1 1 0

108 106 104 102 100

98 96 94 92 90 8 8 8 6

84 82 80

98 96 94 93 91 89 87 85 83 82 80 78 76 74 73 71 69 67 65 63 62

Pt + K 8 6

84 83 81 80 78 77 76 74 73 71 70 6 8

67 6 6

64 63 61 60 58 57 56 54 53 51

Sc+ K

Ma + K

73 72 71 69

113

6 8

111

67

109 107 104

6 6

65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48

102 100

98 96 94 92 90 8 8 8 6

84 82 80 77 75 73 71 69

21

85 84 82 80 78 76 75 73 71 69

20

6 8

19 18 17 16 15

6 6

30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23

22

14

13 12

11 10

9 8 7

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

64

104 99 94 89 84 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 31

62 61 59 57 55 54 52 50 48 47 45 43 41 39 38 36 34 32

101

98 96 93 91 8 8

85 83 80 78 75 73 70 67 65 62 60 57 54 52 49 47 44 41 39 36 34 31 28 26 23

8 6

84 82 81 79 77 75 73 71 69

57 56 54 52 50 48 46 44

64

42 40 38 36 34

62 60 58 56 55

32 30 28 27 25

53 51 49 47 45 43 42 40 38 36 34 32 30

23

6 8 6 6

21

63 61 59 57 56 54 52 50 48 47 45 43 41 40 38 36 34 32 31 29 27 25 23 2 2 2 0

62 65 67 70 72 75 77 80 82 85 87 90 92 95 97 100

102

105 107 110

112

115 117 120

91 89 86 84 82 79 77 75 73 70 68 66 63 61 59 57 54 52 50 47 45 43 41 38 36 34 31 29 27 25 22

62 61 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 43 42 41 40 39 38 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 28 27

56 55 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 35 34 33 32 31 30

70 6 8 6 6

64 62 60 58 56 54 53 51 49 47 45 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21

46 44 43 42 40 39 38 36 35 34 32 31 30 28 27 26 24 23 22 2 0

78 76 74 72 70 6 8 6 6

64 62 60 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21

60 58 56 54 52 51 49 47 45 43 42 40 38 36 34

50 48 47 ' 46 44 43 41 40 38 37 36 34

32 31 29 27 25

33 31 30 28 27 26 24 23

23

21

21

2 0

47

67

46 45 44

65 63 61

43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24

59 57 55 53 50 48 46 44 42 40 38

23 2 2 21 2 0

36 34 32 30 28 26 23 21

TABLE 7.13 T2 (McCall) Score Conversion Table for Greek Males N o n K -C orrecled

i 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67

66

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0

. 118. 116. 114.

0

. 1 1 1 . 109. 107.

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0

1 1 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

0

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 115. 113. 1 1 1 . 109. 107. 105.

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pd

Hy

0

103.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0

. 1 2 0 . 118. 115. 113. 1 1 1 . 109.

0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

Mj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pa

. . . . . . .

0

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 1 1 2 . 1 1 0 . 108. 105.

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

103. 1 0 1 . 99.

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Sc . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0

0 0 0

. . .

99. 98. 97. 96. 95. 94. 93. 92. 91. 90. 89. 8 8 . 87. 8 6 . 85. 84. 83. 82. 81. 80. 79. 78. 77. 76. 75.

Ma 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

+K

Si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . .

. 98. 97. 95. 94. 93. 91. 90. 89. 8 8 . 8 6 . 85. 84. 0

CN

0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D

Hs

00

65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54

K

F

K -C orrecU d

81. 80. 78. 77.

Hs + K P d + K

78 77

0

76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69

0

0

6 8

0

67

0

6 6

0

65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54

0

. . . . . . . .

0

0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . . .

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . .

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 118. 116. 114. 1 1 2 . 1 1 0 . 108. 106. 104. 1 0 2 . 0

P l+ h 118. 117. 115. 114. . 1 1 1 . 109.

1 1 2

108. 106. 105. 103. 1 0 2 . 1 0 0 . 99. 97. 96. 94. 93. 91. 90. 8 8 . 87. 85. 84. 82.

53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

32 31 30

0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80.

. .

73. 73.

79. 77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. co

29 28 27 26 25

0

. . . .

105. 104. 1 0 2 . 1 0 0 . 98. 96. 95. 93. 91. 89. 8 8 . 8 6 . 84. oi OD

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33

. . . . . .

. .

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 87.

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 91. 89. 87. 84.

85. 83. 80. 78. 76.

82. 80. 78. 75. 73.

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . .

0

. 98. 96. 94. 92. 90. 8 8 . 8 6 . 84. 82. 80. 77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 71. 6 8 . 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 60. 58. 55. 54.

1 0 0

107. 105. 103. 1 0 1 . 99. 96. 94. 92. 90. 8 8 . 8 6 . 84.

. 0 . 0 . 1 0 0 . 98. 96. 94. 92. 90. 89. 87. 85.

82. 80. 77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 69. 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 60.

83. 81. 79. 77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 69. 6 6 . 65. 63. 63. 63.

0

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 79. 78. 77. 76. 74. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 63. 60. 58. 0

74. 73. 73. 73.

0

73. 73. 73. 73. 73.

0

73. 73. 71. 70. 70. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 6 6 . 65. 63. 63. 63. 63. 60. 60. 58. 58. 57. 57.

0 0 0

0

. . . . . .

. 98. 96. 94. 92. 90. 8 8 . 8 6 . 83. 81. 79. 77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 71. 70. 69. 6 6 . 65. 63. 0

76. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 71. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 60. 60. 58 . 58. 57. 57. 55. 54. 53. 51. 50. 49. 47. 46. 45. 43.

53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 118. 116. 113. 0

. 108. 106. 104. 1 0 1 . 99. 97. 94. 92. 90. 87. 85. 83. 80. 78. 76. 73. 73. 73. 1 1 1

73.

. 98. 96. 94. 92. 90. 8 8 .

1 0 0

. 83. 81. 79. 77. 75. 8 6

73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 71. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 65. 63. 63. 60. 58. 55. 54.

81. 79. 78. 76. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 63. 63. 63. 60. 60. 58. 58. 57. 55. 54. 53. 51. 50. 49. 47.

73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 65. 65. 64. 63. 63. 63. 60. 58. 58. 57. 57. 55. 55. 54. 53. 51. 50. 49. 47. 45. 43.

. 1 1 0 . 108. 106. 104. 1 0 2 . 99. 97. 95. 93. 91. 8 8 . 8 6 . 84. 82. 80. 78. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 71. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 63. 63. 58. 0

(C ontinued)

178

TABLE 7.13 (C ontinued) Non K-Correcled Raw Score 24 23 2 2 21 2 0

19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

9 8

7 6

5 4 3 2 1 0

I . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 81. 77. 73. 73. 73. 73. 6 6 . 63. 60. 57. 53. 49. 45. 42. 34. 27. 0

K Corrected

F

K

Hs

D

Hy

Pd

M f

Pa

Pt

71. 71. 70. 69. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 60. 58. 57.

73. 73. 73. 69. 6 6 . 6 6 . 64.

73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 6 8 . 6 6 . 65. 63. 63. 60. 58. 57. 54.

53. 50. 47. 46. 43. 42. 37. 34. 32. 29. 27. 27.

57. 55.

45. 43. 42. 40. 36. 32. 29. 27. 27.

73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 6 6 . 65. 63. 63. 60. 57. 55.

53. 51. 49. 46. 43. 40. 35. 31. 27.

0

60. 58. 57. 55. 54. 51. 49. 47. 45. 43. 40. 37. 34. 31. 29. 29. 27. 25. 23. 2 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

58. 57. 57. 55. 55. 54. 53. 51. 51. 50. 49. 47. 46. 45. 45. 43. 42. 42. •1 0 . 36. 34. 32. 29. 27. 27.

57. 55. 54. 51. 49. 46. 45. 42. 35. 31. 27. 27.

63. 60. 58. 57. 54. 51. 50. 47. 46. 43. 40. 36. 32. 29. 27. 24. 2 2 . 0 .

25. 23. 2 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . . .

53. 51. 49. 46. 45. 43. 42. 37. 34. 32. 29. 27. 27. 25. 23. 2 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0

. . .

27. 27. 25. 2 2 . 2 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0

. . .

53. 50. 47. 45. 42. 37. 34. 30. 27. 27. 24. 2 2 .

55. 55. 54. 54. 53. 53. 51. 50. 49. 49. 47. 46. 45. 43. 42. 40. 40. 36. 35. 34. 30. 29. 27. 26. 25.

