Advances in Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences: Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual Conference on Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences, July 16-20, 2020, USA [1st ed.] 9783030508951, 9783030508968

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xiv
Front Matter ....Pages 1-1
A Platform for Tracking Teacher-Student Interaction (Nicholas Elleman, Nicholas Caporusso)....Pages 3-9
Optimizing the Learning Experience: Examining Interactions Between the Individual Learner and the Learning Context (Summer Rebensky, Maria Chaparro, Meredith Carroll)....Pages 10-16
Novice and Experienced EAP Practitioners’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Teachers’ Cognitions and Students’ Perceptions (Mohadeseh Khazaee)....Pages 17-23
Exploring the True Motivation of Faculty Members to Promote Technological Innovation in Their Courses (Nitza Davidovitch, Eyal Eckhaus)....Pages 24-30
Predict Trainee’s Comprehension from Computer Operations with Deep Learning (Koga Kobayashi, Hironobu Satoh)....Pages 31-35
The Infographic Process of Synthesizing Complex Information About the Individual Legacies of Retired Teachers and Researchers in Art and Design (Nuno Martins, Susana Barreto, Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Cláudia Lima, Inês Calado)....Pages 36-42
Augmented Reality Based Scientific Gateway as Education Form (Eva Pajorová, Ladislav Hluchý)....Pages 43-48
Strengthening Teacher Service Capacities to Improve Empowerment in School Feeding (Ernesto Hernandez, Manuel Sanchez, William Miranda, Roberto Seminario, Leandro Vallejos, Miguel Hernandez)....Pages 49-55
Performance in Mathematical and Scientific School Subjects as an Indicator of Success in Undergraduate Modules in Construction Economics in South Africa (Danie Hoffman, Inge Pieterse)....Pages 56-62
Research on Digital Reading App Design to Stimulate Reading Motivation of Teenagers (Yijie Cao, Bing Xiao)....Pages 63-69
The Design and Implementation of Effective Teaching Based on Human Factors Engineering (Qing Xue, Lin Gong)....Pages 70-76
Ethical Considerations on Using Learning Analytics in Finnish Higher Education (Jussi Okkonen, Tanja Helle, Hanna Lindsten)....Pages 77-85
The Rise of Communication Design in Portugal: An Overview of the Higher Education Teaching Methodologies (Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Nuno Martins, Susana Barreto, Heitor Alvelos, Cláudia Lima)....Pages 86-91
Educational Deprivation in Latin America: Structural Inequality Beyond Borders (Harvey Sánchez-Restrepo, Jorge Louçã)....Pages 92-98
Research on the Reform of Higher Engineering Education from the Perspective of Smart Service Management—Based on the Program Comparison Between USA’s MIT and China’s Tianjin University (Wenjuan Zhang, Xinyan Zhang, Ying Yu)....Pages 99-105
Matrix for the Planification from the Formative and Scientific Investigation that Helps the Teaching-Learning Process (César Enríquez, Georgina Arcos, Cintia Chugá)....Pages 106-111
Teaching-Learning Ergonomics in Virtual and Distance Education: Bibliometric Review (Wilder Alfonso Hernández Duarte, Luis Gabriel Gutiérrez Bernal)....Pages 112-117
Garbage Classification Education Application Design – Taking Shanghai, China as an Example (Lijuan Guo, Jiping Wang)....Pages 118-122
Academic School Performance as an Indicator of Success in Undergraduate Studies in Construction Economics in South Africa (Danie Hoffman, Inge Pieterse)....Pages 123-128
Research Competency Training for Students of the Superior Technological Institute of Administrative and Commercial Training (Evelyn De la Llana Pérez, Yoenia Portilla Castell, Belinda Marta Lema Cachinell, Emma Zulay Delgado Saeteros, Rafael Bell Rodríguez)....Pages 129-134
Front Matter ....Pages 135-135
Improving Children’s STEAM Education and Their Global Competence Through Collaborative Cooking (Mohadeseh Khazaee, Layla Sabourian)....Pages 137-143
The Sustainable Business Model of Health Resort Enterprise and the Role of Education in Pro-ecological Behavior (Adam R. Szromek)....Pages 144-150
Mobile Phones in Laboratory: Effects on Laboratory User Performances (Bankole K. Fasanya, Jesus De La Cruz Jr., Karen Abad, Shuyu Wang, Wenyi Wang)....Pages 151-158
Digital Prequalification for Nursing Trainees with Migration Background (Jan A. Neuhöfer, Sabine Hansen)....Pages 159-163
Developing a Reinforcement Learning Agent for the Game of Checkers (Henning Knauer, Andrea Dederichs-Koch, Daniel Schilberg)....Pages 164-169
Mobile App for Psycho-Statistics Learning (Carlos Ramos-Galarza, Mónica Acosta-Rodas, Mónica Bolaños-Pasquel, Jorge Cruz-Cárdenas)....Pages 170-174
Mental Health in Different College Education Systems (Brenda Rivero-Orozco, Alberto Rossa-Sierra, Fabiola Cortes-Chavez)....Pages 175-181
The Effects of the Exposure to an Aromatic Environment on Students During University Engineering Final Exam – A Pilot Study (Gabriela G. Reyes-Zárate, Miguel X. Rodríguez-Paz, Jorge A. González-Mendívil)....Pages 182-187
Front Matter ....Pages 189-189
From Technical and Non-technical Skills to Hybrid Minds: Reconceptualizing Cognition and Learning in Semi-automated Environments (Charlott Sellberg, Martin Viktorelius)....Pages 191-197
Quantifying Video Gaming Expertise (Lisa Jo Elliott, Tyler Hampton, Jessica McCoy, Kathryn Kriebs, Melissa Rowlison, Autumn Waite et al.)....Pages 198-203
Developing a Model on the Effects of Management Games for Human Resource Development: From a Benefit Delay and Acquisition Perspective (Kazuhiro Fujimura, Fumiyo Ozaki)....Pages 204-211
Development of Video Games to Improve the Learning of Data Structures (Luis Salvador-Ullauri, Belén Salvador-Acosta, Carlos Ramos-Galarza, Patricia Acosta-Vargas)....Pages 212-217
Front Matter ....Pages 219-219
Visual Scanning and Reading Speed Following 5-Days of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction: A Pilot Study (Valerie Rice, Leah Enders, Angela Jeter)....Pages 221-227
Collaborative Cognitive Training Game to Enhance Selective Sustained Attention in Preschoolers (Carlos Arce-Lopera, Mateo Torres, Steven Vacilescu)....Pages 228-232
The Practice of TBL+ Flipped Classroom in the Music Aesthetics Course Under the Music Gesture Theory (Haiyang Qu, Dahai Xing)....Pages 233-244
Development of a Game-Based Learning Platform for U.S. Navy Netted Force Concepts (Jordan Haggit, Rod Ford, Ryan Meyer, Dan Roseman, Marc Gacy, Terence Andre et al.)....Pages 245-251
Front Matter ....Pages 253-253
Aircrew Performance Measurement and Proficiency: A Need for Better Operational Capabilities (Mark Bunn, Paul Ditch, Brent D. Fegley)....Pages 255-261
What the Maritime Industry Can Learn from Safety Training in the Process Industry and Why Non-technical Skills are Indispensable for Mariners in Critical Situations (Marina Klostermann, Sebastian Brandhorst, Annette Kluge)....Pages 262-268
From Tacit Knowledge to Visual Expertise: Eye-Tracking Support in Maritime Education and Training (Rikard Eklund, Charlott Sellberg, Anna-Lisa Osvalder)....Pages 269-275
Using Virtual Worlds as an Integrated Part of Virtual Distance Learning (VDL) Networks in Simulator-Based Education (Per Haavardtun, Steven Mallam, Amit Sharma, Salman Nazir)....Pages 276-282
The Influence of Multi-media Related to Creative Learning (P. W. Chau, Amic G. Ho)....Pages 283-288
Review of German “Master Craftsman Qualification Certificate” Examination (Guanni Dong, Guojun Chen, Bin Liu)....Pages 289-295
Front Matter ....Pages 297-297
Innovations, Agile Management Methods and Personnel Development (Martin Kröll)....Pages 299-309
Using AI to Decrease Demand and Supply Mismatch in ITC Labour Market (Jussi Okkonen, Harri Ketamo, Hanna Lindsten, Teemu Rauhala, Jarmo Viteli)....Pages 310-316
Preparing Students for the Challenging Job Markets over the Next Decade (Albertus Retnanto, Hamid R. Parsaei, Boback Parsaei)....Pages 317-322
Methodology of Dictionaries of Sector Competences (DCS), to Design Standards of Professional Competences, Research and Labor (Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez)....Pages 323-329
E-learning as a Strategic Solution for the Preservation and Revitalization of Disappearing Industrial Cultures in Portugal (Nuno Martins, Heitor Alvelos, Susana Barreto, Abhishek Chatterjee, Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Cláudia Lima et al.)....Pages 330-335
Multisensory Learning System Applying Augmented Reality (Cesar Guevara, Dennys Mauricio Vallejo Coronel)....Pages 336-342
The Effect of Curriculum Integrated Technology-Based Universal Design of Learning Approach on Academic Achievement of Elementary School Students (Rahat Javaid, Tahira Anwar Lashari, Imran Haider, Erum Afzal, Umer Farooq, Sabahat Javed et al.)....Pages 343-349
VR in Education: Ergonomic Features and Cybersickness (Olha Pinchuk, Oleksandr Burov, Svitlana Ahadzhanova, Victoriya Logvinenko, Yana Dolgikh, Tetyana Kharchenko et al.)....Pages 350-355
AHP for a Comparative Study of Tools Used for Programming Learning (Mónica Gómez Rios, Doris Juliana Castillo Herrera, Karla Stefania Narváez Lucio, Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vazquez)....Pages 356-362
Back Matter ....Pages 363-365

Citation preview

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1211

Salman Nazir Tareq Ahram Waldemar Karwowski   Editors

Advances in Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual Conference on Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences, July 16–20, 2020, USA

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing Volume 1211

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, UK László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University, Gyor, Hungary Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Ngoc Thanh Nguyen , Faculty of Computer Science and Management, Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuroscience, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems, Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning paradigms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia. The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of research results. ** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings, EI-Compendex, DBLP, SCOPUS, Google Scholar and Springerlink **

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Salman Nazir Tareq Ahram Waldemar Karwowski •

•

Editors

Advances in Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual Conference on Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences, July 16–20, 2020, USA

123

Editors Salman Nazir Department of Maritime Operations University of South-Eastern Norway Borre, Norway

Tareq Ahram University of Central Florida Orlando, FL, USA

Waldemar Karwowski University of Central Florida Winter Park, FL, USA

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic) Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing ISBN 978-3-030-50895-1 ISBN 978-3-030-50896-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2020

AHFE 2020 Series Editors Tareq Z. Ahram, Florida, USA Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

11th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics and the Affiliated Conferences Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual Conference on Training, Education, and Learning Sciences, July 16–20, 2020, USA

Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Engineering Advances in Industrial Design

Advances in Ergonomics in Design Advances in Safety Management and Human Performance Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Healthcare and Medical Devices Advances in Simulation and Digital Human Modeling Advances in Human Factors and Systems Interaction Advances in the Human Side of Service Engineering Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Leadership Advances in Human Factors in Robots, Drones and Unmanned Systems Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity

Hasan Ayaz and Umer Asgher Giuseppe Di Bucchianico, Cliff Sungsoo Shin, Scott Shim, Shuichi Fukuda, Gianni Montagna and Cristina Carvalho Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo Soares Pedro M. Arezes and Ronald L. Boring Jay Kalra and Nancy J. Lightner Daniel N Cassenti, Sofia Scataglini, Sudhakar L. Rajulu and Julia L. Wright Isabel L. Nunes Jim Spohrer and Christine Leitner Jussi Ilari Kantola, Salman Nazir and Vesa Salminen Matteo Zallio Isabella Corradini, Enrico Nardelli and Tareq Ahram (continued)

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Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2020

(continued) Advances in Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software and Systems Engineering Advances in Human Factors in Architecture, Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure Advances in Physical, Social & Occupational Ergonomics

Advances in Manufacturing, Production Management and Process Control Advances in Usability, User Experience, Wearable and Assistive Technology Advances in Creativity, Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Communication of Design

Salman Nazir, Tareq Ahram and Waldemar Karwowski Neville Stanton Tareq Ahram Jerzy Charytonowicz Waldemar Karwowski, Ravindra S. Goonetilleke, Shuping Xiong, Richard H.M. Goossens and Atsuo Murata Beata Mrugalska, Stefan Trzcielinski, Waldemar Karwowski, Massimo Di Nicolantonio and Emilio Rossi Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão Evangelos Markopoulos, Ravindra S. Goonetilleke, Amic G. Ho and Yan Luximon

Preface

This book provides researchers and practitioners a forum to share research and best practices in the application of human factors to training, education, and learning sciences. Just as human factors’ discipline has been applied to hardware, software, and the built environment, there is now a growing interest in the optimal design of training, education, and learning experiences. Principles of behavioral and cognitive science are extremely relevant to the design of instructional content and the effective application of technology to deliver the appropriate learning experience. These principles and best practices are important in corporate, higher education, and military training environments. This book also aims to share and transfer not just knowledge, learning experiences, and best training approaches that are of real value in practical terms; a value that can help leaders ensure their organizations stay ahead of the competition through continued innovation, strong competitive advantage, and inspired leadership. This book is organized into five sections that contain the following subject areas: Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5

Education and Learning Strategies Healthcare Education and Mobile Learning Systems Competency Achievement Through Interactive Multimedia and Gamification Training and Certification Learning Technologies and Preparation of Future Workforce

Each section contains research papers that have been reviewed by members of the International Editorial Board. Each section contains research papers that have been reviewed by members of the International Editorial Board. Our sincere thanks and appreciation to the board members as listed below: S. Abramovich, USA D. Al Thani, Qatar T. Alexander, Germany T. Barath, Hungary

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Preface

J. Bartnicka, Poland J. Castro-Alonso, Chile J. Elliott, USA M. Freeman, USA A. Gronstedt, USA C. Madinger, USA S. Mallam, Norway B. Mansoor, Qatar C. McClernon, USA K. Moore, USA K. Orvis, USA B. Pokorny, USA R. Roper, USA D. Sampson, Greece J. Smith, Canada J. Syversen, Norway July 2020

Salman Nazir Tareq Ahram Waldemar Karwowski

Contents

Education and Learning Strategies A Platform for Tracking Teacher-Student Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicholas Elleman and Nicholas Caporusso

3

Optimizing the Learning Experience: Examining Interactions Between the Individual Learner and the Learning Context . . . . . . . . . . Summer Rebensky, Maria Chaparro, and Meredith Carroll

10

Novice and Experienced EAP Practitioners’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Teachers’ Cognitions and Students’ Perceptions . . . . . . . . . Mohadeseh Khazaee

17

Exploring the True Motivation of Faculty Members to Promote Technological Innovation in Their Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nitza Davidovitch and Eyal Eckhaus

24

Predict Trainee’s Comprehension from Computer Operations with Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Koga Kobayashi and Hironobu Satoh

31

The Infographic Process of Synthesizing Complex Information About the Individual Legacies of Retired Teachers and Researchers in Art and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nuno Martins, Susana Barreto, Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Cláudia Lima, and Inês Calado

36

Augmented Reality Based Scientific Gateway as Education Form . . . . . Eva Pajorová and Ladislav Hluchý Strengthening Teacher Service Capacities to Improve Empowerment in School Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ernesto Hernandez, Manuel Sanchez, William Miranda, Roberto Seminario, Leandro Vallejos, and Miguel Hernandez

43

49

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Contents

Performance in Mathematical and Scientific School Subjects as an Indicator of Success in Undergraduate Modules in Construction Economics in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Danie Hoffman and Inge Pieterse

56

Research on Digital Reading App Design to Stimulate Reading Motivation of Teenagers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yijie Cao and Bing Xiao

63

The Design and Implementation of Effective Teaching Based on Human Factors Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qing Xue and Lin Gong

70

Ethical Considerations on Using Learning Analytics in Finnish Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jussi Okkonen, Tanja Helle, and Hanna Lindsten

77

The Rise of Communication Design in Portugal: An Overview of the Higher Education Teaching Methodologies . . . . . . Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Nuno Martins, Susana Barreto, Heitor Alvelos, and Cláudia Lima Educational Deprivation in Latin America: Structural Inequality Beyond Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harvey Sánchez-Restrepo and Jorge Louçã Research on the Reform of Higher Engineering Education from the Perspective of Smart Service Management—Based on the Program Comparison Between USA’s MIT and China’s Tianjin University . . . . . Wenjuan Zhang, Xinyan Zhang, and Ying Yu

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Matrix for the Planification from the Formative and Scientific Investigation that Helps the Teaching-Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 César Enríquez, Georgina Arcos, and Cintia Chugá Teaching-Learning Ergonomics in Virtual and Distance Education: Bibliometric Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Wilder Alfonso Hernández Duarte and Luis Gabriel Gutiérrez Bernal Garbage Classification Education Application Design – Taking Shanghai, China as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Lijuan Guo and Jiping Wang Academic School Performance as an Indicator of Success in Undergraduate Studies in Construction Economics in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Danie Hoffman and Inge Pieterse

Contents

xi

Research Competency Training for Students of the Superior Technological Institute of Administrative and Commercial Training . . . 129 Evelyn De la Llana Pérez, Yoenia Portilla Castell, Belinda Marta Lema Cachinell, Emma Zulay Delgado Saeteros, and Rafael Bell Rodríguez Healthcare Education and Mobile Learning Systems Improving Children’s STEAM Education and Their Global Competence Through Collaborative Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Mohadeseh Khazaee and Layla Sabourian The Sustainable Business Model of Health Resort Enterprise and the Role of Education in Pro-ecological Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Adam R. Szromek Mobile Phones in Laboratory: Effects on Laboratory User Performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Bankole K. Fasanya, Jesus De La Cruz Jr., Karen Abad, Shuyu Wang, and Wenyi Wang Digital Prequalification for Nursing Trainees with Migration Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Jan A. Neuhöfer and Sabine Hansen Developing a Reinforcement Learning Agent for the Game of Checkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Henning Knauer, Andrea Dederichs-Koch, and Daniel Schilberg Mobile App for Psycho-Statistics Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Carlos Ramos-Galarza, Mónica Acosta-Rodas, Mónica Bolaños-Pasquel, and Jorge Cruz-Cárdenas Mental Health in Different College Education Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Brenda Rivero-Orozco, Alberto Rossa-Sierra, and Fabiola Cortes-Chavez The Effects of the Exposure to an Aromatic Environment on Students During University Engineering Final Exam – A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . 182 Gabriela G. Reyes-Zárate, Miguel X. Rodríguez-Paz, and Jorge A. González-Mendívil Competency Achievement Through Interactive Multimedia and Gamification From Technical and Non-technical Skills to Hybrid Minds: Reconceptualizing Cognition and Learning in Semi-automated Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Charlott Sellberg and Martin Viktorelius

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Contents

Quantifying Video Gaming Expertise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Lisa Jo Elliott, Tyler Hampton, Jessica McCoy, Kathryn Kriebs, Melissa Rowlison, Autumn Waite, and Abigail Blackwell Developing a Model on the Effects of Management Games for Human Resource Development: From a Benefit Delay and Acquisition Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Kazuhiro Fujimura and Fumiyo Ozaki Development of Video Games to Improve the Learning of Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Luis Salvador-Ullauri, Belén Salvador-Acosta, Carlos Ramos-Galarza, and Patricia Acosta-Vargas Improve Learning Performance with Diverse Teaching Methods Visual Scanning and Reading Speed Following 5-Days of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Valerie Rice, Leah Enders, and Angela Jeter Collaborative Cognitive Training Game to Enhance Selective Sustained Attention in Preschoolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Carlos Arce-Lopera, Mateo Torres, and Steven Vacilescu The Practice of TBL+ Flipped Classroom in the Music Aesthetics Course Under the Music Gesture Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Haiyang Qu and Dahai Xing Development of a Game-Based Learning Platform for U.S. Navy Netted Force Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Jordan Haggit, Rod Ford, Ryan Meyer, Dan Roseman, Marc Gacy, Terence Andre, Anna Grome, Peter Simon, Michael Arnold, and Elijah Lofgren Training and Certification Aircrew Performance Measurement and Proficiency: A Need for Better Operational Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Mark Bunn, Paul Ditch, and Brent D. Fegley What the Maritime Industry Can Learn from Safety Training in the Process Industry and Why Non-technical Skills are Indispensable for Mariners in Critical Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Marina Klostermann, Sebastian Brandhorst, and Annette Kluge From Tacit Knowledge to Visual Expertise: Eye-Tracking Support in Maritime Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Rikard Eklund, Charlott Sellberg, and Anna-Lisa Osvalder

Contents

xiii

Using Virtual Worlds as an Integrated Part of Virtual Distance Learning (VDL) Networks in Simulator-Based Education . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Per Haavardtun, Steven Mallam, Amit Sharma, and Salman Nazir The Influence of Multi-media Related to Creative Learning . . . . . . . . . 283 P. W. Chau and Amic G. Ho Review of German “Master Craftsman Qualification Certificate” Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Guanni Dong, Guojun Chen, and Bin Liu Learning Technologies and Preparation of Future Workforce Innovations, Agile Management Methods and Personnel Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Martin Kröll Using AI to Decrease Demand and Supply Mismatch in ITC Labour Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Jussi Okkonen, Harri Ketamo, Hanna Lindsten, Teemu Rauhala, and Jarmo Viteli Preparing Students for the Challenging Job Markets over the Next Decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Albertus Retnanto, Hamid R. Parsaei, and Boback Parsaei Methodology of Dictionaries of Sector Competences (DCS), to Design Standards of Professional Competences, Research and Labor . . . . . . . . 323 Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez E-learning as a Strategic Solution for the Preservation and Revitalization of Disappearing Industrial Cultures in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Nuno Martins, Heitor Alvelos, Susana Barreto, Abhishek Chatterjee, Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Cláudia Lima, and Mariana Quintela Multisensory Learning System Applying Augmented Reality . . . . . . . . . 336 Cesar Guevara and Dennys Mauricio Coronel Vallejo The Effect of Curriculum Integrated Technology-Based Universal Design of Learning Approach on Academic Achievement of Elementary School Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Rahat Javaid, Tahira Anwar Lashari, Imran Haider, Erum Afzal, Umer Farooq, Sabahat Javed, Areeba Javaid, and Naqash Gerard VR in Education: Ergonomic Features and Cybersickness . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Olha Pinchuk, Oleksandr Burov, Svitlana Ahadzhanova, Victoriya Logvinenko, Yana Dolgikh, Tetyana Kharchenko, Olena Hlazunova, and Andrii Shabalin

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Contents

AHP for a Comparative Study of Tools Used for Programming Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Mónica Gómez Rios, Doris Juliana Castillo Herrera, Karla Stefania Narváez Lucio, and Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vazquez Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Education and Learning Strategies

A Platform for Tracking Teacher-Student Interaction Nicholas Elleman(&) and Nicholas Caporusso Department of Computer Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights Louie B Nunn Dr, 41099, USA [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The value and effectiveness of office hours held by faculty and other staff members involved in student mentoring (e.g., advisors and tutors) has been investigated by several studies that have demonstrated that One-On-One (1:1) interaction, whether in person or via remote communication tools, has significant impact on academic success. Despite teacher-student meetings are a crucial component of the learning experience, very little is known about office hours practices beyond the requirements of faculty and staff handbooks: attendance, utilization, and outcome are seldom reported or sparsely tracked, mostly on an individual basis, and without standards. In this paper, we introduce a novel system especially designed for educational institutions to support them in measuring and enhancing engagement with office hours and mentoring sessions. Keywords: Learning analytics
Office hours
Learning Management Systems

1 Introduction Several aspects contribute to delivering quality learning experiences in higher education, including commitment of instructors, design of lectures and coursework, time spent with peers, and mentoring from faculty and advisors [1]. Specifically, over the last decade, the importance of teacher-student relationships in contexts other than lectures is gaining interest. Research has demonstrated that especially student-faculty contact outside of the classroom has a positive impact on students’ academic success. Particularly, first-year students benefit from interaction with an advisor or a faculty mentor [2]. Moreover, 1:1 meetings are especially important in colleges and universities that serve first-generation students or minority, underrepresented, and financially disadvantaged individuals, where mentoring and interaction with faculty and advisors is a crucial part of academic success [3]. Also, building student-teacher relationships via face-to-face communication with instructors, whether in person or using computermediated tools, has beneficial impact on students enrolled in commuter campuses and institutions located in rural areas [4]. As nowadays most faculty and staff handbooks in educational institutions require instructors to dedicate some of their time to 1:1 meetings with students, weekly office hours (OH) represent the most widespread form for having face-to-face conversations. Indeed, they offer a convenient opportunity for checking learning progress and commitment, identifying and preventing potential © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 3–9, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_1

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issues, and building a professional and personal relationship that results in increased mutual understanding. Nevertheless, several studies found that actual 1:1 interaction between faculty and their students is infrequent and largely limited to formal and structured situations, such as classroom lectures, grades and feedback to assignments, or e-mail communication [5]. This is mainly because, despite prescribed rules adopted at the organization level, current practices in terms of OH are mainly left to the individual initiative and commitment of single instructors, mentors. Unfortunately, as reported by [6], time conflicts, poor advertisement, other coursework and duties, and commuting to campus, lead to students having poor engagement with OH. On the other hand, in addition to students’ non-attendance, instructors’ failure to be present and available during scheduled time [6] discourages students from seeking face-to-face interaction. As a result, despite communication between teachers and learners is becoming more personal thanks to the use of Social Media, face-to-face interaction is among the most overlooked factors: although Learning Management Systems (LMS) are becoming more advanced and support unprecedented personalization options [7], there are no systems for measuring and incorporating learning analytics about interpersonal communication between instructors and students. In addition to the lack of data, the scientific literature focusing on face-to-face interactions in higher education involves different objectives and criteria. As a result, it is difficult to compare the findings of multiple studies involving very limited samples, scopes, or time frames, and aggregate them in an actionable framework and in standard guidelines. Regardless of the means by which OH are offered and of the type and purpose of 1:1 meetings, there is a demand for systems for helping faculty and staff in educational institutions track opportunities for interaction and monitor their performance. However, addressing the current lack of data is the very first step required for offering insights on key dimensions of academic success, increasing teachers’ and students’ awareness about the value of their interaction, and optimizing allocation of their time and effort.

2 Related Work Individual meetings with faculty are an essential element of good teaching: either in the context of scheduled OH or in the form of appointments, they create unique opportunities for 1:1 mentoring that are very different in quality and outcome than group conversations. Particularly, OH were found to positively affect several dimensions of academic success [1]. As reported by several studies, visiting faculty and advisors regularly has been positively correlated with several indicators of student learning performances in the context of different disciplines [8]. However, research about OH shows that teachers and learners find it difficult to leverage this instrument to the fullest: the former are often discouraged by low participation and consequently avoid investing a significant amount of time in reaching out to students; also, at each step in their career, several aspects prevent them from feeling incentivized to advertise their availability outside class [1]. On the other hand, students might overlook the value of mentoring or feel intimidated by 1:1 interaction with their teachers and, therefore, fail to attend OH on a regular basis for substantive and intrinsic

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reasons. In the last decades, the increasing availability and adoption of technology, such as instant messaging tools facilitated creating touch points between students and faculty and advisors, as demonstrated by [4]. For instance, the success of distance learning and the consequent transition of courses and programs to on-line education favored the introduction of the concept of Virtual Office Hours (VOH), or Cyber-Office hours, in which 1:1 meetings are held over the phone or using computer-mediated tools. Several studies investigating the effectiveness of VOH in helping build studentteacher relationships demonstrated that, in addition to having a positive impact on students who are located remotely or commute from nearby areas, they are particularly suitable for workers, parents, and learners live in the local community who have other types of commitments [5, 9]. Unfortunately, despite their convenience, the transition to on-line systems and the introduction of new forms of communication did not result in any progress in terms of acquiring data about the value of the personal relationship between students and their instructors and advisors: nowadays there are no systematic approaches for measuring the outcome of 1:1 meetings and incorporating them in student performance analytics. Although current LMS offer multiple instruments for communicating and capture several metrics about user activity and interaction with content, they offer little support to analyzing the outcome of face-to-face mentoring. In [10], the authors present the case study of a drop-in center that was designed to provide students with an informal replacement to traditional OH. They installed a digital system in a writing center with the aim of tracking interaction between students and their teaching assistants and obtaining statistics about attendance to face-to-face meetings: students check in and out meetings by scanning their identification card using a magnetic reader located at the entrance of the facility. By doing this, they collect information about participants, acquire additional feedback about user satisfaction, and calculate the average duration of a meeting, which, in turn, is utilized to manage an electronic queuing system that optimizes waiting times.

3 System Design In this paper, we suggest a system for adopting a more structured and systematic approach in quantitatively acquiring, analyzing, and improving faculty-student engagement. To this end, we introduce a novel web-based platform that supports scheduling 1:1 meetings during and outside OH, tracking their attendance and duration, and obtaining analytics about their outcome that can be incorporated into learning and performance reports. The ultimate objective of our work is to create a solution that is compatible with the different university policies in terms of appointments and OH management as well as with the diverse practices adopted by individual faculty and staff, and to provide users with a flexible system that requires minimal integration overhead and a short adoption and learning curve. To this end, we involved a group of faculty, staff, and students in analyzing the key dynamics, requirements, specifications: as most OH meetings happen impromptu or without prior notice (e.g., open door policies) and in a limited time window, the use of technology that introduces an additional step, that is, clocking the details in an agenda (e.g., start and end time) is among the main barriers to adoption. As a result, we co-designed a modular workflow

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based on metaphoric micro-interactions with technology that mimic and replace actual gestures realized before and at the end of meetings. Specifically, we modeled our solution around tasks that students already realize in physical interaction in the context of OH, that is, (1) knocking on the door to verify whether the instructor is available, (2) entering the office, which determines the beginning of the appointment, and (3) exiting the room, which indicates that the meeting is over. Similarly, the proposed system is based on an interactive label posted on instructor’s door that works as follows (see Fig. 1): 1. ping: students use their phone to scan the label; by doing this, they access a webpage where they can check instructor’s current availability; 2. check in: if the instructor is available, this logs the start of the meeting; otherwise, students can add their name to the queue or book an appointment in a different time; 3. check out: after the meeting ends, either the student or the faculty can scan the label again or use a web interface, respectively, which allows the system to acquire the duration of the meeting and release instructor’s availability for the next appointment. The interactive label can be in the form of a QR code or a Near Field Communication (NFC) chip that encodes the link to the instructor’s page on the platform, so that students can simply take a picture of or tap on the tag as they enter or exit the office. By leveraging metaphors and natural interaction via physical gestures, our approach aims at lowering barriers to adoption and facilitating the transition to a technology that renders keeping a log of OH and meetings transparent to the user and, thus, minimizes its effort. Nevertheless, students can directly operate the web platform in a traditional fashion. The interactive label can be posted on office doors, so that students can conveniently scan it when they enter the meeting, whereas the link can be shared in course material (e.g., in the Syllabus), on LMS, and it can be included in announcements, invitations, and e-mails (e.g., as part of the signature). As a result, the proposed solution can be suitable for face-to-face meetings, as well as for sessions held remotely using video-conferencing tools. In addition to accessing the system directly, a web component (i.e., widget) in the form of an HTML code snipped can be embedded in existing external web pages, so that faculty and staff can incorporate the proposed solution in their personal page on their organization website, and make it more intuitive for students to use the service. By doing this, the system offers an intuitive tool for collecting data about office hour utilization as well as other types of 1:1 mentoring. Furthermore, as the objective of our design is to adjust to individuals’ practices, the system can automatically activate and deactivate the check-in feature based on the scheduled OH; alternatively, faculty and staff can manually indicate their availability. Also, the proposed system enables students to leave a message in case instructor’s office is unattended; simultaneously, the system can notify users if teachers have other duties that requires them to leave their office and cancel scheduled meetings. As a result, the system can also be utilized to track and analyze attendance and commitment of faculty and staff, and it can help address the lack of data in studies about their availability and presence during required times [6]. Also, the system includes features that enable collecting feedback at the end of each meeting. To this end, its default forms can be customized at the faculty, department,

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college, or university level, to collect standard and in-depth Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). As with teaching evaluations, student feedback can be shared with faculty and staff. Finally, the system incorporates a reporting section that features learning analytics and provides faculty, staff, and students with detailed information about availability, utilization, and attendance with respect to OH and meetings. By doing this, we aim at increasing individuals’ awareness about their commitment to opportunities for 1:1 mentoring. Reports are also available to managers and the administrative staff (e.g., the Chair, Dean, and Provost), so that they can access standardized KPIs that can help them obtain an actionable overview of OH practices at their institution, identify successful approaches, and implement interventions and initiatives to promote attendance, as highlighted in [5]. Also, reports generated by the proposed solution can be utilized as an additional dimension for evaluating the performance of faculty and staff. Moreover, the data exported from the system can be utilized in combination with other learning analytics to realize further research on academic success.

Fig. 1. Sequence diagram of the proposed system. no interaction with the user interface of the platform is required in case the instructor is available, which renders technology completely transparent in the process.

4 Conclusions and Future Work Nowadays it is extremely difficult to obtain a clear picture about the quantity, quality, and impact of faculty-student interaction: despite several studies focused on OH and investigated their correlation with academic success, there is a general lack of data that prevents any systematic approach to analyzing the value of OH at the level of the individual faculty member, department, and educational institution. In this paper, we proposed a web-based platform that enables managing face-to-face meetings between students and their faculty and advisors in the context of OH or other types of mentoring

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sessions. On the one hand, the aim of our system is to address the current lack of data about teacher-student interactions and obtain metrics about this important component of learning experiences; on the other hand, our objective is to provide users with a customizable one-size-fits-all technology that seamlessly integrates with the diverse existing practices adopted by organizations and operated by individual faculty and staff members. To this end, we involved key stakeholders in a participatory process that helped identify the main user constraints and barriers to adoption, and we co-designed a solution based on micro-interactions that mimic physical gestures that already occur in office appointments. Specifically, we utilize QR codes and NFC chips to enable students check in and out meetings by simply scanning with their smartphones the interactive labels placed on the instructors’ doors. In addition to facilitating interaction with and management of OH, interactive tags can be utilized to augment the signs currently posted on the office doors of faculty and staff, so that students and visitors can simply access digital content that: (1) makes information accessible to individuals with disabilities, (2) enables faculty to add more material (e.g., out-of-office video message, bio, links, and calendar availability), (3) supports services (e.g., booking an appointment, sending a message, checking in during OH), and (4) tracks interactions between faculty and students to understand and improve engagement dynamics. Also, the proposed system can effectively be employed in advising and tutoring centers, international offices, and other contexts in which measuring interaction. In addition to increasing quality, gaining more information about the impact of mentoring and tutoring can produce insights on aspects that are crucial for academic success, such as student retention, timely completion, adequate financial planning, and overall satisfaction with their choice of institution and career. Furthermore, although the system is especially suitable for educational institutions, it can be effectively utilized in other types of private and public organizations, such as banks and government offices. The system and its features can be accessed and used for free by individual instructors at http://tools.addemy.com.

References 1. Guerrero, M., Rod, A.B.: Engaging in office hours: a study of student-faculty interaction and academic performance. J. Polit. Sci. Educ. 9(4), 403–416 (2013) 2. Bordes, V., Arredondo, P.: Mentoring and 1st-year Latina/o college students. J. Hisp. High. Educ. 4(2), 114–133 (2005) 3. Chang, J.C.: Faculty student interaction at the community college: a focus on students of color. Res. High. Educ. 46(7), 769–802 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-004-6225-7 4. Cifuentes, O.E., Lents, N.H.: Increasing student-teacher interactions at an urban commuter campus through instant messaging and online office hours. Electron. J. Sci. Educ. 14(1) (2010) 5. Li, L., Pitts, J.P.: Does it really matter? Using virtual office hours to enhance student-faculty interaction. J. Inf. Syst. Educ. 20(2), 175 (2009) 6. Pfund, R., Rogan, J., Burnham, B., Norcross, J.: Is the professor in? Faculty presence during office hours. Coll. Stud. J. 47(3), 524–528 (2013)

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7. Caporusso, N.: Personality-aware interfaces for learning applications. In: Proceedings of the 37th Annual ACM SIGUCCS Fall Conference: Communication and Collaboration, pp. 189– 196. ACM (2009) 8. Leal, A.J.: Evaluating the impact flexible late policy, revision opportunities, and office hours have on student success. Doctoral dissertation, Ashford University (2019) 9. Lavooy, M., Newlin, M.: Online chats and cyber-office hours: everything but the office. Int. J. E-Learn. 7(1), 107–116 (2008) 10. Campbell, J., Craig, M.: Drop-in help centres: an alternative to office hours. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Western Canadian Conference on Computing Education, p. 9. ACM (2018)

Optimizing the Learning Experience: Examining Interactions Between the Individual Learner and the Learning Context Summer Rebensky(&), Maria Chaparro, and Meredith Carroll Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The modern educational environment extends beyond the lecturebased classroom and now involves virtual, simulated, and applied learning contexts. Due to innate individual differences, no learning environment is ideal for all individual learners. Each learner exhibits individual difference factors that can impact one’s involvement, achievement, and satisfaction in learning across different learning contexts. This paper discusses the unique dynamics between individual difference variables and modern learning environments including online classrooms, simulation-based, and applied learning contexts. Recommendations to better support the full range of individual learners are discussed and presented. Keywords: Individual differences engagement


Modern learning environments
Learner

1 Introduction The educational environment has evolved over time from a standard classroom setting to an array of technology-based environments. Now, in addition to traditional lecturebased classrooms, individuals can learn through online classes, simulation-based training, and applied hands-on learning platforms such as makerspaces or project-based learning. K-12 schools, universities, military training programs, and industry employers have adapted their education and training programs to integrate these new learning platforms. Organizations are also using these learning platforms to individualize learning, which is a topic of growing interest and demand in the education and military domains [1]. Educators now integrate learning strategies such as adaptive training, gamification, problem-based learning, and flipped classrooms to revamp the learning experience and more fully engage the learner [2]. These interventions often facilitate learning gains [3, 4]. However, there is also research that illustrates that widespread application of these techniques across an array of individual learners may not always achieve the desired learning outcomes. The impact of individual differences such as self-efficacy, motivation, ability, and interest on learning and training effectiveness has been researched extensively [5–7]. Carroll et al. [8] developed an Applied Model of Learner Engagement that illustrates the numerous individual difference factors that can be leveraged in learning environments to © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 10–16, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_2

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increase engagement and learning. Research efforts to explore the impacts of these factors in modern educational environments has revealed equivocal impacts dependent on interactions between characteristics of the individual learner and the learning environment [9]. Generally speaking, the following factors have positive effects on learning outcomes: intrinsic motivation, conscientiousness, mastery-oriented learning orientations, interest, self-efficacy and cognitive ability. In contrast, anxiety, neuroticism, and performance-avoidance motivations generally have negative effects on learning outcomes. For a full discussion of each of these variables, please see [8]. Traditionally, it is expected that the higher a learner’s intrinsic motivation the more likely they are to engage in self-regulating behaviors, leading to increased attention, effort and engagement during learning [10, 11]. However, there is research to suggest that certain learning strategies may interact with intrinsic motivation. Research in modern educational settings has shown that intrinsically motivated individuals feel less competent, less motivated, and ultimately disengage in gamified learning contexts [12]. This interaction between the impact of intrinsic motivation and the learning environment was also observed in Carroll et al. [9] in an applied Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) training task, where intrinsic motivation was negatively correlated with engagement during a gamified learning task. This highlights the need to examine research questions related to “Who will learn best in emerging learning contexts?” and “What can we do to support various learners in emerging contexts?”. Educators must be aware of the interactions that exist between individual learner characteristics, and learning interventions and environments, in order to develop contingencies for the use with a range of individual learners. While there has been a great deal of research into the isolated relationships between individual difference factors and learning in a traditional classroom learning environment, there has been limited research into the interplay between individual difference factors and different learning contexts. This presentation will present a discussion of (a) interactions between a range of individual characteristics and learning contexts, (b) considerations for how educators can leverage this knowledge to achieve desired learning outcomes, and (c) future research needed in this area.

2 Online Learning Online learning and online classrooms typically consist of self-paced learning that can include reviewing lecture slide decks, completing independent assignments, and social interactions such as discussion boards. Longitudinal studies have found conscientiousness and neuroticism to be the factors most predictive of academic success in traditional learning environments (with conscientiousness exhibiting a positive impact and neuroticism exhibiting a negative impact; [13, 14]). Research has shown similar trends in online learning with conscientiousness being related to higher levels of motivation and satisfaction [15]. Similar research has shown neuroticism leading to reduced online engagement due to the anxiety and fear associated with adapting to new technology and learning strategies [16, 17]. However, additional personality dimensions have been shown to have a significant impact in online learning. Studies focusing on online classroom learning have revealed that openness to experience is just as

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predictive of academic achievement [18]. In addition, openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness are key traits predictive of engagement, positive impressions, perceived value, and satisfaction with online classes [19, 20]. Conscientiousness can lead to improved satisfaction with online learning, however, in online learning contexts, openness is just as predictive of satisfaction [20]. This is not the case in traditional learning contexts [21]. Individuals high in openness are more likely to adapt and accept new methods of learning, a trait necessary in the modern learning environment of online classrooms [18]. Research on ideal learning conditions reveals that those high in openness experience higher satisfaction in learning environments where there is little structure [22], suggesting that in online learning environments, individuals high in openness may perform better due to the self-directed structure of online learning. One other facet of online learning that interacts with personality is the level of social interaction. Some research shows that introverts thrive in online learning as introverts prefer asynchronous communication and are more active in online settings [23]. With respect to extraversion, some studies show that extraversion is not related to engagement, perceptions, and perceived value of online learning [19]. However, other studies have shown extraversion to be negatively correlated with activity in online classrooms [16]. Incorporating social elements, such as discussion boards, into online classroom environments may help foster a learning environment for those high in extraversion [19]. Students who feel the course addresses their social and emotional needs are more likely to continue in online classes [17]. Similar to findings in traditional learning contexts, anxiety can lead to disengagement in online learning environments [24]. Providing clear instructions and structure to the course can reduce anxiety and support the traits that can negatively impact online learner engagement such as anxiety and neuroticism [16, 24, 25]. In addition, those who elect to engage in online learning tend to be more intrinsically motivated [26]. Therefore, it is key to design online learning to be supportive and provide a sense of connection to the course by satisfying intrinsic needs and goals, and through social interaction [24–26]. Incorporating aspects such as discussion boards and tying the course content to students learning goals can support learner needs.

3 Simulation-Based Learning Simulated and gamified learning environments seek to either mimic real-life tasks or layer interactivity and motivational tools to more fully engage the learner. Gamification in a learning context has been shown to help foster intrinsic motivation and combat lack of motivation [27]. However, the effectiveness of gamification at improving learning gains and perceptions towards learning is dependent on individual personality traits [27, 28]. Individuals who are high in agreeableness and are open to experiences, such as online classrooms, do best in cooperative simulation settings [29]. This may be because individuals high in openness prefer to interact in novel ways and therefore are not as motivated by techniques such as the use of conventional avatars in virtual environments [28]. However, unlike online classrooms, where acceptance of online learning contexts is predicted by openness and conscientiousness, individual acceptance of gamified learning environments has been found to be most predicted by

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neuroticism and extraversion [28, 30]. Those high in extraversion perform well under competitive settings [29], as extraverted individuals tend to be more motivated by gamification elements such as points, levels, and leaderboards [28, 31]. Extroverts tend to perform poorly if they are placed in cooperative groups or lack feedback on their ranking relative to others [29]. On the other hand, introverted individuals perform best in cooperative learning environments where progress is not tracked or compared to others [31]. Neuroticism, which has been found to have a negative influence on learning in both traditional and online learning contexts [32, 33], has shown to have positive results in the gamified learning environment. Research has shown that gamification elements have a positive influence on learners with high levels of neuroticism; however, learners with low levels of neuroticism often perceive gamified elements as gimmicks [28]. Research has also shown that individuals high in neuroticism are more likely to be impacted emotionally by gamified elements [34]. For example, a gamified element meant to motivate a learner, such as a leaderboard, may invoke a higher motivational response from an individual with high levels of neuroticism. However, research has shown mixed results with respect to neuroticism’s impact on performance in gamified learning tasks. Research has shown little to no effect on task performance in cooperative and competitive settings, whereas other studies have shown negative impacts in highly competitive gamified settings [29, 34]. Potentially, as long as the competitive environment does not foster anxiety, the methods utilized in gamified situations may elicit a high motivational response in those high in neuroticism. Intrinsic motivation has also been associated with negative perceptions of gamification (e.g., as silly or gimmicky; [12]). For example, those high in conscientiousness (who tend to exhibit intrinsic motivations) have shown less motivation with gamification [34]. The researchers hypothesize that this is due to intrinsically motivated individuals not being motivated by aspects of gamification. For gamified learning environments, the learner base is divided. As designers develop these environments it is important to consider the potential learner population and the impact that gamification will have on a range of different personality profiles. Customizing or personalizing learning strategies, such as gamification, based on the learner’s personality traits may provide benefit. Personalization will allow individual learners who prefer motivational tools such as levels, badges, and leaderboard to benefit, while avoiding the negative side effects that other learners might experience.

