Advanced Technology in Textiles: Fibre to Apparel 9819921414, 9789819921416

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgements
About This Book
Contents
About the Editors
Introduction to Textiles and Textile Fibers
1 Introduction
2 History of Textiles and Clothing
3 Divisions of Textile Industry
3.1 Spinning Department
3.2 Fabric Department
3.3 Wet Process Department
3.4 Garment Department
4 Textile Fiber
4.1 Staple and Filament Fiber
4.2 Classification of Textile Fiber
5 Natural Fiber
5.1 Cotton Fiber
5.2 Jute Fiber
5.3 Wool Fiber
5.4 Silk Fiber
6 Man-Made Fiber
6.1 Natural Polymer Base Man-Made Fiber
6.2 Synthetic Polymer Base Man-Made Fiber
7 Contrasts Between Natural Fiber and Manmade/Artificial Fiber
8 High Performance Fiber
8.1 Kevlar Fiber
8.2 Nomex Fiber
8.3 Glass Fiber
8.4 Carbon Fiber
9 Future Trends and Development
10 Conclusions
References
Management and Maintenance of Textile Machinery
1 Basics of Maintenance
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Maintenance
1.3 Aims of Maintenance
1.4 Plant Failure Analysis
1.5 Impact of Poor Maintenance
1.6 The Necessity of Maintenance
1.7 Types of Maintenance
1.8 Maintenance Control
1.9 Maintenance Budget
2 Lubricants Used in Textile Industry
2.1 Lubricants
2.2 Lubrication
2.3 Types of Industrial Lubricants [5]
2.4 Properties of Lubricants [6]
2.5 Principles of Lubrication
2.6 Methods of Lubrication
2.7 Storage of Lubricants
3 Ergonomics and Material Handling
3.1 Risk Factors in Material Handling
3.2 Health Effect and Workstation Environment
3.3 Fundamental Ergonomic Principles
3.4 Types of Ergonomics
4 Safety and Health Issues in the Textile Industry
4.1 Major Health Issues in Textile Industry
5 Maintenance Activities of Textile Machinery
5.1 Maintenance of Spinning Machine
5.2 Maintenance of Fabric Industry
5.3 Maintenance of Wet Processing (Dyeing) Industry
5.4 Maintenance of Garments Machinery
6 Conclusion
References
Advanced Technology in Fabric Manufacturing
1 Introduction
2 Weaving
2.1 Classification of Weaving
2.2 Warping
2.3 Sizing
2.4 Drawing-In and Tying-In
2.5 Advances Made in Warp Preparation for Weaving
2.6 Weaving According to the Filling Insertion System
2.7 Weaving According to the Shedding Mechanism
2.8 Sample Weaving
2.9 Specialized Weaving
2.10 Advances Made in Weaving and Weaving Quality Control
3 Knitting
3.1 Classification of Knitting
3.2 Weft Knitting
3.3 Advances Made in Circular Weft Knitting
3.4 Flat Weft Knitting (V-bed Knitting)
3.5 Advances Made in Flat Weft Knitting
3.6 Warp Knitting
3.7 Specialized Warp Knitting
3.8 Multiaxial Knitting
3.9 3D Knitting
3.10 4D Knitting
3.11 Advanced Knitting Quality Control
4 Conclusion
References
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing
1 Introduction
2 Advanced and Sustainable Dyeing Technologies
2.1 Use of Lesser, Nontoxic and Biodegradable Chemicals
2.2 Dyeing in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
2.3 Nanotechnology Based Dyeing
2.4 Plasma Assisted Dyeing
2.5 Laser Assisted Dyeing
2.6 Foam Dyeing
2.7 Ultrasound Assisted Dyeing
2.8 Microwave Assisted Dyeing
2.9 Enzymatic Dyeing
3 Conclusion
References
Innovative Textile Printing Technology
1 Introduction
2 General Procedure of Textile Printing
3 Technologies Toward Advanced Textile Printing
3.1 Screen Technology for Screen Printing
3.2 Screen Printing Technology
3.3 Automated Textile Printing
3.4 Cooling Transfer Printing Technology
3.5 Biological Printing
3.6 Technology for 3D Printing
4 The Conclusion
References
Advanced Technology in Fabric Finishing
1 Introduction
2 Foam Finishing
2.1 Continuous Foam Application
2.2 Foam Finishing Technology
2.3 Sancowad Foam Finishing Machine
3 Spray Finishing Technology
4 Bio-polishing
5 Plasma Finishing
6 Ultrasonic Technology in Fabric Finishing
7 Aero/Airo Finishes
7.1 Materials and Fabric Constructions
7.2 Airo Finishing Process
8 Bio Extract Finishing (Micania Micrantha Leaf)
9 Micro Sanded Finishing
10 Micro-encapsulation
10.1 Spray Coating Micro-Encapsulation
10.2 Wall Deposition from Solution
10.3 Matrix Solidification Micro-encapsulation
11 Polyester Fabric Finishing and Green Theme Technology
12 Supercritical Fluid Technology
13 Advanced Ballistic Protection Finishing
14 Beetling
15 Photographic Prints
16 Stone Washing
17 Embossing
18 Conclusion
References
Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing
1 Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing
2 Three-Dimensional (3D) Body Scanner
2.1 Types of 3D Body Scanners
3 Advanced Technology in Apparel CAD
3.1 Virtual Fitting Rooms
3.2 Virtual Sampling and Approval
4 Intelligent Apparel CAD Systems
4.1 Parametric Design
4.2 Combination of Artificial Intelligence and CAD
5 Automation in Spreading Process
5.1 Automatic Spreading Machine
6 Automation in Cutting Process
6.1 Automated Cutting Equipment
6.2 Round Blade Knife
6.3 Drag Knife
6.4 Reciprocating Knife
6.5 Punch
7 Advanced Technologies in Apparel Production System
7.1 Types of Production Systems
7.2 Comparison Among Production Systems
8 Advanced Technologies in Sewing
8.1 Application of the Robotics Technology in Apparel Sewing
8.2 Advanced Technologies in Quality Monitoring System of Fabrics and Garment Seams
9 Sew-Free Technologies
9.1 Welding Technology
9.2 Bonding Technology
9.3 Advantages of Sew-Free Technologies
9.4 Disadvantages of Sew-Free Technologies
9.5 Applications of Sew-Free Garments
9.6 Design Possibilities of Sew-Free Garments
10 Advanced Technology in Fusing
10.1 Advanced Technologies of Fusing for Avoiding Shrinkage of Fabric
11 Advanced Technology in Finishing
11.1 Pressing
12 Digital Printing and Embroidery
12.1 Digital Printing
12.2 Embroidery
13 Advanced Technology in Manikins
14 Application of Smart and Technical Textiles in Apparel
15 Advanced Technology in Apparel Supply Chain
16 Advance Planning and Scheduling (APS)
16.1 Advanced Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System
17 RFID Technology
17.1 Application of RFID Technology in Textile and Apparel
18 Blockchain Technology
19 Application of AI and Soft Computing in Apparel Processing and Business
19.1 Types of AI and Soft Computing Approaches
19.2 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Estimation of Fiber and Yarn Properties
19.3 Application of Computing-Based Systems in the Prediction of Fabric Properties
19.4 Application of Computing-Based Systems in the Detection of Fabric Fault
19.5 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Garment Manufacturing and Business
19.6 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Production Planning and Control
19.7 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Supply Chain Management (SCM)
19.8 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Retailing
20 Challenges of Using Advanced Technologies in Apparel Production and Processing and Probable Ways to Overcome the Challenges
20.1 High Initial Cost of Installment and Maintenance Cost
20.2 Unexpected Production Delays
20.3 Security Threats
20.4 Unemployment
21 Summary
References
Non-woven
1 Introduction
1.1 Categories of Non-woven
1.2 Special Features of Non-woven Fabric Structure
1.3 Properties of Non-woven Fabric
1.4 Required Raw Materials for Manufacturing Non-woven Fabric
2 Manufacturing Process of Non-woven
2.1 Web Formation
2.2 Web Bonding
2.3 Finishing
3 Application of Non-woven in Various Sector
3.1 Non-woven in Apparel Sector
3.2 Non-woven in Agricultural Sector
3.3 Non-woven in Medical Textile Sector
3.4 Non-woven in Geotextile Sector
3.5 Non-woven in Automotive Textile Sector
3.6 Non-woven with Flame Retardancy in Different Technical Textile Sectors
3.7 Non-woven in Space
4 Developments in Raw Materials in Non-woven (Use of Biodegradable Polymer)
4.1 Recycled Materials Usage in Non-woven
4.2 Nano Fibers in Non-woven (Development in Manufacturing Technology)
5 Conclusion
References
Structural Coloration in Textiles
1 Introduction
2 Structural Coloration in Nature
3 Mechanism of Structural Coloration
3.1 Interference of Thin-Film
3.2 Diffraction Gratings
3.3 Scattering of Light
3.4 Photonic Crystals
4 Reasons for the Development of Structural Coloration in the Textile Industry
5 Structural Color on Textiles
5.1 Structural Color by Directly Drawing from Colloidal Suspensions
5.2 Self-assembly of Colloidal Microspheres by Gravitational Sedimentation
5.3 Photonic Crystal Structure by Vertical Deposition Self-assembly
5.4 Use of Photonic Bandgap and Resonant Mie Scattering
5.5 Non-iridescent Structural Color by Rapid Polymerization of Dopamine
6 Conclusion
References
Waste Management in Textile Industry
1 Introduction
2 Types of Textile Wastes
3 Sources of Textile Wastes
4 Textile Waste and Present Scenario
5 Waste Management System
6 Benefits from Waste Management System
7 Waste Management Scenario
8 Waste Management Policy
8.1 Recycling of Textile Waste
8.2 Wastewater/Effluent Treatment
9 Textile Waste Reduction
10 Conclusion
References
Application of Biochemical in Textile
1 Introduction
1.1 Enzyme
1.2 Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes
1.3 Classification and Terminology of the Major Groups of Enzymes
1.4 The Systematic Names of Enzymes
1.5 List of Important Enzymes for Textile Application
2 Parameters of Enzymatic Treatment
3 Use of Enzymes in Different Textile Processing
3.1 Desizing
3.2 Scouring
3.3 Bleaching
3.4 Hydrogen Peroxide Removal
3.5 Bio-polishing
3.6 Denim Finishing
4 Other Potential Applications of Enzymes
4.1 Wool Anti-Felting
4.2 Increasing Dye Ability of Different Fibers
4.3 Decolorization of Textile Effluent
4.4 Synthetic Fiber Modification
5 Advantages of Enzymatic Processing or Using Enzymes
6 Conclusion
References
Nano Materials in Textile Processing
1 Nano and Nano-Materials
1.1 Classifications of Nano-Materials
1.2 Characteristics of Nano-Materials
1.3 Characterization of Nano-Materials
2 Application of Nano-Materials in Textiles
2.1 Nanotechnology for Water Repellent Textiles
2.2 Nanotechnology for UV Protection Textiles
2.3 Nanotechnology for Anti-Bacterial Textiles
2.4 Anti-Static Nano Finishes for Textiles
2.5 Nano Finishes for Wrinkle Resistant Textiles
2.6 Nano-Particles for Fabrication of Electronic Textiles
2.7 Nano-Materials for Textile Wastewater Treatment
3 Methods of Application of Nano-Particles on Textile
3.1 Sol–gel Technique
3.2 Electro Deposition of Nano-Material
3.3 Plasma Polymerization Coating
3.4 Layer-By-Layer Assembly
4 Prospect of Nano-Materials—Possibilities and Limitations
4.1 Next-Generation Finishing Technologies
5 Conclusions
References

Citation preview

Textile Science and Clothing Technology

Md. Mizanur Rahman Mohammad Mashud Md. Mostafizur Rahman   Editors

Advanced Technology in Textiles Fibre to Apparel

Textile Science and Clothing Technology Series Editor Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, SgT Group & API, Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

This series aims to broadly cover all the aspects related to textiles science and technology and clothing science and technology. Below are the areas fall under the aims and scope of this series, but not limited to: Production and properties of various natural and synthetic fibres; Production and properties of different yarns, fabrics and apparels; Manufacturing aspects of textiles and clothing; Modelling and Simulation aspects related to textiles and clothing; Production and properties of Nonwovens; Evaluation/testing of various properties of textiles and clothing products; Supply chain management of textiles and clothing; Aspects related to Clothing Science such as comfort; Functional aspects and evaluation of textiles; Textile biomaterials and bioengineering; Nano, micro, smart, sport and intelligent textiles; Various aspects of industrial and technical applications of textiles and clothing; Apparel manufacturing and engineering; New developments and applications pertaining to textiles and clothing materials and their manufacturing methods; Textile design aspects; Sustainable fashion and textiles; Green Textiles and Eco-Fashion; Sustainability aspects of textiles and clothing; Environmental assessments of textiles and clothing supply chain; Green Composites; Sustainable Luxury and Sustainable Consumption; Waste Management in Textiles; Sustainability Standards and Green labels; Social and Economic Sustainability of Textiles and Clothing.

Md. Mizanur Rahman · Mohammad Mashud · Md. Mostafizur Rahman Editors

Advanced Technology in Textiles Fibre to Apparel

Editors Md. Mizanur Rahman Department of Mechatronics Engineering World University of Bangladesh Dhaka, Bangladesh

Mohammad Mashud Mechanical Engineering Khulna University of Engineering and Technology Khulna, Bangladesh

Md. Mostafizur Rahman Department of Textile Engineering World University of Bangladesh Dhaka, Bangladesh

ISSN 2197-9863 ISSN 2197-9871 (electronic) Textile Science and Clothing Technology ISBN 978-981-99-2141-6 ISBN 978-981-99-2142-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

The development of civilization is aligned with the development of the apparel sector. The progress of the apparel sector is mainly due to the contributions of thousands of researchers and innovators in textile technology over the last several decades. The assistance can be recorded from the time of the hand-operated loom to the present time when the machinery has become fully automated. Currently, most textile machines are fully or partially automated or either robotics or sensor-based control systems. During the Industrial Revolution 4.0, the textile or apparel sector in Bangladesh has also been touched with modern and efficient technology. Many parts of the textile industries are operated manually and may be responsible for generating pollution for the environment. Primarily, harsh and corrosive chemicals are extensively used in fabric processing which is very much deteriorating human health and the environment. The ecological systems and the water quality are also seriously disrupted by the effluents produced from the conventional processes run in textile industries for several decades. Therefore, in the present situation, replacing these environment deterioration industrial processes with a new environmentally friendly process is in high demand. Many researchers and companies continue working to develop an eco-friendly process for textile industries. These processes will cover the chemical treatments of the fabric to solid waste management. Therefore, the new technology will encompass every stage of the textile sector, starting from fibre cultivation, yarn production, fabric manufacturing, pre-treatments, coloration, and finishing. The latest technology and automation process have the greatest influence on productivity, affecting the profit margin. In addition, the new technologies will reduce the pollution level in the environment and save our ecological systems. In this book, the authors are intended to summarize the recent developments, innovations, and latest industrial practices in all sectors, from fabric to apparel manufacturing. This book starts with an introductory chapter on textiles, fibres, and fabrics. Chapter “Management and Maintenance of Textile Machinery” illustrates the mechanical engineering and maintenance process of machinery. Chapter “Advanced Technology in Fabric Manufacturing” highlights the advanced fabric manufacturing technologies of both the knitting and weaving sections. v

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Preface

Chapters “Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing” and “Innovative Textile Printing Technology” describe the eco-friendly chemical treatments and colorations process to minimize water consumption by textile industries and reduce the environmental pollution load. Chapter “Advanced Technology in Fabric Finishing” envisions stating the up-to-date fabric finishing processes. Chapter “Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing” encompasses all types of Industry 4.0-related technologies in apparel engineering and finishing. In today’s world, non-woven products greatly influence lifestyles through versatility and usability. Chapter “Non-woven” is going to describe the non-woven products with their manufacturing process. Chapter “Structural Coloration in Textiles” is considered a unique write-up of this book, highlighting the natural structural coloration process in different animals and insects. The textile industries threaten the natural ecological system by generating much effluent and waste. Therefore, managing the wastes and effluents of textile industries is crucial. Chapter “Waste Management in Textile Industry” provides a clear concept for reducing the load on the environment by practicing proper waste management systems. The application of enzymes in fabric processing is a very eco-friendly, efficient process. The details of enzymatic processes, including origin, types, and recent technology, have been described in Chapter “Application of Biochemical in Textile”. And finally, Chapter “Nano Materials in Textile Processing” illustrates the application of nano materials in textile processing. All the chapters of this book can satisfy the reader’s eagerness to know about the development of the textile industry. Basically, this book is very much helpful for third- and fourth-year students in Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Technology in Textile Engineering. Dhaka, Bangladesh Khulna, Bangladesh Dhaka, Bangladesh October 2022

Prof. Dr. Md. Mizanur Rahman Prof. Dr. Mohammad Mashud Mr. Md. Mostafizur Rahman

Acknowledgements

First, the editors of this book would like to express praise for our almighty creator who gave us the spirit and knowledge to accomplish this work. The authors’ and coauthors’ contributions and time-to-time responses are overwhelming us. As a result of the brainstorming and hard work of all the authors and co-authors, this book is coming out and going to become a true dream. The editors are also deeply acknowledged to the esteemed researchers and authors from different scientific publications for providing permission and allowing the authors to use their scientific evidence and enrich the book chapters. The authors of the book chapters tried to use information, data, and figures from other researchers with proper citations and would like to acknowledge the contribution. The editors of this book feel honoured and would like to express thanks from their hearts to all Springer Nature staff directly or indirectly involved in publishing this book. The editors are also indebted to all the authors’ and co-authors’ family members for their continuous support and inspiration during the process of this book. Md. Mizanur Rahman Mohammad Mashud Md. Mostafizur Rahman

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About This Book

This book mainly highlights the latest technology incorporated in textile processing along with the application of eco-friendly chemicals and reagents. As textile is the second basic human need, this industry assimilates a large share of the world economy. Nonetheless, nothing should be accomplished compromising sustainability; therefore, updated technology and modern machinery are being used in textile processing. It is not only for enhancing efficiency but also to reduce waste and energy consumption. Moreover, Nano-particles and Bio-chemicals are assumed to become an integral part of the future manufacturing system. In this book, the numerical and investigation results will be presented to highlight the mentioned topics so that the application is lucidly comprehended. In a nutshell, this book is supposed to cover all the vibrant innovations in the manufacturing arena in textiles in consideration of ecological balance as well as breakthroughs in applied technology assumed to veer the general concept of maintenance of that machinery.

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Contents

Introduction to Textiles and Textile Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Md. Shamsuzzaman, Dip Das, Md. Abdus Shahid, and Mohammad Bellal Hoque

1

Management and Maintenance of Textile Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Shamsuzzaman, Mohammad Mashud, Md. Mizanur Rahman, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Enamul Hoq, and Dip Das

31

Advanced Technology in Fabric Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kibria Fayez, Afsana Mobin, and Dewan Murshed Ahmed

65

Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elias Khalil, Joy Sarkar, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Md. Shamsuzzaman, and Dip Das

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Innovative Textile Printing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Elias Khalil, Joy Sarkar, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Md. Shamsuzzaman, and Dip Das Advanced Technology in Fabric Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Md. Lutfor Rahman and Tanzeena Refat Tumpa Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Joy Sarkar, Niaz Morshed Rifat, Md. Sakib-Uz-Zaman, Md. Abdullah Al Faruque, and Zawad Hasan Prottoy Non-woven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Umme Salma Ferdousi, Kibria Fayez, and Sati Irtifa Structural Coloration in Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Nazia Nourin Moury and Mohammad Tajul Islam Waste Management in Textile Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Md. Shamsuzzaman, Ismail Hossain, Tonmoy Saha, Ajoy Roy, Dip Das, Md. Tanvir Ahmed, and Sagor Kumar Podder

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Contents

Application of Biochemical in Textile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Nur-Us-Shafa Mazumder, Umme Salma Ferdousi, Md. Abdus Shahid, and Mohammad Bellal Hoque Nano Materials in Textile Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Mohammad Abdul Jalil, A. F. M. Fahad Halim, Md. Moniruzzaman, Md. Tanjim Hossain, and Syed Zubair Hussain

About the Editors

Prof. Dr. Md. Mizanur Rahman is a Professor and Head of the Mechatronics Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering at the World University of Bangladesh. He has research and teaching interest in both fundamental and applied aspects of Energy Technologies, especially in new technology to harvest electricity from solar power and hydropower. He began his carrier at the RETs in Asia Phase-II Project in 1999 as a Research Engineering under the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET) and Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) Bangkok, Thailand, before joining as Program Support Specialist in 2005 at BRAC. Dr. Rahman was appointed as an Assistant Manager Technical in 2006 at Rural Power Company Ltd. and a Lecturer in 2009 at TAS Institute of Oil and Gas. Later on, Dr. Rahman moved to Universiti Malaysia Sabah as Senior Lecturer in 2012. In January 2019, he joined as an Associate Professor in the Mechatronics Engineering Department at the World University of Bangladesh and was promoted as Professor in March 2021. Dr. Rahman has received his B.Sc. Engineering in Mechanical, a Master of Science in Environmental Management, and a Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering from BIT Khulna, Bangladesh, jointly with University of San Francisco, USA, and Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand, and Universiti Malaysia Sabah in 1998, 2004, and 2012, respectively. Dr. Rahman has published more than 70 research articles in various journals and national and international conference proceedings and also holds 1 Patent for xiii

xiv

About the Editors

Natural Draft Cooling Tower. He is a Chartered Energy Engineer and CEng Member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) and Energy Institute (EI), Fellow, Institute of Engineers Bangladesh (IEB), Member, Bangladesh Society of Mechanical Engineers (BSME), American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME) and Professional Member, Institute of Materials Malaysia (IMM) and Society of Industrial Engineering and Operation Management (IEOM). Dr. Mohammad Mashud is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh, currently working as a Research Fellow in the Aerospace Center at UTEP, USA. He was born in Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 1975. He received his Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering from Nagoya University, Japan, in 2006. He also earned a Master of Engineering from the same department and university in Japan in 2003. He completed his Bachelor of Science in Engineering (Mechanical) from Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Bangladesh. In 1999, he joined as a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, KUET. He served as a Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, KUET for the duration of two years (2012–2013). He supervises research activities in the field of aerodynamics, UAV, fluid mechanics & energy sciences, and teaches fluid mechanics & aerodynamics for bachelor’s students in engineering sciences as well as post-graduate students in mechanical & bio-medical engineering. He has successfully supervised 11 postgraduate and more than 100 bachelor student theses. He has been involved in many research projects funded by the Ministry of Education, the university grant commission, and KUET as well as foreign funds. He has published more than 150 articles in journals, proceedings, and book chapters. He received academic awards and scholarships from government and professional institutes. Dr. Mashud served as a technical Chair, Cochair of many international conferences, and he also organized an international conference as an organizing secretary.

About the Editors

xv

Mr. Md. Mostafizur Rahman is working as Sr. Assistant Professor and Head Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, as well as the team leader of the departmental quality assurance cell and the chairman of the curriculum committee. At present, Mr. Rahman is a Ph.D. Fellow of the department of textile engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET). Md. Mostafizur Rahman graduated from Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology with a Bachelor of Science in Textile Technology. He completed the Master of Science in Textile Engineering from Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University. Mr. Rahman also served as the chairman of the Self-Assessment Committee, Department of Textile Engineering in 2017–2018 under the higher education quality enhancement project (HEQEP) of the University Grants Commission and has enough experience to design and review the OBE curriculum, course profile, assessment strategy and also overlooks the activities and professional development of faculty members. He has published several papers in international journals and also published a book chapter under a publisher: Wiley—Scrivener. Md. Rahman has research works on various chemical treatment effects on fabric properties, the effect of ultraviolet protection finishes, the effect of yarn quality on fabric properties, natural polymer-based composites, etc. Mr. Rahman is interested in research in the following area: • Biodegradable composites • Medical textiles • Modification of cotton fibre with synthetic polymer • Modification of jute fibre. Mr. Rahman started his career as a senior executive (R&D Department) at Interstoff Apparels Ltd. Gazipur, Bangladesh, in 2008 before moving to the World University of Bangladesh as a Lecturer in 2010. Mr. Rahman was born in Pabna. Since childhood, he was interested in Football, Cricket, and Badminton. Besides his professional life, he has actively engaged with social welfare organizations.

Introduction to Textiles and Textile Fibers Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Md. Shamsuzzaman, Dip Das, Md. Abdus Shahid, and Mohammad Bellal Hoque

Abstract Clothing is regarded as the second most fundamental need for humans after food. It has a wide range of uses in the modern day, with options considering fast fashion. The manufacturing of numerous types of fibers, contemporary technology, sustainability concerns, eco-friendly chemicals, and reagent uses are all included in the lifetime of garment products, which extends beyond traditional garment manufacturing. The textile and appeal industries have undergone dramatic transformations because of the emergence of all these variables. The smart textile production process has gained tremendous impetus because of technical advancements in the textile industry. Due to the identification of additional application fields for textile fibers, innovative technologies are being developed in the textile industries. Natural and synthetic fibers, as well as other types of fiber, will all be addressed in this chapter along with their characteristics. This chapter will also cover the production of fiber and its various uses in the textile industry. Keywords Textiles · Fibers · Natural Fibers · Man–made Fibers

1 Introduction The word “textiles” comes from Latin and means woven fabric. However, nowadays, textiles are not only confined to woven fabrics; it is a combination of spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, printing, finishing, cutting, sewing, etc. More precisely, textile is anything related to or producing fabrics by interlocking twisted yarns Md. Mostafizur Rahman (B) · Md. Shamsuzzaman · D. Das Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] Md. Abdus Shahid Department of Textile Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh M. B. Hoque Department of Textile Engineering, Fareast International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_1

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together through weaving, knitting, crocheting, or bonding. It considers the fundamental components of ready-made garments. The primary concern of the textile industry is the design, production, and distribution of cloth and clothing. Therefore, fabrics and cloths assembled by tailoring and dressmaking are considered synonyms for textiles. In the textile process, natural and synthetic raw materials like Fibers, dyes, chemicals, etc. are considered the primary ingredients. Fibers are measured as fundamental components of the clotting process. According to the definition of Fiber, it is a long and thin strand of material that can be knit or woven into a fabric. It is the main ingredient of clothing manufacturing and can collect from nature or produce in a chemical lab. Therefore, textile Fiber considers a unit of raw materials of fabric. It can be made from natural or artificial sources and become an essential element of fabrics and other textile structures. The Fibers are characterized by a length–width ratio such as 1000:1. Fibers are spun into yarn or made into fabric through various processes, including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, and twisting. The primary and crucial property of textile Fibers is the length of the Fiber which should be at least 5 mm. The textile Fiber properties include flexibility, cohesiveness, sufficient strength, fineness, uniformity, durability, and luster. The textile Fibers’ essential physical and chemical properties include durability, handle elasticity, dye-ability, friction, moisture absorbency, heat isolation, and abrasion resistance. Therefore, in textile engineering, Fibers having the above mechanical, physical, and chemical properties can be considered textile Fibers.

2 History of Textiles and Clothing The history of the textile and clothing industries starts from the story of the movement of handcraft production of cloth to industrial automation. It began with the industrial revolution in Britain and then drove to Europe, America, Japan, and other countries. The availability, use, and development of clothing and textiles are enriching day by day due to human interest. The advanced technology and availability of raw materials have accelerated the progress of this industry. The textile was first discovered in Peru in 8,000 B.C.E, where the fabric was weaved out of vegetable Fibers. In the Middle Ages, two types of looms were available, i.e. (a) warp-weighted loom and (b) two-beam loom. Then China provided the most suitable conditions fabrics to the World due to the Silk Road Trade [1]. In Near East, flax fabrics were used to warp the dead excavated into woven textiles rather than woolly fleece used around 3000 B.C. [2, 3]. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, “Wool exceeds the beauty and goodness that of sheep.” However, Alexander wore cotton clothes that were more comfortable and contended than wool and silk [4]. Linen cloth production started in Egypt and used to produce burial customs, men’s kilts, and women’s shirts, jackets, sheets, etc. The Mughal period was the most important center of manufacturing industrial goods, especially textiles and clothing,

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until 1800. These include calicos and muslins, contributing around 25% of the World Trade [5]. Natural Fibers like cotton, agave, and leather from deer or beavers were used across North America in the eighteenth century. During the century, men used to wear coats, waistcoats, and breeches, and women used to wear silhouettes, doomed hoops, etc. Indian cotton was imported to Europe to produce such dresses. Cotton cultivation in India initiated the cotton textile industry in the Middle East. European countries have tried making calico fabric using 100% cotton Fibers. In Britain, spinning and weaving machines were invented in the eighteenth century, and the first key invention was the fly shuttle in 1733, which increased productivity. In 1761, spinning devices were developed that could turn Fiber into yarn. In 1769, John Kay invented the water frame to facilitate carding and drawing actions in spinning. 1779 Samuel Crompton invented the “muslin machine” (or Spinning mule) by combining Hargreaves’s and Arkwright’s ideas. In 1794, American Eli Whitney patented the cotton gin. During the twentieth century industrial revolution took place due to the inventions of synthetic dyes and Fibers. Fabric production was mechanized, computerized, and shifted to mass production using hand sewing machines [6]. Therefore, textile processing implies many manufacturing operations to complete a single product.

3 Divisions of Textile Industry Textile processing starts with processing raw materials (Fibers) into yarn, then it includes the process of manufacturing fabrics, fabric colorations, sewing operations, and finishing. Every section in the texting industry considers a department and runs its operations so that the product’s quality must meet the end users’ requirements. Figure 1 shows the major essential department of textile processing, from the input of the raw materials to the final finished product or garments. It can be considered the overall process of manufacturing garments or products.

3.1 Spinning Department The primary raw materials of the spinning process are Fibers, collected in the bale form. Several operations like blow room, carding, drawing, roving, and ring frame execute during the manufacturing of yarns. Mixing and blending Fibers in appropriate portions in the blow room is a prerequisite to getting the required quality of yarn hence desired finished items. Figure 2 shows the steps involved in the spinning process, and Fig. 2 shows the flow chart of the spinning process.

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Fig. 1 Flow chart of Textile Manufacturing [7]

Fig. 2 Flow chart of spinning processing [8]

3.2 Fabric Department Mostly woven and knitted fabrics are produced in fabric mills. The flow of fabric manufacturing is shown in Fig. 3. Fabric can be manufactured using weaving, knitting, or a non-weaving process. The process depends on the volume of raw materials and the demand for the fabrics. Weaving requires preparation before production, whereas knit fabrics can be made directly in the knitting section. The mechanism, pattern design, and types of cloth differ between them. Non-woven is considered highly delicate and luxurious items of fabric that are made by spinning, heating, bonding, melting, stitching, etc.

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Fig. 3 Flow chart of fabric manufacturing [7, 8]

Fig. 4 Flow chart of wet process [8]

3.3 Wet Process Department In the wet process, fabrics will wash and color using water, dyestuffs, and chemicals. The flow of the wet process is shown in Fig. 4. Natural or synthetic dyes and chemicals are used in this process to color or modify the fabric and make it useable for the garment department. These processes generate the main textile waste, such as sludge and effluents. According to the Department of Environment (DoE), these waste and effluents need to neutralize until it meets the standard before it discharges into the environment.

3.4 Garment Department In the textile industry, the last division is known as the garment department. The task of the garment department has started from negotiating with the buyer to order

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confirmation. The discussion can initiate with a simple design/sketch of a garment and end up with the final product. Figure 5 shows the flow chart of products during the manufacturing of garments. The garment department’s washing and drying are the processes’ most critical parts. Most recently, wet and dry processes have been introduced into the garment washing system. Teaching these techniques is to modify/change/develop the garment’s outer surface. It mainly aims to satisfy the customer’s desires and product quality. Note that the technologies related to wet finishing are implemented after the completion of garment manufacturing. There are many sections in the textile industries which are discussed earlier part of this chapter. The quality of the textile product depends on the textile process and textile Fibers. Therefore to understand the textile product quality, a textile engineer should have good knowledge of textile Fiber. The next part of this chapter is going to discuss textile Fiber.

Fig. 5 Flow chart of garment manufacturing [7, 8]

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4 Textile Fiber Generally, Fiber is the hair-like portion or tissue of a plant or animal. There are over a hundred types of Fiber in the world; these Fibers belong to different categories such as food Fiber, plant Fiber, vegetable Fiber, animal Fiber, textile Fiber, etc. Each group exhibits other characteristics. Textiles Fibers are the primary raw materials in the textile industry. Textile Fiber can be defined as Fiber that can be spun into a yarn or processed into a textile surface such as woven fabric, knitted fabric, or non-woven fabric, and contain a structural length a thousand times longer than its width. To be a textile base Fiber, it must have some characteristics such as a minimum spin-able length, sufficient strength, crimp, fineness, elasticity, and a higher length-to-breadth ratio. Without these characteristics, a Fiber could not be recognized as a textile Fiber. To be a textile Fiber, these properties are the fundamental requirements. According to the origin, the textile Fibers could be natural base or synthetic base Fiber.

4.1 Staple and Filament Fiber Length is an essential characteristic of textile Fiber, and according to the length, Fiber can be classified into two groups, staple Fiber, and filament Fiber. i. Staple Fiber: A Fiber with a limited or fixed span is called a staple Fiber, as shown in Fig. 6. Staple Fiber is a Fiber of a small length. Except for silk, all the natural-based Fibers such as cotton, jute, wool, flax, hemp, ramie, and sisal belong to this group. ii. Filament Fiber: A Fiber with an infinite or unlimited length, as shown in Fig. 6, is termed filament Fiber. It means filament is a continuous Fiber. All the artificial Fibers such as polyester, nylon, acrylic, viscose, rayon, etc., and natural base silk Fiber belong to this category Fig. 6 Filament and staple Fiber [9]

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4.2 Classification of Textile Fiber There are many types of textile Fibers according to their sources, lengths, chemical structures, etc. According to the origin, textile Fiber is mainly divided into two kinds: natural base Fiber and synthetic base Fiber. These two groups’ Fibers can be divided again into the number of subgroups as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. These two figures explore the classification of natural base Fiber and artificial base Fiber, respectively.

Fig. 7 Classification of natural base textile Fibers [10]

Fig. 8 Classification of man-made base textile Fibers [11]

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5 Natural Fiber Fibers obtained from nature are known as natural Fibers. In other words, the weaving Fibers found in nature are known as natural Fibers. Natural Fibers are classified as vegetable Fiber, animal Fiber, mineral Fiber, rubber Fiber, and many more. Vegetable Fibers: These are obtained from the seeds, bark, stems, leaves, etc. of the plant. Cotton Fiber from the outer part of the seeds of the corpus plant, jute Fiber from the bark of the jute tree, flax Fiber from the stems of the flax tree, and pine Fiber are found in pineapple leaves. Animal Fiber: It is found in animals’ hair, fur, or saliva. Such as fun Fibers from fleece and silk Fiber obtained from the saliva of cocoon insects. Mineral Fiber: It is found in layers of solid rock beneath the soil. Refining mineral Fibers produce yarn. For example, asbestos yarn is made from asbestos Fiber. Natural rubber: It is also compressed in a unique process to make rubber Fiber or yarns. Among all the Fibers, cotton is the most critical natural Fiber; it is considered essential. Natural Fiber can meet more than the world’s textile needs [10].

5.1 Cotton Fiber Cotton is a soft substance Fiber type associated with the seeds of the companion plant, cotton. Cotton has a wide variety of classes according to the origin of the Fiber. Mostly wild cotton species are growing in Australia, Africa, and Mexico. However, the best quality cotton Fiber produces in Egypt, Sea Island, etc. The top five cotton-exporting countries in the world are the United States, India, Brazil, Australia, and Uzbekistan. The scientific name of cotton Fiber is Gossypium herbaceum and Gossypium arboreum. Cellulose Fiber is made from cotton balls. Therefore, it is essential to understand its physical and chemical compositions [12].

5.1.1

Chemical Compositions and Physical Properties of Cotton Fiber

The quality of cotton Fibers depends on their physical and chemical properties. The chemical compositions bear the most significant Fiber properties that influence the quality of the final product. Cotton Fiber comprises 87–97% of cellulose in the Fiber composition. Other properties are Protein 1–2%, Pectin’s 0.4–1.5%, Mineral 0.7–1.6%, Oil & Wax 0.4–1.5%, Other 0.5–8% [13]. On the other hand, physical properties are color, tensile strength, elongation at break, elastic recovery, specific gravity, moisture regain, heat, sunlight, and the impact of age. For example, its tenacity value is 3–5 gm/den, the wet strength of cotton is 20.00%, elongation at break of 5–10%, elastic recovery of 45.00%, and

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specific gravity 1.54. Cotton Fiber moisture regains percentage is 8.5. During spinning, the following cotton Fiber properties are experienced fineness 1–4 dtex/2.3–6.9 micronaire, Fiber length 10–60 mm, Density 1.50–1.54/cm3 , breaking strength 25–50 cN/Tex, Elongation 5.00–10.00% and color creamy yellow [13]. Cotton is attacked by hot dilute or cold concentrated acids in which it disintegrates. It can hold 24–27 times more water in wet than in dry conditions. It is not affected by complex, weak acids. It has excellent resistance to alkali. Cotton has high resistance to ordinary cleaning solvents. It can attack by moth grubs or beetles. In the case of microorganisms, cotton is attacked by fungi and bacteria. Mildew will feed on cotton fabric, rotting, and weakling the materials.

5.2 Jute Fiber Jute is also one of the vegetable Fibers is also used in the textile industries. The term jute comes from jhutha or jota. It is known as Bangladesh’s “Golden Fiber” due to its golden brown color and economic contribution. Jute Fiber is mainly obtained from the stem and ribbon of the jute plant (called best Fiber). It is a long staple cellulosic Fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. Its tensile strength is high and ensures the breathability of the fabric. Commercially, two types of jute Fiber are produced; (i) White jute (Corchorus capsularis) and (ii) Tosha Jute (Corchorus olitorius). Almost 90% of Jute Fiber production comes from Southern China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. Just Fiber considers as eco-friendly, versatile, recyclable, and 100% biodegradable [14].

5.2.1

Chemical Compositions of Jute Fiber

Jute Fiber consists of cellulose (65.2%), hemicellulose (22.2%), pectin (0.2%), lignin (12.5%), water-soluble (1.5%), Fat & wax (0.6%),[12]. Jute Fiber consists of a combination of different cells [15].

5.2.2

Properties of Jute Fiber

Jute Fiber has various color variations like white, off-white, yellow, brown, gray, and golden. Jute Fibers are long natural Fibers, ranging between 150–300 cm. The individual fibrils are from 1.5 to 4 mm in length. In jute Fiber, no. of ultimate in cross-section is 6–10, elongation at the break of 1.70%, Specific gravity 1.50, and MR % of jute Fiber is 13.75% [12]. It is 100% biodegradable, recyclable, and thus environmentally friendly. Jute Fiber can easily damage by hot dilute Acids and strong alkalis but is resistant to bleaching agents (Bleaching agent, H2 O2 , NaOCl, NaClO2 , Na2 O2 , CH3 COOH, KMnO4 , etc.) [16].

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5.3 Wool Fiber Wool is an animal Fiber derives from sheep or other animals. It contains a small percentage of lipids and proteins; and are composed of amino acid. In the Middle Ages, wool was the most widely used textile. “Bison” from Kashmir, “Mahiya goats” from rabbits, and “Furs” from Camels are well known for wool Fiber. The countries producing wool Fiber are the USA, China, New Zealand, Australia, Turkey, Iran, UK, South Africa, etc. [17].

5.3.1

Chemical Compositions of Wool Fiber

The chemical compositions of wool are Keratin 33.00%, Grease 28%, Saint 12%, different impurities 26%, and mineral water 1% in total 100% [10, 18].

5.3.2

Properties of Wool Fiber

Generally, wool Fiber is white, brown, and black. It has both antibacterial and antimicrobial properties. The length of wool Fiber ranges from 25–250 mm. Its moisture regains 13–16%., dry strength is 1.35, elasticity in breaking extension is 42.5%, recovery percentage 69 at 5%, specific gravity 1.31, elongations at break 25–30% at the dry situation and 25–50% in wet condition. Its dimensional stability is good enough [10] but dramatically affects heat and electrostatics in dry conditions. Because of sunlight, wool Fiber becomes discolored, and a harsh feel develops. Concentrated acids can damage wool Fiber, whereas dilute acids have no effect. Further, wool can be dissolved in alkaline solutions, and it has ordinary harmfulness in the case of chlorine bleach [18].

5.4 Silk Fiber Silk Fiber is a natural Fiber collected by the cultivation of silkworms in a unique process. In China, this Fiber was first introduced in 3500 BC. In ancient times, silk cotton was divided into three categories of excellence: Garad, Tasar, and Matka. Bangladesh also cultivates this Fiber named ‘Bombyxmori’. However, most silk Fiber-producing country is China and India [19].

5.4.1

Chemical Composition of Silk Fiber

The silk Fiber composed of fibroin 75%, ash of silk fibroin 0.5%, sericin 22.5%, Fat & Wax 1.5% and mineral salt 0.5% [19].

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Properties of Silk Fiber

The silk Fiber is heat conductive and more heat sensitive. It is a flexible Fiber and can hold its size. The absorption capacity is high. Silk is more sensitive than other natural Fibers. Generally, the yellow Fiber is achieved by photodegradation that ensues due to the action of U.V. radiation of light. It has more features such as breathability, elasticity, absorbency, thermal regulation, drying speed, and shine. M.R.‘s percentage is almost 11.00%. Silk is readily soluble in cold concentrated acids, whereas silk filament swells in alkaline solution. It is because of the partial separation of polymers by the action of alkali [19].

6 Man-Made Fiber Artificial Fiber implies those Fibers manufactured by an artificial, controlled, chemical and mechanical process. In this process, the Fiber generation process, the length, diameter, fineness, and color of the Fiber can be controlled precisely. The primary raw materials for producing artificial Fiber are natural or synthetic bases. The crude polymer base artificial Fiber is also known as regenerated Fiber, such as Viscose, Rayon, Lyocell, Acetate Rayon, etc. The synthetic polymer base manufactured Fiber includes Polyester, different types of Nylon, Acrylic, Polypropylene Fiber, etc. The natural polymer base Fibers are hygienic and comfortable to the wearer, whereas the synthetic base Fibers are non-hygienic and uncomfortable. The artificial Fibers can be produced either in filament or staple form.

6.1 Natural Polymer Base Man-Made Fiber In these groups of Fibers, the Fiber-forming raw materials are collected through natural cellulosic origins, such as cotton pulp, wood pulp, grass, leaf, and cotton linters. In the spinning plant, these raw materials undergo chemical and mechanical treatment and produce Fiber-containing only cellulose. Hence these Fibers are also recognized as regenerated cellulosic Fibers. Viscose rayon, Acetate rayon, Lyocell, etc. belong to these groups.

6.1.1

Viscose Rayon Fiber

U.S. Federal Trade Commission adopted the term and definition of Rayon Fiber. According to this, Rayon is a regenerated cellulosic Fiber whose polymer chain contains at least 85% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups [11]. The linters or useless cotton Fibers of the boll and timber pulp from northern spruce, western hemlock, eucalyptus, and southern slash pine are the basic raw materials of viscose

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rayon. This pulp consists of about 94% cellulose [11]. At first, the wood pulp is purified by boiling and bleaching and then shifted to the rayon manufacturing plant. After conditioning (under controlled humidity and temperature) for one to several weeks, these cellulosic pulps get ready to produce the rayon Fiber by the wet spinning technique. A large volume of water is required in the spinning process of rayon Fiber. Typically, 1600 kg of water, 2 kg H2 SO4 , 1.5 kg NaOH, 1.25 kg of cotton linters or timber pulp, and 0.35 kg of CS2 are required to produce 1 kg of rayon Fiber [11]. The rayon Fiber can be made either in filament or staple form. The rayon Fiber consists of cellulose polymer, and the polymer system is very amorphous, 35–40% crystalline, and 65–60% unstructured [20]. The moisture regains of rayon Fiber is 13% [11]. Rayon Fibers are very soft and comfortable for wearers. Due to its excellent aesthetic properties, rayon Fiber is also termed artificial silk.

6.1.2

Acetate Rayon Fiber

The word acetate means a salt of acetic acid. To produce acetate Fibers, cellulose is treated with acetic acid to form cellulose acetate, i.e., cellulosic salt of acetic acid. In this reaction, the –OH groups of cellulose have been replaced by the acetate group of the acetic acid. Acetate rayon Fibers have two types, primary cellulose acetate Fiber or triacetate, and secondary cellulose acetate Fiber or diacetate. During the reaction with acetic acid, at first, the three hydroxyls (–OH) groups of each glucose unit have been replaced by three acetate groups (–OCOCH3 ), which means complete acetylation. The acetate Fiber formed from this polymer is called triacetate or primary cellulose acetate rayon. The properties of triacetate can be improved by partial hydrolysis, i.e., reaction with water. During hydrolysis, one acetate group from each glucose unit will replace one –OH group, i.e., two acetate groups will remain per glucose unit. The fiber formed in this stage is called secondary cellulose acetate or diacetate. In today’s apparel market, diacetate represents the acetate rayon Fiber. The dry spinning technique is adopted for acetate rayon Fiber. Triacetate rayon is soluble in chloroform and methylene chloride, whereas diacetate rayon is soluble in acetone [11]. Triacetate and diacetate Fibers are both amorphous. The polymer system of diacetate rayon is about 40% crystalline and 60% undeveloped. The triacetate rayon is slightly more crystalline than diacetate [20]. Typically, the hydroxyl group of cellulose easily attracts and forms a hydrogen bond with a water molecule, so the water absorbency of cotton and rayon Fiber is good. But in the case of acetate rayon, a significant portion of the hydroxyl groups have been replaced by acetate groups, and the inherent attraction between the acetate groups and water molecules is less. As a result, acetate rayon fiber’s moisture is 6.5% lower than viscose rayon and natural cotton [11]. Acetate rayon Fiber provides a smooth and soft hand feels with moderate lustre.

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Lyocell Fiber

Lyocell is one of a new generation of cellulosic Fibers. The development of lyocell has been stimulated by the desire for a cellulosic Fiber that exhibits a better cost/performance profile than viscose. Lyocell was initially developed as a textile Fiber. The first commercial samples were generated in 1984, and Fiber production increased. Fabrics manufactured from lyocell can be designed to produce a wide range of curtain grips and a unique aesthetic. It is highly versatile and can be manufactured in various fabric weights, from the lightweight women’s blouse to the men’s suitcase. Lyocell is a 100% cellulosic Fiber derived from pulp made from sustainably managed forests. In Lyocell Fiber manufacturing, few chemicals are used, among which N-methyl morpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) and water are almost recycled, which makes the process economically favorable. The wood paste is dissolved in a hot N-methyl morpholine oxide solution. The solution is then extruded (spun) into Fibers, and the solvent is extracted when the Fibers undergo a washing process. The manufacturing process is designed to recover more than 99% of the solvent, which helps to minimize the effluent. The solvent itself is nontoxic and all effluents generated are non-hazardous. Lyocell has all the advantages of being a cellulosic Fiber; in so far as it is fully biodegradable, it is absorbing, and the handle can be changed significantly using enzymes or chemical refining techniques. It has relatively high wet and dry strength, making it possible to produce finer yarns and lighter fabrics. The high resistance also facilitates invariant mechanical and chemical finishing processing under normal and extreme conditions. It’s used for a variety of purposes, including surgical swabs, drapes, gowns, floppy disc liners, filtration applications, semi-disposable work wear, and lining materials [22].

6.2 Synthetic Polymer Base Man-Made Fiber The development of synthetic Fibers is the application of industrial chemistry in the apparel world. The synthesized polymers not available in nature are used to produce artificial Fiber. There are different synthetic base artificial Fiber types such as Polyester, Polyamide, Acrylic, Polyethylene, polypropylene, Polyvinyl alcohol, Polyurethanes, etc.

6.2.1

Polyester Fiber

Among all synthetic Fibers, polyester Fiber is primarily used in apparel manufacturing and produced from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polymer. The PET polymer is thermoplastic in nature and formed from a dibasic acid and dihydric

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Fig. 9 The general structure of polyester Fiber

alcohol through a condensation reaction. The salts are made by the reaction between an alcohol and an acid, generally known as esters, and polyester means many organic salts. In the PET polymer, the ester groups (–COO–) act to tie the monomer units. According to the Federal Trade Commission, polyester fiber is a synthetic polymerbased man-made Fiber that contains at least 85% by weight of an ester of dihydric alcohol and terephthalic acid [23]. The melt spinning method is preferable to develop polyester Fiber as the PET polymer is stable enough in its melting (260 °C) temperature [23]. Polyester Fiber can be produced either in filament or staple form. In today’s apparel market, two types of polyester are popular, one is “Terylene”, which ICI produces in the UK, and the remaining one is “Dacron” which is produced by Du Pont in the USA [23]. The polyester Fiber holds the following general structure, where R & R1 represents the aliphatic or aromatic group (Fig. 9). Due to the polymeric structure, polyester is a hydrophobic type polymer; hence, hydrophobic dyes such as disperse dyes are used to color the polyester Fibers at high temperatures. Its moisture absorbency is also very low, only 0.4% [23]. Polyester Fiber shows excellent performance against organic acids and weak alkalis, but the polymer disintegrates in dense sulphuric acid and solid alkalis. Among all plastic materials in the world, polyester holds the 3rd position with an 18% market share [23]. In apparel manufacturing, filament and staple polyester Fiber are extensively used. It is also greatly used in CVC or PC form, a blending combination with natural cotton Fiber.

6.2.2

Polyamide Fiber

Polyamide (PA) polymer is manufactured through the condensation process where the amide linkage (-CO–NH-) holds the reaping units to custom a lengthy chain. As a result, it’s known as polyamide. The PA is also a synthetic polymer, and the monomers of this polymer are di-carboxylic acid and di-amine. Various polyamides are available in the commercial market, and Nylon is the general name for Fibers of polyamides origin. Nylon can be well-defined as an artificial polymeric amide with repetitive amide groups as an indispensable portion of the core polymer series. This polymer can be transmitted into a filament form. In 1938, Du Pont marketed nylon 6.6 as the first commercial polyamide Fiber [23]. In the present apparel manufacturing process, nylon 6 and 6.6 are inevitable. Polyamide polymers hold the following general structure, where R1 and R2 are aliphatic and aromatic in origin (Fig. 10).

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Fig. 10 The general structure of polyester Fiber

Following the chemical configuration, Polyamide polymers can be categorized into three groups. When R1 and R2 contain aliphatic groups, the resultant polyamides are termed aliphatic polyamides. Generally, Fibers of the nylon group belong to this category. In the second type of polyamide Fibers, one group among R1 and R2 will be the aromatic origin, and the aromatic portion will contribute 55% of the total polymer chain [23]. This group of Fibers is called semi-aromatic polyamide. The third type of polyamide Fiber is known as aromatic polyamide as in this group, R1 and R2 both represent the aromatic group. Among the three types, the aliphatic polyamide, i.e. nylon Fiber produced on a large scale for apparel production. Different types of nylon Fibers are available in the market, such as nylon 4, nylon 7, nylon 6, 6.6, nylon 6.10, nylon 11, nylon 12, etc. Among them, nylon six and 6.6 have greater importance in apparel production. The melt spinning technique is suitable for nylon Fibers as its melting temperature ranges from about (200–300) °C except for nylon 4, which is unstable at its melting temperature (262 °C), and the dry spinning technique is adopted for this Fiber. Acid and dispersed dyes are preferable for the coloration of nylon base apparel [23].Nylon Fibers are not biodegradable, and the moisture regains of nylon six and 6.6 is (4–4.5)%. The nylon 6.6 and 6 Fibers tend to melt at (249–260) and (213–220) °C temperatures correspondingly, and both Fibers are characterized by the same glass transition temperature, which is (29–42) °C [23]. Nylon Fiber can be produced in filament or staple form and is extensively used in the apparel industry, manufacturing, and industrialized applications.

6.2.3

Acrylic Fiber

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is a polymer of the vinyl group (CH2 =CH2 ), where a cyanide (-CN) group has to replace a hydrogen atom of the vinyl group, and hereafter the PAN polymer is also recognized as polyvinyl cyanide. The monomer of the PAN polymer is acrylonitrile, and to be acrylic Fiber, the PAN polymer should hold a minimum of 85% acrylonitrile units in the polymer chain (Fig. 11). For the first time, acrylic Fiber was formed in 1946 by DuPont, the USA, with the trade name Orlon. The acrylic Fiber could be produced through melt spinning, dry spinning, or wet spinning techniques. But the molten polymer is not stable enough, Fig. 11 The general structure of Polyacrylonitrile Fiber

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so the melt spinning method is not commercially adapted. Acrylic Fiber can be dyed with basic dyes and dispersed dyes. The melting and glass transition temperature of acrylic Fiber is (330–340) and 100 °C, respectively. Its moisture regains (1–3)%. Being non-biodegradable, this Fiber is not attacked by microorganisms and insects [23]. Acrylic Fibers are used in a wide range of apparel manufacturing processes. Modacrylic Fibre is a derivative of acrylic Fibre and contains less than 85% but at least 35% acrylonitrile units in its polymer chain. It is a copolymer, i.e., a 2nd monomer is used with acrylonitrile to form modacrylic fibres. Vinyon N is an example of modacrylic Fibre which consists of vinyl chloride and acrylonitrile monomers with a ratio of 60 and 40%, respectively. Like acrylic fibres, modacrylic fibres can be spun through dry and wet spinning methods. The moisture regain of modacrylic Fibre is 4%, and the melting temperature is (200–210) °C [23].

6.2.4

PolyethyleneFiber

Polyethene (PE) is today’s most common thermoplastic polymer of the Polyolefins group. Polyolefin polymer constitutes the alkene (Cn H2n) base monomer. PE {(C2 H4 )n } is prepared from ethylene monomer (CH2 =CH2 ) by free radical chain polymerization (Fig. 12). Hans Von Pechmann, a German scientist, first produced the PE polymer in 1889, and its uses began to increase after 1940 [23]. According to polymer orientation and crystallinity, PE polymers are mainly of four types used in different arenas according to the end uses [23]. • Low-density polyethylene (LDPE): This polymer system consists of randomly oriented short series and long series of monomers and is not packed in a crystal structure. This polymer is used in stiff vessels, film wraps, plastic bags, etc. • Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE): This group is categorized by the short branching of linear polymer chains with higher tensile strength than LDPE. This polymer is used in containers, tubes, cable wrappers, toys, lids, buckets, etc. • High-density polyethylene (HDPE): This polymer is very compressed and rigid with significantly lower branching and a highly compact structure. HDPE is used in conduit, extrusion covering, flasks, pipe, and rubbish vessels. Fig. 12 Formation of polyethylene polymer

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• Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE): This polymer is characterized by a rigid structure with excellent toughness and resistance to cut, clothing, and organic and inorganic agents. This type of polymer applies to various kinds of products such as equipment of machinery, devices of different types of looms, bearings, gears, non-natural joins, verge guards on ice floors, gaskets, transmission belts, etc. This polymer is also used in the substitutions of hip and knee and invincible vests. In the World, PE holds the first position among all plastic materials with a 34% market share [23]. The melting temperature of PE is 205 °C for LDPE and 210 °C for HDPE, which is easily reachable; hence melt spinning technique is suitable for producing PE Fibre. PE Fibre, yarn, or fabric is not dyed, but a dope dyeing (mixing of pigments into polymer solution) mechanism is applicable to produce colorful PE Fibre. PE Fibre has outstanding resistance to organic and inorganic agents, bleaching agents, and solvents. PE is a non-biodegradable Fibre, and its moisture regains about nil [11].

6.2.5

Polypropylene Fiber

Polypropylene (PP) is also a Fibre of the polyolefin group, and another Fibre of this group is polyethylene, as stated earlier. The polypropylene {(CH2 =CHCH3 )n} polymer is formed from the propylene monomer (CH2 =CHCH3 ) by the addition polymerization process. In 2015 the global need for PP polymer was 60 million tonnes, and it is assumed that this need will reach 120 million tonnes by 2030. Among all synthetic polymers, PP is the lightest, and according to the uses in the World, this polymer is in the second position, just after polyethylene [23] (Fig. 13). During the formation of PP polymer, the methyl (CH3 ) group has replaced one hydrogen atom of the repeating unit. According to the position of the methyl groups, PP polymer can be classified into three types, isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic polypropylene (Figs. 14 15 and 16). • In the first type (isotactic) polymerization, methyl units altogether lie on the similar side of the central alignment with a crystal assembly.

Fig. 13 Formation of polypropylene polymer

Fig. 14 Isotactic PP

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Fig. 15 Syndiotactic PP

Fig. 16 Atactic PP

• In syndiotactic polymerization, the methyl units lie on both sides of the central alignment in a steady interchanging arrangement and crystal configuration. • In the atactic arrangement, the methyl group lies on both sides of the central alignment in an irregular account, resulting in the amorphous polymer structure. The melt spinning technique is suitable for producing PP Fibre as its melting temperature is (163–171) °C [23]. With polyethylene, PP yarn or fabric is challenging to dye, but a dope dyeing mechanism can be applied to produce colorfulFibre. Being of polyolefin group polymer, PP shows similar properties to polyethylene. PP Fiber has good resistance to all chemical agents, such as acids, alkalis, bleaches, and solvents. The PP Fibre melts at (163–171) °C and begins to decompose at 290 °C. Its moisture regains about nil and is non-biodegradable. PP polymer is used to produce toys, filters, ropes, tapes, seat covers, pipes, parts of refrigerators, TV, radio, in-home textiles, the automobile industry, and non-woven products.