Ma

Si

+K

60. 58. 55. 54. 53. 50. 49. 47. 46. 43. 40. 37. 34. 31. 29. 27. 27. 27. 25. 23. 2 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

42. 42. 40. 37. 35. 34. 30. 29. 27. 27.

24

27. 25. 24. 23. 2 2 . 2 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0

. . .

23 2 2 21 2 0

19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

9 8

7 6

5 4 3 2 1 0

H s+ K P d+ K 73. 69. 6 8 . 6 6 . 65. 63. 63. 60. 58. 55. 54. 53. 49. 46. 43. 42. 37. 34. 29. 27. 27. 24. 2 2 . 0 . 0 .

51. 50. 49. 46. 43. 42. 40. 34. 31. 29. 29. 27. 27. 27. 25. 23. 2 1 . • 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

P l+ K 45. 43. 42. 40. 36. 32. 29. 27. 25. 24. 2 2 . 2 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . .

Sc+ K Ma + K 42. 40. 37. 35. 32. 31. 29. 27. 27. 25. 24. 23. 2 2 . 2 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . .

57. 54. 53. 50. 49. 46. 45. 43. 40. 37. 34. 30. 29. 27. 27. 27. 25. 2 2 . 2 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

TABLE 7.14 (Tí )McCall| Score Conversion Table fo r Greek Females N on K -C orrecled

w ne

L

78 77 76 75 74

0

73

0

72 71

0 0 0 0

0 0

70 69 68 67

0

66

0

65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55

0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hs . . . . . . . . . . . .

0

. . . . . . . . .

0

. . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hy . . . . . .

0

. . . . . . . . .

0

. 0 . 0 . 108. 106. 104. 1 0 2 . 1 0 0 . 98. 0

Pd . . . . . . . . . . .

0

. . . . . . .

0

113. 1 1 1 . 109. 107. 106. 104.

0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

K -Corrected

Pu

Mj . . .

0

. . . . . .

0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0

0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . .

0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0 0 0

Sc . . .

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0

Ma

97.

0

96. 95. 94.

0

93. 92. 92. 91. 90. 89. 8 8 . 87.

0

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. 8 6 . 85. 84.

0

83. 82. 81. 80. 79. 79. 78. 77.

0

8 6

0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . .

Si

+ À'

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 97. 96. 95. 93. 92. 91. 89. 8 8 . 87. 85. 84. 83. 81. 80. 79. 77.

78 77 76 75 74

0

Hs + K P d + K 0 0 0 0 0

73 72 71 70 69

0

6 8

0

67

0

6 6

0

65 64 63

0

62 61 60. 59 58 57

0

56 55

0 0 0 0

0 0

0

. . . .

0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0

0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . .

. . . . . . .

Pl + K 116.

115. 113.

115. 113. 1 1 2 . 1 1 0 . 109. 108. 106. 105. 103. 1 0 2 . 1 0 0 . 99. 98. 96. 95. 93. 92. 90.

. 1 1 0 . 108. 106. 104.

89. 8 8 . 8 6 . 85. 83.

0 0 0

0 0

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 117. 0

1 1 2

TABLE 7.14 fC ontinued) Mon K -C orrecU d

K -C orrecled

:w

54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

46 45 44 43 42 41

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30

0

F . 0 . 119. 117. 116. 114. 0

. 1 1 0 . 106. 107. 1 1 2

105. 103. 1 0 1 . 1 0 0 . 98. 96. 94. 93. 91. 89. 87. 8 6 . 84. 82. 80.

K . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0

91.

Hs

1)

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 84. 83.

96. 94. 93. 91. 89. 87. 85. 83. 81. 79. 77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 6 8 . 6 6 . 65. 64. 63,. 60. 58.

0

81. 79.

Hy

Pd

Mf

Pa

. 1 0 0 . 98. 97. 95.

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 1 0 1 . 1 0 0 . 98. 96. 94. 93. 91. 89.

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 2 2 . 24. 27. 27. 30. 34. 37. 40.

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 108. 105. 103.

81. 80. 79. 78. 77.

. 98. 96. 94. 92. 89. 87. 85.

71. 69. 6 6 . 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 63.

1 0 2

93. 91. 89. 8 8 . 8 6 . 84. 82. 80. 79. 77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 71. 6 8 . 65. 63.

0

. 84. 82. 80. 79. 8 6

77. 75. 73. 73. 71. 70. 6 8 .

0

42. co

L

CC

ne

46. 50. 53. 55. 57. 58. 60.

0

1 0 1

Pl 0 0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . .

76. 74. 73. 73. 73. 73.

Sc

Ma

Si

+ A

76. 75. 74. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 69. 69. 6 6 . 65. 64. 64.

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 1 0 1 . 99. 97. 95. 93. 91. 89. 87.

76.

54

75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 70. 6 8 . 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 60. 58. 58. 57. 55. 55. 54. 53. 51. 50. 47. 47.

53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44

63. 63. 63. 63. 63. 60. 60. 60. 58. 58. 57.

0

85. 83. 81. 79. 77. 75. 73. 73. 71.

43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30

Hs + K P d + K . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 109. 107. 105. 103. 1 0 1 . 99. 97. 95. 93. 91. 89. 87. 0

85. 83. 81. 79. 77. 75. 73.

. 1 0 1 . 99. 97. 95. 93. 91. 90. 8 8 . 8 6 . 84. 82.

1 0 2

/* £ + / 82. 80. 79. 78. 76. 75. 73. 73. 73.

75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 69. 6 6 .

73. 73. 69. 6 6 . 64. 63. 63. 60. 60. 58. 58. 57. 55.

63. 63. 60.

54. 53. 51.

81. 79. 77.

0.

28 27 26 25 24

0. 0. 0. 0. 0.

79. 77. 75. 73. 73. 70. 69.

. .

68.

21

ü.

66.

20 19 18 17 16 15 14

66 .

13

. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 103. 98. 93.

12

88.

11

83. 76. 73. 69. 64. 60. 55.

23 22

10

9

8 7

6 5 4 3 2 1

0

0 0

0

51. 47. 42. 35. 29.

65. 63. 63. 60. 58. 58. 57. 55. 54. 53. 51. 49. 47. 45. 43. 40. 36. 30. 27. 25.

89.

86 . 84. 81. 78. 76. 73. 73. 73. 73. 69.

77. 75. 73. 73. 73. 73. 73. 71. 70. 69.

66 .

66 .

64.

65. 63. 63. 60. 58. 57. 54. 51. 47. 45. 42. 40. 35. 31. 27. 27. 24.

63. 60.

22.

58. 57. 55. 54. 53. 51. 49. 47.

57. 55. 53. 51. 49. 47. 45. 43. 42. 40. 36. 32. 31. 29. 27. 27. 27. 25. 23.

63. 60. 58. 55. 54. 53. 51. 50. 47.

16. 45. 43. 42. 40. 37. 34.

45. 43. 40. 40.

0.

32. 29. 27. 27. 27. 25. 23.

0.

21.

0.

0.

35. 32. 27.

0

0

25.

0.

21. 0. 0.

0

0

. . . .

0. 0. 0. 0. 0.

82. 80. 78. 76. 73. 73. 73. 73. 69. 6 6 . 65. 63. 60. 58. 57. 55. 54. 51. 49. 47. 45. 42. 40. 35. 31. 29. 27. 27. 24. 2 2 .

60. 58. 58. 57. 57. 55. 55. 54. 53.

. 6 6 . 63. 63. 60. 58. 57. 55. 54. 51. 50. 49. 46. 45.

46. 43. 43. 42. 40. 40. 37. 35. 34. 32. 30. 29. 29. 27.

35. 34.

40. 40. 37. 35. 34.

42. 40. 37. 34. 32. 29. 27. 27, 27. 25.

25. 24. 23. 2 1 . 2 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

32. 29. 27. 27. 26. 24.

31. 29. 27. 27. 27. 26.

23. 2 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

0

51. 50. 49. 49. 47. 46. 45. 43. 43. 42. 40. 40. 37.

57. 57. 55. 55. 54. 53. 51. 51. 50. 49. 49. 47. 46. 46. 45. 45. 43. 42. 42.

6 8

0 0 0 0 0

. . . . . .

29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 2 0

19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

9 8

7 6

5 4 3 2 1 0

73. 73. 73. 70. 6 8 . . 64. 63. 60. 58. 57. 55. 54. 53. 51. 50. 47. 45. 42. 40. 6 6

37. 34. 29. 27. 27. 25. 23. 2 1 . 0 . 0 .