4 Applied Learning Applied hands-on learning is becoming more prevalent in the educational environment through methods such as problem-based learning, makerspaces, and engineering design projects. It is important to understand how these learning contexts interact with individual learner characteristics. However, there is limited research on the interaction between individual difference factors and applied learning contexts. Researchers in STEM domains that are currently implementing makerspace technology posit that the most impactful aspects of these types of learning environments include their exposure of learners to teamwork and critical thinking [35]. Similar research has found that

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conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness led to more cooperative behavior in an applied learning context that was utilized in management classes; while neuroticism led to less cooperative behavior [36]. This is in line with research in traditional classrooms which has found that conscientiousness and neuroticism play a role in learner success [13]. Similar to online learning, extraversion and agreeableness traits are likely important in hands-on cooperative learning contexts due to the social aspects and the cooperative elements like gamification [19, 29]. Also similar to findings in online learning contexts, where openness to experience is associated with learners more quickly adapting to this new learning situation, research in engineering programs has revealed openness to be the trait most predictive of student retention [37]. While these findings from similar learning environments shed light on the likely interaction between individual difference factors and applied learning contexts, empirical research is needed to examine these interactions and identify any unique interactions that may emerge. It is possible that this newer dynamic of learning could have unexpected interactions with individual differences. More research is needed to determine how to best utilize applied learning contexts and to optimize learning effectiveness across various individuals.

5 Conclusion The findings from the studies presented herein illustrate the complex interplay between learning context and individual difference factors. In a traditional learning context, utilizing strategies that attempt to reduce anxiety for individuals high in neuroticism and tools that foster intrinsic motivation for individuals high in conscientiousness can improve performance and learner engagement [8, 14]. In an online learning context supporting individuals with low levels of openness and extraversion through structure and social elements can increase student activity [18, 19]. For simulation-based or gamified learning contexts, adding or removing gamified elements that support the opposite spectrums of extraversion and neuroticism is important to prevent negative impacts [28]. For applied learning, it is likely that individuals with traits that are aligned with cooperative, social, and novel learning contexts will thrive, and that individuals high in conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, and extraversion, and low in neuroticism will succeed. However, research is needed to more fully explore individual difference factor interactions with applied learning contexts. As new approaches to learning are developed, designers and educators need to assess the potential interactions between learning context and individual difference variables such as personality. This will help ensure new learning environments and strategies are accessible and engaging to a broader range of learners.

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2. Carroll, M., Lindsey, S., Chaparro, M.: Integrating engagement inducing interventions into traditional, virtual and embedded learning environments. In: Sottilare, R., Schwarz, J. (eds.) Adaptive Instructional Systems, HCII 2019. LNCS, vol. 11597. Springer, Cham (2019) 3. Squire, K.D., Jan, M.: Mad city mystery: developing scientific argumentation skills with a place-based augmented reality game on handheld computers. J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 16, 5–29 (2007) 4. Winsett, C., Foster, C., Dearing, J., Burch, G.: The impact of group experiential learning on student engagement. Acad. Bus. Res. J. 3, 7–17 (2016) 5. Colquitt, J.A., LePine, J.A., Noe, R.A.: Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: a meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. J. Appl. Psychol. 85, 678–707 (2000) 6. Gully, S., Chen, G.: Individual differences, attribute-treatment interactions, and training outcomes. Learn. Train. Dev. Organ. 3–64 (2010) 7. Noe, R.A., Tews, M.J., Dachner, A.M.: Leaner engagement: a new perspective for enhancing our understanding of learner motivation and workplace learning. Acad. Manag. Ann. 4, 279–315 (2010) 8. Carroll, M., Lindsey, S., Chaparro, M., Winslow, B.: An applied model of learner engagement and strategies for increasing learner engagement in the modern educational environment. Interact. Learn. Environ. 1–15 (2019) 9. Carroll, M., Rebensky, S., Chaparro, M., Bennett, W., Winslow, B.: The Influence of Individual Factors on Learner Engagement for Simulation-based Learning (under review) 10. Landhauber, A., Keller, J.: Flow and its affective, cognitive, and performance-related consequences. In: Engeser, S. (ed.) Advances in Flow Research, pp. 65–86. Springer, New York (2012) 11. Hamilton, J.A., Haier, R.J., Buchsbaum, M.S.: Intrinsic enjoyment and boredom coping scales: validation with personality, evoked potential and attention measures. Pers. Individ. Differ. 5, 183–193 (1984) 12. Hanus, M.D., Fox, J.: Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: a logitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Comput. Educ. 80, 152–161 (2015) 13. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A.: Personality predicts academic performance: evidence from two longitudinal university samples. J. Res. Pers. 37, 319–338 (2003) 14. Kappe, R., Flier, H.: Predicting academic success in higher education: what’s more important than being smart? Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. 27, 605–619 (2012) 15. Shih, H., Chen, S.E., Chen, S., Wey, S.: The relationship among tertiary level EFL students’ personality, online learning motivation and online learning satisfaction. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 103(26), 1152–1160 (2013) 16. Barnett, T., Pearson, A.W., Pearson, R., Kellermanns, F.W.: Five-factor model personality traits as predictors of perceived and actual usage of technology. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 24(4), 374–390 (2011) 17. Watjatrakul, B.: Online learning adoption: effects of neuroticism, openness to experience, and perceived values. Interact. Smart Tech. 13(3), 229–243 (2016) 18. Wang, L., Tian, Y., Lei, Y., Zhou, Z.: The influence of different personality traits on learning achievement in three learning situations. LNCS, pp. 475–488 (2017) 19. Keller, H., Karau, S.J.: The importance of personality in students’ perceptions of the online learning experience. Comput. Hum. Behav. 29, 2494–2500 (2013) 20. Cohen, A., Baruth, O.: Personality, learning, and satisfaction in fully online academic courses. Comput. Hum. Behav. 72, 1–12 (2017) 21. Pawlowska, D.K.: Student personality, classroom environment, and Student Outcomes: a person-environment fit analysis. Ph.D. thesis (2011)

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22. Pawlowska, D.K., Westerman, J.W., Bergman, S.M., Huelsman, T.J.: Student personality, classroom environment, and student outcomes: a person-environment fit analysis. Learn. Individ. Diff. 36, 180–193 (2014) 23. Codish, D., Ravid, G.: Personality based gamification-educational gamification for extroverts and introverts. In: Proceedings of the 9th CHAIS Conference for the Study of Innovation and Learning Technologies: Learning in the Technological Era, pp. 36–44 (2014) 24. Dunn, K.: Why wait? The influence of academic self-regulation, intrinsic motivation, and statistics anxiety on procrastination in online statistics. Innov. High. Educ. 39(1), 33–44 (2013) 25. Conrad, D.L.: Engagement, excitement, anxiety, and fear: learner’s experiences of starting an online course. Am. J. Distance Learn. 16, 205–226 (2002) 26. Rovai, A.P., Ponton, M.K., Wighting, M.J., Baker, J.D.: A comparative analysis of student motivation in traditional classroom and e-learning courses. Int. J. E-Learn. 6, 413–432 (2007) 27. Ong, D., Chan, Y., Cho, W., Koh, T.: Motivation of learning: an assessment of the practicality and effectiveness of gamification with a tertiary education system in Malaysia. In: World Academy of Researchers, Educators, and Scholars in Business, Social Sciences, Humanities, and Education Conference. (2013) 28. Jia, Y., Xu, B., Karanam, Y., Voida, S.: Personality-targets gamification: a survey study on personality traits and motivational affordances. In: Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 2001–2013 (2016) 29. Star, K.: Gamification, Interdependence, and the moderating effect of personality on performance. Doctoral dissertation, Coventry University (2015) 30. Tabak, F., Nguyen, N.T.: Technology acceptance and performance in online learning environments: impact of self-regulation. J. Online Learn. Teach. 9, 116–130 (2013) 31. Denden, M., Tlili, A., Essalmi, F., Jenmi, M.: Educational gamification based on personality. In: IEEE/ACS 14th International Conference on Computer Systems and Applications, pp. 1399–1405 (2017) 32. Komarraju, M., Karau, S.J.: The relationship between the big five personality traits and academic motivation. Pers. Individ. Differ. 39, 557–567 (2005) 33. Ullén, F., et al.: Proneness for psychological flow in everyday life: associations with personality and intelligence. Personality Individ. Diff. 52, 167–172 (2012) 34. Buckley, P., Doyle, E.: Individualizing gamification: an investigation of the impact of learning styles and personality traits on the efficacy of gamification using a prediction market. Comput. Educ. 106, 43–55 (2017) 35. Ludwig, P.M., Nagel, J.K., Lewis, E.J.: Student learning outcomes from a pilot medical innovations course with nursing, engineering, and biology undergraduate students. Int. J. STEM Educ. 4(1), 33 (2017) 36. LePine, J.A., Dyne, L.V.: Voice and cooperative behavior as contrasting forms of contextual performance: evidence of differential relationships with big five personality characteristics and cognitive ability. J. Appl. Psychol. 86, 326–336 (2001) 37. Moses, L., et al.: Are math readiness and personality predictive of first-year retention in engineering? J. Psychol. Interdiscip. Appl. 145, 229–245 (2011)

Novice and Experienced EAP Practitioners’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Teachers’ Cognitions and Students’ Perceptions Mohadeseh Khazaee(&) Education Department, UC Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The significance of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) has been accentuated since the late 1980s. However, evaluation of this knowledge from both teachers’ and students’ perspectives, especially in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) contexts has not received due attention. To shed more light on this topic, 200 undergraduates were invited to reflect, via a questionnaire, on four dimensions of their EAP teachers’ PCK. Meanwhile, four novice and experienced ELT (English Language Teaching) instructors and content teachers were interviewed to explore their cognition. The results of content analysis manifested noticeable discrepancies in the teachers’ cognitions. Results of a oneway ANOVA, on students’ questionnaire, revealed no significant difference between ELT instructors and content teachers. While students viewed both teachers as being Subject-Matter experts, they less positively assessed their mastery in other aspects of their PCK, which could imply the superiority of EAP teachers’ content expertise over their pedagogical knowledge. Keywords: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Knowledge (PCK)
Teacher cognition


Pedagogical Content

1 Introduction Until 1980, it was believed that teachers lacked a special body of knowledge. They were thought to have experience rather than expertise. This view provoked researchers into thinking seriously about this issue. As a result, in the 1980s, a new understanding of teachers’ knowledge started to grow [1]. Since then, a great deal of research [2–4] has been allocated to the study of teacher knowledge. In 1986, Lee Shulman introduced pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) [5] as a foundation for teacher education, directing teaching practices [6–8]. PCK is concerned with the demonstration of main topics in one’s subject area, the use of examples and pedagogical techniques, an understanding of students’ prior information, and knowledge of teaching strategies [9]. The significance of research on PCK lies in its positive impact not only on students’ achievement [10, 11], but also on teachers’ effectiveness and on the success of their practices in the classroom [9]. In the modern world, teachers are expected to continuously enhance their professional knowledge [1] and in so doing, much emphasis should be on improving the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 17–23, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_3

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quality of teacher cognition, including their knowledge and beliefs. Moreover, to have a better understanding of language teaching, we should know more about language teachers, what their perceptions of teaching are, what their beliefs and knowledge about classroom practice are, and how their thinking processes are shaped [12, 13]. Although PCK has been utilized as a framework for unmasking teachers’ cognition since the late 1980s [1, 11], evaluation of this knowledge from both teachers’ and students’ points of view, especially in contexts such as English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has not received due attention [14]. Despite the ever-growing emphasis on the role of teachers’ collaboration [15], EAP teacher education in such EFL contexts as Iran is still lagging behind. The main reason is that EAP courses are run by two independent departments (i.e., ELT and subject) which approach such courses on the basis of their own premises, leaving behind the issues of joint effort and team-teaching [16, 17]. This being so, the significance of delving into teachers’ practices and cognition within such contexts (Iran) comes to the fore. While EAP courses, in Iran, are taught either by ELT teachers (i.e., EAP teachers who are educated in linguistics or applied linguistics) or subject specialists, the present study explored the cognitions of both parties to provide a comprehensive account of their beliefs. To achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions were addressed: 1. How do Iranian undergraduate students assess their EAP teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge? 2. How do Iranian EAP teachers (i.e., ELT instructors and content teachers) conceptualize their pedagogical content knowledge? 3. What are the similarities and differences between novice and experienced EAP teachers with regard to how they conceptualize their pedagogical content knowledge?

2 Method A novice and an experienced ELT instructor, teaching EAP to students of Law and Sociology, were selected from the language department of a university in Tehran province, Iran. Likewise, from the Faculty of Social Sciences, two content teachers (novice and experienced) were recruited to take part in this research. The two disciplines of Law and Sociology were intentionally selected, for their EAP courses were run by both novice and experienced teachers. While the literature characterizes experienced instructors as bearing a pedagogical record of at least 5 years [18], the teachers, in this study, were distinguished on a five-year-teaching basis. Thus, the ELT instructor with 4 years of EAP teaching background and the content teacher with 3 years of experience were considered ‘novice’, while the other ELT and content teachers who had 9 and 7 years of EAP teaching experience were regarded as ‘experienced’. In addition, 200 students (50 students from each of the four teachers’ EAP classes) were asked to reflect on their teachers’ PCK by filling out a questionnaire. They were all junior students of Law and Sociology whose age ranged from 19 to 24. To elicit students’ cognitions of their EAP teachers’ PCK, a reliable questionnaire (0.96), which contained 28 items, was used [8]. For students’ convenience, a translated version of the questionnaire was developed, the content of which was cross-checked by

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two proficient translators. To have a vivid picture of EAP teachers’ classroom practices, sustained (non-participant) observations were undertaken. Also, consulting the EAP literature [8, 19, 20], the researcher developed 17 questions to conduct semi-structured interviews with the teachers regarding their cognitions. Upon establishing an atmosphere of trust with the EAP teachers and gaining their consent, the researcher observed their EAP classes for 10 sessions. After a three-week interval and before the end of the semester, the interviews were conducted. Meanwhile, the translated version of the questionnaire was administered among the 200 learners. After gathering all the data, content analysis was used to analyze the interviews’ responses. And, to find out any differences among the four components of the teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, the questionnaire data were fed into the SPSS (version 21) for conducting a oneway ANOVA.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1

Students’ Evaluation of the EAP Teachers’ PCK

Students’ responses to the questionnaire revealed almost similar evaluation pattern for both novice and experienced EAP practitioners, with Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK) being more positively judged than the other knowledge components of their PCK (Table 1). Table 1. Mean differences in students’ evaluation of their EAP teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge Categories Novice ELT Experienced Novice content of PCK teacher ELT teacher teacher SMKa 24.72 29.02 26.02 IRSb 15.28 20.74 19.76 IOCc 21.12 25.92 23.18 KSUd 16.32 24.70 22.06 a b Subject Matter Knowledge, Instructional Representation and Strategies, and Context, dKnowledge of Students’ Understanding

Experienced content teacher 29.12 20.84 25.04 23.54 c Instructional Objects

While the students considered their EAP teachers as powerful in knowledge of the subject matter (SMK), their evaluation of the teachers’ knowledge of instructional representation and strategies (IRS) was not very satisfactory. This finding is supported by a previous study [8] which also revealed students’ negative attitudes about teachers’ approaches in teaching. Students’ evaluation of their EAP teachers, hence, suggests that despite their plausible content knowledge, EAP teachers’ pedagogical knowledge needs to be improved.

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M. Khazaee

EAP Teachers’ Perceptions of Their PCK

Novice Language Teacher. His cognition with regard to Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK) showed that he was aware of the very nature of EAP teaching, and its theories and principles. To define specialist vocabularies, he used a variety of strategies, including explanation, examples, and contextualization. Being aware of the role of technology in ELT context, he asserted that students’ ability to read specialized texts and their academic writing skills could be drastically developed through computermediated learning; nevertheless, his EAP classes lacked technological advancement. At the beginning of the class, he always asked the students whether they had any question or problem related to the previously taught lessons. Also, before starting the new subject, he asked some general questions to prepare the class for the coming information. Experienced Language Teacher. Based on the observations, his classes were reading-comprehension courses, where the purpose of teaching was nothing but to add some vocabulary and grammatical knowledge to students’ repertoire of English. He seemed to lack adequate knowledge of the subjects he was teaching. Instead of supplying students with content-related information, he usually elaborated on the linguistic aspects of the texts. To explain specialist terms, he immediately provided the Persian equivalent without any elaboration. Technology played no role in his EAP classes. Unlike the observations which indicated a non-reciprocal interaction, the teacher claimed that his EAP classes are a welcoming atmosphere for mutual interaction. In fact, the teachers’ responses contradicted his actual practice. The teacher’s cognition regarding Knowledge of Students’ Understanding was that, it is not the teacher’s duty to check for the students’ understanding since they are allowed to ask their questions in the class. This, again, highlights the teacher’s lack of awareness of the different roles of an EAP practitioner as a problem-solver, counselor, facilitator, and constant evaluator of the students’ learning. Novice Content Teacher. This teacher, with three years of EAP teaching experience, believed that, EAP courses can be effectively handled by content teachers rather than ELT teachers because they are not as informed about the content area as the subject specialists are. He did not teach EAP from any particular book. Instead, he had a pamphlet and used the Internet articles as the main source of his teaching materials. He used English to teach subject matters and shifted to Farsi in case students were confused by his explanations. Although he insisted on students’ proficiency in all the skills, his practice was not in line with his belief since most of the activities centered around reading and translation. Unlike the experienced language teacher, he insisted on the role of computer and technology in fulfilling the learners’ academic needs. He defined the primary objective of an EAP course as empowering the students to comprehend technically-demanding texts in English. He noted that his friendly manner during the class lets the students have interactions and participate in class discussions. Experienced Content Teacher. He was the only teacher who assigned students to give presentations and to deliver lectures with the intention of enhancing their speaking skill. Like the previous teacher, he did not teach from a textbook but had a booklet and

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taught from different sources, including journal articles. Grammar-Translation was the dominant teaching method and reading took precedence over other skills. His medium of instruction was English and students were supposed to communicate in this language. To teach the subject matters, he provided some explanations and then shifted the rest of his responsibility to students who voluntarily came to the board. His intention was to increase the students’ attention and to involve them in class procedures. He defined the main goal of EAP teaching as improving students’ reading skill. To facilitate students’ understanding of subject matters, this content teacher let the learners overview the text then he started teaching. And to monitor their understanding, he frequently asked different comprehension questions about the content being taught. 3.3

Similarities and Differences Between EAP Teachers

Probing into EAP practitioners’ theories and practices, in the current study, revealed some similarities but considerable discrepancies within and between the two groups of teachers. While it might be assumed that expert teachers, in contrast with inexperienced ones, adopt a more profound reflective approach towards their teaching and make educational decisions on the basis of thoughtful considerations [21], the experienced ELT teacher, in this study, neither had a sound outlook towards EAP course objectives, nor did he reflect on his practices. On the contrary, his novice colleague emphasized EAP teachers’ professional knowledge and reflective teaching by allowing the learners’ voices to be heard in the classroom. With reference to the literature, teachers’ cognitions do not always correspond to their practices [22]. This was manifest in the novice ELT instructor’s profile. Unlike his mindful remarks, his theories were not completely reflected in his practices. For example, he believed that class activities should integrate the use of all language skills while reading and writing should be given number one priority. When it came to practice, reading was his prime concern. Or, he gave a lot of credence to the role of learners in materials selection and assumed needs analysis as an inherent part of EAP teaching, but, again, there was little trace of these cognitions in his practice. Unlike a previous study [23] that indicated more similar cognitions among language teachers and more divergent views among content instructors, the present study revealed the opposite; here, content teachers (both novice and experienced ones) were more consistent in their theories and practices. Unlike the ELT instructors who went through their lessons in a more or less ‘lockstep’ fashion, the content teachers brought innovative ideas into their teaching. Uncovering EAP teachers’ mindset about their pedagogical content knowledge, it can be concluded that the two content teachers bore close resemblances in their cognitions and practices, they both seemed to stick to their beliefs and regarded EAP as a highly specialized field. On the other hand, the novice and experienced ELT instructors, though differed in some of their articulated cognitions, kept to the same “traditional” education in which teachers’ authoritative role is discounted and learners make little contribution to the class procedures [24].

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4 Conclusion The findings of the present study showed that despite some commonalities, more divergence appeared between the two groups of EAP teachers. While adherence to tenets of ‘critical pedagogy’ and ‘transformative’ education was salient between content experts [25] a tendency toward conservative and inflexible teaching was of prominence between their language counterparts. Despite discrepancies in the practice of the two groups of EAP practitioners, their students’ judgment about their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) resulted in no significant difference between novice and experienced teachers of the two camps. From students’ standpoint, the teachers’ subject matter knowledge (SMK) was more satisfactory than the other three knowledge components, which implies that EAP teachers’ mastery of the content area is better than their knowledge of the pedagogy.

References 1. Beijaard, D., Meijer, P.C., Morine-Dershimer, G., Tillema, H.: Teacher Professional Development In Changing Conditions. Springer, Dordrecht (2005) 2. Ben-Peretz, M.: Teacher knowledge: what is it? How do we uncover it? What are its implications for schooling? Teach. Teach. Educ. 27(1), 3–9 (2011) 3. Chauvot, J.B.: Grounding practice in scholarship, grounding scholarship in practice: knowledge of a mathematics teacher educator–researcher. Teach. Teach. Educ. 25(2), 357– 370 (2009) 4. Fraser, S.P.: Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): exploring its usefulness for science lecturers in higher education. Res. Sci. Educ. 46(1), 141–161 (2016) 5. Mulhall, P., Berry, A., Loughran, J.: Frameworks for representing science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. Asia Pac. Forum on Sci. Learn. Teach. 4(2), 1–25 (2003) 6. Atay, D., Kaslioglu, O., Kurt, G.: The pedagogical content knowledge development of prospective teachers through an experiential task. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2(9), 1421–1425 (2010) 7. Goldschmidt, P., Phelps, G.: Does teacher professional development affect content and pedagogical knowledge: how much and for how long? Econ. Educ. Rev. 29(3), 432–439 (2010) 8. Jang, S.J., Guan, S.Y., Hsieh, H.F.: Developing an instrument for assessing college students’ perceptions of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 1(1), 596–606 (2009) 9. Evens, M., Elen, J., Depaepe, F.: Developing pedagogical content knowledge: lessons learned from intervention studies. Educ. Res. Int. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/ 790417. Article ID: 790417, 23 pages 10. Bukova-Güzel, E., Kula, S., Uğurel, I., Ӧzgür, Z.: Sufficiency of undergraduate education in developing mathematical pedagogical content knowledge: student teachers’ views. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2, 2222–2226 (2010) 11. Johnston, J., Ahtee, M.: Comparing primary student teachers’ attitudes, subject knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge needs in a physics activity. Teach. Teach. Educ. 22(4), 503–512 (2006) 12. Borg, S.: Teacher Cognition and Language Education: Research and Practice. Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn (2006)

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13. Freeman, D., Richards, J.C.: Teacher learning in language teaching. Lang. Teach. Res. 1(1), 81–92 (1997) 14. Wu, H., Badger, R.G.: In a strange and uncharted land: ESP teachers’ strategies for dealing with unpredicted problems in subject knowledge during class. Engl. Specif. Purp. 28(1), 19– 32 (2009) 15. Berry, B.: Getting “real” about teaching effectiveness and teacher retention. J. Curric. Instr. (JoCI) 4(1), 1–15 (2010) 16. Atai, M.R.: Iranian EAP programs in practice: a study of key methodological aspects. Sheikhbahaee Res. Bull. 1(2), 1–15 (2002) 17. Atai, M.R.: EAP teacher education: searching for an effective model integrating content & language teachers’ schemes. In: Proceedings of PAAL Conference, pp. 23–41. Kangwong National University, Chuncheon, Korea (2006) 18. Tsui, A.B.M.: Expertise in teaching: perspectives and issues. In: Johnson, K. (ed.) Expertise in Second Language Learning and Teaching, pp. 167–189. Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2005) 19. Robinson, P.C.: ESP Today: A Practitioner’s Guide. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1991) 20. Hyland, K.: English for Academic Purposes: An Advanced Resource Book. Routledge, New York (2006) 21. Kim, H., Hannafin, M.J.: Situated case-based knowledge: an emerging framework for prospective teacher learning. Teach. Teach. Educ. 24(7), 1837–1845 (2008) 22. Borg, S.: Introducing language teacher cognition (2009). http://www.education.leeds.ac.uk/ people/staff.php?staff=29 23. Atai, M.R., Fatahi-Majd, M.: Exploring the practices and cognitions of Iranian ELT instructors and subject teachers in teaching EAP reading comprehension. Engl. Specif. Purp. 33(1), 27–38 (2014) 24. Flores, M.A., Day, C.: Contexts which shape and reshape new teachers’ identities: a multiperspective study. Teach. Teach. Educ. 22(2), 219–232 (2006) 25. Kumaravadivelu, B.: Beyond Methods: Macrostrategies for Language Teaching. Yale University Press, New Haven (2003)

Exploring the True Motivation of Faculty Members to Promote Technological Innovation in Their Courses Nitza Davidovitch1(&) and Eyal Eckhaus2 1

2

Ariel University, Ariel, Israel [email protected] Department of Economics and Business Administration, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel

Abstract. The current study explores the motivation of lecturers to use technology in their teaching. Questionnaires were administered to 111 respondents. Results show that even those who said that they are unfamiliar with the system, also said that they lack the time to learn it. Differences were found between faculty members in the different departments. The research findings showed that faculty members had no interest in learning additional functions of the system. They were aware that they could use the system to perform additional operations but didn’t do so claiming that they lack the time to learn them and how to operate them. If so, it makes no sense to proceed to more advanced processes when no one is learning even those that already exist. Keywords: Education


Technology
Technology assimilation

1 Introduction The phrase “technology-supported teaching” generates a (false?) feeling of technological progress and efficiency, while in practice its effectiveness is doubtful, to say the least [1]. At first glance, technology-supported teaching appears to be a magical solution: It reducing expenditures on photocopying materials, offers convenient service for students who can study anywhere and anytime, and upgrades the image of the institution as one that advances students in a rapidly progressing technological era. 1.1

Technology-Supported Teaching – “Why Don’t They Jump on the Bandwagon?”

These premises do not withstand the test of reality and are not compatible with the research on integrating learning through technology in learning organizations and academic institutions. The following are several insights concerning technologysupported learning as an instruction tool within the organization. 1. Technology does not change learning [2]. In a critical article entitled “Media will never influence learning” Clark [3] suggests that The factor that affects learning is not technology rather © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 24–30, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_4

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the learning method. Technology is only a means. In order to know whether learning is effective, it is the learning method that must be explored rather than the technology with which the learning method is implemented. 2. Although technology may facilitate the update of materials [4], technology-based teaching requires time and effort to develop and update materials, otherwise – the learning will quickly become irrelevant. This task needs to be done in addition to the many other activities that faculty members need to perform as part of the practice, such as research cooperation [5], guiding students [6], and at times while worrying about their employment status [7]. 3. Most of the lecturers lack proficiency – The success of technology-based teaching depends on (at least) three skills: knowledge of the studied field, pedagogic– instruction knowledge, and familiarity with technology in the organization, which by itself requires time and effort [8]. In practice, often only two of the three points exist in technology-based teaching. Coben [9] indicated a constant 5-stage process when using learning technologies. The same process is also evident when using technology-based teaching: a. Enthusiasm at the new technology, thinking that it will solve all the system’s afflictions. b.Academic studies confirm that the technology is indeed effective (in fact they only confirm this theoretically). c. The technology fails in the field. d.Further studies describe partial and unsatisfactory application in the field. e. Technology users (the teachers) are criticized for objecting to the change and in fact causing the application process to fail. According to Coben [9], technology fails because: 1. There was an attempt to produce “teacher proof” means of learning. 2. There was no understanding that the most efficient means of learning are the teachers.3. In contrast to all the “hi-tech” means, it was precisely the “low-tech” means that were showed up positive in the studies: blackboard, chalk, textbooks – were conspicuously simple, low cost, mobile, and flexible to use, in addition to the teacher’s ability to shape learning in the form of dialogue with the students. 1.2

Technology-Based Teaching – A Good Service or an Overbearing Service?

A Punishment for the Lecturers Instead of a Convenience. Aside from cases where lecturers have a special need or interest (for instance, a personal information system), in most cases regular work (research? clinic?) will receive a higher priority than utilizing technology, which is sometimes perceived as a type of punishment and a waste of time, an intrusive and non-rewarding element [1]. Lack of Interaction between People. Unlike teaching in a group, technology-based teaching often does not enable interaction between people, which typically occurs on social networks websites [10]. Interaction is particularly important in study topics that deal in essence with relationships between people. When teaching, collaborative learning is very important, enabling people to listen, identify, object, ask, argue, agree, and reach decisions with each other. This is important both for the professional need to assimilate the material and for the human need to create a discourse among the students.

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An Organizational Culture of Learning. Learning through technology-based means requires an organizational culture that supports this type of learning. Not all organizations have such a culture. False Technological Progress. Use of technology-based means sometimes gives a false “hi-tech” feeling; not everything that advances technologically is also suitable pedagogically. Quality Control of Learning. Even when students are required to use technologybased means, the lecturer often does not know whether the learner understood the material and what was understood, as in a large number of cases there are no measures for evaluating understanding. Even if there is an exam at the end of the course that is based on the technologybased teaching (through exercises) – students will not always make an effort to take it themselves. They may ask “one who knows” to take the test and to inform them of the answers. All the others will use these answers and consider the task completed. In summary, in 2004 a thesis written in Israel bore the title: “Why don’t they ‘jump on the bandwagon’? On the barriers and incentives influencing lecturers to integrate technology-supported learning in their courses.” Since then, 15 years have passed, and the lecturers are still not “jumping on the bandwagon” [1]. Towards the end of the 21st century’s second decade, 21 years after Google appeared, the current study explores lecturers’ motivation to use technology in their teaching. Research Hypotheses. H1. Tenure negatively affects claims of unfamiliarity with the system. H2. Engineering faculty members negatively affect claims of unfamiliarity with the system. H3. Social science faculty members negatively affect claims of unfamiliarity with the system. H4. Unfamiliarity with the system negatively affects claims regarding its complexity. H5. Unfamiliarity with the system positively affects claims of having no time to learn it. H6. Associate professor rank has a negative effect on finding the system complex. H7. Lecturer rank has a negative effect on finding the system complex. H8. Full professor rank has a negative effect on finding the system complex. H9. Engineering faculty members positively affect claims of having no time to learn the system. H10. Social science faculty members positively affect claims of having no time to learn the system.

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2 Methodology 2.1

Measurement Tool and Sample

A survey was used for data collection, with an open question regarding the system of technology-based teaching: “Please indicate factors that inhibit use of the system”. Demographical questions were also added. The questionnaires were distributed online using Google Docs to the senior faculty members of Ariel University in Israel. One hundred and ten completed questionnaires were collected. Gender-wise, 47.2% of the respondents were females and 52.8% males. Respondents’ age ranged from 33–39 (6.5%), 49–40 (46.7%), and 82–50 (46.7%). 2.2

Analysis

We employed a mix methods design, which enables a complement of the strengths of both qualitative and empirical methods [11–13]. In the first step, we performed manual text categorization [12]. This process includes manually reading the survey replies and identifying major themes [13]. Based on these categories the model was constructed. The categories were: UnKnown (UK) – the system is not well known, and there is a lack of skills to operate it. Complex (COM) – the system is too complex. NoTimeStudy (NTS)– respondents indicated having no time to study the system in order to become familiar with its operation. Categories were binary coded [14], that is, tagged as 0 if they did not belong to the category and 1 if they did. The following variables were also added: Tenure - if the respondent had tenure, and three main academic ranks – Lecturer, associate professor (AssocProf), and full professor (FullProf). Faculty of social science (F.Soc) and Engeneering (F.Eng). We employed Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test the model’s goodnessof-fit [15–17]. Model fit indices were estimated using CFI, NFI, TLI, RMSEA, and CMIN/DF. Values of CFI, NFI, and TLI > .9 are considered acceptable fit [18, 19]. The ratio CMIN/DF should be small, typically a value < 3 is considered a good fit [20]. RMSEA should be .06 or smaller [19]. Correlations were added between academic ranks, since the three variables had a common characteristic. Similarly, correlations between faculties and between the academic ranks and tenure were also added.

3 Examples of Replies Given by Respondents Although some respondents claimed that the system is too complex for them, most did not relate to the system’s complexity at all. One of the respondents even said: “I’m satisfied with the system”. Of the respondents who claimed that they lack knowledge on how to operate the system, some also claimed that they have no time to learn it. For instance: “Technological barrier – unfamiliarity with the various systems/current options. Lack of time” 1. “User laziness to learn the applications”

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2. “Lack of time to deal with it in addition to regular teaching, relevance for the course, lack of proficiency” 3. “The students have no time, the lecturers have no time, the teaching assistants have no time”

4 Empirical Results Spearman’s correlations, means, and SD are presented in Table 1. Figure 1 illustrates the model and the results. Table 1. Correlation matrix: Means, SD UnKnown Complex NoTimeStudy Tenure Lecturer AssocProf FullProf f.Soc f.Eng Mean SD

UK

COM NTS Tenure

Lecturer Assoc Prof FullProf f.Soc

– −.53*** .54*** −.32* .06 −.25 −.03 .02 −.21 .28 .45

– −.24 0 −.17 −.04 −.04 .04 .04 .57 .5

– −.27** −.22** .03 −.08 .32 .47

– −.1 −.12 −.17 .08 −.14 .13 .15 .36

– −.51*** .41*** .26** −.14 .11 .49 .5

– −.14 −.18 .07 .15 .36

– −.06 .14 .09 .29

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

p < .01.

p < .001. Fig. 1. Model and standardized coefficients

f.Eng

– −.78*** – .41 .46 .5 .5

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The hypothesized model showed good fit: CMIN/DF = .75 (p > .05), CFI = 1, NFI = .94, TLI = 1.07, RMSEA = 0. Tenure and f.Eng negatively affected UK (p < .05 for both) (H1 and H2, respectively). This means that tenured faculty members and faculty members from the Engineering Faculty did not find the system unfamiliar. f.Soc. however, had no statistical effect on UK (p > .05) (H3). UK had a negative effect on Com (p < .001) (H4) and a positive effect on NTS (p < .001) (H5). This means that even people who think that they do not understand the system, do not think that it is complicated, however they do say that they do not have time to learn it. AssocProf had a negative effect on COM (p < .05) (H6), which means that associate professors did not think that the system is complex. Lecturer and FullProf did not affect COM (p > .05) (H7 and H8, respectively). f.Eng had a positive effect on NTS (p < .05) (H9), however f.Soc did not affect NTS (p > .05) (H10). This means that engineering faculty members reported not having time to study the system, however no specific effect was found in this regard on staff from the two other faculties. Finally, we examined whether gender had an effect on UK, COM, and NTS, however no statistical effect was found.

5 Discussion One of the most interesting findings was that faculty members who think that they do not understand the system, also do not think it is complicated, while admitting they do not have time to learn it. The respondents’ answers show that they do not relate to the system as important and have no motivation to learn it. In other words, most do not relate to the system’s complexity at all, and even those who say that they are not familiar with it and do not know how to use it, say that they have no time to learn it due to their workload or give no reason, indicating a lack of motivation. The fact that engineering faculty members indicated that they have no time to learn the system, implies that there may indeed be some difference between the faculties in terms of their approach to the available technology. Further research is needed in order to provide more insight on this issue. In an era when technology is a change agent, when new technologies are a means of leading change, when many studies indicate that wise use of technologies can help academic institutions maintain their advantage as leading institutions with regard to personal attention to the students, the question raised has relevance for the goals of academic teaching. Many studies indicate that as a result of social and technological change – the experience of academic studies will differ from that familiar to us from the traditional university, and therefore we must plan and prepare to maintain a competitive edge in a market that is gradually acquiring momentum from year to year. Maintaining an advantage in a technology-based market requires much more than “implanting” materials in a website or transferring materials from a regular learning environment to a remote learning environment. Our purpose is to get lecturers involved and to arouse their motivation to be part of the revolution era.

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References 1. Davidovitch, N.: Learning-focused teaching and backward course design - from transferring knowledge to imparting skills. In: Notzer, N. (ed.) To Excel in Academic Teaching: Lecturer Handbook Of Updated Strategies and Competencies, pp. 63–74. The College For Academic Studies, Or Yehuda (2014) 2. De Simone, G.C.: Mobile learning: extreme outcomes of “everywhere, anytime”. In: International Association for Development of the Information Society (Iadis). 12th International Conference on Mobile Learning, pp. 139–143 (2016) 3. Clark, R.E.: Media will never influence learning. Educ. Tech. Res. Dev. 42, 21–29 (1994) 4. Ghavifekr, S., Rosdy, W.A.W.: Teaching and learning with technology: effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. Int. J. Res. Educ. Sci. 1, 175–191 (2015) 5. Davidovitch, N., Eckhaus, E.: Effect of faculty on research cooperation and publication: employing natural language processing. Econ. Sociol. 11, 173–180 (2018) 6. Davidovitch, N., Eckhaus, E.: Advantages of employment after retirement – a content analysis approach. what is academic professional experience worth after retirement age? World J. Educ. (2019, in press) 7. Eckhaus, E., Davidovitch, N.: Effect of personal and occupational characteristics on attitudes to an obligatory retirement age – a content analysis investigation. J. Educ. Learn. 8, 169–179 (2019) 8. Chanlin, L.J., Hong, J.C., Horng, J.S., Chang, S.H., Chu, H.C.: Factors influencing technology integration in teaching: a taiwanese perspective. Innov. Educ. Teach. Int. 43, 57– 68 (2006) 9. Coben, S.: La Monarchie Nucléaire [The Nuclear Monarchy]. Hachette, Paris (1986) 10. Mushtaq, M.: Bandura’s symbolic learning through ICT And its impact on student learning at university level in Pakistan. International Islamic University, Islamabad (2015) 11. Davidovitch, N., Eckhaus, E.: Student evaluation of lecturers – what do faculty members think about the damage caused by teaching surveys? High. Educ. Stud. 9, 12–21 (2019) 12. Eckhaus, E., Davidovitch, N.: How do academic faculty members perceive the effect of teaching surveys completed by students on appointment and promotion processes at academic institutions? A case study. Int. J. High. Educ. 8, 171–180 (2019) 13. Davidovitch, N., Eckhaus, E.: Teaching students to think - faculty recommendations for teaching evaluations employing automated content analysis. Int. J. High. Educ. 8, 83–93 (2019) 14. Eckhaus, E., Sheaffer, Z.: Happiness enrichment and sustainable happiness. Appl. Res. Qual. Life 14(4), 1079–1097 (2018) 15. Eckhaus, E.: Happiness in Fashion. In: Kantola, Ji, Nazir, S., Barath, T. (eds.) Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Society, AHFE 2018. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 783, pp. 15–25. Springer, Cham (2019) 16. Eckhaus, E., Sheaffer, Z.: Factors affecting willingness to contribute goods and services on social media. Soc. Sci. J. 56(3), 390–400 (2018) 17. Eckhaus, E.: How to be happy. Blog section on www.Artistila.Com (2019). From http:// www.Artistila.Com/How-To-By-Happy/ 18. Maskey, R., Fei, J., Nguyen, H.-O.: Use of exploratory factor analysis in maritime research. Asian J. Shipp. Logist. 34, 91–111 (2018) 19. Eckhaus, E., Davidovitch, N.: Improving academic conferences – criticism and suggestions utilizing natural language processing. Eur. J. Educ. Res. 7, 445–450 (2018) 20. Eckhaus, E., Davidovitch, N.: Potential for blocking advancement: teaching surveys for student evaluation of lecturers. Int. J. Educ. Methodol. 5, 401–406 (2019)

Predict Trainee’s Comprehension from Computer Operations with Deep Learning Koga Kobayashi(&) and Hironobu Satoh National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, 4-2-1, Nukui-Kitamachi, Koganei 184-8795, Tokyo, Japan {m1920109,satoh.hironobu}@nict.go.jp

Abstract. In this study, we developed three deep learning models to predict their confirmation test scores from the PC operation of security lecture participants and conducted a comparative experiment. The proposed model consists of three models: a model that predicts from the trainee’s mouse operation, a model that predicts from the trainee’s keyboard operation, and a model that predicts from both operations. As a result of the experiment, the mouse and keyboard operation model predict superior to other models for the accuracy, and the prediction from keyboard operation was superior for Recall, Recall and F1. Keywords: Deep learning


Education
Learning sciences

1 Introduction Cyberattacks have diversified and become more sophisticated in recent years, and attacks on government agencies, regional public organizations and important infrastructure continue to increase. It is important that organizations train to incident handling appropriately for cases when incidents occur. Our organization conducts a program of practical exercises called Cyber Defense Exercise with Recurrence (CYDER), involving a series of actions to be taken in case of the cyberattack, to improve the incident response capabilities of information system administrators and others. In general, personal computer exercises, the degree of understanding of the lecture greatly depends on the skill of the trainee from the beginning. Moreover, Lectures proceed on the premise of previously learned operations and knowledge, so once you have difficulty understanding the contents of a lecture, it greatly affects the final level of understanding. To improve overall trainee understanding, teachers need to support individual trainees who are having difficulty understanding. But, it is not realistic for instructors to constantly monitor participants. The essential purpose of this study is to predict stumbling from the trainee’s computer operation during class. In a previous study, Venkat et al. [1] suggested using machine learning to predict final grades from trainee’s information and quiz scores. Hussain et al. [2] are using neural networks to predict student’s grades. However, these studies do not utilize

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 31–35, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_5

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information on PC operations. The goal of this paper is to predict trainee performance without using any information other than PC operation.

2 Data CYDER is divided into three-part: hands-on training, group work training, and comprehension test. The purpose of this study is to help students who stumbled during a lecture, so we focused on hands-on training. Each trainee will be provided with a PC during the hands-on. The trainee learns to detect and report the incident using a given PC through a lecture. This PC has a system to record the operation. This system stores information such as keys entered by trainees using the keyboard and the position when the mouse is clicked. Next, the hands-on training test is described. The purpose of the exercise is to learn how to examine the access log when unauthorized access is detected. The solution to the problem is to use the “grep” command to the access log to obtain the IP address of the target communicating with the Command & Control server. Finally, the confirmation test is described. CYDER conducts confirmation tests after hands-on training. These tests provide questions that correspond to what you have learned in hands-on training. The contents of the test are an access log survey similar to the exercise. In the exercise, the purpose was to find the IP address that communicated with the Command & Control server, but in the test, the purpose is to find the terminal user who accessed the suspicious site. However, the solution is almost exactly the same as the exercise: use the “grep” command to search for the address name.

3 Methods In this study, we propose three models using deep learning, not classical machine learning models, to deal with time-series data of user’s personal computer operation. The first model predicts from the trainee’s mouse operation. The second model predicts from the trainee’s keyboard operation, the final model predicts from both operations. All three models use a Long short-term memory (LSTM) [3] layer to efficiently learn time-series data. These three proposed models are described in detail. The first model uses the user’s mouse operation as a feature. The model uses the information of x and y coordinates normalized by the position. The coordinates of the normalized mouse are sent to Bidirectional LSTM (Bi-LSTM). Finally, based on the output of Bi-LSTM, it predicts the probability that the trainee was able to answer the questions correctly (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Model architecture using mouse pointer.

The second model uses the user’s keyboard operation as a feature. First, the method for converting the keyboard feature will be described. In this research, we use word embedding [4] is applied to express keyboard operations as dense vectors. First, keyboard operations, that include shortcuts such as [Ctrl + C] for copying and [Ctrl + V] for pasting, are assigned id. Next, a randomly initialized N * 10 matrix is prepared, and a column corresponding to the ID is used as a keyboard embedding corresponding to the key. N is the number of keys. These embeddings vectors are input to LSTM and predicted similarly to the first model. The keyboard embedding is learned during model training (Figs. 2 and 3).

Fig. 2. How to convert the keys to vectors.

Fig. 3. Model architecture using keys struck on a keyboard.

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The last model uses both keyboard inputs and mouse operations as features. This model combines a keyboard embedding vector with normalized mouse pointers when pressed the key. the combined vectors are used as input features (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Model architecture using mouse pointer and keys struck on a keyboard.

4 Experiment and Evaluation 4.1

Experimental Conditions

First, I will explain the confirmation test used in the experiment. There were 859 confirmation tests. The 681 students were able to answer the question of finding users who visited suspicious sites and 178 were unable to answer the question correctly. Next is about the details of the model. This time, the batch size was 5 and the epoch was 10. The input length is set to 600 and the embedded size is set to 20. The specific number of parameters for each model is now 1061 for the mouse model, 3991 for the keyboard model, and 4151 for the mouse and keyboard models. 4.2

Result

The results of the experiment are shown in Table 1. As you can see from Table 1, the mouse pointer model is inferior to the other models in all the performance metrics. The keyboard-based model performed best on three metrics: Precision, Recall, and F1. The combination of the keyboard and mouse movement model was the best in accuracy, but it was inferior to other models in other metrics. We selected Adam [5] for the optimizer. The learning rate is 0.001. 4.3

Discussion

These results show that what you type on the keyboard is more important than the mouse movement to predict trainee comprehension. In this experiment, the models using mouse and keyboard had lower performance than the keyboard models. We think

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that the reason for this is not only that the mouse feature didn’t do much to improve performance, but also that it has used the position of the mouse only when typing keyboard (Table 1). Table 1. Experimental results of each model. Accuracy Mouse 0.53 Keyboard 0.5 Mouse + Keyboard 0.56

Precision 0.47 0.5 0.45

Recall 0.43 1.0 0.54

F1 0.53 0.67 0.49

5 Conclusion We proposed three deep learning models to measure the trainee’s level of understanding from the PC operation log. The results showed that the keyboard as a feature was superior for precision, recall, and F1, and the keyboard and mouse were superior for accuracy. In this paper, our proposed model did not use information about when the mouse moved and the keyboard inputted. Therefore, the challenge for the future is to come up with a model that takes into account the speed of typing and how long the mouse moving.