6.2.6

Polytetrafluoroethylene Fiber

PTFE or Polytetrafluoroethylene (C2 F4 )n is also a polymer of thermoplastic type and vinyl group origin. One important structural feature of PTFE polymer is that in PTFE polymer, the fluorine elements have replaced the four hydrogen elements of the vinyl group. The monomer of PTFE polymer is tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), which is gas in normal conditions and has a boiling point of -76 °C [23] (Fig. 17). Teflon is a well-known brand name for PTFE polymer, and in 1954 Teflon Fiber production took place by DuPont [23]. The prominent properties of Teflon Fiber are its resistance power in all extreme conditions. Teflon is resistant to all chemical agents

Fig. 17 Formation of Polytetrafluoroethylene polymer

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and thermal conditions, and moisture regains nil. The PTFE polymer melts at 330 °C temperatures, which will decompose before reaching the melting temperature [23]. Teflon is also an expensive fiber. The free radical polymerization principle produces PTFE polymer, which is very compact in structure and insoluble in any solvents. Again, this polymer tends to decompose before reaching its high melting temperature (330 °C). So, the conventional spinning techniques for artificial fibres, i.e. melt, dry, and wet spinning technique is not appropriate for producing Fibre from PTFE polymer. A unique spinning mechanism, dispersion spinning, is suitable for creating Teflon Fibre from insoluble and infusible PTFE polymer. Being hydrophobic and chemically inert, Teflon fibres cannot be dyed. PTFE polymer is widely used in high-tech and industrial applications, such as in non-stick burning pans, filtration fabrics, braided packing, gaskets, laundry mats, transmission straps, electric tapes, electrical insulators, and water-repellent composites.

6.2.7

Poly Vinyl ChlorideFiber

PVC or Polyvinyl chloride is another vinyl group thermoplastic polymer widely used in plastic materials. The overall production of PVC polymer was about 53 million tons in 2013, and this production touched 61 million tons in 2016 [23]. The polyvinyl chloride (-CH2-CHCl-)n polymer is produced from vinyl chloride (CH2 =CHCl ) monomer (Fig. 18). Melt and dry spinning are both techniques that can be applied to produce PVC Fiber. But the dry spinning technique is suitable for forming finer yarn than the other. In the dry spinning technique, acetone or carbon disulphide is used to soluble the polymer. PVC Fiber can be classified into three groups [23]: • Polyvinyl Chloride Fiber (totally comprises vinyl chloride units) • Vinyl chloride copolymer Fiber (comprises a minimum of 85% vinyl chloride) • Chemically reformed polyvinyl chloride (alternative term chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, comprises a maximum of 20% vinyl chloride and a minimum of 80% vinylidene chloride units) Polyvinyl Chloride Fibers can be colored with dispersed dyes and a dope dyeing mechanism can also be sued to produce colorful PVC filament Fibers. PVC polymers have exceptional resistance to all types of chemical representatives. PVC Fibers only swell and are weak by phenols, toluene, benzene, and acetone [23]. PVC is a non-flammable polymer; the melting temperature is (120–130) °C and decomposes

Fig. 18 Formation of PVC polymer

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at about 200 °C [23]. PVC Fiber is a non-biodegradable Fiber and the moisture absorption is nil. PVC polymers and Fibersare widely in used domestic and industrial applications such as siding, awnings, curtains, braiding, waddings, windows, water pipes, filter clothes, artificial limbs, billiard clothes, parts of machinery and so on.

6.2.8

Spandex Fiber

Spandex, also known as elastomeric Fiber, is an elastic polymer manufactured from a flexible nature polymer named polyurethane which exhibits properties like natural base rubber. The most crucial feature of spandex Fiber is that it has an extension at break is more than 200% and almost 100% quick retrieval when the pressure gets free. According to the definition, Spandex Fiber is a long-chain synthetic polymer that contains a minimum of 85% segmented polyurethane [23]. Lycra is a famous brand name for spandex Fiber, and production was started in the USA by DuPont in 1960 [23]. The polyurethane polymer chain contains two segments, hard and soft segments. The extensibility, resiliency, and elasticity of spandex Fiber are owing to the quiet sections of its polymer chains, and this segment is characterized by random orientation and coiled-shaped folding. Alternatively, the tricky areas of the polyurethane chain adhere to each other by durable hydrogen bonding. Under stretching tension, the helical portion get opening more than 200% of the primary length, and the tricky sections prevent the collapse of Fiber (Fig. 19). Polyurethane is a polymer of urethane (-NH-COO-) monomer (Fig. 20). The Polyurethane polymer melts at (175–178) °C temperature, and hence melt spinning technique is applicable to produce elastomeric Fiber. The dry and wet spinning technique is also suitable for elastomeric Fiber, and in that case, dimethyl formamide is used as a solvent to soluble the polymer for spinning. The elastic recovery of elastomeric Fiber is 99% at 200% extension, and moisture regain is

Fig. 19 Molecular configuration of Spandex Fiber [23]

Fig. 20 Chemical assembly of Spandex Fiber

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1.3% [23]. The Fibers have good resistance to alkalis. On the other hand, they tend to yellow in acid solution. Elastomeric Fiber has a wide range of applications in apparel such as trimmings in belts, gloves, socks, and tights; in sportswear like swimwear, cycling jersey, and dress for exercise; in clothing like leggings, shorts, skinny jeans, ski pants, yoga pants, brassieres, hosiery, etc.

7 Contrasts Between Natural Fiber and Manmade/Artificial Fiber The differences between cotton and artificial Fibers are as follows [24, 25] SL/No

Natural Fiber

Manmade/Artificial Fiber

1

Fiber obtained from nature is called natural Fibers

Fiber obtained from nature is called natural Fibers

2

Man-made Fiber is called artificial Fiber Man-made Fiber is called artificial Fiber

3

Natural Fibers such as cotton, wool, silk, Natural Fibers such as cotton, wool, silk, jute, etc jute, etc

4

Artificial Fiber such as rayon, nylon, polyester, etc

5

The length of the Fiber is naturally given The length of the Fiber is naturally given

6

Man controls the length of the Fiber

Man controls the length of the Fiber

7

It is more expensive than artificial Fiber

It is more expensive than artificial Fiber

Artificial Fiber such as rayon, nylon, polyester, etc

8 High Performance Fiber High-performance Fibers are characterized and developed uniquely and highly innovative. These are mainly used to produce smart textiles associated with protection and survival in hostile environments. These Fibers require distinct physical properties as special technical functions run them. The considerable properties of high-performance Fibers are tensile strength, operating, temperature, oxygen index, chemical resistance, etc. [26].

8.1 Kevlar Fiber Kevlar is a synthetic organic Fiber of the aromatic polyamide family. It is a type of aramid Fiber, a generic term for manufactured Fiber in which the Fiber-forming

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Fig. 21 Chemical structure of Kevlar Fiber [28]

substance is a long-chain synthetic polyamide in which at least 85% of the amide linkages are attached directly to two aromatic rings. This generic definition distinguishes aramids from conventional polyamides such as nylon, which contain primarily aliphatic and cycloaliphatic units in the main polymer chain. Many types of Kevlar are currently being prepared for wide marginal use, and modern technology uses to produce this Fiber [27]. Kevlar Fiber is strong but relatively light in weight. It does not melt. When Kevlar is burning, removing heat from it usually stops the combustion. Shallow temperatures do not affect Kevlar. Military Body Armor & Jackets, Protection vests, military helmets, automotive use, belts, brake pads, clutches, gaskets, hoses, ropes, and cables are used [29] (Fig. 21).

8.2 Nomex Fiber Nomex is the brand name of retardant aramid Fiber. It was first discovered in the 1970s and later marketed by Du-point. The appearance of this Fiber is solid in both Fiber and sheet form. The main application of this Fiber is to develop the properties like heat and flame resistance. Meta variant of the Para-aramid Kevlar is produced by fixation reaction between the monomers m-phenylenediamine and isophthaloyl (Fig. 22). The excellent properties of Nomex Fiber include high inherent dielectric strength, flame resistance, mechanical toughness, thermal stability, flexibility, and resilience. It also has excellent textile properties, dimensional stability, and resistance to degradation by a wide range of chemicals and industrial solvents. It’s used for various purposes, including racing, firefighting equipment, and racing drivers’ driving suits [31]. Fig. 22 Chemical structure of Nomex Fiber [30]

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Fig. 23 Molecular configuration of glass Fiber [33]

8.3 Glass Fiber Glass Fiber, also called Fiberglass, is made of fragile Fibers of glass. Glass Fiber is one of the oldest Fibers, first created and introduced in the 1930s. Glass Fibers are less brittle and less expensive, but the strength is slightly lower than carbon Fiber. It can produce in two ways; (i) Continuous filament process and (ii) staple Fiber process. Oxides of silicon, boron, or phosphorus are used to produce glass Fiber. The essential part of Glass Fiber is Silica “SiO2 ”, and its pure form is (SiO2 )n [32] (Fig. 23). Glass Fiber is a dimensionally stable engineering material and does not stretch or shrink after exposure to excessively high or low temperatures. It does not absorb moisture or change physically or chemically when exposed to water. Glass Fiber has a specific gravity of 2.54, and S glass has 2.49. The high strength-to-weight ratio of glass Fiber makes it a superior material in applications where high strength and minimum weight are required. Glass has excellent resistance to the effects of heat over a wide range of temperatures. Glass is entirely inflammable, and this is an essential factor in its textile application. It strengthens various materials such as tent poles, pole vaults, arrows, bows, crossbars, covered roof panels, Hockey sticks, boat sails, surfboards, and paper hives. However, it is also widely used in tanks and shipbuilding [34].

8.4 Carbon Fiber Another name for carbon Fiber is graphite Fiber. It is a more delicate Fiber with a 5–10 µm radius. These Fibers are arranged parallel and vertical in the form of crystals. That is why carbon Fibers are strong in proportion to their weight. To make a carbon fiber yarn, a few thousand Fibers can be used to weave in a row. Some of the significant properties of carbon Fiber are: strong and higher, withstand high heat and pressure, good extensibility, corrosion resistance, chemically stable, electrically conductive, nonflammable, and brittle. Carbon Fiber has a high strength-to-weight ratio (also known as specific strength) and is very rigid [35] (Fig. 24). A composite material is usually made by combining other materials with carbon Fiber. It connects with plastic resins to form solid and vital composite materials.

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Fig. 24 Molecular configuration & Chemical assembly of carbon Fiber [36]

Carbon Fiber is used to manufacture nursery nightwear, combustible and noncombustible copper, and in combination with aluminum to make aircraft structures, space rockets, etc. Due to its non-reaction with other chemicals, this Fiber is prevalent in the aerospace, automotive, ecology, military equipment, and sports industries [36].

9 Future Trends and Development Clothing considers the second fundamental right of human beings after food. The demand for textiles and clothing is rising daily and is helping countries’ economies flourish. For instance, the development of the textile and apparel industries is crucial for the economic liberation of China, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan [37]. By 2024– 2025, experts anticipate an additional $120 billion in investments, which will generate 35 million new employment globally. By 2025, the global apparel market will reach $2.1 trillion. Therefore, progress will be accelerated by advancement, innovation, technical development, fashion concerns, etc. The worldwide textile and apparel business must deal with difficulties related to markets, management, the environment, manufacturing technologies, higher education, and innovation management [38]. Along with functional applications, textile materials can furnish, represent social position, and message artistic values. Global textile products have diversified areas with many unforeseen applications [39]. The latest textile Fibers, yarns, and materials are tested for the end-use purpose of the space investigation. Therefore, combining textile technology with electronic advancement has revolutionized hybrid scientific inventions [40].

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Newly developed advancement of technology and the fusion of several fields, such as polymer and electronics sciences, have been used to characterize the development of smart textiles. Without a doubt, it will influence the direction of intelligent fabrics. The global energy issue will be emphasized by social web technologies and more recent applications for future textile expansion [41]. The three functions of smart textiles are sensors, actuators, and transducers. It can be added to substrates used in fabric and clothes by using clever, creative coatings. Under certain humid conditions, conductive, semiconductive, and particle-doped polymers can be used. Recent advances in wearable technology, simpler user interfaces and transferable platforms with inventive polymer coatings have been made possible by the textile industry [42, 43]. Garment washing treatments like dry washing (e.g.whickering, sandblasting, hand sanding, tagging, destroying, grinding, potassium permanganate (PP) spray, color spray/sponging) and wet treatment (e.g., regular wash, caustic soda wash, pigment wash, enzyme wash, bleach wash, stone wash) and finishing technology (e.g. laser fading, ozone fading, etc. are attracting customer [44–46]. However, these are also responsible for producing massive no. of effluents and sludge, which is hazardous to the environment, corroding sewer lines, and groundwater pollution [47]. Additionally, reusing and recycling textiles and apparel materials can also be environmentally safe and sustainable. The donation, collecting, sorting, and processing is essential recycling steps. During the year 2018, there were almost 17 million tons of solid textile waste, of which 13.0% came from apparel and footwear. Synthetic Fiber cannot dissolve year after year, but natural Fiber takes a few weeks. It is poisoning groundwater, river water, pond water, and soil, leading it to lose fertility. Therefore, recycling textile products is crucial for a safer environment [48–50]. The idea that human activity is causing the world to become more polluted is continually emphasized. Such risks are caused by the regular production method and similar raw materials. People are only considering his profits. Customers should be more aware of the things they purchase, the manufacturing process, and the disposal of textiles and clothes. If people place higher values than usual, they anticipate having sustainable and environmentally friendly items [47].

10 Conclusions This chapter described variants of natural and artificial Fiber, their properties, compositions, and possible application areas. The expansion of natural and synthetic fibers has accelerated the production of garments and advanced textiles since they may be customized to include any desired features. The development of protective apparel, fire retardant fabric, antimicrobial fabric, special finishes fabric, and other materials is now being pursued by businesses in addition to general-purpose fabric. Any country around the globe has benefited from this in terms of economic growth, employment rate, infrastructure development, and electricity production.

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Management and Maintenance of Textile Machinery Md. Shamsuzzaman, Mohammad Mashud, Md. Mizanur Rahman, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Enamul Hoq, and Dip Das

Abstract In the textile and apparel industries, machine maintenance is absolutely crucial. The primary goal of maintenance is to increase a company’s profitability and competitiveness through potential improvements in the maintenance of machinery. Maintenance activities must be carried out in order for operations to run as quickly and efficiently as possible and to produce products with the anticipated degree of quality. This produces a high-quality product, requires less downtime and more mobility, saves time, and lowers the danger of an accident. A textile machine’s durability, functionality, and aesthetic must be maintained properly to keep them looking good. There are various types of maintenance tasks are available accordance with the needs, their goal and strategy may also change. This chapter will include activities related to plant failure, various forms of plant and machine maintenance policies, lubrication system, and maintenance activities related to various departments of the textile and apparel industry. Keywords Textile industry · Machineries · Lubrications · Safety · Ergonomics · Maintenance

Md. Shamsuzzaman (B) · Md. M. Rahman · D. Das Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] M. Mashud Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh Md. M. Rahman · E. Hoq Department of Mechatronics Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_2

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1 Basics of Maintenance 1.1 Introduction In the twelfth century, the word “maintenance” was derived from the old French verb “maintenir.” It means “shelter, protection, and upkeep.” However, some people think that the word “maintenance” was derived from the Latin phrase “manu tenere,” which means “keep in hand” [1]. Maintenance is an action that allows the company to do several active operations to keep the machine operational and productive. Therefore, it is an important phenomenon that needs to be considered by the company when fixing the machine cost. For example, if a textile company wants to buy a dying machine with a 1500 kg capacity, it should consider the sale price and the ongoing maintenance costs. Therefore, the maintenance work helps the company to maximize the effectiveness of the equipment utilization facilities at the lowest possible cost and guarantees satisfactory product and equipment quality, safety, and protection conditions.

1.2 History of Maintenance Before the Second World War, industrial equipment was typically big, durable, and had a slower running rate. It resulted from poor instrumentation, control systems, and mechanical design. The manufacturers were compelled to boost output after the world war. However, they could not meet the organizations with the plants, machinery, and equipment already in place. An engineering team from Japan and Germany started to accept the suggestions and guidelines for using the equipment that the manufacturers supplied in 1950. Since that time, care or maintenance procedures have begun when using and managing the equipment, machinery, and devices. Maintenance of systems and facilities has become increasingly complicated and essential due to the competitive market and unbearable downtime. Because of this, equipment, plant maintenance, and control have become much more critical. The standard of industrial maintenance began to be introduced step by step and developed gradually in France and other European Union (EU) nations in 1979. The measures, like AFNOR X60 and X60 000, were also developed as a continuation of the development of the maintenance program. To help with the maintenance program, the companies that make things announced that they would offer training for an “Advanced Technicians Certificate” and other classes on how to keep machines and equipment in good shape. With the help of cutting-edge management techniques and a skilled workforce in the 1980s, organizations became more aware of the risks of plant machinery and process systems. These include condition monitoring of machines, production on

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time, quality standards, expert procedures, etc. Reducing machine breakdown time has increased the organization’s productivity and profit [2].

1.3 Aims of Maintenance There is a proverb, “a stitch in time saves nine.” The meaning of this proverb is that proper maintenance is necessary to maximize the profits of the industry. It is well known that care plays a very significant and reliable part in the health conditions of the equipment and plant. To understand the aim of the maintenance, it is essential to answer a simple question: “Why does an engineering section need to maintain the machinery on a regular basis?” The simple but meaningful answer is “To keep the machinery in reliable condition as much as possible.” Therefore, maintenance has become vital in any industrial asset management system. The prime concerns are fixing the machinery on time and ensuring the machine’s reliability. This chapter will cover the importance of maintenance to provide the products with good management, control, execution, and quality. The effective maintenance system will also be discussed to ensure the optimum levels of plant machinery performance to meet the business goals or objectives [1]. So, good maintenance practices make sure that the plant’s machines work well, make good products, and are safe to use.

1.4 Plant Failure Analysis A failure occurs when equipment or a system in the plant cannot perform accordingly. A plant may shut down, and a whole factory may stand at a standstill for only a tiny mistake. Premature failure may happen at any time, so the machinery should be kept under proper examination to eliminate unexpected occurrences. If any machine in the plant fails to operate, it is tough to identify the actual reason immediately. Still, the ensuing investigation has been carried out to determine the genuine faults of the machines [1, 2]. The following steps will be taken to complete the machine fault detection analysis and reduce downtime at the plant. • • • •

Machine assembly or machine installation procedure, Operation factors include load, temperature, speed, input, and output, Different systems and applications of plant machinery, and Design and component quality.

1.5 Impact of Poor Maintenance Poor and underrated maintenance activities can directly impact the industry’s service, output, and profits. The plant operation team must ensure active maintenance is

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working [3]. Poor or improper maintenance may cause the breakdown of plant machinery and inoperable plants. The result is a significantly reduced profit. The labor costs increased due to the machinery faults, which also increased the product’s production costs and decreased the organization’s profit. Broken machines make low-quality products, which hurts customer satisfaction and doesn’t ensure that the industry is safe to work.

1.6 The Necessity of Maintenance At the beginning of industrialization, maintenance departments didn’t exist since the production of goods was on a small scale. The product quality was inadequate because most of the workforce was uneducated, unskilled, untrained, and unqualified. Therefore, each department in the industry encounters different obstacles in the continuation of production and securing maximum output. During this time, the workers always complained to the administration about the collapse, crashes, defeat, nonachievement, and machinery inefficiency, significantly reducing production. This complaint turns into a regular burning issue impacting workflow continuation. A maintenance department is established to provide service and an immediate solution to the complaint. Currently, industries are equipped with more advanced technologyadapted machinery with sophisticated control systems to ensure quality products. Therefore, the maintenance function becomes more complicated and special tools and skills are required to serve the current industry. The present maintenance jobs focus on repairing the plant machinery and purchasing and installing new machinery where and when necessary. Today, the industry’s goals are simple to maximize time utilization by minimizing downtime.

1.7 Types of Maintenance Production scheduling and other tasks carried out by the production control department are affected by maintenance requirements. Maintenance requirements are considered when selecting new machines or equipment or increasing the current capacity of machines and equipment. Unplanned, preventive, corrective, and predictive maintenance are just a few of the many titles for maintenance as shown in Fig. 1. The upkeep is also covered for machinery upgrades. The maintenance approach is applied. Maintenance (such as repair or replacement) is only required when a piece of equipment is in such bad shape that it can no longer function.

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Maintenance

Unplanned

Break down

Planned

Corrective

Preventive

Corrective

Predictive

Fig. 1 Different types of maintenance program [2]

1.7.1

Unplanned Maintenance

Unplanned maintenance is also known as “run to failure” management of machinery. The logic of this type of maintenance is straightforward; repair the machine or plant when it fails to operate. Many industrials have taken corrective action because their machinery failed to operate and use the devices until they broke, malfunctioned, reduced production, or shut down. This type of maintenance is considered an unplanned activity. Under this management system, the industry doesn’t invest anything until the plant machinery is required for repair or maintenance. It is regarded as a reactive maintenance technique and requires an administrative wait until the machine fails to operate. This maintenance system is considered the most expansive and produces the maximum production losses during operation. These maintenance techniques have high inventory costs for spare parts, high overtime labor costs, high machine downtime costs, and low product availability. With this reactive maintenance method, the maintenance division is compelled to keep extensive inventories of spare parts, including different machines, or at the very least, all significant parts for all plant-critical equipment. The other option is to depend on equipment suppliers who can send all the spare parts needed right away.

1.7.2

Preventive Maintenance

Regular maintenance and time-dependent repairs extend the equipment’s lifespan. It is performed after a predetermined calendar or machine run time, regardless of whether a repair is necessary. Even though preventative maintenance is cheaper than reactive maintenance, it still needs a large stock of replacement parts and a lot of labor. Preventive maintenance is performed at regular intervals to minimize the effects on the plant and lower the chance of failure or degradation. This kind of maintenance entails routine cleaning, examination, lubrication, and tightening. With routine inspections, the equipment can be kept in good condition and deterioration can be avoided. Preventive maintenance is predetermined activities set for the plant. Therefore, under these activities, resource leveling, planning, and budgeting are all made possible. When effectively applied, it typically prevents most significant issues,

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which lowers the need for forced outages, “reactive maintenance,” and general maintenance expenditures which is justifiable and simple to understand. The preventive maintenance program is time-dependent; therefore, it is time-consuming and resource-intensive. Under the preventive maintenance program, it is very hard to tell how the machine is really doing.

1.7.3

Corrective Maintenance

Following a machine’s failure, corrective maintenance is performed, thus lowering the frequency of failures. After a failure occurs, steps including repair, replacement, or restoration are taken. It enhances the machinery and its parts to make reliable preventive maintenance possible. Redesigning equipment with poor design elements has failed to increase reliability or maintainability.

1.7.4

Predictive Maintenance

Predictive maintenance recognizes changes in the physical condition of the equipment. The service life of significant machinery components is anticipated based on inspection or diagnosis. The predictive maintenance program increases the service life of the machine parts by lowering the risk of failure. This maintenance program identifies the equipment’s flawed design, examines its flaws, and assesses how much the newly adopted equipment can reduce the likelihood of the plant failing in comparison to recurring. It is condition-based maintenance in predictive maintenance. Regular measurements are taken of equipment. The measurements are tracked over time, and remedial action is taken when the measures are going to exceed the operating limits of the equipment. New tools, training, and software are needed to take the measurements, analyze the data, and predict when repairs will be required. It controls trend values through the measurement and analysis of deterioration data and uses a surveillance system that uses an online system to monitor circumstances.

1.7.5

Maintenance Improvement

Because the machinery is being cared for more effectively, the need for maintenance is going down or going away. The result is simply an improvement in the machinery at the plant. The goal of improving maintenance is to cut down on or get rid of the need for maintenance altogether. It needs to be treated as a strategic issue in manufacturing companies and be seen as a critical part of the plant’s production strategy to help with profits, productivity, and quality. Figure 2 displays various maintenance procedures. The efficiency of maintenance operations benefits the plant’s maintenance schedule. The outcomes upgrade the organization’s productivity and earnings.

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Maintenance Operations

Overhauling

Repair

Setting

Checking

Fig. 2 Operation involve in maintenance activities [2]

1.8 Maintenance Control A robust maintenance control system benefits from improved equipment reliability and resource efficiency. Maintenance control is the actions, tools, and methods used to plan and distribute maintenance resources to meet the goals of the maintenance system. Maintenance control is needed for work control, quality and process management, equipment control, cost control, and a good reporting and feedback system. Work Control: It talks about the work that needs to be done regularly, especially the work that needs to be done periodically to report on the progress of different maintenance tasks. Equipment Control: As part of this process, the equipment in the plant must go through failure analysis, downtime analysis, and corrective maintenance. Cost Control: Through cost control, both lower and higher-costing areas of the workstation are identified regularly. Therefore, periodic reporting is essential for costing departmental or section-wise.

1.9 Maintenance Budget The budget for maintenance includes the cost of labor, tools, materials, and other things that are needed for work to get done. After the maintenance tasks have been checked, the maintenance cost for each work order is figured out, and this process is repeated for all the other work orders. So, the maintenance supervisor is keeping track for estimating, analyzing, and dividing up the actual costs for the year. Furthermore, they update each year’s budget and keep the workstation active.

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2 Lubricants Used in Textile Industry 2.1 Lubricants A lubricant is a material that is positioned between two surfaces or mating components that are moving relative to one another. When they move in contact, the lubricant lessens friction and heat generation. The primary purposes of lubricants are to lessen friction, increase abrasion, seal, clean, and protect the machine’s moving parts.

2.2 Lubrication A lubricant is a substance between two surfaces or parts that move against each other. When they move in contact, the lubricant lessens friction and heat generation. Lubricants’ main jobs are to reduce friction, speed up wear, seal, keep things clean, and protect moving parts.

2.3 Types of Industrial Lubricants [5] Four different types of lubricants are based on how they work: liquid or semi-solid lubricant. Grease, graphite, molybdenum disulfide, and polytetrafluoroethylene are all solids, while air and steam are gases. Depending on the source of the raw materials, lubricants can also be divided into the following four categories: Mineral oil is derived from coal and petroleum. Animal dander: And most vegetable oil is made up of triglyceride esters, which both plants and animals make. Synthetic oil is synthetic oil (for high-temperature lubrication).

2.4 Properties of Lubricants [6] Viscosity: Viscosity, which is how hard the oil is to move, is considered its most important quality. The barrier to oil flow increases with increasing thickness. The unit of viscosity is called the stroke. Viscosity index: The exact empirical oil number shows how much the viscosity of oil changes as the temperature changes. Oils with a higher viscosity index are always preferred. Flash point: The flash point is the lowest temperature at which evaporated oil ignites (flashes). If the source is removed, at the flash point the fuel self-extinguish.

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Fig. 3 Surface contact of two metals [6]

Fire point: Oil has a fire point and a flash point; the fire point is the temperature at which oil vaporizes. Even after the source is taken away, the oil still burns. A flashpoint is more significant than a fire point in terms of safety. Pour Point: The lowest temperature at which a lubricant can still flow is called the “pour point.” The oil tends to thicken and stop hovering easily below the pour point. Emulsibility and Demulsibility: Emulsibility refers to an oil’s propensity to emulsify with water. Demulsibility refers to an oil’s capacity to separate from water.

2.5 Principles of Lubrication Even if the metal surface is smooth, there is always significant abrasion when two machine components come into contact during operation. Figure 3 shows that when a load is put on lubricated machine parts, the load will try to push the lubricating oil layer off the surface, causing the metal to touch the metal. Lubricating oil is poured over a rotating shaft in a bearing to keep it from seizing. Metal-to-metal contact exists when the beam is at rest (Fig. 4a). Centrifugal forces cause the lubricant to lift into the bearing as the shaft rotates (Fig. 4b) [6].

2.6 Methods of Lubrication To keep the machine in good condition, it is important to select the proper lubricants for specific purposes. An effective method is necessary to use for any machinery. Many methods are used for machine lubrication. Most textile industries use manual lubrication, gravity feed lubrication, forced lubrication, and the splash method to lubricate. (a) Manual Lubrication: This group may include manual oil lubrication. Grease is applied using grease nipples in bearings, while oil is applied using an oil can.

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Fig. 4 Shaft a at rest and b at running condition [6]

(b) Gravity Feed Lubrication: In a gravity feed, lubricants are fed to a point and provided by gravity. (c) Forced Lubrication: An oil pump supplies the lubricating oil under high pressure in forced lubrication. Cooling and cleaning are also features of this mechanism. (d) Splash Method of Lubrication: The moving portions of machine or engine parts are submerged in an oil bath, which rotates to the surface to be lubricated, splashing the oil.

2.7 Storage of Lubricants Lubricants should ideally be kept at a steady, moderate temperature while being covered. This might not be possible, which means that at least part of the lubricant store would have to be outside. Most lubricants are not affected by weather. It is kept away from extreme temperatures and water. They can be kept out for short periods. The two categories of store design are “outdoor” and “interior” storage. For outdoor storage, airtight and moisture-protected barrels have been used. It should stay on an oil-resistant foundation. The store shouldn’t be in an environment that is free from corrosion or dust. On the other hand, indoor storage should follow the “first in, first out” rule and make it easy for a forklift and a trolley to get to the items. A fire protection system and excellent ventilation are required for storage.

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3 Ergonomics and Material Handling Ergonomics is the study of how to make workplaces, items, and systems fit the needs of the people and using them. It uses science to plan the workplace. Ergonomics include the moving things around at work, and work-related illnesses and injuries very high cost. The most prevalent occupational disability in the world is lower back pain. When making a safe, comfortable, and productive workplace, it’s essential to consider a person’s body size, strength, skills, speed, sensory abilities, and attitude [7]. Considering this, the scientific workstation should have reduced costs, greater productivity, better product quality, increased staff engagement, and a better safety culture.

3.1 Risk Factors in Material Handling Material handling is a routine task that is performed frequently. The task is hazardous and deadly if the materials are mishandled. It identifies the charges that can cause accidents. Lift, dump, push, pull, carry, and hold are risky tasks. Risky labor is defined as that which restricts a person. When one or more of the following are involved, the task is deemed high-risk [8]. • • • • •

Constant or repeated force The high or abrupt force Recurring motion Continued or unnatural stance Being exposed to vibration

3.2 Health Effect and Workstation Environment A study is being done to determine how bad workstations affect people’s health. It found that 70% of people who use foot controllers for sewing machines say they have back pain. 35% said they have ongoing back pain. A study showed that compensable cumulative trauma disorder (CTD) had affected 25% of workers. The study also showed that 81% reported CTDs at the wrist. 14% of people mentioned elbow CTDs. 5% of participants reported CTDs to the shoulder. In 49% of workers, neck pain is present. As working conditions deteriorate, absenteeism rises. Workplace hazards are linked to worker losses through accidents or excessive turnover. Trimming and hand stitching put a strain on the upper limbs. Work involving sewing is linked to hand, wrist, and shoulder pain. Elbow pain is related to hand ironing. CTDs of the hands and wrists are attached to tasks involving clothing assembling. Back pain is a side effect of sewing with the foot [8].

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Fig. 5 Elements of ergonomic process [7]

3.3 Fundamental Ergonomic Principles The Material handling equipment consists of cranes, conveyors, industrial trucks, etc. Material handling is built around these tools to ensure the equipment is safe and does not pose any risks as shown in Fig. 5. The focus involves the proper use of tools, which means the worker should use the right tools for the right job. Workers should minimize repetitive movements and avoid awkward postures to reduce workplace hazards. In addition, for the environment’s safety, the need to use safe lifting procedures and proper rest before the task [7].

3.4 Types of Ergonomics Equipment, technological systems, and tasks must be suitable for each person who uses them. According to the ergonomic principle, using equipment for material

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handling is critical. So, ergonomic studies are split into three different groups: organizational ergonomics, cognitive ergonomics, and physical ergonomics. i. Physical Ergonomics Physical ergonomics involves human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics. Physical activity improvement is considered the most significant ergonomics domain compared to others. ii. Cognitive Ergonomics A subfield of ergonomics known as cognitive ergonomics (CE) aims to promote “appropriate collaboration between work, goods, and environments, and human requirements, talents, and barriers.” Intellectual ergonomics is centered on mental processes, specifically on subjective capabilities and mental/conduct level partnerships, in this human-framework association. For instance, cognitive ergonomics is interested in how mental processes like observation, memory, thinking, and motor reaction affect relationships between humans and various framework components. iii. Organizational Ergonomics Organizational ergonomics focuses on optimizing sociotechnical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and procedures. Any workplace can benefit from industrial ergonomics, but positions require a lot of material handling. Materialhandling workers are more likely to get diseases of the muscles and bones if they don’t have a good ergonomics program. Ergonomic interventions can increase productivity in addition to employee safety in the workplace.

4 Safety and Health Issues in the Textile Industry The textile industry comprises many businesses that use spinning, weaving, dying, printing, finishing, and other techniques to turn fiber into finished fabric or clothing. The textile business raises several safety issues and health concerns.

4.1 Major Health Issues in Textile Industry The textile business comprises different units that spin, finish, weave, print, dye, and do other things needed to turn fiber into a finished fabric or garment. The primary health and safety challenges are exposure to chemicals, cotton dust, noise, UV radiation, and biological, psychosocial, and ergonomic concerns. The textile industry’s

44 Table 1 Types and sizes of dust particles

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Types

Size of the particles (µm)

Trash

Above 500

Dust

50–500

Micro dust

15–50

Breathable dust

Below 15

health and safety problems are divided into two groups: problems with ergonomics and exposure to dust, chemicals, and noise. (a) Exposure to dust The textile industry is a likely source of dust, especially dust made from cotton fibers. Ground-up plant material, fiber, bacteria, fungi, soil, insecticides, non-cotton plant material, and other pollutants are all present in cotton dust. According to the following Table 1, cotton dust may be categorized into four groups depending on the size of the dust particles. All these dust forms are fiber fragments, leaves, husk fragments, sand, and water-soluble components. Cotton dust is a byproduct of cotton’s cultivation, gathering, and subsequent processing. Byssinosis is more likely to strike workers exposed to cotton dust. When returning to work after spending a day or more in the mill, workers may experience chest tightness or shortness of breath [10, 11]. (b) Exposure to chemicals The textile, clothing, and fast fashion industries significantly affect the environment throughout their life cycle. The haphazard is due to water, chemicals, and colors. Each year, wastewater and sludge are produced substantially by wet processing and finishing. According to Bangladesh’s perspective, by 2021, trash generation may reach 350 mm3 . When mixed with other water sources, these effluents will change the quality of the water. It could hurt aquatic ecosystems, soil fertility, global warming, pollution in the air, and the survival of animals. These effects are referred to as “indirect effects.” Sometimes, bad things happen to people and plants because scientists don’t have the right tools, knowledge, or places to work [12, 13]. (c) Exposure to noise The weaving, knitting, and spinning sections of the textile industry produce a lot of noise every second. High-volume exposure damages the eardrums and results in hearing loss, exhaustion, absenteeism, anxiety, decreased productivity, and blood pressure. Machines that aren’t appropriately maintained may produce more noise simultaneously than they already do. A survey found that almost 80% of workers in extremely noisy workstations are at risk for hearing loss [11]. (d) Ergonomics issues Most industries do not guarantee good ergonomics for their workers. Because of this, the workplace is unsafe and unhealthy for the employees. The biggest problems with

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ergonomics today are the wrong furniture, poor ventilation and lighting, and a lack of safety measures. Because of bad ergonomics, workers have been diagnosed with carpal tunnel syndrome, forearm tendinitis, bi-capital tendinitis, lower back pain, epicondylitis, neck pain, shoulder pain, and osteoarthritis of the knees. In contrast to wealthy countries, these problems are more prevalent in developing countries [14].

5 Maintenance Activities of Textile Machinery The textile industry relies heavily on both the workforce and machinery. The textile business comprises four parts: spinning, fabric mills, dying, and making clothes. Spinning mills think of fiber as their primary input and each output as another input. Operations, manufacturing processes, and product quality are so interdependent. Additionally, each sector has factories that require a lot of personnel and machinery. It needs specific tasks, including upkeep, safety checks, and specialized workstations for science.

5.1 Maintenance of Spinning Machine Spinning is the technique that turns fibers and filaments into yarn. Spinning techniques transform fibers and other materials into yarn and filaments. The primary essential source is cotton fiber, which is gathered from bales. Several processes, including blowing, carding, drawing, simplex, and ring, are used to make yarn. The steps in the spinning process are depicted in the flow chart below. Spinning requires multitasking while the fibers are being processed. Thus, maintaining it is also very important. As machinery gradually and steadily fails, condition maintenance, which is excellent for spinning mills, seems essential. These malfunctions are not due to mechanical or service issues. The spinning machine can work, but the quality of the material it is processing makes it less effective. For instance, if spinning machines are not inspected for a week, they won’t break, but their efficiency and quality of operation will decline. Furthermore, if a defective part is replaced, the machinery may fail. Conditional maintenance is, therefore, essential for longevity, profitability, quality, and durability [16].

5.1.1

Regular Maintenance in Spinning Industry

There are many ways to spin yarn, such as ring spinning, rotor spinning, twist-less spinning, wrap spinning, and core spinning. The most popular method for creating staple-fiber yarns is ring spinning. The twist is put in, and the yarn is wound with a spindle, a ring, and a traveler. The fibers are twisted around each other in a spiral pattern to give the yarn strength. Based on the idea of open-end spinning, the rotor

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is the essential part of this technology that twists. The yarn made by rotor spinning is more even and smooth than yarn made by ring spinning, but it is also weaker. In twistless yarns, which are often layered on top of a core of continuous filaments, the fibers are held together not by the twist but by certain chemical glues. Wrap-spun yarn is made by wrapping the staple fibers around another yarn. Core-spun yarns are made in a single step during the spinning process and have a center core that is helically wrapped in staple fibers [17].

5.1.2

Blow-Room

The spinning machine’s blow room is its initial function. It opens the bale into tufts to eliminate garbage and impurities without harming the fibers. The blow chamber is cleaned every day with pneumatic air. In the blow room, Uni-clean, Uni-mix, Uniflex, and condenser machines are found. The critical components of blow chamber maintenance are the beater blades, rubber and spiked lattice, air grits in chutes, and grid bars. The maintenance point of the blow room and relative action are shown in Table 2, and a standard maintenance schedule is shown in Table 3. Table 2 Maintenance point of blow room machine Machine name Maintenance point

Actions

Unifloc

i. Fan used in impeller section ii. Inside swivel tower unit iii. Roller/swivel flaps iv. All types of belts/rollers v. All drive chain, guards, tooth segments, break lifts

Checking, cleaning, tension checking, lubrication, oil level checks etc.

Uni-clean

i. Sealing stripes ii. Grid bar and drum, V belt iii. Lock roller drive chain iv. Inner part of the spike feed lattice

Cleaning, checking adjustment, tension etc.

Uni-mix

i. All types of belts, drive chain, roller, rivet, bearing ii. Separating vans, exhaust fans iii. Storage section inner chamber iv. All gear box, cotton filter, spiked feed lattice

Checking tension, oiling, cleaning, oil level checking etc.

Uni-flex

i. All drive chain, seals, grid bar ii. Saw tooth roller, Lamella chute

Checking, cleaning oiling

Condenser

i. All types of belt, bearing, drum Cleaning, checking tension seal, stripper ii. Perforated drum inside or outside iii. Take of roller iv. Material in, out and exhaust line

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Table 3 Maintenance schedule of blow room machine Operations

Parts

Frequency

Cleaning

i. General cleaning, belts, roller etc. ii. Grid bars

i. Everyday ii. 8–10 h

Lubrication

i. Bearing and studs through oil holes ii. Greasing needle/ball bearing iii. Open gears iv. All chain roller

i. Everyday ii. 7–8 days iii. 3–4 days iv. 25–40 days

Checking, setting and overhauling

i. Checking of individual attached parts ii. Beater and cages checking iii. Pedal assemblies iv. Reversal and redressing of beater blades

i. 1 month ii. 6 month iii. 6 month iv. 1 year

5.1.3

Maintenance Point of Carding Machine

The blow room line is followed by the carding procedure. The main goal is to separate each fiber tuft into a single fiber and get rid of all neps and seed cotton. This procedure eliminates seed fragments, contaminants, neps, etc. Table 4 displays the carding machine’s maintenance point and related actions, while Table 5 displays a typical maintenance schedule. Table 4 Maintenance point of carding machine Machine Name

Maintenance point

Actions

Carding machine

i. All bearing elements, card setting, cylinder gasket, stripe knife, Condition of card clothing, all suctions point ii. Carding element, cylinder inside, can turntable, chute, detaching unit iii. Auto leveler, all types of belt, flat drive belt

i. Checking ii. Cleaning iii. Tension checking

Table 5 Maintenance schedule of carding machine Operations

Parts

Frequency

Checking

Nuts, bolts, screws, trumpets, coiler tubes, sliver guide, grease, nipples

Regular checking and cleaning

Cleaning

Coiler tubes and trumpets, gears, belts

Every day and regular interval

Lubrication

i. Plain bearing and studs ii. Ball bearing, open gears iii. Cylinder bearing, doffer bearing

i. Everyday ii. Every 3–7 days iii. 6–8 months interval

Others

• Wire polishing, cylinder, doffer and flat grinding • Cylinder and doffer wire change • Overhauling and levelling

• 3–6 months • 5–6 years • 5–6 years

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Maintenance of Comber Machine

The combing process is an important part of the mechanical processing of short-staple fibers that is needed to make high-quality combed yarn. After going through the draw frame, the combed sliver continues along the usual path for making yarn. Compared to carded yarns, more consistent and robust yarns can be produced. Compared to carded yarns, combed yarns are less shaggy and more compact. Compared to carded yarns, combed yarns can be spun into significantly finer counts. The combining’s purpose is to distinguish between long and short fibers. The shorter fibers are thrown away, but the longer ones are used to make a combed sliver. The kind and quality of the raw material and the level of combing done during the combing process determine the quality of the combed yarn and the degree of yarn fineness that can be achieved. Scratch combing is used to create coarser, lower-quality combed yarns. Table 6 displays the Comber machine maintenance points and practices. Table 6 Maintenance point of combing machine Machine name

Maintenance parts

Action

Delivery zone

Feed table, trumpet, calendar roller, table funnel, Top combs, clearer rolls, and flats, bearing of the bottom roller, circular, comb, filter, spring assemblies, Nipper, nipper lever on in-feed side, circular comb brush, Feeding throats, feed roller, nipper, lips, top detaching roller, fleece guide, plates, top delivery roller, lap plate

Clean and check condition, change if require

Draft zone

Stripper, Top and bottom roller

Clean all the belt, check tension and adjust if

Belt tension and gauge points

Timing belt, flat belt, V-belt, Setting and condition of top comb, circular comb brush, Roller, nipper feed plate, nipper gauge, bottom detaching roller gauge

Gauge check and adjust if require

Gear box

Gear box checking

Check gear condition, gear oiling and change

Can

Chain tension, Bearing, bush of the top detaching roller, Drafting roller, strip nipper frame, lower delivery and table calendar,

Check physical condition, clean, oil and change

Greasing points

Batt tension roll axles, Top comber nipper, circular Check tightness and comb, top roller pressure, main gear box, index change if require wheel, all pulley, can wheel, coiler wheel, lap feed plate, lap roller nut bolt

Electrical parts

Motor, motor fan, photo-cell, limit switch, electronic board, connection cable

Check and clean

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Maintenance of Draw Frame Machine

The draw frame machine has a feature called positive sliver feeding. The diameter of the feed can range from 400 to 1000 mm. The cage’s height can vary between 900 and 1100 mm. Scraps are fed fast and continuously into the drafting zone. The role gathered the particles and sent them through the condenser to the center drafting zone. Positive feed from the creel helps to cut down on erroneous drafts. A pair of rollers are placed above each can. The fibers are drawn using the draw frame. The routine maintenance tasks are lengthening, greasing, adjusting, cleaning, and calibrating. The draw frame machine’s maintenance points and procedures are shown in Table 7. A typical maintenance schedule is shown in Table 8. Table 7 Maintenance point of draw frame machine Machine name

Maintenance parts

Auto leveler Funnel, scanning roller, contact roller, gatherer, nail and stripper

Action Condition checking and cleaning

Drafting zone

Pressure bar, round guide bar, top roller, weighing frame, funnel, condenser, trumpet, coiler, top and bottom roller

Check physical condition and change if require

Suction system

Filter box, filter screen, fan blade

Check filter and blade condition and change

Can, gear box

Can plate, gear, power cylinder, Planetary gear box

Check physical condition, change

Belt

Flat belt, V-belt, timing belt

Clean, check tension

Nut-bolt

Top roller lock, pulley nut-bolt, creel nut-bolt, drafting zone nut-bolt

Check tightness

Electrical parts

Motor, fan, limit switch, proximity switch, creel light Check and clean barrier

Outer surface

Outer surface

Clean properly

Table 8 Maintenance schedule of draw frame machine Operations

Parts

Checking and setting

i. Nuts, bolts & screws, trumpet, sliver guide, air hose, grease i. Periodic nipples, top and bottom roller ii. 2–3 months ii. Intensified checking of spring unit, top arms, bottom rollers, suction unit, hose pipes, gears etc

Cleaning

Speed check, cleaning bottom-fluted roller with brass wire brush, scanning roller, filter box, filter screen, flat/v/timing belt, motor, fan, limit switch

Everyday

Lubrication

i. Plain bearing, studs, top roller brush ii. Greasing of ball/needle bearing

i. Everyday ii. Every week

Frequency

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Table 9 Maintenance point of simplex machine Machine name

Machine parts

Actions

Drafting zone

i. Transverse bar and slide ii. Roller, condenser, Clearer cloth, bearing, apron iii. Pressure arm and cradle unit

i. Check setting ii. Gauge check, assembly check, condition check iii. Clean, check adjustment and condition

GE head

i. Belt, gear box, gear setting, bearing and greasing point ii. All nuts and bolts

i. Check adjustment, condition, lubrication ii. Check tightness

OE head

Sensor and Blanching chain

Check sensor and greasing

Back side

i. Creel, creel chain, balancing spring, CWC, ii. Grease pump iii. Photo cell

i. Checking, cleaning and greasing ii. Checking grease level in pump iii. Clean by soft cell

Flyer and bobbin rail i. Bobbin rail, seal and shaft ii. Flyer, flyer cap and gear

i. Clean and check condition ii. Clean, check setting and gear condition

Outer surface

Clean regularly

5.1.6

The body frame

Maintenance of Simplex Machine

The simplex frame is placed after the comber in the method for making yarn. Because of this, the sliver made from the comber is thicker and cannot be fed directly into the ring frame to make yarn. Because of this, the drawn fraction is prepared before being placed inside the ring frame. The flyer frame, often known as a speed frame, is the most widely used simplex machine for cotton. The roving frame operates in three main steps: drafting, twisting, and winding. The three fundamental steps needed for spinning are precisely the same. This machine produces roving by drawing and drafting drawn sliver. Its main maintenance points are the headstock, draft zone, GE head, OE head, back alley, and spindle zone. Proper maintenance produces quality roving by avoiding and reducing end breakage frequency. The draw frame machine’s maintenance points and procedures are shown in Table 9. A typical maintenance schedule is shown in Table 10.

5.1.7

Maintenance of Ring Frame Machine

Yarn is produced at this stage, marking the spinning process’s end. After this procedure, the quality of the yarn cannot be altered, modified, or reprocessed. The twisting process fixes the property of the final yarn. As a result, this part strongly emphasizes roughly 50% of total maintenance. It needs care in several places, which are covered below: Table 11 displays the maintenance points and practices for the draw frame machine.

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Table 10 Maintenance schedule of Simplex machine Operation

Parts

Frequency

Checking and overhauling

i. Gear, headstock, building motion, cone drum ii. Nose bar, roller setting iii. Roller cots iv. Replacing top and bottom apron v. Nuts and bolts

i. 3–6 month ii. 6 month iii. 3–4 month iv. 2 years v. Periodic interval

Cleaning

i. Spindle, flyer, bobbin rail ii. Aprons iii. Clearer cloth iv. Clearer roller and rods, traverse gear box, bottom fluted roller

i. Every week ii. 2–3 month iii. 1–3 h iv. Periodic cleaning

Lubrication

Oiling of bear, studs, shaft etc.

Periodical

Table 11 Maintenance point of ring frame machine Machine name

Machine parts

Ring frame i. Travers track of roving guide, gear bearings, teeth surface, mesh clearance, fluted roller bearings, suction tube, traveler, spindle blade, ring rail height and position, lappet rail, filter box ii. Top cot roller and cradle, apron, Bottom fluted roller

Actions i. Checking and adjustment ii. Cleaning and washing

5.2 Maintenance of Fabric Industry The primary raw material used to make fabrics is yarn (Table 12). Spinning technology is used to produce yarn. There are primarily two sorts of fabrics created: woven and knitted fabrics. The mechanisms, yarn preparation, and machinery types vary from one type to another. Maintenance tasks can be divided into weaving section maintenance and knitting section maintenance.

5.2.1

Maintenance of Weaving Machineries [18]

A tool used to weave cloth is called a weaving machine. The main job of a loom is to keep the warp threads tight, which makes it easier for the weft threads to weave together. Even though the details of how a loom works and looks can change, its primary purpose is always the same. The machine needs ongoing maintenance. Maintenance uses maintenance practices to enhance dependability and maximize equipment uptime in a manufacturing environment. A manufacturer needs its machinery to function at its best. Even one minute of downtime can cost thousands of dollars; if a piece of equipment is broken for more than an hour, the results can be wrong. For high-speed warping, maintenance includes checking how it works, servicing,

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Table 12 Maintenance schedule of ring frame machine Operations

Parts

Frequency

Checking and i. Spindle gauge, head stock and draft gears, saddle gauge, setting pneumafil, central lubrication system ii. Cots buffing, gear box iii. Traverse bar motion, OHTC, pneumatic connection, roller eccentricity

i. 6–12 months ii. 3 months iii. 1 year

Routine cleaning

Creel, drafting, twisting zone, drive rail lubrication

Regular cleaning

Lubrication

• Central lubrication tank • Draft roller, cam and bowl • Greasing of roller, machine shaft, fan motor

• 2–3 days • 1–2 month • 4 month

Replacement

• • • • •

• • • • •

Spindle and gear box oil replacement Cot change, traveler Apron, ring, hose Spindle assembly Top arm

Overhauling

6 month 12–18 month 2–3 years 5–7 years 10 years

4–5 years

repairing, or replacing important parts, and making sure it has utilities. Weaving machines need different kinds of care, such as planned maintenance, preventive maintenance, regular maintenance, predictive maintenance, and maintenance based on how the machine works. Start with the maintenance of the weaving section is shown in Fig. 6. Three shedding processes—tappet shedding, dobby shedding, and jacquard shedding—are essential to the weaving mechanism. The rest of the activities stay the Fig. 6 Flow chart of weaving section [18]

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Table 13 Maintenance point of shedding mechanisms of weaving machine Tappet shedding

Dobby shedding

Jacquard shedding

i. Gear and gear box ii. Motor and motor belt iii. Lubrication iv. Cleaning different parts which is covered by fibre and dust v. Tappet and others parts related with tappet

i. Gear and gear box ii. Motor and motor belt iii. Different sensor iv. Lubrication v. Cleaning different parts which is covered by fibre and dust vi. Dobby mechanism unit

i. Gear and gear box ii. Motor and motor belt iii. Different sensor iv. Different punch card v. Lubrication vi. Cleaning different parts which is covered by fibre and dust

same. The seven wheel take up mechanisms, which include the gear and gear box, motor and motor belt, lubrication, cleaning various parts that are covered in fiber and dust, tappet and other parts linked to tappet and driving mechanism, are standard weaving mechanism maintenance procedures. Table 13 displays the maintenance points and practices for the weaving machine, and Table 14 shows maintenance action on Tappet, Dobby, and Jacquard Shedding.

5.2.2

Maintenance Knitting Machine

There are two different kinds of knitting machines: circular knitting machines and V-bed knitting machines. Machine mechanics and operations are distinct from one another and are divided.

Maintenance of Circular Knitting Machine The mechanical functioning of the circular knitting machine, which generally produces items of single jersey and double jersey fabric [19]. The maintenance of knitting machines falls into four categories, which are day maintenance, weekly maintenance, monthly maintenance, and routine maintenance.

Knitting Machine Maintenance Activities (a) Day Maintenance of Circular Knitting Machine • The stretch knit unit winding mechanism, fiber creel, and day and night shifts must be disconnected, kept clean, and maintained separately. • Shift while you check the feed of the devices to keep fly yarn storage from getting clogged. Rotation is rigid, leading to a fast flaw in the fabric’s surface. • Each class will examine the automatic stop device and safety equipment shields. If something unusual happens, they will fix it right away or replace it.

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Table 14 Maintenance action on tappet, dobby and jacquard shedding Actions

Tappet shedding

Dobby shedding

Jacquard shedding

Cleaning

Unless it disrupts the machine’s smooth operation, cleaning flies off the fibers is optional. The quality will suffer and cleaning up after this fly will take place quickly

Same action as tappet

Cleaning action is required within 8–10 h

Oiling

An oil bath that produces heat is submerged beneath the tappet shedding gearbox. Lubricant is used to reduce the heat and friction involved. This oil is a unique kind. Gear could break without oiling

Dobby machines also include gear boxes, which need lubrication to run smoothly and correctly. Lubricant is required within a certain time interval. Oiling is done automatically

Oiling the needle beds, movable sinker, carrier rail and carriage rails in every 8–12 h

Replacement The high-speed spin could cause the tappet to break or sustain other damage. Replacement is therefore necessary

Dobby can shatter or suffer damage from rapid speed just like needles and hooks can. So, after a specific amount of time, replacement happens

Frequent changing of punch card required changing of design

Overhauling

Every frictional point is overhauled, every damaged component is examined, and if replacement is necessary, tappet shedding is addressed

The machine runs more efficiently after an overhaul in dobby shedding. All the frictional components in the dobby and loom must be examined

Overhauling in punch card is required, which creates design during weaving

Greasing

To prevent deterioration and heat Same as tappet shedding buildup from high-speed rotating parts, lubrication is necessary

Grease is done on take down roller driven gear and sub roller driving gear

• During the shift or tour inspection, you must look at the oil market and the flow. (b) Week Maintenance of Circular Knitting Machine • Cleaning, yarn feeding, speed disk work, and fly build up on the inner disk were all completed. • Drive smoothly while making sure the transmission belt tension is normal. • Ensure that the traction winding mechanism is operating correctly. • Remove the collected flies and the triangular seat. • Check to see if the wind and dust removal equipment is working correctly and free of dust.

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(c) Full/Monthly Maintenance of Circular Knitting Machine • Disassemble all circular knitting needles and sinkers, clean them, and look them over for damage. If any are, replace them right away. • Ensure you clean the injection equipment, and the oil is smooth throughout. • The positive-type yarn feed mechanism should be cleaned and examined to ensure flexibility. • Fly with grease to maintain and clean the electrical system. (d) Routine Maintenance of Circular Knitting Machine • Syringes, needles, needle plates, and sinkers must be cleaned, oiled, and kept in a wooden box to prevent bruising and deformation. • To keep rust from happening in triangle-classified storage (knit, tuck, float), connect the knitting oil and change the color of the yarn. • Needles and sinkers should be replaced the same as the original. You cannot use an older needle and sinker in favor of a fresh one. 5.2.3

Maintenance on the V-Bed Knitting Machine

The maintenance of V-bed knitting machines is done by two operations, named cleaning and oiling [20]: (a) Cleaning: The smooth operation of the needle butt to the cam truck was inhibited during production when fiber dust and other debris were collected on the surface of the V-bed machine. As a result, regular brush cleaning of the cam box, needle bed, and needle hook is required. (b) Oiling: The machine contains a lot of frictional elements. Parts to parts or yarn to parts friction is possible. The production process is hampered because of the friction, which will harm various components of the machine. To a considerable extent, oiling is done at numerous stages. The machine components are cleaned first, then lubricated the spots. The production can then begin. 5.2.4

Maintenance of Electrical Parts

Testing, monitoring, repairing, and replacing electrical system components are all included in electrical maintenance. The licensed expert who performs electrical maintenance, which includes tasks as diverse as • The electrical system gives power to the circular knitting machine, so it needs to be well taken care of, and doesn’t break. • Check to see if the phenomenon of equipment leakage is present. If so, fix it. • The Check detector works well and make sure it is safe. • Examine and sanitize the motor and the bearings.

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5.3 Maintenance of Wet Processing (Dyeing) Industry Numerous processes that require a lot of mechanical effort employ wet processing technology. The primary goal of the wet process is to give the fabric a color that feels right in the hand. The dyeing process flow chart is shown in Fig. 7. The dyeing or wet processing industries use several types of machines that include singeing machine, de-sizing machine, kier boiling machine, bleaching tank, starching machine, cylinder dryer machine, mercerizing machine, jigger dyeing machine, package dyeing machine, winch dyeing machine, stenter machine, and calendering machine.

5.3.1

Maintenance Activities of Different Wet Processing Machines

• Maintenance of singeing machine There are three categories of singing machines. Machines for gas, plate, and roller singeing are available. The most popular and commonly used type of machine for the purpose is a gas singeing machine. The cloth roller, brush, gas burner, slot cover, motor, gas supplier, suction hood, and valve/burner are just a few of the parts of this machine that require maintenance [21, 22].