58. 57. 55. 54. 53. 50. 49. 46. 45. 43. 42. 40. 37. 34. 32. 29. 29. 29. 27. 27. 27. 27. 27. 25. 23. 2 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

50. 49. 47. 46. 45. 43. 42. 40. 37. 34. 32. 29. 27. 27. 27. 27. 25. 24. 2 2 . 2 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

47. 47. 46. 45. 43. 42. 42. 40. 37. 34. 32. 30. 27. 27. 27. 26. 25. 24. 23. 2 2 2 1 0 0

. . . .

0

. . . . . .

0

.

0 0 0 0 0

65. 63. 63. 60. 58. 57. 54. 53. 50. 49. 46. 45. 42. 1 0 . 37. 34. 32. 29. 27. 27. 27. 27. 25. 23. 2 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

18 2

MANOS

MMPI Profile and Item Endorsement Comparison Between Greeks and Americans M ean profiles for G reek N o rm al M ales an d Fem ales w ere p lotted following the T -score conversion tables in A ppendix H o f the M M P I H an d b o o k (D ahlstrom , W elsh, & D ah lstro m , 1972) and w ere com p ared ag ain st the original M inn eso ta sam ple. A second com parison w as also m ad e w ith a m ore recent norm al sam ple o f A m erican freshm en stu d en ts (L oper, R ob­ ertson, & Sw anson, 1968), w hose age an d ed u catio n al ch aracteristics were closer to the G reek norm al sam ple th an those of the original M in n eso ta sam ple. An item endorsem ent stu d y was cond u cted betw een the G reek no rm al sam ple an d an A m erican sam ple o f college stu d en ts (L o p er et al, 1968, as reported in B utcher & P ancheri, 1976) by using p rogram IT C O M . T h is program perform s ch i-sq u are tests o f significance for each p air of item s in the com parison an d also provides a table, w h ere the d istrib u tio n of the percentage difference betw een the groups is p lotted.

Results T h e m ean profile com parison of G reek no rm al m en an d w om en to the original norm al sam ple o f M in n eso ta and to the m ore recen t sam ple of freshm en stu d en ts of the U niv ersity o f M in n eso ta are given in Figures 7.2-7.5 T h e most g eneral observation th a t can be m ade in Figures 7.2 an d 7.3 is th at all the m ean scale scores fall above the m ean of the original M in ­ nesota norm ative g roup, one sta n d a rd deviation on the average. T h e m ore p ro m in en t scale elevations are in scales D, Sc, M f an d Pd in the m ales, an d Sc, D, Pd an d Pa in the fem ales. T h e differences are less p ro m in en t w ith the m ore recent A m erican g ro u p (Figures 7.4 an d 7.5). T h ese m ean scores arc com p arab le to the cross-national sam ples rep o rted in B u tcher and P ancheri (1976). Scales L an d K arc q u ite low p ointing pro b ab ly tow ard a reliable a ttitu d e o f the G reek subjects tow ard the test in term s of sincerity a n d defensive attitu d es. In the m ale sam ple the m ost elevated scales in both com parisons are D , Sc an d F, in the fem ale sam ple scales D , Sc, Hs and F. T h u s the average G reek m ale or fem ale can be ch aracterized as som e­ w hat m ore un conventional in his (her) thin k in g th an the average A m erican m ale or fem ale, even to the po in t o f a d m ittin g som e stran g e th o u g h ts and

7.

ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI IN GREECE

183

SC A LES

FIG. 7.2.

Mean profile of Greek Normal Males (N = 255).

also being m ore w orried an d depressed. F u rth e rm o re the average G reek m ale seem s m ore im pulsive an d having g re a ter difficulty ab id in g by the law, m ore socially sensitive an d suspicious, w ith h y p o ch o n d riacal, phobic, and obsessive tendencies an d m ore intro v erted; a t the sam e tim e, though, he seems to have a b ro ad er range o f interests and a hig h er energy level. T h e average G reek fem ale ap p ears, also, m ore im pulsive a n d having dif­ ficulty abidin g by the law, w ith m ore h y p o ch o n d riacal, phobic, and obses­ sive tendencies, prom in en tly suspicious an d socially sensitive, prom in en tly introverted, but also w ith higher energy level th a n the A m erican. T h e d istrib u tio n o f the item s according to the en d o rsem en t p ercentage differences betw een the two sam ples is given in T a b le s 7.15 an d 7.16. Inspection o f the tables show s a basic en d o rsem en t sim ilarity betw een the

184

MANOS

SCALES F IG . 7 .3 .

M e a n p ro file o f G re e k N o rm a l F e m a le s (N = 2 5 7 ).

two countries, since m ost o f the item s are g ath ered in the base o f the d istrib u tio n , below the level o f 15-20% difference, w hich also corresponds roughly to the level o f significance (B u tch er & P an ch eri, 1976). T h is basic sim ilarity o f the personalities w as fu rth er show n by the co m p u tatio n d f the correlation coefficients betw een item en d o rsem en t percentages of the sam ples, w hich proved to be q u ite high, r = .82 for m ales and r = .73 for fem ales. Both from the study o f the tab les and the correlation coeffi­ cients, it ap p ears th a t there is less sim ilarity betw een the fem ales th an betw een the m ales in the two sam ples. For a m ore detailed investigation o f cross-cultural differences, we p ro ­ ceeded to identify the item s p articu larly indicative o f such differences. Such item s had to (1) present a statistically significant difference in the o u tp u t

7. ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI IN GREECE

185

SC A LE S FIG . 7 .4 . M e a n p ro file c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n G re e k N o r m a l M a le s a n d A m e ric a n C o lle g e M a le s .

o f program IT C O M at the level o f .01 an d beyond; (2) be located beyond the 15% level in T ab les 7.15 an d 7.16; and (3) satisfy criteria (1) and (2) in both sexes. T h ese item s have been called “ ex trem e” by B utcher and Pancheri (1976), w ho also proposed the above criteria. In all, 195 item s in the m ale sam ple an d 260 item s in the fem ale sam ple show ed statistically significant differences at the .05 level; 114 an d 188 item s respectively show ed statistically significant differences a t the .01 level an d beyond. T h e g rea te r n u m b er o f differences in the fem ale sam ple is ag ain obvious. From these item s only 96 w ere considered “ex trem e” u sin g th e ab o v e m e n tio n e d c rite r ia a n d th u s in d ic a tiv e o f c u ltu ra l differences.

186

MANOS

SCALES FIG . 7 .5 . Mean profile comparison between Greek Normal Females and Amer­ ican College Females.

B oth the d is trib u tio n s a n d th e p e rc e n ta g e s (T a b le 7.17) o f these item s in the b asic scales o f th e M M P I w ere c a lc u late d a n d show ed th a t the “ e x tre m e ” item s w ere p ro p o rtio n a lly d is trib u te d a m o n g th e M M P I scales (w ith som e q u e stio n re g a rd in g scale Pa). F inally, co n te n t clu sters w ere p re p a re d u sing th e o rig in a l tab le o f c la s­ sification o f th e item s by c o n te n t o f H a th a w a y a n d M c K in le y (1951). T h e classification by c o n te n t o f the 96 “e x tre m e ” item s is sh o w n in T a b le 7.18. B ccause th e g re a te r n u m b e r o f sta tistic a lly sig n ifican t item s betw een G reek a n d A m e ric an w om en is in d ic a tiv e o f g re a te r c u ltu ra l differences betw een them th a n b etw een G reek a n d A m erican m en , w e p ro cee d ed to identify specific differen ces for w om en a n d m en. T h u s, w e isolated all item s

TABLE 7.15 MMPI Item Booklet Numbers Distributed According to the Percentage Difference for a True Response between Greek Normal Males (N = 255) and American Normal Males (N = 3,278) M M P I Ilem Number

4) C

1

2 - O' O'- O' O' O' ro

O

W W ) Is: — ro C O -^ K — CO oo sj N 3

"_

---W W W W ^ O JJi^ W W Ji w — r ' 0 4 ^ r c w ©ND C i ©0 ' O i O " » C o (£lWC0si^05W05MOC)--05

W MfO 4^ w ^ vj ^ W i- »W W (C O >J 41 i-

W (O KJ iO

W — 05 -f Ci fO W O O'

O' —

■ —

rc c-) VO

(Continued)

O' O'