References 1. Venkat, N., Srivastava, S., Garg, L.: Predicting Student Grades using Machine Learning (2018). https://doi.org/10.13140/rg.2.2.21516.77449/1 2. Hussain, M., Zhu, W., Zhang, W., Abidi, S.M.R., Ali, S.: Using machine learning to predict student difficulties from learning session data. Artif. Intell. Rev. 52(1), 381–407 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-018-9620-8 3. Hochreiter, S., Schmidhuber, J.: Long short-term memory. Neural Comput. 9(8), 1735–1780 (1997) 4. Mikolov, T., Sutskever, I., Chen, K., Corrado, G. S., Dean, J.: Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pp. 3111–3119 (2013) 5. Kingma, D.P., Ba, J.: Adam: a method for stochastic optimization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1412. 6980 (2014)

The Infographic Process of Synthesizing Complex Information About the Individual Legacies of Retired Teachers and Researchers in Art and Design Nuno Martins1(&), Susana Barreto2, Eliana Penedos-Santiago2, Cláudia Lima3, and Inês Calado4 1

Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave/ ID+, Barcelos, Portugal [email protected] 2 ID+/University of Porto, Porto, Portugal 3 ID+/Universidade Lusófona, Porto, Portugal 4 IPCA, Barcelos, Portugal

Abstract. The work presented in this paper is part of the research project “Wisdom Transfer” (WT). The WT project stems from the evidence that there is insufficient inscription and use of individual knowledge and experience of ageing and retired art and design professors and researchers, in Portugal. In this project there is a great cultural approach from which emerges a high responsibility towards the current artistic education system, in which teachers and students are involved. Through the drawing of an infographics, it is intended that the readers - especially current art and design students - have access to information about the education system of that time. In this article, we will first present the research project “Wisdom Transfer”; we will develop a literature review; and we will present the study of the infographic solution we are developing for this project. Keywords: Infographics Communication Design


Academic Retirement
Art and Design


1 Introduction Throughout history, humanity has evolved by decoding symbols to communicate. For this reason, it appears that the human cognitive system enriches more quickly with the help of visual perception, namely the infographic translation. This enables any individual who wishes to improve his know-how, to do it more quickly and concisely, that’s why it’s not unusual the concept of visual learning1 applied to digital platforms, mainly because most of us are visual learners [1]. The project in development it’s intended to ensure that the retired art and design professors and researchers don’t go unnoticed by the media and the art enthusiasts. Although these sources in the digital age might feel outdated, they also bring a great amount of knowledge that gives the younger audience a different perspective into the art world. These legacies are longtime members of the academy who can change the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 36–42, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_6

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current landscape in artistic education (a learning throw experience era). As a way of expanding this knowledge, it was considered an infographic platform that is distinguished by the interaction with the content, creating a more current and closer connection with the young audience, in order to obtain more significance.

2 How to Create a Good Infographic To conduct the first part of the research it was mandatory to delve into the work of one of the most important figures in the field of infographics nowadays, Alberto Cairo, a Spanish designer and journalist, and his contribution to the scientific data visualization community. In his book “How Charts Lie: Getting Smarter About Visual Information” [2], Cairo proposes some models and strategies that make a chart more effective and reliable for the public. The author points to a high degree of importance attributed to the chart as a tool. However, he says that good graphics are just as or more important for the conversations they generate than just for the graphic content they present [3]. In making infographics, it becomes common to neglect one of their foundations: textual content. In its entirety, the text or small words presented in an infographic are content identifiers and without them, the infographic becomes irrelevant, because it doesn’t provide the essential information for its correct interpretation. Although the added value of visual content is important, it is not the main focal point. When making an infographic it’s always important to consider the reader’s visual literacy. In order to minimize the distance between the author and the reader, Cairo created some principles, of which 2 were essential for the development of the project: 1. Do not assume that an infographic is always intuitive or self-explanatory In infographics it’s important to realize that, depending on its context, there may be some need for explanation, since reading is always pending on the ability of those who read. Often, ignorance creates misinterpretations and, therefore, it is incorrect to assume that all readers will read correctly, mainly in cases of high complexity. To prevent these situations, it’s always a good solution to explain throw text or a secondary graphic, to ensure the correct reception of the message. 2. Clarify, don’t simplify When creating infographics, there is always a fear of communicating a very complex concept, making many designers and journalists resort to graphic simplification techniques. This solution often ends up hiding more information than it should, endangering the correct reading. In this case, Cairo recommends maximum context support, ensuring the success of the graphic. Considering the content, it was important to understand the use of images in a digital platform. In this installment comes a study conducted by Jakob Nielsen in the article Photos as Web Content [4], which aims to break with the notion of stock image, and highlights the power of the image as to its credibility with the user. The study shows greater empathy with companies that determine as a strategy the use of photographs related to their own members. That allows the user to identify more

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easily with the values that the company holds, because they go beyond a “faceless corporation”. In the project it’s intended, for the same reason, the use of profile pictures for every retired art and design professors and researchers.

3 Case Studies: Interactive Infographics To understand some of the inherent components of an interactive infographic experience, it was conducted a research within this field. There are countless examples that turn massive information into a graphic narrative, making the content more immersive and captivating. Among the examples explored, it was found a new set of important considerations to have while making an infographic, helping the development of the project. The main focus of this inquiry was the interactive factor as well as the artistic component displayed in the projects below. 3.1

Infographics and Their Contribution to the Scientific Field

When mentioning data visualization in an infographic format, one must always consider the fundamental role of science in this visual domain. The “Wind Map” [5], from Martin M. Wattenberg and Fernanda Viégas it’s one of the examples of infographics in science. Throw this line of work it was important to recognize its independent artistic aesthetic, with a very contemporary look that translates well with the scientific public as well as the art one, a good combination. The interaction with the map is very simple and allows for an interesting connection. For the infographic it’s important to consider this type of visual environment to make the information easy to read and to follow. The animation in the map makes the project more immersive, making a good component to be included in the process (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The Wind map, by Martin M. Wattenberg and Fernanda Viégas.

3.2

Infographics Combined with a Digital Library

Nowadays the term “digital library” has gained a wide meaning and started to include everything from the exhibition of books on the web to artistic works, among other

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archives of the history of humanity. With the technological evolution, digital libraries started to gain an infographic form, to show better, more organized and interactive content. One great example of this premise is the Codex Atlanticus project [6], from the Visual Agency, a catalog dedicated to Leonardo Da Vinci’s documented body of work (mainly scriptures and drawings). The first page showcases a set of rectangular shapes with a vibrant color palette emphasized by the black background, a contrast that makes for a better experience. On the left area there is also a label of the respective colors. In terms of the organization system, the information is highlighted and it’s dividing Da Vinci’s contributions into 5 main fields: Geometry and Algebra, Physics and Natural Sciences, Tools and Machines, Architecture and Applied Arts and Human Sciences. The interaction with the infographic is well thought-out, and when the user wants to see the works regarding one of the fields, he has to simply choose the field of interest. There’s even a secondary panel that divides the subject into themes, providing for an even more incisive search, and therefore more relevant filters (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Codex Atlanticus, Leonardo Da Vinci’s collection of scriptures and drawings. Made by the company “The Visual Agency”.

Throw the interaction it’s clear the consideration the website has towards the user, with a great understanding of UI and UX design details and the information architecture component, which helps to divide the fields of observation for the user. The header shows concerns for the user with the navigation engine, which allows the users to return to the project overview, when they’re in a filtered search. In case of some difficulties reading the infographic, there is a “How to Read” topic at the center of the header that assists the user with the experience. It’s also noticeable the grid that divides the different elements in strategic positions along the website, and the hierarchy of each elements throw relevance. In the project it’s essential to provide similar strategies to help the users interact with the content throw the use of colors that identify each element correctly, explicit content, easy to read, a good set of filters and a well-defined grid to organize elements.

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Understanding the Audience

While developing a project, there is always the unavoidable question “who is this project aimed at?”. When defining the target audience it’s good to understand whether there are common visual themes among several representatives of the group. In modern times, through the Internet, it is easy to extract information from a certain audience, either through research or through small exploratory questionnaires. Often the general public is seen as undefined, which is an issue for the project’s development. To solve it, it’s necessary to defined a main target. An example of infographics with an aesthetic sense suited to a predetermined audience is the website “Why do cats…?” [7]. In addition to presenting a distinct target audience, it is clear that the website has a visual appeal to emotion, in the form of figures that are considered tender, like cats. The interactivity on the website results from a game with the circles of the most fascinating themes about cats and a prominent highlight in the most frequent searches, making the user more involved and curious with the data presented. The small animations help the user’s journey along the platform and make it more recommended for cat lovers, the platform’s main target. There is also a clear focus on lighter colors, associated with affection, which again transforms the platform into an inviting environment for the intended target (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The “Why do cats…?” website.

For the project it is understood as a good method, to find the main target, as a way of filtering and solving the aesthetic issue. The target audience is defined as young people linked to the world of visual arts in Portugal. To involve this audience it’s determined a more alternative aesthetic that characterizes the main target.

4 Prototyping Process The first prototype developed represented the main information of the academics, collected through the interviews conducted. With the data exposed, it was important to know how to organize the visual framework, to make the data easily identifiable. Even

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though the first studies conducted tried to do this with small graphic intervention, one thing verified was that there should be a more effective and engaging way to communicate the information. It’s here where the use of color enters, as well as a new way to visualize the main information of the infographic throw different shapes and sizes. To determine the shapes to use it was necessary to make several tests to measure the results and reach the best solution. For the shape it was important to still maintain the overall construction of the timeline, only amplifying the interaction with motion and a more immersive aesthetic, to engage the audience. Being a more experimental approach, it was important to include distinct assets in the project, so it would became clear for the users, the different tags displayed within the infographic. The colors became essential to clarify the information. Like the shapes, it was important to make a few tests of color to set the best color pallet. Considering the power of color, the most important part in the infographic was colors distinctively different from each other, so there wouldn’t be confusion with the tags, making easier for the user to read effectively. It’s also important to have in consideration the different aspects of the decades represented throw historical accuracy and also political views in Portugal that dictated many art works in the time, as well as many of the respondents in this project. This may help the overall graphic impact. To ensure a more insightful infographic it was important to make a secondary panel that leads the user to the biography and body of work from the retired art and design professors and researchers. In order to do that, it was necessary to define the main information that should be in the small biography when the user selects one of the studied subjects. The first impression should be the picture of the individual, because it’s a fundamental part of his identification, and also a small biographic text and a callto-action button that opens the biographic page. The secondary elements should be a small but visible carrousel with some works that define the subject, mainly three, to create enough impact for the viewer, but still maintaining the element of surprise and contributing to the curiosity of the user. When a subject is selected there should be a panel in the header that allows the user to go back to the overview of the infographic. One thing that makes for a remarkable experience is the main entrance to the webpage. With this in mind, it was important to enhance the experience with an introductory view. In the scroll, the introductory elements disappear, making space for the infographic. To ensure a correlation between the two different stages, it was important to use the same graphic treatment as well as the same background color, for a soft and dynamic scroll (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Prototype. Self source, 2020.

5 Prototyping Process In conclusion it is necessary to consider a series of practical approaches: – To treat the content with a clear concern for the user, using the color and different shapes to distinguish elements of a different nature, and the text hierarchies to guide the user’s path when reading the infographic; – The visual treatment should be adapted to the main target (young art students), reflecting an artistic and modern surrounding; – To conquer more attention and contextualize the project, it’s important to use an introduction, before the users begin experimenting with the infographic product. After the conclusion of the final prototype it should be conducted an exploratory questionnaire in order to understand if there’s a need for changing the prototype and to comprehend if the finished product satisfies the selected group of users. Acknowledgments. The research is being developed within the framework of the project “Wisdom Transfer: Towards the scientific inscription of individual legacies in contexts of retirement from art and design higher education and research”, co-financed by Portugal 2020, alongside the European Regional Development Fund and the Foundation for Science and Technology, Portugal (ID +/Unexpected Media Lab: POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029038; 2018-2020).

References 1. Bradford, W.C.: Reaching the Visual Learner: Teaching Property Through Art (2011) 2. Cairo, A.: How Charts Lie: Getting Smarter about Visual Information. W. W. Norton & Company Incorporated, New York (2019) 3. Cairo, A. Youtube. Youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com (2019) 4. Nielsen, J.: Photos as Web Content. Nielsen Norman Group (2019). https://www.nngroup. com/articles/photos-as-web-content/ 5. Wattenberg, M., Viégas, F.: Wind Map. Hint.fm (2020). http://hint.fm/wind/ 6. Codex Atlanticus. : https://codex-atlanticus.it/#/Overview 7. Cinnamon, N. Why do cats…? Why do cats and dogs…? (2018). https://whydocatsanddogs. com/cats

Augmented Reality Based Scientific Gateway as Education Form Eva Pajorová(&) and Ladislav Hluchý Institute of Informatics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská 9, Bratislava, Slovakia [email protected]

Abstract. A Science Gateway is a community-developed set of tools, applications, and data that are integrated via a portal or a suite of applications, usually in a graphical user interface, that is further customized to meet the needs of a specific community. Gateways enable entire communities of users associated with a common discipline to use national resources through a common interface that is configured for optimal use. Researchers can focus on their scientific goals and less on assembling the cyber infrastructure they require. Gateways can also foster collaborations and the exchange of ideas among researchers. Our paper deal with position the augmented and mixed reality tool as a one of main component the scientific gateway and portals. The scientific portals and gateways are cumulative all classes of visualization, Augment and Mixed reality. Keywords: Augmented Reality
Mixed reality Research results
3D visualization


Scientifics gateway


1 Introduction Scientific gateways are able to provide a community-centric view, workflow/dataflow services and a strong support in accessing the last one platform of HPC infrastructure including grid and cloud-based resources. In each of science contexts, scientific gateways play a key role since they allow scientists to transparently access distributed data repositories (across several domains and institutions) and metadata sources to carry out search & discovery activities, as well as visualization and analysis ones, etc. Finally, scientific gateways can play an important role in training students (at academic level) in different scientific disciplines, attract new users and represent a relevant centralized knowledge repository in the sciences context. It is also a collaborative cyber-environment on which researchers working the same or similar [1]. Through science gateways, broad communities of researchers can access diverse resources which can save both time and money for themselves and their institutions [2]. Mixed reality is used as an independent concept, or to classify the spectrum of reality technologies. The area between the two extremes, where both the real and the virtual are mixed is called mixed reality. Augmented reality (AR) supplements the real world with virtual objects, such that virtual objects appear to coexist in the same space as the real world [3]. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 43–48, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_7

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For example, Carol Song and all developed new Science Gateways for Advanced computing simulations and Visualization using Vine Toolkit [4]. Very famous is Water HUB is a Science Gateway for Water Research and Education, is a global communication and research platform for research, education, knowledge sharing and global outreach. Built on the HUB zero cyberinfrastructure for scientific collaboration, Water HUB develops and makes available modeling and data sharing tools used in water related research and education activities [5]. Among its tools, the SWAT Share online application not only allows users to run and calibrate their SWAT models, it also supports sharing of models and output data visualization through web browsers. In addition, Water HUB will also use other national level efforts such as the Consortium of Universities for Advancement of Hydrologic Science Ink’s (CUAHSI) Hydrologic Information System (HIS) web services for accessing public domain and research level point observations for streamflow, precipitation and water quality. Our approach is developing augmented reality Scientific Gateway (AR) (SG) for education and for presentation our research results.

2 The Main Contributions of AR SG in the Field of Education Augmented Reality is a composite of the digital world with our real world, making it the best learning platform to explore for education. The desired audio-visual elements overlaid on the real world, making it the perfect developmental tool. With the right implementation of physical activities, Augmented Reality can shape up to be a gateway platform for education. It can serve as an introduction to alphabets, math or even development of vocabulary and it also engages the kid’s creativity. And it also grabs the interest of all those who are dismissive of the usage of technology in education. AR as SG is “Education for All” initiative, trying to remove socioeconomic or cultural barriers which prohibit the access to high-end educational technologies and to the technology enchased learning in general. Very famous is P-Grade [6]. Our approach is developing the tool for students which one products Augmented reality lessons for students. Such application is for Android and Ios. • The implementation of an Augmented Reality to enable teachers to develop Augmented Reality lessons. • Web based accesion to the educational material. • Mobile application to enable students to access all the Augmented Reality lessons. • Virtual speaking head – vois. Text to speach and speach to text service. • Web based authoring tool and a mobile application for Android and ios. Depending on the needs of the communities in the field of education, an augmented reality gateway may provide following features: • General or domain-specific analytic and visualization software • Collaborative interfaces • Education modules

Augmented Reality Based Scientific Gateway as Education Form

Fig. 1. Example of AR web based book.

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E. Pajorová and L. Hluchý

Augmented Reality Lesson and Books

We are developing AR lesson and books by 3D Unity system in which we can synchronize lot of windows. In one window is AR 3D material, second is virtual reality speaking head as teacher, next window go speech to text process. As a one of outputs are web based books. All books with the same theme we can concentrate to the AR scientific gateway. 2.2

AR Based Scientific Gateway as a Best Form for Presentation of the Research Results

The goal of AR and scientific gateway is to help scientists view and better understand their large data [7]. There are data from computing, experiments or numerical simulations. Directly the output data are difficult to understand. AR based scientific gateway can help with these difficulties. Using AR techniques, the data can be viewed naturally. Viewing the data as AR can quickly draw the scientist’s attention to interesting and/or anomalous portions of the data. Scientists to use AR from the beginning to end of their experiments and simulations. This also allows the scientists to develop a set of AR tools and techniques that will help them understand their data. We have developed lot of AR based Scientific gateway in different disciplines for better understand the research results. Such as AR based scientific gateway tool for natural disasters, AR SG for astronomical research, the same for water management and so on. For example, AR SG for water management are using for better understand the process of water simulation in different research goals [8]. 2.3

AR as A Visual Teaching and Education Form

Augmented Reality is the best way to engage the students. Technology is the most attractive concept for kids, why not using it for the good? We all know that we remember better what we saw than what we listen. With AR apps you can teach complex concepts to the students easily.

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Fig. 2. Pictures shows the water simulation research results

3 Conclusion The goal of our paper is to demonstrate some examples and to support the augmented reality as an essential component in new portals and gateways technologies. For a future we want to create AR SG for lot of scientific disciplines by using all new one web and visualization technologies.

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Acknowledgements. This work is supported by projects VEGA 2/0167/16 and U – COMP: APVV – 17-0619.

References 1. Kosara, R., Mackinlay, J.: Storytelling: The Next Step for Visualization. Computer (Special Issue on Cutting-Edge Research in Visualization. https://www.bing.com/search?q=Story +telling+papers&form=PRUSEN&pc=UE07&mkt=en-us&httpsmsn=1&refig=fdab404c62d4 11d80bb6139a1549183&sp=-1&pq=story+telling+papers&sc=7-20&qs=n&sk=&cvid=0fdab 404c62d411d80bb6139a1549183) 2. Wikopedia the fry encyclopedia: Science gateway. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_ gateway 3. Zhou, F., Duh, H.B., Billinghurst, M.: Trends in augmented reality tracking, interaction and display: a review of ten years of ISMAR. In: 2008 7th IEEEACM International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 193–202 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/ ismar.2008.4637362 4. Song, C., Zhao, L.: Larry biehl new science gateways for advanced computing simulations and visualization using vine toolkit in Pl-Grid Piotr Dziubecki, Piotr Grabowski Micha l Krysi_nski, Tomasz Kuczynski, Krzysztof Kurowski Tomasz Piontek, Dawid Szejnfeld Poznan Supercomputing and Networking Center Noskowskiego 12/14, 61–704, Poznan, Polandresources over the web 5. How the WaterHub Works. http://www.campserv.emory.edu/fm/energy_utilities/water-hub/ how%20it%20works.htmlCuckerberk, M. Foster, https://www.facebook.com/zuck/posts/101 01319050523971 6. The P-GRADE Grid Portal was software for web portals to manage the life-cycle of executing a parallel application in grid computing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-GRADE_Portal 7. Pajorova, E., Hluchý, L.: Water management - 3D visualization of research results. In: Inovatívne informačno-komunikačné technológie vo vodnom hospodárstve. - Bratislava: STU Bratislava, jún 2015, pp. 53–58 (2015). ISBN 978-80-89535-19-4 8. Šipková, V., Hluchý, L., Dobrucký, M., Bartok, J., Nguyen, B.M.: Manufacturing of weather forecasting simulations on high performance infrastructures. In: ECW 2016 Environmental Computing Workshop: 12th International IEEE Conference on eScience, pp. 432–439. IEEE, Baltimore (2016). ISBN 978-1-5090-4273-9. ISSN 2325-372X

Strengthening Teacher Service Capacities to Improve Empowerment in School Feeding Ernesto Hernandez1(&), Manuel Sanchez1, William Miranda1, Roberto Seminario1, Leandro Vallejos1, and Miguel Hernandez2 1

National University of Frontier, Av. San Hilarión 101, 20103 Sullana, Peru {ehernandez,msanchez,wmiranda,rseminario, lvallejosm}@unf.edu.pe 2 Alas Peruanas University, Av. La Rivera N° 500, Pimentel km 5.5, 14000 Chiclayo, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. The research considered related to human factors inherent to the teacher work measured the influence of the independent variable called “Strengthening of Teacher Service Capacities” in the Public Educational Institutions with primary level, considering as a dependent variable “Empowerment to the Management of the School Food Service” as well as in the levels of the variable: “Teacher Participation” and “Good Hygiene and Food Handling Practices”. The objective was to determine if there was a relationship between both variables and the nature of this relationship. In the results of the dependent variable, there was a decrease in the low and regular levels; and an increase in the high level. When the mean comparison test was performed on the results of the pre-test and post-test, the chi-square test determined that in the dependent variable, if there is significant difference so the alternative hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected. Keywords: Strengthening


Empowerment
Participation

1 Introduction School feeding is a way to guarantee that the students of the public educational institutions of primary level of the Peruvian nation, have the physical and mental energy so that the predisposition exists to offer them education. The vocational work of teachers is aimed at providing education, and the inclusion of school feeding services is a related task in the global policy to ensure the fulfillment of the second Millennium Development Goal (MDG) “Achieve universal primary education” [1], determined at the United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000. Peru’s commitment to achieving universal primary education includes the creation of the Qali Warma National School Feeding Programme (PNAE Qali Warma) [2], which participates in public educational institutions by forming a School Feeding Committee (SFC) [3]. The SFC is made up of the Director, the teacher responsible for the programme and the parents. The PNAE Qali Warma only trains the members of the SFC; it does not involve the rest of the teachers, causing a lack of interest and © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 49–55, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_8

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ignorance of the stages in the school feeding service, which leads to low indicators of empowerment in the management of the school feeding service. All the teachers are the ones who should ensure the daily cooperation between parents and the educational institution, during the daily provision of the public school feeding service, which includes stages that are in the modality of delivery of products: Reception, storage, preparation, serving, distribution and consumption of food. The proposed strengthening of teacher service capacities involves empowerment promoted through training workshops within the Local Educational Management Unit Ferreñafe, which is the administrative management space that brings together teachers, where they can provide the transfer and empowerment of skills, in order to direct parents and students in their classroom.

2 Methodology 2.1

Hypothesis

Alternative hypothesis (Ha): If Teacher Service Capacity Strengthening is applied then Empowerment to School Food Service Management will be enhanced. Null hypothesis (Ho): If Teacher Service Capacity Strengthening is applied then Empowerment to School Food Service Management will not be enhanced. 2.2

Type of Study

By nature of research, it corresponds to applied research. 2.3

Study Design

An experimental design ˃ pre-experimental ˃ pre test - post test design with a single group has been identified [4]. GE

O1

X

O2

ð1Þ

Where: GE = Represents the experimental group. O1 and O2 = Measures obtained to the dependent variable by means of a pre test and a post test to the experimental group respectively. X = It is the independent variable or stimulus. 2.4

Variables

Independent Variable: Strengthening of Teacher Service Capacities. A two-hour training workshop was provided covering topics about the PNAE QALI WARMA: Mission, vision, objectives, school feeding committee (formation and functions), purchasing committee, technical assistance and supervision in educational institutions, hygiene and good manufacturing practice in food handling, role and functions of teachers in the provision of food service, case studies that occurred during the provision of food service.

Strengthening Teacher Service Capacities to Improve Empowerment

51

Dependent Variable: Empowerment to the Management of the School Food Service. The operationalization of the dependent variable is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Operationalization of the dependent variable. Dependent Variable Empowerment to the management of the school food service

2.5

Variable level Teacher participation Good hygiene and food handling practices

Categories Low Regular High

Instrument School food service management empowerment assessment test

Experimental Procedure

The experimental procedure for measuring results consists: a) b) c) d) e) f) 2.6

Determine the experimental group Apply the pre test instrument. Application of the independent variable. Apply the post test instrument. Data analysis. Comparison of results. Experimental Group

In order to determine the population of primary school teachers in Ferreñafe province, Lambayeque region, by 2015, the number of teachers involved in the Qali Warma PNAE was 180 [5]. A sample of 34 teachers was determined, based on an expected statistical error of 13%, with a confidence level of 90%, given that the panelists are teachers who are trained experts in the field [6]. 2.7

Instrument

The quantified variable called Empowerment, evaluated by the preference scale instrument called “School Food Service Management Empowerment Assessment Test”, has 12 actions. Here the two levels of variable are evaluated, the first one called “Teacher Participation” (Actions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10 and 12) [3] and the second level called “Good Hygiene and Food Handling Practices” (Actions 7, 8, 9 and 11) [7]. The scale of personal preferences or values is shown below. 0 ! It means that I could never do the action. 1 ! It means that I could rarely do the action. 2 ! It means you could do the action moderately. 3 ! It means that I could do the action frequently. 4 ! It means I could do the action always.

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Table 2 shows the twelve actions applied in the School Food Service CoManagement Empowerment Assessment Test instrument: Table 2. School food service management empowerment assessment test. N°

Actions

1

Organize the parents by designating daily a responsible of the classroom for the preparation, distribution and consumption of the food Post my daily parent involvement attendance schedule in a visible place for community members (parents and students) to observe Guide the parent to sign their attendance in the logbook Publish attendance monitoring that assesses food consumption by student beneficiaries At the end of the month, I submit the daily parent participation attendance and food consumption attendance to the SFC president for filing I communicate and inform the participating parent daily, how the preparation, distribution and consumption of the food by the other parents is taking place I remind the participating parent to have hygiene measures such as good health, washing hands and utensils during preparation, serving and distribution of food; as well as not wearing any objects that could fall into the food, such as earrings, necklaces, bracelets, rings and others I remind the participating parent to prepare foods according to the recipe booklet, which have the right balance of taste, appearance and flavor, and to taste the foods before serving them I remind students that their parents must be in good health, have a clean appearance, show clean clothes, and wear tiedup hair and a hat when they come to school Notice to students on which calendar date their parents have been designated to assist in the preparation, distribution, and consumption of food, in the order of the parent participation Schedule I remind students to wash their hands with soap and water before breakfast and to brush their teeth after each meal I thank the participating parent for their attendance and punctuality, as well as their respective child, after the end of the school feeding service

2

3 4 5

6

7

8

9

10

11 12

Rating 0 1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

0

1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

4

Strengthening Teacher Service Capacities to Improve Empowerment

2.8

53

Data Analysis

IBM SPSS Statistics version 22 statistical package was used to determine the cross tables and chi-square test.

3 Results The results of the instrument applied as pre-test and post-test to form the cross tables are shown below. At the level of the dependent variable “Teacher participation”, the Low category decreased by 53.3% (Pretest 60%–post test 6.7%), likewise the Regular category decreased by 6.7% (Pretest 36.7%–post test 30%), while it increased in the High category by 60% (Pretest 3.3%–post test 63.3%). At the level of the dependent variable “Good Hygiene and Food Handling Practices” variable level, the Low category decreased by 40.0% (Pretest 53.3%–post test 13.3%), the same Regular category was maintained at 36.7% (Pretest and post test had the same value), and the High category increased by 40.0% (Pretest 10%–post test 50%). In the dependent variable “Empowerment to the Management of the Food Service”, the Low category decreased by 56.6% (Pretest 63.3%–post test 6.7%), the Regular category increased by 3.3% (Pretest 30.0%–post test 33.3%), and the High category increased by 53.3% (Pretest 6.7%–post test 60%).

4 Discussion The chi-square value (X2) was determined for the level of variable “Teacher participation” (Table 3), with the value obtained being 0.00 value less than 0.05, demonstrating the proof that the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is validated; therefore, the independent variable “Strengthening of teacher service capacities” does significantly influence the dependent variable “Empowerment to management the school food service” with respect to the level of variable “Teacher participation”. Table 3. Chi-square test for the level of variable “Teacher participation”. Pearson’s Chi-square Plausibility ratio Linear by linear association Number of valid cases

Value 29,200 34,708 28,418 68

df 2 2 1

Sig. asymptotic (bilateral) ,000 ,000 ,000

The value of chi-square (X2) was determined for the level of variable “Good hygiene and food handling practices” (Table 4), being the value obtained of 0.001 value lower than 0.05, demonstrating the test that the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is validated; therefore the independent variable “Strengthening

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of teacher service capacities” does significantly influence the dependent variable “Empowerment to the management of the School Food Service” with respect to the level of variable “Good hygiene and food handling practices”. The chi-square value (X2) was determined for the dependent variable “Empowerment to the Management of the School Food Service” (Table 5), being the value obtained of 0.00 value lower than 0.05, being the test significant, so the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is validated, resulting that the independent variable “Strengthening of teaching service capacities” does significantly influence the dependent variable “Empowerment to the Management of the School Food Service”. Table 4. Chi-square test for the level of variable “Good hygiene and food handling practices”. Pearson’s Chi-square Plausibility ratio Linear by linear association Number of valid cases

Value 15,200 16,443 14,931 68

df 2 2 1

Sig. asymptotic (bilateral) ,001 ,000 ,000

Table 5. Chi-square test for dependent variable “Empowerment to the Management of the School Food Service”. Pearson’s Chi-square Plausibility ratio Linear by linear association Number of valid cases

Value 26,615 30,679 26,129 68

df 2 2 1

Sig. asymptotic (bilateral) ,000 ,000 ,000

The Comptroller’s Office [8] states that social programs must consider the involvement of the target population in order to improve their skills and incorporate the prioritization, execution and evaluation of such programs; in the specific case of the PNAE Qali Warma, the involved population referred to as the teaching population is being studied. OREALC [9] also explained that teacher participation is understood at two main levels: one corresponds to the inclusion of teachers in their daily pedagogical work, and the second includes the social role resulting from their actions in society and the school system. The participation of teachers has been mentioned by the FAO [10] where it states that social participation in school feeding is oriented towards empowerment, organization and social participation in the whole process.

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5 Conclusions There was a significant difference in the application of the independent variable “Strengthening of teacher service capacities” over the dependent variable “Empowerment to the management of the school food service”, verifying that the chi-square value obtained of 0.00 is less than 0.05, so the null hypothesis is not considered and the validity of the alternative hypothesis is recognized.

References 1. United Nations. http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2015/Spa. nish2015.pdf 2. Qali Warma National School Feeding Program. https://www.qaliwarma.gob.pe/ 3. Ministry of Education. https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/111209/_325-2017MINEDU_-_03-11-2017_11_37_48_-RSG_N__325-2017-MINEDU.pdf 4. Hernández, R., Fernández, C., Baptista, P.: Methodology of the Investigation. Mc Graw Hill, Mexico (2014) 5. National Institute of Statistics and Informatics: Departmental Statistical Compendium 2012. ODEI Prints Lambayeque, Chiclayo (2013) 6. National Institute for the Defense of Competition and Protection of Intellectual Property. http://www.valedistribuciones.com/iso2859-1.pdf 7. Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism: Manual of Good Food Handling Practices for Restaurants and Related Services. Service Management. Printing Graphics Solutions S.A.C., Lima (2011) 8. Comptroller General’s Office. http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/sicr/cendocbib/con2_uibd.nsf/ 18725BB8EE53C8360525784E006C6812/$FILE/programas-sociales_1222469649[1].pdf 9. Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean. http://m.rephip.unr.edu. ar/bitstream/handle/2133/4063/Participaci%C3%B3n%20de%20las%20organizaciones%20d e%20docentes%20en%20la%20calidad%20de%20la%20educaci%C3%B3n.pdf?sequence= 3&isAllowed=y 10. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3413s.pdf

Performance in Mathematical and Scientific School Subjects as an Indicator of Success in Undergraduate Modules in Construction Economics in South Africa Danie Hoffman(&) and Inge Pieterse University of Pretoria, Lynnwood Road, Pretoria, South Africa [email protected]

Abstract. The Department of Construction Economics, University of Pretoria, South Africa offers a three-year BSc undergraduate program in Quantity Surveying (QS). Specific mathematical and scientific first year modules experience high failure rates that negatively impact throughput rates of students. To address this the department is considering intake cohorts with stronger academic ability in Mathematics and Natural Science. This study explores school performance in these school subjects versus performance in problematic modules from records of cohorts of 2010–2015. The Grade 12 marks of the cohort for Mathematics varied between 55% and 91% (average 73,2%; standard deviation 9,27). The Grade 12 marks for Natural Science varied between 41% and 82% (average 59,8%, standard deviation 9,34). The study found a relatively low correlation between performance in undergraduate modules and school subjects (r vary from 0.3950 to 0.4929). A stratified approach however indicated a constant, positive relationship. The slope of the best-fit regression lines for first year pass rate varied between 1,2669 and 2,122. Pass rate increased significantly with higher marks in Mathematics and Science. The slope for marks achieved was flatter at 0,493 to 0,794. Marks in undergraduate modules do increase with higher marks in Mathematics and Science, but at a slower rate. Keywords: School subjects Economics
South Africa


Undergraduate modules
Construction

1 Introduction Preparedness for higher education is a complex phenomenon that has been the topic of hot academic discussions for many years and will still be debated for years to come. Students experience the gap in the academic demand from schools and universities in the intensity of the work, the rapid progression from one concept to the next and the independence expected from them [1]. Most efforts to address this gap and to improve the preparedness and consequently improve throughput are focused on student selection criteria, foundation level bridging courses and supplementary support for quantitatively orientated modules. Annually South Africans witness the announcement of an increased matric pass rate and increased number of distinctions. The increased results do not manifest in increased © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 56–62, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_9

Performance in Mathematical and Scientific School Subjects as an Indicator of Success

57

throughput rates at first-year university level. The major concerns emanating from this situation are the grade inflation, the unreliability of the national senior certificate and the poor student performance in mathematics, physics and the languages [2]. The response from higher education institutions has been to increase the admission requirements. This is an unsustainable and problematic situation that perpetuates rather than addresses the past problems, specifically in South Africa where the redress of the past is of paramount importance. Higher Education Institutions however have limited influence on school exit level outcomes and can only respond with the mechanisms available to them.

2 Literature In the period following the changeover of the school exit certificate from the senior certificate (CS) to the national senior certificate (NSC) together with the associated rating systems for admission into higher education institutions in 2008, several studies were conducted in various disciplines with the purpose to determine whether the NSC as a whole or individual subjects included in the NSC were good predictors for academic performance at university first-year level. The disciplines covered in the various studies included optometry [3], natural and agricultural sciences [4], commerce [5], accounting [6] and chemistry [7] and were conducted at four of the largest universities in South Africa. All of the studies compared school level mathematics results to first year modules in their disciplines and two of the studies included physical science in their comparisons. The common thread emanating from these studies is that the NSC, and particularly for the mathematics and science, are not very strongly correlated to a host of quantitatively orientated first-year university modules.

3 The Methodology The aim of the study is to establish whether new intake cohorts with higher school marks in Mathematics and Natural Science can be expected to also perform better in mathematical and scientific modules (Quantities 101 and Structures 110). These modules typically have high failure rates and low class average marks. The study explores the relationships between the marks in Mathematics and Natural Science against the performance in the two modules. The findings are based on the academic data of 361 students of the cohorts of 2010–2015. For each of the modules two aspects of student performance were considered – firstly the % of students that passed a module at their first attempt and secondly the average marks achieved by students in these modules. The study first calculates the Pearson’s correlation and the coefficient of determination between the respective subjects and modules for the entire population. The relationships in the data are then explored in more depth by comparing the marks for the two subjects with each of the two aspects of the two modules, starting with Quantities 101. This analysis revealed insight into the relationship between marks

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in for instance Mathematics and the likelihood of students passing Quantities 101 at their first attempt and with the average marks obtained in Quantities 101. The process is then repeated for Structures 110. This analysis is performed for both Mathematics and for Natural Science. The above analysis is based on stratifying the students’ performance in Mathematics and in Natural Science in sequential intervals of 10% (50–59%; 60–69%, 70–79%, etc.). The average marks achieved within each interval is calculated. The performance in modules within each interval is also calculated and considered against the average interval marks for the two school subjects. This structured approach allows for overall patterns and relationships in the data to be revealed and described with the aim to establish to what extent performance in school subjects can predict performance in modules.

4 The Data and Findings The size of the cohorts of first time entering BSc QS students from 2010–2015 varied between a minimum cohort of 53 students in 2011 to a maximum of 69 students in 2015. 4.1

Relationships Between Dependent and Independent Variables

The data revealed the following Pearson’s correlations and coefficients of determination between the dependent and independent variables (see Table 1).

Table 1. Correlation and coefficients of determination Dependent variables

Independent variables Quantities 101 Structures 110 Mathematics Pearson’s correlation 0.4273 0.3950 Coefficient of determination 0.1826 0.1561 Natural science Pearson’s correlation 0.4785 0.4833 Coefficient of determination 0.2289 0.2336

All the above correlations were relatively weak, varying between 0.3950 and 0.4833. The resulting coefficients of determination therefore varied between 0.1561 and 0.2336 meaning that only between 15,6% and 23,36% of the variability in the dependent variables can be ascribed to the variability in the independent variables. 4.2

Stratified Analysis - Marks in Mathematics

The next analysis was to consider marks for Mathematics against performance in the dependent variables of marks in Quantities 101 (HVH101) and Structures 110 (SKE110) (see Table 2).

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Table 2. Marks in mathematics versus 1st year modules Marks: Maths (%) Aver.: Maths (%) % Pass HVH101 at first attempt Aver.: HVH101 (%) % Pass SKE110 at first attempt Aver.: SKE110 (%)

50–59 60–69 70–79 80–89 90–100 Y-intercept Slope Error  55,2 64,3 74,2 83,7 91,4 52,6 59,5 70,9 89,8 100,0 −25,69 1,359 3,596 51,8 35,5

53,4 40,5

56,2 67,0

62,2 74,6

70,3 85,7

22,44 −47,56

0,493 2,776 1,467 5,064

43,2

45,7

53,3

61,7

67,1

3,037

0,694 1,744

Quantities 101 (HVH101). The data, averaged within the structured categories confirmed a positive and consistent relationship with both dependent variables (see Fig. 1). The slope of the simple linear regression line for first time pass rate of 1,359 is an indication of a significant increase in pass rate in Quantities with better marks in Mathematics. The slope of the simple linear regression line for average marks achieved in Quantities of 0,493 is an indication of some increase in marks in Quantities with better marks in Mathematics. The high Pearson’s correlation coefficients of 0,9878 and 0,9481 can be expected as averaged data is used as independent variable. 4.3

Marks in Natural Science

Structures 110 (SKE110). The data again indicated a positive and consistent relationship with both dependent variables (see Fig. 2). The slope of the simple linear regression line for first time pass rate of 1,467 is an indication of a significant increase in pass rate in Structures 110 with better marks in Mathematics. The slope of the simple linear regression line for average marks achieved in Structures 110 of 0,694 is an indication of some increase in Structure 110 marks with better marks in Mathematics. The high Pearson’s correlation coefficients of 0,9795 and 0,9890 can be expected as averaged data is used as independent variable.

Fig. 1. Marks in mathematics and performance in quantities 101

Fig. 2. Marks in mathematics and performance in structures 110

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D. Hoffman and I. Pieterse Table 3. Marks in natural science versus 1st year modules

Mark: NScience (%) Aver.: NScience (%)

40–49 50–59 60–69 70–79 80–89 90–100 Y-intercept Slope Error  45,86 54,8 64,4 73,8 82,5 92,5

% Pass HVH101 at first attempt Aver.: HVH101 (%) % Pass SKE110 at first attempt Aver.: SKE110 (%)

42,9

51,0

74,5

84,1

90,0

100,0

−13,55

1,266 4,990

48,3 28,6

51,6 32,4

56,8 58,5

57,0 76,2

66,0 86,7

76,5 100,0

20,38 −50,11

0,566 3,382 1,651 5,146

41,0

43,03

52,0

57,0

67,1

75,8

−2,924

0,769 2,499

Quantities 101 (HVH101). The data confirmed a positive and consistent relationship with both dependent variables (see Fig. 3). The slope of the simple linear regression line for first time pass rate of 1,266 is an indication of a significant increase in pass rate in Quantities 101 with better marks in Natural Science. The slope of the simple linear regression line for average marks achieved in Quantities 101 of 0,566 is an indication of some increase in Quantities 101 marks with better marks in Natural Science. The high Pearson’s correlation coefficients of 0,9878 and 0,9481 can be expected as averaged data is used as independent variable (Table 3). Structures 110 (SKE110). The data again indicated a positive and consistent relationship with both dependent variables (see Fig. 4). The slope of the simple linear regression line for first time pass rate of 1,651 is an indication of a significant increase in pass rate in Structures 110 with better marks in Natural Science. The slope of the simple linear regression line for average marks achieved in Structures 110 of 0,769 is an indication of a positive increase in Structure 110 marks with better marks in Natural Science. The high Pearson’s correlation coefficients of 0,9974 and 0,9864 can be expected as averaged data is used as independent variable.

Fig. 3. Marks in natural science and performance in quantities 101

Fig. 4. Marks in natural science and performance in structures 110

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5 Conclusions The study found that performance in both dependent variables for both modules had a relatively low correlation with performance in the two school subjects used as independent variables (varying between 0.3950 and 0.4823) when including the full data set on an individual basis. This returns coefficients of determination of 0,1560 and 0,1947 indicating that only 15,60% or 19,47% of the variation in first year performance of students can be predicted by variation in the two school subjects. However, in a stratified approach both the first-time pass rate and the average marks attained in the two modules indicated a constant, positive relationship with increased marks in the two school modules used as independent variables. The slope of the best-fit regression lines between the data for first time pass rate in the two undergraduate modules and the marks in Mathematics of respectively 1,359 and 1,266. The slope of the best-fit regression lines for marks in Natural Science were respectively 1,266 and 1,651. The first-year pass rate in both modules therefore increased significantly for students with higher marks in both Mathematics and Natural Science. The slope of the best-fit regression lines between the data for the average marks achieved in the two modules and the marks in Mathematics was flatter at respectively 0,493 and 0,694. The slope for the best-fit regression lines for marks in Natural Science were respectively 0,566 and 0,769. The average marks achieved in the modules therefore increased with higher marks in Mathematics and Natural Science, but at a slower rate than the increase of marks achieved in both Mathematics and Natural Science. These results concur with the results of all the other disciplines reviewed and confirm that students with lower marks in Mathematics and Natural Science in our department are also not sufficiently prepared for the academic challenge. The disparity in the rate of increase in the results for school subjects and the results for the modules under review further support the findings of grade inflation. It is therefore apparent that our admission requirements for Mathematics and Natural Sciences should be adjusted upwards.

6 Recommendations On conclusion of the study it is recommended that that the study be expanded to 2016 onwards to determine whether the downward trend of performance continues, that the study be extended to other institutions nationally that offer a similar qualification, that the study be expanded to include the other programs in the Department of Construction Economics, to repeat the study in order to tract the trends in the rapidly changing demography of South African and identify and study other causes that could explain the variability in student performance.