Fig. 7 Flow chart of dyeing process [21]

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Controlling point of Singeing machine • Motor and other moving parts: Sometimes they make strange noises, so the person in charge of maintenance needs to know enough about the different gears. • Speed of motor and roller: For perfect singeing, the speed of the motor and other rollers should be well maintained. • Electrical failure: Sometimes, electricity may fail while the gas supply continues. Proper attention is required to avoid any incident with an electric magnetic device. • Air suction hood: Flow flame can deposit on the fabric without proper air and deteriorate its quality. • Flame width and height control: Flame height and width must be within specific parameters to control the fabric quality. Otherwise, fabric quality can deteriorate and may require excess fabric. • Maintenance of de-sizing machine The primary purpose of the de-sizing machine is to size materials like wax, fat, oil, etc. The main parts of a de-sizing machine are the de-sizing tank, free roller, winch roller, tension roller, and squeezing roller. Controlling points of the machine • Squeezing roller: The squeezing roller contains two rollers. The upper roller is soft, and the lower roller is hard. The speed at which the roller squeezes the fabric is changed based on how good the fabric is. • Roller movement: The maintenance team has to look after the direction of the free and guide roller. • Air control: The pressure of the squeeze roller is needed to maintain by controlling the air pressure. • Water, streamline: For the expected quality of squeezing, water, stream, and fabric must be mixed in a certain way. • Temperature: During squeezing, the proper temperature should be maintained to avoid losing fabric quality. • Maintenance of kier boiler Boiling with a 1% caustic soda solution in a kier boiler is used to scrub cotton and linen fabrics. This procedure’s main goal is to clean contaminants from the fabric’s surface. The water supply pipe, handle, mixing tank, steam pipe, solution outline pipe, gauge glass, lid, valve, spray pipe, false bottom, and multilobular heater are the essential components of the Kier boiler.

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Controlling points of the machine • Temperature control: The temperature lies between 130 and 150 °C for scouring and is indicated by the gauge glass. • Check valve, steam pipes, water pipe and pipes: Various valves and pipes need to be thoroughly inspected. The Kier boiler will not operate properly if certain components are defective. • False bottom: The accurate perforated false bottom should use otherwise it will hamper the proper scouring process. • Multitubuler heater: Multitubuler heater can control the up down of the temperature and keep the required one in the kier boiler. • Inlet and outlet pipe: Both the pipe should clean for proper flow of different solution. • Maintenance of bleaching tank Bleaching is used to whiten cloth surfaces by erasing their original color. Wooden vassals, acid, alkali, and valves make up most of the bleaching tank’s components. Alkali is added to the wooden tank with the fabric to begin the bleaching process. An H2 O2 solution is in the alkali tank. After scouring, the material is treated with an acid solution to neutralize it. Controlling points of the machine • Alkali tank: It containsH2 O2 solution and passed to wooden tank where fabric is stored • Acid Tank: Acetic acid is stored here and neutralize the fabric. • Valves: Valves controls the flow of acid and alkali from respective storage tank. • Pressure of roller: The nip point of two rollers should be proper adjustment. If excessive amount of pressure are given then impregnation should not proper way. • Feed roller movement: Feed roller movement should be uniformed. • Maintenance of cylinder dryer machine The main parts of a cylinder dryer are a hollow cylinder, a guide roller, a free roller, a pin roller, and a swimming roller. Controlling points of the machine • Guide roller, roller movement: Roller movement should be free as the passage of the material. We must focus on the steady or movement of the guide roller. • Proper gearing: Lack of proper gearing hampers the correct functioning. • Proper heating: Even and proper heating of every cylinder parts is mandatory for facilitate of the drying process.

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• Motor revolution: Motor functioning must check for the right rpm of the machine. • Maintenance of mercerizing machine The checking points of mercerizing machine are the squeeze roller, gripping system, filtration, and suction pump. Controlling points of the machine • Proper gearing: Proper gearing in mercerization is must to get effectiveness. • Viscosity: Proper concentration of caustic solution facilitates the mercerization process. • Squeeze: To get even mercerization, proper squeeze is required. • Proper grip: To get full dimension of the fabric, appropriate grip of the fabric is must. • Suction: The inlet liquor (caustic) should be suctioned by the suction pump. We have to maintain the proper suction. • Proper lubrication: Without lubrication, the parts will be steady & become break. So proper lubrication is essential. • Filtration: The incoming solution should be filtrated otherwise the good mercerizing effect will be hampered. • Maintenance of jigger dyeing machine The main parts of the jigger dyeing machine are the roller (guide, take up, let off), steam channel and dye bath. Controlling points of the machine • Motor revolution and rpm: Proper motor revolution and roller movement are required to achieve the desired fabric shade. • Correct take up and let off: The functions of take up and let off should be maintained correctly. There is no excessive tension, while the movement of the fabric is expected. • Liquor concentration: dyeing liquor concentration should be proper and accurate. So, checking of the dye batch’s active functioning is mandatory. • Temperature: The dye bath temperature should be according to the requirements of the fabric dyeing. Hence, the temperature control device should be checked every time. • Maintenance of Package dyeing machine The package dyeing machine runs at high temperatures and high pressure. The main parts of this machine are the drying tank, blower, flow exchange valve, and drain tank. The HTHP package dyeing machine requires maintaining a temperature of

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10–120 °C for cotton, and for synthetics, 80–100 °C. Maximum pressure should be 5 kg/cm2 or 20 lbs/inch2 . The steam should be 117 kg/cycle. • Maintenance of Winch dyeing machine A high-temperature dyeing device is the winch dyeing machine. The Chemical Tank, the Winch, the I-Pot, the Pressure Meter, the Temperature Meter, the Main Tank, the Observer Gate, the Steam Check, the Controlling Box, the Indicator, the Boiler, and the Water Tank are the main parts that make it work. Cotton must be kept between 10 and 120 °C for Winch dyeing machines, while synthetics must be maintained between 80 and 100 °C. The maximum pressure should be 20 lbs/inch2 or 5 kg/cm2 . Electricity, compressed air, and steam should all be available in equal amounts. The recommended winch speed is 70 rpm. • Maintenance of Stenter machine The stenter machine works to improve the fabric’s dimensional stability. The free and guide rollers, horizontal clip, fan, and motor are the critical components of this machine. For the fabric to flow smoothly through the stenter, the roller must move correctly, and the material must be adequately grasped. If not, the fabric could snag and lead to uneven dimensional stability. The temperature may change based on how the cloth or fiber is processed. • Maintenance of Calendaring machine Calendaring machines have rollers (guide, tension, scuther, free, wooden, swing), a bowl, and other components. To ensure that the cloth is of an even quality, the motor rpm needs to be special. Even while good shading of the finished products also requires liquor concentration.

5.4 Maintenance of Garments Machinery The final step before a finished product is produced is garment manufacturing. It is possible to assemble a variety of electrically powered sewing machines in accordance with the design and buyer specifications. Manufacturers of sewing machines update their existing models and release new, superior models every year to streamline manufacturing. The sewing machines used in the clothing industry are listed below.

Management and Maintenance of Textile Machinery

1. Single needle lock stitch machine (Plain machine) 2. Double-needle lockstitch machine 3. Three threads over lock machine 4. Four threads overlock machine 5. Five threads overlock machine 6. Six threads over Lock Machine 7. Flatlock machine 8. Two needle vertical machine 9. Single needle chain stitch machine 10. Two-needle chain stitch machine

5.4.1

11. Kansai machine 12. The feed of the arm 13. Saddle stitch binding sewing machine 14. Bar tack machine 15. Velcro attach machine 16. Velcro automatic cutting machine 17. Buttonhole machine 18. Button stitch machine 19. Eyelet hole machine 20. Snap buttons attach machine

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21. Blind stitch machine 22. Zigzag machine 23. Label cutter machine 24. APW sewing machine 25. Rectangular Sewing machines 26. Embroidery machine 27. Automatic 2-needle belt-loop attaching machine 28. Decorative stitch machine 29. Cover stitch machine 30. Round hole machine

Types of Maintenance of Garment Machineries

The clothing business uses two types of maintenance: preventive/routine maintenance and breakdown repair. All varieties of sewing machines require these two sorts of maintenance. [23, 24]. (i) Breakdown maintenance As the sewing machine is used to put together the pattern parts throughout the day, it can cause problems like too much heat, noise, oil leaks, broken needles, yarn jams, etc. That occurrence is more challenging to forecast. The result is that the machine malfunctions. Maintenance of those components is necessary since machine breakdown time is a productivity loss. Sewing machine mechanics offer prompt assistance or quick information systems for this breakdown maintenance. No routine maintenance is required, and equipment is only fixed or replaced when obvious issues arise. When equipment shutdowns don’t influence the quality of the output or the ability to generate income, breakdown maintenance works well. (ii) Preventive/Routine Maintenance Industrial sewing machines need to be cleaned, oiled, checked, and tightened every day, every week, or every month. These things can make a machine last longer and keep it from breaking down suddenly. The sewing machine maintenance team plans the preventive maintenance tasks based on how well the device needs to stay in working order. Cleaning, inspection, equipment condition diagnostic, checking, oil, water, and air changes, alignment, re-tightening, and other operations are all included.

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6 Conclusion One of the issues that every organization must face is the upkeep of various industrial devices. It is a critical component since these responsibilities are to ensure the everyday manufacturing activities and production of the plants. Maintenance operations must be planned in advance to maximize efficiency, eliminate unforeseen events, and ensure compliance with various safety rules and certifications mandated by law. It would be a grave error to believe that machine maintenance is only the duty of the maintenance department. The maintenance process involves a lot of different people, like the front-line operators, the warehouse and logistics department, which organizes orders and receives goods, and the financial department, which decides how to spend money. It is critical to have coordination and fluid communication between the various departments. To do all this deployment and maintenance work on textile machines in a factory, as well as to come up with action plans for each situation.

References 1. Fusko M, Rakyta M, Krajcovic M, Dulina L, Gaso M, Grznar P (2018) Basics of designing maintenance processes in industry 4.0. MM Sci J 2252–2259. https://doi.org/10.17973/MMSJ. 2018_03_2017104 2. Poór P, Ženíšek D, Basl J (2019) Historical overview of maintenance management strategies: development from breakdown maintenance to predictive maintenance in accordance with four industrial revolutions. In: Proceedings of the international conference on industrial engineering and operations management Pilsen, Czech Republic. IEOM Society International, pp 495–504. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335444202_Historical_Overview_of_ Maintenance_Management_Strategies_Development_from_Breakdown_Maintenance_to_ Predictive_Maintenance_in_Accordance_with_Four_Industrial_Revolutions 3. Bruce Hawkins C (2018) Maintenance management 201: “More of the Basics”. Reliability Consulting, Emerson, pp 1–7. https://www.emerson.com/documents/automation/maintenancemanagement-201-%E2%80%9Cmore-of-basics%E2%80%9D-en-5259614.pdf. Accessed on 1 May 2021 4. Keith Mobley R (2004) Maintenance fundamentals, 2nd edn. Plant engineering maintenance series, pp 1–425. Ebook ISBN: 9780080478982. http://dl.mpedia.ir/e-books/09-[keith-mobley ]maintenance-fundamentals[mpedia.ir].pdf 5. Kajdas C (1997) Industrial lubricants. In: Mortier RM, Orszulik ST (eds) Chemistry and technology of lubricants. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1021-3_8 6. Robertson WS (1972) Types and properties of lubricants. In: Evans GG, Galvin VM, Robertson WS, Waller WF (eds) Lubrication in practice. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-1-349-81550-0_2 7. Sherman J (2018) The importance of ergonomics for material handling. Learning and development. https://www.go1.com/en-au/blog/post-the-importance-ergonomics-for-mat erial-handling 8. Sobuj KMMR (2015) Safety problems of garments worker and prevention. August 2011. https:/ /doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3753.8722 9. Galante JJ (2006) Ergonomics and manual material handling. Material handling industry in America. Ergonomics assist systems and equipment

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Advanced Technology in Fabric Manufacturing Kibria Fayez, Afsana Mobin, and Dewan Murshed Ahmed

Abstract Textile fabrics are 2D (two dimensional) or 3D (three dimensional) flexible covering materials. The primary purpose of the advent of textile fabric is to cover the human body as well as protect the body from adverse weather conditions. Nowadays, the concept of fabric bears a more significant meaning, from apparel wear to footwear. The jaw-dropping success of technical textiles applications is found in the aftermath of quite a several groundbreaking inventions as well as the advancement of the fabric manufacturing industry. The fabric manufacturing techniques range from simple, straightforward, complex, and elaborate processes. These processes are used a considerable amount of renewable and non-renewable energies, which value depends on the complexity of the technology. Some of the technologies have severe environmental impacts that threaten environmental and technical sustainability. Therefore, in the development of technology or advanced technology, efforts have been made to reduce energy consumption and environmental pollution. At present, fabric manufacturing technologies have focused on sustainable development through continuous development of the existing technologies and reduction of energy consumption as well as environmental pollution. Keywords Fabric · Weaving · Knitting · Multiaxial · Sustainability

1 Introduction A textile fabric is predominantly an assembly of fibres, yarns, or a combination. It is used for covering, decoration, filtration, reinforcement, and many more [1]. The techniques involved in manufacturing textile fabrics are weaving, knitting, tufting, K. Fayez (B) Management of Textile Trade and Technology, Hochschule Niederrhein, Mönchengladbach, Germany e-mail: [email protected] A. Mobin · D. M. Ahmed Department of Fabric Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_3

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braiding, and nonwoven manufacturing. These techniques can be classified as interlacement (weaving) or intermeshing (knitting) or intertwining (braiding), or bonding (nonwoven) approaches for fabric formation. All over the world, weaving and knitting are the most widely accepted and commercially viable fabric-forming technics in the clothing industries [2]. In the textile sector, weaving is a dominating technology, but it can also potentially dominate the clothing industry in the future [1]. Nonwoven manufacturing processes are going to discuss later on in this book. This chapter mainly deals with two popular fabric manufacturing methods: weaving and knitting. Keeping the chapter title in mind, the conventional, close-to-being obsolete features of these methods have been omitted, and the focus has been shifted to the discussion on the modern technologies involved in the manufacturing processes.

2 Weaving In the textile sector, weaving is considered the most popular method of fabric production [3]. It can be defined as a method of producing textile fabric through the interlacement of two distinct sets of yarns placed at approximately right angles. The longitudinal threads are used for warp, and the horizontal lines are used for weft or filling [1]. The outcomes of the weaving process are known as woven fabric or cloth. Its interlacement of yarns can take place in many ways that affect the ultimate fabric quality or characteristics [1, 4]. How the warp and the filling yarns interlace is known as a weave. Three basic weave designs are named plain weave, twill weave, and satin weave, used for fabric production in most textile industries [5]. The history of weaving shows that it originated as a super-simple hand-operated small entity and has now become advanced technology with high speed, robustness, versatility, and fully automated. It giant industry is catering to fulfilling the requirements of clothing. At the same time, the operation of the textile sectors became quite effortless.

2.1 Classification of Weaving Woven fabric is generally woven on a weaving machine or loom. Weaving machines are usually named after the weft insertion technique involved. From this point of view, weaving can mainly be classified into shuttle weaving (conventional weaving), where the filling insertion is done using a shuttle, and modern (shuttle-less) weaving, where filling insertion can be done using other modern devices other than a shuttle [6]. Shuttle weaving is almost obsolete now except for very few specialized applications. Nowadays, modern shuttle-less weaving reigns over the industry [1]. Among the available shuttle-less modern technologies, projectile, rapier, air-jet, waterjet, pneumatic rapier, and multiphase weaving are commonly employed for the manufacturing of cloth [1, 7].

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Weaving, however, can also be classified according to the shedding mechanism incorporated in the weaving machines. From this point of view, crank, cam, dobby, and jacquard weaving are commonly used [7]. Unlike knitting, weaving involves preparation and sequences of yarn such as warping, sizing, drawing-in (drawing + denting + pinning), and tying-in. The sequences process includes the use of other techniques as an integral part of the woven fabric manufacturing process [2].

2.2 Warping Warping is conducted to prepare a larger multiple-end package (warper’s beam) from smaller single-end packages (cone, cheese) to be sent for subsequent sizing and weaving process. Warping is mainly classified into direct (beam) and sectional (dresser/pattern/drum/band) warping. In natural (smile), twisting grey yarns require sizing operation. In contrast, in sectional (dresser/pattern/drum/band), warping for dyed yarns is used in pattern weaving or even grey threads that do not require sizing operation [1, 2, 8, 9]. The difference between these two warping systems is that the yarns are also wound directly on the warper’s beam from the cone/cheese packages in the case of beam warping. Still, in the chance of sectional warping, the yarns are wound around a section beam as per the pattern requirement first, which are eventually transferred to the warper’s shaft [1, 9]. Nowadays, the warping machines incorporate PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) systems to ensure operation with much higher speeds and efficient ways [9, 10]. Another type of unique warping technique known as Ball warping is used in the manufacturing of denim products [1]. In this method, the warp ends (around 350– 500) are wound on a ball warper in the form of untwisted ropes which are then sent for indigo dyeing [2]. The string is separated after the dyeing process, and the warp yarns are wound on a beam. This phase is known as long chain beaming [1]. Ball warping supplies warp with uniform end-to-end properties [2]. Draw warping is considered unique, which is done in the case of specific thermoplastic filament yarns. This process combines warping and heat setting strategies into one to achieve uniform stretching and heating of the warp ends. Draw warping also ensures uniform end-to-end properties in the warp yarns [1, 2]. A sample warping machine winds up a pre-programmed length (in meters) of warp ends on an intermediary drum. After the winding operation, the warps are wound on a weaver’s beam, which is sent for subsequent weaving. Sample warping is a time, cost, material, and labor-intensive solution for the weaving industry [8].

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2.3 Sizing Warp yarns must withstand static and dynamic stresses during the weaving operation, which may affect the yarn properties and the weaving efficiency [11]. The sizing process improves the wearability of the warps by coating them with a thin film of adhesive, thus providing them with the necessary strength, smoothness, and elongation required during weaving [9]. The main aim of sizing is to minimize warp breaks and loom stoppages during the weaving operation [2]. Depending on the material type, different sizing techniques and size ingredient combinations are applied to get the best result. Size ingredients like starch, CMC, glue, fats, PVA, PVC, etc. are used in sizing [8, 12]. Sizing can mainly be classified based on the method adopted for sizing. Hank sizing, which is almost archaic now (except in the handloom sector), is suitable for yarns in hank form. Ball warp sizing is done on threads in the form of a loose rope; thus, the tension on the warp is lower in this case. Despite having a couple of advantages, this process is also avoided chiefly for being comparatively much slower. Slasher or tape sizing is a widely adopted sizing technique for large-scale productions. This process features the sizing of warp yarns as a continuous sheet. A slasher sizing machine is usually equipped with additional drying, leasing, marking, measuring, and winding units [9]. Sizing can also be sorted according to the type and condition of the materials used, such as hot-melt sizing, emulsion sizing, cold sizing, dry sizing, wet sizing, traditional wet sizing, solvent sizing, foam sizing, etc. [12]. Among all of these, emulsion sizing and foam sizing are energy-saving processes. A sizing machine is generally associated with a drying arrangement such as cylinder drying, hot air drying, infrared drying, etc. [9]. As mentioned here, a woven fabric must undergo a de-sizing process before finishing treatments to remove the size of materials without significantly affecting the fabric’s quality and properties. However, a de-sizing process produces effluents which are not environmentally friendly, at least! Hence, initiatives are being taken to make sure that the sizing and the de-sizing processes affect the environment to the least by adopting adhesive recycling techniques, using unique de-sizing methods such as plasma treatment to destroy the adhesive without affecting the fabric, etc. [9].

2.4 Drawing-In and Tying-In Drawing-in and tying-in connect sizing operation with the weaving process [9]. Drawing-in is a combination of three techniques: drawing (drawing the warps of the weaver’s beam through the heddle eyes), denting (pulling them through the reeds), and pinning (threading them through the droppers of warp stop motion) [2]. Drawingin can be done manually, semi-automatic, or fully automatic, and all are commercially in practice to date [1, 9]. In the automatic drawing-in process, the drawing-in program

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is set using a control device before starting the machine; all the rest of the functions are conducted and controlled automatically [8]. Tying-in is the process of tying the warp ends of a to-be-exhausted beam to the corresponding ends of a new shaft when the drawing-in process must not be repeated due to the repetition or the continuation of the same design. Tying-in these days can be done using automatic tying-in machines that simultaneously work from left to right and right to left. Such an automatic knotter can do 60–600 knots per minute. Another tying-in method is the warp welding method [1].

2.5 Advances Made in Warp Preparation for Weaving With the advancement of time, machine manufacturers of the weaving industry are increasingly concerned about improvising in the machine design, achieving increased production rates and ensuring effective quality monitoring for the best quality outputs. Now automation (i.e. automatic feed control, automatic tension control, automatic motorized leasing operation, precision length measuring, automatic braking and beam pressing device, etc.) is a fundamental feature of yarn preparation machines [13]. Some of the notable advances made in warping, sizing, drawing-in, and tying-in processes are: • Warping machines can process all types of materials and material combinations. Machines with increased beam diameter and working width, pattern and machine parameter flexibility, constant yarn tension control, reduced warp loss, higher working speed (up to 1200 m/min), declined maintenance cost, and increased operator safety yields a much higher warping performance [13]. The winding of warp utilizing laser technology is also used in the textile industries [14]. • To increase warp performance during weaving, modern sizing machines automate the process and documentation of the sizing parameters [13]. Achieving the highest sizing efficiency using the minimum size liquor volume is the common goal of most machine manufacturers. Another exciting innovation is sizing without a size box, where the warps are sized using an electrostatic spraying method. Combining sizing with dyeing and combining sizing with dyeing and finishing are some of the advancements made in the sizing process [9]. A variety of dryers featuring different configurations for every kind of application are also available [13]. • Drawing-in machines come up as a mobile drawing-in machine and one or more stationary drawing-in stations, which draw the warps entirely and automatically through the heddle eyes and the reed. Drawing-in machines with effective monitoring and controlling of the warps, maximum design capacity, and higher productivity are available now [1, 8, 9]. • Warp tying machines with optimum tying quality and compatibility with all material types (including technical yarns) offer maximum efficiency during the warp change process, minimal machine downtime, easy operation, and reduced need for

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human supervision. These machines come with a computer display that constantly displays the operating status, tying speed, number of yarns tied, etc. [15].

2.6 Weaving According to the Filling Insertion System Handlooms and power loom use shuttles as a filling insertion tool. However, as discussed earlier, these looms have minimal commercial applications. Efforts had been made to bring automation to shuttle looms, but none of them had the potential to achieve desired production rates as well as overall efficiency [16]. Therefore, several alternatives to shuttle-picking were devised and commercialized, introducing different types of high-speed modern weaving machines to the industry.

2.6.1

Projectile Weaving

Projectile weaving was the first shuttle-less weaving concept with a simple patterning mechanism [6]. Projectile weaving machines approached the market at the beginning of the 50 s and are still primarily adopted worldwide. In projectile weaving, the weft is carried across the shed formed along the machine width utilizing a gripper projectile. After the insertion is completed, the weft is tightly stretched and then cut off the weft package. Finally, the shell is transported out of the shed. Multiple projectiles are shot through the shed one after the other [17]. A unique torsion bar picking mechanism is used, which increases the weft insertion rate (WIR) up to approximately 1500 m/min. Up to 8 different colors of wefts can be used in projectile weaving. These machines are distinctively popular with broader reed-width applications [18]. Electronic and microprocessor control in the latest projectile weaving machines has further stretched their popularity since they can manipulate various materials in almost all count ranges. Devices equipped with electronic microprocessor-controlled projectile brakes allow the projectiles to stop precisely in the exact position without operator intervention, thus increasing weaving efficiency. The latest devices come with ergonomic designs, optimized motion sequences, lower power consumption, and increased operational reliability and durability [1, 2, 8].

2.6.2

Rapier Weaving

Rapier weaving machines are the most flexible machines and are suitable for manufacturing a wide variety of fabric styles and material types [8]. In the case of rapier weaving, the end of the weft is gripped by the gripper’s head and transported through the shed. In the case of a double rapier system, the gripped weft is transferred to a second gripper head which carries it the rest of the way. In this mechanism, the weft

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insertion process is controlled throughout the weaving cycle; thus, the stress on the weft is also lower [8, 12]. Rapiers can come in three types: • Rigid blade (the gripper head is connected to a hollow bar of rectangular crosssection). • Flexible sword (the gripper head is attached with an adjustable rectangular tape/ belt). • Telescopic rapier technology (a compound rapier acts on the principle of telescopic expansion). Double rapiers come with either Dewas (the rapier head firmly grips the yarn end) or Gabler (the yarn end is not engaged; just threaded around the rapier head) principle [1]. Rapiers offer up to 16 different colors of wefts. A 2000 m/min WIR can be achieved in modern rapier weaving machines [18]. The latest versions of rapier weaving machines come with a lightweight guided gripper system (GC) and electronic right-hand gripper opener (ERGO), which offer a smaller rapier head, shed, more controlled weft insertion, and a higher speed as well. Mixing between monofilament and multifilament, coarse spun yarn with fine texturized yarn is also possible in some versions of the rapier. Even double insertion of specific strings is also possible in blades now. Another addition is the free flight system (FF) for gentle treatment of the weft while weaving with delicate threads; i.e. specific filaments [13, 19, 20].

2.6.3

Airjet Weaving

Airjet weaving offers a very high WIR (around 2520 m/min) and productivity in manufacturing light to medium-weight fabrics [18]. However, heavy-weight (such as denim and terry) materials are also commercially manufactured in air-jet weaving machines [8]. In air-jet weaving, the weft is inserted through the warp shed utilizing a high-speed jet of compressed air [21]. This compact air jet works with a set of selfadjustable main nozzles and auxiliary or relay nozzles arrangement. At the delivery side of the shed, a suction nozzle is installed to ensure perfect stretch of the weft through the shed. Airjet weaving machines are equipped with specially designed tunnel-shaped, profiled reeds to guide the jet of air carrying the weft through the shed. Up to 8 colors of wefts can be used during a particular production [1, 8, 22, 23]. The latest air-jet weaving mechanism comes with a programmable microprocessor control system and automatic pressure regulation system to adjust the air pressure according to the insertion conditions. The opening and closing times of the relay nozzle valves can also be adjusted according to the type and behavior of the weft. These attributes significantly reduce air and power consumption without compromising production quality. As mentioned, air-jet weaving is the only filling insertion technique with an automatic weft repair system, thus ensuring a much higher weaving efficiency [1, 10, 13].

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Waterjet Weaving

Waterjet weaving is a high-performance technique with lower operational costs engaged mainly in producing light and medium-weight fabrics and in the case of yarns made of hydrophobic synthetic fibres or blended yarns having such threads in their composition. Cords that lose strength in wet conditions should not be used in waterjet weaving. The weft insertion utilizes a jet of highly pressurized water in this mechanism. A nozzle takes the weft across the shed upon being struck by a plane of water. The front beam of a water jet machine must be equipped with a drying unit to remove the humidity absorbed by the cloth during weaving. Waterjet weaving facilitates weaving with a maximum of 2 colors of wefts at a time. The jacquard shedding mechanism is usually not employed in the case of waterjet weaving, for this mechanism is used in plain fabric weaving [8]. Up to 2720 m/min, WIR can be achieved in waterjet weaving [18].

2.6.5

Multiphase Weaving

A monophase weaving machine inserts one weft at a time. In contrast, a multiphase weaving machine inserts several wefts into multiple warps shed simultaneously utilizing a magnetic shuttle system [8]. Therefore, this weaving technique turns out to be a continuous process instead of featuring a cycle of intermittent shedding, picking, and beating-up operations. Multiphase weaving machines are equipped with beat-up rotary devices [2]. 4–8 shuttles work at a time for weft insertion. Multiphase weaving is categorized into wave shed (weft way multiphase), and parallel shed (warp way multiphase). Wave shed is suitable for circular looms, whereas parallel shed can come with air-jet and rapier weaving machines. Seamless bags are mainly manufactured on circular multiphase looms [1]. Multiphase weaving machines are low-operating cost machines with a high WIR (6088 m/min) [18].

2.7 Weaving According to the Shedding Mechanism Shedding divides the warp yarns into two sets (upper and lower sets) through which the weft is inserted for weaving [24]. In modern weaving, different shedding devices can be employed for creating the shed (i.e. crank, cam, dobby, jacquard) [21]. Each of the filling insertion mechanisms (be it rapier, air-jet, or some other means) can come with one or more than one shedding mechanism incorporated within.

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Crank Weaving

This simplest and cheapest form of mechanical shedding is crank shedding. The crankshaft provides the motion needed for the heald frame movement in this mechanism. It can be employed in the case of plain weave and its derivatives only [1].

2.7.2

Cam Weaving

In the case of cam weaving, the up and down motions of the heald frames are caused by the rotary motion of a tappet (a kind of cam with a certain dwell period [25]). It is another more straightforward, cheaper, and reliable form of shedding mechanism used in manufacturing simple structures of plain, twill, satin, sateen, and honeycomb weaves. But this shedding mechanism is less versatile and slower in terms of patterning. A typical cam system can handle up to 12–14 heald frames and not more than that [1, 2].

2.7.3

Dobby Weaving

Dobby is another shedding mechanism in which the lifting and lowering of the heald frames occur utilizing a dobby mechanism. This mechanism is more complex and costlier than crank and cam shedding mechanisms and offers quite a wide variation in patterning (i.e., dobby designs [25]). Dobby mechanisms can be either mechanical or electronic. Each one of these can be further classified into negative dobby (only the lifting of the heald frames takes place utilizing dobby), positive dobby (both lifting and lowering take place using dobby), and high-speed rotary dobby [2]. A mechanical dobby usually has a patterned cylinder equipped with pegs and a lag chain which are the main design elements in a dobby. However, in the latest mechanical models, the pegs and lag chain system have been replaced by a paper punch system. An automatic electronic dobby works based on computer programs and control. There is software available for dobby design in the market, such as Dobbytronic, Textronic, Arachne (ArahPaint and ArahWeave), NedGraphics (Dobby Pro), etc. [1, 6, 21, 22, 26].

2.7.4

Jacquard Weaving

Jacquard is a high patterning capacity shedding mechanism where no heald frame is used; instead, the warps are lifted by hooks driven by a knife and selection needle arrangement. Hence each warp can be controlled individually. Large intricate designs and figured patterns having a warp repeat higher than 28–32 are usually manufactured by jacquard weaving; such methods are beyond the design capacity of a dobby mechanism. Jacquards can be classified from various perspectives, such as the pitch, lift, card reading system, machine capacity, etc. [8, 27]. However, they can mainly

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be categorized into hand jacquard, mechanical jacquard, and electronic jacquard. In the case of hand jacquard, shedding is done by a paddle lever, whereas picking and beating up are done using the hand. Mechanical jacquard uses mechanical power. Mechanical jacquards can come with a single lift, single cylinder or double lift, single cylinder, or double lift system. Some other specialized mechanical jacquards include open shed jacquard, cross border jacquard, verdol, and vincenzi fine pitch jacquards, etc. [1, 6, 27]. The latest jacquards feature a dual lift system with electronics and microprocessor control that utilize and manipulate data from data storage devices (CDs, EPROMs, etc.) to produce a design; no hook is needed to control the warps. These jacquards are more popular owing to the overall increased efficiency, pattern diversity, easier maintenance, and lower vibration even at higher speeds [1, 12]. The latest models also feature weft variations, the lowest possible energy consumption, and reduced need for supervision which have further increased their acceptability among the manufacturers [28].

2.8 Sample Weaving Sample weaving machines are miniature versions of the industrial ones used to develop samples to be tested, analyzed, and sent for approval from buyers before going for bulk production. Modern sample weaving machines are equipped with mechanical drives and motions that offer a higher precision in the weaving operation. Alongside basic structures, unique designs like jacquard, terry, dobby, 3D spacer, and even carbon fiber fabric can be developed on the latest versions of sample weaving [29].

2.9 Specialized Weaving The continuous developments in the weaving industry have introduced machines equipped with specific features (keeping the basic principle of weaving intact), which permit the production of different types of unique fabrics. Many technical fabrics finding applications in apparel and technological textile sectors are manufactured using these weaving methods. Some of the commercially engaged ways are discussed below.

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Needle Weaving Technology

Needle weaving technology came into being for the production of narrow fabrics.1 Multiple narrow fabrics having designs likewise can be produced individually at once on needle looms using the multiple head (usually 2–12) arrangement. In a needle loom, a pivoted angular needle having an oscillating and reciprocating transverse motion carries the weft yarn from one side of the fabric to the other through the warp shed. As soon as the angular needle has reached the delivery side of the weft, a latch needle goes to its clearing position, receives the yarn being brought by the angular needle, and proceeds towards casting off operation. It causes chain loops to be formed as a selvage at this particular edge of the fabric. Meanwhile, the angular needle recedes to its previous position, having held the weft yarn it has just fed to the latch needle. Hence two picks are inserted per each shed opening. And the binding of the warp and the weft yields a conventional selvage at this edge of the fabric. Needle looms can come with different shedding mechanisms. In the case of weaving figured ribbons, needle looms with electronic jacquard shedding devices are commercially adopted [2, 8].

2.9.2

Open Reed Weaving

Open Reed Weaving (ORW) combines the weaving process with the embroidery process running simultaneously in the same machine. ORW is also known as lappet weaving [31]. In ORW, additional warp threads are integrated at any desired angle within the design using exceptional thread guides or needles fixed on the bars between the reed and the heald frames. The thread guides are driven sideways according to the design requirement by a linear drive system. To facilitate this sideways motion of warp threads, the ORW mechanism consists of a particular type of reed having open gaps on the upper side. Special sinkers prevent the ground warps from moving upward with the different threads fed and withdrawn through the hollow reed gaps. However, machines having both open and closed reed systems are also available. ORW can create effects resembling embroidery designs and develop multiaxial fabrics for reinforcement purposes [12, 13, 25].

2.9.3

Terry Weaving

The term terry refers to a textile fabric having loop piles on one or both sides of the fabric. Terry fabrics are usually used as towels. They also find many applications in the apparel, domestic, and technical textile sectors [32]. Terry can be woven on air-jet, rapier, and projectile machines. However, for terry production, these machines need to have some special arrangements. It may be a double weaver’s beam arrangement 1

Narrow fabrics are textile fabrics having a width of not more than 45 cm. Some examples of narrow fabrics are ribbons, belts, tapes, trimmings, etc. [30].

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(one for the ground warps and another for the pile warps). Individual positively driven warp let-off motions for both the beams to assign different levels of tension on the ground. The pile warps, a unique beating-up mechanism consisting of two or three pre-strokes and a final loop stroke (usually) for generating the loop piles while maintaining the ground fabric compactness, electronic microprocessor control to program the various weaving parameters, i.e., pile height, fringe, etc. The generation of the pile and the thorough retention of the pile height is the combined outcome of a relative shifting between the stroking reed and the fell of the cloth affected by the unique beating-up mechanism. A commercially adopted terry production requires a suitable design that will allow the wefts to slip through the ground warps easily while locking and preventing slippage in case of pile warps. Up to six-pick terry fabrics can be produced, while two, three, and four-pick terry fabrics are commercially feasible [8, 32].

2.9.4

Carpet Weaving

Carpet refers to a textile floor covering comprising an upper layer of piles attached to a carpet backing. It can be made of wool, polypropylene, nylon, polyester, etc. Carpet weaving can be carried out in any of the three principles: (a) Face to face weaving: The face-to-face woven fabric is cut laterally in the middle between the top and the bottom layers utilizing a knife, thus yielding two cut pile carpets at a time. (b) Wilton weaving: A wire is inserted, withdrawn, and re-inserted through the shed like a weft upon weaving a certain number of picks (depending on the design) throughout the weaving process, thus producing a carpet having loop piles (in case of plain wire) or/and cut bundles (in the case, the wire is associated with a cutting blade) on the fabric surface. (c) Axminster weaving: A specially designed mechanism for high-quality patterned carpet weaving in which the colored threads are selected by gripper or/and spool (depending on the machine type), cut, and then inserted into the backing fabric as a U-shaped tuft. Lately, flat-woven carpets having no pile construction, consisting of relatively thick warps floating on the fabric surface, have made their appearance in the market and have achieved notable acceptance [23, 33, 34].

2.9.5

Velvet Weaving

Velvet is a tufted, soft, fluffy fabric having densely populated cut piles evenly distributed on the fabric surface. A wide range of yarns, including both natural

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and synthetic yarns, can be used (i.e., cotton, acrylic, nylon, etc.) to produce velvet fabric. The wire weaving method (like Wilton carpet weaving) is adopted to make loop pile velvets. In contrast, cut pile velvets are manufactured using the face-to-face weaving principle on special machines where two cut pile velvets are manufactured simultaneously. The latter velvet weaving technique is relatively more popular. In these machines, two individual yet overlapping sheds are formed, yielding two layers of fabric simultaneously, bound together by the same pile warp. The pile warps are sheared directly on the machine using a blade, thus producing the cut pile fabrics. Velvet piles can be either fast (where the pile yarn ends are interwoven into the ground fabric) or not fast (where the pile ends merely float beneath the ground fabric unless pulled out through the ground fabric as pile loops). Diversified weave structures can be developed by manipulating pile and ground warps [5, 8, 35].

2.9.6

Triaxial Weaving

Triaxial fabrics comprise three sets of yarns (±bias or ±warp and weft) interlaced at about 60° angle for one another in the traditional interlacement manner. Usually, triaxial fabrics have significant gaps between the interlacement points and are loosely woven compared to traditional weaving products. However, they can come in both loose-weave and tight-weave types. These fabrics are usually manufactured in the open reed incorporating principle [31, 36–38].

2.9.7

Multiaxial Weaving

Multiaxial fabrics contain four (or more) sets of yarns (±bias, warp, and weft) oriented in various directions and bound together by an interlocking system, thus imparting reinforcement in the bias direction without impeding the ground structure. The bias set of yarns may run across the whole fabric width in two opposing layers (top and bottom) or only on the surface. Therefore, these fabrics may appear as single-layer or multilayer fabrics depending upon the fabric construction. The bias yarns usually interlace with the wefts but are held in position by the adjacent warps on the fabric’s surface. The middle layers between the two characters usually stay orthogonally interlaced. The bias yarns can be twisted with weft yarns at any position within a multilayer structure, with the two extremes corresponding to the weft yarns at the same or opposite fabric surface. These bias yarns can be used with 2D orthogonal, multilayer, or complex 3D woven structures to yield a 3D multiaxial construction. Multiaxial fabrics can be produced on circular and flat weaving machines having necessary modifications. Modified lappet weaving is one feasible technique for manufacturing such materials. Multiaxial weaving machines allow for the production of reinforcement composite preforms in a single manufacturing process. The weaving mechanisms may vary according to the bias angle, which can range from being close to the warp direction through to the weft direction [2, 31, 36–38].

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2D and 3D Multilayer Weaving

Multilayer weaving is characterized by several layers of warps or wefts woven together, exploiting different orthogonal interlacement approaches and machine modifications. However, multilayer fabrics can also be produced by producing two or more individual fabric layers and stitching them together using a self-stitching or a central arrangement. Both 2D fabrics (i.e., tapes, belts, webbings, etc.) and 3D fabrics (i.e., solid 3D fabrics, spacer fabrics, shaped woven fabrics) intended for a wide range of apparel and technical applications can be manufactured using this concept. 2D multilayer fabrics can be manufactured by realizing the existing traditional weaving mechanisms. Most 3D multilayer warp interlock weaving can be done employing the traditional weaving machines incorporating cam, dobby, or jacquard shedding principles, whereas 3D multilayer weft interlock weaving can hardly be done exploiting traditional weaving techniques without incorporating the jacquard head. However, 3D multilayer weaving with existing mechanisms comes with several constraints that can be overcome by utilizing specialty automatic weaving machines, some of which integrate Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) facilities [37, 39, 40].

2.10 Advances Made in Weaving and Weaving Quality Control The developments made in the weaving industry owe largely to the advancement of electronics and computer technologies. The incorporation of computers and electronics in the designs of weaving machines offers higher operational reliability, design flexibility, safety of operation, process optimization, remote assistance, etc. [1, 13]. Some of the features of the latest weaving machines are: • Integrated artificial intelligence system monitors, controls and optimizes all the major functions of the weaving operation as per the commands given by the operator thus facilitating easy communication between the operator and the machine. • User-friendly programming and archiving systems facilitate the productionrelated data to be generated, stored, edited, and reused whenever and wherever necessary. • CAD/CAM based weaving offers more efficient development of a virtually unlimited number of prototype patterns within the shortest possible time. The fiber, yarn, and fabric properties can be visualized, determined, and modified (if necessary) before going for mass production thus saving a notable amount of time and cost. • Electronically programmed and controlled sumo driving motor allows the loom to operate at a wide range of speed options suitable for weaving any new style at any instance [10].

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• Automatic full pick finding device facilitates the repairing of the filling and the warp breakage within the lowest possible time thus reducing machine downtime [10, 13, 20]. • Weft color selector facilitates includes the selection of multiple weft colors. Automatic brake system (ABS), automatic pick control (APC), and automatic time control (ATC) provide optimum weft insertion and reduced weft strain even during weaving with low-strength yarns [10, 20]. • Microprocessor-controlled warp and filling tension optimization systems yield a weaving process with minimal process interference and a woven fabric with minimal defects as well. Weaving with variable pick densities is also possible owing to this configuration [10, 20]. • Electronic let-off and take-up mechanisms precisely maintain the tension of the warp and the fabric. Fabrics with variable warp tensions can also be woven within multiple beams or even within the same beam [10, 13, 19]. • Contactless stop motion devices working on the principle of electro-optical detection and an electrical stop signal transmission [10]. • Electronic shedding mechanism enables the weaving of super-fine, delicate fabrics of supreme quality. Each heald frame can be individually controlled owing to the servo motor control system. The dwell period can be pre-programmed. The smaller shed openings lead to better fabric uniformity [10, 13, 20]. • In a programmable microprocessor-controlled Electronic Selvedge System (ELSY), the leno selvage system is entirely driven electronically by individual stepper motors; distinct from the shedding mechanism of the body fabric [10, 13, 19]. • Quick Style Change (QSC) and Quick Warp Change (QWC) feature quicker preparation of the warp beams outside the weaving room offering a significant reduction in the machine downtime and ensuring a cost-effective production [8, 10, 18]. • Weaving machines can come with embroidery units now combining these two processes as one. However, these machines have got limitations in their design capacity as compared to conventional embroidery machines [2, 13, 31].

3 Knitting Spencer described knitting as a technique that transforms continuous strands of yarns into columns of vertically intermeshed loops [41]. Knitted fabric is a flexible structure consisting of vertical and horizontal rows of coils, which can be defined as wale and course [42]. Today, knitted fabrics are no more confined to a small variety of hand or frame knitted structures. Instead, they range from superfine designs produced on ultra-fine gauge circular weft knitting machines to multipurpose multi-axial facilities constructed on Raschel warp knitting machines [43]. Therefore, even more advanced knitting technologies offering higher production rates and design producing capacity

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demand to be introduced and manipulated from time to time to satiate the growing need for various techniques and end-use applications [41].

3.1 Classification of Knitting Knitting is classified into weft knitting and warp knitting based on the direction of yarn movement concerning the order of fabric formation [44]. Knitting machines can come with either individually driven needle arrangements where needles are driven separately by cams acting on the needle butts or needle bar arrangements where the hands are fixed to a standard bar and thus work alike in unison [41]. The former types are used in manufacturing weft knits and are subdivided into circular and flatbed knitting machines. The needles can be latch needles or compound needles. The latter types can be weft knitting machines with bearded hands (either full-fashioned machines or circular loop-wheel machines) and also warp knitting machines with spring-beard needles, latch needles, or compound needles [42].

3.2 Weft Knitting In weft knitting, the yarns running along the width or crosswise direction like the wefts do in the case of woven fabrics [41, 43, 44]. The outcome of such knitting is known as weft-knitted or jersey structure. Weft knitting can predominantly be classified into circular, flat, and straight bar frame knitting concerning the machine frame design and needle bed arrangement [41]. According to their manufactured end products, weft knitting machines can also be grouped into fabric and garment length machines [44]. Circular machines producing tubular fabrics in continuous lengths later cut away from the devices in roll forms are known as fabric machines. Unless required in tubular width, the material obtained from a roll is subsequently split into open-width form and then sewn into garment needed shapes. On the other hand, garment-length machines include straight bar frames, flat-bed machines, hosiery machines, gloves machines, and circular garment machines producing knitwear, outerwear, and underwear [41, 43]. Garment length machines can produce welts, rib borders, shaped panels, and Whole Garments. Whole Garments are integrally knitted articles that are entirely manufactured on the device requiring no further cut-and-sew process after being taken down from the device [41].

3.2.1

Straight Bar Frame

Straight bar frames are the only commercially adopted bearded needle weft knitting machines. The needles are aligned across a vertical bar whose movement facilitates

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knitting. The device consists of several knitting heads that can knit individual yet identical garment panels simultaneously. Straight bar frames resemble William Lee’s original hand frame knitting machine in appearance [44]. The devices, despite being costly, are used in the manufacturing process for producing quality garment panels owing to the gentle knitting action and low fabric tension. However, the technological advances made in the electronic V-bed flat knitting industry have made it possible to consider V-beds as a better alternative to straight bar frames [41].

3.2.2

Circular Weft Knitting

The circular weft knitting machines dominate the knitting sector in production due to their high productivity, ability to process various materials of various counts, and versatile stitch formation capacity [42]. And these machines also come with multiple diameters, gauges, numbers of needle beds and cylinders, needle bed arrangements, cam technologies, etc. [41–43]. According to the diameter, which is the most crucial classification parameter, three types of knitting machines are available: large-diameter (24–60 inches), mediumdiameter (8–22 or 10–24 inches), and small-diameter (3–6 inches) knitting machines [42, 43]. Large-diameter machines produce broad-width tubular fabrics. Mediumdiameter machines have opted for full-fashioned and separated tubular materials and seamless knitwear such as underwear, bathrobes, etc. Small-diameter machines are mainly hosiery machines [42, 45]. The number of needle beds in knitting machines determines the stitch type. From this point of view, knitting machines can either be single bed or single-jersey machines (for producing jersey fabric and its derivatives like fleece, terry, etc.) and double-bed or double jersey machines (for making rib, interlock, and other double jersey derivatives) [41, 44]. Double bed machines are of two types: dial-cylinder machines, where the two needle beds are aligned at a right angle, and double cylinder or links-links machines with 180° needle bed alignment for constructions based on purl stitches [42]. Single-bed Circular Knitting A single-bed circular knitting machine contains one set of needles incorporated into the grooves of the needle bed [43, 44]. This machine features a circular frame accommodating all the knitting elements and the associated parts. Needles, cams, and holding down sinkers are the primary knitting elements (in the case of singlebed machines) that carry out the knitting actions [41]. Usually, latch needles are used in a circular knitting machine. However, devices with compound needles are also available. Cams are placed on the outer surface of the cylinder. The needle bed rotates along the stationary cams along with the needles, thus forming various stitches depending on the cam profiles (knit, tuck, miss). Each feeder is provided with its cam box containing up to five selection tracks [42]. However, machines with six selection tracks are also available now [46, 47]. The yarns are fed into the knitting zone from the side-creel arrangements through guides, tensioners, and feeders [41–43]. Single

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bed machines are usually run at a speed of around 15–30 rpm depending upon the material being processed, machine condition, the complexity of the design, operator skill, etc. [41]. However, machines with higher speed ranges are also available and commercially viable now. Terry and fleece are two of the most widely manufactured fabrics on single-bed circular machines. The manufacturing of terry requires a single-bed device to be equipped with special long-nose sinkers and exceptional thread guides capable of feeding two yarns (ground yarn and face yarn) into the same needle simultaneously. On the other hand, the fleece requires one or more additional yarns to be inserted to act as binding yarn on the single-jersey ground pattern. Accordingly, single-bed fleece machines are equipped with a unique yarn feeding system that ensures the feeding of the binding yarn [42]. Another single-bed machine is a sliver knitting machine that processes slivers of staple fibers (instead of yarn) and knits them into soft, warm, durable, breathable, lightweight, resilient fabric [45]. Double-bed Circular Knitting Double bed circular knitting machines resemble single bed machines in terms of the overall frame structure, components, and working principle, with a few exceptions. A double-bed machine comprises two needles: one set fit in one bed (cylinder). In contrast, the other set is accommodated in another bed (dial) positioned at a right angle concerning the cylinder [41, 44]. This extra set of needles yields a fabric that is twice as thick as a single jersey fabric [45]. The cams guiding the needles are adjusted with the two cam frames, one around the cylinder and the other above the dial. No sinker is needed in a double bed machine, for the fabric formed on the cylinder needles is held and supported by the dial needles and vice-versa [41, 42]. These machines offer up to 6 cam tracks on the cylinder and four-cam tracks on the dial, producing a wide range of double jersey stitches [48]. Double-bed machines can be classified as dial-cylinder machines and double-cylinder machines [44]. Dial-Cylinder Machines The cylinder and the dial needles in a rib dial-cylinder machine are alternately aligned. In an interlock dial-cylinder machine, the cylinder and dial needles are arranged in face-to-face alignment. Some interlock machines feature a needle racking system to transform the interlock gating into rib gating and vice-versa. There are interlock machines that allow a three-way working technique.2 Only on the cylinder, while other models allow a three-way working technique on both the dial and the cylinder [41, 42]. Double Cylinder Machines A links-links or purl machine is a double cylinder machine with two needle beds (bottom and top cylinder) positioned at 180 [43]. A series of double-ended latch needles having no butt and driven by sliders carry out the knitting actions [44]. Two 2

Three way technique means the ability of the knitting machine to provide the knit, tuck and miss position within each cam system [44].

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sliders are there; one group is incorporated into the upper cylinder and the other into the lower one. The two sliders from opposite grooves act on each needle. The knitting elements are driven and controlled by the cam system associated with the sliders. A links-links machine is also featured as a garment-length machine producing garment panels [41, 42]. However, just like the straight bar frames, links-links machines are also being replaced by modern V-bed machines for purl constructions that can be produced on V-bed machines.

3.2.3

Hosiery Knitting

Although hosiery means the garments covering the lower extremities: legs and feet, it can also refer to all sorts of knitted goods [41]. The products range from fine stockings and tights women wear to coarse pantyhose and socks. Small diameter single cylinder, double cylinder, and dial-cylinder circular knitting machines have been employed in the seamless hosiery industry. The devices are available in gauges between E3.5 and E5.0 [43]. Plain socks are manufactured on single-cylinder machines, whereas simple rib socks are produced on true-rib machines, which knit a more balanced structure than double-cylinder machines [41]. Currently, electronically programmed and controlled, automated, high-speed (around 1000 rpm) hosiery machines providing a higher number of feeders are available, which have turned this industry into more labor and cost-intensive, and profitearning. The introduction of spandex and other elastane yarns has further stretched the demand for hosiery knitting in both wearable and technical textile sectors [41, 42].

3.2.4

Jacquard Circular Knitting

To produce sophisticated, fancy products of elaborated, unlimited pattern size (i.e., accordion fabric, striped patterns, rib and interlock jacquard patterns), jacquard selection systems (both single bed and double bed) owing to their needle-by-needle selection capability are nonpareil even till date [41, 44]. The jacquard machines are usually coarser gauge and slower speed machines. However, the new generation of electronic jacquards is faster than the mechanical ones but costly. Although circular jacquards come in both mechanical and electronic approaches, electronic jacquards, except for very few cases, are unanimously the chosen technology now [44]. In the case of electronic jacquards, electromagnetic needle selection takes place using piezo-electric actuators. A striker is placed under the hand by retrieving the design information obtained from CDs, pen drives, EPROMs, etc., or by direct connection with a computer interface where the design is generated by exploiting a dedicated CAD system [42]. Piezo technology guarantees a reliable needle selection, especially on fine gauges [49]. CAD system with electronic jacquard is a highly versatile approach for designers and manufacturers [44]. Machine manufacturers, these days, also offer a single bed and interlock mini jacquards that are widely used for the development of prototypes of various jacquard patterns [50].

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3.3 Advances Made in Circular Weft Knitting Efforts have been made in the knitting sector to develop new technological solutions to ensure higher productivity, accuracy in product quality, product mix versatility, utilization of the technologies to their full commercial potential, and sustainable growth of the industry [43, 49]. To avoid the problems associated with mechanical control and manufacture, almost all the knitting machine manufacturers have inclined toward microprocessor-based control mechanism which interfaces a computer with the knitting machine [44]. Other commonly exploited technological advances are as follows: • Easily convertible machines are now being built to yield different structures on the same machine [41]. For instance, machines are available with a conversion kit for the knitting head, which can quickly transform a jersey machine into a fleece or terry machine [45]. • Quick Change Easy system allows the quick exchange of cylinders and dials within the shortest possible time, thus reducing labor, space requirements, power consumption, maintenance, and spare parts consumption, ultimately reducing the overall operating cost. Machines producing fabric in two different diameters are also available now [50]. • Intelligent computer-controlled yarn feeding system aids the stability of the knitting process using yarn length and yarn strain control. Also, it offers higher fabric quality, increased production, low costs, and easy processing of materials [43, 51]. • A much higher number of feeding systems yield higher productivity now. It is done by either enhancing the diameters of the machines, reducing the feeder sizes, or incorporating curvilinear cam systems sliding inside closed tracks, thus allowing precise control of the needles in the case of single-bed machines [41]. • CAD allows designers and manufacturers to specify and evaluate their design more precisely without requiring significant time investment and technical expertise. CAD / CAM-based machines facilitate quick style change options and more significant pattern variations under minimal human supervision [41, 43]. • Electronic control in the take-down mechanism has made the take-down of tubular fabric in open width form possible under optimized tension control, resulting in better quality outcomes [41, 44]. • Contra knitting technique has made possible the vertical movement of the sinkers, thus reducing the extent of needle movement and the stress on the knitting elements yielding quality fabric at even faster speed ranges. Two such approaches are the Relanit technology by Mayer and Cie and Slant Sinker or Monarch Z technology [41, 51]. • Sinkerless technology in single-bed machines has ensured fabric with minimal defects (even in more delicate gauges), faster production rates, and fewer maintenance requirements. Instead of sinkers, these machines are equipped with holdingdown rings hence consuming less oil and energy owing to the fewer moving parts [44, 50].

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• Spin-Knit technology has brought a revolutionary acceleration in the manufacturing process by enabling the production and fine-tuning of the material properties (yarn) directly at the knitting machine before stitching formation allowing the creation of customized products [52]. It facilitates the knitting operation to be conducted now from the roving or sliver stage instead of the yarn package. • Seamless garment knitting can be achieved on circular or flat knitting machines. Electronic circular knitting machines producing shaped garments such as underwear, outerwear, sportswear, sanitary wear, etc., requiring no further assembling or linking operation, have already been introduced [45]. Seamless technology offers superior comfortability and unique design features in manufactured products [52]. • The woven fabric, like flexible, ultra-fine knitted fabrics known as the second skin, is manufactured on ultra-fine gauge circular knitting machines capable of processing super-fine raw materials [45]. • Loop transfer technology in circular knitting machines has enabled it to enhance its design capacities by allowing the transfer of stitches from one cylinder to the other or within the same cylinder [43, 45].

3.4 Flat Weft Knitting (V-bed Knitting) Flat weft knitting machines can be classified into either V-bed flat machines or flatbed purl (links-links) machines [43]. However, the flat purl machines are almost obsolete now because the versatile V-bed machines have replaced them mainly in the market. Modern flat weft knitting primarily refers to the fully computerized, electronically-controlled, power-driven V-bed knitting. A V-bed machine comprises two rib gated needle beds in an inverted V-formation [43]. The beds are usually inclined by 90°–105° to each other [44]. The needle beds contain tricks that house the needles (latch needles or compound needles). The needles run along the tracks formed by the angular cams of a bi-directional cam system attached to the underside of a carriage. Each cam system requires two raising/clearing cams and two stitch cams. Only one cam of each type functions during a traverse, and the other acts as a guard cam. The roles of the two cams are reversed during the traverse of the carriage in the opposite direction [41, 43, 44]. In modern V-bed machines, each bed has a distinct cam carriage that stays connected to a programmable electrical motor that synchronizes the actions of the carriage belonging to the two opposite beds. The cam carriages and the yarn carriers traverse reciprocally across the machine width. Most machines have up to eight systems per carriage [44]. The V-bed machine is the most versatile of all weft knitting machines. Due to having multiple carriage options, the device can be exploited to conduct the manufacturing operation using different carriage combinations. The needle beds of the machine can be utilized partially or fully depending on the end product requirement. The device facilitates loop transfer between the needles of the same as well as the opposite beds, individual needle selection on one or both mattresses, lateral shifting

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of the two beds to each other, yielding racked rib structures, stripes, tubular fabrics, knop structures with 3D effect, cable designs, intarsia3 designs, jacquard patterns, shaped panels etc. [44]. New knitting techniques such as inlay, I-plating, selective plating, reverse plating, intarsia plating, integral knitting, etc., can also be applied to V-bed machines [17, 43]. V-bed machines usually range from E3 to E18 [43]. A V-bed machine can easily be converted into a single jersey machine by putting one bed along with its cam carriage idle [44]. Despite being nonpareil in terms of pattern producing capacity, V-bed knitting is inferior to circular knitting for its lower production rates due to the erratic carriage movement and the limitation in knitting heads (1–4), cam systems (2–8), feeders (4– 6) [43]. Hence, initiatives have been taken to overcome these limitations from time to time, keeping the basic concept of stitch formation intact thoroughly. Electronic automatic V-bed machines with a central programming and control unit are widely popular now due to the higher machine productivity, more straightforward operation, and innumerable patterning capacity. With this system, the carriage can be moved to any location along the needle bed and reciprocate over various needles for as many courses as required by design. When the knitting process for a particular area is completed, the carriage can be driven in any direction to a new location [44]. In modern machines, the take-down and the auxiliary take-down motions are computerprogrammed and positively driven, ensuring tension adjustment in the stitches and resulting in more dimensionally accurate outputs [41, 42].

3.5 Advances Made in Flat Weft Knitting In CAD/CAM-based flat knitting machines, various designs and patterns can be generated, stored, modified, and reused. Computers and electronics have bolstered flat knitting technology with innumerable pattern capacity, intelligent stop motion devices, yarn feeding systems, efficient take-down motions, and so on! Advancements in flat knitting refer to the improvements in V-bed knitting. Some of the advances made in this technology are as follows: • Multi-head, fully-fashioned modern V-bed machines are equipped with electrooptical knot-stop tensioners for reducing yarn friction. With the help of an automatic device, the carriage speed is slowed upon detecting tiny knots, and the carriage movement is stopped in case of more severe issues. The presence of cutters, grippers, and press-foots with moveable knock-over sinkers also confirms a precise and controlled knitting action [41, 42]. • Yarn tension variation, one of the significant problems in flat knitting, has been minimized using storage feeders, auxiliary yarn tensioners, and automated tension controls apart from the conventional tensioner and guide systems [44]. 3

Intarsia knitting technique is where a number of different yarn carriers can be exploited (separately or in unison) to knit different parts of the same fabric [37].