O' o>

vi —

W

- - ^ O

4i.rO —

f f ! ^ t O

_ O' 03 4* ro VO 4- 03 03 © 03 ro ro VO ro ro o vl

® 0—w 4— k - u ' 0 5 ^—f ro o »—- 4* ^ m—• O' O'

ro — ro M w to w 03 ’— 03 03 o o ro C O v l - ' J O ' M O i W W J O ^ cn VO 4* 4* VO o. vj O l O f O O l C O O C O I C ^ A v l

— — os O' CO 05 OI ^ ^

—

NjWU'Oisi-iflOlCOOO'. —-

00

03

4 ^4 *

yt OI — 03 — Cn— O»

,

Oi 4- 4* 03 VO 03 03 o 00 vl 00

03 CO 03

O

O

CD

4^ T A B L E 7 .1 6

{Continued)

E n d o rs e m e n t P ercen tag e

D iffe re n c e

MM PI Item Number 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 545 7 6 519 5 4

27 3 25 10 21 23 110 159 59 34 73 30 42 14 90 53 551 555 563 74 4 45 15 533 54 12 78 38

28 29 91 163 83 82 130 153

49 33 102 214 108 86 195 167

51 58 121 216 168 129 206 185

87 181 133 288 180 183 238 211

114 250 222 335 182 190 269 294

141 279 287 342 205 209 2% 300

148 286 292 389 210 229 353 324

161 320 295 424 218 231 515 358

201 330 308 440 266 254 524 368

248 339 331 540 312 313 548 374

263 391 360 564 429 386 558 444

328 411 445

346 458 472

385 462 479

405 490 505

459 522 506

467

433 413

482 460

486 465

489 474

507 521

537 534

565

447

497

501

517

518

532

535

85 46

142 77

150 88

174 99

202 119

233 127

268 152

274 184

275 191

355 198

369 208

464 223

466 242

476 246

370

418

422

470

56 96

69 122

105 123

143 144

215 165

227 272

262 293

311 356

321 372

332 373

334 393

340 412

345 415

446 419

454 468

463 493

514 520

528 523

97 100 75 1 6 65 516 531 550 17 140 2 134 196 203

118 66

193 164

256 188

276 219

291 228

357 253

371 257

408 270

430 304

434 325

457 364

481 401

502 420

512 441

443

471

496

151 225

177 226

197 239

220 247

260 285

350 503

352 554

363

394

435

451

508

542

546

566 3 2 513 1 0

7.

ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI IN GREECE

195

TABLE 7.17 N um ber and Percentage of "Extrem e" Items on M M P I Scales

Scale L F K Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa Pt Sc Ma Si

Number o f / N u m b er o f Extreme I Urns / Scale Item s 0 /1 5 6 /6 4 8 /30 2/33 14/60 14/60 11/50 10/G0 13/40 9/48 14/78 7/46 10/70

%

.00 .09 .27 .06 .23 .23

.22 .17 .32 .19 .18 .15 .14

w hich show ed sta tistica lly sig n ifican t d ifference b eyond th e .01 level in w om en w ith no significant difference in m en (38 item s) a n d th e o p p o site (10 item s). T h e ir c o n te n t clu sters a re d isp lay ed in T a b le 7.19. P ro g ram I T C O M w as also used to identify specific differences b etw een G reek m en a n d w o m en , b u t th ere w ere no differences w o rth m en tio n in g .

DISCUSSION It has been em p h a size d th a t th e tra n sla tio n o f th e item s o f a psychological test is the m ost co m p lic a ted , yet m ost im p o rta n t stag e o f the te s t’s a d a p ­ tatio n in a n o th e r c o u n try (B u tc h e r & P a n c h e ri, 1976). A n eq u iv a le n t translation is the prerequisite for any m easurem ent to be equivalent betw een the tw o co u n tries. E very possible effort to w ard th is goal w as a p p lie d in o u r tra n sla tio n . O v e r 40 b ilin g u als took p a rt, th e re w as a te a m tra n sla tio n , back tra n sla tio n , a field stu d y a n d a b ilin g u al test-re te st stu d y , w h ich show ed the h igh reliab ility o f th e tra n sla tio n . T h e sta n d a rd iz a tio n p ro c ed u re g a th e re d a sam p le very re p re se n ta tiv e in size a n d ch a ra cte ristic s. M a n y o f th e su b jects in th e sa m p le w ere U n i­ v ersity stu d e n ts. Since U n iv e rsity e d u c a tio n is free in G reece, these s tu ­ d en ts cam e from every p a rt o f the co u n try a n d from v ario u s socio-econom ic b ack g ro u n d s. A t th e sam e tim e this m ain tru n k o f th e sam p le b ro u g h t

196

MANOS

the G reek n o rm a l sam p le closer to th e m ore recen t A m eric a n n o rm a l sam p les, w hich consist m ain ly o f s tu d e n ts (L o p er et al, 1968). As to the in te rn a l stru c tu re o f th e M M P I, the scale c o rre la tio n s an d score d is trib u tio n s in th e v a rio u s scales pro v ed to be c o m p a ra b le to the A m erican ones. W h a t w e co n sid e r th e m ost im p o rta n t o f all is th a t in o u r clinical use, w h ich a lrea d y co m p rises a co n sid e rab le n u m b e r o f cases, this G reek a d a p ta tio n seem s to m e a su re very reliab ly clin ical en tities a n d p erso n ality ch a ra cte ristic s. T h e m ean profile co m p ariso n show ed th a t all clin ical scales in the G reek n o rm al sam p le w ere h ig h e r th a n in the M in n e so ta n o rm a tiv e g ro u p . T h e se scale elev atio n s are c o m p a ra b le to o th e r c ro ss-c u ltu ra l sam p les rep o rted in B u tc h e r a n d P a n ch e ri (1976). H ig h e r elev atio n s in alm o st all scales a n d p a rtic u la rly D a n d Sc h av e been th e ru le in th e sta n d a rd iz a tio n s in o th e r c o u n tries like Isra e l, M exico, P a k ista n , S w itz erla n d , J a p a n , etc. (B u tc h e r & P an c h e ri, 1976). H ig h e r elev atio n s h av e been n o te d , also, in recen t n o rm al sam p les o f stu d e n ts in the S tates (L o p e r et al, 1968). W e a tte m p te d to d e te rm in e if c ro ss-c u ltu ra l differences are found a t the item level. A sy n th esis o f th e c o n te n t clu sters o f T a b le 7.18 p rese n ts the follow ing p ic tu re o f the N o rm a l G reek m a n o r w o m a n , in c o m p a riso n to the A m erican . In the in te rp e rso n a l field th e G reek a p p e a rs m o re se n ­ sitive, m ore v u ln e ra b le to criticism , m o re d e p e n d e n t, n o t p a rtic u la rly com fortable in social g a th e rin g s a n d w hen m eetin g new peo p le, w ith u lte r­ io r m otives in his (h er) frien d sh ip s, m o re easily m o bilized to ag g ressiv e­ n e ss, p a r t ic u l a r ly c o n c e rn in g h is ( h e r ) r ig h ts . A n x ie ty , i r r i t a b i l i t y , m oodiness a n d d ep ressio n arc m ore c h a ra c te ristic o f th e G reek th a n o f the A m erican . R elated to these a re feelings o f pessim ism a n d g u ilt; b u t also of insecu rity c o n cern in g m oney, th e jo b situ a tio n , etc. S u sp icio u sn ess a n d a strong ly reserved a ttitu d e a re also p ro m in e n t. H isto ric a l reaso n s (400 y ears u n d e r th e T u rk s, m ore rec e n t a d v e n tu re s o f rep e a te d foreign ov ert a n d covert p o litical in te rv e n tio n s, etc.) m ig h t ac c o u n t, in p a rt, for th e in secu rity a n d th e su sp icio u sn ess o f th e G reek people. T h e sta te o f m o rale seem s d efinitely low er th a n th a t o f th e A m erican . R ealistic life situ a tio n s, p a rtic u la rly th e lack o f lo n g -te rm a d e q u a te gov­ e rn m e n ta l p la n n in g in th e co u n try a n d th e h isto rically “ flu id ” p o litical situ atio n in G reece, m ay acc o u n t, at least in p a rt for this. T h e G reek a p p e a rs also to have m ore difficulty a b id in g by th e law th a n the A m erican . A c e rta in “p sy c h o p a th ic ” q u a lity o f the G reek is d e tec te d in th a t stro n g e r p h o b ic o r obsessive ten d en cies seem also to c h a ra c te riz e the G reek people.

7.