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References 1. Council on Higher Education: Access and Throughput in South African Higher Education: Three Case Studies. Council on Higher Education, Pretoria (2010) 2. Fisher, G.: Improving Throughput in the Engineering Bachelor Degree – Report to the Engineering Council of South Africa (2011) 3. Mashige, K.P., Ramersad, N., Venkatas, I.S.: Do national senior certificate results predict first-year optometry students’ academic performance at university? South Afr. J. Higher Educ. 28(2), 550–563 (2014) 4. Dennis, C.R., Murray, D.M.: Success in first-year Mathematics: School-leaving Examinations and First-year Performance. South Afr. J. Sci. 108(7/8) (2012). Art #1352, 3 pages 5. Hunt, K., Ntuli, M., Rankin, N.A., Schöer, M., Sebastiao, C.: Comparability of NSC mathematic scores and former SC mathematic scores: how consistent is the signal across time? Educ. Change 15(1), 3–16 (2011) 6. Barnes, H., Dzunsi, P., Wilkinson, A., Viljoen, M.: Researching the first-year accounting problem factors influencing success or failure of a South African higher education institution. J. New Gener. Sci. 7(2), 36–58 (2009) 7. Potgieter, M., Davidowitz, B.: Grade 12 achievement rating scales in the new national senior certificate as indicator of preparedness for tertiary chemistry. South Afr. J. Chem. 63, 75–82 (2010)

Research on Digital Reading App Design to Stimulate Reading Motivation of Teenagers Yijie Cao(&) and Bing Xiao School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Though digital reading is becoming more and more convenient, the quantity and quality of extracurricular reading among teenagers are still declining and most teenagers are lack of the motivation to read and have difficulty maintaining long-term reading behavior. Based on the investigation and analysis of the reading needs of Chinese teenagers, this paper explored the incentive design principles to stimulate and maintain teenagers’ digital reading motivation, and designed a digital reading app suitable for teenagers to test the attitudes of the subjects through questionnaires. The results showed that the application of the proposed design principles can promote the enthusiasm of teenagers in digital reading to a certain extent. Keywords: Digital reading
Teenagers
App design
Motivation stimulating

1 Introduction With the rapid development of Internet, the combination of Internet and media has become the primary way to convey information, which has been catalyzed by the upgrading of mobile devices. Digital reading has the most profound and significant impact on teenagers, the loyal audience of Internet products. In the future. It will be an inevitable trend for teenagers to get access to digital reading earlier and more. However, professor Jean M. Twenge and her team mentions that even now reading is becoming more convenient, and people can easily read through a variety of equipment, the quantity and quality of extracurricular reading among teenagers are still declining Most teenagers lack the motivation to read and have difficulty maintaining long-term reading behavior, and this phenomenon has higher consistency in different genders, races and economic status [1, 2]. In addition to the same problem mentioned above, in China, most mainstream digital reading platforms still have the phenomenon of serious homogeneity, large span of audiences, uneven content quality, especially, the lack of mainstream digital reading platforms for teenagers, resulting in the difficulty in providing teenagers with reading contents and environment different from those for adults according to their growth and emotion. Therefore, it is of significance and value for reading education research and development to explore the reading needs and motivations of teenagers and on this basis design a digital reading app for them.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 63–69, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_10

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2 Reading Motivation and Motivation Stimulating Motivation was a kind of psychological disposition or internal driving force, and played an important role in development and maintenance of autonomous behavior. Since autonomous reading is the core of reading behavior, there is inseparable relationship between reading motivation and reading behavior. Scholar Guthrie J.T. believes that reading motivation is an individual’s belief in reading [3], and Kristin Conradi defines reading motivation as the internal comprehensive driving force derived from an individual’s belief and attitudes in reading activities, and reading goals [4]. The author believed that reading motivation refers to the inner drives to motivate and guide individual behaviors toward reading goals. A study by Guthrie and three other scholars finds that students with higher motivation read more [5]; Scholar Logan finds that motivation can significantly predict the impact on readers of weak reading ability [6]; Scholar Camille Welie thinks reading motivation can catalyze the effect of reading skills and cognitive abilities [7]. A number of studies have shown that reading motivation has a great impact on reading behavior, ability and performance, so stimulating reading motivation of teenagers plays an important role in reading behavior of teenagers. But how to motivate teenagers to read? The scholar Abraham h. Maslow argues that when people’s needs are not fully met, there will be a driving force, namely motivation, to get close to or achieve the needs [8]. Therefore, it is necessary to first understand the reading needs of teenagers, and then summarize and design the reading app on this basis to stimulate the reading motivation.

3 Research on Teenagers’ Digital Reading Needs 3.1

Research Process and Analysis

This research was conducted through questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to understand teenagers’ needs in digital reading in detail. This survey was conducted in Shanghai, from October to November in 2019 where questionnaires were distributed to students aged 13–17 in two middle schools, and 249 questionnaires were collected by random sampling. A semi-structured interview was then conducted with 18 teenagers aged 13–17 to obtain a more detailed analysis of the influencing factors of needs and motivations. In the demand survey for reading content, it is found that teenagers’ preferences for book topics are evenly distributed. There is no significant gender difference in interest in most book subjects, and unlike gender stereotypes, the results of the survey showed that girls seem to prefer books about suspense reasoning, science fiction and adventure, while boys prefer books about history and humanities (see Fig. 1). Therefore, the author believed that the current design method of many reading platforms in China to divide reading channels according to gender was not suitable for teenagers, and might limit the possibility of thinking development of teenagers.

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Fig. 1. Proportion of reading theme preferences by gender

It was generally believed by teenagers that the design elements of reading app was one of the important factors to promote reading interest and motivation. In addition, Interface design and color collocation also could impact the teenagers’ reading intention. Some respondents in the interview said no illustrations or excessive illustrations would reduce their reading motivation. In the interaction design, teenagers hoped to add more interesting reading ways in the reading app, and the feedback and encouragement as well as social sharing functions would also affect their motivation to read and use (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The following design content of the reading app will affect my reading enthusiasm (1 means strongly disagree, 2 means disagree, 3 means neither agree nor disagree, 4 means agree, 5 means strongly agree). “I hope that the design of reading apps can be more interesting and add some familiar and favorite elements instead of just monotonous words and icons. Meanwhile, I also hope to timely understand my reading and get more feedback. It is also a pleasure to discuss and share with my good friends through reading apps. And sometimes I also want my parents to know and support what I read.”

——A 14-year-old Chinese teenager answered in the interview

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Summary of Design Principles

The author summarizes four design principles for stimulating teenagers to read, namely, the principle of interest stimulation, the principle of fashionable design elements, the principle of personalized interaction, and the principle of social and emotional identification. Having fun was the primary motivation of most teenagers’ reading behaviors, so adding interesting content in the design of reading apps was an important way to stimulate and maintain teenagers’ motivation to use and read. As a popular design concept, gamification had been increasingly applied to the field of education. For young users of reading apps, gamification not only serves as a function to stimulate and guide their interest in reading, but also serves as a design mechanism to assist them to achieve reading goals and detect reading results. Some research results showed that the teenagers hoped to see elements relevant with their cultural context in reading app. Scholar Keller mentions “relevance” is also the important factor affecting motivation [9]. Therefore, adopting fashionable design elements agreeing with youth group preference could enhance their reading interest and motivation. The principle of fashionable design elements should be based on local culture. The survey also found that most of teenagers could not make appropriate reading goals and plans for themselves, and they lacked a sense of gaining after reading, which led to difficulty in maintaining long-term reading habits. Therefore, in addition to the ease of use, the interaction design should be provided with personalized interactive content, such as personalized reading goals, reading detection and reading feedback. Satisfaction was also one of the important factors for reading motivation. The satisfaction obtained by teenagers in reading came from many aspects. Besides their internal factors, they were also influenced by external factors. During the interview, most of the teenagers wanted to get positive feedback from others in their social circle. Compared with the feedback from strangers, Chinese teenagers are more sensitive to that in real social circles. Most respondents said encouragement from parents, teachers and classmates would motivate them. However, in the current social functions of most reading apps in China, teenagers’ social circles in real life were ignored. The author believed that the design of social function should be based on the social circle of teenagers in reality.

4 Design and Verification 4.1

App Design Description

The designed app was named “Yuyue”, which was the homonym of “joy” in Chinese. The four principles summarized above had been applied to the app design (see Table 1).

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Table 1. Application of the four principles in reading app design Design principle Interest stimulation Fashionable design elements Personalized interaction Social and emotional identification

Corresponding desing content Content of gamification (Education Simulation) Dynamic spot illustration Application of fashion design elements in local culture (memes, Koi) Personalized reading goals and feedback Reading communication and sharing group of interest, class, family

Like a game, Yuyue App would provide users with reading goals in three different difficulty modes everyday. Users could choose the appropriate difficulty level according to their own conditions, and different goals would bring fresh experience to the reading every day. When reading, you can click on specific text to see the hidden dynamic illustrations. As mentioned above, the design and application of the elements need to be combined with local culture and user’s life. In the communication with China teenagers, I found that they liked to express their feelings through memes, to search for identity and sense of belonging. Therefore, I use some currently popular memes in China to give positive feedback and motivation to the users for their reading target completion. In addition, in the currently popular culture of China, koi represented the luck and was closely related to the study and life of Chinese teenagers. Some teenagers mentioned that they liked to forward koi on Weibo before the exam. Therefore, the author applied the flat and cartoonish koi image to the design of the game section of the app. Users could name their virtual pet “Koi” and interact with it. They could also unlock skins and decorations to create a new pet image by completing reading. The koi of users who didn’t read for a long time would became a salty fish. The essence of the design is to give feedback on users’ usage and reading through visual means. Compared with text reminders, this kind of humorous visual feedback was less likely to arouse users’ disgust. In the social function, users could easily set up or join a reading group, share their reading progress with friends and family, and communicate and motivate each other (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Some pages in prototype design of Yuyue App (completion and feedback of reading target, hidden illustration in reading, virtual pet koi and reading group)

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Verification

In order to verify the effectiveness of the design of Yuyue App for stimulating teenagers’ reading motivation, the author selected 40 students and divided them into two groups, G1 and G2. G1 was the group for comparing, and was given only simple reading function; G2 was group for experiment, and experienced Yuyue App on the mobile phone. The two groups were given the same reading materials and then surveyed by questionnaires after reading. The questionnaire designed based on the ARCS model to measure the motivation of the two groups through attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction, including 24 items [10]. The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient of the questionnaire in this research was 0.89, indicating that the questionnaire was highly reliable. Table 2. Questionnaire data statistics Variable Attention

Group G1 G2 Relevance G1 G2 Confidence G1 G2 Satisfaction G1 G2 Total G1 G2

N 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Mean 3.56 4.38 3.28 4.47 3.39 4.40 3.46 4.45 3.42 4.42

SD 0.21 0.25 0.38 0.2 0.28 0.18 0.17 0.19 0.17 0.11

The descriptive statistical results showed that the average score of the G2 group was higher than that of the G1 group (see Table 2), indicating that the Yuyue App had a certain effect on stimulating teenagers’ reading motivation.

5 Conclusion This paper believes that the reading apps for teenagers should be designed based on the four principle of interest stimulation, fashionable design elements, personalized interaction, and social and emotional identification, in which way both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation shall be given to the teenagers to simulate and maintain their reading motivation. Then the author proved that the reading app designed according to the four principles has the effectiveness of stimulating teenagers’ reading motivation in a short period. However, there are also shortcomings in this research: first of all, this research and design are only targeted at Chinese teenagers, which has certain regional limitations; in addition, due to the time limit of the experiment, the follow-up tracking and interviews are required for the motivation of long-term reading behaviors.

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References 1. Twenge, J.M., Martin, G.N., Spitzberg, B.H.: Trends in US Adolescents’ media use, 1976– 2016: the rise of digital media, the decline of TV, and the (near) demise of print. Psychol. Popular Media Cult. 8(4), 329 (2019) 2. Teen today spend more time on digital media, less time Reading,.https://www.apa.org/news/ press/releases/2018/08/teenagers-read-book 3. Guthrie, J.T., Wigfield, A.: How motivation fits into a science of reading. Sci. Stud. Read. 3 (3), 199–205 (1999) 4. Conradi, K., Jang, B.G., Mckenna, M.C.: Motivation terminology in reading research: a conceptual review. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 26(1), 127–164 (2014) 5. Guthrie, J.T., Wigfield, A., Metsala, J.L., et al.: Motivational and cognitive predictors of text comprehension and reading amount. Sci. Stud. Read. 3(3), 231–256 (1999) 6. Logan, S., Medford, E., Hughes, N.: The importance of intrinsic motivation for high and low ability readers’ reading comprehension performance. Learn. Indiv. Diff. 21(1), 124–128 (2011) 7. Welie, C, Schoonen, R, Kuiken, F.: Eighth graders’ expository text comprehension: do motivational aspects add to cognitive skills? Dutch J. Appl. Linguist. (2019) 8. Maslow, A.H.: A theory of human motivation. Psychol. Rev. 50(4), 370 (1943) 9. Keller, J.M.: Motivational Design for Learning and Performance: The ARCS Model Approach. Springer, Heidelberg (2009) 10. Keller, J.M.: Manual for Instructional Materials Motivational Survey (IMMS). Florida State University, Tallahassee (1993)

The Design and Implementation of Effective Teaching Based on Human Factors Engineering Qing Xue(&) and Lin Gong School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China [email protected]

Abstract. With the popularization of mobile communication technology and equipment,students obtain knowledge from many sources by mobile phone or searching engine, the traditional mode of teaching does not adapt to the current situation, also the model of higher education is being challenged. It’s a important problem that how to attract students to study actively in class. The basic concept of human factors engineering is people-oriented, for any humanmachine system, the limitation of human physiological and psycho-logical characteristics and behavioral capabilities should be considered first in order to improve the efficiency of the system, as well as teaching system. This paper put forward to some points about effective teaching based on human factors engineering. Effective means valid and efficient, which cover the whole procedure of making teaching objectives, analyzing student’s features, selecting teaching materials, design the classroom activities in order to attract students to take the initiative to learn. The author also discuss about the characteristics of student’s memory and attention based on the human in-formation processing model and the laws of human cognition in teaching system, and summarized the implementation of effective teaching when taught the course “Human Factors Engineering”. By several effective strategies and steps, students get more chances to do real things, enjoy joining classroom activities, so not only learn knowledge of the course but also learn how to solve practical problems. Keywords: Human factors engineering
Effective teaching
Teaching strategy

1 Introduction With the popularization of mobile communication technology and equipment, students obtain knowledge from many sources by mobile phone or searching engine, the traditional mode of teaching does not adapt to the current situation, also the model of higher education is being challenged. It’s a important problem that how to attract students to study actively in class. The basic concept of human factors engineering is people-oriented, for any human-machine system, the limitation of human physiological, psychological characteristics and behavioral capabilities should be considered first in order to improve the efficiency of the system, as well as teaching system.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 70–76, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_11

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There are a lot of literature on the relationship between human factors engineering and teaching, or education ergonomics. Uche C. M. and Okata Fanny C.t [1] introduce the educational ergonomics in higher education institutions, their study focused on investigating the ergonomics and ergonomic considerations of learning environments of higher education institutions; Jeffrey Choppina and his colleges [2] conceptualize curriculum ergonomics as a field that studies the interactions between users and curriculum materials. Dan O Coldeway [3] think that the development and implementation of new advanced learning technologies is an important achievement in all levels of education and in business and industry. Paul L. Derby, Keith S. Jones, and Elizabeth A. Schmidl [4] discussed the replica-tions in human factors research which implications for education. Some researchers studied [5] from teachers’ views on factors affecting effective integration of information technology in the classroom. Anthony Andre and Deborah Boehm-Davis [6] put forward the future practices and needs of human factors education from the perspectives of academia, government, and industry. Thomas J. Smith’s paper [7] introduced educational ergonomics in educational design and educational performance. The key idea is that the performance of students and educational systems to a substantial degree is context specific—specialized in relation to specific design factors—and that ergonomic interventions directed at design improvements therefore can benefit education. The paper [8] talk about the sup-port issues for case-based learning in an undergraduate human factors class. This paper put forward to some points about effective teaching based on human factors engineering. Effective means valid and efficient, which cover the whole procedure of making teaching objectives, analyzing student’s features, selecting teaching materials, design the class activities in order to attract students to take the initiative to learn.

2 Human Information Processing Model in Teaching System As other human machine systems, Teaching system includes human, machine and environment. Teacher and students are the most important factors, tables, chairs, blackboard, screen, projector and other facilities are machines in teaching system, also light, temperature, noise are environment factors. Improving these factors will make contribution to effective teaching. The procedure of human information processing is the presentation of stimulus (information display) first, human receive information by sensory organ and then information perception and process information store, information output by action. The model is shown as Fig. 1:

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Fig. 1. Human information processing mode

In a teaching system, teacher always present materials related to teaching content in the form of visual or auditory, students perceive and process information, combined with the previous accumulated knowledge, pay attention to new information, keep something in their mind, and show subsequent responses such as recording, answering questions, etc. Based on the theory of human factor engineering, there are limitations for memory and attention. Some researchers said that the teaching efficiency within 50 min is as the curve like Fig. 2, from which we can figure out the learning efficiency show the lowest point at 25 min this is because the human cognitive characteristics and limitations of memory and attention.

Fig. 2. The Learning efficiency curve.

So the performance of a good teaching system should consider the human features first and then design the appropriate information presentation or information display, conducive to effective teaching, appropriate teaching methods facilitate information processing, such as memory and attention and appropriate teaching activities that involve each student in learning.

3 Effective Teaching Effective teaching means benefit and efficiency and which cover the whole procedure of teaching, there are several aspects:

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Teaching Objectives. Student-centered teaching identify the goals in terms of knowledge, ability, emotion, in order to enhance the value of students. Take the human factors engineering course as an example, teaching goals are in Table 1: Table 1. Teaching goals of human factors engineering course Type Knowledge

Ability

Value Emotion

Goals Basic theory and research method of human factors engineering Human information processing model Human physiological and psychological characteristics Human-machine system …etc. Applying the basic principles of mathematics, natural science and engineering science to analyze the basic elements, interactions and rules of a human machine system or model; using professional software to analyze and evaluate human characteristics, machine characteristics or other system operating parameters, states and rules. To understand and evaluate the impact of human factors on the sustainable development of environment and society in the system operation Good communication skills The practical value,training value,future value and emotion value Students have feelings for learning, in class or after class

Sufficient Teaching Preparation. Analyzing of the students is the first step, teacher should know the student’s background, learning motivation, and how to arrange the course outline, then make teaching plan which includes the materials, presentation file, the time distribution in one class, and the information display. Systematic Organization of Teaching. Instructional teaching design which includes case-driven learning, task-based learning, problem guidance learning, ect. Such mixed teaching mode will provide good chance for students to improve their ability. Diversified Teaching Activities. In class, there is not only lecture from teacher but also a different kind of activities, such as literature review and summarize, case analysis, assignment present and so on. Active and Enthusiastic Learning Guidance. Teacher engage students to think more, ask questions, give their ideas about the contents, knowledge, concepts or cases. Appropriate Interaction between Teacher and Students. Student’s feedback is very important in class, by which teacher can figure out the effect of this lecture. Students will enjoy all activities during the class. Interaction between teacher and students are Q&A, explain some key points by student, group talking and any other useful forms. Multiple Evaluation Approaches. In addition to final exam, evaluation will cover homework, assignments, quiz, practice, experiments and team project. Each student’s final evaluation is not only by teacher but also by other students. Above all, teacher and students should interact each other in the all procedure of teaching and learning. Effective teaching should have clear information, exact

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examples, suitable practice and experiments. No matter what knowledge to learn, what activities to have, students should totally join them and then think more, ask more questions and do more real relative things by themselves in order to get strong internal or external learning motivation, then get better score.

4 The Implement of Effective Teaching 4.1

Teaching Strategy

Knowledge and understanding refers to the content knowledge gained in particular subject areas, focusing on the “know-what” aspect of learning. Based on the teaching objectives and the ideas of Student-centred, teacher do his/her best to understand the student features, background, the requirements and then design the teaching procedure in order to enhance student’s ability and their value. The key is let students do things by themselves. • • • •

Upload teaching plan, contents, materials and references every week before class. Provide each student a notebook to take note in class and check them at random. Group 4–6 students as a team for all class activities. Take all class in smart classroom in which there are removable tables and chairs, several screens around. • Students have different kinds of homework which include individual or team work, paper work, online talking or submit document. • Practice and experiments are necessary for student which cover human features experiments in Lab, project-based practice in real workshop or other sites. • Some examples are shown as Table 2. Table 2. Examples of Teaching Strategy Content

Teaching strategy

Student do things

Human Factors engineering research method.

Each group discuss one of them. The topics are as: The human factors evaluation of driver’s cab. The seat design of a car cab based on Human factors engineering. The study on noise in a workshop

Human machine interface design and evaluation

Topics are: Compare three online shopping websites, discuss the features of the interface Analysis some online course interface; Design the interfaces of a software for children learning Literature review and summarize the key points Discuss which occupation has high pressure(high mental workload) Discuss the mental workload for the college students Discuss how to eliminate stress or decrease mental workload

Discuss in group, analysis research site, variables, sample size, how to collect data, how to analysis data. Reading a paper, talking about the research method and steps Find a project topic and make research plan Team working and evaluation each other

About mental workload (pressure)

Class activity: Select one student talk to other group about the topic of his group Students evaluate the speaker. List the pressure of college students (each student list three) Discuss about the most important ones and how to solve this problem

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Evaluation

For each student, the final evaluation is depended on three parts in which 20% come from class note, homework and experiment report; 40% are from final exam and 40% are from team work (project presentation and report).

5 Teaching Effective Based on the principle of Human Factors Engineering, student-centered teaching focus on the student’s physiological and psychological characteristics, enhance student to attend all class activities more activity and enjoyable. The most important points are: Attract Student’s Attention. Teaching by the mode of question driven, application driven, objective driven and ability driven. The stimulus (visual or auditory) should be interesting to kindle their enthusiasm for study. Related to Student. By doing real things to learn, by being a given role to join a situation which is related to the knowledge. Confidence and Independence. By group discussion, team work, project task, evaluating each other, interaction each other, student will get good motivation and value satisfaction. Teaching and learning occurs in complex ecosystems, dynamic environments where teachers, students, materials and supplies, texts, technologies, concepts, social structures, and architectures are interdependently related and interactive. Effective teaching provides students a platform at which they can play their role in some given situation or story related to course content. Their abilities will be improving a lot, especially for the communicate ability, modeling ability for the real system as well as technical writing ability, some students have publish papers in academic journal. Education must focus on awakening and improving students’ potential, promote students’ independent development and the development of cognitive and emotional attitudes and skills. Combine the basic theory of Human Factors Engineering with teaching procedure will be beneficial to students’ personality and sustainable development.

References 1. Uche, C.M., Okata Fanny, C.: Educational ergonomics in higher education institutions in Nigeria. Mak. J. Higher Educ. 7(2), 133–146 (2015). ISSN 1816-6822 2. Choppina, Jeffrey, McDuffieb, A.R., Drakec, C., Davisd, J.: Curriculum er-gonomics: conceptualizing the interactions between curriculum design and use. Int. J. Educ. Res. 92, 75– 85 (2018) 3. Coldeway, D.O.: The Success of Advanced Learning Technologies for Instruction: Research and Evaluation of Human Factors Issues 4. Derby, P.L., Jones, K.S., Schmidlin, E.A.: Replications in human factors research: implications for education. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors And Ergonomics Society 52nd Annual Meeting 2008, p. 672 (2008)

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5. Levin, T.: Teachers’ views on factors affecting effective integration of in-formation technology in the classroom: developmental scenery. J. Technol. Teach. Educ. 16(2), 233– 263(2008) 6. Christopher Brill, J., Andre, A.D., Beith, B., Boehm-Davis, D.A., Gawron, V.J., Mayhorn, C. B.: The Future of human factors education. In: Practices and Needs from the Perspectives of Academia, Government, and Indus-try Article in Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting Proceedings, September 2010 7. Smith, T.J.: Educational ergonomics: educational design and educational performance. In: International Society for Occupational Ergonomics and Safety 8. Buckner, K.: Elisabeth Davenport Support Issues for Case-Based Learning in an Undergraduate Human Factors Class. https://doi.org/10.3233/efi-1996-14407

Ethical Considerations on Using Learning Analytics in Finnish Higher Education Jussi Okkonen(&), Tanja Helle, and Hanna Lindsten Faculty of Information Technologies and Communications Sciences, Tampere University, FIN-33014, Tampere, Finland {jussi.okkonen,tanja.helle,hanna.lindsten}@tuni.fi

Abstract. Utilization of learning analytics in universities is complex setting and there are several issues on motives, expectations and insights on ethics There is lack of critical literature as the whole topic on learning analytics is still mostly addressed from the perspective of analytics per se. Current literature draws idealistic picture of well-functioning apparatus that supports studying process, enhances learning out-comes and eases the managerial burden and contradictions, even conflicts on utilizing learning analytics are only marginally discussed. The discussion on ethics of using learning analytics is spawns from the different practical and ideological issues regarding learning analytics. Taking the perspectives of privacy, ownership of data, and how studies are managed there are differences on expectations among the students and personnel. The aim of this paper is to examine and discuss the dissonance between expectations and hopes on ethical conduct of learning analytics in Finnish universities. The analysis is based on open ended replies of a survey collected among Finnish university students and staff in spring 2019. Keywords: Learning analytics
Higher education
Ethics
User expectations

1 Introduction Digitalization of the most tuition related processes in universities and also several studying activities are put on digital platforms has opened new vistas for extensive utilization of analytics in higher education. Extensive implementation of data driven management has been executed during the last decade. Okkonen, Helle and Lindsten [1] point out the dichotomy, i.e. difference on managerial perspective, in expectations as students and teachers seek to manage daily activities on micro-level, but those in managerial position seek extensive leverage effect on meso- and macro-levels. These are not contradictory, yet they might not be served by the same development schemes and policies. Very often the development and implementation are regarding the administration, not single users. As single users teaching staff and students have aim to utilize digital tools for personal process management, thus maintain personal relationships and control. The adminisration perspective [over] emphasizes openness of the data, analytical approach, and seeking gains on mass as well as putting effort on what brings reward to the institution. Those levels will be described more specifically later in data description. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 77–85, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_12

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The literature among learning analytics seem to have two trends, i.e. positivistic and critical. Positivistic tradition seems to concentrate on technical aspects, presenting verified or expected benefits, and having somewhat straightforward managerial perspective on learning analytics. This, to some extent, naïve approach diminishes users and forgets e.g. students as feeling subjects of learning analytics endeavor. The critical trend focuses on ethics of using data as well as discussion of privacy and agency. Ifenthaler and Schumacher [2] have approached student sentiments on learning analytics from privacy perspective. Okkonen et al. [1] addresses the same issue by the expectation differences between students and other users. There seems to be certain privacy principles that are universal. The students seem to have need to have certain amount of privacy even their data is stored, analyzed, distributed and used in learning analytics systems and processes. Privacy refers to remaining anonymous to unknown as stated in [1] and [2]. Ifenthaler and Schumaher [2] also underline difference between private and public in sense the data about personal matters is private and data related to studying is public for official use. This also resonates the issue of transparency as people are comfortable being handled anonymous in large bodies of data still maintaining their privacy. Arnold and Sclater [3] underline the purpose for using the data as determing how student accept different learning analytics activities. The students seem to have strong opinions, yet in practice they seem to have little or no power if they are in institution. On the other hand, as pointed out by Okkonen et al. [2] staff appreciates possibility to conduct various analytics related activities as well as little limitations on access to data. There are also other attributes that affect on attitudes towards learning analytics. As stated in Whitelock-Wainwright et al. [4] the student expectations on learning analytics questionnaire brought about there were ethical conduct and service as two major expectations. These seem to reflect their general expectations toward any service yet draws attention to role of students. In general learning analytics takes students into account as loyal subjects, not active participants. Corrin et al. [5] similarly state that data management and data protection as well as privacy and access are the most important ethical issues. Whitelock-Wainwright et al. [4] state students have no clear conception of the contents of learning analytics activities. According to Schumacher and Ifentahaler [6] the main expectations of the student users of learning analytics are support for planning and management of studies, support for execution by organizing the learning and studying processes, giving feedback for self-assessment and reflection, suggesting adaptive recommendations for choosing courses, and providing personalized analysis on completed credits. Okkonen et al. [2] point out that Finnish students are reluctant to be compared with their peers, especially without their consent. This seems to reflect the ethics of power as discussed in Slade et al. [7] by the three ethical perspectives. The first one is location and analysis or interpretation of the data. The second is consent, privacy and anonymization of the data. The third is data management, i.e. possession of the data, data classification and storing the data. Okkonen et al. [2] states the considerations on ethics are due to use of learning analytics as the means and platform of teaching, tutoring and supervision as the expectations on gathering data, analyzing the data, using the data and the distribution of the data within course, degree program or institution vary significantly between

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different user groups (cf. [8–10]). The students have privacy issues with their data, especially if they are expected to grant access to any random staff member. There s ambivalence on the topics as they are reluctant on indifferent as they seem to have no clear opinion on the issue. Management, administration and individual teachers point out that learning analytics calls for accessible data for certain processes or even to ad hoc purposes. As an analogy to discussion on data privacy where service providers justify expanding, even escalating, need for more thorough and detailed data on individuals by the more sophisticated services, more accurate information and wide array of data and information related products and services. This is almost opposite to how people with high awareness of privacy seem to address the topic. Especially when analytics is implemented in full extension the privacy issue, or how my data is used, takes new form. As presented in Okkonen et al. [1] roughly 50% of the students were willing to receive benchmarking or other algorithm powered data on their performance. This reflects to finding that university students considered themselves as part of academic community, not raw material, refined for the needs of the society. The policies of utilizing learning analytics are established as there are several directives to restrict the implementation and use of analytics. Also, institution have internal operation procedures communicated to staff. Therefore, the actual practice of learning analytics is externally moderated. As stated in Okkonen et al. [1] it is not that divergent expectations exists, but mostly it is about on what staff, and especially teaching staff, is work on as the resources are limited and mostly learning analytics related chores are considered odd jobs and no specific resources are not allocated to execute those. The issue brought about in Okkonen et al. [1] is that teaching staff has low expectations towards learning analytics as they need mostly up to date contacts to students and course related information. The realistic expectations of teaching staff seem to dilute the high hopes of data driven tutoring and counselling of students. It should be noted that the Finnish university system has so far used very little analytical information in student guidance as implementation of learning analytics or even operation management systems are in early stage and full utilization is yet to come. Okkonen et al. [1] bring about that the students tend to be more positive about a system that they already use and whose logic they are familiar with. Some of the critical attitudes of the respondents to the information produced by the hypothetical system may be explained by its unfamiliarity as the case was for some respondents in Okkonen et al. [1]. This paper aims to elaborate the analysis of ethical considerations on using learning analytics. The ethics is manifested by the expectations and use of learning analytics. The data utilized for this paper consist of expectations on using learning analytics and therefore some interpretation is needed. Based on the open-ended responses extracted from more extensive dataset this paper approaches following research questions: What are the expected uses and ethical considerations on using registry data and How these expectations differ between students and staff. The aim is therefore to elaborate the insights on how using learning analytics is and can be justified in higher education.

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2 Data and Analysis The data of this study has been collected from six Finnish universities during the spring of 2019 and it continues the quantitative analysis presented in Okkonen et al. [1]. The aim for this sequential analysis is to elaborate the results regarding the expectations on learning analytics to perspectives on ethics of learning analytics. The universities are Tampere University, Aalto University, LUT University, University of Turku, University of Eastern Finland and University of Oulu. The inquiry was disseminated through news bulletins of university intranet sites and targeted mailing lists. The purpose was to reach the widest possible range of respondents. The respondents were divided according to the user groups of the analytical data, into groups of students, teachers, teacher tutors, study coordinators and those responsible for education. Each of these groups had their own form to answer, questions targeted to take into account their possible, special needs on utilizing learning analytics. Heads of study affairs, heads on degree programs, deans and vice deans responsible for education were instructed to respond to the survey of those responsible for education. In one of the six universities (University of Oulu), the inquiry was only distributed to a teacher tutor. The way in which a poll was distributed in each university varied, so it is very difficult to estimate the number of respondents to the inquiry and thus the response rate. It is known that there is a total of 77 430 Bachelor’s or Master’s degree students in six universities. We assume that the different ways in which universities distributed the questionnaire has also had a strong impact on the number of respondents. In the analysis and interpretation of the material, it should be noted that the respondents have had experience with the registry systems used at their own university and in their responses, they reflect the experience of that particular system. Total amount of responses were 183 students and 170 staff members. It is also important to notice, that students responded to questionnaire, do not represent the average Finnish university student. According to their answers, 70% of them are about to graduate within 5 years, which is the case only in 20% of university students in Finland. The purpose of the five user surveys was primarily to find out what the different user groups consider to be important goals in utilizing analytical information. The survey was not collected primarily for research purpose, it was mainly to be used in the development of applications and information systems utilizing analytical information. This places limitations on the analysis of the material, for example the questions asked to different user groups are not always comparable. All the questionnaires consisted of both multiple choice and open-ended answer options. Multiple choice answers were directly coded into SPSS which was used for statistical analysis. Open-ended answers were processed by outlining the key topics and creating a variety of categories which would describe responses as well as possible. It is also important to notice that a certain response could include in severe codes. Openended questions were coded because they gave a lot of knowledge to understand more deeply the reasons for different answers. Open-ended answers brought about additional information on the in ethical considerations and utilization of the analytical data in different setting and by different agents. Those two questions were presented exactly in the same way in all the forms so that made the comparison possible. In addition, there

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were also some questions which appeared on some forms. There were 86 responses from the students for question which explored the ethical issues and 81 responses for a question related to how the university should utilize student data. That indicates that more than a third of student respondents answered to these two pure open-ended questions. That indicates that the students had clearly something to say about these issues. As discussed also in Okkonen et al. [1] it was found at the same time that the work of coordinators and teacher tutors, the guidance of studies, often lies at the interface between micro and meso levels, the coordination of teaching and study requirements and the student’s personal curriculum. It can be said that the levels of utilization of analytical data are not so much divisible by the actors, but rather the processes that can be supported by analytical data. Those levels and processes concerning the analytical information is presented table below (Table 1). Table 1. Different agents’ processes concerning the analytical information and levels (cf. Okkonen et al. [1]) Agent

Process, concerning the analytical information Student Studying and planning studies Coordinator/Tutor teacher Councelling, guidance Teacher Planning education

Level Micro Micro Meso

These findings were taken into account in the preparation of the questionnaires. The student’s form focused on particular on ways of utilizing analytical knowledge that could support the student’s planning, guidance and follow-up. The study coordinator and teacher tutor surveys focused on particular on the needs of study guidance and in the teachers’ questionnaire on the information to be used in planning teaching of individual courses. In particular, the survey for those who are responsible for the studies focused on information management issues. To collect unpredictable information the question how the university should use the information collected in the systems was asked in all forms. As stated in Okkonen et al. [1] ethical concerns, especially regarding the private information about the individual student, were strongly raised in the students’ interview. Those interviews were utilized in questionnaire forming. As a result, surveys attempted to identify students’ readiness to allow different user groups to utilize student personal information as well as the need for other user groups to utilize such an information. In addition, an open-ended question asked the respondents about the possible ethical problems associated with the use of analytical information. In the survey the topic was approached from the perspective of “data in university repositories” not using term “learning analytics”. This was conscious decision not to use abstract term that some might understand well, and some might have no reflection on their experience.

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3 Results In this study the ethical concerns found are augmenting those presented in the research setting justification. As discussed already in Okkonen et al. [1] findings are roughly divided here in three categories. Ethical issues can be seen 1) in individual behavior, 2) in policy of institution using learning analytics or 3) in validity and reliability of the data. The ethical considerations are reflected by the results of the study as those the are main justification for the use of learning analytics, successfully implement learning analytics, and executing learning analytics policy in any institution the data is about. The ethical considerations will be presented through the content analysis of data. The ethical considerations were first divided into 11 categories before they were shaped into those three categories, which is a more abstract description of the data. The utilization of any data, i.e. data in university registries, studying platforms, managerial systems etc., was asked in openedend question, “How the university should utilize the registry data?”. There was 81 student responses and 87 staff responses. Table 2 summarizes the responses divided to different groups. There were no significant differences between the students and staff. Most important purpose for using the data was designing and developing the education. The respondents also thought the data should be used for the benefit of the student. It was some somewhat surprising that 12% off staff respondents did not know how to utilize the data. However, the classification of the replies emphasizes the underlying idea of learning analytics activiest serving the studying related processes more than serving just managerial good. Different perspectives to utilizing the data were taking account into by asking about ethical considerations, “What kind of ethical considerations are related to utilizing of the registry data?”, there was 86 student responses and 65 staff responses. The responses on ethical considerations varied more significantly and there were several issues brought up by both students and staff. Table 3 summarizes the findings. Table 2. The purpose of the usage of the registry data Respondent group Student Staff % % For planning and developing the education 57% 52% For the benefit of the student 35% 43% For operational predicting and development the university 15% 16% I don’t know 3% 12% For the financial indicators 0% 3%

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Table 3. Students’ and staff’s ethical considerations related to utilising the registry data Respondent group Student Staff N% N% Transparency in collecting and using data 31% 14% Misusage of data 30% 12% Using sensitive and personal data 28% 19% The access control 22% 8% Data storage and leakage 11% 15% System-level privacy 6% 2% No ethical considerations 4% 14% I don’t know 4% 7% Usage only for the counselling purposes 2% 11% Only anonymous statistic data should be used 1% 6% The ethics of individuals is sufficient 0% 6%

Transparency in collecting and using the data was emphasized by the students and this refers both the role of using the data for the benefit of the students and using the data without hidden agenda. Transparency in this sense in explicitly articulated motivation for gathering, processing and distributing data and information in the organization. The staff acknowledged the issue, yet they did not put as much emphasis on the topic. Case was the same in concerns of misusing the data. Students saw it more possible, that there may be some staff members who do not use the data responsibly. Using sensitive and personal data, i.e. personal data protection and privacy, is the key issue in discussion on ethical and sustainable learning analytics. Respondents pointed out that all private information and especially information connected to individuals should not be distributed or used without their permission. Using sensitive data is also issue of explicit consent as information related to health or social issue are not subject to normal collection of data. Student seem to have no clear recognition on what data is available to whom. In the questionnaire it was also asked, if it was acceptable to pool information from different sources, like previous studies and suchlike. This possibility was highly rejected by students, at the same time as staff members saw it more useful in counselling purposes. One of the critical notions on ethics is access to personal information. The students are more willing to restrict the access, and staff also acknowledge there is possibility to misuse of data. In some universities teaching staff has unrestricted access to all student data even it is not necessary in their work and ethical conduct is only ensured by disclaimer that data is allowed for official use only. The distinction between students and staff is evident, since students see the issue from personal perspective but staff from the work-flow perspective. It is also noted, that students do not always know, what information is registered.

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The issue related to sensitive and personal data is data storage and possible leakage. On the university level data is stored securely and, in most cases, it is used also as intended. However, there are some examples how staff members have leaked data or used it unethically e.g. by browsing personal data without acceptable reason or publishing information on individuals. In this study the issue is acknowledged more often by staff members. Also, system-level privacy is an issue as data is considered to be pseudonymized and without personal credentials to general audience. However, one privacy related issue is that data should be used only for the counselling purposes. This refers to notion that data is used only for explicitly described purposed by explicitly nominated staff members, e.g. those who have connection to respective student. To extreme some respondents state that data should be used only for statistical purpose and individuals should not be studied at all as individuals. The ethics of learning analytics seem to be uncharted domain and some respondents were totally unaware of ethic by stating “I do not know” what ethical considerations are related to learning analytics, or even that there are no ethical issues to consider. Especially the staff members should have put more attention to ethical use of data, but the topic is multifaceted and, in most universities, still without local agenda. On the other hand, the ethics of individuals is considered sufficient, yet obviously not without risks of misconduct. There is a quotation of a student which summarizes many of the students’ concerns: “Students need to know when and for what purposes information is collected about them. Although data is processed anonymously, it should be possible to deny data collection. There must also be a clear definition of who is allowed to process the data and how. For example, teachers in individual courses or university management, should under no circumstances be given free access to individual student information”.

4 Discussion The findings related to ethical considerations seem to underline the issue of private and public. The students seem to be quite sensitive on how personal and private are defined in sense of data collected by universities. However, there seems to be distinction on how they define private and personal in sense on their online presence. On the other hand, the students are quite privacy aware in sense of data that is gathered during their studies. While, even it is was not directly addressed in the survey most of the users of e.g. social media, do not assumingly put much effort on restrictions and privacy as they seem to bother on their data. In studying issues, the distinction to personal is drawn in having a personal relationship with someone, e.g. tutor or counselor. At the same time, this seems to be bound to Finnish university system where students have high rivalry on access, no tuition fees and high degree of freedom. In Finland there is no tradition of using standardized tests to assess students or use those in universities either. Therefore, they do not need to be compared to each other during their studies. This seems to differ much of what is found in the literature. The general ethics of learning analytics seem to be universal. The first ethical principle is to maintain control of the data on individuals as they should have at least

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nominal power on their data and they should be informed how is used. The general sentiment is that they are happy if data is utilized for their benefit, yet not on controlling their actions. This is two-sided topic as any data could be used in controlling subjects. The second ethical principle is privacy as student seem to have clear understanding to whom they are willing to release their information. The managerial, i.e. administrative, perspective is almost opposite but there should be local consensus on ethical conduct. The third principle is data protection as all information should be stored and distributes securely without risk of being leaked or used for other than designated. The qualitative results extracted from the survey augment the operationalized questionnaire and open new vistas on ethical perspectives of learning analytics. There are several limitations to be considered. The purpose of the initial survey was to gather user expectations of various user groups and each set of questions was designed to provide input for development of learning analytics, not to exhaustively and uniformly research ethics of learning analytics. The data presented above serves critical starting point to researching learning analytics in practice. These results open new questions when user experience, especially topics specific experience is assessed. The functionalities of learning analytics service provided by university have impact on planning studies and studying as information provided has designated effect on both student and administration. Future research on ethics should pay attention to how certain features affect both student and staff users.

References 1. Okkonen, J., Helle, T., Lindsten, H.: Expectation differences between students and staff of using learning analytics in Finnish universities. In: Proceedings of ICITS 2020 (2020) 2. Ifenthaler, D., Schumacher, C.: Student perceptions of privacy principles for learning analytics. Educational Technology Research and Development (2016) 3. Arnold, K., Sclater, N.,: Student perceptions of their privacy in learning analytics applications. In: LAK 2017 4. Whitelock-Wainwright et al.: The student expectations on learning analytics ques-tionnaire (2019) 5. Corrin, L., Kennedy, G., French, S., Buckingham Shum S., Kitto, K., Pardo, A., West, D., Mirriahi, N., Colvin, C.: The Ethics of Learning Analytics in Australian Higher Education. A Discussion Paper (2019) 6. Schumacher, C., Ifenthaler, D.: Features students really expect from learning analytics. Comput. Hum. Behav. (2017) 7. Slade, S., Prinsloo, P.: Learning analytics: ethical issues and dilemmas. Am. Behav. Sci. 57 (10), 1510–1529 (2013) 8. Howell, J.A., Roberts, L.D., Seaman, K., Gibson, D.C.: Are we on our way to becoming a ‘‘Helicopter University’’? Academics’ Views Learn. Anal. Tech Know Learn 23, 1 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-017-9329-9 9. Roberts, L.D., Howell, J.A., Seaman, K., Gibson, D.C.: Student attitudes toward learning analytics in higher education: “the fitbit version of the learning world”. Front. Psychol. 7, 1959 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01959 10. Roberts, L., Chang, V., Gibson, D.: Ethical considerations in adopting a university- and system-wide approach to data and learning analytics. In: Kei Daniel, B. (Ed.), Big Data and Learning Analytics in Higher Education, pp. 89–108. Switzerland: Springer (2016a)

The Rise of Communication Design in Portugal: An Overview of the Higher Education Teaching Methodologies Eliana Penedos-Santiago1(&), Nuno Martins2, Susana Barreto1, Heitor Alvelos1, and Cláudia Lima3

2

1 ID+/University of Porto, Porto, Portugal [email protected] Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave / ID+, Barcelos, Portugal 3 ID+/University Lusófona of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Abstract. The present article focuses on the analysis of Communication Design education in Portugal, whose integration date in higher education points to a period of great social and political uncertainties. This study includes an analysis of the faculty, the teaching methods and the evolution of the course for over 40 years. The first course in Communication Design in Porto, dates back to January 1976 at the School of Fine Arts (ESBAP). This study aims to lay the groundwork for a paradigm shift in the recognition, communication and activation of relevant contributions to knowledge, culture and the social fabric that art and design academics can offer in their own name: forms of wisdom that may have not necessarily been reverted or translated into scientific knowledge in their careers and which may thereby find other contexts of resonance and applicability. Keywords: Wisdom Transfer Silver generation


Art & Design
Higher education legacies


1 Introduction The present article focuses on the analysis of Communication Design education in Portugal, whose integration date in higher education points to a period of great social and political uncertainties. This study includes an analysis the faculty, the teaching methods and the evolution of the course for over 40 years. The first course in Communication Design in Portugal, dates back to January 1976 at the School of Fine Arts in Porto (ESBAP). Although we can find records of both from teachers involved in specific subjects of this course and from its attendance by some of our interviewees in the 1970’s, the approval in Diário da Republica1 was only registered in 1983. The design course was part of the Department of Plastic Art and Design (Graphic Art), consisting of a primary three-year period, followed by a special two-year period.

1

Diário da República (DR) is the official government gazette of Portugal. It is published by Imprensa Nacional and includes the publication of Laws, Decree-laws and decisions by the Constitutional Court.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 86–91, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_13

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The design course shared the 1st and 2nd year with painting and sculpture courses, emancipating some of the practical classes from the 3rd year on. The 4th and 5th years focused on specialisation keeping in common only some of the theoretical classes. This study aims to lay the groundwork for a paradigm shift in the recognition, communication and activation of relevant contributions to knowledge, culture and the social fabric that art and design academics can offer in their own name: forms of wisdom that may have not necessarily been reverted or translated into scientific knowledge in their careers and which may thereby find other contexts of resonance and applicability. In the present article, we will begin by presenting the research project, the followed methodologies and an analysis of the conducted interviews followed by the conclusions.