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• The four needle bed concept (with an additional bed having press-foot sinkers above the rear needle bed and another extra bed with stitch transfer points above the front needle bed) allows the transaction of stitches among all the needle beds hence enhancing the patterning and shaping capacity in an unprecedented manner of the V-bed machines [41]. • Multiple gauge machines have been introduced, considering the need for developing fashioned garments with zones of more refined and coarser loops within the same fabric. The multiple gauge technique has also made it possible to knit various gauge structures on the same machine [42]. • Split cam-carriage machines with up to eight systems are another development that allows the knitting of more complex designs [41]. • V-bed machines without cam boxes employ individual linear electric motors regulated by computers to drive the needles in their tricks and thus complete the knitting actions. Upon completion of the knitting process, the shaped panel is separated from the machine using an automatic cutting device. However, this approach is costlier than the conventional cam technique [42]. • Seamless flat knitting enables the production of body-size garment panels that require no or minor further make-up operation [41]. Knitted-shaped panels can be sewn together hence eliminating the cutting process, which reduces process loss and manufacturing costs [17, 45]. Seamless flat knitting is more advantageous and versatile in 3D and multilayer knitting because of being a more flexible manufacturing process [17]. • Whole Garment knitting using CAD data is a notable addition to the flat knitting industry. Actual Garment knitting refers to the production of seamless complete tubular garments and 3D preforms of any stitch type requiring no further cuttingsewing or making-up operations [41–43]. Manufacturing small, simple knitted items to complicated, sophisticated 3D seamless structures is possible now [52]. A Flat knitting machine producing knitted uppers for shoes is another innovative approach of Whole Garment knitting. However, this is also possible by realizing circular knitting and warp knitting techniques [45, 51].

3.6 Warp Knitting In warp knitting, the loops are formed vertically or diagonally [46]. Unlike weft knits, each loop of the same course of a warp knit is formed by a different thread, and all the loops bind together to yield a run-proof or ladder-proof structure [42]. In warp-knitted designs, yarns are fed to the guides from the beams in a parallel sheet form that runs in the direction of fabric formation. The number of full-width beams in the machine is equal to the number of guide bars [43]. The guides of the guide bar execute a compound lapping movement, thus feeding the threads to the needles for stitch formation. This compound lapping movement is obtained from swinging and shogging motions, which act at the right angles and cause stitches to be formed, yielding the intermeshed fabric [41, 42].

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Warp knitting machines can be categorized into four types: Tricot (known as flat warp knitting machine) [41], Raschel, Simplex, and Milanese [43, 50]. As mentioned here, The simplex machine acts on the double needle bar Tricot principle, and the Milanese machine almost lies in the category of Raschels [44]. Yet they are categorized differently according to the properties of their manufactured end products. Tricot and Raschel machines can be either single-bed or double-bed [44]. Simplex and Milanese machines are double bed machines. Earlier versions of Tricot and Raschel machines came with spring-bearded needles latch needles, respectively. But nowadays, both Tricot and Raschel machines (except double needle bar Raschels) are built with compound needles, thus offering higher machine speeds [41]. Warp knitting is the most suitable method for manufacturing dimensionally stable nets of different sizes and shapes [49]. Tricot is the most popular warp knitting technique and is usually engaged in lingerie production. Raschel machine is heavier than Tricot and is slower for rich fabrics such as coats, jackets, dresses, etc., produced in Raschels. Milanese material is costlier and firmer than Tricot, so it is utilized in high-end lingerie production [44, 50]. Warp knitting was yet to enter the world of shaped garment knitting until double needle bar warp knitting (both Raschel and Simplex) came into existence. Double-needle bar fabrics (showing loops on both fabric sides) are thicker than fabrics made from a single needle bar machine. Some of the double needle bar products are: reversible fabrics, plush structures, open-work net-like fabrics, and pleated effect fabrics [44].

3.6.1

Tricot

Despite being popular, Tricot cannot process spun yarns and is less versatile in creating new designs and styles [41]. The more straightforward knitting actions and higher speed acquisition have earned Tricot its reputation. Machines with 28–40 npi (needle per inch) gauge ranges are available. Filament and elastane yarn are used to knit in Tricot. Needles with needle bars, guides with guide bars, and sinkers with sinker bars are the main knitting elements in Tricot [42]. Tricot sinkers comprise a nose, a throat, and a breast and are joined together using a lead. The fabric take-up angle in Tricot machines is 90° to the needle bar, and the take-up tension is lower. It makes Tricot devices suitable for producing fine gauge close-knitted structures. The older Tricot machines having bearded spring needles need an additional presser bar system [44]. Tricots can knit up to 240 denier hard yarns. Machine models with even higher speeds and with reduced noise levels and energy consumption are now being built to retain the popularity and sustainability of the technology [41].

3.6.2

Raschel

Raschel machine is more versatile than Tricot. Raschel, owing to the larger take-up angle (120°–160°) and higher take-up tension [44], is one of the most convenient technologies for the production of coarse gauge structures, fancy pattern works, and

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open work structures such as laces, marquisettes and voile curtain nets [49]. Needles with the needle bar, guides with a guide bar, sinkers with a sinker bars, and latch guards are the main knitting elements of a Raschel machine [41]. Raschel needles are heavier and more significant. Hence they can process spun or heavier elastane yarns. In the case of Raschel, the machine gauge is expressed as needles per two inches. 64 gauge (32 npi) and 56 gauge (28 npi) Raschels are the most common. Up to 1500 denier yarn can be knitted on these machines. Raschel sinkers are not joined together, and they perform the function of only holding down the fabric when the needles rise. Starting from being a 12 guide bar mechanically controlled machine, the Raschel machine today has become an electronically controlled 56 guide bar machine [41]. New generation multi-bar Jacquardtronic lace Raschels with 78 guide bars are also available now, which can produce 3D relief motifs [44]. These machines are equipped with piezo-electric technology, and a pattern control computer supervises the pattern guide bar movements [50]. With this technology, knitting speed can be increased by up to 50%, and power consumption can be reduced as well. Double needle bar Raschel Double-needle bar Raschel machines were intended to offer diversity in warp knitted structures. These machines are usually coarser gauge ones as compared to Simplex machines. Double-needle bar Raschels with up to 16 (and even above) guide bars are available now for the production of a wide variety of products ranging from scarves, tubular fabrics (having single or branched tubes), 3D seamless fabrics, and complex structures like a waffle, pile (both cut pile and point pile), etc. These machines come with special attachments, including a fall-plate, creeping motion, weft inlay device, etc., for manufacturing numerous product mixes [44]. Electronic control of guide bar movement is a cheaper, simpler, and quicker version of the pattern-changing method in double bar jacquard Raschels offering an unlimited range of ways, especially in the case of jacquard Raschels [43]. Seamless warp knitting (for sportswear, underwear, fashionable outerwear, and hosiery) and sample warp knitting with any material type became more convenient realizing this technology [53].

3.6.3

Simplex

Double-needle bar Tricot warp knitting machine containing back-to-back springbearded needles is commercially known as a simplex machine. The needle bars are aligned approximately at a 45° angle. The simplex machine is slower yet costlier than Tricot. Simplex machines, by employing two guide bars, produce fine-gauge, high-quality, double-faced fabrics that resemble interlock fabrics [44, 54].

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Milanese

The high-quality, complex Milanese structures cannot be produced by conventional Tricot or Raschel knitting. Milanese fabrics offer better uniformity than non-uniform yarns due to their unique knitting method. Milanese machines can knit only open stitches and offer minimal design and stitch varieties [43]. Three basic types of Milanese are: • Continental flatbed Milanese having bearded spring needles and two guide bars. This machine is almost similar to Tricot or Raschel, but the guide bars and the warp beam settings differ. • English flatbed Milanese having bearded spring needles and particular mechanical warp control device instead of guide bars to control warp ends. The rest of the knitting elements resemble those of continental Milanese. • Circular Milanese has latch needles and restricted beam movement. This machine is comparatively more straightforward than flat Milanese [45].

3.7 Specialized Warp Knitting Warp knitting itself is an advanced technology. Like weft knitting, the warp knitting industry has largely embraced the integration of electronics and microprocessor control within the existing technologies to compete with the rest of the manufacturing entities, achieve higher production rates, reduce production costs and ensure the sustainability of the industry. The new generation machines are equipped with the latest computer network systems combining a PLC and motion control for overall machine control [50]. Alongside this automation process, efforts are being put into bringing innovations into the industry, resulting in the advent of specific special warp knitting techniques. A few of them are discussed below.

3.7.1

Crochet Machine

Crochet machine is a category of simple warp knitting machines producing coarse and fine gauge open-work structures like laces, ribbons, trimmings, edgings, and other narrow and wide fancy fabrics. Crochet machines can come with spring beard needles, latch needles, or compound needles [42]. Up to sixteen electronically controlled weft bars and up to two warp guide bars can be incorporated into a Crochet machine. Special attachments are also there for achieving various fancy effects [44]. A crochet machine is usually available with a knitting width of 16–122 inches. Machine gauges range from 2 to 10 needles per centimeter (E5 to E24). This machine can run at 2,000 rpm [42, 44]. Crochet knitting machines featuring compound needles, electronically controlled yarn tension, and stitch density regulation are capable of producing rigid and elastic fabrics, tapes, ribbons, and even fabrics for Medtech applications [53].

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Waltex Machine

An Italian company introduced Waltex, a warp knitting machine that uses two sets of guide tubes threaded with warp yarns instead of needles for stitch formation. A type of purl warp knitted fabric is produced in Waltex machine [44].

3.7.3

Circular Warp Knitting

Circular warp knitting consists of vertical latch needles fixed to the cylinder that moves vertically along the cylinder. The warps are fed for knitting through guideeyes drilled in a ring which takes part with the needles in stitch formation. Two to four rounds can be used depending on the structure’s complexity. Tubular fabrics, seamless fabrics, and various net shapes can be knitted on circular warp knitting machines [51].

3.8 Multiaxial Knitting Multiaxial warp knitting has introduced a new dimension to the warp knitting industry. To prevent distortion in knitted structures used in technical applications, straight reinforcement yarns are inserted in the weft, warp, or/and diagonal directions of knitted fabric to yield a knit-weave system [43]. Warp knits having inlay yarns in any one order are known as unidirectional fabrics, and those with inlay yarns in both course and wale-wise directions are termed biaxial fabrics. The Multiaxial Warp Knitted (MWK) fabric is a further addition to this concept. MWK fabrics incorporate one or more parallel layers of yarns that are held together using a warp knit stitch system through the thickness of the fabric. These fabrics are non-crimp, firm, stable structures and are suitable as composite materials [43]. Specially designed compound needle warp knitting machines produce MWK fabrics [44]. Multiaxial frames can also be made in weft knitting machines by stitching together the weft, warp, and diagonal yarns using two single jersey structures instead of allowing interlacement to take place among themselves [37].

3.9 3D Knitting The potential for manufacturing shaped panels has given the knitting industry the scope to penetrate the non-apparel market. Both weft knitting and warp knitting have been developed to manufacture 3D textiles. 3D knitted fabrics, due to being lightweight, stiff and strong, fatigue resistant, and dimensionally stable, have been entering the technical textile arena at a rapid speed [37]. The most commonly manufactured 3D knitted structures, such as tubular frames, net-shape structures,

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spacer structures, and directionally oriented structures (DOSs4 ) have found scopes in Medtech applications (vascular grafts, scaffolds, heart valves, wound-care applications, etc.), sport tech applications (compression garments, sports accessories), smart textiles, composite reinforcements, industrial applications (marine, automotive and aerospace industry), sound absorption, geotextile applications, etc. [37].

3.9.1

3D Weft Knitting

3D knitting machines exploit the information obtained from digital files to knit the products using multiple yarns simultaneously [52]. Small-diameter circular knitting machines are used to manufacture single-tube structures. Dial-cylinder technology and jacquard technology can be used to produce patterned 3D spacer fabrics. Dialcylinder and double-cylinder knitting machines have spacer fabrics with various combinations of stitches that ultimately connect two independent layers of materials [37, 54]. Computerized double needle bar flat knitting caters to most 3D knitted textiles production. V-bed machines owing to their capabilities of individual needle selection, loop transfer, and multiple system knitting, are more feasible for the production of tubular structures (single, bifurcated, trifurcated, and multi-branched), net-shaped forms (domes, spheres, box-shapes, and even more complex 3D ones) and 3D spacer fabrics. A wide range of structural variations (bifurcated, trifurcated, or multi-branched tubes) can be achieved by combining tubular knitting and intarsia knitting [37].

3.9.2

3D Warp Knitting

A simultaneous yarn-feeding and loop-forming action occurring at every needle during the same knitting cycle and the capacity to introduce laid-in yarns in warp knitting enables the production of low-cost, versatile warp knits [41]. By employing existing and additional guide bars, double-needle bar Raschels can produce all sorts and sizes of tubular structures and complex spacer fabrics (with mesh or closed systems). On the other hand, multiaxial Raschel machines are used to produce DOSs [37]. Raschel spacer knitting has the most significant production potential to date due to greater versatility, flexibility, higher production speed, and ability to adjust the distance between the two needle bars, giving more opportunities for spacer thickness [55]. The use of warp-knitted spacer fabrics in clothing, cushioning markets, wound dressing applications, and equipment protecting against impact has attracted significant attention in recent years [37, 50].

4

DOSs are multi-ply structures having straight ends of orthogonal and non-crimped yarns inserted within at various angles. Examples include biaxial, triaxial and multiaxial structures [43].

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3.10 4D Knitting Karl Mayer was the first to launch the 4D warp knit solutions. The machine is based on the double needle bar Raschel principle featuring a modified needle bar arrangement and piezo-jacquard technology, which produce diverse malleable patterning on both fabric sides [56]. The machine has spacer fabric in which the space between the fabric surfaces is filled with bulked yarn. In addition, differently shrinking threads are incorporated in different combinations on the front and the rear sides of the warp knitted fabric using other lapping techniques [57].

3.11 Advanced Knitting Quality Control Knitting quality control is no more confined to a set of quality check procedures at the end of the knitting process. From the beginning of the knitting operation, the quality assurance process is carried out. A friendly Augmented Reality technologybased real-time online monitoring system has been introduced to ensure precision in production, identify process interferences, improve product quality, and make the knitting process more operator. It makes the supervision of the knitting process more convenient for the operator and helps him take necessary corrective measures at an earlier stage. This assistance system can be used in production and maintenance operations [55]. A digital image processing system facilitates prototype development and the detailed visual inspection of the product via computer technology. Moreover, RFID chips, intelligent bobbins, and QR code systems help keep track of the material and the product data and transfer the records to the machines as per requirement [43, 49].

4 Conclusion The ceaseless endeavor to bring technological advancements to the fabric manufacturing industry is not merely a “high-production and profit rate focused” affair. Instead, this also aims at acquiring the reputation of being a Green Manufacturing (GM) entity. The goal of this Green Manufacturing entity is to ensure the sustainability of both the industry and the environment by saving material, cost, and energy and preventing pollution and environmental damage by making additions or innovations in each stage of the entire production process. Through the optimization of production processes, modification of machines and devices, effective maintenance, and incorporation of reusing-recycling techniques to a greater extent, green business practices in the fabric manufacturing industry can be affected. And the good part is, presently, both the weaving and the knitting industry stakeholders are working neck and neck to achieve this.

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References 1. Adanur S (2020) Handbook of weaving sulzer 2. Purushothama B (2017) Handbook on fabric manufacturing 3. Textile—production of fabric | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/textile/Produc tion-of-fabric. Accessed 30 Jul 2021 4. Collier AM (1974) A handbook of textiles 5. Watson W, Grosicki Z Watson’s textile design and colour: elementary weaves and figured fabrics. 387 6. Taluukdar DMK (1998) Weaving machines mechanisms management 7. Limited WP (2013) Mechanisms of fl at weaving technology 8. Castelli G, Maietta S, Sigrisi G, Siaviero IM (2000) Weaving, reference books of textile technologies. Machinery 93 9. Trauter J (1999) Weaving preparation 10. Catling H, Rothwell R (1977) Automation in textile machinery 11. Nosraty H, Jeddi AAA, Jamshidi Avanaki M (2009) Fatigue behavior of filament warp yarns under cyclic loads during weaving process. Text Res J 79:154–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0040517508090777 12. Gries, Veit, Wulfhorst Textile technology 13. Fay DL (1967) 済無No Title No Title No Title 14. Sectional warper—cradle type beam warping machine, LaserTronic Plus. https://www.prasha ntgroup.com/products/sectional-warping-machine/lasertronic-plus. Accessed 26 Jul 2021 15. Warp tying machinery for many various yarns-Stäubli. https://www.staubli.com/en-us/textile/ textile-machinery-solutions/weaving-preparation/warp-tying/. Accessed 26 Jul 2021 16. Rude S, Artist T, Handworks TS (2005) Weaving: the complete process from thread to cloth. 3 Springshandworks 1–12 17. Choi W, Powell NB (2005) Three dimensional seamless garment knitting on V-bed flat knitting machines. J Text Apparel Technol Manag 4:1–33 18. Seyam AM (2003) Weaving technology: advances and challenges II. 3 19. Gadabu A (2020) North American academic. Research 3:413–429. https://doi.org/10.5281/zen odo.3732795 20. Maity S, Singha K, Singha M (2012) Recent developments in rapier weaving machines in textiles. Am J Syst Sci 1:7–16. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ajss.20120101.02 21. Lord PR, Mohamed M (1992) Weaving: conversion of yarn to fabric. Merrow Publishing, Durham, England 22. Classification W, Machinery W Weaving Technology II Chapter 2: History of weaving classification of weaving machinery 23. Dr P, Önder E, DrÖmer Berkalp A (2006) Weaving technology Ii 24. Cartwright W (2007) Weave. 111 25. Shalaby HA, Khozaim AM (2017) A Development of textile effects on design using the open reed weaving. 221–231 26. Volkov PVG (1987) Cotton weaving 27. Berkalp B Jacquard mechanisms 28. Essinger J (2007) Jacquard’s web: how a hand-loom led to the birth of the information age. 302 29. Products—SS600—CCI TECH INC. https://www.ccitk.com/product_detail.php?id=9. Accessed 25 Jul 2021 30. Thin strip fabric, applications of narrow fabrics, materials used for making narrow fabrics, Fibre2fashion - Fibre2Fashion. https://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/4122/whatcan-a-thin-strip-of-fabric-do-applications-of-narrow-fabrics. Accessed 6 Aug 2021 31. Curiskis JI, Durie A, Nicolaidis A, Herszberg I (1997) Developments in multiaxial weaving for advanced composite materials. 11th Int Commitee Compos V:V86–96 32. Yilmaz ND, Powell NB, Durur G (2005) The technology of terry towel production. J Text Apparel Technol Manag 4:115–160

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Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing Elias Khalil, Joy Sarkar, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Md. Shamsuzzaman, and Dip Das

Abstract All over the world, dyeing is considered one of the significant parts of the textile colouration process. It refers to both the dyeing and printing process. Dyeing is the specific colouration of textiles, while printing is the localized application of colourants by a suitable method base on the design. The conventional aqueous dyeing process consumes a significant quantity of water, creating wastewater processing difficulties that arise global environmental threats and an alarming concern for sustainable development. This chapter discusses the scope, processing techniques, required machinery and equipment, advantages, and other aspects of the innovative and emerging sustainable, eco-friendly dyeing technologies. It will cover supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing, air dyeing, plasma-assisted dyeing, and laser-assisted dyeing. It is not limited to these but also discusses ultrasound-assisted dyeing, microwave-assisted dyeing, foam dyeing, enzymatic dyeing, reverse micelle dyeing, ozone-assisted dyeing, nano-bubble dyeing, and electro-chemical dyeing. Keywords Water consumption · Supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing · Laser · Ozone · Plasma · Nano-bubble dyeing

1 Introduction Textile wet processing technology comprises many operations, including desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing techniques, after treatments, and other related activities. Desizing refers to the removal of size materials from woven E. Khalil (B) Bangabandhu Textile Engineering College, Kalihati, Tangail, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] J. Sarkar Department of Textile Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh Md. M. Rahman · Md. Shamsuzzaman · D. Das Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_4

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fabric, while scouring is an activity related to removing all types of organic and inorganic impurities from the substrate. This process is called the heart of the dyeing process. Bleaching is the destruction of natural colour for imparting the desired colour according to requirement. Dyeing includes particular colouration onto the fabric, and printing is the localized application of colourants. Finishing is done to make the clothes useable and sometimes for fulfilling specific purposes. This chapter is concerned with technological advancement in the dyeing process. For a better understanding of essential dyeing operations, it is necessary to keep a sound knowledge of the dyeing systems, methods, and concepts about colourants used in the colouration process. Any wet processing operation, including dyeing and printing, can be carried out in three methods: discontinuous or batch-type, continuous, and semi-continuous. Since all operations are performed on a single machine in the discontinuous process, it is essential to load the machine, perform the functions according to a predefined plan, unload the equipment, and thoroughly clean it until a new cycle begins. Small lots of substrate can be processed in this method suitably and flexibly. It consumes a lot of time for processing, and variation in results may occur from one batch to another. For continuous processes, operations are performed by a sequence of machines; each machine performs the same procedure all the time. Each device is assembled to the particular specifications of production. Though the initial cost is high, a higher production rate is achieved through this system. A semi-continuous process is a blended system, where some operations are carried out continuously, and others are performed on the batching system. The initial set-up cost is reasonable, and small and medium-sized lots of substrate can be performed suitably. Again dyeing can be completed in an exhaust and padding manner [1]. Three primary classes of colourants are used in the colouration process of textiles: dyes, pigments, and lakes. Three components are necessary for a material to be a dye in its structure. These three components are chromophore, chromogen, and autochrome. Chromogen holds unsaturated chromophores, and chromophores are the colour-bearing part of a dye. At the same time, auxochromes are substituted with acidic or basic chemical groups in dye structure that increase the shade’s depth. Stains may be soluble and insoluble in water. Pigments are insoluble chemical compounds that may be organic or inorganic, fixed to the surface of textile fabrics or garments are effectively trapped there with the help of a particular class of chemicals named binder. Ingrain dyes, or lakes, are created when two chemicals are added to a fiber concurrently or separately [2]. During the colouration process, a significant number of textile chemicals and auxiliaries like detergents, levelling agents, anti-foaming agents, sequestering agents, dispersing agents, anti-crocking agents, thickening agents, emulsifying agents, wetting agents, optical brighteners, acid, alkali, salt, etc. are being used to make all the operation effective or for obtaining a predetermined effect. These auxiliaries or chemicals may be temporary or permanent, surface-active, or non-surface active compounds [3]. Colourants are attached to the textile substrate with the help of different types of forces. This force may be a physical force like a hydrogen bond and Van der Waals force or a chemical force

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like an ionic or covalent bond. The efficacy of the fastness properties of colourants depends on such types of points [4, 5]. Water is considered the universal solvent and universal dyeing media [6]. All the conventional wet processing operations are carried out with this solvent. The dyeing and finishing process of one kilogram of cotton fibers requires almost 125 L of water. Water consumption of a medium category textile industry is around 1.6 million litres/day to produce 8000 kg of fabric. Dyeing consumes 20% of this, and printing consumes 8% [7]. The clothing industry is the second-largest polluter on the planet, behind only the oil industry [8]. According to Greenpeace International, China, India, and Bangladesh are the most populous nations in this respect. In the garment industry, cotton is a primary component. The production of a cotton T-shirt and jeans requires around 20,000 L of water [9, 10]. Significant amounts of unfixed colourants are discharged into water sources during dyeing, and about 10–15% of the dye is lost to the natural ecosystem as wastewater. Percentages of use of water in different wet processing operations are shown in Fig. 1 [11]. Several parameters characterize the released wastewater. These parameters are the higher values of COD (chemical oxygen demand), BOD (biological oxygen demand), TDS (total dissolved solids), TSS (total suspended solids), chlorides, sulfates, pH, and phenols content. Since these contaminants and dyes are not biodegradable, they cause serious health issues [10, 11]. The dyeing industry changes the ecosystem by reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen, causing the death of marine species and increasing BOD. The wastewater’s toxicity causes various illnesses, including congenital disabilities and decreased female fertility, and reduces the photosynthesis of plants [14]. The World Bank has discovered 72 poisonous chemicals in our water solely due to textile dyeing, 30 of which are irremovable [15]. About 90% of wastewater is dumped into waterways without being treated in developing countries. Around 200 tons of fresh water are needed to dye one ton of fabric, although 750 million people worldwide do not have the opportunity to drink safe water [8]. 34

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Numerous operations are carried out in textiles’ industrial processes for different purposes. Dyeing is, in fact, the most widely performed process. These processes are expensive and environmentally unfriendly due to the massive amounts of energy and water used and the waste produced. The dyeing process uses a lot of water and energy, and the used water, along with greenhouse gases, is released into the atmosphere as a pollutant. Approximately 10,000 tons of dyes were manufactured globally in one year, with 7000 tons of dye being used in the textile industry [16, 17]. The textile manufacturing sector emitted nearly 1.2 billion tons of CO2 in 2015, more than that of all international flights and marine export processing emissions [18]. The textile dyeing industry is also responsible for air pollution. The primary sources of this pollution caused by the dyeing industry are the use of boilers and power generators, as well as the emission of harmful gases from different vehicles associated with the movement of textiles and related goods from one location to another. Textile factories, in general, emit volatile organic compounds (VOC), which can have a wide-ranging and immeasurable effect, spreading in all directions from these places [11]. Textile processing consumes a lot of energy for drying, heating, and operating the required machinery, which causes the emission of greenhouse gases and increases carbon footprint. The complex structure of textile materials is the main reason behind this. For example, the yearly textile manufacture in 2008 was projected at 60 billion kilograms, and 1.074 billion kWh of electricity and 6–9 trillion litres of water were estimated for producing it. Total thermal and electric energy requirements were stated as 18.8–23 MJ and 0.45–0.55 kWh, respectively, for industrial and consumer use [19]. Different threatening issues for the environment caused by the textile and clothing industry are shown in Fig. 2.

10% Gobal carbon emission

10–15 % dye is lost to the environment

10000 tons of dyes are manufactured per year

17-20% global water polluter

Textile and Clothing Industry

2nd largest polluting industry

21 billion tons garbage every year

Consumption of about 200 litres of water for producing 1 kg of textiles.

Fig. 2 Different issues caused by the textile and clothing industry

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2 Advanced and Sustainable Dyeing Technologies Traditional dyeing and finishing techniques harm the environment, and the demand for clean, sustainable, and long-term alternatives is rising daily [20]. As a result, the most significant thing in the textile industry is to practice sustainability in textile production. Sustainable textile manufacturing refers to practices that meet existing textile manufacturing needs while maintaining the equilibrium between industry and the environment [21]. As a pillar of sustainable development goals (SDG) by the United Nations (UN), it is necessary to ensure the protection of the environment [22]. Manufacturing textiles with minimal quantities of water and energy and environmentally sustainable chemicals is a logical solution to meet the need for sustainability [11]. Use of non-toxic and biodegradable products, filtering run-off water, application of renewable energy, usage of recycled materials, decent work conditions, improving the supply chain and green logistics, use of lesser chemicals, minimizing air pollution, conservation of water, and advanced and modern sustainable machinery may also be essential tools for sustainable solution [21, 23].

2.1 Use of Lesser, Nontoxic and Biodegradable Chemicals The garment industry uses over 8,000 chemicals to produce the 400 billion square meters of fabric sold globally annually. Many of them are poisonous and remain in the system. Heavy metals are contained in dyes and fixing chemicals, bleaches, solvents, and detergents. These contaminants not only pollute the water and environment but also significantly affect the health of factory employees. Chemical use begins in the early stages of crop production with the help of pesticides and herbicides. It persists through the various stages of cloth production in the dyeing and finishing steps. Azo dyes account for 60–80% of all fabric colourants, emitting toxins when the fabric comes into contact with the skin, causing significant health risks [21]. Many experiments on salt-free or low salt dyeing [24–34] and low alkali or substituted alkali dyeing have been performed in the case of reactive dyes, which helps to reduce pollution levels [35–37]. Most dyeing chemicals are poisonous and hazardous; however, several substitutes may help reduce the contamination load. For example, in the case of the reduction of sulfur dyes, β-mercaptoethanol, and glucose may be used without using sodium sulfite, which is widely known as soda ash [38, 39]; the electrochemical method may be adopted in the reduction of vat dyes without using Na2 S2 O4 and NaOH [40–44]; hydrogen peroxide and sodium perborate may be alternative of potassium dichromate on oxidation of sulfur and vat dyes [39, 44, 45]; dicyanamide as hydrotropic agents in exchange of CH4 N2 O; formic acid as neutralizing agents without using acetic acid, fatty alcohols may be alternative of alkylphenolethoxylates as wetting agents [46].

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2.2 Dyeing in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide In the textile industry, dyeing technology attached to supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2 ) has shown greater interest in recent years. In comparison with traditional water-based aqueous dyeing, it offers several advantages. Due to carbon dioxide’s nontoxic, nonflammable, and recyclable properties, dyes may be reused, and no other chemicals are needed to add to the dyeing process. Furthermore, energy can be saved in this process, and the dyeing time can be reduced significantly since substrate-drying is not required for it [47, 48]. Pure fluids at higher pressure and temperature than critical value are known as supercritical fluids. The critical values are the maximum temperature and pressure at which the substance will remain in equilibrium as a vapour and liquid state. They have characteristics identical to those of a gas and a liquid, and they can be quickly changed by adjusting the pressure. The phenomenon is conveniently illustrated using the phase diagram for pure carbon dioxide (Fig. 3). This diagram depicts the conditions under which carbon dioxide occurs as a vapour, liquid, solid, or SCF. In Fig. 3, the curves indicate the temperatures and pressures at which two phases coexist in equilibrium conditions. Carbon dioxide reaches its critical stage at a pressure of 72.79 atm and a temperature of 30.98 °C [49]. Supercritical carbon dioxide is considered a sustainable solvent or green medium for numerous chemical processing in textile materials [48, 50]. This outstanding and sophisticated technology is applicable not only for the dyeing process but also for the pretreatment and finishing of the textile product. Figure 4 represents essential dyeing equipment where supercritical CO2 is used for the dyeing process. It has temperature controllers, a stainless steel container with a heating system, a monometer, and a powerful cooler. Below 100 °C, this machine can operate with a capacity of the pressure of 350 bars. Disperse dyes can be fed into the device and supercritical CO2 fluid before being combined with the materials. The dyes used in this method have an excellent diffusion property, Fig. 3 Phase diagram for pure carbon dioxide [49]

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Temperature controller

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Fig. 4 Schematic representation of the apparatus (1) CO2 cylinder, (2) Circulated cooling bath, (3) CO2 pump, (4) Heating bath, (5) Temperature controller, (6) Stirrer, (7) Dye bath, (8) Pressure regulator, and (9) Separator (“Reproduced from Penthala et al. [51], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

resulting in high evenness on the surface as well as the interior structure of the fabric. In this process, the residual dye material can be extracted and saved for future use [51]. This technology has several benefits in textile applications, particularly dyeing. The low mass transfer resistance and high diffusion rates are found in the critical CO2 dyeing process. In this system, it is facilitated to penetrate dye into the fibers, resulting in a shorter dyeing time. Since the dyeing process in supercritical CO2 does not use water, therefore drying stage can be eliminated, which helps to save energy and time. All dye molecules can react with the fiber because the dye particle is not hydrolyzed. The dye can separate from supercritical carbon dioxide and recover it quickly. Separated CO2 can be used again for the dyeing process. The most critical issue in this process is that salt and alkali are not required as dyeing additives. In the process of grey cotton dyeing in supercritical CO2 , it is essential to remove wax materials from the cotton pile fabric. It reduces the co-solvent and surfactant’s effectiveness in supercritical CO2. The remaining wax also helps improve the grey cotton’s hydrophilic nature. In addition, the water wettability of grey cotton fabric was significantly increased after de-waxing [52]. Huang et al. investigated the dyeing process of zipper tape using supercritical carbon dioxide. In this process, dyeing was done in different batches and carried out continuously with dispersed dyes using two different autoclaves. The excellent (rated 4–5) colour fastness properties were achieved in this method. The shade consistency was observed while using alternative autoclaves of dyed samples [53]. The potential and the challenges of processing sheep wool by using supercritical CO2 were studied by Salem et al. Dyeing technology in supercritical CO2 is a viable green approach for processing wool [54]. Several scholars have explored the solubility of various dyes in sCO2 . Many data on the effect of pressure and temperature on the solubility of dispersed dyes are available in scCO2 [55, 56].

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2.3 Nanotechnology Based Dyeing It was stated earlier that the conventional dyeing process consumes significant water. Hence different wastewater management strategies are applied to make zero liquid discharge [57]. However, using this strategy is time-consuming and expensive. As a result, rather than implementing waste management methods, it is preferable to minimize waste generation [46]. Using sophisticated low-liquor ratio machinery in the textile wet processing industry is one way to remove or reduce waste discharge [58]. The common use of material to liquor ratio for exhaust textile dyeing with the exhaust method usually varies from 1:5 to 1:40, depending on various factors like processes, dyes, and fabrics [12, 59–61]. Although even dyeing has occurred with a high liquor ratio, it necessitates more energy, water, and auxiliaries [62]. Researchers are continuously working to lower the liquor ratio of the exhaust dyeing process [63]. Nanobubbles have a wide range of uses in a variety of fields. Nanobubble technology is commonly used in denim jeans finishing techniques with an extremely low liquid ratio in the textile arena [64]. Nanobubble works as a transporter of different chemicals on the surface of the substrate in textile processing [65]. Mohsin et al. studied nanobubble technology to dye bleached cotton fabric in the exhaust method with a low liquor ratio of 1:1 with eleven different reactive dyes. The study shows that in a nanobubble dyeing machine, when dyeing cotton fabric, three liquor ratios can be used, which are 1:1, 1:5, and 1:10. The recipe solution in the form of a nanobubble (with pressure nozzle jet) was spread for 8 s onto the fabric at 3 bar pressure. Nanobubbles were formed due to the high rate of solution flow, and the researchers observed the size of the bubble. It was found to have excellent results in the case of dry and wet rubbing fastness, wash fastness, depth of shade, and air permeability in the case of liquid ratio 1:1 compared with 1:5 and 1:10 by performing the necessary test [66]. Another nanotechnology-based dyeing process is the nano-dye process. It is sustainable and eco-friendly technology developed by Florida, USA-based company Nano-Dye, LLC. This new revolutionary green process is also known as cationic textile dyeing. This process can be applied to cotton and blended textiles with the exhaust method. When submerged in water in the conventional reactive dye process, raw cotton takes on a negative charge. Dyestuff has a negative control when submerged in water. Both having negative charges repel each other, making bonding difficult. But in the nano dye process, the negative amount of raw cotton when submerged in water is changed to a positive charge. The positive cotton charge and negative dye stuff charge attract each other, making bonding stronger and more straightforward. Furthermore, eliminating contamination in the effluent allows wastewater treatment plants to be cost-effective and for future clean colouration processes. Existing dyeing machinery and equipment can be utilized in this process. Salt-free dyeing, up to 90% exhaustion rate of dyestuff, a large amount of water and energy saving lower overall dyeing cost and makes this technology sustainable. The improved dye jet

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production per hour of the Nano-Dye Process allows for lower energy consumption, which prevents climate change [67]. Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) based dyeing is currently a sustainable and environmentally sound dyeing technique. NFC is a harmless nanomaterial. It can be produced from readily available cellulose sources. Cut wood pulp is the primary source of this cellulose. NFC hydrogel is a stable colloidal dispersion made by mechanical homogenization. Cellulose powders are passed through a homogenizer with the help of high force. Thus nanofibrils are created from cellulose fibers. This phenomenon is known as defibrillation. Nanocellulose hydrogel of NFC is used as an effective carrier of dyestuff to the textile substrate. At first, NFC nanofibers are dyed under the appropriate condition with reactive dyes in the exhaust method, which produces coloured NFC hydrogel. The assembled hydrogels are then deposited on the surface of the textile substrate by some specific method at an appropriate temperature. This novel NFC-based dyeing technique utilizes less water. It saves alkali and salt due to the strong attraction to the cotton fiber and high surface area of NFC, which results from a higher dye fixation rate than the conventional exhaust approach. If this sustainable and low-cost technique can be economically viable, the textile industry will advance to the next level [68].

2.4 Plasma Assisted Dyeing The four primary phases of matter are solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. Yet, researchers are finding new forms of matter that occur under intense conditions. Plasma is a state of matter identical to a gas, but all the ions bear an electrical charge (Fig. 5). Often, plasma occurs at shallow pressure because the ions are much farther separated than in a gas. Plasma may consist of ions, electrons, or protons. Examples of plasma include lightning, the aurora, the Sun, and the interior of a neon sign [69]. When electromagnetic radiation is coupled to process gas, plasma creates a mixture of ions, electrons, neutrons, photons, and free radicals. Depending on the working pressure, there are two types of plasma, hot and cold. Textile fabrics may either be

Fig. 5 Four basic states of matter

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treated with cold (non-thermal) or low-temperature plasma due to the degradation of textiles at elevated temperatures [70, 71]. Moreover, plasma treatment is classified into many categories depending on the chamber’s pressure, voltage, and power generation frequency [72, 73]. This unique blend of particles and energy can be used to clean, etch, activate, or cover a variety of surfaces [74]. For example, fiber properties can be determined by making it hydrophobic inducing plasma. Water, stain, and oil repellent, hydrophilic, antimicrobial, flame-retardant, UV-protective, antistatic properties, and changes in dyeing, printing, biocompatibility, and adhesion can all be achieved by changing the fiber surface at the nanometer stage (Fig. 6) [75]. The practical results of plasma-treated textiles rely on the types of gases used in the plasma chamber. The biggest benefit of using this approach is that it modifies the surface properties without changing the bulk properties of textile substrate [76, 77].

Dyeing & Printing Flame retardent

Composite

Hydrophilic

Application of plasma in Textile

Anti-felting of wool

Hydrophobic & Super hydrophobic

Medical

Oleophobic

Fig. 6 Plasma treatment on textile processing

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Figure 7 represents the typical plasma application on a textile material in a lowpressure environment. When the vacuum system (dot lines) of this figure is ignored, the schematic layout of atmospheric pressure plasma may be assumed from this figure. Plasma applications are usually carried out at pressures ranging from 0.01 to 10 mbar. Various methods may do plasma treatment. These techniques are corona discharge, glow discharge, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), and plasma jet. Corona discharge is the earliest treatment technique, generating a very mild ionization. The electrode spacing in this technique is extremely low, making it ideal for thin textile fabrics. However, owing to a non-uniform plasma surface treatment, material damage is dangerous. Dielectric barrier discharge is an improved method in which an insulating substance such as ceramic or glass is placed over the electrode to restrict current and minimize the risk of a gas spark. Although this method does not create a uniform effect on the textile surface and often results in uneven treatment, it delivers a better outcome than corona discharge. In this case, glow discharge is preferable because it may generate a homogenous and consistent effect on the surface of the textile substrate. Finally, the plasma jet method, which is the most recent addition, may be applied evenly (on one side only) to any formed material [78, 79]. Plasma application causes physicochemical modifications in the surface composition of textiles. It is used to improve dyeability [80]. At various stages of the pretreatment phase before dying, plasma treatment enhances the wettability of cotton fabric. This improvement in wettability by plasma was caused not only by size or

Fig. 7 A schematic arrangement how plasma is applied on textile material

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wax elimination but also by physicochemical modifications on the surface (e.g., the inclusion of functional groups and a change in surface energy) [81]. The dyeability and printability of cotton are related to the creation of new chemical groups on the cotton surface, which is associated with the formation of cellulosic radicals, which then chemically react with plasma particles [82]. Pandiyaraj et al. treated grey cotton fabric with atmospheric plasma and then dyed it with reactive dye. The reported higher color strength of the dyed fabric is due to the increase in surface energy and wettability of cotton fabric [83]. About 45.2% of plasma treatment is carried out on wool substrate among all textile fibers [84]. Plasma treatment on wool causes an etching effect, which removes the fatty acid coating partially or entirely and creates hydrophilic groups that facilitate dyeability (varies with plasma gas) of wool fiber with acid dye [85]. Higher color strength of silk fiber with reactive dye after using plasma treatment was reported by Iriyama et al., and plasma treatment on other natural fibers like hemp, flax, coir, jute, bamboo, sisal, etc. was also investigated by many researchers [85]. Atmospheric plasma treatment on PET fabric improves wettability, dyeability, and roughness of fibers and creates polar oxygen-containing groups. This treatment also enhances the dye penetration ability of PET fibers in silk-screen and inkjet printing. The number of C–OH, C=O, and COOH groups on the surface of PET fibers increased with air and air/helium plasma, resulting in a significant rise in overall surface energy and a decrease in contact angle. On the surface of PET fabrics, oxygen/argon plasma treatment triggered polymer chain scissions, resulting in a significant number of reactive groups. These anionic groups attracted the weakly cationic dye molecules, which increased dye absorption and diffusion on PET fibers [86–88]. Appropriate plasma application on nylon raised the oxygen and nitrogen content of the fibers’ surface, reduced the wetting period, and increased roughness, allowing acid and dispersed dyes to exhaust faster [89]. Plasma-induced acrylic acid grafting on PP fibers increased dyeability with basic shades, and the air corona treatment method on acrylic yarn induces a meaningful effect on dyeing behavior [90, 91].

2.5 Laser Assisted Dyeing The part of the electromagnetic spectrum has a wavelength of 400–700 nm. A laser is a modified form of visible light. Lasers have been used in all branches of science and technology since 1960. The word “laser” is an acronym for “light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation.” Quantum mechanics of physics can analyze the principle of laser products. The electrons inside the atom revolve around the nucleus in its orbits. The orbits of electrons are shown as energy levels. All electrons in orbit possess equal energy, and the electrons of the orbits closest to the nucleus have the lowest power. This energy level is called the ground state. If electrons absorb energy in any way, they get excited and move from a higher energy level. But after a while, the electrons leave that level and return to their energy level by releasing extra energy.

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The process of releasing extra energy is called spontaneous emission. Suppose the electrons in an atom can interact with a photon of a specific point. The electrons become excited by absorbing the photon’s power and moving to a higher energy level. When it returns to its initial energy level, it expels the energy absorbed through photons. The power of this emitted photon is equal to the point of the absorbed photon. Thus, the flow of billions of photons is obtained in seconds. The energy of each photon is similar, and each goes in the same direction simultaneously. This intense current of photons is known as laser. Laser is highly monochromatic and can be sharply focused. It is produced when photons are emitted by stimulating the electrons in an amplifying medium from a suitable substance. This medium can be solid, gas, semiconductor, etc. Particular wavelength light is applied to the meaning. So that when the electrons of the substance are excited, it produces Laser. As a result, photons are emitted. If the active medium is ruby, it is called a ruby laser, similar to carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The energy and wavelength of lasers produced from different mediums are also not the same [92]. Lasers are categorized according to their ability to cause damage. The Laser Institute of America (LIA) has created seven laser classes: Class 1, Class 1M, Class 2, Class 2M, Class 3R, Class 3B, and Class 4. Class 4 carbon dioxide lasers are the most frequently used in textile production. Carbon dioxide lasers are high-powered and comparatively efficient compared to other lasing mediums. They can operate in a continuous wave mode. Carbon dioxide lasers have a wavelength of 10.6 μm, which lies in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The energy beam is in the form of heat, which is utilized to burn away the surface of whatever it hits. Thus, it causes surface modification of the textile substrate. This technology is widely used in denim processing. However, change in surface properties is closely related to the dyeing properties of textiles [93]. Kan et al. studied the dyeing behavior of pulsed UV excimer laser pretreated woven PET fabric under atmospheric conditions. A ripple-like structure of PET surface, in the presence of hydrophilic functional groups, is found to increase the oxygen-to-carbon ratio. Due to all changes, dye diffusion is accelerated in the fiber, like polyester [94]. Morgan et al. examined the dyeing process with carbon dioxide laser-enhanced in wool fabric with reactive dye. It was revealed by microscopic examination that removing external scale from the wool fiber is possible, which helps dyestuff enter the thread more quickly [95]. Akiwowo et al. studied the modification of knitted and woven PET fabric with carbon dioxide laser. The technology is used to improve dye penetration with a graphical approach. This process, a digital dyeing process, involves CAD and laser technology to create laser-dyed designs. As a result, the laser beam could be used to modify textile fibers with regulated laser energy as an image-making tool. The laser beam could scan through seams and stitching while maintaining high-resolution visual qualities and tonal definition. Using traditional image-based coloration techniques on finished garments is impossible, as shown in Fig. 8 [96]. It has also been found that the pretreatment of polyamide fabrics with a carbon dioxide laser before dyeing results in a high level of satisfaction. This process helps to improve dye absorption and create free amino groups by breaking amide linkages on that fiber surface. Laser

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Fig. 8 Digital laser-dyed sports bra tops [96] “Reprinted by permission of Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group, www.tandfonline.com”

application also causes a reduction in crystallinity and an increase in the amorphous region, which allows for more excellent dye absorption [97–99].

2.6 Foam Dyeing Foam is an aggregation of gaseous bubbles dispersed in a liquid. The foam bubbles are separated from one another by a thin layer of liquid. This layer is named lamellae. The foam is formed either in the solid or gaseous state. The mixture of solid and gas forms solid foams and is unsuitable for textile garments. On the other hand, the mixture of gas and liquid formed gaseous foam is used in many applications in textile industries. The gaseous foam is divided into two categories: condensation and dispersion foam. Condensation foam is developed from the chemical reaction or causing the physical change of gas within the liquid. The dissolved gas in condensation foam can be liberated, which yields an inappropriate blow ratio. Results instability of foam and make inappropriate to use for textile processing.

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On the other hand, if the gas is introduced and mixed with liquid from the external source, then dispersing foam is formed. It is the most common type of foam available in textiles processing. Usually, the air is used as a gas, and water is used as a liquid. This type of foam contains a surface-active agent that acts as a foaming agent [100]. Foams are used for many textile chemical processes, like desizing, printing, finishing, and dyeing. The characteristic of foam depends on blow ratio, stability, viscosity, bubble size, and bubble distribution [101]. The study showed that the Foam technique is often used with a wet pick-up of 20– 40%, whereas, in traditional pad dyeing, the wet pick-up is typically in the 60–100% operational range. As a low-add-on technique, foam processing in textile processing utilizes foam to apply chemicals and colourants to the textiles, resulting in significant water, a shorter drying period, increased efficiency, less waste and energy savings due to the substitution of water with air. Foam application limits the amount of water added to the textile substrate by replacing some water in the formulation with air. The chemical formulation is mixed with air in a foam generator to create a foam usually having a perfect bubble size. The incorporation of air into the formulation creates a large volume which can be spread on the textile fabric more uniformly than can the unframed liquid [102]. Foam processing involves several distinct steps. Foam is generated after liquor preparation and applied to the textile substrate (fabric and yarn). After mechanical treatment processes such as drying, fixation, etc., foam dyeing can be employed according to the requirement. A typical flow chart foam processing is shown in Fig. 9. In the foam dyeing process, at first, a fixed volume of foam containing the dye is prepared. Secondly, it is applied to the textile substrates using appropriate standard methods. It is a basic theory of foam dyeing technology. The foam is applied to the textile substrates with direct and indirect applicator systems. Therefore, the liquid distribution in the fabric with simultaneous drainage and diffusion thoroughly. Figure 10 illustrates the padding mangle approach of foam application on textile fabric. The main advantage of the foam dyeing process is that it can be employed in synthetic and natural fibers of different fabric structures by using several dye classes. Yu et al. investigated low add-on foam dyeing with a Neovi-foam system and two-stage pad dyeing of plain woven cotton fabric using a reactive dye. Foam and conventional pad dyeing were carried out with 30 and 80% wet pick-up, respectively. The foam was generated using mechanical agitation for 3 min, and the blow ratio and Fig. 9 Block diagram of foam processing on textile substrate

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Fig. 10 Foam applicator with horizontal padding mangle approach

half-life were used to assess foamability and stability. Foam dyeing was carried out with the combination of different foaming and stabilizer of different concentrations. Comparing their findings with conventional aqueous dyeing systems and evaluating various foaming factors based on colour strength and fixation rate, they concluded better build-up properties of dyes in the case of foam processing than in conventional dyeing. It was also reported that sodium dodecyl sulfate, dodecanol, and guar gum (3:4 in weight were effective foaming agent and stabilizer, respectively. A higher K/S value of dyed fabric was recorded with an increasing concentration of foam stabilizer while lowering the dye fixation rate [103]. The comparatively same type of experiment was carried out by Wang et al. on ultra-fine polyamide filament fabrics and established some optimum parameters regarding this [104]. Shang et al. studied the development of the wash-out effect of cotton knitted T-shirts with foam dyeing using pigments [105]. Bhavsar et al. studied foam dyeing technology of cotton and wool fabric with reactive and acid dyestuff, respectively, with horizontal padding mangle. They introduced a novel foaming agent named keratin hydrolyzate in the dyeing of both materials. Foam dyeing performance was compared to conventional cold pad batch and pad steam processes for cotton and wool, respectively. The foams having different characterizing were determined in aqueous solutions with and without dyeing auxiliaries. They recorded a significant surface activity of keratin hydrolyzate, excellent foam stability with dyeing auxiliaries, a blow ratio of approximately 10:1, and bubble diameters of 0.02–0.1 mm. Dye molecules are transported by hydrolyzed keratin, and the dyeing mechanism is determined by the pH of the dye solution, keratin, and fiber. Compared to conventional dyeing methods, foam dyeing of cotton yielded similar colour strength, while wool yielded greater colour strength. Because of the synergy between keratin hydrolyzate and wool, the colour strength and levelness of wool dyeing were improved. Figure 11 depicts the hypothetical mechanism of

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Fig. 11 The hypothetical mechanism of foam dyeing of cotton and wool fabric using keratin hydrolyzate (“Reproduced from Bhavsar et al. [106], with kind permission from American Chemical Society”)

keratin hydrolyzate-based foam dyeing of cotton and wool fabrics. Cotton and wool foam-dyed fabrics have a comparable wash and rubbing fastness to their conventional dyed samples [106].

2.7 Ultrasound Assisted Dyeing A medium is required to transmit sound waves from one place to another. The sound wave propagates by generating vibrational motion, known as the frequency of the medium particles. The frequency of ultrasound is higher than that of the human range of audibility. The range of human audible frequency is about 18–20 kHz. So sound wave with a frequency greater than 20 kHz is referred to as ultrasound (Fig. 12) [107–109]. Many studies from the 1950s and 1960s describe the positive benefits of ultrasound in wet textile processes. So application of ultrasound in textile processing is not a novel concept. Despite promising findings from laboratory research, ultrasound-assisted textile wet processes have yet to be applied commercially. Low frequency or conventional ultrasound (20–100 kHz), medium frequency ultrasound (300–1000 kHz), and diagnostic or high-frequency ultrasound (2– 10 MHz) are the three frequency ranges used in practical fields [110]. The highfrequency ultrasound has no physical or chemical impact hence not compatible with

Fig. 12 Approximate frequency ranges corresponding to ultrasound

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textile processing. Low-frequency and high-intensity ultrasound can run at thousands of watts, making it robust and suitable for numerous textile chemical operations [111]. Ultrasound acts as a physical stimulus, used for various chemical processing of textiles such as washing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, finishing, extraction of natural dyes, and wastewater management. Figure 13 shows some of the possible uses of ultrasound in textile coloring [112]. The ultrasound-assisted dyeing system changes the average spacing between water molecules when the sound wave travels through it in compression and rarefaction cycles. During the rarefaction cycle, the distance between neighboring molecules may surpass the critical molecular distance if the sound’s pressure amplitude is high enough. A new liquid surface from voids is formed at that point. This process is termed acoustic cavitation, as shown in Fig. 14 [113]. The acoustic cavitation process causes chemical changes in the liquid/liquid or solid/liquid phase. The three phases of cavitation are the microbubble’s formation, growth, and collapse. Microbubbles pulsate, expand, shrink, and even collapse when ultrasonic vibrations travel through the liquid phase due to the stretching and compression of the sound wave. High temperature–pressure rapidly develops in the

Preparation of dye solution

Extraction of natural colorants

Ultrasound assisted coloration of textiles

Dyeing of textiles

Preparation of print paste

Fig. 13 Possible applications of ultrasound assisted coloration of textiles

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Fig. 14 Process cycle of a cavitation bubble formation [109]

restricted area surrounding the cavitation bubble. As a result, cavitation generates a powerful shock wave and a high-velocity jet, which enhances micro mixing, heat and mass transfer, dyes, chemicals, and auxiliary diffusion inside the inter pores of textile substrates. The ultrasonic cavitation influences frequency, intensity, power, solvent, viscosity, vapor pressure, and temperature. Figure 15 shows many effects originating from the sonochemistry’s physical and chemical components responsible for the dyeing rate acceleration. In textile dyeing and printing, ultrasonic technologies serve three main purposes. The first is called dispersion, and it involves breaking up micelles and high-molecularweight aggregates into uniform distributions. The second degassing method causes dissolved or trapped gas or air molecules to be ejected from the fiber into liquid and removed by cavitation, which improves dye-fiber interaction. The third type of diffusion accelerates any interactions or chemical reactions that may occur between the dye and the fiber by piercing the insulating layer that surrounds it [115]. Wet

Fig. 15 Several sonochemical effects on dyeability of textile material [114]

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Fig. 16 Schematic diagram of ultrasonic exhaust dyeing of lyocell woven fabric (“Reproduced from Babar et al. [119], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

ultrasonic techniques use less energy and chemicals, which is good for the environment and for business. A method of dying with the help of ultrasound that uses lower temperatures than the usual method can also save energy (thermally) [116, 117]. The mechanical or electric ultrasonic generator, the ultrasonic transducer, which converts electrical energy into acoustic energy, and the acoustic amplifier, which concentrates and amplifies the acoustic energy produced by the transducer, are the three main parts of ultrasonic equipment [118]. Utilizing ultrasonic energy, Babar et al. studied exhaust dyeing on woven fabric made entirely of lyocell, a biodegradable regenerated fiber. Reactive dyes were utilised by them as colourants. They contrasted their findings with those of the traditional dying method. In comparison to conventionally dyed samples, ultrasonic dyed samples displayed significantly better dyeing performance (colour yield and dye fixing rate). This methodology was shown to be a better, more affordable, and generally more ecologically friendly way to conduct future studies thanks to significant reductions in the use of thermal energy and chemicals. Figure 16 depicts the procedure they employed for dyeing and post-treatments [119].

2.8 Microwave Assisted Dyeing Between the radio and infrared wavebands of the electromagnetic spectrum is where microwave (MW) radiation is found. As depicted in Fig. 17, it has wavelengths that range from about one meter to one millimeter, and its frequencies range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. It cannot see its characteristics with the naked eye [109]. Microwaves can move at the same speed as light when passing through material objects. It comprises two oscillating magnetic and electric fields perpendicular to one

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another. They can be transmitted, absorbed, or reflected depending on the medium. Microwaves reflect off of metal surfaces and pass through PTEF and quartz. In either scenario, no heat is generated. According to their dielectric characteristics, polar liquids like water, nitric acid, and others absorb microwaves and generate heat [120]. Microwaves with wavelengths of 1–40 GHz are often used in different applications. It is possible due to its unique features (frequency and wavelength) and capability of forming directional waves. Some applications of microwave technology are terrestrial and satellite communications, e-surveillance, climate monitoring, longdistance power transmission, military applications; household appliances, industrial processes (microwave heating), scientific research and investigation, etc. [118]. For domestic purposes, the two most frequently utilized frequencies for microwave heating are 0.915 and 2.45 GHz [121]. Microwaves of high frequencies are used for industrial production purposes. Microwaves may only be utilized in a small range of industrial operations due to the high machinery cost and dielectric properties’ dependence on temperature. In the textile coloring industry, microwaves can be used in numerous chemical processes, including the extraction of natural dyes and wastewater management. Figure 18 shows some microwave radiation applications in the textile sector [118]. Ionic conduction and dipolar rotation are the mechanisms by which microwaves produce heat. The electric field is the primary source of heat production. A water molecule in dipolar rotation spins back and forth continuously, trying to align its dipole with the oscillating electric field; heat is generated by friction between the spinning molecules. A free ion or ionic species travels translationally across space in ionic conduction, trying to align with the changing electric field. The conflict between these moving species generates heat, just as it does in dipolar rotation, and the greater the temperature in the surroundings of each ion, the more effective energy

Fig. 17 Electromagnetic spectrum [109]

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Fig. 18 Application of microwave technology in textile coloration

transfer occurs. The more polar and ionic a species is, the more efficient the rate of heat production is in both instances (Fig. 19) [120]. Because of having lower energy than chemical bonds, microwaves cannot affect the molecular structure of any material. It may only cause kinetic molecular excitation. Microwave heating is also known as volumetric heating. Microwave energy can penetrate directly into the internal portion of textile material and cause uniform and consistent heating of excess or unfixed dye liquor or liquid particles to evaporate effectively. Ionic conduction and dipolar rotation of polar components of an aqueous dye solution increase the dye fixation rate by enhancing the diffusion of dye molecules on the textile substrate. On the other hand, conventional conduction heating methods depend on the thermal conductivity of a material. Heat energy is transmitted first from the source to the vessel and then from the vessel to the desired material. It is a slow and inefficient way to transfer heat because the different thermal conductivities make it hard to control the temperature and take longer to reach thermal equilibrium as shown in Fig. 20. Microwave heating suits bulky materials such as yarn packages, skeins, and loose fiber. This energy heats deep within the material and dramatically accelerates bulky materials drying slowly in convection drying systems. If the electrode system is set

Fig. 19 a Ionic conduction, where positively and negatively charged ions under electric field induced by microwaves crossing the molecules and, b–c dipolar rotation of water molecules, where b indicates without electric field and c indicates with the influence of electric field induced by microwaves. (“Reproduced from Melloet al. [120], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

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Fig. 20 Microwave heating and conductive heating [122]

up, microwave energy can be used to dry flat fabrics, nonwoven webs, and yarn sheets. Microwave-assisted extraction of colorants may be done before dyeing or concurrently with dyeing [123, 124]. Extracted colors or other organic compounds may be used during the dyeing cycle, and heating can be done either by boiling or microwaving. Oneret et al. studied microwave-assisted exhaust dyeing and conventional dyeing of polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) single jersey knitted fabrics with six types of dispersed dyes. They concluded that microwave heating improves the dye absorption of poly (butylene terephthalate) fiber, and better color properties and fastness may be achieved in comparison with the conventional process [125]. A technique based on microwave treatment of flax fiber with urea to enhance its dyeability with reactive dyes was recently developed due to the low dyeability of flax fiber. The dyeability of the treated flax fibers was found to be substantially enhanced. Higher dye absorption on the fiber and an increased reaction probability between the dye and the fiber were discovered to be the reasons for the improved dyeability of flax fiber [126]. Adeel et al. investigated the dyeing behavior of wool fabric using extracted natural cochineal dye, utilizing microwave irradiation and employing bio-mordant and chemical mordant. Cochineal dye is an animal-based natural colorant, carminic acid, extracted from cochineal insects. Extracted colorants and wool fabric were microwave treated for a specific time to dye irradiated and unirradiated wool fabric, maintaining optimum dyeing parameters and mordants. It is used in sustainable dyeing operations with 5% henna and 3% pomegranate as bio-mordants and Al2 (SO4 )3 and FeSO4 as chemical mordants. It was also discovered that this

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microwave treatment and bio-mordant have better colour fastness properties than chemical ones and suggested possible alternatives of synthetic red–orange dyes for textile coloration [124].