A D A P T A T IO N OF THE M M P I IN GREECE

197

TABLE 7.18 Classification of the "Extreme" Items by Content

Content Interpersonal and Social attitudes; life style Anxiety, Irritability Moodiness, Depressive affect Suspiciousness, M istrust Paranoid tendencies

Booklet Form Numbers

Number o f Items

24,40,52,132,138,171,232,240* 280,303,306*,319,362,417,449*,556

16

5,8*,41,43,61,76,104,106,107* 158,217,236,322,337,338,431

16

16,48,136,200,244,265,284 315,348,448,469

11

Morale

13,237,252,290,301,382,395 398,402,487,549

Law and O rder

49,93,124,157,316,376*,410 437,456

9

Fears, Phobias, Obsessive-Compulsive attitudes

213,351,365,388,480,492 494,510,559

9

11

Religious attitudes

95*,115,249,387,488,491

6

Somatizations

44,186,230*,560

4

Family relations

212,245,478*

3

Sexual attitudes

179,297,485

3

Affect manic

381,439,500

3

Miscellaneous

11,89,241,283*,484

5 T otal

96

*Percentage of answer T rue higher in the American Sample.

In religious m atters, the Greeks seem to be less religious, but more tolerant o f other religions than the A m ericans. A lso, the G reeks seem to som atize more their conflicts, to be m ore dependent to their fam ilies, to have a quicker tem per, to be m ore enthusiastic, and m ore preoccupied w ith sexual m atters. As to the specific differences for Greek w om en or m en depicted in T ab le 7.19 they show ed the Greek w om an m ore vulnerable to som atizations like headaches, nausea, vom iting, fainting, etc., m ore phobic and depressed, but on the other hand m ore aggressive, more com petitive, m ore sincere and with greater inclination for the sciences. A lso Greek w om en seem ed

198

MANOS

TABLE 7.19 Classification by Content of "Extreme" Items Specific for Men or Women W OM EN Content Interpersonal and Social attitudes; life style

Number o f Items

Booklet Form Numbers

145,147,221,286,378* 404,426,452,498,504,552

11

Somatizations

7*,23,63*, 114,251,288

6

Fears, Phobias, ObsessiveCompulsive States

354,360,421,473,543,553

6

Anxiety, moodiness, Depressive affect, M orale

32,339,414

3

Religious attitudes

490*

1

Sexual attitudes

101

1

Miscellaneous

27,80*,116,149,277,279,329* 349,425,459 Total

10

38

M EN Content

Number o f Items

Booklet Form Numbers

Risk taking, Violence

111,144*,223,53 7

4

Family attitudes

327*

1

Sexual attitudes

566

1

Morale

361

1

Miscellaneous

219*,435,561*

3 T otal

10

^Percentage of answer T rue higher in the American sample.

to endorse sexual freedom and sm oking for w om en more than the A m er­ ican w om en. T h e m ost im portant specific differences for Greek and A m erican m en presented the A m erican as m ore prone to anger and violence. A s noted earlier in the paper, no characterological differences worth m entioning were found betw een Greek m en and w om en.

7.

ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI IN GREECE

19 9

A n o th er im p o rtan t aspect o f this cross-cultural com parison is the in d i­ rect validation that the Greek translation and standardization of the M M PI received through this; the high correlations o f the item en d o rsem en t p er­ centages, the relatively sm all n u m b er o f “ex trem e” item s, and the p ro ­ portionate d istrib u tio n o f the “e x trem e” item s in the basic scales, suggest th at the G reek a d a p ta tio n of the M M P I is a reliable an d equivalent version o f the original test.

CLINICAL APPLICATION Following the com pletion o f the a d a p ta tio n , we sta rted the ad m in istra tio n o f the test both to o u tp a tie n ts an d in p atien ts. From the b eginning it becam e a p p a re n t th a t the G reek a d a p ta tio n was functioning clinically as an equivalent version to the A m erican one. D iagnostically, single scale elevations, h ig h -point tw o-digit codes, scale configurations, app licatio n s o f the various in te rp re ta tiv e rules, etc. seem ed to d ep ict accu rately psychiatric entities an d p ersonality ch aracteristics or behavior. In w hat follows, we present the M M P I profiles p lotted on G reek profile forms (based on the G reek norm s) along w ith b rief case p resen ­ tations an d D S M -III diagnoses o f four clinical cases and a very brief in terp retiv e com m ent, so th a t the re ad er can ju d g e for h im self o r h erself the test’s considerable diagnostic ability.

Case 1: (Figure 7.6) M ale stu d en t, 2 1 years old, w ho for the last m o n th has been preoccupied w ith ideas o f persecution an d reference (“ people p lo ttin g ag ain st him , talking ab o u t and m ocking him , etc.). H e show ed b o th th o u g h t b ro a d ­ casting and thought insertion (“ th rough ra d io tra n sm itte rs” ) an d d e m ­ onstrated aud ito ry h allu cin atio n s (“ buzzing, m u rm u rs, m usic, y o u ’ll be killed”), ideas of g ra n d e u r (“ he’s the center o f the w orld, m aybe because h e’s still a virg in ” ), extrem e nervousness, irritab ility , insom nia, and loose associations, etc. His clinical diagnosis: Schizophreniform Disorder: 295.40. In his M M P I profile, we note the high F, the positive slope, scale 8 being hig h er th a n 7 and the 86 tw o-digit code, all co rro b o ratin g his clinical diagnosis.

M

M

T«Tc

?

P

I 1 2 4. 5K

1

*WTi»/|" " _ 0 _ _2 . J

8

X

npoo0i|nf] roil K

AKQTtpvQOtr) i¡pApi *

1

Í

3 Hy

0

2

4 R«*.4K

3

1

T

1

6

5

Í

1

! : Í Í ¿

7 Pa

Pt.lK

6

2

» Sc*1K

ÍÍX Í

^

i

l

11

IS

M

ik

Case 1.

» 0 Ma « - 1K

AAA t ç Si

7

J.

FIG. 7.6.

200

» Mr

J

i H

8

ií

TMTc

KAi|ioKCC

M

M

P

I A p x i x à B a0 ^o A .o Y ìiT o {)

T«Tc

f

l

F

K

1 ♦ . SK

1

2 D

2

3

4 Hy

3

Pd4. 4K

4

6 Mf

6

5

6

7 Pa

Pt*1K

7

8 Sc*1K

9 0 M« * - 2 K

■

9

A.c,tp y00,n o_ A _ 1 4 ± ] 2 ¿ Z 2 2 2 í 2 3 n ^ ] á iipn n p o o e ^ n io ö k _ AKQ TÉpYQO tn Tip/)

r

P¿KH

Ji 31 FIG. 7.7.

_ ?

Si

TMTc

AAAcç KAi po«t 1 23

Si 0

12-

7.

ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI IN GREECE

205

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS In the last two years we proceeded w ith p u b licatio n o f the G reek A d ap ted M M P I (N. M anos, pu b lish er), i.e., G reek booklet, answ er sheets, profile forms, hand scoring keys, and also a U se r’s G uide (M an o s & B utcher, 1982). T h e latter also contains in terp re ta tio n of tw o-digit codes based on A m erican sources, w hich, as we m entioned earlier, is highly app licab le to G reek subjects. A n u m b e r o f research scales w ere sta n d a rd iz e d using the original G reek sam ple, so th a t m eans an d sta n d a rd d eviations are available for research. Also h an d scoring keys have been p re p a red and are available to researchers. T h e stan d a rd iz e d research scales are the following: A (A nxiety), R (R epression), M A S (M anifest A nxiety), Es (Ego S tren g th ), Lb (Low Back P ain), Ca (C au d ality ), Dy (D ependency), Do (D o m in an ce), Re (Social R esponsibility), Pr (P rejudice), St (Social S tatu s), Cn (C o n tro l), H arris su b scales for D e p ressio n , H y ste ria , P sy c h o p a th ic D ev ia te , P a ra n o ia , Schizophrenia and H y p o m an ia (Scales 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9), W iggins C o n ten t Scales: SO C (Social M alad ju stm en t), D E P (D epression), F E M (F em inine In terests), M O R (P oor M orale), R E L (R eligious F u n d a m en talism ), A U T (A u th o rity C o n flict), A ST(Psychoticism ), O R G (O rg an icS y m p to m s), F A M (Fam ily P roblem s), H O S (M anifest H ostility), PHO (P h o bias), H Y P (Hypomania) , H EA (Poor H ealth ), T ry o n , Stein, an d C h u C lu ster Scales (Scalcs I to V II), Scale 5 and Scale 0 subscales, M acA n d rew ’s A lcoholism Scale, Neu (N eurosis), Ne (N euroticism ), A ll (A llergy), N d (N eu ro d er­ m atitis), Psy (Psychosis), P sychotic diso rg an izatio n , V iolence, D enial, Im (Im pulsivity), A H (A cting-out hostility ), He (H ostility C o n tro l), Hsx (H om osexuality), H om osexuality revised, Ep (E pilepsy), lim p a th y , Ac (A cadem ic A chievem ent), A chievem ent p ro b ab ility , Effective physicians, Tp ('le a c h in g p o ten tiality ), Wa (W ork a ttitu d e ), M T C (M o tiv atio n to change), Pg (Prognosis for sch izo p h ren ia), R eh ab ilitatio n m otivation, E m ployability in reh ab ilitatio n , D elinquency (A be), Das (D ru g abuse). A n u m b er o f em pirical studies using the G reek version o f the M M P I are in process.