2 Methodology The adopted observation relies on a literature review, namely the consultancy of published monographs and historical records of the Faculty of Fine Arts in Porto, but above all, on the registry and analysis of a set of interviews with six Art and Design academics, leading figures to the ESBAP Communication Design course. A script with open-ended questions was used as an interview tool [1]. The interviews were all filmed, photographed and audio recorded for further review by the researchers, allowing the creation of memory support documents during the research process [2]. At the beginning of each interview, the participants were asked to sign a data protection document allowing us to record images and audio [3]. From a total of 33 interviews we mainly focused on 6 of the interviewees (Table 1), given their direct or indirect contribution to the conception, birth and further rise of the Design course in Portugal. The information collected from these 33 interviews is relevant to this article in the sense that allows us to inscribe the model of an era, whose social and economic political fabric has greatly influenced the conception and development of the design course in Portugal. These artists and designers, among many others who collaborated with them, represent the sense of school of that period and together they cover a timeline over which the course was thought, conceived, implemented and refined. Ana Campos, although graduated in Communication Design/Graphic Art course in 1981, joined the painting/sculpture course at ESBAP before the Carnation Revolution in 1973. After attending the first year she suspended the course attendance and returned to ESBAP in 1976 joining the first course in Design. António Quadros Ferreira, graduated in Painting in 1971 and was a lecturer at ESBAP since 1978, within the Painting and Design department; Armando Alves, graduated in Painting at ESBAP in 1962, is an unquestionable figure in the history of Portuguese design. His work ranges from posters developed for the Magnas and Extra-School Exhibitions as a student to the vast work developed for editorial purposes, especially in collaboration with Editorial Inova.

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Table 1. List of the six interviewees selected from a total of thirty-three interviews that took place between December 2018 and January 2020. Data presented here includes course designation, period as students at ESBAP, period as lecturers ESBAP and interview date.

1981

As lecturers – At Esbap –

Date of interview 27.06.2019

1966

1971

1978–2013

12.04.2019

1957

1962

1962–1967 1969–1973 1973–2002 1977– 1983 —a

05.12.2018

Name

Course

Start

End

Ana Campos

Communication Design/Graphic Arts Painting

1976

Painting

António Quadros Ferreira Armando Alves Domingos Pinho João Machado João Nunes

Pintura 1960 1969 21.01.2020 Sculpture 1963 1968 01.03.2019 Communication 1976 1981 26.02.2019 Design/Graphic Arts a Although we couldn’t find any mention to its period as a monitor of the Photography course (under the responsibility of Calvet de Magalhães) in FBAUP records, it is often mentioned in his available biographies. The date he left this position is unknown.

Domingos Pinho graduated in Painting at ESBAP in 1969. He was one of the founders of Cooperativa Árvore (Árvore – Cooperativa de Atividades Artísticas), in 1963, and, besides his main activity as a painter, he also worked as a graphic artist and illustrator. Teacher at ESBAP, both painting and design courses, João Nunes, a national and international renowned designer, served in the army’s communication department in Angola in the early 1970s, under the Portuguese dictatorship. He joined the first Communication Design/Graphic Art course in 1976. Monitor of the photography course at ESBAP, in 1982, year of graduation [4]; João Machado completed his degree in Sculpture in 1968. Between 1977 and 1983 he lectured at ESBAP within the Communication Design course. He is recognized among the best Portuguese designers, renowned for his extensive collection of posters and illustrations using aerograph and dry pastel techniques; These interviews were conducted during an average of 90 min in their homes or studios. The use of this interview method allowed, through direct contact with these teachers, an in-depth insight into the educational experiences and practices of that period. It should be emphasised that, among these six academics, only two have a degree in Communication Design (Graphic Art), which demonstrates, as may be seen in this article, the relevance of Fine Arts in the methodological foundation of design education in Portugal.

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3 Communication Design in Portugal 3.1

The Origins of Design at the School of Fine Arts – 1962 to 1976

It is fair to say that the first steps towards the integration of graphic arts teaching, in ESBAP, took place in 1962 under the guidance of Armando Alves. In the 1962/63 school year, Armando Alves proposes to school’s director Carlos Ramos an essay on Initiation to Graphic Arts within the discipline of Decorative Painting. This initiative would receive the school’s acceptance at the Magna Exhibition held that year and therefore trace the history of design at ESBAP. For the preparation of the course, Armando Alves had the students’ contribution to the creation of a “text and image database” consisting of clippings extracted from magazines such as Marie Claire and Paris Match. The students brought the magazines, and by means of cuts and collages, these elements were used and reused in the essays for the design of book and disc covers. “Decorative Painting”, would be lately replaced by “Introduction to Graphic Arts” as part of the Painting degree. Along with Armando Alves was Amândio Silva, graduated in Painting in the School of Fine Arts of Porto and an expertise in Tapestry, who, unlike Armando Alves, remained as a faculty member between 1958 and 1993, carrying on the work initiated in the course of painting/sculpture into the Design course. Amândio, although mainly engaged in painting, lectured the Specialized Graphics course since 1977. Domingos Pinho joined the “Introduction to Graphic Arts” course team in 1973. Although graduated in Painting, the artist also worked as a graphic artist while a student at ESBAP, which provided him the necessary tools to take part of this experiments. According to his testimony posters, logos, animation films were tested during this classes years before the founding of the Design course. The artist mentions his personal involvement in the creation of all curricular units that formed part of the course, during the first years of the 1970’s. And finally, once the Carnation Revolution in April 1974 occurred, the actual modification of the curricula, originally from the 1957 reform, was allowed and with it the introduction of these rehearsals, started in 1962, into curricula. However, according to the Portuguese Government, later on, these were still essays for the creation of the course. Domingos Pinho was one of the teachers in the opening year of the course, lecturing Graphic Design, but soon left to focus on the painting course. According to Pinho “for not wanting to contaminate painting with graphic art and for not agreeing with the path that the course took(…) the design course was oriented to the Final Arts. Towards the conclusion of the work. It lacked objectivity and market orientation”.2 When João Nunes, joined ESBAP in 1976, the design course was taking its first steps. Without much equipment, teachers migrating from painting, sculpture and architecture, the artist mentions his unsatisfaction and disappointment when he realised that the presence of design was poor. According to Ana Campos, there was little, or no

2

Interview with Domingos Pinho conducted by the project leader Susana Barreto.

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material at all to practice. “In the stained glass or mosaic classes we drew and listened. It was all theory.”3 The school was going through a period of great turbulence and successive transformations. Different political factions with multiple general assemblies, everything was discussed and questioned: the school, the teaching system, the teachers. 3.2

The Rise of Communication Design as a Course – 1983 to 2009

In the school year of 1980/1981 the design course attaches the designation “Communication” to its name giving rise to the name that perdured until 2009, Communication Design (Graphic Art). However, it was not until January 22nd, 1983, that the approval of both courses, Design (Graphic Art) and Communication Design (Graphic Art) was published and recognised by the Portuguese Government. According to the Decree-Law n.º 80/83 [5] in the school year 1974–1975, the Oporto School of Fine Arts began a series of tests for a new curricular model in the area of Fine Arts and Design, thus seeking to respond to the evolution of the sector and the new demands to which it was being subjected. For reasons that have to do with the search for a proper model, for framing artistic higher education in the higher education system, the formal recognition of the new curricula was repeatedly postponed. Another important moment in the life of the School of Fine Arts and, therefore, of the design course took place in 1991 with the integration of ESBAP in the University of Porto and the subsequent creation of the Faculty of Fine Arts of Porto. This shift has added to the exercise of artistic creation teaching, the exercise of research in and about art. [6] According to António Quadros Ferreira this strategy placed the School in an impasse of definition, or redefinition, of its own identity. The question was: how could the memory of the School be reconciled with the demands of the University? [6]. Many still disagree with the integration of ESBAP in the University of Porto and the resulting creation of the Faculty of Fine Arts of Porto, considering that this reconciliation, pointed out by Antonio Quadros Ferreira, will not be possible due to the lack of a framework for arts and design research in the university context. This absence, according to several of our interviewees, largely compromises the teaching of Arts and Design in the Portuguese scenario. In 2009, the course permanently removes the designation “Graphic Art” from its name [7], paving the way for a more holistic and contemporary vision of design, opening new pathways of applicability and intervention. This denomination remains until today.

3

Interview with Ana Campos conducted by the project leader Susana Barreto.

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4 Conclusion There is a permanent influence of this group of artists and professors in Arts and Design teaching in Portugal. They represent a generation dominated by practice through manual skills, by debates and above all by interpersonal relationships. The research process for the construction of a teaching model was empirical, resulting from the observation, interpretation and transfer of experiences, either active or passive, and directly applied often times as an experiment. The conclusions of this application gave rise to successive adjustments in the practiced methodologies. As in other countries, the origins of the Design course of the School of Fine Arts lie in Fine Arts. The group of teachers involved in the creation of the design course come from the Fine Arts, predominantly Painting, with no place for the feminine contribution during the structuring period. Taking place in a post-revolution period, the creation of the design course coincided with the admission of female teachers in 1976, as a result of the first public tender in 1975. The communion between the different courses, in one same current of thought, is for all our interviewees the genesis of the School of Fine Arts. The evolution of the education system in Portugal, marked by the courses increasing specificity and independence, along with the ESBAP integration in the University of Porto, brought new challenges, namely the preservation of an identity, of a sense of school that flourished in the 1960’s, while preserving the vanguard spirit, following and integrating new lines of thought. Acknowledgments. The research is being developed within the framework of the project “Wisdom Transfer: Towards the scientific inscription of individual legacies in contexts of retirement from art and design higher education and research”, co-financed by Portugal 2020, alongside the European Regional Development Fund and the Foundation for Science and Technology, Portugal (ID+/Unexpected Media Lab: POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029038; 2018– 2020). (http://endlessend.up.pt/wisdomtransfer/the_project.html)

References 1. Quivy, R., Campenhoudt, L.V.: Manual de Investigação em Ciências Sociais. Gradiva, Lisboa (2008) 2. Tinkler, P.: Using Photographs in Social and Historical Research. Sage Publications, London (2013) 3. Banks, M., Zeitlyn, D.: Visual Methods in Social Research. Sage Publications, London (2015) 4. Bártolo, J., Barbosa, H.: Coleção Designers Portugueses: João Nunes. Cardume Editores, Matosinhos. 9, 9–25 (2016) 5. Decree-Law n.º 80/83. https://dre.pt/web/guest/pesquisa/-/search/311005/details/normal?sort= whenSearchable&sortOrder=ASC&q=curso+design+comunica%C3%A7%C3%A3o+arte +grafica 6. Ferreira, A.Q.: O ensino artístico em Portugal, na Academia, na Escola, e na Universidade. Reial Acadèmia Catalana de Belles Arts de Sant Jordi, Barcelona. p. 9 (2015). https://www. racba.org/upload/debates/doc/ca/univ_porto_antonio.pdf 7. Deliberation n.º 2012/2009. https://dre.pt/web/guest/pesquisa/-/search/2512980/details/maxi mized?sort=whenSearchable&q=curso+design+comunica%C3%A7%C3%A3o+faculdade +de+belas+artes+porto&sortOrder=ASC

Educational Deprivation in Latin America: Structural Inequality Beyond Borders Harvey Sánchez-Restrepo(&) and Jorge Louçã Information Sciences, Technologies and Architecture Research Center (ISTAR), ISCTE-IUL, Lisbon 1649-026, Portugal {Harvey_Restrepo,jorge.l}@iscte-iul.pt

Abstract. This is a secondary research that uses the results of a large-scale assessment to those children attending school in sixth grade, coordinated by UNESCO in 15 Latin American countries, for estimating the level of learning achievements in the scientific domain. The quality of the data allows estimating deprivation of learning in each country, offering high-level evidence on the deep lack of equity in educational systems and unveiling the structure of learning inequality through statistical and network analysis. This study offers unique evidences about the inequality gaps in learning outcomes and the incidence of educational deprivation for improving empirical knowledge about the regional interdependence between learning, cultural capital and the socioeconomic status of student’s families. In addition, this contribution provides new tools to the current theoretical framework for assessing the challenges faced by the countries in the region and establishes three milestones in educational research. The first one is to provide a direct method to estimate educational deprivation. The second one is to recognize the structure of inequality through decomposition in regional socioeconomic groups with comparable measures. The third one is estimating learning gaps and their association with the socioeconomic status of students’ families beyond borders. Keywords: Network Analysis
Inequality in Latin America assessments
Educational deprivation
Public policy


Large-Scale

1 Introduction The 193 countries attached to UNESCO promulgated that ‘education is a human right’ that must be guaranteed to all citizens equally [1, 2]. According to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the two pillars of quality in education are learning and equity [3–5]. However, UNICEF estimates that 250 million children who attend school do not develop the minimum level of learning and that more than half of them fail to read, write or perform basic operations [6]. Although the challenge of improving the level of childhood learning is global, in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) it is even greater, since it is the most unequal region in the world [5–7]. In LAC are 72 million children living in poverty, only 6 out of 10 children aged 3 to 4 receive early childhood education [7]. In addition, more than 14 million children and adolescents are outside the education system, 3.6 million of © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 92–98, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_14

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them in the primary stage, and 7.7% are outside of secondary education, while in developed countries it is 2.1% [6]. Although huge investment efforts have been made in recent years, modest improvements in learning achievement have been followed by deep inequalities [8]. For example, children belonging to the richest families are 2.5 times more likely of attending the school that those of the poorest families [6], and the majority of students with low levels of achievement come from poor families living in precarious conditions at home, deep food deficiencies and little or no access to health and employment systems [7], which has provoked discontent, and even protests against different governments that have increased the fragility and instability of educational systems [8, 9]. In order to strengthen their public policies, most LAC countries are members of the UNESCO’s Latin American Laboratory for Educational Quality Assessment (LLECE) and had participated in the Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study (ERCE), a large-scale evaluation (LSA) to collect valid and reliable data on educational outcomes and a large number of Factors associated with learning (FAL) [10]. The main objective of this program is to create evidence and detect those variables driving or conditioning educational results for developing policies, programs and strategies focused on closing gaps between poor and rich students in all countries and across the region.

2 Materials and Methods Data Sources. The TERCE database was produced with high quality standards in all its stages of sample design, data collection, processing and statistical estimates, so they are useful and sufficiently robust to estimate and compare educational deprivation in those 15 LAC countries, as well as its relationship with the student’s Socioeconomic Status (SES) and other relevant social determinants. The dataset is multivariate and has a relational structure that links the learning outcomes of the students —represented by a score and grouped into four levels of achievement— with a unique ID for the dimensions of the explicit and implicit strata, FALs and the SES segmented by the cut-off points for the regional deciles fDk gk ¼ 1; . . .; 10, which might be join to the estimated
 ability h j and the plausible values PVkj ðh j Þ k ¼ 1; . . .; 5 under the matrix of the LSA. For estimating the deprivation of learning, model developed by Bracho [10] was
 used for creating a new representation of the set h j . From the percentage of students ! was estimated, where i refers to the i-th decile and k to in each stratum, the vector x Di;k the k-th country. In this way, the selected the subset L0 of those students below the first level of achievement as students deprived of learning —who did not reach the minimum expected learning.   From the above, the rate of learning deprivation is given by H Ckj ¼   P     n Ckj ; L0 = n Ckj ; Lj , where n Ckj ; Lj represents the cardinality of the group Ckj at j   the achievement level Lj . The Intensity of learning deprivation kj Ckj ; h j is estimated by distance to reach the first level of achievement LII . Thus, the Deprivation of     Learning Index (DLI) is given by j Ckj ; h j ¼ Hkj
kj Ckj ; h j [11]. Statistical analysis was made with Julia 1.3.0 and Orange 3.3.8, while Network Analysis was implemented in Gephi 0.9.2.

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3 Structural Inequality in Learning Deprivation According to Royce [12], structural inequality is ‘a situation in which a group of people recognizes a state of inequality in relation to other groups’, which is perpetuated and reinforced by a confluence of unequal relationships in roles, functions, decisions, rights and opportunities [13]. In Latin America, barriers to schooling and the unequal offer of educational services to groups of population according to the postcode constitute the first sources of structural inequality determined by SES, which is expressed with different magnitudes in each country [14]. In poor areas, the lack of education enrolment is often accompanied by low quality services that prevent students from developing minimum learning. In this way, children who, despite their marginalization conditions, gain access to school in the early years, begin a ladder in which the school system helps very little to reverse the disadvantages in opportunities for prosperity [15], limiting the richness of the school experience to a certification process with insignificant learning, a very unlikely scenario for improving welfare and having access a better life, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The bar chart shows the proportion of students in each socioeconomic decile with regional cut-off point. The scatter plot shows the relationship between SES and H at country level.

As can be seen, 36 out of every 100 children in LAC do not develop minimum scientific learning at the end of basic education. Despite this high rate, the variability and the gap between countries is huge, for example, in Dominican Republic HDOM ¼ 0:631 and in Paraguay HPAR ¼ 0:546 while in Chile and Costa Rica it is HCHI ¼ 0:189 and HCRI ¼ 0:166, respectively. In addition, the correlation between SES and H es qSES;H ¼ 0:653 (p < 0.001), which indicates a degree of relevant association between both dimensions of precariousness. So, countries with lower SES are also those that exhibit higher rates of deprivation, with the exception of Panama, which despite having a socioeconomic level close to the Latin American average and higher than Ecuador or Peru, exhibits similar deprivation rates to Honduras and Guatemala.

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To understand the socioeconomic structure of the distribution of L0 , a directed
 weighted network was designed CKj ! fDk g 8j-students as edges, k-countries as source-nodes and deciles as sink-nodes. The weight of each edge eij is the normalized value of kð
Þ, so this arrangement allows you to find class properties and find four groups of Learning Deprivation: Generalized, recurring, Incipient and Controlled. After iteration process, the In-degree parameters of the nodes give the estimates for the level of connectiveness of each node fHDk gk ¼ 1; . . .; 10, that might be understood as how far from the equilibrium is each SES group, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. The network shows the level of deprivation of learning in each country based on the distribution and degree of connectivity of its student’s population in L0 , splatted by deciles.

As can be seen, the H function decreases monotonously as the SES increases. While 63 of each 100 poor students do not learn the minimum, in rich families the rate is 10 per 100, which indicates the gap between D01 and D10 (HD01 ¼ 0:631 and HD10 ¼ 0:099). Despite the dramatic difference between the deciles, the gap deepens much more between the countries in the region. For example, among the richest students in Mexico ðD10 MEX Þ, 5 out of 100 students are in L0 , while in the group of the poorest in the Dominican Republic ðD01 DOM Þ, 86 of 100 are located in the same group. Furthermore, the level of deprivation in both groups is very different:  D10   D01  k CMEX ¼ 0:08 and k CDOM ¼ 0:22, which means that the effort of the first group to reach LII would be only a third of the second for guarantying the right to education to the whole group of students, given that the Mexican group is much closer to the minimum threshold than the Dominican one, as can be seen in Fig. 3. As mentioned before, not only family SES determines the levels of learning, but also the social and cultural context of the countries has a significant impact on learning opportunities. Figure 3 shows that deprivation has two sources of variability: 1) intragroup—within the deciles—with a gap of 46.6% in decile 1 that decreases progressively to 22.4% and 2) intergroup, which presents a gap of 46.5% between countries.

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Fig. 3. The scatter plot shows DLI estimates for the deciles of all countries. The Box-andwhisker Plot shows intra-group and inter-group variance showing the distances to the equilibrium point.

As can be seen, the SES gap goes beyond geographical barriers: students from middle-class families in the poorest countries develop equivalent learning to students with the lowest SES in more privileged countries, which can be interpreted as a positive externality of living in a higher-level economy. For example, the incidence of deprivation in students in deciles D06, D07 and D08 of the Dominican Republic, Paraguay and Argentina corresponds to that of students in decile D01 of Chile, Uruguay and Costa Rica.

Fig. 4. The scatter plot shows the relationship between xDk and H function for D01 (squares) and D10 (circles) for each country. The bars on the right indicate the ratio DRD01 =DRD10 .

As can be seen in Fig. 4, the regression line of students in D01 shows a homogeneous increase on rates in all countries qSES;H ¼ 0:9839 (p < 0.001). The slope of 1.4162 implies an average increment the region of 41.62% for poor students in the group L0;D01 with respect to their initial weight xD01 . On the other hand, the D10 regression line is also quite homogeneous qSES;H ¼ 0:954 (p < 0.001), but its slope of

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0.3927 implies that the percentage of rich students with deprivation is reduced above 60% of the initial weight. Obviously, this lack of capacity for providing to all students with the same learning varies widely among countries, but in all countries, variations are far away from the equity situation represented by the equilibrium line, as well as the intensity of inequality between rich and poor students. In this sense, Mexico shows the highest gap: the total percentage of students in deciles 1 and 10 is xD01 ¼ 6:9% and xD10 ¼ 14:5%, but there is an incidence of HD01 ¼ 0:535 and HD10 ¼ 0:046, which gives 11.6 poor students for each rich in L0 and a deprivation ratio of rðD01=D10Þ ¼ D01 =D10 ¼ 23:5. On the contrary, Ecuador has xD01 ¼ 6:7%, xD10 ¼ 4:3%, HD01 ¼ 0:109 and HD10 ¼ 0:016, with a ratio HD01 =HD10 ¼ 4:4 and rðD01=D10Þ ¼ 10:6, a still dramatic learning deprivation gap, but only half of the deep challenge that Mexico must face.

4 Discussion Latin American countries share many aspects of their economic, social and cultural reality, which is also reflected in the deep inequality of opportunities offered by their educational systems and the low learning outcomes obtained by their students, mainly those from poorest families. Although this problem is common to all the countries in the region, there are observed significant differences related with the sociodemographic composition of their school population, a phenomenon that is particularly reflected in the distribution of the students in their educational systems [16]. Historically, most measures of learning achievement have been used to contrast scores as the final goal of the system, rather than reaching the minimum level to guarantee the right to education. In this research, clear and conclusive evidences are offered on the deep lack of equity between different socioeconomic classes, a phenomenon present in all countries [13]. This point is crucial because the social deception of accessing education without learning guarantees translates later into a convergence in precarious levels, similar to those children outside of the school system, which creates circles of poverty increasing structural inequality [16]. This research also provides evidence on the deep lack of equity in LAC countries and their relationship with social determinants for synthesizing the complex structure of inequality in learning outcomes as a consequence of socio-economic and cultural inequality, estimating the capacity of educational systems to bridge the gaps [10]. So, with this analysis, three milestones in educational research are established using the best data available for 15 Latin American countries. The first is to provide a direct method to estimate educational deprivation. The second is to recognize the structure of inequality through the decomposition into regional socio-economic groups with comparable measures. The latter focuses on estimating learning gaps and their association with the socioeconomic status of students’ families beyond borders. This study contributes significantly to integrating thinking tools into current theoretical frameworks and finding non-trivial relationships and to estimate the magnitude of the correlation between social conditions and educational deprivation in historically

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marginalized population groups. Given the multiple evidences on the adverse effects derived from the lack of quality of school processes in LAC, equity should be at the core of educational policies. In this sense, the information shown might be helpful to policymakers for creating better strategies while developing inclusive and equitable education for all.

References 1. Desa, U.N.: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2018. UN, New York (2018) 2. UN (2015), Incheon Declaration. Education 2030: Towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all. In: World Education Forum, pp. 19–22 3. OECD: Equity in Education: Breaking Down Barriers to Social Mobility. PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris (2018) 4. UNICEF, et al.: The investment case for education and equity. Unicef (2015) 5. Sánchez-Restrepo, H.: Equity: the focal point of educational quality. National Educational Evaluation Policy Gazette in Mexico, Year 4, no. 10, pp. 42–44 (2018) 6. Keeley, B., Little, C.: The State of the World’s Children 2017: Children in a Digital World. UNICEF. 3 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 (2017) 7. Salazar, M.C., Glasinovich, W.A. (ed.) Child work and education: Five case studies from Latin America. Routledge (2018) 8. Samman, E.: SDG progress: fragility, crisis and leaving no one behind report (2018) 9. Tracey, B., Florian, K. (eds.): Educational Research and Innovation Governing Education in a Complex World. OECD Publishing, Paris (2016) 10. Laboratorio Latinoamericano de Evaluación de la Calidad de la Educación – LLECE (2018). Agenda 2018. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/santiago/press-room/newsletters/newsletterlaboratory-for-assesSSent-of-the-quality-of-education-llece/ 11. Bracho, T,: Índice de déficit en competencias “Avanzamos hacia la garantía del derecho a la educación” en Reformas y Políticas Educativas; No. 4, septiembre-diciembre 2017, FCE, México (2017) 12. Sánchez-Restrepo, H., Louçã, J.: Topological properties of inequality and deprivation in an educational system: unveiling the key-drivers through complex network analysis. In: International Conference on Human Systems Engineering and Design: Future Trends and Applications, pp. 469–475. Springer, Cham, September 2019 13. Royce, E.C.: Poverty and Power: The Problem of Structural Inequality (2009) 14. Dani, A.A., Arjan De, H., (eds.): Inclusive States: Social Policy and Structural Inequalities. World Bank, Washington (2008). 3 15. Willms, J.D.: Educational Prosperity: An assessment strategy for supporting student learning in low-income countries. Learning at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Science, Measurement and Policy in Low-Income Countries, UNESCO-IIEP, Paris (2018) 16. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield: Combating Poverty and Inequality: Structural Change, Social Policy. Report no. 978–92-9085-076-2. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. Web. 3 Nov. 2011 (2010)

Research on the Reform of Higher Engineering Education from the Perspective of Smart Service Management—Based on the Program Comparison Between USA’s MIT and China’s Tianjin University Wenjuan Zhang, Xinyan Zhang, and Ying Yu(&) College of Mechanical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China {zhangwenjuan,alicezxy,cdhawyy}@tongji.edu.cn

Abstract. The new round of industrial revolution, marked by highly digitalized, networked and self-organized production, has brought great challenges to engineering education. Higher engineering education of the future will be student- centered, digital platform-based, can provide students personalized education services. Many countries and regions in the world, including China and the United States, have started a new round of engineering education reform. This paper tries to make a systematic reform plan comparison between USA’S MIT and China’s Tianjin university. Furthermore, from the perspective of “education as a service”, this article shares the elaboration and suggestions on the training mode of future engineering talents, curriculum design, teacher’s role and students’ learning ability. Keywords: Project thread


Curricular unit
Smart service

1 Introduction Massachusetts Institute of Technology (hereafter named MIT) has carried out three world-renowned education reforms in its history, leading the transformation of the global engineering education paradigm from technological to scientific and to engineering practical. This also guarantees MIT maintain a very high reputation in the worldwide field of higher engineering education. In August 2017, MIT officially released New Engineering Education Transformation (2017–2020) plan (hereafter named NEET), expected to lead the development of higher Engineering Education around the world. Since Chinese Ministry of Education launched new engineering construction plan in 2017, extensive research and practical exploration has been carried out. In April 2019, Tianjin university, as the leading university of new engineering construction plan in China, released its “new engineering construction plan” (hereafter named as “Tianda Plan”), representing the newest practice of the new engineering education reform in China.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 99–105, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_15

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The reform in MIT has a high reference value to the reform in other countries. Its NEET program is similar to Tianda Plan in China. Systematic analysis of these two programs can provide some useful references for the further development of China’s engineering education reform.

2 MIT’s NEET Program After a systematic survey of contemporary engineering education situation, MIT pointed out that higher engineering education should meet social requirements of the next 20 or 30 years and return to the essential paradigm of “educating people”. The reform emphasize the importance of engineering practice, and education should be student-centered to be ready for future’s new machines and new engineering systems. NEET pays more attention to arouse students’ learning interests, to teach them the best way to learn, and to show them the very useful learning contents. Thus help them grow up to be the humanistic engineering talents with not only instrumental rationality but value rationality [1]. “Project” is at the heart of NEET’s curriculum system (see Fig. 1). Project is themebased and in the first phase it may be an individual project, at professional or technical level, come from a single course, then in the next step, it may involve plan, operation, sales, finance and so on. Different projects connect and cooperate with each other. Accordingly, the related courses join in to complete project.

Fig. 1. NEET program: a project-centric curricular construct [2]

The “threads” in NEET program generally span more than two departments or disciplines. Students can choose different “thread”, which means they will learn different courses and projects, thus form their different learning trajectories and knowledge structures. To achieve this, MIT set up an interdisciplinary task force, an implementation group and some specific institutions to formulate selection standards, academic standards and operating standards. The selection of project especially emphasizes to meet the industrial demand in the future of 2040s and 50s, hoping to cultivate student’ engineering ability and creativity with practical activities.

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3 New Engineering Construction Plan of Tianjin University In recent years, many universities in China have gradually founded certain crossdisciplinary education mode through continuous practice [3]. However, the research and successful experience at the practical level is still scarce. In April 2019, Tianjin university became the first one to issue a Construction plan. In “Tianda Plan”, the core of the curriculum system is “curricular unit”, which consists of several projects and courses. Projects are either from individual course, or from several ones. In the implementation level, the “curricular unit” was equipped with comprehensive curriculum, teaching material and teaching mode. In September 2019, the first program named “future intelligent machines and system platform” opened to the freshman, it was a collaboration platform with the advantage resources from several schools in Tianjin university, such as school of mechanical engineering, school of automation, intelligence and computing department, etc. The platform also got the support from some well-known enterprises such as Huawei company etc. Tianjin university invited professors with diverse academic background to redesigns courses according to social demands. The related textbooks are editing now and will gradually move away from traditional paper books [4]. For the physical environment of teaching, they will apply more multimedia technology and auxiliary equipments, the combination of MOOC-based online teaching and offline teaching is encouraged. The proportion of teaching hours to self-study or discussion hours is about 1:5. More and often students are divided into several groups, and one class is equipped with no less than two teachers.

4 Comparison Between Tianda Plan and NEET Program As shown in Table 1, the education reform programs from MIT and Tianda are compared in terms of concept, core contents and mechanism etc.

Table 1. Comparison between Tianda plan and NEET program Object

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Tianjin University, China

Philosophy Education people Core feature Project thread Participant Sophomore in school of engineering

Education people Curricular unit Freshmen from all schools in university except several majors Mechanism Working group, course advisor, tutor University-level platform, school-level platform, from both MIT and enterprises tutor group from both university and enterprises System A degree of a major + a certificate in a A degree of a Major + a degree in minor NEET thread Startup time In August 2017 In September 2019 Initiated Autonomous machines thread, living Future intelligent machine and system platform project machines thread Future Advanced materials machines thread, Future health and medical platform, future smart project low carbon energy systems thread chemical and green energy platform

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From above, we find out the two programs share a highly convergent concept of reform which believes in “people are the core of engineering education”. Except that, their implementation mechanism and main contents are also very similar. Although many excellent engineering universities in China have set up operating mechanism for inter-department teaching, the structural relationship within curriculum system and the usage of advanced teaching methods need to be furtherly deepened. It’s worthy and very helpful for China to study and analyze the methods and roadmap adopted by MIT in their implementation of NEET. 4.1

NEET: Future Teaching Is the Combination of “Push and Pull”

Essentially, NEET plan is a kind of Project-Based Learning (PBL) method, which is consistent with the other popular learning methods, such as Immersive Learning, Factory-Style Learning and Work-Based Learning. According to this program, “project thread” will change traditional teaching from duck-stuffing, professional-based and discipline-based teaching to a collaborative process of “pushing” and “pulling”. On the one hand, students involved can choose learning contents, can decide optional courses, projects, project mentors and team members etc. and can also choose personalized learning methods, which means students can choose the way of knowledge acquisition in line with their own cognitive habits. On the other hand, the possibility of students’ choice is still limited. When accepted by a thread, the projects, the compulsory courses, the role and function of project supervisors, and the assessment standards of student are fixed. Schools and teachers are still in a dominant position and play a leading role to build students’ ability and their knowledge systems. The whole process is the balance of givers pulling and acceptors pushing and needs the good cooperation between the both sides. Obviously, reformers believe in “education as a service” when they organize, plan and implement the curriculum system in NEET program. 4.2

NEET: Emphasis on Cultivating Students’ Autonomous Learning Ability

As one of NEET’s four basic principles, “build our education at the way our students can learn best” highlights MIT’s emphasis on students’ learning abilities building. Every student has his own study footprint which decided by personality, hobbies and different cognitive styles. The student-centered education must follow this common rule. And future educators are responsible to help student build a lifelong learning habit and learning ability (especially self-study ability and thinking ability) by using more heuristic. As shown in Fig. 1, after entering NEET program, in order to fulfil the project. sophomore will use self-study, digital learning and individual coaching, So the purpose of NEET program is to achieve personalized, modular “manufacturing”, graduates are no longer standardized “products”.

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5 Suggestions on the Future Engineering Education Model from the Perspective of Smart Service 5.1

Future Engineering Education Is Smart Service Based on Data and Platform

Education was once considered the slowest application of new technologies. But now great changes have emerged in training methods, tools and environments. It is believed that education will eventually develop into an open and collaborative smart education system, where personnel, processes, services, objects, technology and software are integrated together to offer users personalized, ubiquitous and lifetime education service. Smart education is a kind of smart service, which is driven by data and techniques, can be fundamentally preemptive. Its realization is based on machine intelligence, and usually through an integrated platform [5, 6]. The future of education is an interaction and collaboration of physical environment and digital environment. An ecological system of data will be built up jointly among students, teachers and teaching environment. Thus the real-time data of teaching and learning can be collected and analyzed and give instant feedback to the follow-up teaching accordingly. The relationship between teachers and students will change radically from passive to collaborative. 5.2

Service Design Thinking Should Be Introduced into Curriculum Design

From a systematic view, engineering education system includes cultivation mode, specialty setting, teaching mode, curriculum system, teaching management, education evaluation and so on. This is a complex data ecosystem, which needs to be designed and maintained with scientific methods and systematic thinking to ensure effective operation. In recent years, people-oriented service design thinking has been regarded as important methodology and tools to improve service quality in western countries. When dealing with a series of complex and uncertain problems such as the sustainable development, social welfare, education, environment, this thinking has played an increasingly important role. If the service design thinking is applied to the design of curriculum system in engineering education, it will be beneficial for building trust between the service provider (teachers, school) and service demanders (students, family). By proposing the problem visually, digitally and systematically, either the interaction of teaching and learning or personalized learning will be realized effectively. 5.3

Teacher Need Change Roles and Improve Ability

The education reform at MIT focuses on developing students’ thinking ability to cope with future technological advances and job challenges [7]. These challenges teachers knowledge structure, teaching methods and ability elements. Teachers are required to change from the “expert” role of traditional infusing teaching to “gardener” roles of listening and guiding. And teachers should not only be professional at courses they are teaching, but also be able to guide the upstream and downstream knowledge

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requirements generated by the “pull” of projects. In terms of teaching methods, teachers are required to adopt more heuristics and immersive methods, guide students to realize’ “self-education”. In doing this, the role of teachers is transformed into “coach”. In the future, education enabled by “artificial intelligence” will be a general trend, which will revolute teaching tools, learning methods, knowledge acquisition and teacher training [8]. In this scenario, the future teaching may convert to “research”. Educators need explore the usage of such new technologies, strengthen high-tech hard skills to supervise and guide the intelligent machines, and possess soft skills necessary for new technologies such as open state of mind. 5.4

Student Should Strengthen Learning Ability

Learning ability is the ability converting knowledge resources into knowledge competitive power. It contains three elements: motivation, perseverance and ability, which respectively reflect learners’ goal, learners’ will, and learners’ application of knowledge. Through scientific design and guidance, learning ability can be improved dynamically. MIT believes that current engineering education, which emphasizes students’ knowledge acquisition and cognitive training, needs to be adjusted. In the future, the industry will pay more attention to engineering talents’ learning and thinking ability. By guiding students to find their learning interest, learning style and learning content, can strengthen their engineering thinking, scientific thinking and humanistic thinking, Thus students’ ability to solve unknown and complex problems can be effectively improved. NEET focus on “how students learn” and “what they learn”, which highlights the humanistic and systematic view of “education” [9]. Humanistic theory is the typical representative of Maslow and Rogers, this theory claims that education should center on students, emphasize learning autonomy and innovation, focus on “making the education receivers develop their personality, strengthen their exploration spirit and creative ability, improve their personal value” [10].

6 Conclusion In order to find out the development trend of engineering education around the world, Professor Edward Crawley, co-leader of the NEET program, conducted interviews with 178 world-renowned engineering educators and published a 170-page report on “global best practices in engineering education” in 2018 [11]. The report pointed out that the engineering education for undergraduates presents the following features: put student in the center, help student involve in classroom activity more actively, implement new teaching models such as worked-based learning or factory learning, especially more project-based learning. Additionally, students’ online learning and hybrid learning ability are increasing fast with more and more digital technology has being applied. Both the engineering education reform in the United States represented by MIT and that in China represented by Tianjin university are supported by the above research

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report. It also reinforces our belief that the best kind of education is one that enables students, with the right partners and right teachers. to learn proactively according to their needs, in the right way, and in the right environment.

References 1. Xiao, F., Qin, L.: Research on the formation, content and internal logic of new engineering education reform at MIT. Res. High. Educ. Eng. 2, 45–50 (2018) 2. Crawley, E.F., Hosoi, A.“P”., Mitra, A.“B”.: Redesigning undergraduate engineering education at MIT – the New Engineering Education Transformation (NEET) initiative. In: 2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Salt Lake City (2018). Press 3. Zhang, H.: The practice exploration and classification development of “emerging engineering” construction in the colleges and universities of China. Chongqing High. Educ. Res. 6, 41–55 (2018) 4. Future intelligent machines and system platform accepted its first users. http://jxyt.njit.edu. cn/info/1074/1304.htm 5. Junginger, S.: Service design drives management of public affair and organization innovation 6. Allmendinger, G., Lombreglia, R.: Four strategies for the age of smart services. Harv. Bus. Rev. 83(10), 131 (2005) 7. Smart Service Welt Group, acatech (eds.): Smart service welt-recommendations for the strategic initiative web-based services for business. Research report (2015) 8. How can artificial intelligence enhance education? https://en.unesco.org/news/how-canartificial-intelligence-enhance-education 9. New Engineering Education Transformation. http://neet.mit.edu 10. Edgar, F.: Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow. SH Translation Publishing House, Shang Hai (1979) 11. Graham, R.: The global state of the art in engineering education. Research report (2018)

Matrix for the Planification from the Formative and Scientific Investigation that Helps the Teaching-Learning Process César Enríquez(&), Georgina Arcos, and Cintia Chugá Universidad Politécnica Estatal del Carchi, Tulcán, Ecuador {cesar.enriquez,georgina.arcos, cintia.chuga}@upec.edu.ec

Abstract. The purpose of this research was to develop a matrix that helps in the planning of formative scientific research, which facilitates the teaching-learning process. The result is a matrix that integrates all the elements of the research plan scheme managed by the State Polytechnic University of Carchi. The main results were: a) a matrix as a teaching resource for the teaching-learning process of formative scientific research. b) improves the median of the grades of the students of the Research Methodology discipline of the Tourism career in 2015, 2016 and 2017 in relation to the students who studied with the traditional teaching methodology. Observable in the chart of boxes and mustaches. And, c) applying the Z test of means in R, it is evident that there is a difference between the means of the two methodologies. Keywords: Epistemology
Scientific investigation methodology
Teaching-learning process
Matrix


Investigation

1 Introduction The educational research was born, as a discipline, at the end of the XIX century, when the concepts as scientific knowledge, science, and the scientific method, begins to be related and applied to the educational field [1]. On the other hand, the problems that the career searchers face is the search methodology. Which is better, the qualitative, quantitative or mixed methodology? [2]. In the same way, the neophyte researcher, as well as the career student, are overwhelmed by the complexity presented by the investigation methods. The situation that the student goes through, during the realization of the degree work in the Carchi State Polytechnic University [3]. • To understand the educational labor is necessary to take into consideration three elements: The teachers and their way of teaching; the structure of the knowledge that conforms to the curriculum and the social framework in which the educational process is developed. Understand the social framework in which the process is produced, the nature of learning in the classroom and the factors that influence it, constitute the principles for teachers to discover, by themselves, teaching methods that are more effective [4]. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 106–111, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_16

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• Once identified the question of investigation, an investigation strategy and an appropriate methodology must be selected for the recompilation of information that can clarify the problem [5]. • In his work investigation methodology in strategy and management, some chapters are oriented to the discussion of the strategies and how the investigative management was made. [6] the investigative process is composed of three phases: the planning or Project phase, the execution or development phase and the phase of information and communication. Maybe, the phase that presents more difficulty is the project or planning phase, because the problem of the investigation is still not determined [7]. This is originated from a palpable reality, that is into context and that the searcher observes as a problematic situation with possibilities of been solved. To been benefited from this phase a matrix for the investigative process is proposed, in a way that an investigative competition can be generated [8]. • The Project is a document that has as objective the presentation and detailed description of what will be investigated, the basic conceptual theory, the methodologic components and the necessary resources for the investigation [9]. • Generally, the Institutions of Superior education presents blueprints, projects, the execution or development and finally the communication, or the report, as part of the curricular structure of the Institution. To formulate the pedagogical propose of the teaching-learning process, [10] and [11] were considered as the starting point. Hence, the objective of this investigation is to demonstrate how the matrix for the planning of the formative scientific investigation helps to the teaching-learning process. As requested by the government in its plan A Lifetime in its fifth objective.

2 Materials and Methods For the validation of the proposed methodology, two classes, in the years 2015, 2016 and 2017, were analyzed. Where one class applied the traditional methodology, a methodology that explains each one of the elements of the investigation plan in a separate way and the other class applied the methodology of the proposed matrix in the investigation Table 1. Table 1. Matrix for the planning of the formative investigation. The problem

Theoretical framework

Methodological framework

Administrative framework Elements: Resources Schedule of activities

Elements: Elements: Elements: Problem statement Investigative antecedents Research approach Research scope Formulation of the Theoretical foundation Population and sample Definition of technical problem Technics and instruments for Justification of the terms Hypothesis (depends on the recollection of data problem Technics for the process and the case) Objectives analysis of data Variables Delimitation Note - Adapted from a methodology for the teaching of the formative investigation in superior education [11].

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In each one of the methodologies, the same instruments for the reception of the written evaluations were used, either formative or summative. To demonstrate that the matrix for the planning of the formative scientific investigation is a didactic and pedagogic resource, the mean grade of each student in the class of methodology of investigation, was considered. To identify significant differences between the means and variances of the methods, the box and whisker plot was used; for the test of the hypothesis the score Z in R was used, both, for the difference of means and for the difference of variances.

3 Statistic and Graphic Analysis 3.1

Graphic Analysis

To identify significant differences between the means and the variances of the methods, a box plot is presented in Fig. 1.

Traditional Methodology

Matrix Methodology

Fig. 1. Box plot referent to the analysis of means between the traditional and the matrix methodology.

3.2

Statistical Analysis

(See Table 2).

Table 2. Z test.

Interest parameter Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Significance

Z test for the difference between means l1 l2

Z test for the difference between variances

H0 ¼ l1  l2

H0 : r21 ¼ r22

H1 ¼ l1 \l2

H1 : r21 6¼ r22

/ ¼ 0:05

a ¼ 0:05

r21  r22

(continued)

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Table 2. (continued)

Test statistic

Z test for the difference between means

Z test for the difference between variances

x2 Þ  ðl1 l2 Þ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Z ¼ ðx1q 2 2

f0 ¼ s12

s

1 n1

Results obtained with: Decision rule

s

þ n2

s2 2

2

n1 ¼ 60, n2 ¼ 50 x1 ¼ 6:33; x2 ¼ 7:20 s21 ¼ 1:03; s22 ¼ 0:99 Ho is rejected

With: n1 ¼ 60, n2 ¼ 55, s21 ¼ 1:03; s22 ¼ 0:99, The result is: f0 ¼ 1:04 H0 is rejected if: f0 \f1/2 ;n1 1;n2 1  f0 [ f/2 ;n1 1;n2 1 f0 \f0:975;59;54  f0 [ f0:025;59;54 1:04\0:59  1:04 [ 1:69 pValue ¼ 0:88 There is not enough evidence to reject Ho. The dispersion is similar

4 Results and Discussion The matrix for the planning of the formative scientific investigation is a tool that helps to the teaching-learning process, contains four major fields, each one of them is referent to the chapters of the investigation project [12]. Each field is structured with different aspects that are part of the investigative task. Other authors consider the instruments of the bibliographic and analytical context matrix as a tool of great research utility. In this way, the matrixes constitute didactic strategies for the teaching-learning processes [13]. In this same sense of ideas Ceron, in his book Methodologies from the social investigation says, “I worked with a didactic scheme, that, as every scheme reduces and as every didactic obvious aporia to knowledge. A didactic scheme that pretends to establish logic criteria that possibilities the organization of available investigative practices…” Therefore, the use of matrixes for the investigative process is not new. This work develops only one matrix for the whole process, unlike other authors that develop different matrixes aspects [14]. The problematic dialogic matrix, presented by the authors in the Brazilian symposium of computer science in education, manifested that: The matrix allows the creation of a systematic structure that involves the teacher, the student, the subject of study and context, favoring the test and the discussion of the thematic preoccupation. The investigative formation is an experience that is reached from the pluralism of cognitive experiences, from interests and necessities. In effect, the diverse knowledge is reached in multiple ways and what this work proposes, is a matrix as a didactic strategy that allows getting all the basic elements of the investigative process in only one document with coherence [15].

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The student is overwhelmed by the complexity that the investigative methodology presents.[3]; Katchen and Bergh have discussed strategies and tools that the searchers used in their work [6]. In the same sense the procedure to realize the investigation is described, specifically trough explanatory schemes for the review of the literature only [16]. Mintzberg explains about the sequence of steps in an investigation. In all the cases there is no a matrix used as a didactic resource that makes accessible the indispensable pieces of knowledge to begin the investigation process in a fundamental way in the most simple way, showing that the format of a matrix is easier to interpret than a text that is deep and hard to understand [17].