2.9 Enzymatic Dyeing Enzymes are naturally occurring proteins with a high molecular weight. It is called a “bio-catalyst” since it can catalyze chemical reactions in biological processes. Enzymes are present in plants, microbes, as well as animals. Because of their threedimensional configurations and active or catalytic sites, enzymes are particular to their substrate [127]. The active site is the portion of the enzyme molecule that interacts with the substrate and integrates it. The form and charge distribution of the active site assist in substrate recognizing and catalyzing the chemical reaction. The enzyme molecule first makes a complex adsorbing onto the surface of the substrate that can be explained by the lock and key model proposed by E. Fisher, as shown in Fig. 21. Most enzymes function best in the pH range of 5–9, and their activity increases with increasing temperature up to a certain extent, decreasing due to thermal denaturation. Certain thermo-stable enzymes are stable at a higher temperature. Enzymes can be applied to various wet processing operations in textiles, such as desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, surface modification, wastewater management, peroxide killing, and denim jeans washing, laundering on a wide variety of natural and synthetic fiber (Table 1) [128]. Enzyme-containing microorganisms have a high potential for directly processing novel textile dyes or dye intermediates through regulated fermentation techniques rather than chemical synthesis [129]. It was revealed that laccases could synthesize red azo dyes with the oxidative coupling of 3-Methyl-2BenzoThiazolinoneHydrazone (MBTH) and phenols [130]. In reducing sulfur dyes, an oxidoreductase enzyme such as catalase has been identified as a viable alternative to sodium sulfide, a toxic reducing agent [131]. Removal of excess colorant from over-dyed fabric can be achieved with the help of an enzyme. Chata et al. studied Fig. 21 Lock and key model of enzyme action

Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing Table 1 Use of enzymes at various stages of textile wet processing

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Process

Enzymes

Desizing

Amylase, lipase

Scouring

Pectinase, cellulase, cutinase, Lipase, Xylanase, Proteases

Bleaching

Oxidoreductase, xylanase, Laccase

Peroxide killing

Catalase

Dyeing

Oxidoreductase

Denim finishing

Cellulase, oxidoreductase, lipase

Composting of textile waste

Laccases, cellulase, protease, nylonase, polyesterase

natural color stripping from reactive dyed cellulosic fiber with catalase enzyme. They reported this process as an efficient and environmentally safe way to remove dyes from fabrics [132]. Yuan et al. investigated laccase-catalyzed dyeing and finishing of wool fiber with the help of polyethyleneimine (PEI). The amino groups found in wool and PEI are thought to be responsible for the production of polymeric color during the catalysis of laccase of catechin and gallic acid. They reported that it is possible to improve wool’s color and shrink resistance properties by adding a multi-primary amine molecule and a crosslinking agent to that coloration technique [133]. Prajapati et al. studied a new design for coloring wool and nylon 6,6 fibers using laccase oxidation of three aromatic compounds, 1,4-dihydroxybenzene, 2,7dihydroxy naphthalene, and 2,5-diaminobenzenesulphonic acid as an alternative to traditional dyeing methods. By investigating different reaction parameters without using additional chemicals and auxiliaries, they reported better color fastness properties and decorative surface pattern effects by varying fiber and fabric structure. [134].

2.9.1

Electrochemical Dyeing

Popular textile colours like indigo, vat, and sulphur must undergo a reduction stage using potent reducing agents like sodium dithionite, sodium sulfide, sodium hydrosulfide, sodium polysulfide, etc. to reach the reduced state of the dyestuff. These substances produce environmentally hazardous acidic byproducts [135]. The developing electrochemical dyeing technology, which has several technological, financial, and environmental benefits, transfers electrons via electricity rather than chemical reducing agents. The two approaches for electrochemical dyeing are direct and indirect electrochemical dyeing. In the case of natural electrochemical dyeing, the interaction between the dye and the electrode immediately reduces the organic dyestuff [136]. Direct reduction of the dye on the electrode is incredibly challenging, nevertheless, due to the limited electrical connection between the insoluble dye particles and the solid cathode. To start the procedure, a tiny amount of leuco dye must be added to the solution. The direct approach is based on a reaction mechanism as shown

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Fig. 22 Mechanism of the direct electrochemical reduction of indigo (“Reproduced from Yang et al. [137], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

in Fig. 22 where the leuco dye and dye react to form a radical anion of the dye. Then, this radical anion is electrochemically reduced [137]. In an indirect electrochemical dye reduction process, the dye is not reduced directly at the electrode. Instead, a reducing agent is applied, which conventionally reduces the dye before being oxidized. The oxidized reducing agent is then reduced at the cathode surface, making it usable for dye reduction. During the dyeing cycle, this step is repeatedly performed. In electrochemistry, a reversible redox mechanism is an agent that goes through reduction and oxidation processes. This agent is called a mediator. Changhai et al. looked at the effect of reducing indigo dye on dyeing in an indirect way, as shown in Fig. 23. They used iron salt as a mediator (and made it work better by adding calcium ion), added ultrasonic waves, and made electrochemical dyeing equipment, as shown in Fig. 24. The ultrasonic waves were used for cleaning cathodes and speeding up electrocatalytic performance. After dyeing, washing with an oxalic acid solution effectively removes iron salts from the fabric. They also reported industry-level better color fastness properties of dyed materials [138].

2.9.2

Ozone Assisted Dyeing

Ozone is a tri-atomic gas, and it has been used in various industrial applications for a long time because of its strong oxidation potential [139]. Ozone is present in more significant quantities in the troposphere and stratosphere. Ozone is generated when

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Fig. 23 Electrocatalytic indigo reduction. a General process for indigo dyeing; b Industrial process for indigo reduction; c Practical electrocatalytic method for indigo reduction and dyeing [138]

Fig. 24 Device of electrochemical reduction and dyeing (a anode chamber; b cathode chamber; c ion exchange membrane; d reference electrode; e entry board; f anode electrode; g cathode electrode; h water pump; i water pump; j tube; m ultrasonic tank; k dyeing pool) [138]

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air or another gas containing normal oxygen is exposed to a high-energy source [140]. The primary production methods are electrical discharge, electrochemical processes, and ultraviolet radiation. The two popular approaches are photochemical and corona discharge, with the latter being the most applicable [141]. In the textile sector, ozone is used for fading denim jeans, surface modification, and bleaching cellulosic, protein, and synthetic fibers. However, the application of ozone in the coloration process of textiles is a new concept. Ozone can be applied to the textile substrate in a gas or liquid phase. Aqueous ozone is more realistic than gaseous ozone since the operating principle of wet processing equipment is ideal for a solution. Because of workplace health and comfort, using gaseous ozone necessitates using specific airtight machines. The material used to make the leakproof gasket must be resistant to gaseous ozone [142]. Perincek et al. studied ozone’s dyeability and bleaching effects on animal-based angora rabbit fiber. They demonstrated that ozone treatment is an effective method for improving dyeability in milling-type acid dyestuffs due to cuticle layer modification of fiber [143]. Lee et al. studied the ozonation of polyester and nylon in six fabrics and found that it increased the amount of oxygen on the fiber surface significantly. Water penetration, surface wettability, and dyeability were improved along with the change in crystallinity of these two fibers [144]. Benli et al. suggested a green process line in their paper. They investigated the effects of combining ozone and ultrasound treatment on cotton fabrics before natural dyeing without using a mordant (Fig. 25). Natural dyes were derived from orange tree leaves and alkanet roots. Except for light fastness, they indicated that the fastness properties of all dyed samples were generally satisfactory. However, the light fastness of the pomegranate peel-colored models was just adequate [145]. Ozone gas has also been used to clean up wastewater from textiles and eliminate colors.

2.9.3

Air Dyeing Technology

Air Dyeing Technology is a ground-breaking technique that allows water-free textile printing and dyeing [146]. This technology conveys dye using air rather than water, so no toxic material is released, and no water is lost [147]. It addresses the modernday issue of unnecessary water use and contamination by offering customers an easy, fast, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective way to color and print fabrics. Compared to traditional printing and dyeing processes, this process saves up to 95% of the water, 86% of the energy, and 84% of the greenhouse gases. Water savings on a single garment will amount to as much as 170 L [146, 148, 149]. Saving a considerable volume of water and energy, only a single machine is required for performing dyeing and printing operations, eliminating post-processes such as steaming, washing, and steering. The air dye process opens up a world of creative design options like dye-todye contrast (different dye colors on opposite sides), print-to-dye (print on one side, dye on the other), print-to-print (print on both sides), and single-sided print (Fig. 26) [150, 151].

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Fig. 25 Schematic diagram of proposed green process line (“Reproduced from Benliet al. [145], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

Single side print

Dye contrast

Print to dye

Print contrast

Print on face side.

Dye different colors Print on one side, Print on both sides. on opposite sides. dye the other.

Fig. 26 Creative design possibilities of air dyeing technology [151]

Two companies have established waterless air dyeing technology in the last few years: Japan-based Debs Textile Corporation [146] and California-based sustainable technology company ColorepInc [147]. It is necessary to know that airflow/air jet dyeing differs from air dyeing technology. In the case of the airflow system, dyeing of textile substrates is carried out in a closed stainless steel cylindrical vessel in rope form. On the other hand, air dye technology employs the sublimation technique, which involves transferring inks to fabrics using customized transfer paper and applying heat and pressure. Although the application process is similar to conventional heat transfer printing, it employs several patented innovations that set it apart from competing technologies. The customized paper is manufactured with FSC-certified high-quality pulp and non-toxic chemicals

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Fig. 27 Feature of Air Dye technology

Environmentally Safe

Color Accuracy

Design Potential

Speed & Efficiency

Air Dyeing Technology Good Colorfastness

to allow for a high degree of ink sublimation, fast release, deep penetration, and quick drying Inks have been engineered to produce brilliant colors with excellent results in the air dyeing method. In comparison to traditional heat transfer printing, air dyeing machines may transfer inks onto fabric and make them penetrate deep into the fibers by utilizing very low pressure, resulting in a smoother hand feel and even dyeing. This technology can control color penetration, allowing for backside coloration. Some features of air dye technology are shown in Fig. 27 [146, 150, 152].

2.9.4

Reverse Micelle Dyeing

Micelle formation is an essential phenomenon in the detergency action of surfactants while scouring. A micelle is a group of molecules associated with three-dimensional spherical clusters. It is typically an aggregate of surfactants in a colloidal dispersion. A typical micelle collects water, with the hydrophilic “head” parts on the outside of the shell and the hydrophobic “tail” parts in the middle.

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Fig. 28 A schematic diagram of reverse micelle structure [153]

The reverse micelle represents the opposite structure of the micelle system. These are spherical Nano-scale self-assembled aggregates, and they can be formed when certain surfactants are dissolved in organic solvents. In both the presence and absence of water, reverse micelles may develop. Reverse micelles are macro-emulsions of water in oil. The attraction of polar portions (hydrophilic heads) of surfactants towards the aqueous core and hydrocarbon tail towards the non-aqueous phase (oil phase) is responsible for developing such a type of emulsion as shown in Fig. 28 [153]. Reverse micelles can be utilized as dye carriers to aid the dyeing process of textile substrates in a non-aqueous medium. It can form a dispersion of water-soluble dyes by forming a Nano-scale water pool. A water pool is a stable aqueous microenvironment created by solubilizing a small quantity of water in the core area of a micelle (Fig. 29) [154]. The choice of appropriate surfactants is critical for the creation of reverse micelles. Thermodynamic stability of reverse micelles may be favored with fluorinated surfactants. Due to having some significant drawbacks, such as unavailability, environmental effects, and the higher cost of fluorinated surfactants, it isn’t easy to employ them in practice. As a result, it’s critical to look for other surfactants that can help micelles form and stay stable. Reverse Micelle dyeing reduces effluent generation as the used solvent can be recycled easily, minimizes water usage in this process, which ensures it is an environmentally friendly process, and forms a stable encapsulation of water-soluble dyes in organic solvent (non-aqueous) media. Wang et al. studied the reverse micellar dyeing technique of woven wool fabric with reactive dyes. It is used as a polyethylene glycol (PEG) based nonionic surfactant, n-octanol as a co-surfactant and alkane (octane and nonane) as an organic nonaqueous solvent medium. They performed dyeing of the above fabric by following some standard procedure by preparing a reverse micellar solution without using salt. The sample was also dyed in a conventional water-based dyeing procedure using sodium sulphate (salt). They revealed satisfactory dye absorption properties and color fastness properties to laundry in the case of the solvent based reverse micellar technique without using salt, comparable to the conventional water-based technique [155].

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Fig. 29 Principle of dyeing of textile substrate using reverse micelle technique

Tang et al. investigated the impact of water hardness and pH on reactive dye dyeing of cotton fibers utilizing a reverse micellar method. They also used PEGbased surfactants and heptane as an organic solvent. They reported lower color yield and higher reflectance in an alkaline environment than those in an acidic or neutral environment. Alkaline hydrolysis of dyes is the main reason behind this phenomenon. The level of dyed fabric was also influenced by water hardness and the pH of the dye bath. The CIE L*a*b* value and chromatic properties of the dyed sample were stable with the change of water pH and hardness [156]. Reverse micellar dyeing of silk fiber with different dyestuffs (direct, acid, and reactive) shows better results than wool fiber due to low swelling in this system. The PEG-based dyeing of cotton fabric in this technique with reactive dyes of different reactive groups was also explored [157]. Table 2 shows some studies carried out by several researchers about reverse micellar dyeing of different fabrics and surfactants with numerous non-quous solvents.

Dyestuff

Reactive dye

Reactive dye

Reactive dyes

Reactive dyes

Reactive dyes

Reactive dyes

Acid, direct and reactive dye

Reactive and acid dye

Reactive dyes

Fiber and fabric type

Cotton single jersey fabric

Cotton interlock knitted fabrics,

Cotton interlock-knitted fabrics

Wool knitted fabric

Cotton interlock-knitted fabrics

Cotton interlock knitted fabrics

Silk habutae and wool muslin

Wool muslin

Cotton woven fabric

Table 2 Different approach of reverse micellar dyeing

Isooctane, n-octanol

Isopropyl alcohol and n-hexane

Iso-octane

Heptane

Octane

Octane and nonane

Nonane

Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane

Heptane

Non-aqueous media

Triton X-100 (Octyl phenol ethoxylate)

PolyoxyethyleneSorbitanTrioleate

Sodium bis-2 Ethylhexylsulphosuccinate

PEG-12

PEG-12

PEG-12

PEG-12

PEG-12

Poly (ethylene glycol) tridecyl ether (PEG-12)

Surfactant

[166]

[165]

[164]

[156]

[163]

[162]

[161]

[160]

[157–159]

References

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3 Conclusion As the market for fibers and fabrics continues to increase in tandem with the world’s population, garment producers have an ethical responsibility to ensure that the environment is not harmed. The sophisticated and emerging sustainable technologies of dyeing and printing are briefly discussed in this chapter: the appealing ways and strategic approaches to address environmental issues and lower carbon footprints in the fashion industry. Industrial production activities, including textile manufacturing, around the world, have generated excessive carbon dioxide, creating environmental problems. On the other hand, supercritical carbon dioxide-based dyeing reveals another aspect of carbon dioxide that is, ironically, advantageous to the environment. Further research is needed to fully comprehend the mechanism of dye solubility in supercritical carbon dioxide and other solvent processes. Dyeing and other textile processing under a nitrogen atmosphere may be a future subject of research by scientists. Future research and investigation may be carried out on applying numerous biodegradable and nontoxic chemicals or auxiliaries as alternatives to harmful ones. Further research in this area may also be conducted to demonstrate improved results. The application of enzymes in the pretreatment operations of textile substrates has been commercialized with massive success. While enzymatic dyeing, i.e., enzymes in dyeing operations, is still being researched and investigated, only a few are commercially viable. A suitable surfactant and organic solvent are required to form reverse micelles that can be used as dye carriers in the revere micelle dyeing technique. Future researchers should analyze this technique as it uses non-aqueous media and maybe the future possible dyeing technique for textile colorists in this water-consuming world. Air dyeing is an emerging technology that creates a lot of design possibilities in the textile coloration process. Further analysis should be carried out in this area for a worldwide, feasible application. Two eco-friendly stimuli, ultrasound and a microwave, can speed up numerous chemical processes of textiles, including dyeing without using catalysts, are simple to use, can be applied to a wide range of domains, and result in considerable cost and time reductions as well as chemical savings. Technological advancements in plasmaassisted dyeing, laser-assisted dyeing, foam dyeing, and electrochemical dyeing and their potential impact on mitigating environmental challenges and rising performance motivate new scientific advances and machine manufacturing to bring about operational convenience. As a result, more widespread usage of the above techniques on an industrial scale is anticipated in the immediate future.

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Innovative Textile Printing Technology Elias Khalil, Joy Sarkar, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Md. Shamsuzzaman, and Dip Das

Abstract In order to achieve a specific color appearance on the cloth in accordance with the design, colorants are applied to a specific or general area during the process of textile printing. The styles, approaches, and operational procedures of this antiquated technology have evolved over time. The scope, processing methods, necessary tools and machinery, benefits, and other elements of the cutting-edge, ground-breaking, and emerging sustainable eco-friendly printing technologies adopted by the global textile producer are going to be covered in this chapter. This chapter is also going to address technological advancements, many facets of screen printing and transfer printing, digital inkjet textile printing (continuous, thermal, and Piezo), cool transfer printing, and 3D printing processes. Keywords Electronic-textile printing · Cool transfer printing · Screen printing · And 3D printing

1 Introduction The word “printing” originates from the Latin term for “pressing,” which relates to the act of applying pressure on a surface while printing. The printing process entails the creation of numerous copies of graphics or designs with varied levels of complexity and, frequently, a variety of colors. The application of color to textiles distinguishes the printing procedure from the dying techniques. The localized dyeing or coloring used in printing is determined by the image. It is crucial to apply color E. Khalil (B) Bangabandhu Textile Engineering College, Kalihati, Tangail, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] J. Sarkar Department of Textile Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh Md. M. Rahman · Md. Shamsuzzaman · D. Das Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_5

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precisely where it is needed. The image’s color is applied using a screen, and the effectiveness of the procedure depends on the print’s registration. Printing is utilized on a large scale in industry to quickly produce duplicates of creative textile designs. The complexity of the design and the colorants, i.e. dyes or pigments are used to color the image and also determine how long printing takes [1]. The machinery used to transport the print paste and the way by which it is applied to the material can be used to categorize printing techniques. Examples include flat screen, rotary screen, copper roller, inkjet printing, and other mechanisms. Basically, how quickly an original design is translated into fabric determines how various approaches differ from one another. Each approach has intrinsic benefits and drawbacks, therefore none of them can be completely substituted by any other way without compromising some desired aspects of the final product [2]. Depending on the print design and the final look of the printed fabric, there are numerous alternative printing techniques. While some print designs call for a print to have a colored backdrop, others are printed on a white (un-dyed) background. Before dying the fabric, the colored backdrop can be applied using either a batch or continuous dyeing procedure. Additionally, blend textiles with two different fiber types can be printed with patterns. One of the strands in the blend can be removed (burned out) during printing to produce a print that almost appears three-dimensional. Three basic types of textile printing are utilized extensively over the world: direct printing, discharge printing, and resist printing.

2 General Procedure of Textile Printing Conventional Textile Printing Procedure: as shown in Fig. 1, the printing process can be broken down into three stages: transport, fixing, and wash-off. Each step is distinct depending on the printing medium, the paint or dye application class being used, and the kind of pattern being printed. The act of imparting color to a textile substrate is referred to as “transport.” This could be dye deposited from a copper roller’s cell or dye forced through the mesh of a flat or spinning screen. The paste, which dries into a thin coating holding the dye, transfers the dye to the fabric’s surface. Despite the fact that thickeners in dye-based print pastes create a film that contains the dye without the film cross-linking as it does in pigment printing, this should not be confused with pigment printing. Fixation is the diffusion-based transfer of the dye from the film to the substrate’s interior. Energy and moisture are needed for this to happen, and the amount of time it takes for fixation to occur depends on

Transport of colorant to textile substrate

Fixation of colorant

Fig. 1 Typical steps in textile printing process

After washing

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the size of the dye molecule, the chemical and physical makeup of the substrate, and the temperature and length of the fixation process. To help the color diffuse into the substrate, steam is applied to the dry print. In order for some dye application classes, such as reactive dyes, to spread and create covalent bonds with the substrate, steam and alkali are necessary. The kind of steam used during the fixation process is crucial since it can affect how long the fixation process takes. Saturated steam, dry saturated steam, and superheated steam can all be used to steam food. After steaming, the printed cloth must be thoroughly washed to get rid of the thickener, supporting agents, and unfixed dye. The wash-off technique gives the printed textile substrate complete wet fastness performance. Similar to how continuous dyeing is done, washing off is typically done in a continuous line of bowls. The dye application class being printed and the level of shade in the print dictate the quantity of washing bowls and temperature. In the first bowl, cold water is used to remove a sizable amount of unfixed dye without letting color migrate to the fabric’s plain sections. The temperature of the bowls may be gradually raised to 60 to 80 °C. This phase, sometimes referred to as the soaping phase, begins the rinse stages’ preparation. The fabric is treated with a softener or other finishing agents in the last bowl, and then it is dried. The heating and protracted wash-off processes used in the printing of dye-based systems are not necessary when printing with pigments. The print paste, which contains the pigments, binder, and auxiliary chemicals, is used to print fabric. The printed cloth is then dried or “cured” to aid in the creation of a film and the adhesion of the binder holding the trapped pigment to the substrate’s surface. As previously mentioned, a curing stage comes after drying to cross-link the binder to reinforce the film formation and improve the print’s fastness attributes. For pigment prints, there is no special wash-off stage; however, depending on the fabric’s intended usage, specific finishes may be applied following the curing stage [1, 3].

3 Technologies Toward Advanced Textile Printing The textile sector is estimated to be the most carbon-intensive sector in the entire globe. Different aspects of the textile industry’s operations contribute to soil, water, and air pollution, which also increases the industry’s carbon footprint. There are two types of textile processing: mechanical-based processing and chemical-based processing. There is no need for water in mechanical operations like spinning, weaving, knitting, and the production of clothing. On the other hand, chemicalbased processing methods including desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing, and other wet processes consume a large amount of water [4]. In order to manufacture 8000 kg of fabric, a medium-sized textile mill needs to utilize 1.6 million liters of water per day, of which 16% is used for dyeing and 8% is used for printing [5]. The range of products, equipment, dyes, pigments, chemicals, and auxiliary materials used in the textile business makes it very challenging to determine the specific amount of water used. In contrast, 8 to 16 L of water is needed to print 1 kg of cotton

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or polyester [6]. Comparatively speaking, printing uses less water than dyeing does. Wastewater is released into the environment, and the complexity of waste management inspires cutting-edge, environmentally friendly technology that uses the least amount of water and energy possible while processing waste. The following section discusses several key methods for developing printing technologies.

3.1 Screen Technology for Screen Printing Microfiber cloth blades are used to drive the print paste through the screen’s minuscule holes and onto the textile substrate to produce a printing pattern in screen printing, which is thought of as an improved version of stencil printing. It is the method employed most frequently in the textile printing sector. According to a global study, more than 90% of the prints on textiles are produced using screen printing techniques like table, flat-bed, and rotary printing. About 6% of the market is contributed by transfer printing, and a little over 1% is contributed by digital inkjet printing. Rotary screen printing is the method of screen printing that is most frequently employed [7]. The mechanism of table screen printing techniques uses a stretched mesh across flat, rectangular screens, and the method involves printing one color at a time on each screen. Techniques including hand screen printing, carriage screen printing, and turn-table printing are all included in table screen printing technology. A semi-automated system can complete the last two of them. To increase the output of table printing, automatic flat-bed screen printing was created in the 1950s. A printing table (flat-bed) and an unending conveyor belt are used in this procedure to sporadically bring the cloth onto the table underneath the screens. A motor drives a number of screens as well as a unique mechanism for lowering the screens on the necessary areas of the cloth. A special conveyor under the table to collect extra paste, an arrangement for gumming the fabric to the conveyor belt and a drier are included. The printing device uses an adhesive to secure the substrate to be printed to a continuous washable rubber blanket. To prevent the screen from moving when printing, the screens are positioned on the cloth against registration stops. For each color that needs to be printed, a separate screen is employed. A rubber squeegee moving across the print frame pushes the print paste through the open holes in the design region of the screen while applying the print paste onto the inside edge of the print frame. The fabric is then moved forward one repeat unit of the design by moving the blanket after the screens have been pulled off. Over and over again, the procedure is carried out down the length of the content to be printed. As the process moves along, print paste needs to be placed often on the screens to prevent any design loss. Before any additional fixing procedures, the fabric is removed from the blanket when it reaches the end of the printing machine and dried. To remove any print paste that has seeped through the substrate and prevent stains from following substrates, the blanket is moved to the machine’s underbelly where it is washed. The blanket is resumed after washing so that it will cling to the next area of the substrate that

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Fig. 2 Schematic of a flat screen printing machine. Rollers 1 and 2 maintain the motion of the blanket. Roller 3 is a pressure roller. Roller 4 applies adhesive to the blanket. Roller 5 is the blanket washer [8]

is ready for printing. Figure 2 depicts the schematic of an automatic flat-bed screen printing device. Although the Portuguese invented the first rotary screen, Stork of Holland introduced the first rotary printing machine in 1963. The hollow, perforated, thin nickel shell without a repeat joint is the heart and soul of this device. The squeegee, which is either a flexible blade type or a rod type and is operated by an electro-magnet, is located inside the circular screen. For printing a maximum width of 160, 180, 240, or 320 cm, the machine is often configured for 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 colors. Any sort of cloth with any construction can be printed with it, even knit fabrics. The machine’s main characteristics are as follows: each screen is driven independently; printing paste is fed to each screen separately using specialized pumps; the print paste level inside the rotary screen is automatically and continuously controlled; the transfer of the printing paste through the screen’s perforations onto the cloth is controlled by specially designed squeegee blades; and the pressure of the squeegee on the inside of each screen as well as the individual pressure and positioning of the different rotary screens can be controlled at will. Another option is to automatically fit the screen whenever the machine stops, eliminating the need for stop markings. It is sufficient to lower the screens and begin printing when the machine is restarted. All screens fit in flawlessly, regardless of how the fabric or blankets move, ensuring that the pattern is always completely fitted. The machine’s speed can be changed from 10 to 100 m per minute. The feeding system for the print paste, the end rings of the rotating screens, the gumming device, the cleaning device, the individual drive of the screens, the rubber blankets, and other details of the rotary printing machine all differ significantly. Despite all of this, the nickel-based hollow perforated infinite metal screen continues to be the defining characteristic of all machines. On a conveyor blanket that is typically much shorter than the one used for flat-bed printing, the printing is typically done. The most widely used machine is the flat-bed cum rotary printing machine, which is the most expensive variant and combines the benefits of both flatbed and rotary screen printing machines. Overall, up to 24 different colors can be printed, and without any flaws, speeds of up to 100 m per minute are achievable. One can produce between 15,000 and 20,000 m of flawless cloth in an 8-h session. A feed arrangement, a selvedge alignment unit, and a continuous gluing unit are all included

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Fig. 3 Cross-sectional diagram of a rotary screen (“Reproduced from Choudhury [10], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

in the printing device. The level of the print paste is controlled by automatic level controls and pushed into the screen as needed. Each rotating screen may be disassembled, cleaned, and its pattern changed in roughly three minutes per screen. Below the printing table is a high-efficiency washing and drying equipment. Only when the printing blanket is moving does the washing unit, which consists of circular brushes with constant water flow, operate. The drying equipment employs hot air with a thermostatically controlled temperature [2]. Figure 3 depicts a schematic of a rotating screen with a squeegee blade. An inventive development in the field of rotary screen printing is the screen alignment method that uses a laser. This reduces the design’s time-consuming registration issue [9].

3.2 Screen Printing Technology Textile transfer printing involves two distinct processes. A precise design pattern or motif is first printed on a flexible, thin, flat material, like a special kind of paper, film, or fabric, and is then transferred to a textile substrate using a mix of heat, pressure, and dwell time. It’s fascinating how this printing technique came to be discovered. The concept of hot pressing polyester printed cloth onto a white polyester fabric was first presented in 1960 by a French engineer by the name of De Plessey. The printed pattern has transferred to the white piece of fabric from the printed fabric. The SDC, U.K., awarded the technology the Perkin Medal for discovery and has patented it as transfer printing. In 1965, The Sublistatic Corporation commercialized the method. Transfer printing is also known as color static printing, vapor-phase printing, and dry-heat printing [2]. There are numerous approaches to transferring a design to a textile substrate, but they all rely on the same fundamental concepts. Printing can be done simultaneously on both sides of the substrate with some transfer printing techniques. There isn’t a lot of ink through printing, and some of it can only print on one side of the substrate or in various patterns. Heat, dwell time, pressure, the type of dye used, and the substrate all have an impact on the fixation process. This is due to the fact that different dye classes have different activation temperature requirements. Non-sublimation dyes as well as substrates made of various fiber types other than polyester can be printed using a variety of transfer printing processes. Sublimation,

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film release, wet transfer, and melt transfer are the four types of transfer printing. The most popular and crucial in terms of commerce among transfer-printing techniques is sublimation transfer printing. The sublimation capabilities of dispersed dyes are used. Fabrics made of synthetic, natural, and mixtures of natural and synthetic fibers can all be treated with it. This technique requires some fiber modification with a reactive monomer in order to be applied to natural fiber. For instance, benzoylation of the amino group in wool fiber and esterification of the hydroxyl group in cotton fiber increase the affinity of the fibers to disperse pigment and enable sublimation transfer printing on them, respectively [11, 12]. Inkjet printing or other traditional printing methods including lithography, flexography, and screen printing technologies are used to print the desired pattern on paper with volatile dispersed dyes (solid state) for sublimation transfer printing. The printed paper is then preserved until it is needed [13–15]. While heating the paper in contact with the textile substrate at a particular temperature and pressure, the textile substrate absorbed the dye in the vapor phase. As a result, the distributed dye sublimes and migrates to the fiber structure in the vapor state. Vapor-dispersed dye returns to a solid state on the fabric after cooling. As a result, the print paper’s desired printed design is transferred to the textile substrate. Figure 4 [16] depicts a condensed graphic that explains how transfer printing works. An innovative method for developing athletic products is the use of fluorescent inks in sublimation transfer printing [17, 18]. A solid containing dye is liquefied for use in printing during melt transfer printing. In this technique, the ink or dye is carried by a material made of wax, resin, or oil. A hot iron is used to press the paper onto the fabric after the appropriate design has been printed on it using one of the aforementioned carriers. When in touch with the fabric, the ink melts onto it. A variety of natural fiber and synthetic materials can be printed using the melttransfer printing process with the right dyes and chemical aids [19]. The film-release process uses heat and pressure to completely transfer the design from a release paper to the textile while holding the design in an ink layer. As the established adhesive

Fig. 4 Calendar type continuous transfer printing [16]

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forces between the film and the textile are stronger than those between the film and the paper, the paper may then be peeled away to reveal a surface design layered on the fabric. Using the proper contact pressure, a design made with water-soluble colorants is transferred from paper to a moistened textile substrate in wet transfer printing. Diffusion occurs as the dye moves across the aqueous medium. The strategy is currently not extensively used. A comprehensive list of transfer printing techniques, substrates, and circumstances may be found in Table 1. Transfer printing enables electronic printing on substrates. A film made of electronic materials is stamped onto the substrate surface. In wearable and enjoyable consumer products, electronics built on flexible fabric substrates offer a wide range of computing, imaging, sensor, energy storage, display, and communication functions. These devices malfunction when printed onto a flexible substrate because they cannot endure stress, friction, bending, and abrasion. Reducing the size of the electronic material will increase adherence to the flexible substrate. Nano-scale electronic materials may be used to address the problem of substrates with weak substantively [12]. In order to create an electronic textile, Maheshwari et al. researched the heat Table 1 Transfer printing methods, substrates, and conditions Transfer method

Temperature

Type of substrate

Coloration

Wet transfer

Ambient temperature

Printing articles like metal, plastic, glass, hard wood, and various other materials mostly in 3D surfaces. Natural fiber fabrics (cotton)

Reactive dyes, solvent-based ink on a water-soluble film or transcription film such as polyvinyl acetate

Sublimation transfer About 180 to about 210 °C or 170 to 180 °C for 10 min and 120 to 130 °C for 20 min (wet heat fixation). Heat treatment (thermosol process) 190 to 210 °C for 60 to 120 s

Synthetic fabric, natural fiber fabric, blends of natural and synthetic fibers

Disperse dye; an aqueous dispersion of fluoropolymer particles and a non-fluoropolymer binder for pretreatment

Film release

Ambient temperatures up to 200 °C or more, depending on film composition

Natural fiber fabrics

Thermoplastic material; disperse dye, acid dyes with acid assistants, reactive dyes with alkali

Melt transfer

100–120 °C

Wool, natural fiber, and Wool dyes and other synthetic fabrics substances needed for printing on transfer paper and a meltable transfer medium (wax, resin, or oil-based substance as a carrier for ink or dye)

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Fig. 5 Schematic procedure for cilia-assisted transfer printing [21]

transfer printing method using silver nanowire. As a conductive ink, silver nanowire is employed. Printing is done on fabrics made of pure cotton, blended fabrics of polyester and cotton, and viscose and linen using transfer paper composed of ethylene vinyl acetate. The electrical resistance of the fabric decreases with increasing nanowire concentration, suggesting that the electrical characteristics of the fabric can be easily adjusted by varying the density of the nanowire solution. Additionally, it guarantees improved fabric heating qualities, greater mechanical flexibility, EMI shielding effectiveness, and color consistency [20]. Yoon et al. used the idea of transfer printing technology to create a durable and stretchy electronic textile based on indium gallium zinc oxide. In this study, artificial cilia have been applied on a stretchy ultrathin electrical device and transferred to a woven textile substrate (Fig. 5). The cilia perform a crucial role in ensuring that electrical performance is stable even when mechanical deformation takes place by holding a modest amount of glue and reducing mechanical stress [21].

3.3 Automated Textile Printing A recent printing technique called digital textile printing involves making prints from computer-generated drawings on textile substrates [22]. In 1950, printing on paper was its initial application; later, textile printing was added. The technique is replacing

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more labor-intensive and challenging printing techniques including roller, screen, and transfer printing since it is more affordable. Numerous inkjet-based printing techniques fall within the category of digital textile printing [23]. Since the print head does not touch with the substrate surface when inkjet printing, it is a non-contact printing technique. Instead of being pastes, the dyes that will be printed are inks, and they have a lower viscosity than pastes used in conventional printing systems [1]. The application of small jets (as ink droplets) of colored ink on a substrate is necessary for inkjet printing. When a digital image requires it, a computer powers the inkjet. The accuracy of the image being reproduced depends on the printing resolution, which is expressed in “dots per inch”. The four colors used in inkjet printing are cyan, yellow, magenta, and black, or CYMK. The color spectrum is fairly limited because there are only four primary colors, but if the print heads can dispense six, eight, or even twelve colors during printing, “spot” colors may be added by the printer. Orange or green are these “spot” hues. More colors can be chosen if the customer specifies a particular hue. Spot colors can be employed to give the print different appearances, including a glittery or iridescent appearance [1]. Digital inkjet textile printing often makes use of color management systems (CMS, calibration), raster image processors (RIP), printer driver software, and design-producing software (CAD) [23]. Technology for digital inkjet printing can be used to print directly on fabric and clothing. Direct to Fabric (DTF) printing involves doing the printing right on the fabric roll. Various inks are employed depending on the type of fabric, such as pigment ink (for cotton), acid dyes (for nylon and silks), reactive dyes (for cotton and viscose), and dispersed dyes (polyester). Direct to Garment (DTG) printing is the process of using specialized or modern inkjet technology to print directly on garments. T-shirts, shirts, jeans, and other items are all suitable for DTG printing. Because of the unique characteristics of the ink mixture, all fabric must be properly prepared before inkjet digital printing in accordance with the types of fiber and ink mixture to be applied. For fixing and to achieve the best results, after-treatment procedures including steaming, washing, and drying must be carried out [24]. The benefits of digital textile printing over traditional technology are outlined below. Flexible mass personalization printing as needed, computerized color management and picture design. It enables the consumer to alter colors or designs without having to create a screen and makes it simple for them to do so before printing and the freedom to express one’s creativity. Due to the availability of digital sampling, sampling expenses are reduced. The quicker operation is more innovative and competitive. Alternatives greater variety of colors and more effective printing. Usage of cutting-edge color calibration and matching technology. It is not restricted to repeated designs and may print panoramas. It is relatively cheap and does not require a lot of infrastructure. Additionally, it uses fewer dyes, solutions, and water, making it a greener option. It decreases manufacturing waste and printing errors, enabling centralized production to decrease downtime. The textile business offers a variety of digital inkjet printing technologies. Here are some crucial procedures discussed.

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Fig. 6 Continuous inkjet printing system

3.3.1

Technology for Continuous Inkjet

This inkjet technique fires a constant stream of ink from the print head nozzle. The ink is then recirculated back to the ink reservoir using an electrical charge, after which each droplet is sent to the surface or a collection gutter. Extremely volatile solvents may be utilized in the ink mixture due to the dye’s continuous flow. Extremely volatile solvents may be utilized in the ink mixture due to the dye’s continuous flow. The drawback of this approach is that exceptionally precise charging of droplets is required in order for the system to work effectively [1, 25]. Figure 6 depicts a schematic outlining this method’s theory of action.

3.3.2

Thermal Inkjet Printing

Since the ink is discharged from the printing plate nozzle in accordance with the specifications of the digital image, this process is known as a “drop on demand” (DOD) system. The little heated element that forces the ink out of the printer is the cause of this. A bubble can occur inside the print head cavity as a result of a little amount of ink swiftly vaporizing while the element heats up. Due to the bubble’s pressure and expansion, ink is driven out of the nozzle [1]. A Piezo print head schematic is shown in Fig. 7b [26].

3.3.3

Piezoelectric Inkjet Printing

Although this method is a “drop-on-demand” system, it does not operate in the same way as a thermal inkjet printing head. When the electrostatic charge is applied at high voltages, the piezoelectric material deforms via contraction and expansion. The pressure on the ink is released as a drop via the nozzle onto the substrate as a result of this deformation, and the subsequent drop of ink is sucked back into the chamber

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Fig. 7 Diagram of a Piezo inkjet printing head and thermal inkjet printing head [26]

in preparation for the following electrical charge. Although piezoelectric print heads are more expensive than thermal print heads, they are frequently employed for textile printing because they allow for the use of a greater variety of inks [27]. A Piezo print head schematic is depicted in Fig. 7a [26].

3.4 Cooling Transfer Printing Technology Through a separate process, the traditional textile transfer printing method transfers the desired printed design from one flexible non-textile substrate, typically paper, to synthetic textile fabric [15]. A relatively new method called cool transfer printing employs no heat to transfer a print pattern from paper to fabric [28]. Cool transfer is a term used to describe a transfer process that is similar to heat transfer but occurs at a lower ambient temperature [29]. This method is more environmentally friendly because it uses less water, colorant, and energy than other printing techniques and does not utilize heat to transfer the design pattern to the fabric. Shanghai, the Chinabased New-Tech Textile Technology Company has a patent on cool transfer printing technology under the name Cooltrans. The National Textile and Apparel Council of China awarded this technology first place in the area of advanced textile technology in 2011. With the aid of this technology, vivid, photo-realistic graphics of high quality may be printed on textiles while keeping cotton’s cozy and drape-friendly touch. The printing process moves along at a rate of up to 40 yards per minute, which is comparable to rotary screen printing. The principal uses of this technology are in technical textiles such as tents, camouflage, backpacks, home textiles (furniture cloth or tablecloth), curtains, canvas, and leisure wear (T-shirts, pants, skirts, silk skirts, jeans, practical sportswear, outdoor garments, and jackets). This process is more expensive than rotary printing but less expensive than digital printing on a peryard basis. This technology’s entire process flow differs significantly from that of rotary screen printing and digital printing. With this method, pretreatment, drying,

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and steaming procedures can be skipped. Figure 8 [28] depicts a typical cool transfer printing method operational flow. Some advantages of cool transfer printing over other conventional printing include [30] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Environment-friendly, clean, and sustainable process. Zero water discharge. Capable of using water-based inks rather than alcohol-based inks. High-quality production. Compared to conventional printing technology, it can save up to 65% of energy, 40% of dye, 2/3 of water consumption, 92% of water can be recycled and reused, 95% of dye transfer rate, and 95% of dye fixation rates. 6. Maximizes the utilization of dye and minimizes the treatment cost of wastewater. 7. Applicable to knitted and woven fabrics of a wide variety of fibers. 8. High color and tensile strength. Despite having numerous benefits, this process has some limitations. No raised surface special effects, e.g. glitter, mother of pearl, metallic flakes, or puff is possible in this technique.

Fabric Preparation Scour or bleach fabric to remove waxes and contaminants and ensure uniform whiteness and absorbency.

Cold Batch Fixation Printed fabric batched under ambient conditions to fix the print to the fabric.

Finishing Soften fabrics with typical softeners used in cotton applications.

Printing Transfer print pattern from paper to fabric under ambient conditions

Washing Wash off process neutralizes the fabric after fixation, removes any residual pretreatment chemistry, and removes hydrolyzed dyes.

Drying Printed fabric is dried and rolled for cut and sew

Fig. 8 Process sequence of cool transfer printing technology

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3.5 Biological Printing Biocatalysts and globular proteins with large molecular weight are enzymes. They include lengthy linear amino acid chains. An “active site” is a particular 3D structure made up of one or more polypeptide chains that can be organized and folded to bind to the substrate. Although the most frequent response of enzymes employed in textiles is hydrolysis, other reactions that enzymes can produce include oxidation, reduction, coagulation, and disintegration. Enzyme catalysts have the potential to provide far higher reaction rates while using significantly less energy than conventional catalysts. Enzyme catalysts differ from chemical catalysts in that they typically only operate in a narrow pH range, only react with a limited range of substrates, and are temperatureand energy-sensitive. The majority of enzymes come from natural sources. These natural sources could be based on microbial, vegetable, or animal sources. Recombinant gene technologies and fermentation are used to produce enzymes [31, 32]. Numerous wet textile processes, including desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, finishing, bio-polishing, etc. require enzymes. The primary drivers behind this include biodegradability, environmental friendliness, substrate specificity, ease of handling, non-toxicity, and a lower activation energy need. It is a novel idea to use enzymes in textile printing. Fewer researchers in the field of textile processing have looked into enzymatic printing of textiles than enzyme-assisted dyeing [33–40]. In order to create functional materials, Bal et al. studied the digital inkjet printing of glucose oxides (GOx) and horseradish peroxide (HRP) enzymes into mercerized woven cotton fabric. They started by combining HRP and GOx with phosphate as a buffer solution to create a bio-ink solution. A piezoelectric inkjet printing device was used to print on fabric using freshly prepared bio-ink solutions. They also looked at the possibility of combining fluorescent compounds with HRP enzymes to produce a fluorescence effect. The outcomes suggested that enzymes might be printed into a stretchy textile fabric without having an impact on how they function. The results show that the enzymes can also be kept at room temperature without losing any of their efficacies. Another advantage is the great resolution and precision of the printed pattern on the flexible textile fabric, indicating that these textile-based assays may be utilized to detect dangerous compounds in the workplace or for security checks [41]. In the context of cotton and wool fabric printing, Kokol et al. investigated the potential use of several enzymes (celluloses, proteases, and lactases) in natural and artificial thickening systems (polysaccharide, acrylic polymer, and their combinations). They calculated the rheological parameters of the printing paste by evaluating the enzymes’ stability and activity. The rheological tests have shown that mixing the thickening system and enzyme product improperly can cause the thickening system’s structure to disintegrate, resulting in pseudo-plasticity and decreased paste elasticity [42]. Ibrahim et al. looked at two distinct methods of treating the polyester fabric with lipase enzyme before printing the treated cloth using digital inkjet printing technology. Enzymatic therapy was used first, followed by an inkjet pretreatment bath, and then it was combined with that treatment in the second method. For both systems,

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a variety of printed fabric’s physical and chemical characteristics were examined. They came to the conclusion that this novel methodology was a time and energysaving approach with improved color strength qualities and just a minor impact on tensile strength in both situations [43]. Additionally, printing paste thickening and surplus color can be removed from printed fabric by enzyme washing. Salem et al. looked into the effects of enzymatic washing on the removal of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) thickener from cotton fabrics printed with reactive colors. Enzymatic washing enhances printed cotton textiles’ quality. Additionally, it lessens the environmental harm caused by wastewater and thickening contamination. Enzymes break down thickeners, requiring less time, energy, and water to produce printed fabrics that appear excellent [44]. Enzymes are also employed in textile discharge printing. Discharge printing creates the pattern by obliterating the ground dye in the print-ready areas. The most often used discharge agents are thiourea dioxide and formaldehyde sulfoxylates. These substances are dangerous because they break down and release formaldehyde. In textile discharge printing, a pH of 8.5 and a temperature of 70 °C for 60 min produced the greatest results. Another study used a commercial enzyme blend that contained lactase, cellulose, and brewer’s yeast solution to successfully print discharge ink. In additional laboratory studies, the lactase enzyme was used to discharge print cotton, silk, and wool that had been colored naturally. The printing paste was combined with laccase before being applied to the naturally colored samples. Halftone samples were taken at the best possible enzyme circumstances (pH 4.5, 70 °C treatment temperature for 1 h) [45–49].

3.6 Technology for 3D Printing By layering new structures on top of one another, 3D printing (3DP), a contemporary technique of additive manufacturing, enables the construction of whole new structures in three dimensions without producing any waste. It combines computeraided design with computer-assisted production to create 3DP, a new and creative technology. One of the most significant advancements for foreseeable manufacturing processes is 3D printing [50]. Several industries, including the manufacture of sports equipment, medical and electronic parts, rubber and plastic products, automobile parts, and cost-effective architectural design development, are using 3D printing for prototype and industrial production. Additionally, the garment industry has incorporated these advances into their products to change them. In several fashion events, well-known fashion designers present their 3D-printed apparel innovations [51]. The two primary phases of 3D printing are preprocessing and post-processing. Figure 9 depicts a typical 3DP process flow. To build a prototype of a 3D object, a design for the final product is first created using computer software (CAD), divided into multiple layers with the correct coordinates, and then printed using the layers’ specified coordinates. The final step of various surface finishing techniques includes cutting the extra print edges [52].

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Fig. 9 Typical process sequence of 3D printing [50]

3D printing follows several technological principles which are most appropriate for the textile industry. These are stereo lithography (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), PolyJet, and binder jetting. In the SLA method, UV laser and photopolymer resins are used. Photopolymer resins are liquid plastics. The curing and hardening (solidification) of individual layers of objects to be formed are performed with the irradiation of an ultraviolet laser. A tank loaded with photopolymer resin, a moving building platform, an ultraviolet laser source, and a platform and laser controlling computer are four key components of typical SLA equipment. The Dutch fashion designer, Iris van Herpen, developed a long and nearly transparent dress made of handcrafted components using a 3D printer and its associated software with the SLA technique [50]. The SLS method employs polymer powder and a laser beam. In the SLS method, the interaction between the powder content and the laser beam is critical. The material is first dispensed in a thin film onto the building platform, and then a computer-controlled laser beam is used to map the layer and heat the powder to just below the boiling point in order to fuse the particles into a stable solid object [53]. FDM technology is the most commonly used technique due to its cost-effectiveness. FDM involves the melting of a wire-shaped thermoplastic filament through an ejector nozzle. The molten filament is then deposited on an adjustable printing bed in a layer-by-layer manner. The 3D component is developed in this manner, step by step, according to the created design on the computer (Fig. 10) [54]. The PolyJet technology allows for the deposition of many materials in a single layer. It uses the drop-on-demand (DOD) inkjet printing methodology to function. Binder jetting is a technique for adhering many layers of powder together to create 3D objects. Depending on the creation of finished things, including textiles, 3D printers can come in a variety of shapes. While some printers can produce the entire article of clothing in a single setup, others cannot. In such a case, the many printed parts are sewn together to create the finished article of clothing [55]. To create a

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Fig. 10 Schematic illustration of fused deposition modeling system [54]

brand-new design pattern or carry out a particular function, 3D printers frequently print polymeric materials onto textile fabric. Additionally, by using acceptable and appropriate polymeric materials as inks, this method can be used to print threads or structures that resemble yarn, especially in electronic-textile applications. Geo et al. created 3D-printed fabrics with heat regulation capabilities so that they may be used as personal cooling clothing. They employed boron nitride nanosheets (BNNSs) suspended in a poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) solution as ink. They developed 3D-printed fiber using the wet spinning method. The essential post-processing steps (drying and hot drawing) were carried out to ensure that BNNSs were properly aligned within the fibrous structure after the fibrous structure was extruded into a coagulating bath containing methanol. Due to the transfer of excess heat energy from the human body to the surrounding natural environment, the resulting PVA/BN composite textile displayed high mechanical and thermal conductivity. This was made possible by the fibrous structure’s well-aligned BNNSs’ capacity for heat transfer. The development of wearable thermal-regulated smart textiles for enhancing personal comfort qualities via textile materials is now a novel potential as shown in Fig. 11 [56]. This technique has many benefits, including the ability to mass customize products, shorter lead times, lower labor costs, and the utilization of exact amounts of ingredients to create each product. The main drawbacks of this technology include a lack of suitable materials, rigidity of the final product, high investment and maintenance costs, a lack of recycling potential for synthetic end products, instability of the photopolymer, expensive raw materials, and a lack of properties to satisfy a textile structure.

4 The Conclusion Even though screen printing is the oldest sort of printing, it is the most popular method today because of how simple it is to use, how quickly it can be produced, and how affordable it is. For improved results, further study and investigation may focus on improving screen printing procedures. Future scientists should conduct further research on the creation of electronic fabrics using transfer printing processes. Worldfamous buyers’ garments already employ the breakthrough cool transfer printing technology. The uses of textile printing are expanding, thanks to modern digital

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Fig. 11 How 3D printing is being used to create thermally controlled smart fabrics. a An illustration of how a-BN/PVA composite fiber is made. b The inclusion of PVA in the dispersion to enhance homogeneity; after one week of storage, two solutions are shown, one with PVA (BN/PVA/DMSO) and the other without (BN/DMSO). c Manufacturing 3D-printed fiber using wet spinning in tandem with 3DP. d To create fabric, fiber is coiled onto a bobbin. e, f development of plain knitted fabric. g production of plain woven fabric. h Schematic for a cloth that regulates temperature. Due to its ability to transport het, aligned BN in a BN/PVA fabric exhibits improved heat conductivity [56]

inkjet printing technologies’ improved chemistry, and digital printing is now reaping the benefits of other recent digital advances. A novel idea is the use of bio-ink in textile printing. As they are non-toxic, biodegradable, accessible, and easy to handle, further research into enzyme-assisted printing processes will be beneficial. In the near future, 3D printing technology might be crucial in meeting the global fashion community’s need for bespoke clothing and accessories.

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Advanced Technology in Fabric Finishing Md. Lutfor Rahman and Tanzeena Refat Tumpa

Abstract In recent years, fabric engineers have become very interested in how different chemical or mechanical treatments affect the end users. Another concern for both physical and chemical therapy is finishing sustainable cloth. Finishing a fabric adds value or enhances its functionality and effectiveness. Woven, knitted, and nonwoven fabrics use different methods and chemicals to achieve the goal and get the desired result. Finishing can be done mechanically, such as calendaring, sanforising, decorating, pleating, raising, shearing, napping, and spending, or chemically, for example, anti-microbial, anti-static, water repellent, flame retardant, parchmentizing, and soil-repellent. It is common practice to enhance one’s aesthetic quality, performance capacity, and “hand.” The demand from consumers for finishing techniques based on biomaterials is growing every day. This chapter’s conclusion lists three types of fabrics and focuses on contemporary technologies, for example, woven, knit, and non-woven. Keywords Chemical treatment · Knit · Mechanical finishing · Non-woven · Woven

1 Introduction The term “textile finishing” refers to all the processes that are typically performed on fabrics to enhance their look, feel, and characteristics, sometimes according to their intended use. The finishing technique for textiles might be permanent, semipermanent, or durable. In addition to market demand or commercial interest, the effectiveness, adaptability, and flexibility of the finishing machinery also influence the necessary finishing procedure. The field of textile finishing is incredibly broad and Md. Lutfor Rahman (B) Department of Textiles, Ministry of Textiles & Jute, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] T. R. Tumpa Department of Textile Engineering, National Institute of Textile Engineering & Research (NITER), Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_6

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encompasses both mechanical and chemical finishing using a variety of substances. The intended characteristics, including as fabric dimensions, stability, weight, drape, look, surface smoothness, softness, handle, etc., are present in the finished product. Finishing can sometimes be used to enhance practical qualities including anticreasing, anti-pilling, water-proofness, oil-repellency, and dirt-repellency. All textile products that have been finished are intended to add value and satisfy aesthetic standards, regardless of the finishing procedure. The trend and the need for certain finishes are both always determined by consumer preference. New finishing technologies are frequently introduced into the market as a result of rising consumer expectations. Biomaterial-based coatings have also been introduced recently to save the environment and promote sustainability. A brief overview of several advanced finishing procedures is given in this chapter.

2 Foam Finishing A gas that is spread in a liquid phase of another substance is known as foam, and it can be in an equilibrium or non-equilibrium state. A concentration of cells divided by slender liquid lamellae is another characteristic of foam. It is created when gas that has been scattered throughout the liquid gathers to form bubbles. Figure 1 depicts the foam’s structure. Foam finishing is an excellent alternative to traditional methods because it might be better for the environment and save money in the supply chain. Foam is a crucial part of this process because it moves the chemicals onto the fabric using air instead of water. Foam systems are used on knits, woven, and denim, among other cotton fabrics, to add finishes to fabrics. About half of the total costs go to wet processing. Wet processing operations consume about two-thirds of the water in the production process. Foam is used to reduce wet pick-up and the quantity of water that evaporates [1]. The drying step Fig. 1 Structure of foam

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can be eliminated with the use of foam. Foam finishing technology is said to be ‘waterless’ technology. In this technology, the cost of heat generation by heating water is lower compared to other finishing processes. Convenient volumetric control reduces the chance of the distribution problem of finishing agents. A foaming agent and a stabilizer are the raw materials used for foam finishing. A surfactant or blowing agent, like sodium lauryl sulfate and other linear alkaline derivatives (C12 H25 OSO3 Na), is an example of a foaming agent. It helps make foam and keeps it together by making the foam bubbles stronger. Depending on the ionic makeup of the foaming agent, a stabilizer is used (cationic, anionic, nonionic, amphoteric). It aids in lengthening the half-life of foam decomposition. Joint stabilizers include hydroxy-ethyl cellulose (HEC), methylcellulose, and ammonium stearate. Foams have higher potential surface energy than the liquids and gases they are made from, which makes them thermodynamically unstable. Another essential element that affects stability is viscosity. The blow ratio can calculate the viscosity or dilution of foam. The blow ratio expresses the volumetric ratio of the liquid to foam. The blow ratio needed to generate stable foam that ranges from 1:3 to 1:50. However, contemporary textile technology can handle ratios between 1:8 and 1:15. Mathematically, the blow ratio can be defined as follows: Blow ratio =

Liquid Weight Equal volume foam Weight

2.1 Continuous Foam Application This procedure avoids issues with more straightforward configurations. Typically, the substrate is covered in foam before the desired finishing agents are added. When lamellae drain and collapse simultaneously, chemicals are distributed into the substrate. One standard foam method is the horizontal padding mangle, as seen in Fig. 2. This arrangement comprises two parallel flat-paddled bowls. Due to the intense pressure, this technique exhibits better wetting power and foam decomposition. The cloth has foam placed on both sides in the bowl’s nip. This method is suitable only for the woven fabrics of open construction and not for non-woven. Fabric is passed through a certain level of foam, where foam rigidity can impede proper leveling. This process provides higher pick-up percentages that are close to perfection.