SUMMARY T h e T R A N S L A T IO N followed the team ap p ro a c h (tw o bilinguals an d two English speaking psy ch iatrists); there w as back tran slatio n in w hich nine bilinguals took p a rt an d the final check o f the tran sla tio n w as also

206

MANOS

perform ed by bilinguals. A n u m b er o f issues p ertin en t to the tran slatio n m ethodology arc discussed. A fter a p retest field stu d y , a test-retest bil­ ingual study followed in w hich 26 bilinguals took both the A m erican and the G reek version o f the test. T h e results o f the bilingual study show ed that the G reek version o f the test could be considered equivalent to the A m erican original: high correlation coefficients o f the scales, high item endorsem ent stability and high sim ilarity in the h ig h -point codes an d the m ean profiles betw een the tw o versions w ere found. T h e S T A N D A R D IZ A T IO N took place in the city o f T hessaloniki (population close to one m illion) located in N o rth e rn G reece. In all, 512 Greeks (255 men and 257 women) look the Greek version o f the test; 51.76% of the sam ple were University students. M ean raw scores (K and non KC orrected), standard deviations and m axim um and m inim um scores were computed. Scale correlations and scale score distributions were com parable to the A m erican ones. T and T , conversion tables were prepared using the Greek norms. M ean profile comparison between the Greek norm al sample and the original o f M in n eso ta show ed th a t the scale elevations w ere g en ­ erally higher in the G reek sam ple, one sta n d a rd d eviation on the average. T h e differences were less p ro m in en t w hen the G reek sam p le w as com pared to a m ore recent A m erican norm al sam ple o f freshm en stu d en ts. A com parison o f item en d o rsem en t differences betw een G reeks and A m erican subjects was m ade. T h e correlation coefficients betw een item endorsem ent percentages o f the sam ples proved to be q u ite high, poin tin g tow ard a basic sim ilarity betw een the G reek an d A m erican sam ples. T h e “ex trem e” item s w ere isolated as indicative o f som e c u ltu ral differences betw een the two countries. T h e “ ex trem e” item s w ere selected by using the criteria suggested by B u tch er and P ancheri (1976). T h e stu d y o f the “extrem e” item s show ed th a t the p ersonality o f the G reek w om an seem ed to differ m ore from th a t of the A m erican w om an th an th a t o f the G reek m an from the A m erican. T h e most im p o rtan t cross-cultural differences betw een the G reek an d the A m erican personality were in the a rea o f interpersonal relationships, the degree o f subjective anxiety an d d e p res­ sion, the presence o f suspiciousness, m istru st and p aran o id tendencies, the degree o f insecurity, the sta te of m orale, the a ttitu d e to ab id e by or not by the law, the phobic tendencies, the religious attitu d e s, p reo ccu ­ pation w ith sex m atters an d family relationships. T h e re were also a n u m ­ ber o f specific differences betw een the G reek and the A m erican w om en only, in the degree o f som atizatio n , the phobic an d depressive tendencies, and the degree o f aggressivity an d scientific interest.

7.

AD A PTATIO N OF THE M M PI IN GREECE

207

Several clinical case studies were discussed. In general the Greek MMPI appears to work in similar ways with Greek patients as with Americans.

ACKNOW LEDGMENTS T he au th o r wishes to th an k D r. J . N. B utcher for his generous su p p o rt and advice throughout this study.

REFERENCES Brislin, R. VV. Back tran slatio n for cross-cultural research. Journal o f Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1970, I, 185-216. Brislin, R. VV., L onner, W. J ., & T h o rn d ik e, R. M . Cross-cultural research methods. New York: Wiley-1 ntcrscience, 1973. Buros, O . Seventh mental measurements yearbook. H ig h lan d Park, New Jersey: G ryphon Press, 1972. B utcher, J . N ., & C lark, 1,. A. C ross-cultural applications o f the M M P I: Recent trends. In J . N. B utcher (E d .), New directions in M M P I research. M inneapolis: U niversity o f M innesota Press, 1979. Butcher, J . N ., & O w en, P. L. O bjective personality inventories. In B. B. W olm an (E d.), Clinical diagnosis o f mental disorders: A handbook. New York: Plenum , 1978. Butcher, J. N., & Pancheri, P. Handbook o f cross-national M M P I research. M in n e­ apolis: U niversity o f M innesota Press, 1976. D ahlstrom , VV. G ., & W elsh, G . S. An M M P I handbook: a guide to use in clinical practice and research. M inneapolis: U niversity o f M innesota Press, 1960. D ahlstrom , VV. G ., W elsh, G. S., & D ahlstrom , I,. E. An M M P I handbook. Clinical interpretation. Vol. I. Revised edition. M inneapolis: U niversity o f M innesota Press, 1972. D ahlstrom , VV. G., W elsh, G. S., & D ahlstrom , L. E. An M M P I handbook. Research applications. Vol. II. Revised edition. M inneapolis: U niversity o f M innesota Press, 1975. G latt, K. M . An evaluation o f the French, S panish and G erm an tran slatio n s of the M M P I. Acta Psychologica, 1969, 29, 65-84. G oldberg, I.. R. D iagnosticians versus diagnostic signs: the diagnosis o f psychosis vs. neurosis from the M M P I. Psychological Monographs, 1965, 79, 9. G oldberg, L. R ., & Jo n es, R. R. The reliability o f reliability: the g enerality and correlates o f in tra-in d iv id u al consistency in response to stru ctu red personality inventories. Oregon Research Monograph, 1969, 2, 9. H athaw ay, S. R. Research pertinent to the Spanish-American cross-validation o f the M M P I. P aper presented at the 5th A nnual Sym posium on R ecent D evelopm ents in the Use of the M M P I. M exico C ity, 1970. H athaw ay, S. R., & M cK inley, J . C. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory manual. New York: T h e Psychological C o rp o ratio n , 1951.

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H athaw ay, S. R., & M cK inley, J . C. The M M P I manual. N ew York: T h e Psy­ chological C o rp o ratio n , 1967. H ow ard, K. S. D ifferentiation o f individuals as a function o f rep eated testing. Educational Psychological Measurement, 1964, 24, 875-894. I.oper, R. G ., R obertson, J . M ., & Sw anson, E. O . College freshm an M M P I norm s over a fourteen-year period. Journal o f College Student Personnel, 1968, II, 404-407. M anos, N ., & B utcher, J . N. M M P I: A guide for use and interpretation (in G reek). T hessaloniki, Greece: U niversity S tudio Press, 1982. Rosen, E. Translation and adaptation o f personality tests fo r use in other cultures. U n p u b ­ lished paper, U niversity o f M innesota, 1958. Schofield, VV. C hanges in the response to M innesota M ultiphasic Personality Inventory following certain therapies. Psychological Monographs, 1950, 64, whole num ber 311. Sechrest, I,., Fay, T ., & Zaidi, S. Problems o f translation in cross-cultural research. Journal o f Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1972, I, 41—56. Snyder, S., P itts, VV. M ., G oodpaster, VV. A., Sajadi, C ., & G u stin , Q . M M P I Profile o f D S M -III Borderline Personality D isorder. American Journal o f Psy­ chiatry, 1982, 139, 8, 1046-1048. Weiss, R. .J., Segal, B. E., & Sokol, R. E pidem iology of em otional d istu rb an ce in a m an ’s college. Journal o f Nervous and Mental Disease, 1965, 153, 240-250. W erner, O ., & C am pbell, D. T ra n sla tin g , w orking through in terp reters and the problem o f decentering. In R. N aroll & R. C ohen (E ds), A handbook o f methods in cultural anthropology. A m erican M useum of N atu ra l H istory, New Y ork, 1970.