5 Conclusions 1. The application of the tests gave results that there is a difference between the means. The best mean was obtained from the matrix (7.210) vs the mean of the traditional methodology (6.970). 2. The Z test for the mean ob both methods shows better results for the method of the matrix compared with the traditional methodology. While with Z for the difference of variances shows that the dispersion between the methods is similar, showing an insignificative difference. 3. The matrix is a didactic resource for the teaching-learning process of the formative investigation that makes accessible the basic and indispensable knowledge needed to begin the investigation process in a fundamental way but in the simplest possible form, that is why is recommended to implement the matrix process, and not the one based in a text that is deep and hard to understand. 4. Reviewing some searchers the use of matrixes for certain investigative processes is observed. This investigation unified some matrixes to present a single one and be able to demonstrate the coherence between its elements. Now, as the investigation was realized in an Ecuadorian university, the application of the methodology in other Ecuadorian and South American Universities is suggested, to be able to validate the proposed methodology in this article. 5. This article demonstrates our posture in a determined moment, not the conclusions of our ideas, is a work in progress, that continues evolving in the continuing framework for colleagues and students that operates inside the fascinating world of investigation.

References 1. Rodriguez, D., Valldeoriola, J.: Metodología de la investigación. México, UOC (2002) 2. Mackenzie, N., Knipe, S.: Dilemas de investigación: paradigmas, métodos y metodología. Problemas en la investigación educativa 16(2), 193–205 (2006) 3. Ellis, T.J., Levy, Y.: Hacia una guía para investigadores novatos sobre metodología de investigación: revisión y métodos propuestos. Problemas en la ciencia de la información y la tecnología de la información, p. 6 (2009) 4. Ausubel, D.: Fascículos de CEIF. CEIF, p. 1 (1983)

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5. Baker, M.J.: Selección de una metodología de investigación. Market. Rev. 1(3), 373–397 (2000) 6. Ketchen, D.J., Bergh, D.D. (eds.): Metodología de la investigación en estrategia y gestión. Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley (2006) 7. Posso, M.: Metodología para el trabajo de grado. NINA comunicaciones, Ibarra (2011) 8. Hernández Sampiere, R., Mendoza Torres, C.: Metodología de la investigación. Las rutas cualitativas, cuantitativas y mixtas. Editorial Mc Graw Hill Education, México (2018) 9. Arias, F.: El proyecto de investigación. Episteme, Carcacas (2012) 10. Enríquez, C.: Matriz (MIPI) para identificar problemas investigativos. Sathiri 14(1), 78–90 (2016) 11. Enríquez, C., Arcos, G., Mina, J.: Propuesta de una metodología para la enseñanza de la investigación formativa en educación superior. Sathiri 14(1), 10–24 (2019) 12. Hernández Sampiere, R., Fernández-Collado, C., Baptista Lucio, P.: Metodología de la investigación. Mc Graw Hill, México (2014) 13. Gómez, M., Galeano, C., Jaramillo, D.: El estado del arte: una metodología de investigación. Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Sociales 6(2), 423–442 (2015) 14. Cerón, M.C., Cerâon, M.C.: Metodologías de la investigación social. LOM ediciones, Santiago (2006) 15. Cordenonsi, A.Z., Müller, F.M., de Bastos, F.D.P.: A matriz dialógica problematizadora como uma estrutura para o exame e a discussão temática de uma disciplina de graduação mediada por tecnologia. In: Brazilian Symposium on Computers in Education (Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação-SBIE), vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 32–41, November 2008 16. Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Casto, G.: La síntesis cuantitativa de la investigación de un solo tema: metodología y validación. Remediación y educación especial 8(2), 24–33 (1987) 17. Mintzberg, H.: Una estrategia emergente de investigación “directa”. Ciencias administrativas trimestrales 24(4), 582–589 (1979)

Teaching-Learning Ergonomics in Virtual and Distance Education: Bibliometric Review Wilder Alfonso Hernández Duarte and Luis Gabriel Gutiérrez Bernal(&) Virtual and Distance Education. UVD, Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios, Bogotá, Colombia [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. It presents the quantification and characterization of scientific literature on teaching-learning practices of Ergonomics in distance and virtual mode. Search equations were designed to apply to 9 databases. Classified articles according to specialized literature criteria, the respective analysis was done. 39% were found in Science-Direct, mostly in English, 47% in journals in areas of social sciences and education. Half of the articles did not report impact factor SCIMAGO and 78% of the writings had a descriptive scope. 7.8% of the documents worked on the subject. Although there is a tendency to increase the number of publications on teaching-learning processes in this modality, there is little literature describing experiences in Ergonomics. Studies on the subject apply the use of teaching strategies that allow the discussion, reflection and solution of everyday situations, within the framework of the constructivist model. More studies with analytical scope are needed. Keywords: Distance education


Teaching
Ergonomics
Bibliometric

1 Introduction The distance and virtual modality have been an alternative of training that has allowed access to formal and informal education, today reinforced by information and communication technologies (TIC’s) [1]. University institutions have been offering occupational safety and health programs, at different levels of training, through this modality. Where it is required, in the academic pensum the course of Ergonomics, which, by studying the interactions between the system composed of the elements man, object-machine and space built [2], provides a series of tools that provide in the work of security and health at work [3]. In other words, it supports decision-making professionals to improve the health and working conditions of the working population in their care. Likewise, this modality can be an alternative to make interventions on the population in charge, given the trends in new modes of production applied by companies [4]. So, it presents the quantification and characterization of scientific literature published in indexed journals concerning pedagogical practices applied in the process of teaching-learning Ergonomics used in the distance and Virtual. For this, bibliometric © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 112–117, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_17

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was used, which allows, through bibliometric indicators, to measure and identify trends in the scientific production of interest and to carry out their respective analysis [5]. This study offers a state of art for professionals dedicated to training in this discipline, supporting the perfection of their training and research processes, by presenting a reference on how studies in this field have been oriented and the needs to emphasize or deepen the subject.

2 Materials and Methods Being a bibliometric revision, which allows the quantification and characterization of scientific publications in specialized databases, it was initially required to construct the search expressions to be applied. This is what the Health Science Descriptors consulted for (BIREME), building the phrases below: • • • •

Distance education AND ergonomics. Distance learning AND ergonomics. Ergonomics teaching AND distance education. Ergonomics learning AND distance education.

The search equations were applied in the Academic Search, Academic Source, Omnifile, Science-Direct, SCOPUS, Proquest/Education, Dialnet, Redalyc and SCIELO databases in both English and Spanish. Filters or available limits were applied to each database. Articles that met the objective of the study were included in a database in Excel, where they were categorized according to the following criteria: source, source database, year of publication, thematic area of publication, language of publication, impact factor of the magazine according to SCIMAGO platform (SJR) and its respective quartile, scope of research and thematic developed in the article. Once the publications in the database have been categorized, the frequency distribution was applied given the classification of the variables according to their nature. Subsequently, the interpretation of each of the results yielded and their proper analysis was made to determine trends in applied practices in the process of teaching-learning Ergonomic in distance or virtual mode.

3 Results In total, 64 articles were found in 6 of the 9 revised databases that met the characteristics of the object of study. 39% of the documents were found in Science-Direct and 28% in Proquest. 91% of the articles were in the English language. Until 2016 there is a tendency to increase the number of publications associated with experiences of learning teaching processes in virtual and distance modalities (see Fig. 1). On the other hand, almost half of the articles were published in journals in the areas of social sciences and education and 22% of articles in journals whose subject matter was Ergonomics or Occupational Safety and Health. 31.4% of the remaining

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documents were in publications in other areas such as health sciences, information technology, among others.

Fig. 1. Distribution of the number of publications per year on distance and virtual learning experiences.

In relation to the impact factor reported by SCIMAGO, by 2015, half of the articles did not have information in this source and 25% of the articles were published in journals whose documents have a high citation rate, i.e. it is found in quartile 1. As for the scope of the studies of the publications, 78% were carried out under a descriptive approach and only 11% had an analytical intention, either explanatory or correlational. Finally, in relation to the subjects worked in the studies, 47% describe experiences in virtual mode or distance in other disciplines and 27% describe the application of ergonomic principles in the design of virtual learning environments. Only 7.8% of the articles found make the description of experiences in the virtual mode or distance in Ergonomics and 6.3% on job training and Ergonomics (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Percentage distribution of articles according to subject matter developed in the document.

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4 Discussion Although databases dedicated to the consolidation of scientific literature in Latin America were consulted, an Anglo-Saxon influence, it is evident which has already been raised by the bibliography [6], finding that most of the articles were found in the Science-Direct database. This would explain that most documents are in the English language, with the language being preferred by the scientific community [7]. A tendency to increase the number of publications on learning processes in distance and virtual mode is evident. An aspect that may be associated with the call for entities to the dissemination of knowledge and accessibility to information through ICT’s as well as their monitoring to ensure quality in these processes [8]. With articles published in journals in the area of social sciences, there is evidence of an interest in delinking about the incorporation of new dimensions into humans with their proper interpretation [9]. With the influence of ICT’s on lifestyles, studies published in journals in this area investigate digital teaching skills, inequities in education or analysis to pedagogical practices and their motivation [10–12]. Documents published in journals in the area of Occupational Safety and Health or Ergonomics make an assessment of virtual environments for courses focused on this area, analysis of training processes and programmatic content in occupational safety and health or they are describing course designs and applying them for formal education or for worker training. Reviewing the distribution of documents according to the quartile in which the publication is located, half of these did not report and corresponded to disclosures classified as “proceedings”. Articles published in journals with a quartile 1 indicate content of great interest to the academic community and were from areas such as libraries, occupational therapy, computer science and health, linguistics and language, computer science and education. In reviewing the scope of the articles, a considerable proportion of studies seeking to make the description of facts are evident. While such studies allow you to specify properties, features, measure or collect information independently, they do not allow you to identify relationships [13]. It is clear that the low production of studies whose scope allows to identify relationships between certain variables, quantify their relationship or determine causes in topics associated with the teaching-learning process in this modality. Examining the articles focused on that topic of interest in this document, it highlights the consideration of the demographic characteristics of the population to be involved, as well as their familiarity with the use of ICTs and learning styles, applying as didactic strategies case study [14] and problem-based learning under the social constructivism model [15, 16]. For the design of virtual environments, the application of the principles of scheduled learning was evident where it is initially required to define the objectives of the course, determination of tasks and subtasks, their proper analysis and evaluation [17]. As mentioned before, case studies and problem-based learning were the estimated teaching strategies to use through virtual platforms. Being techniques based on facts or conflicting experiences to which it is necessary to give some solution applying

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concepts to make decisions, promote meaningful learning in the student [18]. This promotes an active construction of the subject by interacting with a medium, a fundamental principle of social constructivism [19]. According to the findings of the bibliometric exercise presented in this paper, there is an Anglo-Saxon influence on scientific productivity on the subject by most of the documents being found in databases of that source and in language English. Studies published in journals with a high citation rate were also found, indicating that the topics covered are of interest to the scientific community. A considerable proportion of the articles were published in journals in the area of social sciences where the influence of ICT’s on the student’s teaching-learning processes is investigated, given that it is a factor that has been involved in the life styles and there is therefore a tendency to increase the number of studies on experiences in distance and virtual mode. It is required to generate more studies with an analytical scope on learning processes in virtual and distance mode, where relationships or causes are presented, given the high proportion of studies with a descriptive scope that was found in this review. Finally, although there was a tendency to increase the number of articles on the subject, specific studies in the discipline of interest of the document were scarce. These articles highlight, for the design of classrooms, the review of characteristics of the population as learning styles and mastery of ICT’s, among others and the use of teaching strategies that allow to take the student to a real context where it is required the application of revised concepts. Given the above, further studies on teachinglearning experiences in distance and virtual mode in the field of Ergonomics are recommended.

References 1. García, L.: Fundamento y componentes de la educación a distancia. RIED 2, 28–38 (1999) 2. García, G.: La ergonomía desde la visión sistémica, Primera edn. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá (2002) 3. Vincent, J.H.: Graduate education in occupational hygiene: a rational framework. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 49, 649–659 (2005) 4. Salazar, J.: La metamorfosis del trabajo. Revista de Integración y Comercio. 21, 72–83 (2017) 5. Ardanuy, J.: Breve introducción a la bibliometría (2012). http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/ bitstream/2445/30962/1/breve%20introduccion%20bibliometria.pdf 6. Gaynés, E., Giménez, M., Potell, M.: El burnout en los profesionales sanitarios: una aproximación bibliométrica. Arch. Prev. Riesgos Labor. 7, 101–108 (2004) 7. Gómez, D.: Síntomas depresivos en docentes universitarios: Una revisión bibliométrica (2015) 8. UNESCO: Las nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación en el desarrollo de la educación, la ciencia y la cultura (2001) 9. Palacios, V.R.: La imagen como recurso didáctico en la apropiación de conceptos en el área de ciencias sociales (2007) 10. Harandi, S.R.: Effects of e-learning on students’ motivation. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 181, 423–430 (2015)

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11. Korucu, A., Alkan, A.: Differences between m-learning (mobile learning) and e-learning, basic terminology and usage of m-learning in education. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 15, 1925–1930 (2011) 12. Sari, A.: Influence of ICT applications on learning process in higher education. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 116, 4939–4945 (2014) 13. Hernández, R., Mendoza, Ch.: Metodología de la investigación: las rutas cuantitativa, cualitativa y mixta. McGraw-Hill Interamericana, México (2018) 14. Weiss, P.L., Schreuer, N., Jermias-Cohen, T., Josman, N.: An online learning course in ergonomics. Work 23, 95–104 (2004) 15. Reinhold, K., Siirak, V., Tint, P.: The development of higher education in occupational health and safety in Estonia and selected EU countries. Procedia Soc. - Behav. Sci. 143, 52– 56 (2014) 16. Díaz, D., Farieta, K., Mena, A.: Analysis of knowledge building in a virtual learning community from the pedagogical use of the visibility. Int. J. Inf. Educ. Technol. 6, 200–205 (2016) 17. Salvat, B.: Burrhus Frederic Skiner y la Tecnología en la Enseñanza. In: El legado pedagógico del siglo XX para la escuela del siglo XXI. Ed. Graó, Bogotá (2015) 18. Rajadell, N.: Los Procesos Formativos en el Aula: Estrategias de Enseñanza- Aprendizaje. In: Didáctica general para psicopedagogos. Eds. de la UNED, Madrid (2001) 19. Fairstein, G.: La Teoría de Jean Piaget y la educación. Medio siglo de debates y aplicaciones. In: El legado pedagógico del siglo XX para la escuela del siglo XXI. Ed. Graó, Bogotá (2015)

Garbage Classification Education Application Design – Taking Shanghai, China as an Example Lijuan Guo(&) and Jiping Wang School of Art Design and Media, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Since Shanghai has legislated household waste management in 2019, it has become a challenge for the public to classify garbage without necessary assistance. In this paper, we propose a framework for the design of the application of garbage sorting education. The framework considers three factors, i.e., usability, interactivity, and engagement. First, we use new technologies and some design guidelines to improve the usability of the framework. Second, we use interactive methods to make users understand how to recycle garbage resources. In addition, we provide personalized customization and feedback data, which could increase their sense of participation. Keywords: Garbage classification
Education application framework Usability
Interactivity
Engagement




1 Introduction In pace with the continuous advancement of urbanization, urban household waste has become a thorny issue [1]. The amount of garbage rises a lot each year and has become a problem with Chinese urbanization which has severely limited urban development and public life. Garbage classification is the basis to realize harmless integrated treatment, which is very important to increase garbage resources’ recycling and comprehensive utilization [2]. Several cities have put a series of implementation rules and regulations to improve the garbage classification. Shanghai is a super city, which is China’s largest commercial city and serves as China’s first benchmark for waste sorting, therefore, we take shanghai for example to discuss the garbage classification education application design. The current method of garbage disposal is landfill and burn, which polluted air, and there is no more land to fill waste, so it is urgent to classify garbage. The Shanghai municipal government has legislated the entire process of household waste management in 2019 [3], sorting garbage into hazardous, recyclable, household food, and residual, requiring that the citizens classify garbage quickly and accurately. Due to the variety of waste, sorting of garbage without assistance remains a problem for the public. Although the Shanghai government has proposed the strictest policies and regulations of the garbage classification, the

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 118–122, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_18

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public is still puzzled about garbage classification. And there is still a distance from the goal of “full coverage of domestic garbage classification” [4]. The purpose of this framework design is to allow the public to accurately learn garbage classification knowledge and apply it to their lives. As an effective and necessary complement for the policy, garbage classification education application plays an essential role in guiding the public for waste classification. Considering this, we propose a framework for the design of the application of garbage classification education from three aspects: availability, interactivity, and engagement, aiming to guide designers in making better applications and helping the public classify garbage efficiently.

2 Design Concept 2.1

Usability

ISO defines usability as the “Extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context of use” [5]. Therefore, usability is a priority when designing the overall framework. As a framework for the education of garbage classification, its effectiveness is reflected in the fact that it can tell people quickly about the type of garbage, stimulate the interest of people in studying garbage classification. This framework focuses on the needs of garbage classification education without distracting users and reducing usability. We use image recognition and voice interaction technology to help users quickly determine the type of garbage to improve efficiency. To enhance user satisfaction, the interface of the application has a consistent vision, layout, and operation. The design of this framework should be clear in navigation, reasonable in interaction, and vibrant in colors so that users can learn the knowledge of garbage classification easily. 2.2

Interactivity

Heeter (2000) defines interactivity as an episode or series of episodes of physical actions and reactions of an embodied human with the world, including the environment, objects, and humans [6]. The most important thing about interaction is changing the way in which users receive information. Effective interaction can improve user experience, and make learning about garbage classification easier for users. Most of the existing applications are displayed static, which can not be coordinated. Interactions can coordinate the visual, auditory, and other ways of perception of the user, allowing users to communicate with the system and learn about the classification of garbage. Meanwhile, the use of some micro-interaction design, such as sliding, dragging, double-clicking, allows users to operate conveniently, and have a positive impact on users. In addition, several interesting animation games simulate typical scenes in life, such as undersea exploration and birthday parties, to engage users in virtual garbage classification education and make them understand how the garbage resources can be generated, classified, and recycled. Using games to make users understand, entertain, and learn the knowledge of garbage classification with ease.

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Engagement

People’s requirements for garbage classification education applications are diversified. When users use this framework the first time, we divide them into different groups, focusing on the user’s first experience of it. The framework is customized and adapted to the user’s design to make it easier to use and reduce the user’s workload. Users are highly desirable that it can provide information and feedback. Reinforced user engagement by goal setting, task scores, rewards, and real-time updates. Users are interested in visually pleasing interfaces and social functions. Besides, we provide the users with the personal contributions of garbage classification and Shanghai’s garbage classification statistics regularly, which could increase their sense of participation. Various methods are used to enhance the effect of garbage classification education. We can increase user engagement through quizzes and games. This framework should pay attention to avoiding children’s addiction to games. When designing games, avoid overemphasis on the entertainment aspects of the game and neglect the task of garbage classification education that the game should have.

3 Function Based on the analysis of the Shanghai garbage classification education application, the functions of it were designed based on the above design concepts: usability, interactivity, and engagement, so that users can easily learn garbage classification knowledge during the entertainments. As shown in Table 1, the function of the framework is divided into four parts: search, games, information and personal center. Table 1. Core functions of garbage classification education framework. Function Search Games Information Personal center

Introduction Text, photo, and voice input are all available to input information, allowing users to uploads and mark Attract user interest by setting goals, mission levels, rewards, and more Real-time updates, the current data of Shanghai garbage classification, and application users’ contribution data Personalized customization based on user-provided information, providing user feedback channels

A well-designed framework for garbage classification education applications, focusing on user experience, can quickly improve efficiency when learning garbage classification knowledge, thereby speeding up the process of urban garbage recycling. The search function uses new technologies to help users classify garbage quickly. The games center plays a vital educational role, which allows users to understand the entire process of garbage classification through interesting games. The information can

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update the current progress of Shanghai garbage classification implementation in realtime, as well as the data of individual contributions of users to Shanghai garbage classification. The personal center can customize the users and collect user feedback to improve the service (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The main layout of the garbage classification education application framework.

4 Conclusion In order to increase the amount of recycled garbage, it is necessary to encourage citizens to participate in classifying activities. Therefore, we proposed a framework for garbage classification education. The framework uses interesting and practical ways to improve the efficiency of garbage classification and citizen engagement, which is vital to protecting the environment. By using such a framework, the way is classified can become familiar to citizens. A reasonable garbage classification education framework has laid a solid foundation for expanding citizen participation, improving classification accuracy, and creating a better living environment. Acknowledgments. The paper is supported by Shanghai Leading Academic Discipline Project of Design IV (DB18107).

References 1. Domene, E., Saurí, D.: Urbanization and class-produced natures: vegetable gardens in the Barcelona metropolitan region. J. Sci. Geoforum 38, 287–298 (2007) 2. Min, Q.W., Pei, X.F., Yu, W.D.: Status, problems and countermeasures of municipal solid wastes and their treatment in China. Urban Environ. Urban Ecol. 15(6), 51 (2002) 3. Office of Shanghai Municipal Government. Regulations of Shanghai Municipality on the management of household waste. http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/nw2/nw2314/nw2319/nw240 4/nw44689/nw44691/u26aw58418

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4. Nan, L.: Explore the classification and management model of Shanghai Municipal solid waste. Urban Rural Constr. 08, 16–19 (2019) 5. ISO 9241 Ergonomics Requirements for Office with Visual Display Terminals (VDTs). International Standards Organization, Geneva (1997) 6. Heeter, C.: Interactivity in the context of designed experiences. J. Interact. Advert. 1(1), 1–17 (2000)

Academic School Performance as an Indicator of Success in Undergraduate Studies in Construction Economics in South Africa Danie Hoffman(&) and Inge Pieterse University of Pretoria, Lynnwood Road, Pretoria, South Africa [email protected]

Abstract. The Department of Construction Economics, University of Pretoria, South Africa offers a three-year BSc undergraduate program in Quantity Surveying (QS). A better throughput rate of enrolled students is desired. Increasing the Admission Points Score (APS) for new entrants from 30 to 32 may achieve this. This study investigated overall academic school performance against undergraduate academic performance, using data from 2010 to 2015. The data was categorized into Group 1 (APS of 32+) and Group 2 (APS < 32). It was found that Group 1’s students outperformed Group 2’s students in all aspects with an average first year mark of 56,03% versus 44,28%, 80,61,17% qualifying in minimum time versus 23,08%, on average taking 3,57 years for all to qualify versus 4,20 years and with 43 student qualifying with distinction versus 1. Keywords: Success indicator
School performance performance
Quantity Surveying
South Africa


Undergraduate

1 Introduction The seven-point rating scale for the Admission Points Score (APS) used by all higher education institutions in South Africa to determine which students to admit stems from legislation [1] introduced in 2005 and first applied in 2009 following the first issue of the National Senior Certificate (NSC), that is the final school exit level. The NSC is a 130-credit certificate based on a minimum of seven subjects that each carry 20 credits except for Life Orientation that carries 10 credits. The APS is calculated on the points for percentage achieved in the NSC with 7 for 80–100%, 6 for 70–79%, 5 for 60–69%, 4 for 50–59%, 3 for 40–49%, 2 for 30–39% and 1 for 0–29%. Four of the minimum seven subjects are compulsory and include two official languages, mathematics or mathematical literature and life orientation. The other three required subjects are chosen from a list of 20 approved subjects. The minimum admission requirement for a bachelor’s degree is adequate achievement (50–59%) or better in four of the selected subjects. Institutions are however entitled to require appropriate subject achievement levels for specific programs [2]. Being a Bachelor of Science degree, specific subject requirements are stipulated for the BSc QS degree offered by the Department of Construction Economics at the

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University of Pretoria, South Africa. The specific subjects required are English and Mathematics at an achievement level of 5 (60–69%) and Physical Science or Accounting at an achievement level of 4 (50–59%) [3]. The current required APS of 30 is typically derived from the minimum of 14 points for the compulsory subjects and a further 16 points for the three selected subjects at an achievement level of 5 (60–69%) each. No distinction is made in the weighting that any subject contributes to the APS other than the point corresponding to the percentage achieved on the seven-level points scale. Increasing the APS to 32 entail that the achievement level of any two of the six subjects that contribute to the calculation of the APS is increased by one achievement level.

2 Literature The conundrum of admitting the right number of students as well as the right student that have the ability and the potential to successfully complete their chosen programs is universal. Many international and South African studies have found that school-level mathematics is strongly correlated with quantitatively orientated modules at university level hence admission requirements are set accordingly [4]. Several South African studies have been conducted to evaluate the NSC’s ability to predict learner’s preparedness to cope with university curricula. One such a study that focused on the NSC mathematics results as a predictor of academic performance [5] suggests that the APS is not correctly benchmarked against the system applied prior to 2008 and found that the NSC mathematics results are in the order of 12–13% higher than the previous higher-grade mathematics. It is also found that the NSC is not an accurate predictor in the lower scoring categories. Contrary to the finding of the discrepancy in benchmarking the APS against the system that applied prior to 2008, an analysis of first-year engineering student’s results for mathematics 1 and physics 1 at the University of Cape Town from 2005 to 2009 found that the declining trend in mathematics results cannot be attributed to the NSC as the trend was already visible in 2007 [6]. In another study that included all the faculties at the university of KwaZulu Natal it was found that the risk of failure is significantly higher as the NSC mathematics marks decrease in the engineering, health sciences and management sciences faculties. The importance of this study is the illustration of how the results for different faculties vary from each other. It is apparent that a one-size-fits-all approach cannot be followed [7]. A comparison between the NSC mathematics mark and the National Benchmark Test (NBT) (a set of three tests performed to determine the academic preparedness of applicants by testing academic literacy, quantitative literacy and mathematics) as predictors for the results of an Economics 1 test at two universities revealed that the NSC mathematics mark on its own marginally remained the better predictor for academic potential, but that a combination of the NSC mathematics mark and the NBT improves the prediction ability significantly [4].

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3 The Methodology The aim of the study was to establish whether the pursuit of a better throughput rate of enrolled students is supported by increasing the APS from 30 to 32. The study compared the overall academic school performance against academic undergraduate performance, using data from the program’s first year entrant cohorts from 2010 to 2015. The data was categorized into two groups - Group 1 (totaling 240 students with an APS of 32+) and Group 2 (totaling 121 students with an APS < 32) to establish if Group 1 students performed significantly better than Group 2 students. The study explored the relationships between the APS and the years taken to complete the program, the weighted average marks obtained in the first year of the program, the number of students that passed with distinction (75%+) and the marks obtained in a core module with a high failure rate.

4 The Data and Findings The number of first-time entering BSc QS students from 2010 to 2015 totaled 361 varying between a minimum cohort of 53 students in 2011 to a maximum of 69 students in 2015 (see Table 1). Table 1. Number of first-time entering students for BSc QS program. 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 65 53 55 60 59 69

4.1

Throughput of Students

The study first considered the % of BSc QS students that managed to qualify in the minimum period of three years (see Table 2 and Fig. 1). The findings for Group 1 students show an average of 61,2% and for Group 2 an average of 23,1% that means that a Group 1 student is 265,03% more likely than a Group 2 student to qualify in the minimum time (61,17%/23,08%  100/1).

Table 2. % of students qualifying in 3 years 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Overall Group 1 APS > 31 53,66 56,67 74,07 71,88 53,13 61,54 61,17 Group 2 APS < 32 0,00 22,22 21,43 50,00 11,11 27,78 23,08

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APS of >31 APS of 31) Linear (APS of 31 61,17 26,06 7,45 5,32 3,57 Group 2 APS < 32 23,08 43,08 24,62 9,22 4,20

4.2

Weighted Average Marks Obtained

The s the average overall mark that each student achieved in their first year in the program, is weighted according to the credits for each respective module. Table 4 shows that on average Group 1 students outscored Group 2 students by 26,54% ((56,03%/44,28% − 1)  100/1).

Table 4. Weighted average marks in 1st year of study 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Overall Group 1 APS > 31 52,25 56,75 56,87 57,25 56,05 58,58 56,03 Group 2 APS < 32 36,43 46,13 41,56 40,48 47,28 49,24 44,28

4.3

Number of Students that Passed with Distinction

The number of students that managed to pass with distinction (75%+ in final year) is detailed in Table 5. A total number of 44 students qualified with distinction, only 1 student (2,27%) was from Group 2.

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Table 5. Number of students that qualified with distinction 2010–12 2011–13 2012–14 2013–15 2014–16 2015–17 Total Group 1 APS > 31 10 8 3 7 9 6 43 Group 2 APS < 32 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

4.4

Performance in Quantities 101

Quantities 101 is a core module for first year BSc QS students and unique to construction economic qualifications. Over many years the module has had a high failure rate and low average class marks. Failure of this module automatically increases the time of study by a year. As illustrated in Table 6 an average of 80,50% of Group 1 students successfully completed Quantities 101 in their first attempt compared to 62,12% for Group 2. Group 1 students were therefore 29,59% more likely to pass in their first attempt than Group 2 ((80,50%/62,12% − 1)  100/1). The average mark of Group 1 students was 53,32% which exceeded the average mark of Group 2 students of 43,26% by 23,25% ((53,32%/43,26%−1)  100/1).

Table 6. Performance in quantities 101 % pass rate at first attempt Group 1 APS > 31 Group 2 APS < 32 Average % marks achieved Group 1 APS > 31 Group 2 APS < 32

2010 73,33 25,00 2010 57,14 50,14

2011 88,24 75,00 2011 51,50 46,25

2012 75,86 60,00 2012 53,00 40,90

2013 87,88 60,00 2013 53,55 38,20

2014 77,42 60,00 2014 50,84 38,80

2015 Overall 82,14 80,50 75,00 62,12 2015 Total 53,57 53,32 45,60 43,26

5 Conclusions The study found a significant difference in academic performance between students with an APS of 32 and more (Group 1) compared to students with an APS of 31 and less (Group 2). This difference is apparent and constant for each of the different parameters used for evaluation. Increased throughput is the desired academic objective and Group 1 students are 265,03% more likely than Group 2 students to qualify in the minimum time. Group 2 students take on average 17,65% longer to graduate from the program. The average mark in the first year of study for Group 1 students was 26,54% higher than the mark for Group 2 students. All but 1 of the 44 students that graduated with distinction were from Group 1. Group 1 students were also 29,59% more likely than Group 2 students to pass the core first year module Quantities 101 on their first attempt and their average mark outscored that of Group 2 students by 23,25%. It is apparent that the findings of this study concur with the findings of other studies referred to in the literature review in that the higher the NSC achievement, particularly

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the mathematics achievement, the higher the APS, the more successful the students would be in their studies. Group 1, that already complies with the higher APS of 32 represents 66% of the 361 students under review. Their achievements outlined above suggest that an increased APS would probably not have a detrimental effect on the BSc QS program intake, but rather enhance the throughput of the entire future groups.

6 Recommendations On conclusion of the study it is recommended that the study be expanded to cohorts of 2016 onwards to determine whether the downward trend of performance continues, that the study be extended to other institutions nationally that offer a similar qualification, that the study be expanded to include the other programs in the Department of Construction Economics, to repeat the study in order to tract the trends in the rapidly changing demography of South African and identify and study other causes that could explain the variability in student performance.

References 1. Department of Basic Education: The National Senior Certificate: A Qualification at Level 4 on the National Qualification Framework (NQF). ISBN, 15 October (2009). http://education.gov.za 2. Department of Education: Minimum Admission Requirements for Higher Certificate, Diploma and Bachelor’s Degree Programmes Requiring a National Senior Certificate, Pretoria, August 2005 3. University of Pretoria: Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and Information Technology Undergraduate Admissions Regulation S 3096/18 (2020) 4. Rankin, N., Schöer, M., Sebastiao, C., Van Walbeek, C.: Predictors of academic performance: national senior certificate versus national benchmark test. South Afr. J. High. Educ. 26(3), 564–584 (2012) 5. Schöer, M., Ntuli, M., Rankin, N., Sebastiao, C., Hunt, K.: A blurred signal? The usefulness of National Senior Certificate (NSC) Marks as predictors of academic performance at university level. Perspect. Educ. 28(2), 9–18 (2010) 6. Wolmarans, N., Smit, R., Collier-Reed, B., Hilda Leather, H.: Addressing concerns with the NSC: an analysis of first-year student performance in Mathematics and Physics. Paper presented at the 18th Conference of the South African Association for Research in Mathematical, Science and Technology Education, Kwa-Zulu Natal, pp. 274–284 (2010) 7. Zewotir, T., North, D., Murray, M.: Student success in entry level modules. South Afr. J. High. Educ. 25(6), 1233–1244 (2011)

Research Competency Training for Students of the Superior Technological Institute of Administrative and Commercial Training Evelyn De la Llana Pérez(&), Yoenia Portilla Castell, Belinda Marta Lema Cachinell, Emma Zulay Delgado Saeteros, and Rafael Bell Rodríguez Higher Technological Institute of Administrative and Commercial Professional Training, Guayaquil, Ecuador {evelyn.delallana1,yoenia.portilla,marta.lema,zulayd, rafael.bell}@formacion.edu.ec

Abstract. In this article, he gives an account of the results of the analysis of the formation of research skills in the students of the Technological Institute of Professional, Administrative and Commercial Training, approaching from the teaching-learning process towards the research development of said students, which contributes to develop in they the skills that allow them to appropriate, interpret and understand the society in which they live. That is why a work implicitly integrated into the Study Plan is conceived, with interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary activities carried out by teachers during the passage of students through the institution as part of the teaching-learning process. Keywords: Research skills


Professional training
Investigation

1 Introduction The acquisition of research skills in students should be considered a very significant path not only for the achievement of great scientific and technological discoveries, but also, a path that favors the development in students of skills that allow them to appropriate, interpret and better understand the world in which they live in order to contribute to the solution of problems present in the different contexts in which they develop. This requires that research become an inseparable part of the formative process of students. The Technological Institute of Professional, Administrative and Commercial Training in recent years has been developing a series of curricular and extracurricular activities in order to awaken in students the interest in scientific research beyond the mere presentation of a degree work as culmination of his studies. As part of these activities, the Student Scientific Encounters stand out, which since their emergence in 2016 have had a positive impact on students, motivating them to progress in the development of more contextualized and constructive research.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 129–134, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_20

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2 Development The term competencies come from the Latin cum and petere, which means the ability to compete, to coincide in the direction. The competences are the ability to continue in a certain area, assuming a situation of direct comparison and located at a given time. It has been used with three meanings: be long, compete and adequate [1]. Frequently, research competencies are understood as the set of knowledge, skills and attitudes that tend to apply knowledge and that emphasize different dimensions of the research activity, such as epistemology, methodology and techniques. The development of research skills implies that they feed the process of professional training, strengthening skills to observe, ask, record field notes, experiment, interpret and write about professional practice [2]. One of the key sources of information for the integral evaluation of the quality of teaching is constituted by students, since knowledge of the level of satisfaction with the education they receive and the conditions under which it takes place, provides essential information for the identification of the strengths and weaknesses present in this process in order to adopt the measures and strategies that guarantee the permanent elevation of the quality of education [3]. As part of the research process competencies, the ability to theorize and build models, and scientific writing competencies, as well as the relational ability of the researcher with the research subjects, data management and certain personality characteristics of the research are highlighted researcher [4] so it is important to develop them in students as part of their professional training. The research competences seek the autonomy of the person and are oriented towards the self-realization of the subject, as a way to carry out a vital project, that meet the needs of the community. Individuals are conceived as the object and subject of the transformation. Therefore, this approach to research competencies has as a priority objective the development and consolidation of the research culture. The definitions studied allow us to relate common elements such as suitability, organized behavior, acting, know-how and mental structures, concentrated on the dimension of knowing-doing. In order to adjust to what is aspired in higher education, they must be approached as a multidimensional fabric, only in this way will the true educational change take place, this is how the concept of professional competences arises. ECLAC, in its statement from Chile, considers that university students must go beyond the knowledge of techniques and tools to solve problems, and link with the affective, with the cognitive and the acting, which demands for the subject that is required as competent capacity for analysis, responsibility, commitment and resistance to uncertainty [5]. The research culture is an alternative of development and progress not only referred to the labor, but also on the social level. Hence the need to encourage it in the training process of future professionals, based on the research competences that are linked motivated by personal and social reasons. On a personal level, the fact of investigating implies an exercise of maturity, responsibility and self-government that is shown through a high degree of autonomy of the subjects. The assumption of the research culture from the social point of view implies knowledge, management and participation

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in social projects. A knowledge that, put into practice, allows integration and social exchange, basic for community development based on action, commitment and equity. The teaching and research process is a complex activity that includes numerous operations. To achieve a good learning it is necessary to involve students in all the tasks of this practice, together with another person with more experience, teachers, and in which research in different fields of science is promoted. Teaching research is a complex process and a diversified activity. The new teaching of social and humanistic research that is proposed is, in the first place, a complex process, since in the teaching of research there are numerous operations, no less dense and related to: 1. what is taught when teaching to investigate, and 2. how to teach to investigate. These two types of operations constitute two different practices, that of producing new knowledge and teaching how to produce them. The first forms the office of researcher; the second, the profession of pedagogue. The development of the study tracks the multiple profiles of the meeting in a single man of these two tasks that, separated, are already very complicated [6]. Learning based on the formation and development of skills prepares the student for life because it places him in a real problem, communication, self-learning and critical thinking skills are developed; You learn to work in teams and integrate different aspects of the curriculum. In addition, it allows theory to be articulated with practice; favoring in students the sense of responsibility and social commitment. Competency-based learning allows students to learn to make decisions; An attitude towards change and innovation is acquired, the problem is approached in a total way and both the teacher and the student recognize that there are always possibilities to learn [7]. Within this pedagogical conception it is of vital importance to understand that the motives, interests, needs and attitudes of the individual constitute important components, as driving forces of the construction and development of competences. Similarly, the importance of teachers teaching research, managing research skills to effectively transfer them to their students, suggests that thinking about research is an approach to theoretical knowledge that underlies their research practice, but also points out The need to give it a reflective sense and assume it as a process of continuous construction and reconstruction, suggests teaching research by investigating, from practice, taking into account pedagogical, epistemological and communicative levels [8]. Work must be done with students in the culture of epistemic thinking. The same one that is constituted according to the author by the separation of contents elaborated by the theory, by which he has framed the reality in a concept. For that theory as a series of representations, principles, laws, criteria that support our actions and in which our activities and life plans, social, economic, cultural, political are framed [9]. Another look at the research concept is to enter a technology, device or procedure and give it a specific application according to some requirements. Some sectors have concluded that it is necessary to demystify research, contextualize it and promote it at all levels. Despite this diversity of constantly evolving interpretations, it is still common for the researcher status to be placed only for those people of renown and trajectory to cross the frontier of knowledge in fields of global interest.

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The so-called formative research in higher education is a problem or pedagogical problem. It addresses, in effect, the teaching-research relationship or the role that research can play in learning the same research and knowledge, a problem that is in the field of teaching strategies and specifically evokes research or inductive teaching and also what several authors have called learning by discoveries [10]. Competition is the set of knowledge and skills that subjects need to develop some type of activity [11]. It should also be considered that education is a privileged instrument because it pursues the construction of a human ideal through strategies, means, resources, etc., with which the acquisition of values, beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, knowledge, skills is generated among other aspects necessary to promote the development of a research culture, aimed at achieving the desired social project. There is no single method to teach research. The method must be understood rather as the strategic organization of all operations involved in scientific production. The researcher, in formulating his problem, rationally plans and conducts his theoretical, practical, operational and instrumental decisions with the intention of finding an answer to his question. In line with the aforementioned, there is the study and reflection on the integral evaluation of teaching by students, in which case the analyzes revolve around the principles that should serve as support for the design and application of different strategies and instruments that respond to the strategic objectives of this type of evaluation. The empirical reference of this study are the processes, practices and strategies used in the Technological Institute of Professional, Administrative and Commercial Training in the formation of research skills in students, making a quantitative and qualitative analysis of their participation in scientific events. In addition, it was applied a brief survey to know the satisfaction of the students with the Scientific Meetings of Students; using probabilistic sampling. In this article an analysis is carried out from the quantitative and qualitative point of view of the participation of students in the Student Scientific Meetings from its first edition to the present. This analysis was carried out taking into account the database of the Research Department; those that show the main research topics and their relationship with the research lines of the Technological Training Institute. It is important to keep in mind that the first Student Scientific Meetings was held in 2016 and the students of the Marketing Career participated in it. Before this edition, the presentation of works that show the students’ progress in the field of research was carried out spontaneously, organized by teachers within the different subjects taught in the classrooms; however, with this first edition of the Scientific Meeting of Students, the Research Department intervenes as the event organizer. With the realization of the event, it was possible for students from different parallels and study schedules to exchange made articles and topics of interest in the Marketing Career. The surveys carried out were applied with the objective of knowing the criteria of the students regarding the usefulness of the Student Scientific Meetings held in the years from 2016 to 2019. To carry out the survey, a non-probabilistic and intentional sampling was used selecting 100 Students who were between the fourth and sixth levels and who by the time they remained in the institution had participated in some of the Student Scientific Meetings that had been held. Fifty female students and 50 male

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students were selected, of which 15 male students and 20 female students had participated in Student Scientific Meetings were previously held. As a result, 82% of the students agreed that the Student Scientific Meetings contribute to their professional training. This result shows how students value the importance of participation in events of this type for their professional training. 83% of the students stated that they like to carry out these types of activities, being very in agreement with the performance of them. 13% said they agree somewhat and 4% neither agree nor disagree that although it is a smaller percentage it should be taken into account and work on the motivation of the same because the research activity and the presentation of the results must be central of interest of future professionals. Most of the students recognized how research activities contribute to the results they offer to the socio-economic development of the country. It is evident that 70% of the students think they are very in agreement, although it can be emphasized that 27% propose to agree somewhat and 3% reflect either agree or disagree with this approach. These data show how 30% of the students are not aware of the significant contribution they can make from the conduct of their research to the socio-economic development of the country.

3 Conclusions The formation of research skills in students is vital, taking as a reference the process of the effective conception of scientific knowledge. The results will be better based on the didactics of research in the teaching of real practices, processes, operations and mechanisms of scientific work. If you want to teach to investigate in a practical way, it is decisive to change the emphasis of research didactics, from a theoretical, abstract and general teaching to a practical didactics, based on training and training in each and every one of the operations that actually and effectively occur during the process of producing scientific knowledge. The analysis carried out leads to the conclusion that research is not taught only from the classroom and with the conceptual teaching of research in a valid approach, it also limits scientific work. When these considerations are taken into account, the results obtained by the Technological Institute of Vocational, Administrative and Commercial Training are achieved, working under the perspective of an approach that teaches to define, describe, analyze, even criticize scientific production, contributing to the generation of it and the formation of research skills in students.

References 1. Tobón, S.: Competency-Based Training. Ecoe Editions, Bogotá (2006) 2. Londoño, O.: Development of research competence from research seedbeds. Bogotá: Revista Científica General José María Córdova 9(9), 187–207 (2011) 3. Cadena, M., Mejías, A., Vega, A., Vásquez, J.: University student satisfaction: strategic analysis based on factor analysis. Ind. Data 18(1), 9–18 (2015)

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4. Rivas, L.: The new competences of a researcher. Federal District: Investigación Administrativa, núm. 108, pp. 34–54, julio–diciembre 2011 5. ECLAC.: Education and knowledge. Axis of productive transformation with equity. UN, Santiago de Chile (1992) 6. Sánchez, R.: Teach to Investigate a New Didactics of Research in Social and Human Sciences, 4th edn. IISUE, Mexico (2014) 7. Torres, M.: Correspondence Between Companies and University. Editorial Casa Blanca, Seville (2002) 8. Rizo, S.: Skills Evaluation. University of Nueva Granada, San Sebastián (2004) 9. Zemelman, H.: The Challenges of Higher Education. Editorial Kapeluz, Buenos Aires (2009) 10. Restrepo, G.: Education of the Future, How to Face It? Océano Publishing House, Bogotá (1998) 11. Zabalza, M.: The Teaching Competencies of University Teachers. Quality and Professional Development. Narcea, Madrid (2003)

Healthcare Education and Mobile Learning Systems

Improving Children’s STEAM Education and Their Global Competence Through Collaborative Cooking Mohadeseh Khazaee1(&) and Layla Sabourian2 1

Education Department, UC Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA [email protected] 2 Chef Koochooloo Startup, Mountain View, CA, USA [email protected]

Abstract. While interest in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) education has not translated into positive results in improving achievement, there is need to increase motivation among school children by exposing them to ways in which learning topics can apply to daily activities. To this end, we developed a personalized mobile cooking app for K-5 students and by incorporating collaborative learning and applied arts into STEM teaching, we aimed at improving students’ STEAM education and their global competence. From 11 schools in California, 259 students (treatment = 150; control = 109) participated in our 10-week study. Through statistical analysis (ANOVA), we observed significant improvement in STEAM scores of the treatment group. Moreover, analysis of parents’ survey showed children’s increased interest in math and science topics, and their willingness to eat more vegetables. Qualitative analysis of teachers’ surveys also revealed that our app has promoted students’ STEAM education and their global competence. Keywords: Collaborative learning interaction
STEAM education


Global competence
Human-computer

1 Introduction Research studies have established strong connection between malnutrition, obesity, depression and poor academic performance culminating in setting children up for failure in life [1–3]. There is evidence that the school environment could be a major factor in preventing obesity [4] but schools tend to focus on lack of physical activity [5]. A new approach to education is needed to fully prepare students for their academic and professional life. A whole child approach, which ensures that each student is healthy, safe, engaged, and challenged, sets the standard for comprehensive, sustainable school improvement and provides for long-term student success [6]. According to research, students perform better in school when they are emotionally and physically healthy [6, 7]. On the other hand, due to methodological gaps in teaching pedagogy, the high interest in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) education has not yet translated into positive results in improving students’ achievement [8]. Linear instruction is the dominant approach in presenting most academic content; however, © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 137–143, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_21

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some topics, especially STEM are best taught through hands-on, problem-solving activities [9]. Educational settings, especially schools need a fundamental shift from traditional education (which emphasizes linear presentation of content knowledge) to the application of knowledge and skills to real-world contexts [10]. Students need not only more in-depth knowledge of math and science, but also the ability to integrate and apply that knowledge to solve the challenges they face at school. There is an urgent need, to stimulate interest among school children in STEM subjects and improve their learning outcomes by exposing them to ways in which learning topics can apply to day activities. One way through which STEM education can be integrated into real-life contexts is to incorporate creative thinking and applied arts into teaching, and to highlight the significance of STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics) over STEM education. Art is about discovering and creating ingenious ways of problem-solving, integrating principles and presenting information. By adding the elements of art to STEM-based thinking, students can use both sides of their brain— analytical and creative—to develop the best thinkers of tomorrow [11] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Contextualized learning of food-related math and science concepts

In addition, the increasingly interconnected and interdependent global society requires children to think across disciplinary, cultural, linguistic, and geographical boundaries. Multi-dimensional competencies are important in a highly technological world where science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics are not merely interconnected, but interwoven into the global community. It is important that students embrace diversity, possess international awareness, and have a developed sense of social responsibility. Though there are some apps in STEM enrichment and nutrition, none emphasize both interdisciplinary learning and healthy cooking. To fill this gap, we, at Chef Koochooloo introduced a novel approach to STEAM education through a personalized mobile cooking app for K-5 students, to promote healthy eating habits among students and enhance learning through engagement by introducing them to simple, inexpensive healthy recipes from around the world.