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Fig. 2 Horizontal padder for foam application

2.2 Foam Finishing Technology Union Carbide and Gaston County created this procedure. With the help of foam finishing technology, porous substrates can be treated with chemicals at very low wet pick-ups. A certain number of active substances are given to the mixing head, which then gives them to the fabric. The foam is sprayed in a pressure zone through a slot of about 4 in. in length and oriented in the fabric’s travel direction. In the standard method for coating fabric with an optical brightening agent, the pressure is kept just a little bit higher than the pressure of the air. Figure 3 shows that even though the foam is complex, the middle distribution plant keeps the foam’s distribution fair. Two machines are used to run simultaneous applications on both sides. The penetration of the foam depends on the air pressure of the system; this process automatically adjusts itself if there is any variation in the porosity of the fabric. The Fig. 3 Foam application by pressure nozzle

A=Foam application A

P=Distribution plant P

B Foam

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foam is driven upward through the slot nozzle. The foam causes a rapid collapse as soon as it touches the fabric.

2.3 Sancowad Foam Finishing Machine The batch-wise and continuous finishing techniques have been added to the Sancowad foam-finishing principle. Its energy and water conservation strategies are suitable for completing pile fabrics and carpets. The items are loaded onto a spinning drum (D), as shown in Fig. 4, which is turned by a motor (M). The mixing tank is where the finishing liquor is created (T). The drum starts to beat. With the help of a sprayer (S), the finishing liquor is pumped via valve (V) and pump (P) and sprayed onto the spinning load to take up approximately 100% of the weight of dry items. The finishing liquor contains: • • • •

The percent of finishing agents is x. 20–40 g/l of foaming agent. Other assistance is required for the specific finishing agents. The amount of water needed to achieve the ratio of M:L varied from 1:1.5 to 1:10.

The liquor was spread around the drum. The rotation is kept going for another 15 min to make ice. The foam with the finishing agent is spread out evenly during this time. After 15 min, the temperature is increased to 100 °C, or the temperature needed for the specific finishing agent using steam, hot air, or a combination of the two, and the machine is left to operate at that temperature for 30–45 min. The cycle is set to do things in any order you want, like dyeing, rinsing, finishing, spinning, and drying. With the Sancowad method, much less water is used, which cuts the amount of water and energy needed to heat by a significant amount [2]. Fig. 4 Sancowadfinishing machine

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3 Spray Finishing Technology Spray finishing technology is one of the latest additions to advanced finishing technology. This technology offers precision spraying with maximum water and energy consumption but zero fabric contact. This technology is suitable for producing waterrepellant, anti-microbial, crease-resistant, and soil-resistant fabrics. With this technology, the cost of drying is reduced. In recent years, spraying softener has been more popular than applying with a stenter machine. The Tex Coat G4 [3] is one of the newest and most popular spray coating devices. It makes it possible to apply water and chemicals, such as finishing chemicals, to fabrics in the most efficient and environmentally friendly way. This tool works by spraying water or chemicals evenly on one or both sides of a moving web roll of fabric or other material. It does this by using a precision spray application system with spray nozzles that are evenly spaced across the width of the web. This hydraulic non-contact spray method is regarded as a true sustainable spray method. Both wet-on-wet and wet-on-dry applications are possible with systems. This equipment can concurrently coat one or two cloth sides. It consists of a single pressurized nozzle for chemical delivery and numerous pressure nozzles spaced evenly throughout the machine for precision application technology. The nozzles provide strong spray pressure for measured flow and thorough impregnation. The application of chemicals or water can be controlled using the individual nozzle control system. It is simple and reproducible to separate the valve rail. A spray valve reduces downtime, and the maintenance work is done offline and during operation. This machine has a control panel with a barcode reader that works and only needs one person to run it. The pre-set device ensures good uptime. The fabric’s fibers don’t contaminate any chemicals in any way. This method has reduced water and energy consumption by 50–70%.

4 Bio-polishing A finishing technique known as “bio-polishing” reduces the tendency of cellulosic materials to pill and become fuzzy [4]. Enzyme can also be used to treat regenerated cellulosic fabrics and cotton-polyester blend fabrics. In this process, cellulose hydrolyzes protruding surface fibers to create a smoother surface, a softer hand, and improve the overall surface appearance of the fabric. For the permanent effect of a smooth and pilling-free surface with color retention, bio-polishing gives better results than chemical anti-pilling treatment. Cellulase enzymes can break down cellulose by hydrolyzing and the polymer’s b1–4 glycosidic linkages. Microorganisms break down cellulose primarily through the cellulose. At least three enzymes must work in concert to fully hydrolyze cellulose

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into glucose. Endoglucanases like to attack the amorphous parts of cell oligosaccharides and randomly break the internal bonds of the glycan chains. The cellobiohydrolases get to the reducing or nonreducing ends of cellooligosaccharides. Cellobiose is the main result after CBH hydrolyzes those chain endings in a processive way. Finally, b-glucosidase converts cellobiose to glucose, releasing nonreducing lots of soluble cellooligosaccharides [5, 6].

5 Plasma Finishing When a gaseous substance takes in enough energy, the outermost electrons will break free from the control of the nucleus and become free electrons. The atoms will then become positively charged. Plasma is the name for a substance’s current chemical state. Plasma is a highly reactive substance that can be used to change the surface of a substrate (often called plasma activation or plasma modification), deposit chemical materials (plasma polymerization or plasma grafting) to give the substrate some desired properties or remove substances (plasma cleaning or plasma etching) that were already deposited on the substrate [7]. Many different textile fabrics can be treated using plasma technology. Plasma technology mainly uses two different kinds of plasma in industrial processes: The first type, known as “thermal plasma,” is created at high pressure (>10 kPa) using radio frequency (RF), microwave, direct or alternating current (dc-ac), or both. These gadgets create plasmas with shallow gas ionization and electron and ion temperatures of 1–2 eV. Thermal plasma can produce anticorrosion, thermal barriers, anti-wear coatings, solid, liquid, and gaseous poisonous, halogenated, and hazardous compounds. The other kind of plasma, known as cold or non-equilibrium plasma, is created under vacuum conditions utilizing low-power RF, microwave, or DC sources and is characterized by an electron temperature higher than the ion temperature. Cold plasmas can change surfaces in many ways, from making small changes to their structure to making coatings and surface chemistries that are very different from the rest of the material [8]. Plasma treatment of textiles is being studied as an alternative to wet chemical fabric treatment and pretreatment methods like shrink-resistant or water-repellent finishing, which often change the way the fabric moves and are bad for the environment. If the results are applied to this technology, it will lead to operations that don’t pollute and are very promising. Chemical finishing with plasma can be done in two main ways: grafting a material onto the fiber or changing the surface with discharges. Plasma treatment modifies the surface’s top atomic layers without changing the material’s bulk properties. When this treatment is done to textiles, the surface can vary in desirable ways, such as etching, activation, cross-linking, chain scission, decrystallization, and oxidation. The choice of working gas, as well as plasma density and energy, affects the course of treatment. Air, oxygen, argon, fluorine, helium, carbon dioxide, and their mixtures are examples of plasma media. The type of gas used has an impact on the outcome. Even if the gas is the same, the outcome will differ if the fiber type is different [9, 10]. Textiles (fabric) can be treated in the plasma

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Fig. 5 A schematic view of plasma device and different reactive species [11]

region or the space between two electrodes (in fact, in the plasma). A schematic representation of a plasma device with several reactive species is shown in Fig. 5. Plasma-chemical conversion of the feed gas produces chemically active particles. The chemical reaction occurs when the molecules meet textile surface molecules. It can react with other compounds (even textiles) and release electricity under certain physical conditions because it is a volatile compound. This reaction can lead to different chemical fusions and fissions. Because of this, plasma is used to treat textile surfaces by changing how they look on the outside. It is essential to give the radicals made in the plasma region a chance to move to the reaction zone on the surface of the textile fiber. The distance between single fibers, the density of the gas, and the average distance between gas particles affect how fast a radical can move from where it is made to where it is used. The relationship between process pressure, textile structure, and the fabric itself, as well as how deep the plasma effect goes into the fabric, is based on the idea that radicals react or recombine after colliding with gas particles more than once at the fiber surface [12, 13].

6 Ultrasonic Technology in Fabric Finishing The sound that is too loud for humans is called ultrasonic: Sound wave frequencies higher than the threshold of human audibility are known as ultrasonic frequencies, which are more than 20 kHz or go beyond the range of human hearing. The human ear can pick up changes in frequency from 20 to 20 kHz in terms of amplitude. It can identify minor pressure changes that are not less than one billionth of an

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atmosphere’s pressure. Many techniques are used to create ultrasonic waves. The piezoelectric generator 12 is a generator for magnetorestriction. Because it causes the material to expand more in water and decreases the temperature at which the fiber or cloth changes to glass, ultrasound benefits fabrics. Ultrasonic wave-dependent cleaning devices are efficient in the textile industry. An ultrasonic machine that uses less water and a cleaning solvent makes the ultrasonic wave. The ultrasound device’s frequency employs a typical range between 20 and 400 kHz. Aqueous cleaning solutions include detergents, wetting agents, alkalicomplexed water, surfactants, water conditioners, corrosion inhibitors, foam stabilizers, and other things. The ideal solution’s formulation heavily depends on the item that needs to be cleaned. Most frequently, warm solutions (50–65 °C) are employed. When the cotton cloth was treated with formaldehyde resin, Scinhovich used ultrasonic at 8 and 18 kHz frequencies and assessed the physical qualities differences before and after 60 washing cycles. Even after washing 60 items, the crease recovery angle was much bigger than it would have been without ultrasound, but the tensile strength didn’t change much. The fabric’s recovery capabilities are improved using an electron microscope, x-ray diffraction analysis, and infrared spectroscopy. With the help of electron microscopy, the fiber’s supermolecular structure changed, and the resin went deeper into the fiber.

7 Aero/Airo Finishes The cloth is “thrashed” by air during the airo finishing technique until it is soft to the touch. It is a machine-produced fabric finish that provides softness, volume, and drape. It is also known as “airo wash.” Treatments favorable to the environment have always been known as Airo [16]. Because pure air is used for transportation and mechanical action has a softening effect, chemical compounds that would typically be used can be reduced or even eliminated. Also, the Airo eco-system label means that the system moves and cleans the air well and produces very few emissions.

7.1 Materials and Fabric Constructions The spectrum of materials that can be treated with Airo is comprehensive. These include synthetic fibers (viscose, copra, polynosic, polyamide, Tencel, Lyocell, and Modal), natural fibers (cotton, linen, ramie, jute, silk, and mixes), and regenerated fibers (PES, nylon, acrylic, PP, PU, and PVC). Almost all construction types, including woven, knitted, flocked, and non-woven, can use aero finish, which has a variety of uses, including garments, upholstery, and technical textiles. There are no

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weight or size restrictions in this method. The result is excellent safety and a lack of flaws: • This technology guarantees defibrillation • Cleaning treatment after bio-polishing • High-efficiency resin polymerization in a single pass Air preliminary therapy makes better outcomes in treatments (shearing, coating), compaction, stability, relaxation, etc.

7.2 Airo Finishing Process The fabric is suspended and moved by the airflow inside a particular duct or channel, which is the center of the Airo treatment, while it goes through the machine at a very high speed. This process uses a unique, high-efficiency centrifugal fan system. The air is drawn in from the surroundings in variable amounts and fed into the channel at a very high speed in alternating directions. The flow is quickly and precisely inverted, and the channel self-cleans. The amount of fresh and recycled air is fed through the treatment channel. High-speed air optimizes the thermal exchange between the fabric and the atmosphere. They all increase the thermal efficiency of Airo by a significant amount. The machine’s high drying capacity, similar to that of a center frame, features like nonstop fabric in/out synchronization, variable output modules, a design that doesn’t need maintenance, and a powerful filtering system make it very productive. Due to its flexibility and low electricity usage, Airo®24 offers the lowest cost per processed meter of cloth (because it has minimal installed power and electronically controlled motors). Airo has a lot of uses, and the performance of fabrics treated with it is unquestionably better than any other drying treatment. The results help with all the steps that come after, improve the quality of the finished product, and make it more competitive. They are more than just a soft feel and a unique look.

8 Bio Extract Finishing (Micania Micrantha Leaf) Micania micrantha is a biomaterial that can be used to treat fabric, whether it be woven, knitted, or non-woven. The climber Micania micrantha is permanently active. It is sometimes referred to as “bittervine” or “middle-a-minute” [17]. Fabric that can be used as a wound dressing can be made using the leaf juice or powder of Micania micrantha. The exhaustion method takes the juice from the plants and mixes it with the cloth. The use of this coated blended fabric for wound healing is possible [18]. Micania micrantha can be used to make a material that can be used as an antibacterial cloth [19]. Additionally, these completed products have no adverse effects on patients.

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9 Micro Sanded Finishing Peach or brush finishing is the moniker for sanded finishing. During this finishing process, the surface of the cloth is smoothed and softened by abrading the surface fiber and causing some of the individual fibers to hover on the fabric’s surface. Brushing the fabric with carbon wires or micro sandpaper to draw out individual threads makes the material less shiny and gives it a fluffy, soft texture. Twill fabrics and occasionally woven fabrics receive this treatment specifically.

10 Micro-encapsulation A substance called microencapsulated is used as phase change material (PCM) that can use to change from solid to liquid or gas and back again. Some binders apply PCMs that have been encapsulated in the textile. Phase change materials can accept, hold, and release heat energy. They either emit heat during phase transitions or absorb it as needed [20]. Protozoa, yeast, and filamentous fungi are good candidates for microencapsulation. Microencapsulation is done by spray drying or chilling a solution of the core and wall materials that have been atomized. When someone leaves an office with air conditioning and goes outside, their clothing absorbs the sudden heat of the sun by keeping a consistent clothing temperature. It keeps the body from being affected by the sudden heat. When a person goes from being hot in the sun to be very cold in an air-conditioned room, the clothing slowly transfers heat to the body, giving the body time to adjust to the sudden change in temperature. During specific activities, its moisture management finish keeps you constantly cool, dry, and comfortable. The application of PCMs are as follow: • • • • • • • • •

Waste heat recovery. Off-peak power use. Heat pump systems. Space applications. Laptop computer cooling. Cool suits. Telecom shelters. Cooling beverages. Temperature-regulating intelligent textiles.

To accomplish the microencapsulation process, (a) spray coating techniques, such as Wurster air suspension Coating (b) wall deposition techniques based on solutions, such as phase separation or coacervation. The interfacial response is (c). (d) natural occurrences such as annular jet encapsulation. (e) Matrix solidification techniques include chilling or spray drying. When PCM changes from a solid to a liquid, it can store a lot of heat energy at a constant temperature (32 °C, which is the melting point) and release it at the same

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temperature when it changes back into a solid. Therefore, the PCMs can be thought of as latent heat storage. When PCM changes from a solid to a liquid, it can store a lot of heat energy at a constant temperature (32 °C, which is the melting point) and release it at the same temperature when it changes back into a solid. Therefore, the PCMs can be thought of as latent heat storage.

10.1 Spray Coating Micro-Encapsulation Finer particles are coated using this method while suspended in an upward-moving air stream. The procedure applies and hardens the wall at the same time. While materializing the particles, this spraying process coats smaller particles. Small holes in the base plate let hot air into the chamber, which makes the particles rise. A spray nozzle in the center of the section sprays small amounts of coating solution onto the particles.

10.2 Wall Deposition from Solution The size of the manufactured microcapsules might vary from 2 to 50 micro-meters. There are two types of coacervation: simple and complex. Simple coacervation involves only one colloidal solute, while complex coacervation involves more than one.

10.3 Matrix Solidification Micro-encapsulation This process has four stages. In the first step, the core or wall material solution is atomized. It determines the capsules’ size, usually between 10 and 200 µm. The solution is heated, so the ingredients stay in the solution and don’t harden or dry out too soon. Quickly assuming their equilibrium spherical shape are the tiny droplets created during atomization. The product starts to dry once it touches the air stream.

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11 Polyester Fabric Finishing and Green Theme Technology Clothing has long been treated with per-fluorinated compounds (PFCS) to make it water and stain resistant. However, with Green Theme Technology, non-toxic resins are used in place of fluoro-chemicals to create a waterproof surface because PFCs are on the Restricted Substances Lists, which are well-known globally [21].

12 Supercritical Fluid Technology A substance is called a supercritical fluid (SCF) when its pressure and temperature are simultaneously above their critical values. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is the most common SCF because it has many benefits, such as being non-toxic, easy to get, cheap, not flammable, good for the environment, and chemically inert in many situations. Compared to other SCFs like water (critical temperature > 374 °C and pressure > 22 106 Pa) and other organic solvents, CO2 has a more manageable crucial temperature of 31 °C and a necessary force of 7.4 × 106 Pa. Also, the process makes it possible to recover and reuse at least 90% of the CO2 . It was initially released, appealing from the perspective of waste minimization. Traditional aqueous or solvent-based impregnation processes have several problems, such as slow diffusion rates, high temperatures, shallow penetration depths, long contact times, potentially dangerous solvents, more energy use, solvents that use water, and other additives. Supercritical CO2 (scCO2 ) can be used instead of the organic solvents impregnating polymers. First, the small CO2 molecules get into the free volume of the amorphous area and blow up the material. When polymers are added to a scCO2 bath with solutes, this makes more free volumes. The transition temperature drop results in the material’s plasticization (Tg). The solutes that have been dissolved are then moved to the surface of the fiber, where they enter the swelling polymer matrix and spread out. During depressurization, the CO2 molecules that are stuck inside the polymer matrix are pushed out by the shrinking polymer. The second mechanism is for molecules that are not very soluble but have a high affinity for the polymer. Because they are more attracted to the polymer, the solute molecules move away from the fluid and toward the polymer matrix [22].

13 Advanced Ballistic Protection Finishing Ballistic protection is protective clothing that keeps steel shards and bullets from handguns and explosive weapons from hurting the person who wears it. It has been discovered that fabric laminations boost the yarn’s anchoring strength. As a result, the yarns struck by bullets do not cause the fabric to pull. Adding a layer of electro

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less metalized elements to the fabrics can protect them from lightning strikes even better. Alcohol, Nano silica, and polyethylene glycol were mixed to create a stab and cut-proof fabric. A surface that can withstand stabs is made after saturation and baking. Nonwoven felts made from linear polyethylene changed by corona/plasma treatment or with filler by calendaring, transverse stretching, sewing, or hydro entangling [23] worked better than traditional textiles. Aramid fibers coated with heat-resistant fluoro-polymers for textile workers demonstrated enhanced sputtering resistance.

14 Beetling This procedure creates the appearance of smooth, shiny linen. During this process, the fabric’s surface is beaten with hammers while the material moves around a drum.

15 Photographic Prints During this process, pictures are put on the fabric with the help of photo-engraved rollers.

16 Stone Washing Stone washing is washing the fabric with stones to give it a faded and worn appearance. It is especially effective on heavy materials like denim and canvas. These fabrics can acquire flexibility and suppleness by stone washing.

17 Embossing In this decorating, heat rollers make designs on the fabric’s surface that look like they are raised. This finish is mechanical.

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18 Conclusion The fabric business has seen significant developments over the past few decades. The various textile finishing technologies are covered in this chapter. Some of the more advanced ways to finish textiles are microencapsulation, plasma finishing, and fictionalization, to name a few. However, many still use traditional methods, such as wet and dry finishing. These methods change the feel and function of textile materials, making them more like future textiles. The study always adds to the list of new technologies as high-tech changes and the developing world grows.

References 1. Song MS, Hou JB, Lu YH, Lin J, Cheng DH (2013) Performance of foam and application in foam finishing of textile. In: Advanced materials research, vol 821, pp 661–664. Trans Tech Publications Ltd. 2. Capponi M, Flister A, Hasler R, Oschatz C, Robert G, Robinson T, Vierlina JP (1982) Foam technology in textile processing. Rev Prog ColorRelat Top 12(1):48–57 3. https://baldwintech.com/textcoatg4 4. Chinta SK, Landage SM, Vera K (2012) Effect of biopolishing treatment on various spun yarn knitted fabrics. Glob J Bio-Sci Biotechnol 1(2):287–295 5. https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/zohaibkhan404/cellulase-types-sources-mode-of-actionapplications 6. https://www.slideserve.com/felcia/cellulase-enzyme 7. Pane S, Tedesco R, Greger R (2001) Acrylic fabrics treated with plasma for outdoor applications. J Ind Text 31(2):135–145 8. Bonizzoni G, Vassallo E (2002) Plasma physics and technology; industrial applications. Vacuum 64(3–4):327–336 9. Pastore C, Kiekens P (eds) (2000) Surface characteristics of fibers and textiles, vol 94. CRC Press 10. Cai A, Hwang YJ, Park YC, Zhang C, McCord M, Qiu Y (2002) Preliminary investigation of atmospheric pressure plasma-aided desizing for cotton fabrics. AATCC Rev 2(12) 11. Yousefi HR, Ghoranneviss M, Tehrani AR, Khamseh S (2003) Investigation of glow discharge plasma for surface modification of polypropylene. Surf Interface Anal An Int J Devoted Dev Appl Tech Anal Surf Interfaces Thin Films 35(12):1015–1017 12. Poll HU, Schladitz U, Schreiter S (2001) Penetration of plasma effects into textile structures. Surf Coat Technol 142:489–493 13. https://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/5409/new-technologies-in-textile-dyeingand-finishing 14. www.researchgate.net/publication/272426207_Wood_Veneer_ n 15. Gallego-Juarez JA (1989) Piezoelectric ceramics and ultrasonic transducers. J Phys E: Sci Instrum 22(10):804 16. https://www.biancalani.com/en/ 17. Kuo YL (2003) Ecological characteristics of three invasive plants (Leucaena leucocephala, Mikania micrantha, and Stachytarphetaurticaefolia) in Southern Taiwan. Food & Fertilizer Technology Center, Taiwan 18. Li Y, Shen BB, Li J, Li Y, Wang XX, Cao AC (2013) Antimicrobial potential and chemical constituent of Mikania micrantha HBK. Afr J Microbiol Res 7(20):2409–2415 19. Alam SMM, Akter S, Rahman ML (2020) Mikania micrantha mixed woven fabric for quick blood clotting and wound healing

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20. Shrimali K, Dedhia E (2015) Microencapsulation for textile finishing. IOSR J Polym Text Eng 2(2):1–4 21. Dave H, Ledwani L, Nema SK (2019) Nonthermal plasma: a promising green technology to improve environmental performance of textile industries. In: The impact and prospects of green chemistry for textile technology. Woodhead Publishing, pp 199–249 22. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/69077#:~:text=Impregnation%20of%20Materials %20in%20Supercritical%20CO2,DOI%3A%2010.5772/intechopen.89223 23. Bajaj P (1997) Ballistic protective clothing: an overview

Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing Joy Sarkar, Niaz Morshed Rifat, Md. Sakib-Uz-Zaman, Md. Abdullah Al Faruque, and Zawad Hasan Prottoy

Abstract This chapter examines the latest and most modern apparel manufacturing, finishing, and processing practices. As apparel manufacturing has been a technology practiced for ages, many modifications in machinery and processes have been introduced. Digital garment printing, 3D fit, prototypes, and sew-free technologies are some of the latest technologies in apparel manufacturing. Besides, to be compatible with Industry 4.0, a fully automatic production system is very close to being fully adopted. At the same time, using artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning in studying consumer behavior and perception has taken a remarkable place. AI and machine learning are also being used for making business decisions. However, technology is part and parcel of each step of the apparel supply chain. All of these new technologies and ways of using technology have been very helpful for the growth of the apparel business. It has given apparel processing a significant advantage in every way possible. Keywords Apparel manufacturing · Sew-free technology · Advanced quality monitoring systems · Intelligent techniques · Apparel production · Apparel supply chain · Apparel finishing

J. Sarkar (B) · Z. H. Prottoy Department of Textile Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna 9203, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] N. M. Rifat Department of Textile Engineering, Port City International University, Chattogram, Bangladesh Md. Sakib-Uz-Zaman Department of Textile Engineering, Primeasia University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Md. A. Al Faruque Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_7

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1 Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing Thousands of years ago, since humans first began making clothing from natural fibers, clothing has become the object with which people interact most frequently [1]. The ready-made garment industry, which should be acknowledged as the most significant contributor to the modern world’s economic development, is always kept out during analyses of global economic history. The clothing industry was the primary source of employment and revenue generation in the United Kingdom for many decades during the Industrial Revolution. In the modern world, most industrialized nations have benefited from the garment trend [2]. The textile industry is known for being the most labor-intensive industry in the world. Therefore, this industry has excellent prospects for underdeveloped countries like Bangladesh, Cambodia, Kenya, and Madagascar, which offer cheap labor for industries. As a result, the trend of current textile production has shifted from developing to underdeveloped countries, even though these countries have some environmental issues. In addition, cloud-based and intelligent manufacturing will be the main drivers for the Fourth Industrial Revolution, or “Industry 4.0.” It focuses on the technical advancement of various parts of the textile industry [4]. Nine technological progress pillars are used to transform traditional sectors into Industry 4.0. The industrial Internet of Things (IoT), simulation, vertical and horizontal system integration, big data analytics, the cloud, additive manufacturing, augmented reality, and cyber security are among the nine pillars [5]. The best option in the garment business to achieve the current requirement is to use automation and the other most recent developments in this trend. Automation is a process through which automatic equipment performs operational tasks in place of human operators. The production process in the modern apparel industry already includes cutting-edge technology like digital garment printing, 3D fit and prototypes, sew-free technologies, and many others. Artificial intelligence is also used to perceive consumer expectations and actions toward upcoming items or products. Cutting-edge technologies have increased the productivity in the clothing sector. They also help to improve the quality of the goods and services and to enhance the brand image of the apparel manufacturers’ businesses. In the highly competitive market, technology development and adopting new automated tools can improve a company’s position [8]. Computerized tools and digital equipment with artificial intelligence can be an excellent way to ensure high productivity and lessen the need for people to work. The modern adjustments in the apparel manufacturing industry will be discussed in this chapter.

2 Three-Dimensional (3D) Body Scanner In the apparel industry, it was impossible to achieve a proper fit of a garment without precise measurement before the invention of 3D body scanners. It is always considered time-consuming and tedious. Most consumers dislike being measured in the

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traditional way since processing takes longer. In 1988, the US Army conducted an exciting survey and found that measuring the apparel for only one individual took about four hours [9]. A 3D body scanner can provide information about the outer dimensions of the human body. This electronic copy can be put together with patterns for clothes, which can be graded and cut by a computer [10].

2.1 Types of 3D Body Scanners There are five different categories of 3D body scanning technologies used globally; they are discussed as follows [11]: • Laser scanning A laser beam is projected onto the human body as one or more fine, angular stripes. Light sensors capture the scene during the procedure. Numerous geometrical principles are then applied to measure the surface data of the human body. Only laser beams that are safe for the eyes are employed to keep the process safe. • Projection of white light patterns This technology is similar to laser scanning but uses projected light patterns to measure the body instead of lasers. This procedure uses a light sensor and a projector pattern to produce the design. Typically, strips are used to create the body’s pattern. Complex systems could employ two or more sensors to produce the pattern. • Image processing and modeling This technology uses image processing and modeling methods to measure the human body, although, in this instance, 3D data is derived from 2D photos. Two different setups can be used for this modeling: one processes the measurement using only two doubles (one from the front and one from the back), while the other uses three pictures of the human body (two from the front, one from the back). • Other active sensors Two novel technologies that are based on active sensors are used nowadays. The first technology measures the body using harmless high-frequency radio waves, while the second uses 3D cameras with CMOS sensors. • Digital tape measurement The electronic tape measurement technique is a straightforward but reliable way to measure the dimensions of the human body. The measurement procedure is quite similar to the traditional tape measurement system, except that the tape is now electronically given via wireless technology, which measures various body areas and records data digitally. As indicated in Table 1, different regions use the technology mentioned earlier differently.

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Table 1 Number of companies developing and producing technologies for 3D body measurement of the human body. Reprinted with permission from [11] Laser Scanning

Region

White light projection

Others

Total

North America

7

7

5

19

Europe

0

22

7

29

Asia

4

3

0

7

Total

11

32

12

55

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Perquisites of Using a 3D Body Scanner

The development of the 3D body scanner has rendered obsolete the tedious body measurement procedures that most customers disliked. Furthermore, it has improved fit and appearance, two critical factors to consider when purchasing clothing [12]. Using the digital scanner, customers can quickly determine whether a product is appropriate from an aesthetic standpoint. The design and other embellishments complement the human body and the fit properties, such as how well it will fit the human figure and its drape properties. So, 3D body scanners give clothing makers and customers a quick alternative to traditional methods of measuring that take a lot of time.

3 Advanced Technology in Apparel CAD The invention of computer-aided design (CAD) can be traced back to 1970 when CAMSCO first introduced the world to the system. Lectra began working with Garment CAD in the 1980s, and many retailers had automatic spreaders and marker makers in their possession by the end of 1993. Marker-making efficiency was drastically improved at this time [13]. Since then, the CAD system has improved to provide us with several modern-day solutions to the apparel manufacturing trend. Clothing manufacturers and stores use many new technologies today, like virtual fitting rooms, virtual sampling and e-fitting, intelligent CAD systems, and many others.

3.1 Virtual Fitting Rooms A present-day approach to apparel retail is embracing the new technology called Virtual Fitting Rooms (VFRs), which allows consumers to try on apparel products and mix or match accessories without being physically present at the shop or factory in the case of sampling. VFR can provide a real-time solution to a probable time-consuming and cumbersome activity of choosing the right product that is appropriate in all aspects necessary. 3D graphics technology is applied with an

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integrated computer-aided platform that enables the prospective consumer not only to check the fit properties of the product but also to manipulate it with various trims, accessories, and design-based criteria. A 2D cad pattern of actual garments is used in such a way in this advanced technology that it grants the consumer the appetite to try the exact clothes virtually. The prominent players in the virtual fitting room arena are Microsoft Kinetics and Asus Xiton Pro-Live. The interfaces of different brands give us a wide range of good virtual platforms to choose from [14].

3.2 Virtual Sampling and Approval Modern technologies like Garber Tech’s 3D DirectTM have introduced us to the idea that clothing designs can be developed on mannequins or natural human bodies and then be flattened into a 2D CAD system for visualization and further manipulation. Lectra’s virtual fashion prototyping solution, Modaris 3D Fit, facilitates patternmakers in controlling the fit properties of a garment with sheer accuracy. That way, approval of styles and specifications can be done only within a short time instead of doing this manually for days. It allows garment manufacturers to sew their products virtually as an electronic copy of the product and get approval without any physical prototype being prepared. Another modern adaptation of apparel manufacturers is 3D virtual sampling, with which the projection of garments and fabric drapes is possible on a 3D avatar. With this technology, manufacturers can change a garment’s design, the fabric’s properties, and any other embellishments on a 3D fit model. The technology can furthermore help cut down on the lead time and cost of making physical prototypes, making the process more efficient [15].

4 Intelligent Apparel CAD Systems 4.1 Parametric Design Parametric Design in Apparel, CAD helps pattern and marker makers by eliminating the sequence of modifications that are generally needed while changing a single parameter in a garment’s pattern. For instance, while a parametric model of the coat is designed in the parametric design interface, if the measurement of the waist circumference needs to be changed, then other corresponding specifications like front and rear armhole curves alter themselves automatically, and users are not required to do all those modifications on their own [16].

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4.2 Combination of Artificial Intelligence and CAD By combining artificial intelligence (AI) into the CAD system, an intelligent CAD interface can be developed, making decisions by itself while pattern making. AIintegrated CAD works automatically by using data from various CAD files and resources or previously stored data and provides expert suggestions while making patterns and new designs. This intelligent CAD system allows pattern makers to develop sophisticated ways even with moderate knowledge of CAD interfaces. Also, the system helps by reducing the pattern-making time [16].

5 Automation in Spreading Process 5.1 Automatic Spreading Machine Automatic spreading machines, which guarantee tension-free spreading by providing feeding and transportation mechanisms over the spreading tables, are less laborious and time-consuming than the manual process. As a result, the demand for high-speed spreading machines is increasing daily to reduce the workload and labor force without changing working principles [17]. Fully automated spreading machines of different functionalities for different textiles are manufactured by many companies in several countries, such as Lectra (France), Gerber (United States), Kuris (Germany), Bullmer (Germany), Phillips (U.K.), Eastman (United States), Unicraft Corporation (United States), Cosmotex (Spain), Ottoman (Spain), Morgan Tecnica (Italy), F.K. Group (Italy), B.K.R. Italia (Italy), Caron Technology (Italy), Ozbilim (Turkey), Tukatech (India), Shimaseiki (Japan), and Oshima (Taiwan) [8].

5.1.1

Main Parts of Automatic Fabric Spreading Machine

An automated spreading machine has several main parts: a fabric spreader truck, a fabric feed system, an automatic cutting device, an end-catcher, an operator’s stand panel, an encoder system, and a control panel. • Spreading Table An automatic spreading table, unlike a manual one, can withstand the load of a fully equipped spreader. The perforated table surface is installed with an air floatation mechanism for lifting the load while shifting or an air suction system to keep the layers in place. • Fabric Spreader Truck In a spreading table, the spreader truck moves in longitudinal and transverse directions to ensure the transportation of fabric rolls. It has two main parts: a body and a turret.

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Generally, the spreader truck body fixed on wheels confirms lengthways transportation of fabric rolls over the spreading table. The spreader truck carries various distinct devices, such as a cutter, a zigzag spreading device, a tubular fabric spreading device, and a fabric tearing device. After laying a defined length of fabric, the spreader truck stops and reverses direction. According to fabric types and characteristics, spreader truck speed can be adjusted. The turret of the spreader truck can move up to 15 cm laterally, ensuring the crossways transportation of fabric rolls to attain the perfect alignment of individual fabric edges on the table. • Fabric Feed System The fabric feed system manages the threading, rewinding, loading, and unloading of fabric roll materials from a unique cradle or setting bar. Tension-free spreading can be achieved by the synchronized speed of the spreader and cradle feed system. While spreading fabric, automatic adjustments of the feeding rate of the material and measurement of its length are conducted by the fabric feed system. Among different fabric feeding systems, cradle-type and bar fabric feeding systems are most prominent in terms of usability. The most common cradle-type fabric feeding systems are multi-belt cradles, single conveyor belt cradles, and multi-roll cradles. The main types of bar fabric feeding systems are free bar and motorized bar [8]. • Automatic Cutting Device An automatic cutting device that can be sharpened automatically runs along with the spreader truck during the spreading process. As per the direction from the operator, a round knife automatically locomotes across the table and cuts the fabric off. The cutting process may be completed in one direction or both ways. The cutting speed can be adjusted to meet your needs. A height-detection sensor that works automatically has been added to find the smallest space between the tabletop and the cutting tool so that there are no wrinkles in the laying process. • End-catcher During fabric spreading, an end-catcher is used to hold the laid fabric plies and prevent them from moving. It is primarily helpful for slippery fabrics. • Operator Stand Panel A unique platform with an adjustable seat permits the operator to travel alongside the table at the time of fabric spreading. No operator is required in the case of fully automated spreading. • Encoder System An encoder system drives and controls the fully automatic fabric spreading process. On one side of the table is a special belt with metal spikes. The encoder system counts the number of spikes and recalculates the distance from the starting point in meters or inches.

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• Interactive Control Panel An interactive control panel is used to set up parameters and program the fabric spreading process. A spreading machine can run basic, block, and step distribution programs. In addition, open-width fabric spreading has already been discussed. Still, spreading machines for folded fabric processing, spreading machines for tubular fabrics, and spreading machines for home textiles are also being used for specific functionality. Another impressive and mostly needed feature of modern and automated spreading systems is automated fabric fault registration and management systems. Provided the spreading machine is integrated with this system, the spreading device can detect textile flaws in the spreading process in the same way as manual spreading procedures. This procedure uses splice marks in a marker and a fault registration system. Gerber’s “Flaw Management System” is a popular automated fabric fault registration and management system. Detecting fabric faults automatically by this system is advantageous, especially in minimizing fabric waste [8]. Besides these commonly used systems of spreading, there are also some uncommon ways and modifications of the spreading system for ease of use which some manufacturers follow. For example, • Horizontal surface spreaders are moveable and vertical surface spreading tables use gravity to straighten the fabric grain, and the table’s surface is pivoted to a horizontal position before the cutting process. • The Veith pin table facilitates a gantry loader where fabric rolls can be hung from the top side while being carried by a trolley over the table’s surface. • The pre- and post-processes of spreading have also undergone various evolutions. • Automatic loading and doffing of fabric rolls into the spreader from the rack reduces time and avoids occupational injuries. • Air-flotation tables create an air cushion and lessen friction between the table’s surface and the layer of fabric, and this technique can transport most light materials to medium weight. • Conveyorized tables have moving conveyors used to transport heavy-weight fabric laid. • Roller surface tables are effectively used for dragging the lanes of stiff fabrics without distortion. • Storing layers of fabric in a vertical storage rack is another feature that is gaining popularity for its low volume and multi-style operations.

6 Automation in Cutting Process Like manual and semi-automatic cutting processes, complete automation is applied to cut single or multiple layers of materials. It varies from lightweight to heavy-weight industrial fabrics. This cutting device consists of several pieces of equipment. It

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Fig. 1 The schematic diagram of an automated cutting system. Reprinted with permission from [8]

includes primarily a cutting table classified as a static or conveyor table. It has a cutting machine fixed on a carriage and a beam (also known as a gantry, crossbar, or cutting bridge) to transport the carriage over the cutting surface. This machine also consists of a control panel and a working plane to regulate the cutting system. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of an automated cutting system. Two synchronized servo motors are used to shift the gantries (beams) along the horizontal axis of the cutting table (X-axis). The third one moves the carriage on the crossbar covering the width of the cutting table (Y-axis). While performing the cutting process, the fourth motor helps rotate the cutting tool [19]. If it is needed to move the cutting machine vertically, an extra motor is introduced to finish the cutting process. The provision of rolled material handling (roll-feeding systems) is also available with this system, which is further classified as an unwind (feeding) device, a roll-up device, and an extended component folder. Different computer-controlled cutting devices are employed in combination or individually (e.g., laser cutting head with two knives, laser, ultrasound, or laser cutting head, plasma, or waterjet) to increase productivity in the cutting room. In addition, automated ultrasonic cutting systems, blade cutters, and ultrasonic tools are commonly used as automatic cutting systems. Several cutting methods are used to cut the components made of technical textiles based on specific requirements and necessities [19].

6.1 Automated Cutting Equipment Multi-tool cutting head as shown in Fig. 2, is equipped with knives, drill punches, notches, and markers. These are used to conduct numerous operations during the cutting process. When choosing a cutting tool, several parameters are considered, such as the cutting operations, the layout of the required outline, and the types of materials.

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Fig. 2 Simplified scheme of a cutting head. Reprinted with permission from [19]

Fig. 3 Drag knife in cutting process. Reprinted with permission from [19]

6.2 Round Blade Knife A rotary (circular, round) blade knife rolls over the materials during the cutting process. The round cutter’s diameter depends on the materials’ properties and the difficulty of cutting the outlines. Thinner materials can be cut accurately using small diameter rotary blades (18 and 28 mm). In the case of thick materials, when precise cutting is not mandatory, large diameters (45, 60, and 75 mm) may be used. A blade with a diameter of 28 mm is usually used to cut different materials.

6.3 Drag Knife It has an angled blade that is sharp and can be used for precise cutting of contours, notches, tiny circles, and edges. It can be angled between 30 and 60°. The blade angle is selected according to the properties of the material. The larger the blade angle, the thinner the material. Figure 3 shows the drag knife in operation.

6.4 Reciprocating Knife A straight knife’s vertical up-and-down movement in a regular pattern is considered an oscillating or reciprocating knife during material cutting. It provides only linear motion, and oscillation occurs at a constant interval. The cutting table surface must

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Fig. 4 Cutting process of a reciprocating knife. Reprinted with permission from [8]

be kept soft so the blade can penetrate through the table. Lays of multiple plies, thick material, and intricate shapes can be cut by applying this kind of knife. The cutting process of a reciprocating knife is represented in Fig. 4.

6.5 Punch A punch is used in a cutting process where tiny round holes are needed in cut materials and cannot be completed by other cutting devices. Punches with diameters of 0.5–10 mm are used to make holes of different sizes. To mark the cut component, several methods, such as pen marking, inkjet marking, airbrush marking, and adhesive labels, are used in automatic knife-cutting systems. Similarly, for the easy and effective identification and off-loading (kitting) of cut components, methods such as preprinted marker, off-load screen/display, overhead projector, and marking on the cut component surface can be used depending on the necessity and requirements [19].

7 Advanced Technologies in Apparel Production System With the advancement of technology and the fast fashion concept, the apparel manufacturing environment has changed significantly compared with the fashion industry in the 1980s. A noticeable seasonal increase forces fashion stores to reduce their average design and lead time from months to weeks [20]. The apparel manufacturing industry deals with rapid production, variations in order quantity, and volatile customer demand. To avoid the possibility of inventory holding, retailers are demanding small but recurring replenishments of orders. To stay in business in a market with so much competition, clothing manufacturers must choose the right production system [21]. The apparel production system is “an integration of material handling, production processes, personnel, and equipment” [20]. Production of the whole garment system

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is the most common apparel manufacturing system. But this system is less productive and highly labor-intensive, not seen much in the modern production unit. But haute couture seamstresses and traditional tailors use this production method, where one person sews all the cut pieces together to make the final product [22].

7.1 Types of Production Systems Different organizations follow several advanced production systems, but no system is accepted widely. Each of the production systems is distinct and requires a specific working environment. Though every production system is different, they all should meet two essential criteria: the product’s quality and the system’s cost-effectiveness. Among numerous production systems, five production systems are commonly used: Progressive Bundle System (PBS), Modular Production System (MPS), Unit Production System (UPS), Unit Synchro Production System (USPS), and Transporter System (TS) [23]. • Progressive Bundle System (PBS) The progressive bundle system has been widely used in the apparel industry for several decades. In this system, each operator is assigned to perform a single or few operations, and bundles are made by tying cut pieces together [24]. Bundles are transferred to the next operator to complete another procedure. This system allows operators to produce garment products at a higher speed with greater productivity. However, ample storage space and the difference between total throughput time and actual run-time are the most challenging parts of this system. The success of the PBS will depend on how well this system is set up and used in a production unit [25]. • Unit Production System (UPS) In the 1960s, Inge Davidson established the UPS model and summarized that eighty percent of the production costs are related to material handling, and only twenty percent are associated with direct manufacturing costs. Other than the bundle system, where materials are transported from one place to another manually with a human’s help, this system is an automated overhead rail transportation system where a hanging carrier is used to move individual units from one operator to another [26]. As a result, work-in-process and manufacturing throughput times are remarkably reduced. Yet, most manufacturers argue that UPS is suitable for a mass production system rather than a line that demands style variation [21]. • Modular Production System (MPS) Though it originated in the 1980s, the Modular Production System (MPS), also known as Cellular Manufacturing [27], is considered one of the newest production systems. Garment manufacturers are forced to experiment with this system for several reasons: increased pressure from the market to shorten lead times, reduction of product development cycles, high operation flexibility, severe competition in product lines from

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low-wage countries, etc. Cross-training techniques are applied in a modular system where a group of trained multi-skilled operators with a minimum of machines is employed to manufacture high-quality garments [28]. In a specific group, operators work on single or multiple operations; they are allowed to move from one station to another. When this system is used, it cuts down on throughput time and reduces the amount of inventory that needs to be kept, which saves money in the long run. • Unit Synchro Production System (USPS) Since the 1950s, the Unit Synchro Production System (USPS) has been used universally, especially in the Japanese apparel manufacturing industry. USPS comprises different modules in which a specific garment component is a particular module’s responsibility. To achieve the desired line balancing, the module layout is planned carefully, considering operations processing time. Modules process the garment details simultaneously, and a conveyor belt is used to move the semi-processed products to the next module. Processing of semi-processed products is then completed to form a final product. To make sure that production goes smoothly, a visual signal called Kanban is used to keep a close eye on it [20]. • Transporter System (TS) The transport system model is developed using a set of conveyors, which are installed between two sewing workstation rows. This system is best suited for manufacturing small garments. As stated by AAMA (American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 1988), TS is a production system where “bundles of work-in-process are carried in tote boxes, which are staged between operations in a flow rack”. “Tote boxes are removed from storage, placed on the conveyor, and routed to the operator as needed.” When an operator finishes processing a bundle, it is shifted back to the original tote boxes and sent to a subsequent operation. A specific operator maintains tote box distribution. TS provides several advantages to manufacturers, including a reduced manual effort in material transportation, efficient and fast material transport, a computer tracking system, and real-time production information [29].

7.2 Comparison Among Production Systems Kincade and Kanakadurga [28] suggested five criteria for defining production systems: • • • • •

The flow of work Retrieval of methods Work-in-progress (WIP) inventory Interaction among operators The number of assigned tasks per operator

The flow of work can be categorized as push and pull systems. In the push system, garment components are moved from machine to machine, whereas in the

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pull system, the operator works depending on the demand of the subsequent operation. Among the five production systems, PBS, UPS, USPS, and TS follow a push system, and only in the MPS workflow is it maintained using a pull system. “Method of retrieval” means how garment components are forwarded to the following operation. In the PBS and MPS systems, operators are employed to transport members from one place to another. But in UPS, USPS, and TS, Conveyors or carts are used to shift garment parts to the subsequent section. Due to the nature of the PBS and TS, WIP inventory is high compared to other methods like UPS, MPS, and USPS. PBS, UPS, and TS are analogous in assigning tasks to operators. They offer a single job to a single operator. Interaction between operators is not needed in PBS, UPS, and TS. At the same time, teamwork is most important for MPS and USPS.

8 Advanced Technologies in Sewing The production processes in assembling apparel are classified into two subdivisions: handling material and fabric components and joining. In apparel production, noticeable labor and time are utilized in handling material, like moving, lifting, repositioning, re-orientating, and mounting semi-finished or cut components of fabric. To ensure better quality, it is necessary to manage seams precisely and gently [30]. In commercial workstations, material loading is done manually, while sewing and unloading processes are automated [31]. Working with fabric is more challenging than rigidly handling materials. Fabrics can easily deform without being permitted, even under very light pressure such as air resistance or dead weight. A recent report shows that manual handling occurs 79% of the time during the assembly of products, while the remaining 21% of industries apply semi-automated systems [32]. No industry yet automatically handles materials. During the time it takes to make a piece of clothing, handling takes up about 80% of the total time, and this cost affects almost 80% of the factory’s costs [33]. Several gripping techniques exist, such as vacuum grippers, needle grippers, Bernoulli grippers, or roller systems [32]. In vacuum grippers, the gripping components are joined to a pneumatic pump by maintaining a connection with the material of the gripping [34]. The variance of pressure permits the element of gripping to stick to the pads of suction. Bernoulli grippers provide contact-free gripping by directly producing an effect of Bernoulli using compressed air. In needle grippers, needles penetrate the components at an angle and are then interlocked with the element for gripping. Roller systems often use surface and freezing grippers that create limited adhesion by using details of Peltier and electrostatic effects. Recently developed technologies for gripping are still not accessible in assembling textile products. Szimmat confirmed that 28% of present semi-automated handling systems employ needles or scrap grippers [32]. A similar application was the picking pad, illustrated by a running project at Spanish AB Industries. In this technology, material pieces will float around 1'' over a bristle-structured surface area of the table.

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It will let a robotic arm with a 360-degree reach carefully pick up the secular pieces with the help of an important gripping part. Sewing is the most powerful technology for apparel joining, representing around 85% of all methods of joining [33]. The sewing process now relies on highly skilled manual operators for sewing operations, responsible for 35–40% of the overall cost [33]. Over the past decades, sewn apparel manufacturers have reduced production costs by relocating production facilities to developing regions with lower wages. This business strategy is close to the end of its existence due to changed situations in the market. Labor costs are swiftly increasing in many developing countries. Besides, there exists a global lack of a skillful workforce. Customers’ behavior also fluctuates more rapidly than before due to changing trends in fashion. Thus, apparel manufacturing companies are in desperate need of advancements in sewing technology. The standard and broadly accepted automatic configuration of the sewing method was the traditional sewing machine placed on the material processing machinery as a calendaring or winding unit. This configuration was used for edge finishing, fabric roll joining, or making a tubular structure from a fabric roll. A mobile sewing machine series is available for this type of configuration. Pneumatic power distribution is used in a few sewing units to involve wet processes during sewing operations simultaneously. The popular types of stitch used for these applications are 100, 400, and 500 as sewing machines for these types of stitch have a continuous bottom supply of thread which doesn’t require machine stoppage for thread loading. An automated system for changing the bobbin is an advanced method for increasing sewing efficiency. During continuous sewing with lock stitch machines having stitch type 301, a filled bobbin can be used for less than 20 min, and frequent bobbin changes create a notorious bottleneck during sewing [31]. The automated system, however, is established on two conjugated principles: checking the existing bobbin thread amount and then altering it with a loaded bobbin after the pre-fixed remaining thread amount is achieved. Japanese company Kinoshita developed a magazine-oriented automated changer for the bobbin. Here, filled bobbins are primarily loaded onto the magazines. After that, magazines are joined to the sewing machine. A magazine of 8-bobbin can survive up to two and a half hours. This is useful for thick stitching thread and for regularly replacing the lower thread. It is favorable for apparel where thread overlapping is restricted during stitching. In addition to making the machine run more quickly, this automated bobbin changer helps prevent stitching mistakes and eases the operator’s mind [31]. RSG Automation Technics GmbH & Co. KG, Germany, illustrated a complete automated exchanger of the bobbin. This company’s patented checker of bobbin uses a distinct bobbin coded with certain RGB color combinations. When the bobbin whirls during machine operations, a light sensor regulates the sequence of colors and detects unusual movement of the bobbin or errors when it runs out of threads. This technology leads to the least stoppage of production as the sewing machine gets stopped for only six to eight seconds every time there is a bobbin change.

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The automated sewing principles change according to the sewing path geometry. 2D seams can be easily created using Computer Numerical Control technology of sewing, where any single or double mobile heads of sewing advance over apparel within the programmed path of the seam. In complicated cases, such as converting 2D fabrics into different categories of 3D seams, a robot guides the head of sewing in 3D space within the sewing paths. In contrast, the corresponding fabrics are fixed and positioned in a 3D shape. In fact, in many cases where two or more pieces of material have a difference in curvatures or contours within the seam line to be attached, this seam type must be handled by fixed positioning of the 3D materials and implementing different tensions in every stitch within the fabrics. In the case of the 2D configuration of sewing, one or more layers of apparel are stitched within fixed frames. Flexible handling of the material is neglected by clamping different fabric pieces into the holders, which guide the head of sewing into horizontal and vertical axes following a programmed seam contour. This configuration of sewing is mainly applied to ornamental seams and design seams. Large machines can handle a 3 × 3 m2 sewing area, whereas small machines can only handle 10 × 10 cm2 [33]. Large CNC sewing machines are used for blanket or mattress quilting. Usually, a small-scale machine is used for automatically stitching care and brand labels on apparel. Current developments within automated systems of sewing are restricted to specific operations. Different commercial semi-automatic sewing machines and units are available from Japan’s Juki Corp., Germany’s Durkopp Adler AG, and Italy’s RIMAC Srl. Juki illustrated an automated sewing machine series for button attaching, bartacks, and buttonholes. In contrast, Rimac demonstrated an automatic binding machine for finishing the round shape angles of automobile floor mats and bedding. The piece of work is rotated along the slopes equipped with a motorized arm to create a constant curve, and the textile tape is automatically pushed through a feeding unit. Durkopp Adler demonstrated a modular production system by illustrating a sequence of pockets having double welts. Welt pockets are created using a 2-needle head lock stitch machine with a needle feed mechanism and a center knife cutter [31]. Frames of sewing having a constant path of the seam are applied for template sewing, where they clamp pieces of work during operation. In a semi-automated configuration, the worker aligns and feeds the details to the system as per the process requirement. Automats for attaching pockets use a sewing machine jig with a stitch-type 301 lockstitch head of sewing, which may have variable features. In some models, the creased pocket needs to be loaded by hand, while in some other models, the machine does the creasing. The worker primarily loads the pocket in a clamp of creasing. After that, he loads the leg component of the trouser in the loading area. Pressing the actuator enables the clamp of creasing to crease the selected pocket. Then it comes downwards and positions the creased pocket onto the leg of the trouser. Grasping the designated pocket and leg assembly, an individual jig carries it to the head of sewing. Thus, the stationery head of sewing in two non-parallel sewing bursts and bar-tacking operations at both ends accomplish the attaching. There are options for working with

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sewing threads of two different colors in two stitching rows. The securing possibility of the cargo pouch pocket was demonstrated by Pfaff model 3588, where with or without a flap, the cargo pouch pocket can be joined automatically [31]. Softwear Automation Inc., Atlanta, is providing significant contributions to the automatic sewing arena with the invention of Sewbots. Its prominent technological implementation is the integration of advanced computerized vision systems. Individual threads are tracked at the needle, and precise fabric movement is coordinated [31]. Sewbots use a 360-degree conveyor system and a robotic arm for handling the fabric. A four-axis robotic arm uses a vacuum gripper to lift and place a fabric piece, whereas a conveyor table feeds the fabric into the sewing unit. The table is constituted with budgers spherical rollers embedded on the surface. Budgers help every piece of fabric move smoothly on the table in any needed direction. Quebec-based Automatex Inc., Terrebonne, illustrated a fully automatic pillowcase manufacturing unit to accomplish sequential manufacturing processes of folding, trimming, labeling, packaging, and stitching within a single unit. Moreover, similar systems have been demonstrated by the Italian MagetronSrl. and the German Carl Schmale GmbH & Co.KG, and the German TEXPA Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. for producing towels. Until now, commercially available production systems with the fully automatic capability of production were confined to planar apparel products like towels, sheets of bedding, and carpets. Sewing heads are required to be placed on and controlled by the robots for 3D sewing operations. Maintaining economic and flexible manufacturing is difficult because many semi-automated machine steps and processes must be incorporated. More requirements for investments and modern robotic systems are yet to be adopted in apparel manufacturing lines. The production demonstration carried out by the Italian ACG Kinna Automatic exhibited an excellent, futuristic display for the automatic show. A fully automated system, Borsoi, uses robots to handle a 3D pillow. Certainly, Borsoi was capable of picking up a case of a pillow, securing the opening of the seam, stuffing the pillowcase, transporting the pillow, closing the opening, and packing finished apparel in a bag in a single continuous line of production. All pieces of work are handled and forwarded between tasks using clamps with robotic arms. Completion of several tasks of production is the primary consideration in advanced automatic sewing systems. Sewing machines need to be implemented within the current flow of other operations in the assembly processes, like feeders for stuffing or seam pressers. The automatic sewing systems’ configuration depends on the product’s design and production plans, and every manufacturing system may need to be customized for various textile products. Product standardization efforts would minimize the burden. Moreover, companies like RSG Automation Technics provide customization services for apparel production plants.

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8.1 Application of the Robotics Technology in Apparel Sewing Many costly apparel companies provide a higher level of automation, or robotics, which offers the potential for replacing manually performed work steps, such as by robots and automated devices for handling. A robot does not get tired and can continue endless repetitive work with constant and accurate precision 24 h per day, except for the time of repair and maintenance. This improves product quality and performance. Besides, they can reduce human inefficiencies in the working environment as they resist environmental pollution and can complete monotonous and difficult physical work. Furthermore, removing manual handling reduces bottlenecks, which could slow down the overall procedure [33, 35]. Many relevant research projects have been done. Among them, robots have been utilized for guiding apparel. It is also suitable for the sewing process and movement of the head of sewing. Robots haven’t yet been used to make composite materials for clothing because they cost a lot to set up. The cutting components can be tensioned within a 3D station, and the fabric is sewn. This system was suitable for sewing the car seat and head cushion covers. In the sewing area, the circumferential seams are sewn with the help of a robot. A significant limitation of this system is the high investment cost because of the two industrially used robots and the automatic turning and clamping devices. Also, the system is not very flexible regarding different cutting geometries. For example, when new molds are made for different designs of products, the robots used in the industry must be reprogrammed by hand. Robots have already been used to guide the heads of sewing machines. The four most critical one-sided processes of sewing used in the case of composite fabric in the modern day are all guided through a sewing portal and a robot. An industrially usable robot can get access to a wide variety of effectors, like (a) (b) (c) (d)

Different systems of gripper Blind stitch, Tufting, and ITA one-sided head of the sewing Binder application process Laser sensors and camera for controlling quality.

In the case of the robot-guided process of sewing, the piece of work is guided by an industrial robot. In this method, a sewing cell comprises an industrial C-frame type sewing machine and two robot arms showing the work’s lower and upper pieces. Finally, robots grip the material, and then the material is fed to the patch of the joint. Simultaneously, the sensors monitor the sewn edge, and an analog board controls the robot arms in real time. The disadvantages of this process are the minimal possible curvature radius of the sections of the seam and the industrial robots’ restricted areas of work. An automatic sewing cell was demonstrated where the Norwegian community of research, Scandinavia (SINTEF) research organization, TU Trondheim, and many Norwegian organizations took part. The enclosure is made up of two robots with

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mechanical grippers, and they are equipped with some force sensors. The tension of the apparel is constantly regulated and monitored by these sensors during sewing. Industrial robots are controlled by a particular type of software consisting of a Linux computer, the System of Robot Operation, and many low-level controllers. The edge sensor maintains robot movements in real time [36]. This sewing cell’s components of cut-for-armchair covers can easily be sewn in two layers. In 2016, a robot-based system for sewing named SEWBO was developed by Sewbo, Inc., Seattle, US. This industrial robot automatically sewed all-important Tshirt seams for the very first time. This was possible because the apparel was treated with a water-soluble polymer and turned stiff from this pre-treatment. The rigidity of the apparel helps the robot guide the apparel through the process like a solid material. The use of robotics and automation helps in enhancing quality as well as efficiency. It is a costly process and needs changes in the program while handling different garment styles.