Use of the MMPI in Chile

Fernando J. Rissetti Sergio G. Maltes Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Student Health Service

T h e Pontificia U n iv crsid ad C ato lica dc C hile, founded in 1888, is the largest private university in the country, w ith a total enro llm en t o f 10,709 students. T h e university has developed, th rough the G eneral Office o f S tu d en ts’ Affairs, a com prehensive policy o f integral stu d e n t developm ent. O n e o f the top priorities o f the university ad m in istra tio n d u rin g the last few years has been the o rg an izatio n of a m odern S tu d en t H e alth Service (SH S) w hich prom otes the delivery o f a w ide v ariety o f free professional services to stu d en ts. T h e S tu d en t H ealth Service’s role an d m ission has been defined as the prom otion and m ain ten an ce o f the health an d well being of the university com m unity. T h e Service has focused its p rogram s, not only on curativ e efforts, b u t also tow ard preventive actions. T h e m ental health p ro g ram has d irected program s in two areas o f the stu d e n ts’ behavior: (a) d eterm in in g the adequacy o f stu d en t ad ju stm en t; an d (b) d eterm in in g w h eth er stu d e n ts’ career choices and p rogram s arc a p p ro p ria te to th eir p erfo rm an ce.1 A concern over the increasing incidence o f em otional disorders am ong the stu d en ts led the a d m in istratio n to conclude th a t it w as neccssary to incorporate a p rogram o f objective p ersonality assessm ent, to o b tain infor­ m ation regard in g the stu d e n ts’ behavior and th eir m en tal sta tu s. SH S

'In the Chilean system of higher education, a student is admitted to a definite career program which leads, after five to seven years, to a professional title or degree. 209

210

RISSETTI AND MALTES

Staff' w as given the responsibility o f developing a screening pro g ram to detect psychological problem s in en terin g stu d en ts an d to provide psy­ chological assessm ent an d trea tm e n t for stu d en ts experiencing p ro b lem s.2 T h e M inneso ta M u ltip h asic P ersonality In ventory (M M P I) w ith its b ro ad d a ta base seem ed to be the m ost likely personality in stru m e n t to ado p t for these purposes. T h is article sum m arizes th e results o f a n u m b e r of studies aim ed at determ in in g the a p p ro p riaten ess of using th e M M P I for clinical assessm ent in Chile.

GOALS AND STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT A m ultistage research project w as launched, w ith the c o n su ltatio n services of Dr. Ja m e s N. B utcher o f the U n iv ersity o f M in n eso ta, a t the end of 1970. Its m ain objectives were: 1. T o p ro v id e a S p a n is h tr a n s la tio n o f th e M M P I for C h ile a n populations. 2. T o a d a p t and stan d ard iz e the M M P I in the Pontificia U n iv ersid ad C atolica de C hile stu d en t p opulation. 3. T o valid ate the M M P I w ith clinical groups w ith in the S tu d en t H ealth Service. A m ong them : 3.1. E arly screening and identification o f the stu d en ts w ho m ay be experiencing a d ju stm en t problem s. (H igh Risk G ro u p s) 3.2. Identification and classification o f individuals w hose perso n ­ ality features m ay predispose them to psychological disorders. 3.3. In itiate research on: a. Prevalence of m ental health problem s. b. Applied studies on the clinical reference population (response to psy ch o th erap y , d eterm in atio n o f functional com ponents o f m cdical d isorders, etc). 4. T o com pare research results from C hile w ith the accu m u lated body o f tran sc u ltu ral M M P I d a ta in o th er countries.

review of rccent issues of College Student Personnel Abstracts show's an increasing interest in the investigation and prediction of complex criteria, such as academic failure, attrition and the occurrence of behavior disorders in this population.

8.

USE OF THE MMPI IN CHILE

211

Scope of the Paper Since B utcher and C lark (1979) have alread y given a g en eral overview o f the first phases o f the Project— i.e.,' the tran slatio n process and som e tran sn atio n al com parisons— we will em phasize the no rm ativ e an d v alidity studies. It is the a u th o rs’ hope th a t given the scarce inform ation on recent use of the M M P I for predictive purposes in U niversity student populations, in spite of D ahlstrom , W elsh and D ahlstrom ’s (1975) recognition of its poten­ tial usefulness, the results presented here may contribute to better under­ standing and treatm ent o f college student m ental health problems.

STUDY 1: STANDARDIZATION STUDY T h e p rim ary goal o f this study w as to evaluate the M M P I S p an ish tra n s­ lation perform ance in a representative, stratified sam p le o f stu d en ts, at the Pontificia U niversidad C alolica de Chile, in Santiago (Rissetti, B utcher et al, 1979a, b). T h e S tan d a rd booklet form w as g ro u p ad m in istra te d to a com bined sam ple o f stud en ts, in M arch and S eptem ber, 1978. Special care was taken in the test ad m in istra tio n to use qualified exam iners (the com plete SH S professional staff, plus a n u m b e r o f Faculty m em bers), a n d to use a s ta n d ­ ard m anual of test a d m in istratio n .

Subjects T h e M M P I was a d m in istered to 3,325 no rm al stu d e n ts (N o rm ality was defined not having been treated at the S tu d en t H ealth Service w ithin the past six m onths): 1,636 M ales, w ith a m ean age o f 20.0 years, SD = 3.2, and 1,689 Fem ales, w ith a m ean age o f 19.7 years, SD = 3.4, d istrib u te d in two w ell-differentiated subsam ples: A freshm en su b sam p le (n = 2,053) an d a sophom ore su b sam p le (n = 1,272). T h is g roup was ran d o m ly selected, according to the relative d istrib u tio n of sex an d careers, am ong the stu d en ts being enrolled d u rin g the second sem ester o f 1978, w ith an atten d an ce of m ore th an two sem esters a t the U niversity.

Data Processing Several com p u ter p rogram s (B u tch er & P an ch eri, 1976) w ere a d a p te d for use w ith the university com puter. For com parison pu rp o ses the two subsam plcs were processed separately. N o significant differences w ere

212

RISSETTI AN D MALTES

fo u n d a t th e m e a n sca le o r p rofile c o n fig u ra tio n level b e tw e e n th e su b s a m p le s .

Results T a b le 8.1 c o n ta in s th e ra w -sc o re m e a n s (K -c o rre c te d a n d n o n K -c o rre c te d ) a n d s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s o n th e b a sic M M P I v a lid ity a n d clin ica l scales o f th e m a le sa m p le , c o m p a re d to th e n o rm a tiv e a d u lt s a m p le o f th e U n ite d S ta te s (H a th a w a y a n d B rig g s, 1957). T h e re s u lts for th e C h ile a n fem ale sa m p le is sh o w n in T a b le 8.2. F ig u res 8.1 a n d 8.2 sh o w th e g ro u p m e a n pro files, w ith K -c o rre c tio n , o f th e C h ile a n sa m p le , p lo tte d a c c o rd in g to th e M in n e s o ta n o rm s, c o m ­ p a re d to th e p rofiles o f th e M in n e s o ta o rig in a l sa m p le . In o rd e r to h a v e a n a lte rn a tiv e U .S . refe re n c e sa m p le , n e a re r in p o p ­ u la tio n c h a ra c te ris tic s to th e C h ile a n sa m p le , w e c o m p u te d th e m e a n T scores for th e b a sic M M P I scales (K -c o rrc c te d , U .S . n o rm s ), a n d c o m ­ p a re d th e m w ith th e m e a n v a lu e s o f a U n iv e rs ity o f M in n e s o ta fre sh m e n TABLE 8.1 C om parison o f R aw -Score M e ans and S tan d ard D eviatio ns on the Basic M M P I Scales, B etw een C atholic U niversity o f Chile S tudents and th e M in nesota N orm als Chilean Normal Males Scales L V K 1 (H s) 1 (H s ) + ,.r)k 2 3 4 4

(D ) (H y ) (P d ) (P d ) + .4k

N 1,636

Mean

Minnesota Normal M ales* S .D .

N

Mean

S.D .

4.05 3.88 13.45 4.53

2.89 4.24

11.34 16.63

3.90 4.18 5.51 3.93 4.1!