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I (Layla Sabourian) founded Chef Koochooloo in 2014 inspired by my daughter. As a working parent, I was struggling with finding quality time with her, keeping up with her education and providing healthy meals at home. Many parents face this dilemma. “The average working parent has less than 36 min per day to spend time with their kids, so we resort to less healthy meal options, which has resulted in a continuous rise in child obesity and diabetes” [12]. “After facing a life-threatening situation, where I was not sure I would be around for my family, I wanted to ensure I educated her in some of the basic principals in life, which included eating healthy delicious recipes” [12]. Since Chef Koochooloo’s foundation, our goal as a company has been to ‘teach kids the value of social cooperation, and cultural literacy while showing them how to cook and enjoy nutritious foods and improve their STEAM skills’ [13]. With our educational gamified application for classroom and home use, students embark on a culinary journey, learn about world cuisines, and cultures from different countries, and learn food related math and science concepts. By engaging students with carefully developed interactive content and fun gamification features (e.g., badges), our innovative approach aims to simultaneously develop the practical life skills of healthy cooking, create excitement and enhance proficiency in STEAM, nutrition, and geography, and promote healthy eating behavior among school children.

2 Method The development of Chef Koochooloo’s science curriculum was inspired by Dr. Michael Brenner’s work at Harvard University, who used food as a medium to teach science. Advised by Dr. Maya Adams, Children Nutrition’s Expert at Stanford, we learned to emphasize food transparency. Thanks to Phase I grant received from the National Science Foundation (NSF), we empirically tested the potential effectiveness of our methodology on kids’ STEAM learning and engagement. Through the usage of our app, we gathered both quantitative and qualitative data from students, teachers, and parents. We launched the app among 259 students, via a 10-week consecutive study conducted across 11 schools in California. Across Kindergarten, 1st grade, and 2nd grade, 150 of the student participants were in the treatment group (i.e., they were involved in collaborative cooking under the app’s instructions), and 109 were in the control group (i.e., they were only involved in traditional learning) (Table 1). Table 1. Composition of the student sample across grades and settings Number of students Grade level Control Treatment Total Kindergarten 59 78 137 1st grade 32 52 84 2nd grade 18 20 38 School setting In school 51 87 138 After school 58 63 121 Total 109 150 259

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The curriculum was delivered via a series of 10 lessons, each lesson centered on a different country. For each lesson, we also created quizzes tailored to the content delivered in that lesson, whereby the quizzes were designed to test students’ learning in all the subject areas covered by the app (i.e., STEAM, Nutrition, and Global Competency). Students in the treatment group used the Chef Koochooloo application to complete a short test at two points in time: before the study (i.e., pre-test) and after the duration of the study (i.e., post-test), that assessed their STEAM and English Language Arts (ELA/ELD) knowledge. The test consisted of a series of 7 multiple-choice questions focused around ELA/ELD (using concepts related to nutrition and global competency) and 7 multiple-choice questions focused on STEAM topics. To ensure that students’ performance on the post-test was not affected by their recollection of the content administered during the pre-test, we varied the content of the questions between pre- and post-test, while ensuring that the subject matter and difficulty level for each question remained constant across pre- and post-test.

3 Data Analysis and Results We conducted a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), to detect any overall differences between related means. In the control group, there was a slight, statistically significant increase in ELA/ELD scores (13%), and almost no increase in the STEAM scores (3%) (Table 2). In contrast, in the treatment group, there was a statistically significant and relatively large improvement in both ELA/ELD scores (55%) and STEAM scores (51%). While students in the control group improved from 51.83% in the pre-test to 56.09% in the post-test, which represents a statistically small effect, students in the treatment group improved from 47.10% in the pre-test to 72.05% in the post-test, which corresponds to a 53% improvement.

Table 2. Student scores for pre-versus post-test Test scores Control STEAM ELA TOTAL Treatment STEAM ELA TOTAL Total – in school Total – after school

Pre-test 52.95% 50.72% 51.83%

Post-test Increase 54.65% 3% 57.54% 13% 56.09% 8%

46.86% 47.33% 47.10% 49.01% 44.44%

70.86% 73.24% 72.05% 61.74% 86.28%

51% 55% 53% 26% 94%

In addition to these assessments, we collected a preliminary measure of students’ learning of cooking skills, as evaluated by the class instructors. For each of the classes

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that participated in the intervention, instructors indicated, based on their observations of the students in their class, what percentage of students were able to perform certain skills related to cooking (e.g., identifying boiling water, chopping vegetables, naming the five major tastes, etc.). We used these answers to compute a pre- and post-test cooking skills index. We found that students’ performance on this index improved from 41% prior to the treatment to 82% following the treatment, a substantial and statistically significant increase (F = 97.85, p < .001). Additionally, we conducted surveys with parents of the students who went through the 10-week program; 100% of parents reported that their children were eating more vegetables; 90% saw their children trying more new foods (they said that their child was a picky eater, and now willing to try new food); and 80% reported an increased interest in math and science topics. Many positive testimonials were gathered such as: “My son was connecting the countries he learned about to the food, and was excited to learn where each food came from. He also liked learning about nutrition through cooking; for instance, he was going on and on about how Salmon has Omega 3 and makes your brain smarter.” Thematic analysis of parents’ survey indicated that our program had a positive impact on children’s social skills such as self-confidence and team working (50% of parents agreed on it), along with their attitudes towards healthy eating (watching vegetables go from “yuck” to “yum” for the children), which sets the stage for instilling lifelong healthy eating patterns in children. These results provide convergent evidence that our intervention was successful at enhancing students’ learning of STEAM and ELA/ELD concepts, while helping students acquire important cooking skills in the process. Analysis of parents’ and teachers’ surveys revealed that Chef Koochooloo approach has helped empowering children, particularly girls in exuding confidence. As our advisor, Dr. Richard Zare, suggests: “passion for food and how it is cooked connect people and strengthen their bonds simply because it is a universal experience whose joys can be so easily shared, this enjoyment greatly increases with an understanding of the science behind what we eat.”

4 Discussion and Conclusion Research has proven that in general, cooking classroom interventions in early education have resulted in increased knowledge of nutrition, and self-efficacy, aligned with shaping of healthy behaviors in eating [14]. Our research and data collection has proven that through our particular approach, we have generated enthusiasm and motivation among students to learn STEAM while improving their learning outcomes and enhancing their knowledge of global competency [15]. Moreover, our collaborative approach emphasizes students’ critical thinking skills and focuses on teacher-student interaction; thus, school contexts in which Chef Koochooloo program is implemented, provide a studentcentered environment where teacher’s role is more of a ‘facilitator’ (who helps students develop critical thinking skills by teaching them how to ask questions and find solutions through exploration) and a ‘delegator’ (who gives students in-class projects to help them stay engaged and is available when students need their help) [16].

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One of the major topics in global competency education is acquisition of knowledge and understanding of other countries and cultures. Over time, such substantive engagement with these topics will build the foundation for students’ understanding of the world. We have proven that studying about other cultures through food, has positive effects on students’ global competence skills, and makes learning more inclusive and culturally relevant. By empowering over 2000 educators and parents worldwide through our phase 1 study and classes, Chef Koochooloo has proved to boost the eating habits of families in Northern California, creating healthier, happier children who are socially responsible and aware of the world they live in (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Chef Koochooloo’s collaborative approach emphasizes students’ critical thinking skills and focuses on teacher-student interaction.

Teaching with Chef Koochooloo app engages students with multi-sensory stimuli and involves them in activity-based learning, making STEAM learning both culturally and gender relevant. It promotes students towards healthier life and social behaviors. During the pilot phase, our program became a seamless extension of the curriculum in the classroom. Our research studies captured the qualities of this new multidisciplinary education model, and as a result, we have been awarded a NSF Phase II grant, where we will continue to further our research and develop our product into a commercially viable product for both the elementary and the homeschooling market. Acknowledgements. This research was supported by the National Science Foundation, through a Phase I SBIR grant (Award No: 1722436). We thank our advisors, Dr. Michael Brenner (Harvard University), Dr. Kip Tellez (UC Santa Cruz) and Dr. Claudia Mazziotti (Stanford Research Institute Center for Technology in Learning), and Dr. Richard Zare (Stanford University) who provided their in-kind services, insight and expertise that greatly assisted the shaping of our pedagogy. We thank Dr. Glen Larsen and Dr. Rajesh Mehta who guided us through the NSF application process, and for their insights and assistance with our research methodology and for comments that greatly shaped our research and outcomes. We would also like to show our gratitude to the school principals and teachers that participated in the pilot studies, and for sharing their pearls of wisdom with us during the course of this research.

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References 1. Rausch, R.: Nutrition and academic performance in school-age children: the relation to obesity and food insufficiency. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 3(2) (2013) https://doi.org/10.4172/21559600.1000190 2. Shaw, S.R., Gomes, P., Polotskaia, A., Jankowska, A.M.: The relationship between student health and academic performance: implications for school psychologists. School Psychol. Int. 36(2), 115–134 (2015) 3. Burrows, T., Goldman, S., Olson, R.K., Byrne, B., Coventry, W.L.: Associations between selected dietary behaviors and academic achievement: a study of Australian school aged children. Appetite 116, 372–380 (2017) 4. Hill, J.O., Wyatt, H.R., Reed, G.W., Peters, J.C.: Obesity and the environment: where do we go from here? Science 299(5608), 853–855 (2003) 5. Wechsler, H., Devereaux, R.S., Davis, M., Collins, J.: Using the school environment to promote physical activity and healthy eating. Prev. Med. 31(2), S121–S137 (2000) 6. The whole child approach to education. http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/siteASCD/publica tions/wholechild/WC-One-Pager.pdf 7. Slade, S., Griffith, D.: A whole child approach to student success. KEDI J. Educ. Policy (2013) http://eng.kedi.re.kr 8. ACT: A report on: The condition of STEM 2016. National (2016). http://www.act.org/cont ent/dam/act/unsecured/documents/STEM2016_52_National.pdf 9. Haselton, M., Norton, D., White, D.: Leveraging Game-Based Learning for STEM Education: The Benefits of Non-Linear Instruction. McGraw Hill Education, New York (2017) 10. Sunder, S.G.: Connecting IB to the NGSS. The dual implementation of international baccalaureate and the next generation science standards: challenges and opportunities. International Baccalaureate Organization, UK (2016) 11. Sabourian, L.: An industry perspective on STEM education for the future. In: ISSIP-NSF Workshop Presentation (2019) 12. Chef Koochooloo: Bring the kids into the kitchen! https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/ chef-koochooloo-bring-the-kids-into-the-kitchen#/ 13. The Delicious Recipe behind Chef Koochooloo. https://medium.com/@laylasabourian/thedelicious-recipe-behind-chef-koochooloo-3d7f2eb22e63 14. Chenhall, C.: Improving cooking and food preparation skills: a synthesis of the evidence to inform program and policy development (2010). ISBN: 978-1-100-16498-4 15. Rowat, A.C., et al.: The kitchen as a physics classroom. Phys. Educ. 49(5), 512–522 (2014) 16. Heydarnejad, T., Hosseini Fatemi, A., Ghonsooly, B.: An exploration of EFL teachers’ teaching styles and emotions. J. Appl. Linguist. Lang. Res. 4(2), 26–46 (2017)

The Sustainable Business Model of Health Resort Enterprise and the Role of Education in Pro-ecological Behavior Adam R. Szromek(&) Department of Organization and Management, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland [email protected]

Abstract. The article provides the opportunity to include in the business model of a health resorts enterprise the tasks and objectives of combating key medical and tourist dysfunctions, making the model a sustainable business model. At first, however, an assessment of business models’ components was made and then it was proposed to complement them with preventative and educational activities and other activities limiting the negative results of tourist and therapeutic activity. The spa tourism enterprises activity was used by the author as an example to present such a process. The research basis for the provided information are the results of own study made on the basis of Polish sanatoriums’ business model analysis. To study the business model structure, CANVAS concept was used. As a result, a health resort enterprise business model structure was presented and recommendations complementing this model with sustainable tourism elements were formulated. The assessment of undertaken activities towards guidelines proposed in literature, both for tourist destinations and enterprises, indicates the maladjustment of business models of health resort enterprises in this scope. The basic activities that protect the natural and climate resources of health resorts result from legal provisions imposed by the state and applicable to all enterprises running business activity in the health resort area. They are, therefore, neither included in business models nor undertaken with the awareness on improving natural environment and community, but rather they result from taking care of one’s own business. Keywords: Education of managers tourism
Business model


Sustainability
Health resorts
Spa

1 Introduction From the very beginning of post-industrial era, one can also notice negative consequences of industrial and technology development wave. Some of them manifested themselves almost immediately, and some only after a few decades. An answer to these consequences is the concept of sustainable development, at first understood very narrowly as a tool to combat the degradation of environment, and sometime later expanded to many social and economic phenomena. Currently, it is almost universal in its scope, covering also the activity associated with tourist economy and its influence © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 144–150, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_22

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on the environment [1, 2]. Therefore, one must notice that tourist sustainable development is not only about managing resources aimed to save the environment and to limit the emission of pollutants, but also about combating tourist dysfunctions, including the negative effects of tourist traffic, the excessive expansion of tourist infrastructure or exclusion of local culture of the tourist destination by way of promoting mass culture. The article provides the opportunity to include in the business model of a tourism enterprise the tasks and objectives of combating key tourist dysfunctions by health education, making the model a sustainable business model. Exemplification of the process of complementing enterprise business model with elements of sustainable development was carried out on the basis of spa tourism enterprises. The research basis for the provided knowledge are the results of own study made on the basis of 17 Polish health resort enterprises’ business model analysis. To study the business model structure, CANVAS concept was used. Therefore, the research objective of the article is to assess the business models components of spa tourism enterprises in Poland and to indicate the possibility of expanding them with educational elements.

2 Characteristics of Business Models Running any business or social activity requires to determine and order particular activities and processes and to capture interrelations. For business activity, the so-called business model is a very useful tool used to generalize the relations between the complex components making up the business. The concept of business model is differently understood in literature. Sometimes it is defined as characteristics of the described business [3] or as a description of relations between components in an organization that result in creation of value for the organization [4]. In many cases, the business model is a tool used to run the business [5]. J. Magretta [3] considers the business models to be a story explaining how the enterprise works. J. B. Wit [6], in turn, states that the essence of business model is visual depiction of organization functioning logic, its elements or ventures in the form of appropriately named, interlinked elements of a template that – once populated with content – ensure logical understanding of the process of functioning, survival and development of an organization. A. Osterwalder and Y. Pigneur [7], based on diversified approach to business model, define it as a conceptual tool containing a set of elements and their relations with defined objectives that allow to present the business logic of the company. At the same time, it is a description of values, that the enterprise is able to provide to market segments, and a description of the organization, along with network relations with partners to create value. The idea of business model as a tool is also promoted by D. Teece [5] who perceives it as a tool describing the design or architecture of creation, supply or value capturing mechanisms. According to him, the core of business model is defining the way in which the enterprise captures the value for the customers, entices them to pay for this value and calculates payables into profits. S. Prendeville and N. Bocken [8] described business model as a conceptual tool describing the activities that refer to

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business transactions between customers, partners and suppliers and the organization and their participation in the development and capturing of value. M. Al.-Debei et al. [9] perceive business models as an abstract textual or graphic representation of interrelated structures of model architecture prepared by the organization and of all the products and services that the organization has in offer and that are essential to achieve its goal. Literature cites many different types of business models or unconventional examples of their use. It seems, however, that there is no need to characterize them further as they are usually of individual nature. One of the most popular business model schemes is CANVAS by A. Osterwalder and Y. Pigneur [7]. This model takes into account nine interconnected and interacting elements (components). These are: customers segments, value proposals, distribution channels, customer relations, revenue streams, key resources, key activities, key partners and costs structure. It is also possible to group these nine components into four areas of business activity that is: customers, offer, infrastructure and relevant financial standing. The need to take the sustainable development into account in business modeling can be solved by the more and more often discussed issue of sustainable business models. Sustainable business model is a set of components where the interactions between them and between these components and the stakeholders create, provide and capture and list sustainable value for many stakeholders [10]. It is, therefore, a tool to include sustainable development rules to the company’s value logic and logic of value creation by the enterprise [11]. A wide overview of literature defining sustainable business models was carried out by S. Nosratabadi et al. [12], thanks to which sustainable development components in business models of enterprises carrying out their activity in 14 thematic areas were indicated. S. Nosratabadi et al. [12] explain that there are 4 main approaches to designing sustainable business model. These are: designing a sustainable value proposition, designing sustainable value creation, designing sustainable value delivering, generating sustainable partnership networks for creating and delivering such sustainable value, which can meet the social, environmental, and economic benefits at the same time. The examples of solutions presented by S. Nosratabadi et al. [12], and in particular of sustainable value and creating reliable partnership networks to create and deliver such sustainable values can be noticed in publications of such authors as M. Naramski, K. Herman and A.R. Szromek [13, 14].

3 Methods and Materials The activities associated with the attempt to consolidate the sustainable development rules within own tourist activity should apply to all tourist enterprises. However, one can identify such forms and types of tourism where these practices should be a priority. This applies, in particular, to business activity carried out on the basis of the use of natural resources and conducting the health education for spread of pro-ecological behavior. One of such forms is health resort tourism based on the use of health education, climate and natural resources in its business activity. Its integral part is health resort

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treatment, meaning health benefit rendered within spa tourism offered in the health resort1. The essence of sustainable health resort activities should be such use of therapeutic raw materials and climate to achieve economic benefit without a threat to the continuity of raw materials availability, both now and in the future. It is, therefore, a sustainable development concept translated directly into the health resort areas. In the course of literature analyses, a question arises: are the elements of sustainable development and health education present among the priorities of the components of business models of spa tourism enterprises? Polish spa tourism enterprises are included in the state health system, which means that they are, at the same time, health care institutions, where spa services are rendered. The basis of health treatments are such disciplines as balneology and physical medicine that uses natural healing raw materials and the climate to carry out the health resort services. The program of complete privatization in the years 2005–2013 led to a sale of almost all state health resort enterprises, therefore, nowadays they are private companies [15, 16]. These companies implement, in part, the social tasks of the traditional health resort treatment (recommended by state health insurers) and, in part, they carry out commercial activity by rendering spa tourism services, spa & wellness services and recreation in the health resort. Due to the fact that the management process of these enterprises depends on the knowledge, skills and experience of the managers, it was decided to study the model of their functioning based on the business model concept. The objective of own research in spa tourism enterprises was to determine the applicability of business model and to determine the types of these spa business models to propose introduction of selected components of sustainable tourism to these models. The carried out empirical research was about discovering components constituting business models present in spa tourism enterprises in Poland. It was made on the basis of CANVAS business model [7] that divides the model into nine key components (discussed earlier). The research was carried out in March and April 2018 in 17 spa tourism enterprises on the basis of in-depth interviews with managers of these enterprises and analysis of components of the business models formulated by these managers. The enterprises under analysis were selected from the list of health resorts facilities developed and shared by the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Poland. The selection was made on the basis of potential of provided services – these were the biggest health resort enterprises in Poland. The market coverage of the enterprises participating in the research covers 33% of the health resort market in Poland. The studied enterprises had at their disposal 95 health resort facilities (from among 241 facilities in total). Some questions concerned not only the indication of selected response options. The respondents had to indicate the most important ones or assign them a rating in a relevant order. On this basis, a significance measure was developed (U) on a scale of 0 to 1. The designed questionnaire allowed to systematize the collected information and draw conclusions in the form of knowledge on the business models in the biggest health resort enterprises in Poland.

1

In Poland, a health resort is an area approved by the government, where raw materials and infrastructure used to render therapeutic services and providing accommodation and catering in spas are located. In Poland, there are 45 health resorts.

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4 Results of Own Research In the first stage of in-depth interviews with managers of spa tourism enterprises, it was found that managers of 5 out of 17 studied enterprises know and use business models in health resort activities (29,4%). However, these managers had only fragmentary overviews concerning specific areas of their business activity. Among them, the components that underwent modeling the most often were key activities, market segments, communication channels and customer relations (although they were not necessarily named as such). No concise characteristics of business model components were observed, for example in the form of a detailed description of value proposals for the customer and their references to other model components. Further exploration by way of asking detailed questions indicated that the actual knowledge of business models in the studied enterprises is much smaller than initially declared. It essentially refers to abstract understanding of business models, without the ability to present with the use of text or graphics the interrelated architecture structures of the model. None of the enterprises showed a formalized attempt to integrate all components of the business model based on the business model concepts known in the literature. Only scarce attempts to integrate selected business model components were noted. It must be, therefore, stated that the use of business models in analyzed enterprises is incidental and fragmentary. The next steps of research process concern an attempt to characterize the specific components of business model. The basis of every component characteristics were the results of the interviews with spa tourism enterprises managers taking part in the research. The managers of spa tourism enterprises see a significant difference between practical meaning of the undertaken activities (what they do) and their purpose (why do they do this?). One can notice the awareness of the managers that the essence of health resort activity is not only reacting to the needs of health resort tourists by rendering services, but also contributing to the improvement of their health and well-being once their stay is over. It is, therefore, about achieving stable health effects. Health education is one of the key elements of spa therapy. All managers, when asked about the key value that their health resort enterprise provides their customers with, said that it is the stay effect meaning maintaining or improving the customer’s health (U = 1.0). What can also be noticed is the importance of rendering specialist and recreational treatments, as the second key values are, ex aequo, the relaxing services effect that is de-stress, sense of beauty, beauty improvement, loss of body mass, improvement of fitness and sport results (U = 0.82) and stay in comfortable conditions that is in a place of therapeutic climate properties (U = 0.82). Slightly less important is the integration between the tourist and other people (U = 0.71). One of the key values for the patient is the ability to stay away from their everyday routine (U = 0.65). Another value was the provision of cognitive, cultural and religious values obtained thanks to the participation in various forms of intellectual and spiritual activity (U = 0.47).

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The first place among basic activities oriented directly towards the customer are accommodation services (U = 1.00), health resort treatment services (natural medicine treatments) (U = 1.00), catering services (U = 0.80) and programming of health resort medicine therapy (U = 0.80). It is worth noting that, among complementary activities associated with the enterprise organization, the leading position is occupied by care and sourcing of natural resources (U = 1.00), as well as marketing activities (U = 0.88) and manufacturing activity associated with the sale of raw materials (for example mineral waters bottler) (U = 0.53). It means, therefore, that despite a lack of references to the sustainable development rules in the business model components, the undertaken activities take into account the need to care about natural resources, at least in the scope directly concerning the business activity. Conducting activities in the field of health education has been placed further (U = 0.30), which means that it is not a priority for spa enterprises. Health education focused on health behaviors can strengthen the health effects of patients and at the same time increase the sustainability of business models.

5 Conclusions Analyzing the obtained results in view of the solutions proposed in the literature, it can be stated that tourist and health resort business activity carried out in Polish health resorts takes into account the proposed solutions only in a limited scope. This also applies to health education. Quite often, the manner of introducing corrective actions is also improper. Another shortcoming is the situation of making protection of natural resources dependent on one’s own interests, within which the sourced resources are used. Another drawback is the lack of awareness of the importance of health education, which has been observed by the low importance attributed to this issue. Meanwhile, it is one of the basic elements of sustainability to improve the health of spa patients. The positive sides include the awareness concerning the importance of positive relations with the local community and the need to support local government when it comes to maintaining natural facilities (spa parks, graduation towers). The assessment of undertaken activities towards guidelines proposed in literature, both for tourist destinations and enterprises, indicates the maladjustment of business models of health resort enterprises in this scope. It applies both to the awareness concerning the need to implement sustainable development rules to business, as well as their realistic use to counteract threats, among others through health education. Acknowledgments. This paper was published as part of the research project ‘A business model for health resort enterprises’ No. 2017/25/B/HS4/00301, supervised and financed by the National Science Center in Poland and as part of statutory research BK-235/ROZ-1/2020 (13/010/BK_ 20/0042) at the Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Organization and Management.

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References 1. The Global Sustainable Tourism Council: GSTC criteria for hotels. GSTC criteria for tour operators. GSTC criteria for destinations (2019). http://www.gstcouncil.org/gstc-criteria/. Accessed 1 Aug 2019 2. United Nations. The United Nations Development Programme (2016). http://www.undp.org/ content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html. Accessed 1 Aug 2019 3. Magretta, J.: Why business models matter? Harv. Bus. Rev. 80(5), 86–92 (2002) 4. Battistella, C., Toni, A., Zan, G., Pessot, E.: Cultivating business model agility through focused capabilities: a multiple case study. J. Bus. Res. 73, 65–82 (2017) 5. Teece, D.: Business models and dynamic capabilities. Long Range Plan. 51, 40–49 (2017) 6. Wit, B.: Ekologistyka w systemie zarządzania odpadami niebezpiecznymi, Towarzystwo Naukowe Organizacji i Kierowania. Stowarzyszenie Wyższej Użyteczności, vol. 138. Dom Organizatora, Toruń (2016) 7. Osterwalder, A., Pigneur, Y.: Business Model Generation A Handbook for Visionaries, Game Changers, and Challengers, vol. 59. Paperback, Hoboken (2010) 8. Prendeville, S., Bocken, N.: Sustainable business models through service design. Procedia Manuf. 8, 292–299 (2017) 9. Al-Debei, M., El-Haddadeh, R., Avison, D.: Defining the business model in the new world of digital business. In: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Americas Conference on Information Systems, Toronto, ON, Canada, 14th–17th August 2008 (2008) 10. Geissdoerfer, M., Bocken, N.M., Hultink, E.J.: Design thinking to enhance the sustainable business modelling process—A workshop based on a value mapping process. J. Clean. Prod. 135, 1218–1232 (2016) 11. Abdelkafi, N., Täuscher, K.: Business models for sustainability from a system dynamics perspective. Organ. Environ. 29, 74–96 (2016) 12. Nosratabadi, S., Mosavi, A., Shamshirband, S., Zavadskas, E.K., Rakotonirainy, A., Wing, Chau K.: Sustainable business models: a review. Sustainability 11, 1663 (2019) 13. Szromek, A.R., Herman, K.: A business creation in post-industrial tourism objects: case of the industrial monuments route. Sustainability 11(5), 1451 (2019) 14. Szromek, A.R., Naramski, M.: A business model in spa tourism enterprises: case study from Poland. Sustainable tourism—ways to counteract the negative effects of overtourism at tourist attractions and destinations. Sustainability 11, 2880 (2019) 15. Szromek, A.R., Romaniuk, P., Hadzik, A.: The privatization of spa companies in Poland— an evaluation of policy assumptions and implementation. Health Policy 120, 362–368 (2016) 16. Szromek, A.R., Kapczyński, A.: Hypotheses concerning the development of Polish spas in the years 1949–2006. Tourism Manag. 29, 1035–1037 (2008)

Mobile Phones in Laboratory: Effects on Laboratory User Performances Bankole K. Fasanya(&), Jesus De La Cruz Jr., Karen Abad, Shuyu Wang, and Wenyi Wang College of Technology, Purdue University Northwest, 169th Street, Hammond, IN 2200, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The use of digital devices has grown exponentially over the years. Particularly, mobile phone usage has grown and now plays essential roles in human life. The use of mobile phones during lectures and laboratories has become popular among students. This paper outlines the pros and cons of mobile phone usage during lab sessions. Two different laboratories were used for the study; hands-on and computer based. Thirty-nine students participated in the study, 37 males and 2 females. During the computer lab-based sessions, student performances were better with mobile phones allowed and it was better when mobile phones were disallowed during the hands-on lab session. This study concluded that mobile phone usage cannot be totally ruled out during the lab session and its usage should be based on the type of activity involved and the nature of the lab. Findings from this study could help regarding the phone use during lab sessions. Keywords: Laboratory introduction


Mobile phone
Learning
Quality
Attention

1 Introduction Digital devices have grown exponentially over the last decades. Devices such as laptops, mobile phones, tablets, smart watches, etc. have become part of our daily lives, making our lives easier and creating some difficulties. These devices have created two opposing arguments in the community: support for mobile phones in the classroom/research laboratory and oppose the use of mobile phones. Studies conducted by multiple researchers at various universities have proven and disproven these arguments, which justify the need for this study now. No doubt, mobile phones allow people to perform many tasks anytime and anywhere throughout the day, which is limited with computers. Today, nearly 99% of students between the ages 18–29 own some sort of a mobile phone, according to the PEW Research Center [1]. People normally use their mobile phones for social media, texting, or video games, which could potentially be a huge distraction in school [2]. There are many positive effects for using mobile phones to assist students in school. For example, a study conducted by Harman and Sato [3] in 2011 showed a positive correlation of mobile phone usage and individuals with high GPAs. The capacity of mobile phones to run different applications makes it a good © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 151–158, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_23

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resource for student use in the classroom [4]. Further, mobile phones are known for their flexibility, convenience to have access anywhere, allow effective learning aids, ease-ofuse, internet access and the ability for reminders [5, 6]. Contrary to the positive impact of mobile phones on student academic performances, the use of mobile phones in the classroom has showed higher negative correlation to student GPA than laptops [7]. The same author found that mobile phones usage in the classroom sounds “somewhat disrespectful” to other students and to the teacher. Additionally, students felt that using mobile phones in the classroom result in attention degradation [8]. Today, the talk over whether mobile phones negatively affects laboratory equipment signals or contaminate materials for research seems to be under debate with researchers. However, research has shown that mobile phones can have up to 18 times more harmful bacteria than a toilet handle [9]. Dr. Deepak Bhanot stated that mobile phones could be a potential carrier of harmful bacteria that can result in contamination in sterile zones in microbiological laboratories and the electromagnetic signal can interference with laboratory instrument signals [10]. Using hot mobile phones in the laboratory where there are highly flammable solvents with low flashpoints could be a danger of fire or explosion. Mobile phones have been known to be a distraction, therefore, using a mobile phone in the laboratory where researchers constantly collecting data could negatively affect the accuracy of the dataset. The use of mobile phone in healthcare settings for data collection is being promoted, they could become privacy and security risks, as well as a source of distraction for the workforce [11]. Distraction in health care could leads to mistakes, omissions, and or result in loss of lives. The argument remains, should use of mobile phones be allowed in the laboratory during the lab session? Therefore, it is imperative to study the effects of mobile phones usage in the laboratory, to improve users understanding. The goal of this study was to investigate the potential impacts; the use of mobile phones could pose during lab session at university on the users, lab partners, as well as the laboratory instruments. 1.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Objectives Choose lab session, setting, and develop lab exercise. Develop survey that measured students’ feedback. Set-up lab activities and conduct lab exercise. Grade lab activities. Survey students on mobile phone usage impact.

2 Methodology This study focused on teaching laboratory. The study investigated the impacts of mobile phones usage during lab sessions. Thirty-nine students participated in the study, 37 males, and 2 females. Twenty-seven of the 39 students took hands-on based test and twelve students took the computer lab based test. The study was conducted in two of the laboratories in the College of Technology at Purdue University Northwest.

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All participants were undergraduate students. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire requesting demographic information (gender). Single blind data collection process was adapted in this study. Data were collected in two forms, 1) through laboratory activities, 2) through survey. The survey used was a self-developed questionnaire adapted from a standardized questionnaire retrieved from an online material. Specialist reviewed the questionnaire to validate its content. Part of the questions were presented in a Likert scale and part as open-ended. Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the university approved the study before data collection. Data were collected during in-class activity and through survey completion. The inclass activity was divided into two categories; computer based activity and hands-on based activity. Student performances were measured based on three variables: quality, perfection and duration during computer lab based sessions. All participants were asked to submit their work within the 30 min timeframe. The instructor based on quality, perfection, duration and performance graded each participant’s work. Quality is the degree of completion; perfection is the degree of excellence and duration is how long it took each participant to complete his/her work in the given timeframe. Each element is scaled from 1 to 5 where 1 being very low, and 5, being excellent. The performance is the sum of the scores of quality, perfection, and duration for each student. Four scale points (correct, partial correct, wrong and no answer) were used to measured performance during the hands-on session. Prior the activity, students were given a brief lecture over 3 specific topics (Bearings, Motor Mounting and Shaft Alignment). Students complete a hands-on lab related to the topics treated. The overall assessment were taken over three weeks. During each activity, participants completed the assigned tasks at two sessions. In session one, mobile phones were allowed and not allowed during session two. Survey was also administered after the completion of the activity. Lastly, survey was administered to all participants. The survey contained 14-scaled questions and 5-open-ended questions. Before the survey was distributed, the purpose of the research was explained with all participants. The lab experimenter clearly stated that the completion of the survey should be anonymous and the survey completion lasted for 20 min.

3 Data Compilation and Analysis Participants’ data were compiled and analyzed using Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet version 2016 (Microsoft, Redmont, WA, USA). Approximately, 97% (N = 38) of the participants identified their age group; 30 students (77%) fell into group 1 (Ages 17 to 25) and 7 students (18%) fell into group 2 (Age 26 to 30). Twenty-seven students participated in hands on laboratory and 12 students participated in the computer-based laboratory. Figure 1 shows the graphical representation of the participants based on laboratory activity type.

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Hands on

Computer based

31%

69%

Fig. 1. Pictorial representation of the participants based on lab activity type

3.1

Results on Hands-on Based Laboratory

Overall student performances on hands-on lab with mobile phones, show 63% correct answers, 21% partial correct, 7% wrong and 9% no answer. Without mobile phones, the overall results show a 75% correct answer, 16% partial correct, 4% wrong and 5% no answer. Results further show that about 11% of the participants interacted with another classmate when mobile phones were allowed and about 23% interacted when mobile phones were disallowed. Results also show that with mobile phones, the overall time spent to complete the assigned task was 10 min and found to be between 13 and 16 min without mobile phones. Results on administered survey after task completion show that 37% received assistance from the class note, 9% from classmates, and 12% from the internet when mobile phone was allowed. Without mobile phones, 37% used the class note, 20% received assistance from classmates and not one used internet source. This reveals that without mobile phones, students interacted more and engaged with one another than when mobile phone was allowed. Findings further show that with the mobile phones, students spent more time, scored less point and engaged less compared with, without the mobile phones. Therefore, the mobile phones eliminated peer-to-peer interaction, which is the main purpose of given laboratory work in the school. 3.2

Results on Computer-Based Laboratory

During computer based activity, the overall results showed that students got a 68% without mobile phones and 79% with mobile phone allowed on quality of work. On perfection, students overall grade was 64% without mobile phone and 78% with mobile phone allowed. Students overall performance grade was 67% without mobile phone and 80% with mobile phone allowed. Duration for activity completion was 69% faster with mobile phone compared with, without mobile phone. Figure 2 shows the distribution of Wilcoxon scores for the participants. Although, the graph indicates a significant difference between use of mobile phone and without mobile phone on participants score. However, the Kruskal-Wallis H test, conducted reveal no statistically significant difference with (p = 0.06360, Chi-square = 3.0671 and DF = 1).

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Fig. 2. Participants score Whisker plot (WO = without mobile phone and W = with mobile phone)

3.3

Results on Survey

Results show that 13% of the students indicated very likely to use mobile phone for personal purposes during laboratory session, 26% more likely, 46% less likely and only 15% indicated not at all. Approximately, 44% indicated using their mobile phones for assistance during laboratory activity, 13% less likely and only 5% not at all. Eightyseven percent of the participants indicated not bothered at all, if someone beside them use mobile phone during laboratory activity and 13% indicated to be bothered. Approximately, 21% of the students indicated to be very and more likely believe that mobile phone affect efficiency, 38% likely and 11% indicated not at all. About 31% indicated that mobile phone usage would affect quality of work, 31% were less likely, 20% were more likely and only 15% indicated not at all. On completion time, 38% indicated likely that use of mobile phones would motivate fast completion, 18% indicated less likely, 13% indicated not at all and 31% indicated more and very likely. About 75% of the students indicated that mobile phone battery flat or misplaced has no effect on their performances while only 25% indicated more and very likely, it will affect their laboratory performance. The three significant questions of the open-ended questions are: in what way do you use your mobile phone for personal use? In what way do you use your mobile phone to assist you during lab sessions (i.e. Calculator, Google, Conversion apps, etc.)? And would you agree to allow cell phone to be used as an academic sources available during lab sections and why?” Participants responses is shown in Table 1. The table indicates in question #1 that most of the participants spent time on phone texting and on social media. Participants’ responses to question #3 contradicted their responses to question #1.

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Question #1 Social media Game Texting Email Emergency notification Job related Take pics

9 1 21 4 2 3 2

Question #2 Calculator Google Others (take pic, pdf scanner, translator, timer)

26 22 6

Question #3 Yes – help understand the class

34

Not necessary

2

Computer are available

1

4 Discussion It is discovered from the analysis that participants performances when mobile phones were allowed was better compared with their performance when mobile phones were disallowed during the hands-on laboratory activity. Findings further indicate that participants interacted and engaged in teamwork better during activity when mobile phone was disallowed. This means that disallowing mobile phone during lab session would foster teamwork and collaboration with teammate. This might be the reason why participants score higher points when mobile phones were disallowed, because of limited distraction. This finding agreed with the [12] findings on the use of mobile phones during lab work. Contrary to the hands-on laboratory findings, participants had higher overall score during the computer based lab activity. This finding agreed with the Harman and Sato, [3] findings, which revealed positive correlation between students GPAs and use of mobile phone. Further, the findings from the survey indicated that approximately 39% of the students agreed that they were likely to use their mobile phones for personal purpose during lab session. The personal purposes acknowledged by the participants, ranges from texting, social media to taking pictures, this finding agreed with [2] who concluded that students mainly used their mobile phone during lecture for texting and web purposes. Of the entire students, 62% indicated that they used their mobile phones for boredom during laboratory session. Approximately, 87% of the participants affirmed that mobile phones usage by the classmate never bothers them nor affect their activity in any form. This finding contradicted [7] finding who concluded in their study that using mobile phones in the learning room somewhat disrespectful and bothers other students. About 23% of the students responded that they used mobile phone because other students used it. Surprisingly, 54% of the students affirmed that not having their mobile phone during laboratory activity contributed to their low performance. Approximately, 59% of the sampled participants responded to the survey that mobile phone use would affect learning efficiency but would improve performances. Not one of the participants agreed that using mobile phones in such laboratory would affect the safety of the laboratory. Revise might be the case, if research laboratory is use for data collection as compare with the teaching laboratory used in this study.

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5 Conclusion Mobile phones have formed the integral part of human connected lives. This study investigated the effect of mobile phones on laboratory safety, student performances, interaction, engagement, and teamwork. Findings from this study show that there is an overall approval of the usage of mobile phones in all laboratories where the study was conducted. Although, there was no clear-cut opinion as to if mobile phones would increase or decrease students performances during lab session. According to the students surveyed, mobile phones have the potential to improve lab activity performances of the students without being a distraction to the other students or guilty of using the device during lab session. Student performances during computer based was higher when mobile phones were allowed compared with when mobile phones were disallowed, however, revised was the case, during the hands-on laboratory activity. It is clear from the study that mobile phones usage in the laboratory would not affect the safety of the laboratory, but would affect teamwork, students’ interaction and collaboration. Further, findings show that performance varies based on the type of laboratory activity performed. This study calls for more study on the effects of mobile phones on the laboratory safety, performance, peer-to-peer interaction, engagement and teamwork. Further investigation into the impact of mobile phones would be conducted in the future by using a different laboratory setting, such as a research laboratory. Acknowledgements. The author would like to acknowledge the assistance rendered by Ms. Precious Fasanya and Mr. Skandip Anand for their assistance during the review of this paper.

References 1. PEW Research Center. Mobile fact sheet (2019). https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/factsheet/mobile/. Accessed 20 Jan 2020 2. Thornton, P., Houser, C.: Using mobile phones in English education in Japan. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 21(3), 217–228 (2005) 3. Harman, B.A., Sato, T.: Cell phone use and grade point average among undergraduate university students. Coll. Stud. J. 45(3), 544–550 (2011) 4. Cheung, S.K.: A case study on the students’ attitude and acceptance of mobile learning. In: Technology in Education. Transforming Educational Practices with Technology, pp. 45–54. Springer, Berlin (2015) 5. Motiwalla, L.F.: Mobile learning: a framework and evaluation. Comput. Educ. 49(3), 581– 596 (2007) 6. Thomas, K., Muñoz, M.A.: Hold the phone! High school students’ perceptions of mobile phone integration in the classroom. Am. Second. Educ. 44(3), 19–37 (2016) 7. Douglas, D., Angel, H., Bethany, W.: Digital devices, distraction, and student performance: does in-class cell phone use reduce learning? Astron. Educ. Revi. (2012) 8. McCoy, B.: Digital distractions in the classroom: student classroom use of digital devices for non-class related purposes (2013) 9. Phenomenex. Using your phone in the lab – helpful or harmful? (2019). https://phenomenex. blog/2019/04/18/phone-tool/. Accessed 30 June 2017

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10. Bhanot, D.: Why mobile phones are not permitted in laboratories? 16 January 2020. https:// lab-training.com/2017/06/30/mobile-phones-not-permitted-laboratories/. Accessed 16 Jan 2020 11. Gill, P.S., Kamath, A., Gill, T.S.: Distraction: an assessment of smartphone usage in health care work settings. Risk Manag. Healthc. Policy 5, 105–114 (2012). https://doi.org/10.2147/ RMHP.S34813

Digital Prequalification for Nursing Trainees with Migration Background Jan A. Neuhöfer(&) and Sabine Hansen Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Finkenau 35, 22081 Hamburg, Germany {Jan.Neuhoefer,Sabine.Hansen}@HAW-Hamburg.de

Abstract. As a profession with high demands on theoretical as well as practical medical knowledge, nursing is an area in which trainees and trainers can benefit strongly from digital learning technologies. This applies even more to trainees with migration background, as the demand on theoretical and practical expertise in nursing is accompanied by high requirements on technical as well as colloquial linguistic proficiency. At this point, digital learning and training can help profoundly by including multi-lingual functionality. At the same time, advanced technologies like virtual reality become more and more important. Consequently, factors like ease of use, comprehensibility, attractiveness, scalability and extensibility need consideration in equal measure in the design and implementation of a learning solution. In this paper, we look at the challenges, give some examples of existing solutions and outline our current project for a mutli-channel approach, funded by the German Ministry of Health. Keywords: Nursing


Blended learning
Virtual training

1 Introduction 1.1

Skills Shortage

Like many European countries, Germany is facing a significant shortage in specialists in a broad range of professions. This accounts for technical domains like engineering and information technologies, but also for other areas, such as the medical and the healthcare sector. Taking healthcare as an example, there is a significant lack in qualified workforce on all qualification levels, from specialized medical doctors down to employees for nursing of the sick and elderly. This trend is reinforced by a broad demographic change, where the ratio of young and old is shifting towards the latter, and more employees leave the labor market than do enter. 1.2

Migration as a Chance

One way to attenuate this trend is integration and education of young immigrants who enter the country for diverse reasons and who are willing to go into professions with a skills shortage. Another way is active recruitment of personnel, both from European and non-European countries. Generally, both ways are applicable in Germany, but © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 159–163, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_24

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either way, candidates face two challenges at the same time: Firstly, aspirants need to qualify for the profession, with theoretical and practical expertise. As an acknowledged occupation, nursing requires a full apprenticeship of three years or, in case of an antecedent apprenticeship in the motherland, passing a test on equivalency. Secondly, applicants need to build up sufficient language skills. Taking the example of nursing, the job requires oral and written communication with colleagues and patients likewise. Consequently, practical qualification for technical as well as colloquial language and etiquette is essential. 1.3

The Challenge

Consequently, education of nursing students with migration background is a complex task and currently covered by nursing and language schools in parallel. As these are most often separate institutions, the indispensable connection of functional and lingual competency usually comes late. At this point, digital learning technologies can help to prequalify trainees as well as professionals, as these technologies can combine both, job-related as well as lingual content into one comprehensive experience. Nevertheless, as there is no international standardization on procedures, equipment, duration or examinations for vocational training in nursing, learning material needs to conform to a country’s individual specifications. Thus, in our development activities, we take German standards on nursing and hygiene as a basis.