8.2 Advanced Technologies in Quality Monitoring System of Fabrics and Garment Seams Generally, fabrics are inspected to detect defects before being sent to the apparel section. At the time of inspection, points are given based on the severity of the defect. After calculating based on the inspection system employed, the overall acceptance or rejection of the fabric is determined. Among different inspection systems, 4-point, 10-point, and Dallas systems are mainly used as fabric inspection systems. Fabric with few flaws ensures that the garments are of higher quality, lowering the rate of rejection and ensuring that they are delivered on time [37, 38]. Machine vision plays the most significant role as the advanced technology or automation in the fabric detection system. The machine vision system consists of the following equipment: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Camera(s) A Lighting system or another imager Processor Software Output device.

8.2.1

Quality Monitoring of Fabrics

Detection and defect classification methods can be further classified as quality monitoring methods. There are a lot of categorical classification methods for defect detection methods,like statistical, spectral, and model [39]; statistical, structural, filter-based, and model-based [40]; motif- and non-motif-based approaches [41], etc.

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Furthermore, autoregressive spectral analysis (AR) [42], adaptive pulse-coupled neural network (PCNN) and ridgelet transformation [43], and a method based on local contrast deviations [44] are also used in quality monitoring of fabrics. In addition, some methods are based on the use of regular bands (RB) and independent component analysis (ICA) for the improvement of Gabor wavelet defect detection [45] and singular value decomposition (SVD) [46] are also used. The defect classification methods can be classified into different categories. The most important of these are support vector machines (SVM), clustering methods, statistical inference, and artificial neural networks (ANN) [47].

8.2.2

Quality Monitoring of Seams

The quality of the seam mainly depends on factors such as the materials to be sewn, the sewing needle, the sewing thread, and the processing techniques [48]. Therefore, to monitor the seam quality, machine parameters and optical seam quality measuring principles are considered effective methods to check and ensure the quality of seams. A commercial system developed by Dürkopp Adler AG, Bielefeld, Germany, is capable of documenting the sewing process that works with thread-based sewing machines. Compared to other textile production and processing fields, the sewing field has less use of sensor-based detection methods. But some methods are used for some specific applications. An ultrasonic measuring method for seam curling can successfully be assessed and recorded without any contact. Infrared and microwave sensors can detect the materials being sewn. In contrast, optoelectric and optical sensors are used to evaluate the movement and changes relating to sewing machine control components or the sewing thread. Moreover, optoelectronic systems can also detect structural deviations, surface texture changes, and stiffness. An offline laser triangular sensor can be used for the optical control of crimping intensities. Strain gauges, infrared sensors, or thermos-sensors were used to measure the temperature of the needle. Piezoelectric sensors were used to measure the movement of the upper thread, etc. [47]. • Quality Monitoring System for Seam Puckering Seam puckering is one of the most notorious problems in seams. In addition to other factors, the most important factor in seam puckering is the wrong machine parameter setting. To evaluate seam puckering, devices with optical measuring principles are widely used. A 2D process is such a process where the principle of the shadow is used in pattern recognition [49]. Similarly, photogrammetry employs two cameras to record the object [47]. Figure 5 shows the schematic diagram of a photogrammetry method. In addition, laser triangulation and the development of punctual laser triangular processes, namely the light-section technique, are used where the laser and sensor play a significant role in measuring and detecting [47].

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Fig. 5 Schematic structure of a photogrammetry unit for detecting a wrinkle on a textile surface. Reprinted with permission from [47]

• Quality Monitoring of Welded Seams Unlike the sewn seams, the welded seams remain invisible. As a result, the proper assessment of this type of seam is always a challenge. Therefore, as seams prepared by welding technology play an essential role in the world market, the proper quality monitoring of welded seams is also necessary. For tape welding machines, the technology for temperature control is patented by PFAFF Industriesysteme und Maschinen AG, Kaiserslautern, Germany. This technology can enhance the quality of the tape-welded seams. Furthermore, in cooperation with PFAFF Industriesysteme und Maschinen AG, the Institut für Textiltechnik, RWTH Aachen University, Germany, developed a closed-loop control to improve the quality of the seams made by welding [47].

9 Sew-Free Technologies Sewing is the art of fastening, joining, or attaching any object using various stitches made with thread and needles. The sewing of apparel gathers the layers of fabric by thread incorporation, which is limited by the length of thread being fed to the sewing machine so that it enables a specific durability amount. Sewing has been used as one of the oldest textile crafts and has been the basis for garment production and construction since then. But using hot melt or thermoplastic adhesive films has started to change how clothes are made and pave the way for the next generation of cut-and-sew. Seam sealing, or sew-free seam technology, is a procedure of sealing the seam up, generally with a tape or coat made of silicone to waterproof the corresponding seam. But, with the advent of adhesive tapes with elastomeric properties, the extra

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coating step has been eliminated, and the tape directly gets fused over the seam, eliminating the need for stitching. It is a prudent yet strong bond. It can also be used in available garments for attaching panels, side seams, plackets and pockets, seam overlapping, hems, necklines, panty gusset folding over, pockets patch-on, panels compression, bonding of panel-to-panel, etc. These special adhesive tapes with elastomeric properties made it possible to get sew-free seaming. These elastomeric tapes generate the adhesive under pressure and heat by melting fabrics through the structure. The activation of the elastomeric adhesive can be performed through the pressing of an iron or seam-sealing machine. It can bond almost all non-fleece fabrics (cotton, polyester, leather membrane, nylon, etc.) with some limitations, such as porous materials like fleece and silicone [50–52]. Sew-free seaming technologies were primarily used in intimate apparel products to join fabrics over the elastics in ladies’ bras [53] and to create a smooth feel and appearance by keeping seams as flat as possible. Successive outputs in intimate apparel products and the advantages of weight reduction, a slimmer profile, and increased resistance to water caught the eyes of outerwear apparel manufacturers. At present, sew-free seaming technologies are broadly used in the sportswear industry. Performance apparel, fitted and activewear, such as apparel for cycling or running, apparel for yoga, and many other available apparel products are necessary for a smooth feeling when used next to the skin to minimize the possibility of chafing. Due to this technology, technical outerwear is becoming lighter and more formfitting while retaining the latest development in being breathable and waterproof. This technology has been used in shoes, bags, medical materials, protective gloves, camping tents, and other things, such as waterproof seam sealing, stitch-free pocket adhesive, zipper bonding, front zip sealing, joining of fabric, bonding of line, taping of overlay, and using adhesive backing for woven labels and embroidery. Industries are now branding and promoting sew-free seaming as a value-added service in their respective garments. It is advantageous in both aesthetic and technical aspects. Sewn clothing also has 15% less GSM than sewn clothing. The foundation for such claims is that materials are less overlapped in this case, and the seam joining requires no thread. Less overlapping materials also means the sew-free garments can be quickly stitched, reducing fabric waste. The sew-free seaming technology is used with seamless knitting. While the two technologies are quite different, they can be used together. Seamless knitting machines are used to make clothes that don’t have any needle holes or stitches. The ruined clothes are prepared with sew-free technology.

9.1 Welding Technology Welding is the seam sealing and thermal bonding of thermoplastic woven, knitted, and nonwoven materials without using chemicals, adhesives, needles, staples, or thread binders. Heat, pressure, and speed are the three principles for carrying out welding. This arranged combination of these three principles helps one get an adequately

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welded seam in thermoplastic materials by continuous film sealing or fabric point bonding. The welding efficiency of a woven fabric is affected by the density of yarn, thermoplastic content, incorporated tightness, and material thickness uniformity. In contrast, the randomly oriented fibers in nonwoven fabrics provide excellent bond strength. In knit fabrics, the style, as well as construction elasticity, affect the power of the bond. Materials that are coated are most often welded for seam sealing. The coating nature, the thickness of the film, and other substrate characteristics are necessary variables in such cases. Materials suitable for the welding technique processing include mainly 100% synthetic fibers such as nylon, polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene, acrylics which are modified, some vinyl, film, urethane, coated paper, and synthetic blends having 35–50% non-synthetic content of fiber. Heat generation methods are also used [54]. The technology consists of the two most common methods: hot air welding and hot wedge welding. In the case of hot air welding, a nozzle of hot air delivers heat, whereas, in hot wedge welding, a promptly controlled wedge at high temperature is injected between two or more thermoplastic material layers. Thus, the thermoplastic is heated, and the two surfaces for bonding molecules are prepared. Other methods include laser welding, ultrasonic welding, and radio frequency welding. A comparatively less common way of bonding is through the impact techniques of welding. By producing sealed edges and no stitch holes in the seams, welding prevents the absorption of chemicals, different liquids, blood-borne pathogens, or various particulates. It provides an advantage over traditional stitching procedures. • Hot Air Fabric Welding Hot air welding is mainly used in sealing seams by using tape through the hot air tape welding machines. Traditional stitched seams have tiny holes for needles; these seams can be closed, waterproofed, and windproofed by taping. Fabrics that have been laser or ultrasonically cut and filled can also be taped for a smooth and comfortable finish and reinforcement. Sealed seams are often used in sportswear, outdoor gear (like hiking, skiing, marine, climbing, and fishing gear), diving suits, military equipment, and suits for handling dangerous materials [55]. • Hot Wedge Fabric Welding In hot wedge welding, a small metal wedge delivers heat to the fabric just before it enters between the drive wheels, where the fabric is sealed together by applying pressure. • Ultrasonic Welding Ultrasonic welding technology is probably one of the most diversified applications. In this technology, sealing, slitting, forming, and converting textiles into garments or other apparel is done by using ultrasonic energy. It is used for disposable protective clothing, covers, and clothes from the medical sector; filters; roller blinds; lingerie items; and outdoor apparel. The molecular and interfacial abrasion that results from this process produces heat, which enables the material to soften and fuse adjacent

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layers. This stitchless sewing technique has benefits like speed, seam width (up to 5 mm), flexible material movement (left, right, electronic, or mechanical), programming and sealing, cutting, decorative seam crimping, and welding, all in one step [56]. • Plunge Welding Plunge cutting or welding is a batch process where the fabrics are placed onto a fixed anvil, the horn falls on it, and the layers are fused in the seam design of the moveable anvil. Cutting and sealing of the edges occur at the same time. All eye shields and tapes are joined to a surgical face mask, and ties are joined to a nonwoven medical gown; all use the plunge welding technique. Other applications include punching holes in buttons, bra straps, buckles, darts, belt loops, collar stays, and zipper stops. One more technology is where molecular, and interface abrasions are caused by high-frequency mechanical oscillations in the attaching zone. The technology usually generates the required welding heat and helps plasticize the fabric. In addition, it allows for cooling times while maintaining the pressure of welding, regarded as ultrasonic roll seam welding. The only disadvantage is that it can only be used for garments containing thermoplastic fibers.

9.2 Bonding Technology Welding technology is based on thermal joining, and bonding technology is based on chemical or liquid glue adhesion. It typically uses an adhesive between two adjacent layers of materials, and bonding occurs through the effects of heat, moisture, and pressure. Depending on the textile type to be welded, different kinds of adhesives like spray glues or hot melt adhesives are used. This technology is also used for the insertion hole sealing done by the needles. Applications are mainly in medical apparel, sportswear, and protective clothing [57–59]. The adhesives used in bonding technology are mainly adhesives that are heat melted, known as Thermo Plastic Adhesives (TPA). Depending on the fabric and fiber properties, different kinds of TPA are used for bonding. For example, modified polyamides are used in nylon fabric bonding, which has the same monomer units as nylon fiber. In the same way, adhesives of modified polyester are used for polyester fabrics. These melted adhesives are flooded through the polyester fabric’s yarns and then solidified when the cooling process is done. After a certain amount of time, these glues harden and form a web between the yarn fibers. Despite the early advantages of bonding over sewing, the bonding technology is still in its infancy with its barriers. Firstly, bonding does not fruitfully work on fabrics that are silicone washed because the silicone finish makes the bonding process quite tricky due to its chemical properties unmatched by those of glue. Secondly, there are no possibilities for alternative designs in welded or bonded garments. The machines used for this purpose are costly and slow. These factors have limited the use of bonding in apparel. However, leading lingerie and performance apparel brands use

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welding technology in its product varieties. These include Adidas, Fila, Arc’Teryx, Nike, Helly Hansen, O’Neill, Victoria’s Secret, and Patagonia. Yet, the usage of this technology in regular wear is almost nonexistent.

9.3 Advantages of Sew-Free Technologies Some of the benefits of making clothes without stitches by using a heat seal or other methods are (a) Seams may have optimum stretch and recovery while maintaining the glossy and smooth profile in the seam and hem positions. (b) The possibility of chafing is reduced, thus providing more comfort to the consumer. (c) Stitch-free seams can be up to 6% lighter than conventional stitched seams. (d) Stitch-free seams will absorb 50–60% less of their weight in the wet condition, excluding the threads soaking up liquids. (e) In terms of strength, sew-free seams can be just as strong as sewn or even stronger sometimes than sewn. In tensile strength tests, the fabric may tear before the sew-free seam tears. (f) Using a razor-thin molecular bonding process to replace a heat-sealed bond stitched seam for waterproofing eliminates the need for extra seam-sealing tape due to needle holes. (g) There has to be a specific seam allowance for conventional garments to have a proper seam with strength. Still, this technology will require no such allocation as it will be bonded through the outline and reduce fabric consumption. (h) It increases discreet property and expands the aesthetic appeal frontier. (i) Bonding in dot format significantly enhances breathability and drops the weight of water. (j) More heat resistance enhanced wash performance and outstanding strength of the bond. (k) It unlocks design creativity while material utilization optimization and manufacturing are done. (l) Less labor is required as it can combine several components in one step. (m) Fewer steps are needed to make bonded apparel, and fewer components are required to construct some clothing.

9.4 Disadvantages of Sew-Free Technologies There are a few technical barriers to the seamless technique of being able to manufacture or knit every garment shape. These are manufactured by cutting and sewing methods. The main disadvantages are as follows:

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(a) The main disadvantage of the sew-free garment is the need to take it down to keep equal tension in each loop and stitch. As we know, the main problem occurs most likely in the welt area or the cuff area. (b) The machines that manufacture these garments are costly and require skilled operators. So, sewn-free clothes are more expensive than seamed garments. (c) Besides, there has been a significant disadvantage: the processing speed. It will take a certain amount of time for the glue to melt, slowing down both the production and the application rate.

9.5 Applications of Sew-Free Garments Fully fashioned or sewn-free garments are generally used for apparel. 3D knitting techniques are being used to expand areas such as upholstery, fashion, industrial, medical textiles, and automotive. • Undergarments These are the most necessary articles. Undergarments are the tunics of two pieces. These are typically used for mostly functional purposes. • Apparel A sew-free garment does not have any single stitch or seam on the body of the garment; they are constructed and manufactured without any seam. This sew-free garment looks like a continuous, flowing, and uninterrupted fabric. For example, sew-free apparel includes sew-free stockings, hats, gloves for hands, socks, skirts, sweaters, and sportswear. • Upholstery The sew-free technique is also used for upholstery. This technology is generally used for home and office furnishings. It is also used in the automobile as seat covers and medical textiles such as bandages, orthopedic supports, and medical utensils and stockings. There are more possibilities for sew-free products in healthcare applications, such as high-performance fiber incorporation and other additional sensors.

9.6 Design Possibilities of Sew-Free Garments There are continuous improvement and innovation criteria in sew-free technologies. It helps to improve the new styles to fulfill consumer demand. The recent developments are coming from the producers of fiber and the manufacturers of yarn. The technology continues to provide advancements from the suppliers. The knitting structure shows that the construction patterns do not match other non-sew-free garments. There is a

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never-ending design opportunity for colored ways and different stitch varieties for sew-free clothes. These benefits are achieved in a single garment through ribbing, jacquards, and detailing. It is not possible for the other processes, like knitting. The sew-free technology feature has flexible benefits. Therefore, the idea has been used for underwear, swimsuits, leisure suits, sleepsuits, ready-to-wear, and athletic wear.

10 Advanced Technology in Fusing Nowadays, apparel manufacturing cannot be done without fusing. Thus, fusing is expected to have become a mature and advanced technology today. Material changes, expectations of quality, and methods of apparel care involve more uncomfortable problems, mostly found after a whole batch of defective pieces have been manufactured. The fusing technology is where the interlining gets bonded with the outer fabric by a resin of thermoplastic adhesive that can be connected to a different material [17]. The most significant area of garment construction where an alternative process has gradually taken over from the sewing process is the joining of interlinings. Approximately 80% of all apparel requires interlining to improve stability, strength, and resistance to creases and shapes. When interlinings are sewn in, it can face difficulties on the parts like collars to avoid wrinkling of the interlining inside the collar and puckering around the edge. Moreover, on large parts like the fronts of the jacket, the joining of interlinings by sewing is costly and requires skill if a better standard is needed. Thus, the alternative process that has been innovated is fusing. Fusible interlining is used to describe a basic fabric coated on a single side with a resin of thermoplastic adhesive that can be bonded to different fabrics by the controlled implementation of pressure and heat. Automation makes it possible for advanced fusing presses to fuse precisely, improving the quality of the fused composite and keeping clothing materials from shrinking [17]. The fusing is done by applying pressure from both sides of the fabric while heat is applied. Depending on their work processes, it is categorized into two types: discontinuous or flat presses of fusing and continuous presses of fusing. Intermittent fusing presses work progressively and sequentially with other fusing methods. They are not very productive but convenient for small or medium-scale production. Continuous fusing presses perform a running operation, bypassing the materials over a conveyor belt. It facilitates higher levels of productivity. Besides, they show energy efficiency and ensure continuous fusing without fabric shrinkage and fading. For these benefits, the presses are constructed for various manufacturing units [60, 61]. Fusing presses are manufactured by several well-known companies, including German Meyer, German VEIT-Group, Italy, Macpi, Japanese Hashima, Konsan from the United Kingdom, and Oshima from Taiwan. In continuous fusing, the pressing operation relies on a conveyor belt that moves continuously. It helps to carry the base fabric along with its interlining materials inside and outside the heating chamber. Figure 6 shows the schematic diagram of a

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Fig. 6 A schematic diagram of a continuous press of fusing: (1) loading and feed (lower) conveyer belt, (2) upper conveyer belt, (3) upper heating zone, (4) lower heating zone, (5, 6) pressure rolls, and (7) exit conveyer belt. Reprinted with permission from [17]

continuous press fusing machine. The different components of the device are also shown in the figure [62, 63]. The device has done the following: • • • •

a surface of work for moving the materials, a chamber for heating which heats the materials, pressure rolls that press the materials, and a cooling system that cools down the fused components. The fusing press device is developed by using various additional equipment, such

as (a) Feeding conveyors, consisting of several belts for loading, which are placed on the front side of a press for creating ergonomic places of work and enhancing productivity; (b) Collection stackers, which stack fused components and require fewer workers; (c) The return belts, which return the materials that are fused to the front press side when only a single worker is available; (d) Fusing devices for the waistband for fusing narrow and long rolls of the waistband.

10.1 Advanced Technologies of Fusing for Avoiding Shrinkage of Fabric The most critical problem that most often occurs during the process of fusing is the shrinkage of the material. It complicates the fabric-cutting process, reduces efficiency in fabric utilization, and leads to fabric loss. The shrinkage occurs because of the fabric’s thermal shock, which happens as the fabric is exposed to some rapid and sudden change in temperature. It creates structural and dimensional stress. It also irreversibly alters the material characteristics. To avoid damage to the fabric, the temperature needs to be increased gradually by the extension of processing time. But traditional presses for fusing cannot slowly heat the components. As a result, a different degree of shrinkage of fabric occurs most often. As a result, the dimensions

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of the fused elements are reduced, and attaching them to varying parts of the garment may become difficult [17, 64]. To avoid this complexity in the joining of the components, the degree of shrinkage for every fabric needs to be pre-fixed. It must be considered within the dimensions of the respective materials in their separate markers. But, due to the wide variations in apparel components, their testing procedures and corrective actions on the pattern pieces are rarely performed. The problems are often obstructed by adding safety buffers over the fusible materials or marker blocks and by two-step cutting. These fusible materials or their blocks are cut so that they are not considerably more prominent in the first step. After fusing, a fine and accurate cut is made, and the extra piece is thrown away after the shrinkage of the fabric is taken into account. Modern technologies of fusing exhibit the latest generation of fusing presses that can ensure the process of fusing is more qualitative and also negate shrinkage of the material. The continuous fusing press consists of a long heating chamber and a susceptible heating system. The section of the heating press has many, up to 12, separately controlled individual heating zones. Every zone of heating has a different temperature, which can heat materials gradually over a more extended period. Temperatures for the upper and lower zones of heating that heat the interlining and face fabric, respectively, can be adjusted individually considering the material quality. The long chamber of heating with several zones for heating increases the time of heating as well as ensures a gradual rise in temperature for fusing the fabric perfectly, which can avoid shrinkage of fabric even below the lower temperature compared to a conventional short-chamber press for heating. The capacity of heating and the heating chamber geometry of the press choose the material for fusing. Lightweight fabrics usually need a lower degree of heating, and presses with a shorter chamber of heating with fewer zones can be helpful enough. Heat is generated at the center point from the face side of the fabric. After that, it moves the melting resins to the face side. For heavier fabrics and multilayer or sandwich fusing, presses with a better heating capacity and a larger chamber for heating with heating zones are required. Moreover, heating only from the bottom and topsides, along with individual thermal control, ensures an accurate temperature balance. Continuous fusing presses with extended heating chambers and individual heat control systems have been developed by companies such as Germany’s Meyer, Reliant Machinery from the United Kingdom, the German VEIT Group, Oshima from Taiwan, and the Italian Martin Group. Another example of an advanced fusing system for apparel is the MP 2S Fusing Machine by MAICA. It has been innovated to satisfy the needs of the most challenging consumers for collar adhesion, cuff adhesion, and other details. A tracking system allows pre-fixing the fabric before entering the adhesive phase to avoid the electrostatic effect that could move them. The temperature is controlled by a touch screen, which permits easy and quick resistance adjustment. The use of an unloading device allows methodical stacking of the fabric pieces during the termination of the operation without the need for many people to be present around the fusing machine.

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The stacker permits the hot, finished fabric piece to be automatically cooled and won’t be affected by the hands of humans, which may deform its shape. This machine also has a patented conveyor cleaning system for certain researched materials. Generally, one person is enough to fuse around 4,000 parts daily. Thus, it minimizes 5/6 operators for the same output. It also provides consistently better quality and low power consumption.

11 Advanced Technology in Finishing 11.1 Pressing Garment pressing or ironing removes unwelcome creases or wrinkles from clothing while enhancing its smoothness, brightness, and beauty. Calendaring clothing is another term for pressing. Heat, pressure, and moisture are generally used while pressing or ironing. This procedure transforms fibers, yarns, and fabrics into the desired shapes as desired by the designer. The equipment and techniques for pressing garments determine how heat, pressure, and moisture are applied. In the clothing industry, steam is mostly used to provide heat and moisture, or mechanical or manual systems are used to create pressure. The homogeneity of pressure can be maintained correctly by using a mechanical system, which cannot be kept if pressure is applied manually. There is a distinct area in a clothing factory for pressing or ironing. To present the clothing to buyers and consumers beautifully and appealingly, pressing plays a significant role. • Purposes of pressing The significant purposes of pressing can be summarized as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Removal of unwanted creases and wrinkles To apply creases in the desired locations as needed Shaping of different or whole parts of a garment Underpressing Final pressing Increase the beautification of garments.

• Pressing without pressure The principal methods of pressing without pressure are described as follows: • Steam Tunnel: In this process, pressing is done without applying any pressure to the garments. The garments are hung on hangers, and the hangers are placed on the running rail. The running rail carries the hangers with garments through a tunnel. There are several chambers in the tunnel. In the first chamber, the required temperature is controlled by steam. The garments hanging in the hangers are

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heated by steam as they pass through the chamber, and any unwanted creases in the garments are removed due to fabric relaxation caused by heat and gravitational force. Then, during the period of passing through the second chamber, the garments are dried by the flow of dry, hot air [65]. In this process, if there is any crease in the garments, they can be removed, but no creases can be created. Generally, the steam tunnel is used for pressing t-shirts or garments made with knit fabrics. • Permanent Creasing: Before the invention of the permanent-press, the fabric was typically treated with a cross-linking chemical or resin followed by curing. This procedure caused creases to vanish and seams to lose their flat, folded form, and the finished item had the propensity to return to a smooth, flat state. However, some puckering also happened due to fabric displacement and yarn tension changes during fabrication. Post-cure or permanent-press techniques were used in place of precure techniques to address these issues. The garment may be permanently molded while sewn and pressed, if creases and wrinkles are trapped in and out. Wash-wear promises made years ago are now being fulfilled by Permanent-press [66–69]. There are several processes by which permanent-press or durable press may be obtained, which are • Delayed or Deferred Cure: This process is probably the most familiar than the others. Blends of polyester/cotton, cotton/nylon, polynosic/polyester, and 100% cotton are used in this process. This post-cure process enables the fabric to be impregnated with the appropriate reactant, catalyst, and finishing agent. The fabric is dried at a low temperature to prevent curing. After fabrication, the sensitized garment is pressed on a hot-head press to set the shape and then oven-cured to cross-link the chemicals to the fabric and to set creases. The oven-curing time and temperature combinations vary from finisher to finisher, one of which was found to be 370 °F, 340 °F, 320 °F, and 300 °F for 2 min, 4 min, 8 min, and 15 min, respectively. In the case of cellulosic fabric content, a heavy-weight fabric is usually used to offset around a 35–50% reduction in tensile strength, resulting from high temperatures and long periods of curing time. Because of shrinkage, patterns for men’s pants must be one-fourth inch bigger in the waistband and inseam [70]. • Precure, Double Cure, or Recure: These processes depend on particular garment pressing conditions. They do not require an oven. In the case of the precure or double cure process, where garments are made from fully cured or partially cured fabric, they are pressed on a hot-head press to break and reform the cross-linking bonds in the creased position. Then the garments may or may not be oven-cured, depending on the hot-head press’s temperature. Fabrication is carried out by using fully cured fabric. The garments are lightly pressed for shaping, and then an additional catalyst solution is sprayed or sponged on the creases, seams, and pleats, which uncured and recured the fabric.

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In contrast, the garment is held in the desired configuration using a hot-head press. The cross-links break with the effect of heat and moisture and reform as the fabric dries during the pressing. It was modified to eliminate the additional catalyst spraying. One way, the garment is pressed on a hot-head press for three minutes. In another way, the garment is pressed on presses that generate temperatures above 325 °F and steam gauge pressures ranging from 80 to 120 pounds. Depending on the fabric and type of press used, the pressing time varied from 225 to 180 s [71]. A few limitations to the precure process prevent its wide acceptance on an industrial scale. One of them is stiffening, which usually occurs in the secured area with the application of additional catalysts. Besides, the delicate balance between a crosslinking rupture and a cross-linking formation is difficult to control. Watermarks may appear on certain fabrics due to this process. Also, scorching is likely to happen where the resin moves because of the catalyst solution. • Fiber Modification or Sulfone Process: This procedure is used mainly on polyester/cotton blended fabrics. The fabric is treated with a symmetrical sulfone and alkali, which reacts for some time in the wet state before rinsing and drying the fabric. Then the cloth is treated with NaOH, which reacts for a short time. After this reaction time, the fabric is neutralized and rinsed, which completes the “wet cross-linking” step. Then an alkaline catalyst is padded on, and the fabric is dried. After that, the cellulose fibers have been modified, and all noticeable changes have taken place, which imparts all desirable characteristics except dry crease recovery to the fabric. Dry crease recovery is imparted to the fabric only after an oven-cure or “dry cross-linking” step. One source states that an oven cure of 320 °F for 4–5 min is believed to be sufficient, while another source states that these conditions may vary from 10 to 15 min at 260° to 280 °F to 3–6 min at 300° to 330 °F. This process requires selecting a suitable chemical system to get uniformity of the treatment, stability of the treated fabric during storage, elimination of odors, and an after-wash treatment. The pressing amount needed to set creases is less with this process than in the delayed cure process because the lower amount of pressing is sufficient to impart a crease to the dried fabric and the chemical reaction takes place in the oven after fabrication. This process eliminates chlorine retention, unpleasant odors, and spontaneous curing. • High Energy or Pressure Cure: In this process, the garments are cut from procured or post-cured polyester/cotton, cotton/nylon stretch, or 100% cotton fabrics. The garments are pressed and cured simultaneously using high temperatures of around 450 °F for 15 s at high pressures. Oven-cure is not necessary with this time and temperature relationship. Fabrics used in this procedure are always entirely cured. • Resin-latex or Garment Treatment Process: The completed garments are immersed in a conventional resin with a very high concentration of a thermoplastic polymer. After the excess liquor has been extracted, the damp garments

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are pressed into shape and cured in an oven. It is important to note that the covering patent says that the resin and latex add-ons make the clothes about 13% heavier. One limitation of this procedure is that the treatment of the garments requires such close control for satisfactory results that industrial acceptance on a wide scale is unlikely. Besides, this process requires a longer pressing time to set a crease due to the extraction of excess liquid, followed by a pressing to dry the garment and set crease lines. • Resin-Fiber Process, or Fiber Blend: The significant effect of this process is obtained through fabric construction engineering, although some resins may be used in small amounts. Generally, the fabric is woven with 100% thermoplastic fiber in one direction and 100% cellulose or cellulose/synthetic blend in the other direction. Garments made from this fabric are pressed on a hot-head press using high temperatures and pressures of around 90 pounds for 5 s, which can impart the crease or pleat. This process results in about one percent of residual shrinkage. Another source indicates using 100% polyester yarn in the filling direction to capitalize on polyester’s ability to accept and hold a crease. They also suggest using polyester/acrylic blended fabrics where the two thermoplastic fibers need only a good pressing with pressure to obtain a sharp crease. • Everprest’s “Sharp/Shape”: This process is effective with stretch fabrics and was adapted for Expandra stretch denim. A pre-sanforized blend of 75% cotton and 25% stretch nylon is used. Garments made from this fabric are cured by pressing with a hot-head press. • Vapor Process: This process is used on 100% cotton fabric to achieve permanentpress garments. This process has not yet been developed for commercial use. The untreated cotton fabrics are placed in a closed oven or vapor reactor chamber to introduce vapors of cellulose cross-linking agents. The catalysts are drawn into the chamber by an air or nitrogen stream. Temperatures range from room temperature to 120 °C, and reaction times range from 15 s to 120 min, depending on the reagents used. The chemicals on the clothes that haven’t been changed are flushed out of the chamber. Since the vapor phase cross-linking is carried out under mild conditions, in the presence of moisture or non-restrictive swelling agents, the permanent-press cotton garments produced have higher tensile strength, tear strength, and abrasion resistance than those made in the resin-based high-temperature curing system. Since the reactions are done on untreated cotton clothes, there is no problem with the fabric’s ability to stay stable between finishing and making the clothes. Permanent-press is still relatively new. There are limited studies available that compare conventional wash-wear fabrics with permanent-press fabrics. Permanentpress fabrics will be stronger in the future because of new and better curing methods and a better understanding of how fiber blends work together.

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12 Digital Printing and Embroidery Textile printing can be traced back to ancient crafts, and, since then, it has followed a path of continuous development up to recent times. But in the case of industries, only a few of them could adequately produce printed fabric with rotary screen technology. The invention of digital printing technology in the last decade of the twentieth century changed it all. It opened broad opportunities for many manufacturers worldwide by effectively reducing sampling times and providing the capability to add customizations on a larger scale [72]. In the case of embroideries, humans used them to add cultural and aesthetic values to their social lives, and the elite class of society indulged in them for the past few centuries. Recent technological surges have also changed the embroidery sector by using digital imaging and sometimes CAD to add more precision. Using these new technologies increased productivity but, more importantly, reduced lead time, lowering the overall cost of the garments [73].

12.1 Digital Printing The popularity of t-shirts among the new generation is very high, and some companies grasped the opportunity by developing digital printing machines. The machine is handy for those apparel industries producing goods for the uprising t-shirt market. The digital printer generates mock intarsia, jacquard patterns, and photographic prints on knitted garments [74]. The machines are controlled by computer software to make the system precise and accurate. The software governs the nozzles from which the inks get dropped onto the design surface. The design is created and manipulated by a CAD program. Most commercial corporations use six- or eight-color CAD systems [74]. New technologies are coming to the market with unique designs to develop the growing textile market.

12.2 Embroidery Digital embroidery systems are considered a very accurate, time-saving alternative to conventional embroidery systems. The artwork for the embroidery is first developed by specialized digital software or CAD programs. It is then transferred to the embroidery machine in a way that the machine can understand and follow the artwork perfectly with the precise track. Embroidery threads are loaded into the machine according to the number of treads per color. Most commercial systems use either one of six, nine, or eleven, fifteen-colored devices to create the embroidery pattern. Sewing speed and trace function are adjusted before pushing to start the embroidery process. Generally, trace detail is manipulated, and trace speed is

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changed from fast to slow or opposite at any time during operation based on preference. If thread breakage occurs, the machine shows an error message on the monitor. Once the pattern is complete, the machine returns to the beginning and is ready to start another new pattern [75]. Deco Studio e3, Brother, Embird, Hatch, Embrilliance, and Tajima Writer Plus are some of the most popular commercially used digital embroidery software.

13 Advanced Technology in Manikins The manikins, also known as thermal manikins are being widely used in scientific testing environments without posing a risk to the subject being tested. Among different thermal manikins, NEWTON, SAM (Sweating Agile Thermal Manikin), and ADAM (Advanced Automotive Manikin) are the most common. NEWTON has been developed by the Measurement Technology North West in the United States. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory in the United States and the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Testing and Research in Switzerland made ADAM and SAM, respectively [76–79]. All of the manikins are developed using the standard BS EN ISO 15831: 2004 regarding the construction of thermal manikins. Moreover, a lot of options are available for these manikins. In addition to NEWTON, Measurement Technology North West also developed the Simon Manikin, Nemo Manikin, “TIMMY” child manikin, and automotive HVAC manikin systems for different specific purposes [80–82]. In the more advanced field, manikins are also used in medical training, nursing education, and healthcare simulation training [83–85]. On the other hand, in traditional apparel manufacturing, mannequins were used to display products in shops that mimic the appearance of humans. In addition to displaying products, different advanced mannequins are used to satisfy various purposes. For example, in 2014, the Q logo mannequin made its debut in the United States, named after the “invisible” aides on stage during kabuki plays. Q logo can move its head, arms, and legs thanks to little motors in various sections of its body, including the neck, shoulders, elbows, and knees. It’s also feasible to create a Q logo troupe directed remotely to dance and run [86]. In another case, customers can obtain information about the clothes on display via mobile phones owing to Iconeme’s technology. Customers who have the app will receive a push message when the beacon is in range, allowing them to see product information and purchase directly from their phones. Using QR codes or NFC, very similar applications have been seen before [87].

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14 Application of Smart and Technical Textiles in Apparel Smart textiles, also known as Future Textiles, E-Textiles, and other terms, are fabrics developed. Modern containment technology offers the wearer increased usefulness. In recent times, intelligent E-textiles have gained a lot of attention around the world. The futuristic features and the potential for comprehensive application in different fields make smart textiles popular and desirable. A lot of research is performed yearly to develop intelligent textiles sustainably, with more user-friendly features and a more cloth-like feeling. The different elements of intelligent, electronic [88], and acoustic textile technology [89] are developing daily. The focus is mainly on micro-encapsulation [90], thermochromic color [91], photochromic dyes [92], and phosphorescent pigments. Interactive textiles are examples of the most commonly used forms. In recent days, wearable electronics are gaining a lot of attraction for their excellent properties [93]. Though it is a subject of extensive research, many small-scale successful examples of wearable electronic textiles have already been materialized [94–96]. At the same time, scalable production for wearable intelligent textiles is being conducted successfully [97–99]. In addition, technical textiles [100] in various apparel applications are ubiquitous. Their versatile applications and attractive properties for the specialized field are used in multiple high-performance apparel to serve specific functions. Several high-performance yarns [101, 102] and fabrics [103–105] are successfully used and, more importantly, scalable used in apparel, specifically high-performance specialized apparel [103, 104, 106].

15 Advanced Technology in Apparel Supply Chain The supply chain is primarily a bridge among suppliers, clients, and producers [107]. Supply chains are highly intricate matrices that can start at one point and end at another. This connection is possible by using advanced technologies. Some of these are used to support the idea of the Industry 4.0 revolution. Sustainable management of operations is obligatory for the betterment of the planet. More emphasis is given to Industry 4.0 technologies to improve sustainability in supply chains as the products deliver a sustainable output and reduce man–machine contact [108]. The textile and apparel industries are a fundamental part of the global economy. Suppliers, buyers, retailers, merchandisers, contractors, and subcontractors play essential roles in the supply chain, including everything from fibers to marketing and even the disposal of old clothes. Moreover, markets are becoming more dynamic, global, and customer-oriented, where customers expect more diversity, better quality and service, faster delivery, and reliability. A set of intelligent systems and information technology (IT) tools are being used directly or indirectly to handle the complexity of supply chain management (SCM) in the textile and apparel industries [109]. These systems are used for many different things, like integrating information, managing inventory, completing orders,

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buying supplies, meeting the challenges of fast fashion, planning deliveries, and setting up schedules, to name a few.

16 Advance Planning and Scheduling (APS) Planning and scheduling (APS) are computer-driven planning structures that put forward numerous supply chain management tasks (SCM), containing production, procurement, distribution, and sales at the operational planning levels. Since 1970, APS systems have represented a natural advancement of planning approaches. As in other industries, in the apparel industry, the APS focuses on facilitating decisionmaking by selecting alternatives and identifying the best strategies [110]. The main characteristics of APS can be summarized as follows: • Intrinsic Planning Intrinsic planning is the planning of the whole supply chain. It aims to focus on issues of the internal supply chain (e.g., a single company having multiple production units). Theoretically, it counts the entire supply chain (i.e., suppliers to customers) [110]. • True Optimization Optimizing APS problems seeks solutions where decisions are made based on limited and constrained resources. Most supply chain problems need to address supply and match demand when one, the other one, or both are not abundant. The leading optimization approaches in the textile and apparel industries are mathematical programming, heuristic programming, and constraint programming. Other quantitative systems are also used for demand forecasting, scenario planning, and time series analysis [110].

16.1 Advanced Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System An Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system, as a software solution, is a crossfunctional system that combines several departments of a company and strives to reduce lead time, improve productivity, increase responsiveness, and acquire competitive advantage [111]. During the last two decades, the ERP system has drawn the attention of many companies and has been widely implemented in the textile and apparel industries. In the apparel industry, ERP allows the organization to put several systems such as a decision support system (DIS), a management information system (MIS), data mining, and data management in a particular place and gives critical alerts when the process diverges from the provided direction [112]. The selection of a proper ERP system is crucial for the apparel industry, as a poor selection may be risky. The following are the advanced EPR systems used in the apparel and fashion industry.

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• Sync: It is designed mainly for the apparel industry. It is an integrated ERP software that manages the entire task of costing and the project management process. It has seven inclusive modules: costing, purchasing, stock control software, mobile sales, task management, financial integration, and reports. • Ysoft: Apparel Industry Extensions (AIE), an apparel solution, is established using open-source technologies: customer relationship management (CRM) and Compiere ERP system software. The apparel industry has modified and upgraded several times to identify the desired demand of the trading and sourcing process. The features of Ysoft are (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

User-specified and varied color and size codes Data entry of garments in the crisscross window Assortment number Reports on assortment details Instructions for packing Merge distinct size/color/style garments into a carton box Printout of packing command Copy packing instructions from purchase order to sales order Create apparel products by applying a different size, color, and style combination Tracking of order status and email notification Create a product catalog design based on a style image Product BOM explanation copy and report.

• VisualGEM While designing VisualGEM, the flexible working conditions of the garment industry have been considered. Software functions have been broken down and organized to match the distribution of numerous departments in the garment industry. It is possible to keep the reference of master data and transaction-related data online, which precludes the pressure of remembering codes. Though VisualGEM is a standard software package, it can be modified using a powerful template to meet the requirements of the apparel industry. The features of VisualGEM are (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

It provides a multi-company working capability. It offers substantial control of user entrance permission. It helps to maintain multicurrency export sales. Garment pictures and images can be stored and printed. Stocks are correctly held at different departments: stores, factories, and job working units. (f) Reports are converted to MS Excel, MS Word, and text formats.

• E-Smartx E-smartx is an advanced, futuristic, proven, and cost-efficient solution that meets the ultimate requirements of the apparel industry. Its workflow system greatly supports business management by responding more quickly to customer demand. With the

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help of the Internet, real-time MIS provides manufacturers the proficiency to monitor the entire process from product innovation to export. It connects several departments of different locations, such as planning, merchandising, purchase, inventory management, production, exports, finance, and payroll. The advantages of e-Smartx are (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

The entire operations of the company are monitored effectively. Higher efficiency and better performance. Unique database in the world for a single company. MIS is highly real-time and robust. It reduces production costs.

• ATOM ATOM is a software application constructed for the apparel industry. Manufacturers of apparel, home furnishings, silk products, and just plain fabric can use it to save costs and eliminate production errors. The features of ATOM are (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

It is designed entirely for the apparel industry. Multi-company and multi-language facilities are available. It can manage the entire process chain. Sourcing and production are monitored. Automatic tracking of raw material availability. Monitoring of real-time production orders. Information can be accessed easily using visual dashboards.

Large industries may find it practical to communicate with one another using the ERP system. It makes business processes run more smoothly and improves the system for better performance. This system makes it easier to manage inventory and lowers overall business costs in the clothing industry. It also helps apparel industries to get information easily and quickly.

17 RFID Technology Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is the generic name for technologies in which radio waves transmit real-time information from one place to another at a considerable distance [113]. Though the commercial application of RFID technology dates back to the 1960s, the use of RFID is a modern technology in SCM. This technology is now being widely used by many retailers, such as Marks & Spencer, Metro Group, and Wal-Mart, to track different operations. A basic RFID system has three main parts: an RFID tag (transponder), a reader (interrogator), and software to process data. Two terms are widely used: passive (without internal batteries) and active (with batteries and self-powered). A product with a tiny chip for storing data and an antenna to collect and respond to radio frequency is embedded in a product [114].

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Four frequency bands are used for RFID. The categories are based on differences in radio frequency: high-frequency tags (13.56 MHz), low-frequency tags (125 or 134.2 kHz), microwave tags (2.45 or 5.8 GHz), and UHF tags (868–956 MHz) [115].

17.1 Application of RFID Technology in Textile and Apparel In textiles and apparel, RFID is applied in production control, retail management, customer relationship management, inventory control, planning, and decisionmaking. For instance, in weaving, fabric lots are tracked effectively. In apparel processing, pattern pieces, accessories, and production processes can be monitored easily. In spinning mills, yarn and cotton bales can be traced smartly. RFID is used in retail stores to make it easier to find things and keep track of stock.

18 Blockchain Technology A digital ledger, widely known as the core of cryptocurrencies, is a digital ledger consisting of information blocks. When a defined number of deals are recorded, these blocks of information are attached to a log, thus creating a chain of blocks named "blockchain." A blockchain is controlled by a matrix of nodes in which every node accomplishes and records duplicate transactions. In the blockchain network, the blockchain is duplicated among the nodes. Transactions can be read by any node in the network (Fig. 7) [116].

19 Application of AI and Soft Computing in Apparel Processing and Business Artificial intelligence (AI), an area of computer science, can imitate the competence of human intelligence and sensory ability [117]. AI is widely used in physics, engineering, management, medicine, and so on for its intelligent and heuristic characteristics [118]. In the manufacturing industry, AI can provide outstanding results by improving quality, reducing production costs, increasing productivity, and best utilization of raw materials [119][119]. Recently, AI techniques have been implemented in apparel manufacturing and business (e.g., design, pattern making, production planning, marker making, sewing, forecasting of sales, supply chain, retailing, and marketing) [121]. Figure 8 shows the schematic diagram of some textiles’ most commonly used computing-based systems.

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Fig. 7 Structural parts of a blockchain. Reprinted with permission from [116]

Fig. 8 Basic architecture of a Fuzzy Expert System [122], b Generic Algorithm (GA) [123]. c Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) [124], and d neuron used in Artificial Neural Network (ANN) [121]. All of the figures are reprinted with permission

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19.1 Types of AI and Soft Computing Approaches AI and soft computing techniques are diverse disciplines and can be employed as a single unit or in combination to satisfy task requirements. Some AI and soft computing systems that are commonly used in the garment industry are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Fuzzy Logic (FZ), Evolution Strategy (ES), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Interface System (ANFIS), Generalized Regression Neural Network (GRN), and Artificial Immune System (AIS), as shown in Fig. 8.

19.2 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Estimation of Fiber and Yarn Properties Clothing production began with the use of textile fiber as raw materials. The properties of some textile fibers (Merino, cashmere, and Mohair) are so intricate that chemical and physical approaches, which are time-consuming and costly, are needed to identify these fibers. An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) with image processing techniques is applied to identify the fibers [125]. Fuzzy logic and an adaptive neurofuzzy interface system are also used to determine fiber length, uniformity ratio, spinning index, fineness, and yarn properties. A feedforward artificial neural network can be established to show the relationship between yarn tenacity, fiber properties, and yarn parameters.

19.3 Application of Computing-Based Systems in the Prediction of Fabric Properties Due to fast fashion, clothing manufacturers are bound to shorten the lead time, which puts more pressure on fabric manufacturers to meet the quality requirements and deliver the fabrics on time. Though expensive and able to increase production costs, AI and soft computing approaches are applied to predict fabric properties (e.g., handle, air permeability, comfortability, evaporative resistance, and durability). For instance, the ANN model can predict the handle properties of fabric depending on the mechanical properties of spun yarn manufactured using the air jet yarn spinning technique [126]. Load extension behavior, comfort properties, and bending rigidity of plain weaving fabrics can be identified using ANN, Neuro-Genetic, and ANFIS models [127, 128].

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Fig. 9 Different fabric defects inspected (arrow indicates defects) by artificial intelligence: a gout, b warp float, c drawback, d hole, e dropped stitches, and f press-off. Reprinted with permission from [41]

19.4 Application of Computing-Based Systems in the Detection of Fabric Fault Fabric inspection usually requires skilled personnel, and, at the same time, it is timeconsuming and less efficient. On the other hand, AI and soft computing can perform such tasks with greater accuracy and at a faster rate [37]. In the garment industry, grading and fault inspection of fabrics can be performed using AI [129]. Captured images are compared with stored images (Fig. 9) [130]. Furthermore, the ANN model can be developed to predict fabric flaws such as missing picks, oily fabric, broken fabric, and missing ends [131], and the ANN model can classify woven and knit fabric [132].

19.5 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Garment Manufacturing and Business Nowadays, garment manufacturing is shifting from a manual process to automation, intending to keep the production cost as low as possible, reduce production errors,

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and fulfill customer demand. To meet global demand, the application of artificial intelligence and soft computing is increasing in production planning, quality control, supply chain management, and retailing.

19.6 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Production Planning and Control Production planning and control (PPC) coordinates with several departments of the production unit to meet the delivery date. Numerous studies were conducted to avoid bottleneck problems related to PPC [133]. Most PPC studies focused on sewing floor issues such as line balancing, machine layout setting, and operator management on the sewing floor. AI solves such problems, which may help accomplish PPC’s objectives. The ANN model with the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) decisionmaking systems can be used to select the best suitable manufacturing plant [134]. As GA is powerful and effective in obtaining heuristic solutions, it can be applied to solve order scheduling problems in a production unit [135]. Reduction of idle time and proper line balancing can be achieved using a GA-based optimization methodology [136]. Optimization in marker planning [137] and cost minimization in a cut order plan can be attained using an adaptive Evaluation Systems (ESs)-based genetic optimization approach [138]. The block diagram of ES is shown in Fig. 10.

19.7 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Supply Chain Management (SCM) The flow of materials (fiber, yarn, fabric, trim, and accessories) between various production points or retail is part of SCM. Numerous business processes, information, activities, and resources for creating consumer value are integrated into SCM. Although AI is widely applied in the SCM of other goods, it has limited application in several areas of the fashion supply chain. Supply chain planning [139], procurement process [140], vendor management [141], and intelligent sales forecasting [142] can all benefit from AI approaches. Fuzzy-based software for making decisions can help fashion marketers pick the best design scheme and develop a new product [143].

19.8 Application of Computing-Based Systems in Retailing Fashion retailing is a connecting bridge between consumers and the manufacturers of fashion goods. Technological advancements and fast fashion trends have made

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Fig. 10 Block diagram of the ES. Reprinted with permission from [137]

fashion retail more challenging during the last two decades. The application of AI is rising in several areas of fashion retail, such as retail forecasting [144], management of customer relationships [145]; determination of customer satisfaction [146]; and customer choice in fashion retailing outlets [147].

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20 Challenges of Using Advanced Technologies in Apparel Production and Processing and Probable Ways to Overcome the Challenges Though advanced technology is excellent in every aspect of apparel manufacturing, processing, and supply chain, some challenges hinder the proper utilization of advanced technologies. The challenges and possible ways to overcome those challenges are discussed as follows.

20.1 High Initial Cost of Installment and Maintenance Cost There is no doubt that advanced technologies will cost more than conventional technologies. It is even more difficult for developing countries to purchase traditional machinery because industrial textile equipment, whether conventional or advanced, is always more expensive. In that case, the only solution is for the more affluent, developed countries to provide those advanced technologies to the poorer countries at a cheaper rate or on a yearly installment basis with zero or very little interest. Advanced technologies will bring a higher rate of productivity. For the maintenance cost, manufacturers should provide free maintenance service for at least a few years. Current garment manufacturing trends rely heavily on underdeveloped and developing countries. Developed countries must assist them in their efforts for their own sake.

20.2 Unexpected Production Delays Unexpected production delays can occur if any machine malfunctions. As those machines are not conventional, they will also take longer to fix. Sometimes, it is even possible that there won’t be any suitable mechanics available to resolve the issue in an underdeveloped country, as the technology is complex and advanced. The machines should be looked at regularly to ensure they are in good shape and fixed if there is any sign of a problem.

20.3 Security Threats As advanced technology uses cloud and Internet-based systems, security threats will always exist. For instance, confidential documents can be hacked or lost because of Internet-based theft. Many software are indeed available to provide cybersecurity to a system, but none of them is without loopholes. Cybersecurity ensures that, under

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those circumstances, an advanced technique is developed to overcome the limitations of the older ones. Until then, conventional cybersecurity systems are used cautiously to evade such casualties.

20.4 Unemployment With systems getting digitalized, it is evident that they will tend to become more automated than before. It means computerized systems will do better work than conventional systems. That can lead to the unemployment of a lot of senior employment positions. Some of the staff need the training to fit them with advanced technology. Rest staff should hold the positions where human operators are mandatory to raise productivity further and cut the production time for those positions, which will be needed as advanced technology’s input and output will be higher than conventional ones.

21 Summary The growing necessity of automation and technological advancement in apparel manufacturing and processing has been inevitable. The Fourth Industrial Revolution demands the best out of the industries. As a result, apparel manufacturers around the globe have been adopting advanced methods in the apparel manufacturing field. Nevertheless, not only in the field of manufacturing, advanced technologies are being used in the supply chain, material management, property prediction, data anticipation, etc. All of the significant technological advances have been addressed concisely in this chapter. Though the apparel sector has experienced a boost in technology, the industry also faces difficulties and challenges in implementing advanced methods. It has been found that in the field of anthropometry, 3D body scanning technology has been revolutionary. It is an essential tool in the study of standard-size settings for apparel. Similarly, the virtual fitting room and sampling is an advanced technology, resulting in the easy sample approval and checking process of apparel, which benefits both the manufacturers and buyers. Moreover, an intelligent CAD system is a further addition to this advancement. Automatic spreading and computerized cutting are very useful in making clothes in terms of speed and accuracy. On the other hand, sew-free technologies are an advancement in assembling those aids in effectively producing seamless apparel for multiple applications. In finishing, besides traditional finishing processes, pressing without pressure, permanent creasing, etc. are being used for more accuracy and to impart an aesthetic touch to the final product. In manufacturing and the supply chain of apparel, Advanced Planning and Scheduling (APS), Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), RFID technology, blockchain technology, etc.

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have made the processes easier for all of the parties concerned with apparel manufacturing and business. In the case of advanced research, different manikins are being used to mimic the human body in hostile conditions where using actual subjects may be life-threatening. Furthermore, the introduction of other soft computing-based methods like fuzzy expert systems, artificial neural networks (ANN), adaptive neurofuzzy inference systems (ANFIS), genetic algorithms (GA), etc., and artificial intelligence (AI) has benefited both researchers and textile professionals. These methods have been proven effective in data prediction and decision-making with significant accuracy. Advanced technologies have caused plenty of advancements and benefits in the apparel sector. On the contrary, implementing these cutting-edge technologies requires a lot of attention from every employee. Moreover, challenges also exist to these methods’ successful integration and functioning. High initial investment and a massive cost of maintenance of these unconventional systems are some of those. Difficulty in adequately caring for these technological tools and the availability of skilled maintenance and service personnel can result in unplanned machine downtime, hence loss of production and productivity. Additionally, as these advanced technologies require a lot of cloud-based and Internet-based technology, the potential security threats are enormous. They often need a sound security system, which could be a burden in terms of cost and the skills of their workers for companies that make or process clothes. Most importantly, these advanced technologies are one of the major causes of creating unemployment. It has been a great concern for the apparel sector’s employees as advanced technologies require less manpower. On the other hand, the workforce needed for these methods must also be skilled and technologically sound, which is a problem in many situations. Despite all the challenges and difficulties, it can be summarized that every sector must be compatible by adopting new and advanced technologies in the present era of artificial intelligence, augmented reality, and supertechnological advancement. The same applies to the apparel sector also. It is a pleasure to notice that the apparel sector has already started its journey with advanced technologies. Technology is gradually becoming part and parcel of apparel manufacturing, research, and business.

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Non-woven Umme Salma Ferdousi, Kibria Fayez, and Sati Irtifa

Abstract This chapter presents a comprehensive concept of nonwoven, a leading and fast-growing material in textiles. The first portion of the chapter will introduce non-woven fundamentals for comparatively new readers. This chapter will cover various non-woven applications in our daily lives. The unique features and the basic manufacturing process are accumulated in this chapter. The second portion will be rich with information on the latest developments that include manufacturing processes and applications in the non-woven field. Recent technological advancements in technical non-woven will also be present with greater emphasis. In addition, at the end of this chapter, some information about the dispensation of specialist materials such as green recycled materials, biopolymers, and nanofibers for developing eco-friendly and sustainable non-woven products is provided. In general, this chapter brings together a lot of different things, as well as the most recent developments in non-woven, to make it better. Keywords Non-woven · Nano-fibers · Textile fabrics · Mechanical bond · Chemical and thermal bonding

1 Introduction Conventionally, weaving and knitting processes have been used for fabric production. In this process, fibers are converted into yarn and fabric. It is also possible to produce fabric directly from fibers by skipping the yarn production stage. This fabric is called non-woven fabric. It was first built in the United States in 1942. According to the International Standard ASTM, the definition of non-woven is “the textile fabrics made of carded web or fiber web held together by adhesives [1]”. U. S. Ferdousi (B) Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] K. Fayez · S. Irtifa Management of Textile Trade and Technology, Hochschule Niederrhein, Mönchengladbach, Germany © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_8

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According to the definition of a non-woven process, it is a manufactured sheet, web, or batt of directionally or randomly orientated fibers bonded by friction, cohesion, and adhesion, excluding paper and products. On the other hand, the woven process includes being knitted, tufted, stitch-bonded, incorporating binding yarns or filaments, or felted by wet-milling, whether or not additionally needed. In this chapter, “fibers” means natural or artificial-origin fibers. Non-woven fabric is “an assembly of textile fibers held together in a random web or mat by mechanical interlocking or bonding using a cementing medium.” This is starch, glue, casein, rubber, latex, or one of the cellulose derivatives or synthetic resins [2].

1.1 Categories of Non-woven The non-woven products have been categorized based on construction and method of production. Figure 1 shows the different categories of non-woven fibers based on construction. In this case, the non-woven products are divided into two groups based on the structure of the fiber. The first group depends on fiber position, and the second group depends on fiber bonding. The fiber position is also vertical or flat on the fabric surface. Non-woven products are also developed due to mechanical, chemical, or thermal bonding. The non-woven products developed based on mechanical bonding are classified into three groups: single, bundle fibers, and threads. When the nonwoven products are bonded chemically and thermally, they can be divided into three classes: segmented, conglomerated, and pointed. The non-woven textile process can also be classified based on the production process, as shown in Fig. 2. Firstly, the non-woven technologies are classified into three groups: web formation, web bonding, and web finishing. The web formation is usually divided into three groups: dry, wet-laid, and spun-laid. In non-woven technologies, three types of web bonding are observed: mechanical, chemical, and

Nonwovan Products (Construction) Base on Fiber's Position Fiber at flat surface of fabric

Based on bonding

Fiber vertically on fabric surface

Single Fiber

Bonded mechanically

Bundles fiber

Threads

Bonded chemically and thermally

Segmented Conglomerated Pointed

Fig. 1 Classifications of non-woven products based on construction [2]

Non-woven

235 Non-woven Products (Production Process)

Web Formation

Dry Laid

Wet Laid

Web Bonding

Spun Laid

Web Finishing

Chemically

Mechanically • Needle punch • Spun laced • Bonded by stitching

• • • •

Foam coated Sprayed Print bonded Impregnated

Thermally • Air bonded • Sonic bonded • Air bonded

• • • • •

With laminating With coating With crimp With print With special finish

Fig. 2 Classifications of non-woven products based on production process [2]

thermal. The mechanical bonding is done by needle punch, spun laced, or bonded by stitching. In the textile industry, non-woven products are produced using a chemical bonding process. This process involves coating, spraying, printing, bonding, and impregnating foam. Another method of web bonding is thermal bonding. This process requires air and sonic bonding, in addition, during the web finishing process, which consists of laminating, coating, crimping, printing, and unique finishing,

1.2 Special Features of Non-woven Fabric Structure The structure of non-woven fabric varies from the conventional knitted or woven fabric that comprises of different fibers instead of yarn or webs of fibers arranged in layers. The arrangement of fibers and the placement of connecting points cause the configuration of non-woven to be non-isotropic. This fabric structure is not even in thickness or weight, sometimes both. Non-woven fabrics are naturally absorbent and porous and have their own structure [3].