117 293

16.49 13.99 19.30 20.44 8.06

5.18

2.55

294

6.43 13.91 5.35

4.20 4.62 4.28

111

12.30

4.06 4.89

21.24 20.51 16.58 22.15

274 294 274 294 345

5.66 4.37

5 (M O 6 (P a)

25.25 9.86

4.85 4.56 4.43 4.56 3.16

7 (P t) 7 (P t) + lk

13.81 27.72 14.46

7.43 5.62 8.54

293 274 294

9.86 22.95 9.57

7.19 4.88

28.37 18.35

6.69 4.61

274 294

22.26 14.51

21.13 26.81

4.29

274

17.00

5.21 4.42 3.87

8.15

193

25.00

9.58

8 8

(Sc) (Sc) + Ik 9 (M a ) 9 (M a ) + ,2k 0 (Si)

‘ Source: H a th a w a y & B riggs, 1957.

294 274

5.13 3.56

7.43

8.

USE OF THE MMPI IN CHILE

213

TABLE 8.2 Com parison o f Raw-Score M eans and Standard Deviations on the Basic M M P I Scales, between Catholic University o f Chile Students and the Minnesota N orm als Chilean Normal Females Scale

1 1 2 3 4 4 5

6 7 7

8 8 9 9

L F K (H s) (H s) + (D ) (H y) (Pel) (Pci) 4(M f) (P a) (Pt) (P t) + (Sc) (Sc) + (M a) (M a) +

Minnesota Normal Females*

N

Mean

S.D .

N

Mean

S.D .

1,689

5.63 5.42 15.00 7.19 14.69 22.79

2.36 3.72 4.52 5.14 4.70 5.02 5.09 4.38 4.22 4.00 2.94 7.41 5.51 7.96 6.03 4.28 4.06 8.47

397 118 373 397 373 396 475 397 373 108 397 397 373 397 373 397 373 350

4.27 3.49 12.08

2.63 3.13 5.07 5.28 4.88 5.18 5.66 4.23 4.40 4.83 3.32 7.78 6.06 7.96 6.50 4.50 4.11 9.58

.5k

22.22 15.88 ,4k

21.88

lk

34.77 10.28 13.37 28.37 12.81 27.81 17.12

Ik ,2k

0 (Si)

20.12 28.06

6.86 13.14 19.26 18.80 13.44 18.41 36.51 7.98 13.06 25.21 10.73 22.65 13.65 16.12 25.00

‘ Source: H a th a w a y & Briggs, 1957.

s a m p le , r e p o r te d by

L o p er,

R o b ertso n

and

S w an so n

(1968). (S ee

T a b le 8.3.)

Comments on the Normative Data T h e P ontificia U n iv e rsid a d C a tó lic a d e C h ile n o rm a tiv e g ro u p m e a n p ro ­ file falls a b o u t o n e s ta n d a rd d ev ia tio n ab o v e th e M in n e so ta m e a n . T h e re are few differences in th e ty pical p e rfo rm an ce, o n th e M M P I, betw een U n ite d S tates an d C h ile an college stu d e n t p o p u latio n s. T h e m ost clearcut differences arc in th e self p re sen tatio n b e h a v io r o f b o th n a tio n a l g ro u p s (Scale L) a n d in th e a ttrib u tio n o f d ep ressiv e sy m p to m ato lo g y (sec B u tc h e r a n d C lark , 1979, page 8 0 -8 4 for a m ore d etailed an aly sis a n d in te rp re ­ ta tio n ). T h e C h ilea n s tu d e n t p o p u latio n test resu lts ten d to confirm th e resu lts o f several cro ss-n atio n al stu d ies w ith resp ect to th e g e n e ra l ele­ v ation o f the college g ro u p profiles, w hen co m p a re d to th e M M P I n o r­ m ativ e g ro u p (B u tc h er & P a n c h e ri, 1976).

214

RISSETTI AND MALTES

SC A LES FIG . 8 .1 .

M e a n K - C o r r c c te d p ro file s o f C h ile a n N o rm a l M a le s a n d M in n e s o ta

N o rm a l M a le s , p lo tte d a c c o r d in g to th e U .S . A d u lt N o rm s .

Derivation of Norms for the Target Chilean Population T h e m eans and sta n d a rd deviations rep o rted in T a b le s 8.1 and 8.2 were used to develop the local norm s for the Pontificia U n iv ersid ad C ato lica de C hile popu latio n (K -corrected an d non K -corrected T -sco res), acco rd ­ ing to the form ula:

T = 50 +

10 (X, -

M)

S.D .

Figure 8.3 show s the C h ilean g roup m ean profiles, p lotted w ith respect to the local norm s.

8.

USE OF THE MMPI IN CHILE

21 5

O T LU

cr O o « Q cc < Q Z < H W

SCALES

FIG. 8.2. Mean K-Corrected profiles of Chilean normal females and Minnesota normal females, plotted according to the U.S. adull norms.

STUDY 2: CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS T h e aim o f th is stu d y w as to co m p a re th e ty p ical M M P I p e rfo rm a n ce betw een the n o rm a l C h ile a n g ro u p stu d ie s a n d th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f a n u m b e r o f n a tio n a l reference sam p les (R issctti, B u tc h e r ct a l., 1979a). C o m p ariso n s w ere m a d e a t th e scale level u sin g g ro u p m ean profiles an d a t the item level by e x a m in in g the p a tte rn o f item e n d o rse m e n ts. W ith respect to the last typ e o f co m p a riso n , B u tc h er a n d P a n ch eri (1976) have stressed the relev an ce o f a n a ly z in g th e p a tte rn o f item e n d o rse m e n t dif­ ferences betw een n a tio n a l sam p les, in o rd e r to ev a lu a te th e d eg ree o f sim ilarity o f resp o n se to th e M M P I item s.

21 6

RISSETTI AND MALTES TABLE 8.3 Com parison of M ean T Scores for the M M P I Validity and Clinical Scales Between the Catholic University of Chile N orm al S am ple and a U niversity of Minnesota N orm al S am p le* (K-Corrected T-scores com puted according to U.S. adult norm s) Chilean Males (N = 1,636)

Scale I, F K H s + .5k D Hy Pd + .4k M fM MIT Pa Pt + lk Sc + 1k M a + .2k Si

U.S. Males (N = 1,679)

Chilean Females (N = 1,689)

U.S. Females (N = 1,603)

Mean

Mean

OiJT

Mean

Mean

l)iff

53 58 53 52 60 58 57

7.1 4.3 3.0

56 55 55 54 57 56 56

46.2 51.8 56.8 49.5 49.2 55.1 57.0

9.8 3.2

59

+5.9 53.7 56.0 52.0 52.5 56.4 59.-1 59.4

56 60 61 60 52

54.7 58.1 59.1 58.3 49.1

1.3 1.9 1.9 1.7 2.9

52 56 55 58 58 53

47.5 55.5 55.1 56.6 56.4 49.7

0.0 7.5

1.6 2.4 0.4

1.8 4.5 7.8 0.9

1.0 4.5 0.5

0.1 1.4

1.6 3.3

“Source L o p er, R o b ertso n , S w an so n , 1968.

Results Chilean Student Population Versus the United States Student Population. A n u m ­ b er o f co m p ariso n s w ere m a d e w ith th e U n iv e rsity o f M in n e so ta p o p u ­ lation (L o p e r et al., 1968). T h e P earso n p ro d u c t-m o m e n t c o rre latio n s b etw een the tru e item e n d o rse m en ts o f th e C h ile a n g ro u p an d th e U n ite d S lates reference g ro u p w ere c o m p u te d . T a b le 8.4 co n ta in s th e re su lts a lo n g w ith a n u m b e r o f o th e r n a tio n a l sam p les, in c lu d in g a co m p ariso n sam p le from the U n ited S tates, as it w as re p o rte d in B u tc h e r a n d P a n c h c ri, (1976). T h e item s w hich w ere an sw e re d in a d ifferen t w ay by th e tw o sa m p les w ere also an aly z ed a n d c o m p a re d w ith a college M ex ican sam p le. A cc o rd ­ ing to the g u id elin es p ro v id ed by B u tc h e r a n d P a n c h e ri (1976), an “e x tre m e ” item w as defined as one for w hich th ere is a sta tistic a lly sig ­ nificant difference o f 25% o r m ore in e n d o rse m e n t b etw een tw o n a tio n a l g ro u p s, b o th for m ales a n d fem ales. T h e c o m p u te r p ro g ra m re p o rte d by B u tch er a n d P a n ch e ri (1976) w as used for th e analysis. M ost o f th e M M P I item s w ere a n sw ered in th e sam e d ire c tio n by n o rm al su b jects o f the th re e n a tio n a l sam p les. O n ly e ig h t item s w ere fo u n d

8.

USE OF THE MMPI IN CHILE

217