2 Tools for Nursing Education 2.1

Common Practice

Very similar to vocational education in most professions, for nursing in Germany, teachers and instructors transfer theoretical knowledge to students via courses in class, with utilization of specialist books about nursing [1] and other traditional learning media. These are then usually also available for post processing at home. Practical sessions in “skills labs” accompany these classroom instructions, where students can safely try out, learn and train hands-on processes in a realistic, simulated environment [2] without endangering themselves or patients. Skills labs can also include one or more nursing manikin [3] with integrated technology to simulate a real patient, including physical limitations and simulated injuries and handicaps. For effective usage, instructors need to rely on good preparation of the students, as occupation times for a skills lab are typically limited. 2.2

Digital Learning

There already are examples for commercial as well as research projects on digital learning technologies in the field of nursing in Germany, both for native and for second-language speakers. One commercial learning tool is SuperNurse [4], a simple quiz application for mobile devices based on Android or iOS, which covers a variety of different practical and theoretical topics around the vocational nursing education. It also

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considers legal and structural aspects of the profession. SuperNurse comes with a graphic avatar that guides the learner through the different categories. As a mainly textbased, digital questionnaire, it is not an explanatory learning tool, but relies on a certain level of already existing knowledge, gained upfront from other sources. Additionally, its usefulness for learners with language barriers – like learners with migration background – is limited, as it requires good mastering of the German language. With a clear focus on communication and German as a foreign language, the application Ein Tag Deutsch in der Pflege (Engl.: One Day of German in Nursing) [5] for common mobile platforms aims to help non-native speakers getting used to conversations between nurse and patient. In an ongoing story with named characters, the learner runs through different situations and can pick verbal reactions, ask questions or give answers via multiple choice. Besides the nursing-specific language, social aspects play an important role, too. Moreover, continuous speech output supports lingualacoustic advancements. However, the application does not address beginners of the German language, as it assumes B1 as skills level. Some expressions come with additional explanations, but there are no translations to help a beginner to participate in ambitious “conversations”. Moreover, although custodial procedures are included, their scope as well as their level of detail do not suffice for comprehensive procedural training. As a third example, the platform Vielfalt Pflegen (English: Diversity of Nursing) [6] offers a broad range of Web-Based Training modules with a strong focus on social and especially cultural and intercultural aspects of nursing. Similar to SuperNurse, it covers a broad range of topics around the vocational education, and similar to Ein Tag Deutsch in der Pflege, it uses illustrated, personal storytelling to deal with these topics. Nevertheless, the training modules do not so much focus on the custodial procedures themselves as a systematic, process-based instruction. 2.3

Virtual Training

Although most procedures in nursing might be less ambitious than the Da Vinci® Skills Simulator [7] for endoscopic, surgical training, for example, virtual reality has reached the custodial domain, and its value is verifiable. The Nursing school in Porto, Portugal, for example, has compared a desktop, clinical virtual simulator (desktop application) to a low-fidelity simulator and a realistic environment in a randomized controlled trial and found significantly positive effects on learning as well as satisfaction when using the virtual simulator [8]. One research activity driven in Germany is the Virtual SkillsLab project by the Bielefeld University, Germany. The demonstrator derived from this project allows immersive training of infusion preparation. The system comes in two versions: as a stationary setup (workstation with HTC VIVE) and as a mobile system (Samsung GearVR) and is recognized as felicitous VR learning scenario [9], but covers solely the scenario of infusion preparation, which is just one tiny part of required skills in nursing.

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3 Project Outlook As outlined in Sect. 2, digital learning and immersive training are interesting tools for the learning in nursing. Both can complement ex cathedra teaching, ideally, in an approach of advanced blended learning. Still, as far as now there is no comprehensive digital solution for procedural training in nursing, especially no solution for the growing number of apprentices with migration background, as it is the case in Germany. Therefore, in January 2020, we started a project with a runtime of three years, funded by the German Ministry of Health. The aim of this project is to develop a modular, digital learning system to encounter this need. On the one hand, digital learning content should be accessible with a minimum of technological effort. On the other hand, advanced technologies like serious 3D games and virtual reality promise significant enhancement of the learning efficiency and experience. For this reason, we follow a multi-channel approach, where learners can access content attuned to their skill level and to their individual, technological possibilities. The following chapters give an outline of the features of the current project. 3.1

Visual Content

As a core feature, all visual objects occurring in the learning content will be created as 3D models with two levels of detail each, allowing to create learning content on different technological channels: The high level of detail version (high polygon count) allows using the models for high-quality renderings and animations, embeddable in “classical” web-based trainings. This approach spares the production of photos and videos and permits downstream corrections and production of additional material with a consistent look. The low level of detail version (low polygon count) of the models is necessary to produce interactive 3D applications for mobile as well as stationary devices. Here, special heuristics of 3D data processing like texture baking help to keep the visual quality and grant high performance of the application. 3.2

Learning Modules

As a baseline (or basic/first channel), learners will work through lightweight, multilingual web-based training (short: WBT) modules, covering most essential procedures of nursing. These will run on their personal devices like smartphones or tablets, but also on PCs at home or in class. The default language will be German, but learners will be able to change to an alternative language (English, Spanish, Portuguese and Vietnamese) anytime to facilitate comprehension. The modules will include detailed images, animations, built-in tests and multilingual text display and speech output in all languages. Following SCORM standard, the learning modules will be deployable into a standard learning management system, for easy administration, including statistics on performance, access times etc.

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Interactive Extensions

As an extension, learners will be able to access a serious gaming version of selected nursing processes, to deepen their knowledge interactively in 3D. The serious games will be available in German only and will require successful working through the associated web-based trainings upfront. They will run on desktop PCs with moderate performance and so will need appropriate equipment, either at home or in school. While the web-based training modules will focus on knowledge transfer where static images and animations are sufficient, the interactive training will allow assessment on the actual doing, with free movement in 3D space. However, they will require that trainees have already internalized process knowledge as well as vocabulary. Some custodial procedures may require intensive orientation and movement in 3D space. These procedures involve for example moving around the patient’s bed, looking into containers, opening overhead compartment and are therefore worthwhile for training in virtual reality. Consequently, we plan to investigate the benefit of immersive training with a head-mounted display in comparison to interactive training on a desktop PC. At this point, the need for a tradeoff between potential benefits (training effect) and downsides (ergonomics, costs) will require deliberate interaction design. Acknowledgements. This project is funded by the German Ministry of Health.

References 1. Menche, N. (ed.): Pflege Heute (German Definite Book on Nursing Practice), 7th edn. Urban & Fischer, Amsterdam (2019). ISBN-10: 3437267787 2. Kirwa, L., Gakere, Z.: Clinical skills competence of nursing students. Bachelor thesis at the Lahti University of Applied Sciences, Finland (2016) 3. Aldosary, F.F.: The use of high-fidelity mannequin training to improve the quality of heathcare providers’ performance of CP. J. Transl. Sci. 4 (2018) 4. SuperNurse. Mobile quiz application by “Gesellschaft für digitales Wissensmanagement in der Pflege” (German Association for Digital Knowledge Management in Nursing) (2020). https://supernurse.de/ Accessed 27 Jan 2020 5. Ein Tag Deutsch in der Pflege. Mobile learning application by “Passage – Gemeinnützige Gesellschaft für Arbeit und Integration” (Passage – German Nonprofit Association for Labor and Integration) (2020). https://www.ein-tag-deutsch.de/ Accessed 27 Jan 2020 6. Vielfalt Pflegen. eLearning project by “Zentrum ÜBERLEBEN” (German Center for Torture Victims) (2020). https://vielfalt-pflegen.info/ Accessed 27 Jan 2020 7. Meier, M., Horton, K., John, H.: Da Vinci skills simulator: is an early selection of talented console surgeons possible? J. Robot. Surg. 10, 289–296 (2016) 8. Padilha, J.M., Machado, P.P., Ribeiro, A., Ramos, J., Costa, P.: Clinical virtual simulation in nursing education: randomized controlled trial. J. Med. Internet Res. 21(3), 2019 (2019) 9. Pfeiffer, T., Hainke, C., Meyer, L., Fruhner, M., Niebling, M.: Virtual SkillsLab – Trainingsanwendungen zur Infusionsvorbereitung. In: Proceedings of DeLFI Workshops 2018, Co-Located with the 16th e-Learning Conference of the German Computer Society (DeLFI 2018), Frankfurt, Germany, 10 September 2018

Developing a Reinforcement Learning Agent for the Game of Checkers Henning Knauer(&), Andrea Dederichs-Koch, and Daniel Schilberg Bochum University of Applied Sciences, Lennershofstraße 140, 44801 Bochum, Germany {henning.knauer,andrea.dederichs-koch, daniel.schilberg}@hs-bochum.de

Abstract. The aim of the following paper was to develop, test and evaluate a simple self-learning agent for the game of Checkers based on reinforcement learning and neural networks. The approach followed in this work is rather simple and based on a single deep neural network which is used to evaluate the board states and to choose the next best move for the agent. During the training phases the neural network is trained using a reward system based on different criteria derived from the prior and the current board state that resulted from the last action taken. The neural network takes a state-action pair, consisting of the current state and a possible move option and predicts the total reward that can be expected. This way all possible move options are evaluated and the one with the highest value is chosen as the next move. Keywords: Artificial intelligence
Machine learning
Reinforcement learning
Q-Learning
Neural networks
Smart robotics

1 Introduction Many different approaches have been successfully pursued to develop programs that can reach superhuman performance in different board games like Chess, Checkers or Go. Some of which were based on very extensive game databases like the Checkers program Chinook [1] and others based on self-learning algorithms like AlphaGo Zero [2] for instance which did not need any prior knowledge in form of databases. This paper presents a part of the results of a master thesis project, which dealt with the development of a hardware and software concept for a demonstrator on machine learning. The board game checkers was chosen as the application example. The hardware concept included two desktop robot arms to manipulate the game figures in combination with a camera system to determine and verify the correct positioning of the figures. In the following paper only the result of the software technical concept for the realization of a reinforcement learning agent using an artificial neural network is presented.

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2 Reinforcement Learning Agent The chosen approach for the development of a reinforcement learning agent is based on the ideas of “Q-Learning” [3]. Instead of a tabular approach for the mapping of the Q-function values, which would in this case be infeasible due to the large number of possible game states and actions, a deep neural network is used for the approximation of the Q-function. The so-called Q-function takes a state s and an action a as input values and outputs the value of the given state-action pair, which serves as a measure to rate the given state-action pair. The concept of Q-Learning is based on the assumption that the underlying system is a so-called “Markov Decision Process” [4]. Such a process is based on the following quantities, which are given as a tuple (S, A, r, d). S and A are in our case the sets of possible states S, i.e. different positioning of the pieces on the field and actions A, the respective possible moves in these states. The reward r is in our case calculated from different criteria of the game states before and after a chosen action. The reward is therefore not known at the time of the move but can be calculated at the beginning of the agents following move. d describes the state transition function, which provides the new system state based on a given state action pair. In the present case this new state results from the action performed by the training partner. The following equation [5] provides the basis for the calculation of an approximation of the Q-function and thus also for the decision selection of our agent. ^ aÞ ¼ r þ c maxa0 Qðs ^ 0 ; a0 Þ: Qðs;

ð1Þ

The Q stands for the estimation of the value of the searched Q-function. s′ stands for the new state resulting from the previous state s and the performed action a. a′ stands for the possible actions in the new state s′. It is important to note here that s′ is not the state that results directly from the action a in the initial state s, for example by capturing an opponent’s piece. s′ is the state after the agent’s opponent has made his move and it is the agent’s turn again. The r stands for the reward which is assigned to the given state action pair. The reward function is described in the following section. 2.1

Reward Function

The reward function is calculated from the states s and s′ assigned to an action a that was taken. The calculation is done at the beginning of a new move for the previous move. The value of the reward function is calculated from the following criteria. • • • • •

Difference of the number Difference of the number Difference of the number Difference of the number Number of enemy pieces

of normal pieces of the agent in s and s′ of kings of the agent in s and s′ of normal pieces of the opponent in s and s′ of kings of the opponent in s and s′ that can be captured by the agent in s′

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The listed terms are referred to below as r1 to r5. The total value of the reward function is calculated using the following equation. r¼

r1  2r2 þ r3 þ 2r4 þ 0:5r5 : 50

ð2Þ

The value calculated from the individual terms r1 to r5 is divided by 50 to reduce the value range of the reward function, because the Q-function is to be mapped to a range from −1 to 1. Furthermore, the rewards obtained by capturing pieces should be significantly lower compared to those obtained by finishing a game by victory or defeat. In the event that the game is completed at the time the reward function is evaluated, the function is assigned a value of 1 if the agent won, −1 if the opponent won and 0 if the game ended in a draw. If the game is not yet finished, but the value of the reward function is still 0, it is assigned a very low negative value. 2.2

DNN for Function Approximation

For the approximation of the Q-function a deep neural network is used, which can be trained using the estimated value of the Q-function described in Eq. 1. The DNN consists of five layers and is illustrated in a simplified form in the following (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Simplified illustration of the DNN with one input layer, three hidden layers and one output layer.

The input for the DNN is a vector of the length 32 representing the game state, where elements with the value of zero represent empty fields, elements with the value of 1 represent the agent’s normal pieces and elements with the value of 2 represent the agent’s kings. Pieces of the opponent are represented with the corresponding negative values. The Input Layer is followed by three hidden layers with 64 neurons on the first layer and 128 neurons each on the other layers. All hidden layers are fully connected. The number of hidden layers as well as the number of neurons was initially chosen at random and varied during the subsequent tests. The Output Layer provides a scalar, which is the Q-value assigned to the input vector.

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For the implementation of the neural network in Python the Tensorflow framework was used. 2.3

Training Algorithm

Finally, a learning algorithm was implemented on the basis of the principles described in the two previous sections. The training algorithm trains the DNN over a defined number of training episodes, where one episode spans over the period of a whole match. During the training phase the reinforcement learning agent can play against different opponents using random play or the minimax algorithm. The training of the DNN is carried out at the beginning of the agent’s turn for the previous turn, since the reward can not be calculated before the opponent has finished his turn (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Basic functionality of the algorithm for training the DNN and determining the agent’s next move.

During the training phase the agent’s next moves are determined using the epsilon greedy strategy. At the beginning of the training a high epsilon value is set, which is constantly reduced during the training with an increasing number of performed episodes. When the agent is not in the training mode the epsilon value is always set to zero, which means that no more random turns are executed.

3 Evaluation For the evaluation of the developed reinforcement learning agent two further variations of the DNN used for the agent’s action selection were created. These variations differ from the model described in Sect. 2.2 in the number of hidden layers, the numbers of neurons on these layers and the activation functions used.

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During the first training phase for the evaluation the three models were trained over 1500 episodes against an opponent using random play. A learning rate of 0.01 was chosen for the training of the DNN. After the training phases were successfully finished for each model the models were tested against the same opponent as during the training. Seven different versions of the models, representing different learning stages which were saved during the training were tested over 100 episodes each. The following figure shows the results of the three models from the first training phase.

Fig. 3. Results of the evaluation of the three models after 1500 episodes. The graphs show the victory defeat ratio of each model. V1 refers to the DNN described in Sect. 2.2.

Figure 3 shows that the DNN model V1, which refers to the model described in Sect. 2.2 shows a positive development over the course of the first training phase, while the other models do not show any positive developments at all. After the first training phase the model V1 was trained further over two more training phases with an increased number of episodes. In the second training phase the model was trained over 2500 more episodes with the same settings as in the first training phase. The next evaluation after the second training phase was finished showed a trend similar to the graph of V1 shown in Fig. 3 with a maximum victory defeat ratio of 40. Although the performance increased further the results between the single stages of the training showed some heavy fluctuations with significantly decreased numbers of games won. In order to avoid these fluctuations, the learning rate for the training of the DNN was reduced to a value of 0.001 in a third training phase and the best model of the second phase was trained further over 2500 more episodes. Despite the reduced learning rate, the fluctuation of the performance continued over the evaluation of the third training phase and the results from the previous phase could not be improved.

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4 Conclusion The developed concept of a reinforcement learning agent for the game of checkers was able to improve its performance during the first training phases against a randomly playing opponent. However, the performance could not be improved significantly over the subsequent trainings phases and showed some heavy fluctuations. While the agent wins against a randomly playing opponent with a very high probability, it does not pose much of a challenge to an experienced player. Although an improved play can certainly be observed.

References 1. Schaeffer, J., Lake, R., Lu, P., Bryant, M.: Chinook: the world man-machine checkers champion. AI Magazine 17(1), 21 (1996). AAAI 2. Silver, D., Schrittwieser, J., Simonyan, K., et al.: Mastering the game of go without human knowledge, DeepMind (2017) 3. Christopher, J., Watkins, C.H., Dayan, P.: Q-learning. Mach. Learn. 8, 279–292 (1992) 4. Sutton, Richard S., Barto, Andrew G.: Reinforcement Learning: In Introduction. The MIT Press, Cambridge (2017) 5. Frochte, J.: Maschinelles Lernen: Grundlagen und Algorithmen in Python (2019)

Mobile App for Psycho-Statistics Learning Carlos Ramos-Galarza1,2(&), Mónica Acosta-Rodas3, Mónica Bolaños-Pasquel2, and Jorge Cruz-Cárdenas4 1

Facultad de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Av. 12 de Octubre y Roca, Quito, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Centro de Investigación en Mecatrónica y Sistemas Interactivos – MIST, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Av. Machala y Sabanilla, Quito, Ecuador [email protected] 3 Eotvos Lórand University, Izabella Street 46, Budapest, Hungary [email protected] 4 Centro de Investigación ESTec, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Av. Machala y Sabanilla, Quito, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. The requirements to complete the curricula for psychology students has a nodal point which has not yet been solved, it is the acquirement of statistical analyses competences. In this sense, the present work represents the creative development of a mobile application for teaching statistics to Psychology students and professionals. Taking into account this problem and based on the technological use that a mobile cellphone has, our proposal as technological innovation is to create series of mobile applications, for Android and IOS, addressing students and professionals in this science that would like to conduct statistical analyses with high quality competences. In this first mobile application proposed, descriptive statistics will be taught, and it will have various stages with sub-components to interact with the user of the app. Keywords: Apps
Smartphones
Psycho statistics innovation
Learning and teaching


Technological

1 Introduction The professional formation in Psychology presents a lack related to the development of competences to realize statistical analyses, which is reflected on the limitations that professionals from this field show when executing these kind of procedures [1]. The lack of competences to solve statistical analyses has to do with facts such as: lack of interest on learning statistics [2], anxiety when learning statistics [3], fear and stress related to statistical resolutions [4], the negative beliefs about statistical usefulness in the psychological practice [5]. These difficulties when acquiring the statistical knowledge has not only a negative impact in the professional practice of this career, but, it has influenced negatively in the scientific production of this science. For example, in Latin American context, in the

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country of Ecuador, where this technological innovation is proposed, it has been found that there are statistical significant correlations among the number of scientific publications and the domain of statistical techniques in favor of the execution of high impact research and its publishing on recognized magazines, as well as it has been found that statistical lack of knowledge is related to the low scientific production [6]. It is because of it that it is urgent to propose technological innovation that are able to solve this issue in the Psychology field and its professionals would be able to develop these competences that are in favor of the research on this important field. Hence, this article presents a study of need of the development of a mobile application for learning psycho-statistics and the elements that will be part of this technological innovation are described.

2 Method The aim was to identify the need to development of a mobile application to learn statistics in the field of Psychology, and in order to find it, an on-line questionnaire was applied to 43 persons between psychology students and psychology professionals (67.4% women, and 32.6% men). According to the age, 17 participants were aged less than 21 years, representing the 39.5%; 9 participants were aged between 21 and 25 years (20.9%); 2 participants were aged between 26 and 30 years (4.7%); 7 participants were aged between 31 and 35 years (16.3%); 3 participants aged between 36 and 40 years (7.0%), 3 participants aged between 41 and 45 years (7.0%); 1 participant aged between 46 and 50 years (2.3%), and, 1 participant aged between 51 and 55 years (2.3%).

3 Results In the questionnaire applied to assess the need of the development of a technological tool, the questions realized were about the importance of learning psycho-statistics and the interest of counting with an application for smartphones that will works with this subject. In Table 1, results found are presented. Table 1. Descriptive data of participants’ answers Item

Answer Frequency Fairly Q1. How important is for you to learn Very Important: statistics? important: 15 (34.9%) 27 (62.8%) Total Fairly Q2. Do you know statistical Domain: procedures such as central tendency, Domain: 5 (11.6%) 10 (23.3%) dispersion or inferential statistics techniques? Fairly Q3. How important do you think it Very Important: Important: would be the development of a 34 (79.1%) 8 (18.6%) mobile application for learning psychostatistics?

Somehow important: 0 (0%) Low Domain: 19 (44.2%)

Not Important: 1 (2.3%) Null Domain: 9 (20.9%)

Somehow Important: 1 (2.3%)

Not Important: 0 (0%) (continued)

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Item Q4. If there would be a mobile application to learn psychostatistics, how interested would you be in download it? Q5. What kind of contents would to like to find in a mobile application that will allow learning psychostatistics? Q6. What kind of mobile application would you download to learn psychostatistics?

Answer Frequency Very Fairly Interested: Interested: 30 (69.8%) 9 (20.9%) Psychology’s Exercises of real problems: Statistical Calculation: 34 (79.1%) 6 (14.0%) Free: Paid: 43 (100%) 0 (0%)

Somehow Interested: 3 (7.0%)

Not Interested: 1 (2.3%)

Statistical theoretical problems: 3 (7.0%)

Number exercises: 0 (0%)

4 Technological Development Taking into account this problem and based on the technological use that a mobile cellphone has, our proposal as technological innovation is to create series of mobile applications, for Android and IOS, addressing students and professionals in this science that would like to conduct statistical analyses with high quality competences. In this first mobile application proposed, descriptive statistics will be taught, and it will have various stages with sub-components to interact with the user of the app. Its first sub-component has a menu where statistical components will be displayed to be trained in the app, and which are essential to achieve research competences and will show how to make reports in Psychology. The user of the app has to try and solve each stage in order to continue to the next sub-phase and reach the level of knowledge proposed once the program started. The second sub-component presents as a first task a central tendency exercise, where the user will find the theory about frequencies, mean, median, mode and percentages. Also, videos and interactive problems to reinforce these topics will be presented. For the third sub-component, statistical dispersion measurement concepts such as standard deviation will be addressed. To elaborate this theme, the history that encompasses concepts already revised and exercises already solved related with the contents will be presented. In the fourth sub-component a real life problem will be presented and an avatar should solve the situation proposed applying descriptive statistics of central tendency and dispersion, once this problem is solved, the user will be able to approve the first component of the app and will be ready to get into the second mobile application which will approach inferential statistics. In the Fig. 1, the technological concept to develop is presented.

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Fig. 1. Conceptual development of the mobile application to learn psycho-statistics.

5 Conclusions This study presents the conceptual development of a mobile application designed for smartphones that allow learning psycho-statistics. The importance of the development of this application lies on the proposal of a solution to one of the nuclear problems in the educational formation of a psychologist, which has to do with the null or minimum domain of statistics techniques in favor of the investigation in this field. The content of this first application encompasses series of applications that will be developed for learning psycho-statistics, specifically in this first application, descriptive statistical procedures such as central tendency and dispersion will be addressed. As it is possible to see in this study of demand for the development of this application, most of the psychology professionals and psychology students considers of great importance to count with this kind of technological innovations that contributes to its professional formation, with the necessary motivation to acquire knowledge, taking into account that statistical learning at the university was related to a low motivational class for the student, however, through the use of a mobile application, a motivational and meaningful learning would be promote. Finally, as a research line in the future, is propose the analysis of the impact of using this technological tool, through an experimental study, in which this application will be compared with the traditional learning of psycho-statistics and being able to show that learning psycho-statistics could be entertained and reachable for psychology professionals and students.

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References 1. Ramos-Galarza, C.: El abandono de la estadística en la psicología de ecuador. Rev. Chil. Neuro-Psiquiat. 55(2), 135–137 (2017) 2. Comas, C., Martins, J., Nascimento, M., Estrada, A.: Estudio de las actitudes hacia la estadístic en estudiantes de psicología. Bolema 31(57), 479–496 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1590/1980-4415v31n57a23 3. Onwuegbuzie, A., Wilson, V.: Statistics anxiety: nature, etiology, antecedents, effect, and treatments-a comprehensive review of the literature. Teach. High. Educ. 8(2), 195–209 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1080/1356251032000052447 4. Ashaari, N., Judi, H., Mohamed, H., Tengku, T.: Student´s attitude towards statistics course. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 18, 287–294 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.05.041 5. Ramos-Galarza, C.: Los mitos de la publicación de un artículo científico psicológico en Ecuador. Rev. Chil. Neuro-Psiquiat. 56(3), 194–197 (2018) 6. Ramos-Galarza, C., Bolaños-Pasquel, M., Ramos, V., Moscoso-Salazar, J., Jadán-Guerrero, J.: Critical status research in ecuadorian psychology: the abandonment of statistics as a basis of scientific production. Psych. Soc. Educ. 11(3), 281–298 (2019)

Mental Health in Different College Education Systems Brenda Rivero-Orozco(&), Alberto Rossa-Sierra(&), and Fabiola Cortes-Chavez(&) Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Álvaro del Portillo 49, 45010 Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico {0201136,lurosa,fcortes}@up.edu.mx

Abstract. Over the years, there has been an increased severity and complexity of mental health problems among college students all over the world, emphasizing in Mexico and China. The focus of this research is to investigate the mental health of Chinese and Mexican students through a nationwide sample. The researchers employed secondary data analysis, data from the American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment, students’ demographic information was computed and separated, and research questions were analyzed with specific descriptive statistical methods. This study helps faculty members and other university personnel who work with either Mexican or Chinese students to better understand and improve their mental health status. Keywords: Mental Health Chinese students


College education
Stress
Mexican students


1 Introduction It is not uncommon to hear comments on college campuses like “I’m so stressed I want to die” or “I can’t do it anymore”. These types of comments might seem innocent, but they undermine the problems of college students who suffer real mental issues. It is essential that people seek for a physical, mental and social balance in their lives, especially during emerging adulthood, since it is a crucial period of development, where if they lack a stable life structure, mental disorders are more likely to arise [1]. According to a World Health Organization research, led by Columbia University Psychology Professor Randy P Auerbach [2], of 14,000 first-year college students surveyed, from all around the world, 35% struggled with a mental illness, 21.2% experience major depressive disorder, and 18.6% of students struggle with general anxiety disorder. These prove that academic work results in emotional issues often manifested in moments of academic stress. The most common mental disorders are mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders. Asia is a continent full of diversity, culture, and value for education, who can teach and learn from a developing country like Mexico. Take the study, Depression among Chinese University Students: Prevalence and Socio-Demographic, published in 2003, as an example [3]. It was found that there is a compelling association between being satisfied with their major and depression. Students who were satisfied with their major © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 175–181, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_27

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had lower depression scores than those who were not satisfied. The issue is that in China, parents usually choose their son’s majors, consequently, students don’t like their majors, have low interest, passion and learning motivation in academic performance, resulting in depressive symptoms. In the same study, it was found that students from poor families had higher depression than those from well-off families, in the same way, poor parental relationships and deficient paternal education are factors that lead to depressive symptoms, which proves that several factors affect students’ emotional state. According to an analysis published in 2016 from the Mental Health survey carried out by the World Health Organization [4], in Mexico the “mental ill” label is too heavy, being the second country in the world with the most stigma to mental illness and among people with psychiatric conditions. This proves that Mexico still has a long way to go when talking about mental illness, nevertheless, every country has a different way to carry out with this situation, hence this study aims to compare the impact of academic pressure on mental health, between college students in Mexican and Chinese academic systems, by using a nationwide sample and including two comparison groups.

2 Methodology The methodology used for this paper included research design, data collection, and statistical analysis. The results were facilitated by the survey ACHA-NCHA III [5], this is a survey used by YiYing Xiong [6] for his doctorate: An Exploration of Asian International Students’ Mental Health: Comparisons to American Students and Other International Students in the United States. The participants of this study were students that offered to participate in the survey, and samples in the dataset represent this population well because of the diversity of the participants and the valid data collecting strategies. The two schools that involved were Universidad Panamericana Campus Guadalajara, Mexico and Jinan University, Shangdong, China. During the selected period, there were 55 participants, including 30 Mexican students, and 25 Chinese students. The exclusion criteria required that all of the participants must be current students, the age of the students must vary between 17 and 25 years, and they must be either Mexican or Chinese. The survey accepted variants on marital status, whether they work or not, if they are foreign or local, and different beliefs and religions. Other impacting factors included hours worked, GPA, types of stress, and stress level. Besides the questionnaires, we based on a prospective and comparative crosssectional observational method according to personal experiences to have a better understanding of the students’ behavior. Technique of Analyzing the Data. First, we conducted a descriptive analysis of every item to identify outliers, missing values, and the frequencies of each response to have a general overview of the responses. Students’ demographic information was computed and separated to provide a general profile of the participants. Each research question was analyzed with specific descriptive statistical methods. The reasons were: (1) the simplicity of the methods makes them easy to understand; (2) they don’t require a large sample size; (3) descriptive statistics help us to simplify large amounts of data sensibly [7].

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Furthermore, descriptions based on inferential statistics were taken into account, to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone.

3 Results It was asked how students would describe their overall health, and the majority answer very good (50%), while just 3.7% describe their health as fair, all of which were Chinese. Furthermore, it was evaluated how much they agreed with the following questions: (1) I feel that I belong at my college/university. (2) I feel that students’ health and well-being is a priority at my college/university. (3) At my college/university, I feel that the campus climate encourages free and open discussion about students’ health and well-being. (4) At my college/university, we are a campus where we look out for each other. We obtained that a great number of students agreed, although an important number disagree with the last three, including both Chinese and Mexican students. When analyzing the hours that students invest in a week, we obtained that students spend a considerable amount of time at school, socializing with friends, studying and other academic activities, and using social media, whereas 60% of the students interviewed spent 0 h participating in meditation or meditative activities. To have a good daily performance, a good night’s sleep is required, hence we needed to know how students were sleeping (Fig. 1). Additionally, it was obtained that 16% felt tired or sleepy during the day, seven days a week; and 20% at least 5 days a week.

Fig. 1. Shows how many hours does a student sleep during weekdays.

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Concerning how safe do students usually feel (1) On my campus (daytime)? (2) On my campus (nighttime)? (3) In the community surrounding my campus (daytime)? (4) In the community surrounding my campus (nighttime)? (Fig. 4), it was revealed with no surprise that in China they feel mostly safe regardless of their location and time. Alcohol. Being such a strong beverage that can affect someone’s behavior, is an important factor to attend. We obtained that 63% of the students interviewed drank alcohol within the last two weeks. Afterward, we asked if they (a) did get drunk, (b) or intended to get drunk; and 35% answer that they indeed tried to get drunk. What stands out is that Mexicans drank not aiming to get drunk and Chinese did. Within the last 12 months of the participants life, the experience with alcohol for most students did not involve (a) did something I later regretted, but included (b) blackout, what is striking in this particular question is that all of the Chinese students answered yes; (c) brownout, (d) got in trouble with the police, (e) got in trouble with college/university authorities, (f) someone had sex with me without my consent, here we obtained that the only two people who answered yes, where Chinese students; (g) had sex with someone without their consent, the total of Chinese participants answered “yes”; (h) had unprotected sex, 3 students out of 6 where from China; (i) physically injured myself, (j) physically injured another person, (k) seriously considered suicide, in this two cases (i & k) 2 out of 3 students who answered “yes” were Chinese; (l) needed medical help when drinking alcohol, 4 out of 5 positive answers where from Chinese students. Personal Well-Being. Here we evaluated if when having a personal problem how many people would consider seeking help from a mental health professional. And we were pleased to discover that 83.3% of the people said yes. Interviewed reported that they have felt nervous, hopeless, restless, sad, worthless at least some of the time. Mental Health. Stress is a daily state for college students, in order to prove this we asked them within the last 30 days how would they rate their overall level of stress, and as predicted 31.5% said they have experienced high stress, 44.4% moderate stress, 18.5% low and 5.6% no stress, surprisingly all Chinese answered no stress or low stress. Subsequently, we gather information on whether or not they have received psychological or mental health services, 70.4% said no and 29.6% have received help. And emphasizing on the last 12 months, 74.1% haven’t received mental health services and 25.9% have provided by, their current campus health and/or counseling center (32%), a mental health provider in the local community near their campus (18%), a mental health provider in their hometown (29%), a mental health provider not described above (21%). Overall Health. There are innumerable diseases that can affect us, in this paper we collected that the most common ones are acne and allergies. And within the last 12 months to what extent did their ongoing or chronic condition(s) affect their academic performance. Finally, we studied if (a) assault (physical), (b) assault (sexual), (c) allergies, (d) anxiety, this was the most experienced one which impacted negatively their performance in class; (e) attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder or Attention-Deficit Disorder, (f) Concussion or Traumatic Brain Injury, (g) depression, (h) eating

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disorder/problem, (i) headaches/migraines, (j) Influenza, (k) injury, this was the second most experienced one which impacted negatively students’ performance in class. (l) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, (m) sleep difficulties, (n) stress, (o) other, have affected their academic performance. Demographic Information. The people interviewed were 38.2% male and 61.8% female. The age range was between 17–26, and their school year varied from first to fifth. Their primary source of health insurance was mostly covered by their parents. Their approximate cumulative grade average went from A+ to D. Moreover, most of them live with a parent/guardian/other family member’s home.

4 Discussion After investigating Chinese and Mexican mental health, help-seeking intentions, and help-seeking behavior, results indicated that the students who described their health as fair were Chinese. Related to alcohol, Mexicans do not aim to get drunk while Chinese drink to get drunk. Besides, Chinese students often have blackouts when drinking alcohol while only 25% of Mexicans experience them. The only two people who stated that someone had sex with them without their consent were Chinese. Three out of six students who have had unprotected sex were Chinese, just as, two out of three students who have physically injured themselves and seriously considered suicide. And finally, most Chinese students have needed medical help when drinking. Chinese students are often more oriented toward having a well-organized plan for their futures, giving them stability and mental health. However cultural differences regarding mental health were an important factor that marked a difference in results, most of the Asian cultures emphasized self-control and restraint of emotions. Ergo, Chinese students may have been cautious when expressing their emotions compared to Mexican cultures [8]. When reporting their responses related to depressive disorders, the participants may have reported in a socially desirable manner. We also found that Chinese students tended to think that their problems were not important [9], and thus did not report the severity of some of the symptoms. In this study, Chinese students reported more serious depressive symptoms than the other group, such as suicidal ideation, suicidal attempt, and self-injury. All of the Chinese interviewed have injured themselves, meanwhile, only 1 Mexican answered: “once or twice a year”. In relation to mental health, stress is a constant state for college students obtaining that 31.5% said they have experienced high stress, 44.4% moderate stress, 18.5% low and 5.6% no stress. Consequently, we collect information related to psychological or mental health services, 70.4% said no and 29.6% have received help (mostly Chinese). This proves that Chinese students seek mental help, which accords with previous researchers who have also found that Asian students tend to utilize counseling services more when they came across serious mental problems [10]. Here is a factor that needs to be adopted by the Mexican culture, we need to stop putting labels and judging mental ill patients, instead we must promote help-seeking intentions and help-seeking behavior to promote positive mental health. Therefore, more outreach programs or psychoeducational workshops about the importance of mental health should be

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conducted to improve their awareness of mental health concerns and therefore increase their willingness to seek help and to utilize counseling services that may promote their mental health. Still, the high number of Chinese students who reported self-injury, suicidal ideation, and suicidal attempts in this study also reflects the need to pay more attention to their mental health status. As a result, Chinese students also need to be trained to improve their mental health status such as training about the detection of mental health problems. Nonetheless, Chinese college students know how to cope with the stress affecting their lives with non-stop, differently to Mexican students who at the presence of difficulties their school performance tends to be affected.

5 Conclusions For all the reasons mentioned before, we propose that university personnel including faculty members, mental health professionals, and other university personnel should collaborate to build a tolerant and respectful environment for all students regardless of their cultural backgrounds and country of residence and provide culturally sensitive services to them. Future Work. Based on the results and limitations of the study, a few recommendations were provided for future research. First, a more representative sample may be utilized in future research whether using secondary data or conducting original research. Second, different techniques of analyzing the data, such as descriptions based on inferential statistics, to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone. Acknowledgments. I want to especially acknowledge two classmates who collaborated with me in the data collection: Bibiana Guerrero, and Lia Rivas. I want to thank some of the wonderful professors at Universidad Panamericana who have helped me to fulfill this investigation: Carlos Aceves and Paulina Manzano.

References 1. Universitarios estresados. https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/11/27/eps/1543332171_826777.html 2. Auerbach, R.P., Alonso, J., Cuijpers, P., Hasking, P., Nock, M.K., Stein, D.J., Mortier, P., Benjet,C., Demyttenaere, K., Ebert, D.D., Green, J.G., Murray, E., Pinder-Amaker, S., Vilagut, G., Zaslavsky, A.M., Kessler, R.C., Sampson, N.A.: Supplemental material for WHO World Mental Health Surveys international college student project: prevalence and distribution of mental disorders. J. Abnormal Psychol. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1037/ abn0000362.supp 3. Jiang, L., Chen, Z.C.: Prevalence of Depression Among College-Goers in Mainland China. Medicine (2003) 4. WHO World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Project: Prevalence and Distribution of Mental Disorders. https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/abn-abn0000 362.pdf 5. ACHA-NCHA. http://www.acha-ncha.org/pubs_rpts.html

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6. Xiong, Y.: An Exploration of Asian International Students’ Mental Health: Comparisons to American Students and Other International Students in the United States. Ohio University (2018) 7. Nachtigall, C., Kroehne, U., Funke, F., Steyer, R.: Pros and cons of structural equation modeling. Meth. Psychol. Res. Online 8(2), 1–22 (2003) 8. Kim, B.S.K., Atkinson, D.R., Yang, P.H.: The asian values scale: development, factor analysis, validation, and reliability. J. Counsel. Psychol. 46(3), 342–352 (1999) 9. Russell, J., Thomson, G., Rosenthal, D.: International student use of university health and counselling services. Higher Educ. 56(1), 59–75 (2008) 10. The Real Reason More College Students Than Ever Are Seeking Mental Health Treatment. https://www.health.com/condition/depression/anxiety-depression-college-university-students

The Effects of the Exposure to an Aromatic Environment on Students During University Engineering Final Exam – A Pilot Study Gabriela G. Reyes-Zárate(&), Miguel X. Rodríguez-Paz, and Jorge A. González-Mendívil Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias Tecnológico de Monterrey, Vía Atlixcáyotl 5718, 72453 Puebla, Mexico [email protected] Abstract. During the final exams some students feel some emotional pressure to solve it. The purpose of this study was to make a preliminary comparison in two groups of an engineering exam at the end of the semester that contains numerical procedures and uses Canvas as a Source of Learning Management System. For this study, 59 students participated, 29 constituted the study group, and 30 were the control group. In the study, lavender hydrolate was used as an aromatic environment, which was applied to the tables prior to the exam. Hydrolate has the same activity as essential oil, only it has soft smell. Both exams had the same number of questions, although different contexts. In addition to this study, an evaluation of smell was made in students using the Barcelona Smell Test-24, which is a good and reliable method to determine the detection, recognition and identification of different odors. From the results obtained from the control group, 61% felt stressed. The average time to solve the exam was 110 min. For the group to which hydrolate was applied at the desks, in the middle of the exam, 25% felt stressed. The average time to complete the exam was 93 min. The results of the olfaction test for the students were normal according to the BAST-24: 99% (detection), 78% (recognition/memory) and 72% (identification). Students who were in a lavender odor environment reported significantly an improvement in their well-being, and the time used to solve the exam was less than the control group. This is a pilot study of a didactic experience. The results showed that there is a decrease in the time to solve an exam of the study group compared with the control group for this research work. Future studies of the work environments should continue to be investigated at other activities during the semester as a useful alternative to the wellbeing of the students. Keywords: Aromatic environment innovation
Higher education


Olfaction
Wellbeing
Educational

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 182–187, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_28

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1 Introduction In an academic environment university, exams are a main concern for students who can suffer stressful conditions. During an exam, a student can develop memory and focus skills to solve the problems. In the final exam, some students suffer pressure to solve it. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect. Heuberger (2015) mentioned that there are effects of essential oils to increase cognitive functions such as attention, learning, memory in solving problems [1], all of which during a final exam could help the student get a better result. Kato (2012) conducted a study in which aroma environment can produce effects to maintain attention in prolonged activities [2]. The intention when applying a soft essence of lavender was to create this environment. Likewise, Sakamoto (2005) described that lavender environment during recess periods showed less deterioration of performance in subsequent work sessions, lavender aroma may also exert positive effects on working efficiency in some situations [3]. The olfactory function develops in the upper part of the nasal cavities. The nose is divided into two nasal cavities. In the nasal cavity, olfactory neurons capture volatile odorants and it is here that the chemical transduction process is carried out. Each odorant molecule binds to a specific receptor and the chemical reaction becomes an electrical signal of the sensory neurons within the olfactory bulb. The olfactory information has a direct connection with the amygdala and the hippocampus as can be seen in Fig. 1. The amygdala is related to emotions and the hippocampus is related to memory and learning. When the aroma reaches the brain, the amygdala connects that aroma with an emotion and the hippocampus relates that smell to a memory.

Fig. 1. Olfactory route to Hippocampus and Amygdala. Source: CogBlog (2015)

According to Hawkes (2015), a psychophysical test provides direct information about a person’s perceptual experience when they are exposed to olfactory stimuli [4]. The olfactory capacity was evaluated with Barcelona Smell Test BAST-24 in order to make studies of sensory and cognitive function. Sensory function refers to smell detection, and cognitive to recognition and identification. The BAST-24 is a validated test that uses odors known to the Spanish population [5], as well as being safe for

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people (Cardesín, 2006). Lavender hydrolate was used for the study. One of the methods of obtaining essential oil is by means of the steam distillation technique. According to Peredo (2009), steam distillation is a technique to separate waterinsoluble and slightly volatile organic substances by changes on temperature and water vapor or steam [6]. The result of steam distillation is essential oil and hydrolate which is aromatized water; both are sold in stores, the oil that is a concentrated product and the hydrolate that is used as aromatized water. This paper shows a pilot study reviewing the ability to smell and the relationship that exists in an aromatized environment to provide an improvement in the reduction of time used to solve a final exam. This study will continue in other semesters and at other periods of time to observe student performance. Finally, conclusions and proposal for future work will be presented as part of this research.

2 Methodology The study focuses on the effect on students in an aromatic environment for the final exam. In the first part, students were tested for smell perception. The BAST-24 test was selected, which contains different odorants. To perform this test, a ventilated place with stable conditions was used. The test began with 5 questions: gender, age, level of education, questions about a situation of damage in the nose, or nose operation. Then, each person was tested with the odorants to answer questions related to the detection, knowledge and identification. Finally, percentages of detection, recognition and identification were determined. The next part of the study was in the final exam. Two groups that study the same engineering subject and taught by the same professor were selected. The academic level of the students was very similar. One of the technological tools used in this area is the Canvas platform. The final exam was applied at the Tecnológico de Monterrey. One group of 29 students (9 female, 20 male) was selected as a study. The second group of 30 students (14 female, 16 male) was selected as control group. 10 mins of the time before the beginning of the exam and without students in the classroom, lavender hydrolate was applied on the tables. No aromatic product was applied to the control group. The exam had the same number of questions, only different contexts. The process of applying the final evaluation exam for the semester was the same for both groups, the starting instructions were given at the beginning, then each student opened the exam and began to solve it. The Canvas platform kept the record of the time used by each student from the moment they started the exam until they finished it. All data was compiled in an Excel sheet and analyzed with Minitab ®.

3 Results According to the study of Dr. Mullol (2012), normal conditional of smell sense represents 80% in detection, 55% in recognition and 50% identification. Women performed better in comparison to men in olfactory task of the same age [7]. The student’s average results obtained were in the normal level of smell sense: 99% (detection), 78%

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(recognition/memory) and 72% (identification). More in detail, in Fig. 2 are the data of Lavender Group (LavenG) and Control Group (ContrG). The test with students coincided with Dr. Mullol’s statement that women have an improvement in olfactory task than men of the same age group.

Fig. 2. Smell detection, smell recognition/memory and identification. For detection, recognition/memory or identification, normal level of smell sense was significantly higher in woman (continue line) than in men (dotted line).

The next result was the time used to solve the final exam. A normality study was carried out for each group in order to compare the averages. The study group did have a normal distribution, but the other group did not (Fig. 3). For this reason, a study of Mann Withney medians was conducted.

Fig. 3. Normality test results. The times to solve the exam in the lavender scent group had a pvalue of 0.072, and the control group