1.3 Properties of Non-woven Fabric Non-woven has better and upgraded properties due to the uniqueness of its construction. These properties have been combined for particular end uses to create unique products with durability and cost efficiency. These properties are achievable using appropriate raw materials and technology or applying various finishes. The following properties are desired and can be attained in non-woven fabrics in general: • Abrasion, tear, heat, crease, flame, mildew resistance, biodegradability, breathability, permeability, porosity. • Repellency to water, oil, and other liquids. • Absorbency, conductivity. • Durability and toughness.

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• Ability to clean and sterilize. • Draping ability, flexibility, dye ability, printability, smoothness, irritation-free. • Folding ability, press ability, stretch ability.

1.4 Required Raw Materials for Manufacturing Non-woven Fabric Raw materials for manufacturing non-woven products are classified into fibers, binders, and additives. The fiber selection for non-woven depends on the expected services from the products. Natural and artificial fibers have been utilized for manufacturing non-woven from time to time. In the case of critical commercial non-woven, high performance and other standard fibers are combined to achieve the required serviceability. Cotton, wool, nylon, rayon, polyolefin, and polyethylene terephthalate are conventional fibers used in manufacturing non-woven. High-performance fibers such as bi-component, spandex, aramid, flame and heat-resistant melamine, nanofibers, hollow fibers, and polytetrafluoroethylene are notable non-woven raw materials. Naturally occurring glues and resins were primarily applied to the fabrics to create bonds for non-woven. Afterward, synthetic binders were introduced to maintain a satisfactory balance between construction and desired services. Broadly, these binders are used along with the thermal and mechanical bond creation methods. Binders have two types. Thermoplastic fibers made of one are called “dry binder solution type one,” also known as a wet binder. For creating bonding and for finishing purposes, additives are used during non-woven manufacturing. Powders, activated by heat, absorb substances that are added when the web are laid. Some other additives are added after the creation of bonding for a supplementary treatment [2].

2 Manufacturing Process of Non-woven The manufacturing technique of non-woven largely depends on the performance of end uses. Both staple fibers and filaments are used as raw materials. The fundamental stages of manufacturing non-woven include web formation and web bonding. The web formation process consists of creating a plane structure or web from fibers to which they are attached loosely. These webs are generally too weak to be used as a final product. Several web bonding techniques are introduced immediately after the web formation process to ensure adequate stability. Preparation of fiber or subsequent finishing processes is employed as additional stages. Non-woven manufacturing is cost-effective and highly productive due to its continuous process [4].

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2.1 Web Formation Several techniques involve the distribution of fibers in separate layers to form a web as shown in Fig. 3. They are primarily divided into two groups based on fiber types: staple fiber-based and polymer-based. Three staple fiber-based web forming techniques are dry-laid, air-laid, and wet-laid. The dry laid method uses a card the same way as the spinning process and regulates the fiber orientation in the web. Short fibers are deposited and oriented randomly on the web after being blown by the air stream in the air-laid process. The wet-laid process is a modified version of the paper-making process, which uses a uniform suspension of fibers to make the web. Polymer-based web forming techniques are divided into two sub-classes: spun bonding and melt blowing. Spun fibers from molten polymer build the web directly in the case of polymer-based web formation [2].

2.1.1

Dry-Laid

Fiber preparation, web formation using a mechanical card, and web laying are significant steps in the dry-laid process. The dry-laid web formation technique prepares staple fiber bales first by opening, cleaning, and mixing. It is almost similar to the traditional spinning process, but the function is continuous. Opening acts have the role of reducing the size of fiber bales or tufts. Web formation by using dry laid includes the cleaning action and consistent feeding of fibers to the card. Unlike the spinning process, dry-laying does not involve a greater level of the opening process. Cleaning action separates trash particles and other impurities from fibers. The mixing or blending process is carried out to ensure uniformity in the fiber web with an effective production process. Inefficient blending may create quality issues and disturb the manufacturing processes [5]. Prepared fibers are supplied by utilizing a feeding arrangement to the rotary or revolving flat mechanical card. Carding separates the small tufts into individual Fig. 3 Classifications of web formation techniques [2]

Dry-laid Staple fiber based

Air-laid Wet laid

Web formation

Spun bonding Polymer based Melt blowing

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threads and orients them in a parallel direction to achieve uniformity in the web. Card configuration varies depending on the fiber and final product properties when manufacturing non-woven. The webs derived from the card are laid together in parallel or crossways to form a batt and further transferred to the web bonding process. Similarity applied webs are longitudinally oriented in the machine direction, and the end product of this process is more robust in the lengthwise direction than the crosswise direction. Cross laying is the overall process of forming batts from webs. Unlike parallel laying, it can make the batt wider than the width of the card [2].

2.1.2

Air-Laid

The air-laid process includes three major steps: feeding, opening, and mixing, and web formation. Feed rollers feed the fibers to an opening roller at a constant speed. Opening rollers open the fibers by beating action and introduce the separated fibers into the air stream. Airstream supplies the fibers to a sieve drum to orient the fibers randomly. Opening action plays an important role as the air stream does not ensure a better opening of fibers. The web formed in the sieve drum is conveyed to the further process and the air is taken out by suction pumps. The air-laid process is suitable to make a thick web in one step from the short length and thick fibers [4].

2.1.3

Wet Laid

The wet-laid process is based on paper-making technology and is suitable for the fibers that can be dispersed in the fluid. The manufacturing of wet-laid comprises three stages: Swelling and dispersion of threads into the water The formation of the web The drying and bonding of the web Fibers and chemicals are suspended initially in the water to attain a consistent fiber-water suspension. The perfect distribution of the threads depends on the mixer speed and the parameters of the pump. The fiber-water rest is supplied to the head box to be fed into the moving wire screen. The water is drained out, and a wet web is formed. This web is further squeezed and dried. Pre-bonding is often utilized for web formation by mixing the binding agents in the suspension because treating only the dry web is not economical. The drying process activates the strength of pre-bonding. Other critical methods are also used, for instance, spraying the web with a binder which starts during drying [6].

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Spun Bonding

Synthetic fibers such as polypropylene, polyester, nylon, polyethylene, and polyurethane are applied as raw materials in the spun bonding process. It includes three significant steps: filament extrusion from the polymer raw material, filament drawing, and laying them into a batt. The melt spinning technique is mainly used to extrude the filaments. Sometimes dry and wet extrusion techniques are applied for melt spinning. Polymer chips are fed into the extruder by a hopper feeder. The molten polymer is extruded through the spinnerets after filtering. Sometimes two or more spinnerets are utilized simultaneously to achieve a more significant number of filaments. A controlled stream of cold air is introduced to the filaments and subjected to pneumatic or mechanical attenuation. The drawn filaments are deposited on a collector or conveyor belt to form a uniform web. The arrangement of the filament is changed by adding fanning and entangle units or adjusting the spinneret’s and convey belts’ relative movements. Because the filaments are broken down, fabrics made with this method are stronger than those made with the dry-laid method [5].

2.1.5

Melt Blowing

The melt-blowing process is more or less similar to the spun bonding process, but the primary difference lies in quenching the filaments from the spinneret. This process introduces a stream of hot air at high speed to attenuate the filaments extruded through the spinneret. Filaments break into short fibers and are further collected on a moving belt. Cool air is introduced to distribute the broken fibers on the moving screen. A thin web is formed after cooling the fibers. This process is preferred to manufacture light, non-woven structures [4].

2.2 Web Bonding The non-woven web bonding process is described in Fig. 4. The non-woven webs lack structural integrity and are not suitable for end-use. They must be compacted to achieve significant mechanical properties, including strength, flexibility, density, porosity, and softness. Webs are bonded with latex or chemical substances (chemical bonding) by applying hot air and calendaring (thermal bonding) or involving needle punching, stitch bonding, and hydro entanglement technique (mechanical adhesion) [1].

2.2.1

Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding involves applying adhesive material or binder to the whole or partial web to stick the fibers together, drying and curing the binder. Latex is the

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Chemical bonding

Web bonding

Thermal bonding

Needle punching

Mechanical bonding

Stitchbonding

Hydroentanglement

Fig. 4 Classifications of web bonding techniques [1]

most preferred adhesive owing to its being economical, convenient, and practical at the same time. Several techniques are being pursued to apply adhesive, for instance, impregnating the web with liquid adhesive, impregnating with a foam-like binder, spraying, or printing. The web is conveyed through the immersion tank, squeezed, and dried, provided the application of the adhesive is impregnated with a liquid adhesive bath. This application technique becomes expensive while the binder is sucked off after application. Foam-like binders employ low water and high adhesive solid ratios and require less drying time. Foam is applied by transporting the web between an engraved and a smooth roller. The printing technique applies adhesive in some selected areas by adapting perforated calendar rollers. Consolidation is obtained when the adhesive reacts chemically. Deliberately arranged nozzles over the moving web are adapted to spray adhesive. The web is passed through a heating zone after spraying to eliminate water and cured after further heating [5].

2.2.2

Thermal Bonding

Thermal bonding involves utilizing heat to stabilize or bond a non-woven web built with thermoplastic fibers. This process eliminates the application of additional adhesive since thermoplastic fibers perform as binders themselves. In some instances, a small number of binder fibers with a lower melting point than the web-forming fibers are introduced. When the web is incorporated with heat, the binder fibers melt and bond the web. The typical thermal bonding methods are calendaring, air heating, radiant heat, and ultrasonic bonding. The calendaring process utilizes heat and pressure by adapting hot cylinders. The web is transferred between the heated cylinders, which results in a strong bonded and low-loft non-woven. In the air heating method, hot air is introduced to the web in an oven to fuse the fibers in the web. Hot air is either blown or sucked by the web through a perforated drum in the range. In the radiant heat bonding method, regulated heat is applied to the web from an infrared heat source to soften the binder fibers without melting the predominant web fibers.

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As the heat source is withdrawn, the binder re-solidifies and bonds the web. Ultrasonic bonding involves the application of compressive forces in localized areas of the web that is then subjected to ultrasonic vibration. The selected regions initially melt as the compressive strength is converted to thermal energy and then solidified after removing the ultrasonic source [2].

2.2.3

Mechanical Bonding

The mechanical bonding method uses dry-laid or air-laid webs by entangling fibers. The most common types of mechanical bonding are needle punching, stitch bonding, and hydro entanglement [6].

Needle Punching Needle punching is employed to interlock the fibers mechanically through the web produced by the carding or air-laying process. The web is fed into the machine, designed with barbed needles mounted on a board and passed through plates combined with a stripper and bedplate. The needles punch the web through the plates and entangle the fibers by altering their orientation to bond mechanically. Needle punched fabric consists of parallel laid fibers on the web and is stronger towards the direction of fibers than in the crossways direction. Randomly oriented fibers on the web lead to a needle-punched fabric with evenly balanced strength in all orders. The way the needles are set up has a big effect on how fabrics look and how they work [2].

Stitch Bonding Stitch bonding is a method of consolidating fiber webs by applying stitches to hold on to the fibers. This method either introduces a stitch yarn or uses fiber from the web for stitching. There are several techniques to manufacture stitch-bonded nonwoven. For instance, Maliwatt, Malivlies, Malimo, Malipol, and Voltex. Stitching yarn is used in the Maliwatt process to stitch non-woven batts. The Malilives process eliminates the use of additional stitch yarn; instead, it takes fibers from the web and stitches them using a stitching needle. Molimo uses a crossed layer with the web to stitch them together, whereas Malipol uses a woven, non-woven, or knitted substrate, forming a single face pile or loop. Voltex uses a base fabric to create piles by utilizing fiber from the batt [2].

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Hydro Entanglement The hydro entanglement method introduces fine water jets with high pressure to the web, resulting in the fibers’ entanglement. Dry laid webs are treated with this technique mainly, although webs prepared by other methods can be treated. The web is passed through a perforated drum or screen and subjected to high-speed water jets. Fibers from the applied area are forced away from their location and entangled with neighboring fibers. One side or both sides have been treated, depending on the end-use characteristics. A perforated screen or drum can be used to make patterns on fabrics. The vacuum system takes the used water out and sends it through a filtration process to be used again [4].

2.3 Finishing Finishing is the ultimate stage of non-woven fabric manufacturing to obtain specific properties that were impossible to achieve up to the bonding process. It includes drying, curing, and some standard textile finishes applied to woven and knit fabrics. Air drum drying and heat setting are two common methods of drying. Non-woven can also be treated with several chemical, mechanical, and other finishes. Some of the regular chemical finishes include flame-resistant, water repellent, softeners, antimicrobial, stiffness, dyeing, printing, washing, and antistatic finishes. Mechanical finishes include drying, embossing, shearing, raising, calendaring, roasting, and compacting. For the time being, plasma finishing, microencapsulation, and other unique finishes are also applied [2, 7].

3 Application of Non-woven in Various Sector Different products are possible to develop in a short period by utilizing non-woven manufacturing techniques [1]. The lion’s share of the industry is occupied by nonwoven made by the wet-laid method. Different apparel, filters, etc., are produced using this non-woven. In the case of disinfection and medical-related products, nonwoven products made by spun bonding are preferable due to their strength and toughness. For the same reason, these are preferable for the geotextile sector and automotive applications. Non-woven made of carded staple fibers are utilized for filters and hygiene-related items. Non-woven has resistance to tearing, chemicals, and ultraviolet rays. Additionally, it is possible to manufacture non-woven fabrics with five times the strength of usual textile materials. Some non-woven fabrics can endure a higher level of temperature [2]. It is possible to manufacture products with better mechanical and physical properties cost-effectively. Because of this, non-woven is a good choice for many uses, from household to technical [1].

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3.1 Non-woven in Apparel Sector The usual production process of clothing fabrics is complex, costly, and timeconsuming. Most of the raw material processing methods used in this conventional manufacturing process are highly harmful to the environment. On the contrary, the technique of non-woven fabric manufacturing is comparatively favorable in time and cost parameters due to the avoidance of yarn manufacturing. Nonetheless, nonwoven lack some mechanical and aesthetic properties. Non-woven has a relatively poor handle, and its draping ability has issues. Furthermore, it is less durable and not flexible [8]. While designing and manufacturing fabric with a non-woven method for clothing, it has to follow some necessities like biochemical physical, thermos-physiological, and psychological necessities. Non-woven cannot allocate the stress while tearing, which causes breakdown quickly. Everyday clothing needs the ability to withhold tearing, stress transferring, and assemble the stitches unavailable in non-woven due to their construction. The following measures can solve this: • Non-woven can be made stronger by putting together tough and flexible fibers in a way that is both challenging and flexible. • Making a bond in the middle of the plane and zipping the strands amid two fabric planes. • Maintaining the additional length of fiber amid points of bonding. These measures will help non-woven achieve missing features, such as conventionally manufactured clothing [2]. Earlier, non-woven were the supporting elements for the cuffs and collars in the clothing industry. The non-woven were supposed to be non-reusable and stiff. These were not appropriate for the clothing fabric. With the development of raw materials and technological advancement, the earlier approach has been changed, and many non-woven clothing fabrics have been manufactured [8]. Throughout the 1960s, throwaway clothing was introduced and sold very well. In this garment, tissue paper with supporting yarn was enclosed to improve the resistance to stress along the length. DuPont added synthetic fiber with this. It has been used in athletic shoes (Nike). Jackets, having a lighter weight, were also included. During the 60s and 70s, clothing of non-woven was on the move industrially. The research was on manufacturing nonwoven fabrics such as “Melton” cloths using wool blends. In the year 1972, using Ultra suede (a fabric of synthetic suede, needled, manufactured by polyurethane and polyester bi-component), the shirtwaist was launched. “ Evolon” by Freudenberg is a non-woven fabric that is an integration of spun laying and hydro entangling processes where polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bi-component and polyamide (PA) are used [3]. “Evolon” fabric is used for outer apparel. Another non-woven fabric, “Miracle,” is utilized in undershirts [8].

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3.2 Non-woven in Agricultural Sector Non-woven materials are used in agriculture (farming, horticulture, and animal husbandry) to protect against harmful microorganisms and adverse weather conditions. Coverings, made of non-woven, safeguard the plants at various temperatures. Non-woven fabrics have good water and air permeability. These can block UV rays and are resistant to vicious microorganisms. In addition, non-woven fabrics have excellent breathability. The interchanging rate of air is higher due to the smaller pores that help the photosynthesis process. More than 80% of light penetration through nonwoven coverings also helps plants during photosynthesis. Watering and the osmosis process of steam are more accessible through the non-woven fabric, which restricts over condensation of moisture. Using non-woven coverings, plants can be protected from harmful UV rays and unbearable temperatures. These coverings also keep fruits and vegetables safe from various insects. In cold weather, increases in moisture and temperature are possible by non-woven covers [2]. It is possible to increase the germination rate and decrease the germination time. When radish is harvested using non-woven covers, the germination percentage can be increased by 19%. Two-eighths of a day’s advanced development of potato plants have been found using the same. Various crops such as kohlrabi, garlic, lettuce, cucumbers, and sweet peppers have considerably quick and merchantable production when grown with non-woven polypropylene. By enhancing the temperature and conserving the humidity of the soil, the crop-producing period is prolonged. In this regard, non-woven is a great helper. The non-woven covering works as a protector from animals and pests for the plants and seeds. Hence, covers of non-woven can decrease the necessity of pesticides on various plants and crops. These can also play a significant role in different nutrient elements’ content in vegetables. The highest quantity of vitamin C was achieved using a non-woven covering combined with black-colored polyethylene foil. It has also become possible to achieve the highest amounts of magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), manganese (Mn), iron (F), phosphorus (P), and zinc (Zn) by using a non-woven polyethylene wrapper [9].

3.3 Non-woven in Medical Textile Sector Non-woven fabrics are used significantly in medical textiles due to their oil and waterrepellent features. The products made of non-woven are cheap, harmless, and easily disposable. The use of non-woven fabrics in the medical sector started during World War II. The repeated use of various medical equipment is risky due to cross-infection. Because of being repellent to water and oil, permeable to air, easier to disinfect, and more comfortable, the non-woven is undoubtedly a better choice for medical equipment. The raw materials for these must not contain anything toxic or carcinogenic. Non-woven for medical-related products must have an antimicrobial finish. The fibers from which these products are made should not irritate anywhere. An amalgamation

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of natural and synthetic fibers is preferable for attaining the required properties to be worthy of medical use. Cotton fiber has properties of higher absorbability. It is used as non-woven medical items. Synthetic fibers have offered higher strength, antimicrobial properties, solvent resistance, and strength [2]. Air laid, carded, needle punched, and thermally bonded non-woven are essential materials for medical-related applications. While used in the medical sector, these products must have absorbency to the released liquid from the wound by being pressed on the same [10]. Textile products used in the medical sector can be categorized into four sets based on application. • • • •

Hygiene and healthcare-related products Materials that can be implanted Materials that can’t be implanted Extracorporeal medical devices

Non-woven products are mainly used as hygiene and healthcare-related products and non-implantable items. Non-implantable items include various plasters, absorbent pads, and wadding, for which non-woven is highly preferable [11]. Hygiene and healthcare-related products include masks, hospital gowns, caps, coverings, hospital beddings, sanitary napkins, and adult and baby diapers. All the drapes and coverings for patients in a hospital must have an antibacterial finish and good absorbency of sweat and cell fluids from wounds. Non-woven are used to make hospital bedding and clothing, and an antiseptic finish is applied as needed. For hospital gowns, a composition of non-woven fabric and film of polyethylene is used so that it can inhibit contagion. For the same reason, masks and caps are used. The textiles need to be highly air porous and capable of filtering, lightweight, and irritation-free to ensure comfort [11]. Non-reusable surgical masks made of non-woven material are expected to protect the wearer from 98% of bacteria while also being waterproof, which is required. Therefore, a combined non-woven structure comprises more delicate glass fiber or synthetic microfibers with a parallel laid acrylic covering [2]. As sanitary napkins are used for absorbing fluids during menstruation and making a barrier between the fluids and the body, these items need to be odorless, leakagefree, irritation-free, super comfy, and highly disinfected. A combination of liners with an air-laid softcore is a suitable option to fulfill these requirements. Almost the exact requirements are expected from adult and baby diapers. In a diaper, the top sheet needs to have the highest absorbency and be dry while in touch with the skin of the wearer. In this regard, hydrophobic synthetic fiber has acquired preference during selecting the fiber. Thermal non-woven bonding has eliminated the necessity of chemical substances as additives when manufacturing hydrophobic top sheets. Nonwoven is used when manufacturing adult diaper (adult incontinence item) substrates. Items of adult incontinence require you to be comfortable as well as aesthetic [6].

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3.4 Non-woven in Geotextile Sector Geotextile is a subsection of geosynthetics. Geotextile is used to control or avoid soil erosion caused by wind and water. Chemically synthesized fibers (along with non-woven) are superior to naturally derived fibers. Polypropylene is the dominant synthetic fiber for manufacturing geotextile polymers. Besides polyamide, polyethylene and polyester are also mentionable. The fibrous construction has made the nonwoven fabric suitable for the geotechnical sector by invulnerability to ultraviolet rays, chemicals, mildew, tearing, etc. [12]. Non-woven geotextiles are used for different unalike materials, strengthening soil and drainage systems. Geotextile items need to possess three properties as follows. • mechanical features • chemical resistance • the capability of filtration Fibers’ uniformity and placement work as factors behind geotextiles’ mechanical behavior. Chemical arrangement and single component fibers’ size affect fabrics’ chemical resistant characteristics. Generally, the more delicate the fiber, the surface area is increased. This feature lets the chemicals through. Yet the same feature enables better filtration capacity [2]. Non-woven geotextile is a needle-punched fabric with enough strength with the capacity to retain dimensional stability to increase the life span of roads, landfills, or other projects related to environmental or civil engineering [12]. For civil engineering projects like metal culverts, non-woven fabric is used if the subsoil is in bad condition. Here, non-woven geotextile aids enough bedding compression along with better subsoil drainage. In the case of railway construction, the movement of trains causes the rising of more exemplary elements from the soil, which creates contamination with the ballast. This incident harms the structure gradually. Synthetic non-woven can be used for the separation to prevent the incident. The use of this non-woven geotextile inhibits the popping up of soil. Non-woven geotextiles also help with the disposal of waste and emission control. In landfills, these are used for filtration. It is also used for the blockage prevention of the liquid from the carried waste or soil [2].

3.5 Non-woven in Automotive Textile Sector The automotive sector is one of the most significant sectors of non-woven applications. “Non-woven alone has occupied approximately 10% of the interior textiles of vehicles [13]. Non-wovens are highly desired in this sector as they are flexible, versatile, recyclable, and soundproof, and their service and cost ratio are lucrative. Integration of non-woven with other materials is possible. Here, a multifaceted structure is obtained. In addition, reprocessed or reused raw materials do not affect serviceability [14].

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Spun bonding, spun lacing, and needle punching is the manufacturer’s techniques for manufacturing non-woven to fulfill the automotive textile sector’s demand. In the spun bonding method, webs of entwined filaments are adapted from polymer chips by melt spinning. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyester are widely used polymers. All non-woven webs like air-laid, carded, and water-laid can be produced by spun lacing and needle-punching methods [6]. Inside a car, there are over forty uses of non-woven, which can be equated to more than thirty-five by thirty-five meters of plane surfaces. These can be segmented as follows: • Surface materials (trim and carpet, needle punching technique is used in general). • sheets of non-woven which will absorb vibration and sound. • media filtering [13]. Automotive textiles are large-scale non-wovens used for vehicle carpeting. Nonwovens provide support by being used as backing for automobiles’ pile carpets. These non-wovens are produced by needle punching or spun bonding. For the top fabric of the internal compartment of the vehicles, tricot fabric is used with a non-woven covering. The same technique produces this non-woven covering as the non-woven backing of automobile pile carpets. A vehicle’s trunk liner is made using polypropylene fiber and the needle punching method. For air and oil filters, spun bonded, spun laced, or dry-laid non-woven is preferable. The manufacturing techniques depend on the filtered particle’s or fluid’s nature [2]. Alcantara, manufactured from bi-component fiber consisting of 40% polyurethane and 60% polyester, an exclusive needle-punched non-woven, is a preferable alternative to nature-originated leather for vehicle manufacturers. It can breathe, is soft and flexible, and can’t be scratched or worn down [13].

3.6 Non-woven with Flame Retardancy in Different Technical Textile Sectors Non-woven fabrics require flame retardancy characteristics for many applications. For instance, being utilized as clothing, which will protect in adverse situations, fixed coverings of furniture, and textiles for bedding. The following methods are used to impregnate non-woven: • • • •

selecting flame retardant polymers applying flame retardant materials to polymers in formation of fiber step blending nature-originated flame retardant fibers using flame retardant finishes [15]

In protective apparel, non-woven fabrics having fibers of high performance are utilized as thermal linings. In 1986, a company named Duflot Industries developed the first thermal barrier with non-woven, which was embraced for firefighters’

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gear [6]. Many coverings for mattresses, seats, furniture, cushions, and bedding for homes and aircraft are non-woven. These materials must be flame retardant and nonwoven in airplanes, homes, and hospitals where there’s a high chance of sudden fire mishaps. The military uses many non-woven items like tents and protective garments. Logically, these are required to be flame retardant. Luxury items, along with flame retardancy, need dye-ability and print-ability [15]. Non-wovens with flame retardancy are used for constructing insulating panes in buildings. Conventional insulators are susceptible to flames. In this regard, reformed, nature-originated fibers with fire retardancy have been used to develop such nonwovens by the air-laid method, and needle punching is appropriate for insulating panes [6]. In automotive textiles, flame retardant non-woven of polyethylene terephthalate and para-aramid have applications in preventing noise. These combinations provide good sound absorption ability [16].

3.7 Non-woven in Space The inside of a spaceship is built as similar as possible to a typical environment. Liquids and gases are filtered in a spacecraft. Here the filtering materials are the same as the automotive items. The air has different phases there, unlike the traditional ambiance. Along with essential fluids, other gases like hydrogen, freon, ammonia, and helium do exist inside. Thus, good filtration is required. The wrapping of all the components, including filters, needs to resist an extreme level of acceleration and shock. In addition, all the items need to be lighter in weight. Non-woven fulfills all these requirements of being light in weight and strong. While the shuttle is on Earth, the dehumidification of air is done by the air condition (AC) equipment in orbit. In this process, liquid water does come out as a byproduct. The shuttle isolates the condensate from the cold air by applying centrifugal motion. Space stations use a non-woven medium with hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity to separate the two stages [17]. Lighter weight and better thermal properties of electronic devices that contain them are highly desirable for space. By using polyamide-aramid composite non-woven, these combined characteristics can be acquired [18].

4 Developments in Raw Materials in Non-woven (Use of Biodegradable Polymer) Nevertheless, synthetic fibers like polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are broadly used for manufacturing mostly nonwoven products. However, this sector is gradually changing. These days, natural fibers and biodegradable polymers are rising up, occupying the application of the nonwoven market because of their advantages. Manufacturers and retailers are concerned

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about the source of raw materials, the impact of the manufacturing process on the environment, the use of the product, and the end-of-life impact scenario due to the increasing consumer as well as their perception and interest in eco-friendly and sustainable non-woven products. Non-woven consumption for technical, hygiene, and domestic purposes has a significant environmental benefit. Again, more benefit can be gained by using recycled polymer and biodegradable polymer. Usage of disposable baby wet wipes reduces the volume of water used while using a conventional washcloth for the baby. Furthermore, using non-woven geotextiles rather than fabricated ones has shown to have a significantly lower environmental impact due to production and disposal. Although petrochemical-based raw materials are cost-effective and necessary for the manufacturing technology of the non-woven industry, it can be more sustainable if recycled polymers are used as the raw materials. Biodegradable polymers easily decompose in the environment. Cellulosic fibers such as cotton are quickly biodegradable, and protein fibers like wool are also easily decomposed by bacteria and fungi. Other natural fibers, for example, bust fibers, are also biodegradable, whereas synthetic polymers exhibit poor biodegradability. For quicker decomposition and to minimize the impact on the environment, regenerated cellulosic fibers (viscose rayon, lyocell) are produced. Recently, eco-friendly biodegradable PET has also been produced.

4.1 Recycled Materials Usage in Non-woven Recycled materials are used for non-woven production as a consequence of their sufficient availability and low cost. In the needle punched manufacturing process, waste fibrous materials can be used as raw materials for producing non-woven. Wool waste from mattress filling and duvets is converted into non-woven which can be used for insulation and filtration. Shoddy fibers are found from shredding the fabric into fibers or threads. These shoddy fibers are mixed with virgin polypropylene in needle punched manufacturing processes to produce carpeting and boot linings. In Germany, Beyer-Fasern produced jute sisal sacks from a needle-punched production process which is biodegradable and non-woven [19]. Plastic waste from consumers and industrials is being reprocessed and reformed to make it into stable raw materials for a new product. Recycled PET is a common example of this kind of re-melting and reprocessing. The best part is that this kind of recycled PET has the same performance as virgin PET. This practice makes the usage of PET as an open-loop to close-loop conversion. Non-woven manufactured from recycled PET has major applications in automotive. Today, not only PET but also PP, PE, and PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) are reformed into fiber and are commonly used as a raw material in the non-woven industry.

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Usage of Biopolymer in Non-woven

Regenerated Cellulose Cellulose can be remanufactured as regenerated cellulose by dissolving and then precipitating that solution. Viscose rayon and lyocell are both regenerated cellulose fibers where lyocell is a current member of this family. To produce regenerated cellulose, usually wood pulp or cotton linters are dissolved in a chemical bath to make a spinning solution. This solution is extruded through a fine spinneret under a precipitant bath to produce either staple fiber or filament. Regenerated cellulose (viscose) is chemically similar to cotton, but there is a difference in their molecular structure. So the viscosity is significantly weak when it gets wet. But it has great absorbency and comfortability in contact with skin. So, viscose can be used as a non-woven hygiene product. Whereas lyocell has dry and wet strength that are kind of similar to cotton. As a result, lyocell can be used as a raw material in the non-woven industry [19].

PLA (Polylactic Acid) Starch-based biopolymer which is derived from rice, corn, sugarcane, and beets. It has similar characteristics to PP (polypropylene), PE (polyethylene), or PS (polystyrene). PLA is called bio-plastic. Production of PLA has less environmental impact in comparison to cotton and wool fiber, such as less water consumption. Readily, PLA is becoming a major component in the non-woven sector. But PLA has a few negative sides as well. It has a low melting point (17 °C) and the price is a little bit higher. The application of PLA non-woven is huge. PLA non-woven is used for domestic purposes as a tea bag, spunbond PLA non-woven is used as a female hygiene product as well as agricultural and packing materials. PLA with crimped edges is blended with wool and used as a topper for the mattress. For automobile carpeting and mattresses, filling needle punched PLA is used [19, 20].

Chitosan It is a semisynthetic biopolymer that is sourced from chitin. Chitin is the world’s second most abundant material, found in the external skeletons of insects, fungi, snails, and primarily aquatic group crustacea such as shrimp, lobster, and crab. Chitin is the byproduct of shrimp that can be processed in the industry. Using an N-deacetylation series reaction, chitin is converted to chitosan. This chitosan is biodegradable, non-toxic, non-allergenic, and also inhibits the growth of microbes. Chitosan is being processed into a solution and this solution is being manufactured as chitosan non-woven materials. Chitosan non-woven has excellent mechanical and chemical performance, which makes it suitable for biomedical applications such as wound dressing, drug encapsulation and drug delivery.

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Other Biopolymers Polyhydoxyalkanoate (PHA) is synthesized from fermentation and excretion of carbon substrate existing inside a microorganism. PHA is biodegradable and compatible with the environment. PHA is thermo-compressible, which makes it preferable in conventional non-woven manufacturing lines. Because of biocompatibility, PHA is used as a medical implant. Low-density polyethylene like ethanol can be extracted from biosources like sugarcane. bio-plastics that are biodegradable and produced from renewable sources like starch plastic, cellulose polymer, lignin, and chitosan. They are called bio-plastics because their monomers are derived from biological sources. These bio-plastics are incorporated into the non-woven industry, including hygiene products [19, 20].

4.2 Nano Fibers in Non-woven (Development in Manufacturing Technology) Nano-fiber based non-woven is growing in popularity because of its unique characteristics. Although manufacturing technology for non-wovens has existed since the twentieth century, advancements are focusing on higher production consistency along with production speed. The common methods of manufacturing nanofiber non-woven are introduced here.

4.2.1

Electrospinning

It is a voltage-driven manufacturing process. Typically, this spinning technique holds a blunt-needled syringe which works as a pump for pushing polymer solution, a high voltage source, and a collector. A high voltage is applied between the needle tip and the collector in this process. For this reason, an electric field and charge accumulation on the surface of the polymer solution is produced. So a conical shape is formed when the answer is evacuated to the collector and the solvent valproate. Consequently, a non-woven film is stored above the collector [21]. Electrospinning can be done either with a needle or without a needle. Figure 5 is for needle-based electrospinning for nanofibers.

4.2.2

Melt Blown Spinning

It is a versatile and fast process for converting nano-materials to a non-woven web. Figure 6 is the melt blown spinning process for nanofibers. This process consists of an extruder, a calibrated pump, a die block with a high-velocity hot air passing assembly, a collector for non-woven web, and a winder. At first, granular chips, or different

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Collector

Voltage applied

Polymer reservoir

Fig. 5 Electrospinning process for nanofibers [21]

Die Block Winder Extruder Pump

hot air

Collector Fig. 6 Melt blown spinning process for nanofibers [21]

thermoplastic polymer forms, are fed into the extruder to melt them as a solution. Then a calibrated pump maintains the continuous flow of the solution through the die block, where high-velocity hot air drags the extruded and attenuated into a fiber of small diameter. These nanofibers are stored in the collector contingent to form a non-woven web. Here, the temperature of the die block is higher, and the collector is lower. So this thermal difference creates thermal bonding among the fibers of the non-woven web [21].

4.2.3

Nanofibers for Wet Laid Process

Nanofibers are suitable for the traditional wet-laid non-woven manufacturing process. In this process, fibers are mixed with a chemical to make a solution. But there was less interfacial tension between the polymer solution and the chemical medium, which caused elongation of fibers and the formation of nanofibers. This aqueous solution is then stored on a perforated conveyor and formulated with the non-woven film of nanofibers.

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Fig. 7 Bicomponent (Sea Island) [21]

4.2.4

Sea-Island Bi-component Nanofibers

Bi-component means two polymers are extruded together from the same spinneret, and both exist in the same fiber. Bi-component fibers are generally classified according to their cross-section, such as side by side, sheath-core, sea-island, etc. Bi-component nanofibers are produced in this technology by melt blowing or spinning. On an island in the sea process, one polymer is disseminated into the matrix of another polymer [21]. This technology can produce a massive number of nanofilaments within a macro-scale fiber, up to 4000 fibers in a single one (Fig. 7). So these macro-scale fibers are suitable for the non-woven process.

4.2.5

Flash Spinning

Flash Spinning is a process where plexifilamentary fibrillated fine film is produced. In this process, the first polymer is dissolved by a non-solvent of that polymer. The polymer solution temperature is generally kept higher than the solvent’s boiling temperature. Then the solution is passed through a point of lower temperature and pressure. Due to the evaporation of the solvent, the extruded produces an interconnected fibrillated layer of non-woven [22]. For this type of particular spinning method, UHMWPE fibers are used.

4.2.6

Developments in Nanofiber Non-woven Production Process

Due to the many potential applications of nanofiber non-woven, the global market for this type of non-woven is expanding. Apart from standard manufacturing processes, the following are the alternative methods of nanofiber non-woven production for the near future. 1. Centrifugal Force spinning TM 2. Blow spinning 3. Magneto spinning

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5 Conclusion Traditional fabric manufacturing processes are not enough due to the highly increasing demand for fabric. Non-wovens have arisen as these have attained the combination of aesthetic and functional properties at a time. The most dynamic point about non-woven is its lucrative cost and performance ratio. This ratio has speeded up its global acceptance. Many research studies are ongoing to advance manufacturing techniques and raw materials to impart more features to non-woven. The goal is to expand non-woven applications into more diversified sectors.

References 1. Elise R (ed) (2020) Nonwoven fabric: manufacturing and applications. Nova Science, New York 2. Karthik T, Rathinamoorthy R, Praba Karan C (2016) Nonwoven: process, structure, properties and applications. Woodhead Publishing, New Delhi 3. Mao N, Russell SJ (2015) Fibre to fabric. In: Sinclair R (ed) Textiles and fashion: materials, design and technology, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 307–335 4. Gong H, Ozgen B (2017) Fabric structures: Woven, knitted, or nonwoven. In: Miao M, Xin JH (eds) Engineering of high-performance textiles, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 107–131 5. Gries T, Veit D, Wulfhorst B (2015) Textile technology: an introduction. Hanser Gardner Publications, Cincinnati 6. Chapman RA (2010) Applications of nonwoven in technical textiles. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge 7. Ghosh R (2014) Non-woven fabric and the difference between bonded and needle punched non-woven fabrics. IOSR J Polym Text Eng 1:31–33. https://doi.org/10.9790/019X-0123133 8. Ms C, Sc A, Th S (2018) Development of nonwoven fabrics for clothing applications. J Text Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.4172/2165-8064.1000382 9. Marasovi´c P, Kopitar D (2019) Overview and perspective of nonwoven agrotextile. Text Leather Rev 2:32–45. https://doi.org/10.31881/tlr.2019.23 10. Ajmeri JR, Ajmeri CJ (2011) Nonwoven materials and technologies for medical applications. In: Bartels VT (ed) Handbook of medical textiles, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 106–131 11. Qin Y (2015) Medical textile materials. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge 12. Ajmeri JR, Ajmeri CJ (2016) Developments in nonwoven as geotextiles. In: Kellie G (ed) Advances in technical nonwoven, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 339–363 13. Wilson A (2016) Developments in nonwoven for automotive textiles. In: Kellie G (ed) Advances in technical nonwoven, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 257–271 14. Russell S, Tipper M (2008) Nonwoven used in automobiles. In: Shishoo R (ed) Textile advances in the automotive industry, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 63–85 15. Bhat GS (2013) Flame resistant nonwoven fabrics. In: Kilinc FS (ed) Handbook of fire resistant textiles, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 322–348 16. Kosuge K, Takayasu A, Hori T (2005) Recyclable flame retardant nonwoven for sound absorption; RUBA®. J Mater Sci 40:5399–5405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-4338-9 17. Bacon J (2001) Nonwoven fabric uses and prospects in human space flight. In: Filtration. Available via DIALOG. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20160000717. Accessed 4 Aug 2021 18. Muthulakshmi B, Hanumanth Rao C, Sharma SV (2021) Application of non-woven aramidpolyimide composite materials for high reliability printed circuit boards for use in spacecraft electronics. Mater Today 40:S254–S257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.221

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19. Goswami P, O’Haire T (2016) Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials in technical nonwoven. In: Kellie G (ed) Advances in technical nonwoven, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 97–114 20. Ebnesajjad S (ed) (2012) Handbook of biopolymers and biodegradable plastics: properties, processing and applications. William Andrew Publishing, Norwich 21. Tipper M, Guillemois E (2016) Developments in the use of nanofibres in nonwoven. In: Kellie G (ed) Advances in technical nonwoven, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 115–132 22. Xia L, Xi P, Cheng B (2015) A comparative study of UHMWPE fibers prepared by flashspinning and gel-spinning. Mater Lett 147:79–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2015.02.046

Structural Coloration in Textiles Nazia Nourin Moury and Mohammad Tajul Islam

Abstract In this biological world, many animals and insects produce structural color by selectively reflecting light from the interaction of incident light with an exceptional physical, periodically textured structure. Due to the dye-free and fadeless characteristics of structural coloration, it has attracted substantial attention from researchers. Treating the wastewater generated by industrial dyeing procedures is a significant challenge, and introducing alternative green dyeing techniques is a pressing need. This chapter summarizes the unique properties and mechanisms of structural coloration with examples mainly available in nature. Methods tried for applying structural coloration on textiles are discussed in detail. Proper studies and research are needed to implement structural coloration in textile sectors, especially in larger-scale industrial applications, as it can be a revolutionary strategy to reduce environmental pollution, which occurs in the case of traditional dyeing and printing. Recently published research works have been reviewed, and future opportunities for structural coloration in textiles are highlighted. Keywords Textiles · Structural coloration · Dyeing · Printing

1 Introduction Nature is full of color and a constant source of inspiration for humans to solve numerous technical challenges [1]. Innovation and technological development in textile and fashion areas, such as structural coloration, have also been inspired by nature. Structural coloration is one of the most sophisticated technologies in nature. In 1665, Hooke discussed structural coloration in his book Micrographia for the first time [2]. Huang et al. [3] mentioned that in nature, color comes from either the way something is made or the way it absorbs light. N. N. Moury · M. T. Islam (B) Department of Textile Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_9

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Without using dye, pigment, or luminescence, numerous surfaces in the biological world generate vivid, brilliant, and iridescent colors, a phenomenon is known as structural coloration. The complex microstructural effects of butterfly wings and the eye-catching looks of peacock feathers are a few examples of structural color [2]. Structural color derives when the microstructure of material and light interact without using dyes or pigments, whereas selective absorption of visible light based on the distinct properties of pigments and dyes produces pigment color. Depending on the morphology of the surface and the material’s internal microstructure, the hue and brightness of structural color change [3]. Instead of depending on the chemical characteristics of materials, structural color depends on the shape of materials. Even after the organism’s death, structural colors are not destroyed for hundreds, thousands, or millions of years, whereas pigments and dyes tend to decay over time, and their color fades [4]. The interaction of micro- and nanostructures with visible light generates ecofriendly structural colors, and its mechanism is distinct from chemical coloration. Because their optical properties can be changed, structural colors can be used in the textile industry, in displays, in printing, and in other places where color is essential [5]. Textile structural coloration is gaining popularity due to its distinct nature and benefits, which include an ecological method, high saturation, high luminance, and mechanisms that differ from pigment or chemical-based coloration [3]. Chemical dyeing or printing processes with chemical dyes or pigments are the main ways to color textile products that constantly pollute the environment. Structural coloration as a green dyeing technology can bring revolutionary changes because of its dyeless and fadeless properties [6]. Implementing structural colors on fabrics can be a new strategy in the textile industry since chemical dyes or pigments cannot produce the iridescent or metallic colors created by the physical structures. Additionally, structural color is photobleach-free, brighter, and lasts longer, unlike traditional dyes or pigments. For these reasons, it is essential to research this area to understand the mechanism, application, and incorporation of eco-dyeing in fabrics for developing eco-dyeing [7].

2 Structural Coloration in Nature Colors import delicacy and enjoyment in the world, but to get a sense of color, three things are needed: a viewer, a light source, and an object. Moreover, alternations of one or more will change the perception of color. Hue, value, and chroma are the three primary attributes of color. Color perception depends on the viewer’s subjective attributes of visual receptors and physical attributes of an object’s reflected light and colored structure’s orientation. Animals yield color mainly by pigments, structural colors, or bioluminescence. Recently structural coloration has achieved immense attention from scientists because it is one of the significant categories of color generation in animals. Sometimes color is produced by combining structural

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color and pigment [8]. In the case of the pigment coloration method, color is generated by selective absorption and reflection of light. Creatures that live in light-rich environments produce color by the pigmental coloration method. The energy budget of animals is used for replacing the pigments from time to time because of the photobleaching property of pigment colors. Interference, diffraction, or scattering mechanisms are the basis of structural colors, so there is no risk of photobleaching. Moreover, creatures living in environments, e.g., the deep sea where the amount of light is low, can also have structural colors as structural coloration uses light very efficiently, and these color effects are impossible to obtain by pigmentation [9]. Hooke analyzed the structural colors of silverfish and peacock feathers in 1665 and Newton in 1730, respectively. Significant in 1842 identified that physical structures were responsible for the colors created by many mollusks’ shells and thin, membranous wings of many insects. However, pigments were widely assumed to be responsible for creating animal colors until the end of the nineteenth century. Following the electron microscope’s development, the mechanisms of structural colors were precisely studied by Anderson and Richards in 1942 [10]. Structural color is classified as either iridescent, where the surface color changes due to the alternation of viewing angle, or noniridescent, where surface color does not depend on observation angle. In a few cases, it is seen that structures can change pigment colors, e.g., the tail feathers of the peacock are pigmented brown, but due to their structure, they are viewed as green, blue, and turquoise hues, and they are frequently iridescent (Fig. 1) [8]. One of the most remarkable examples of structural colorations in the biological world is the attractive blue wings of Morpho butterflies. Morphology of the Morpho rhetenor (M. rhetenor) butterfly has been examined instrumentally to understand the vivid coloration shown by the wings of M. rhetenor (Fig. 2). The wings of M. rhetenor (Fig. 2a) have scales (Fig. 2b, c) as revealed by optical microscopy. The arrays of ridges and lamellae of scale (Fig. 2d) are composed of three kinds of photonic crystal-like structures. Firstly, a multilayer structure is created by thin films with air gaps and lamellae where brilliant blue color is produced because of the interference condition. Secondly, two phase-shifted photonic crystals are created by a set of staggered lamella on the right and left sides, constituting a ridge. The blue component scatters back to the source when the white incident light interacts with Fig. 1 Generation of vivid and brilliant iridescent colors on peacock’s tail feathers by structural coloration; reused from [11] with permission from Pixabay

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Fig. 2 a Photographic image of an M. rhetenor butterfly; b Microscopic observation at low magnification shows scales of the wings of an M. rhetenor; c Microscopic image at high magnification of a single scale of an M. rhetenor; d Ultrastructure on the M. rhetenor wing observed by TEM; e Reflection, absorption, and transmittance curves of the M. rhetenor wing; f The reflectance of a male M. rhetenor wing sample over the entire plane of the incident (θ) and reflection (φ) angles; reprinted from [12] with permission from John Wiley and Sons

two photonic crystals. Thirdly, while the ridges of variable height form a grating-like structure, there is some randomness in each ridge’s width, height, and lamella shape, which modifies the phases of reflected waves and cancels out the diffraction grating effect [12]. Figure 2e shows the reflection, absorption, and transmittance of the M. rhetenor wings. Because of the backward scattering, reflection is high at wavelengths below 500 nm, with a peak reflectivity of 45% around 460 nm. Absorption in the pigments underlying the ridges is also crucial at other wavelengths: The complementary color is removed, intensifying blue and ensuring color saturation. At wavelengths below 500 nm, the transmittance is relatively low and gradually increases into the nearinfrared. Figure 2f represents the analytically estimated reflectance of a male M. rhetenor wing sample over the total plane of incident and reflectance angles, yielding a high-intensity two-lobe θ-f the angular signature at pick reflectance. It is impossible to achieve by individual multilayer interference or diffraction mechanism [12].

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3 Mechanism of Structural Coloration The characteristics of structural coloration are different from pigmentary color. During the illumination of white light with a substance, if the light is reflected within the visible wavelength, it creates a particular color sensation in our eyes. Two techniques can be used to omit other wavelengths of light. One technique is when a material absorbs light, e.g., traditional coloration mechanisms where dyes, pigments, and metals are used in colored substrates. Another technique is the reflection and deflection of light from arriving at the eyes because of the material’s structure. In the former technique, illuminating light interacts with electrons, and the light energy excites electrons to higher excited states. The energy transfer between light and electrons produces color. In the latter, structural color is generated by various optical processes such as interference, reflection, refraction, diffraction, and scattering, where light energy is not needed [13]. The mechanism of structural coloration differs entirely from the coloration using dyes and pigments. In the case of colored textile material, using dyes or pigments, the human eye perceives color because of the absorption of individual spectra of incident light by dye or pigment molecules present on that textile material. The following four mechanisms can mainly explain structural coloration. 1. Firstly, interference of thin film with an effect such as iridescence produces structural color where colors change with the variation of sunlight or vision angle i.e., incorporation of monolayer and multilayer inference of thin film; an example can be the surface color of a soap bubble (Fig. 3a), beetles, etc. Multilayer thin film interference, compared to monolayer thin film is structurally complex [3]. For yielding structural colors, the thin-film interference mechanism has received increasing attention in various research areas, such as biomimetic materials, sensors, and solar cells. However, the number of studies on implementing this mechanism in textile coloration is limited [14]. 2. Secondly, diffraction grating with an iridescent effect can create structural colors, such as snakeskin and music CDs (Fig. 3b).

Fig. 3 Examples of structural colors: a on a soap bubble by interference mechanism; b on a record disc by grating diffraction mechanism; c in the sky by chromatic dispersion mechanism; d in opal stones by photonic crystal mechanism; adapted from [3] with permission from Taylor & Francis

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3. Thirdly, structural color can be generated with the scattering and dispersion of light by not creating an iridescent effect such as the blue color of the sky (Fig. 3c) and the ocean. 4. Fourthly, due to photonic crystals, structural color can be created; an example found in nature is opal (Fig. 3d).

3.1 Interference of Thin-Film Thin-film interference might take the form of monolayer or multilayer. In Fig. 4a, a plane light wave with wavelength λ is incident from a medium with a refractive index (RI) n1 hitting a monolayer thin film where RI is n2 and thickness is ‘d’. From individual film boundaries, the wave of light is reflected. Moreover, a new wave is created from the interference of the two reflected waves. Here, the incident angle is θ 1 , and refracted angle is θ 2 . Because of the loss of half-wave, the optical path difference (OPD) between the two reflected waves is expressed as 1 OPD = 2n 2 dcosθ 2 + λ 2

(1)

Constructive interference with the new reflected light wave would be the strongest based on Young’s double-slit interference principle if it meets the below equation, where ‘d’ is the thickness of thin-film, ‘m’ is the positive nonzero integer, and ‘λ’ is the wavelength. 1 2n 2 dcosθ 2 = (m − )λ 2

(2)

The condition for destructive interference is:

Fig. 4 a Monolayer and b Multilayer thin-film interference of light; reprinted from [3] with permission from Taylor & Francis

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2n 2 dcosθ 2 = mλ

(3)

For monolayer thin film interference (such as soap bubble in the air), half-wave loss occurs only one time on the film’s upper surface, but for an anti-reflection film attached to a material that has a high RI value ‘ns ’ (n1 < n2 < ns ), then constructive interference condition will be similar as Eq. (3), as here, the half-wave loss occurs two times i.e., on the upper and the lower film’s surface. In Fig. 4b, a multilayer thin-film comprising of various films ‘A’ and ‘B’ where the refractive indices are ‘nA ’ and ‘nB ’ and thicknesses ‘d A ’ and ‘d B ’, respectively. Moreover, if nA is smaller than nB (nB > nA > 1) then the constructive interference condition is as follows: 2(n A d A cosθ A + n B d B cosθ B ) = mλ

(4)

If nA is bigger than nB , then the constructive interference condition is expressed as  1 λ 2(n A d A cosθ A + n B d B cosθ B ) = m − 2 

(5)

Suppose structural coloration is applied to a textile by a thin film interference mechanism. In that case, the thickness and RI of an individual layer of a multilayer thin film need to be considered. In addition, individual film layer thickness and manufacturing techniques need to be controlled. It is also necessary to examine the usage of high-reflection or anti-reflection films. Multilayer films with structural coloration were cut to produce colorful thin strip fibers to be applied in textiles, e.g., ‘Angelina’ and ‘Morphotex’ fibers where polyester and polyamide films were alternately used for coating the former fibers with 200 layers. Sixty-one layers of coating with an entire thickness in the range of 70–100 nm were used for the later fibers where nylon 6 and polyester (RI: 1.53) combinedly constituted the inside layers and only polyester (RI: 1.63) composed the outside layers. It is possible to generate constructive interference of light by individual layers and create a specific intense color from the reflection of a particular wavelength if the selection of a polymer having a particular RI and calculation of the individual layer thickness can be made properly. Suppose the coating material of multilayer thin-film, form, and film thickness is selected accurately. In that case, fabric coating can effectively produce structural coloration by a thin film interference mechanism. Overall, it can be said that various structural colored textiles can be produced from thin-film interference techniques by choosing layer materials based on their refractive index and calculating individual layer thickness properly. Distinct colors can be created without using dyes or pigments by the accurate selection of polymer, metallic oxide, or metal which constitutes the film and proper calculation of the individual layer’s thickness [3]. Iridescence, named after “iris,” which means “rainbow” in Greek, is the phenomenon of some surfaces where the color changes according to the viewing

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Fig. 5 Fascinating iridescent colors on the polished shell of the mollusk Haliotis glabra; reprinted from [16] with permission from Optical Society of America

angle. Iridescent colors have attracted appreciable interest for their different characteristics, e.g., the capacity to create any visible hue without the need for pigments, the property of being directional and garishness, as well as the fact that few iridescent objects reflect polarized light. The flashing gorgets of hummingbirds, the wings of M. butterflies, and opals are a few examples of iridescent colors in nature [15]. The iridescent effect of colors is a well-known natural phenomenon induced by interference and/or diffraction. In seashells and pearls, iridescent colors are commonly created by the diffraction effect because of their uniformly grooved surface microstructure, comparable to the diffraction grating. Furthermore, iridescent colors are produced by light interference in a multilayered microstructure just beneath the surface. Both diffraction and interference combinedly cause iridescence in pearls, which are examined in studies. Figure 5 shows the outside of the polished shell of a mollusk, Haliotis glabra (abalone), which produces exceptionally vivid iridescent colors. If the viewing angle changes, the shell colors will also vary under the white light of the observation. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the surface microstructure and shell cross-section to learn the reasons behind the strong iridescent colors. As a laser diffraction experiment shows, diffraction plays an important role in creating iridescent colors. Just beneath the abalone shell’s surface, nacreous layers are present in uniform stacks, showing an example of multilayer interference for generating iridescent colors. The aragonite structure of the nacreous layers of the shell is confirmed by SEM examinations of the crystalline structure and absorption peaks using infrared spectroscopy [16].

3.2 Diffraction Gratings A set of reflecting or transmitting constituents segregated by an interval comparable to the light wavelength under investigation is known as a diffraction grating. It may be an assembly of diffracting constituents, e.g., a transparent slit pattern in an opaque screen or an assembly of reflecting grooves on a substrate [17]. Before 1995, the presence

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Fig. 6 Diffraction geometry for planar wavefronts with permission from Christopher [17]

of diffraction gratings in nature was unfamiliar, though this physical structure with reflective properties originated in 1818 in a physics laboratory. In the scientific and commercial worlds of optics, diffraction gratings play an important role in producing an array of optical effects. To avoid forging, diffraction gratings have been restored to banknotes and stamps. Generally, the basic physics of grating has the same strategy as the stacking of periodic multilayers except for the orientation of the periodicity [8]. Figure 6 shows that ‘ray 1’ and ‘ray 2’, two parallel rays are incident on the grating where one groove spacing is ‘d’ and at wavefront A, they are in phase with each other, where α and β are the angles of incidence and diffraction, respectively [17]. At diffracted wavefront B, the constructive interference principle on diffraction implies that these rays are in phase when the difference in their path lengths (d sinα + d sinβ) is an integral number of wavelengths; then the grating equation can be expressed as mλ = d(sinα + sinβ)

(6)

This governs the angular locations of the principal intensity maxima when the light of ‘λ’ wavelength is diffracted from a grooved grating with spacing ‘d’. Integer ‘m’ is the order of diffraction. If m = 0, the grating acts as a mirror, and the wavelengths are not separated, expressed as specular reflection or zero order. According to the Littrow configuration, when the light is diffracted back toward the direction from which it came (α = β) then the grating equation can be expressed as [17], mλ = 2dsinα

(7)

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Fig. 7 a Coherent b incoherent scattering responsible for structural coloration; reprinted from [8] with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry

3.3 Scattering of Light In nature, scattering of light is generally used to create blue coloration. Light interference, where various wavelengths are reflected from scattering objects constructively or destructively, is usually known as scattering. Based on the mechanism for the generation of structural color, light scattering can be classified into coherent scattering (interference, thin-film reflection, reinforcement, diffraction) and incoherent scattering (Rayleigh, Tyndall, and Mie scattering), which are shown in Fig. 7a, b, respectively. In the case of coherent scattering, a particular phase relationship is present between the incident and scattered waves, whereas incoherent scattering has no phase relationship [8]. Incoherent scattering involving small particles near the size of visible wavelengths is referred to as Tyndall scattering. In contrast, incoherent scattering involving small particles down to the size of a molecule is known as Rayleigh scattering. The scattering of small particles is accurately explained by Mie scattering. Incoherent scattering does not create iridescence. Iridescent colors are generated by coherent scattering, though this scattering does not always yield iridescent colors. Coherently scattering nanostructures are divided into three classes: laminar, crystal-like, and quasi-ordered. Laminar and crystal-like nanostructures generally create iridescence, whereas this phenomenon is less prominent or not present in the case of quasi-ordered nanostructures [8].

3.4 Photonic Crystals A periodic three-dimensional nanostructured system with the ability to control light propagation is called a photonic crystal (PC). The oldest and most notable example of PCs generating structural colors in nature is opal, which has a periodic nanostructure of highly ordered silica nanoparticles. Color sensing and image display, optical switching, novel pigments, photonic papers, and inks are some applications where PCs’ optical properties have been used [18]. The constancy of PC structural

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Fig. 8 Structural colors yield by a one-dimensional (1-D); b two-dimensional (2-D); c threedimensional (3-D) photonic crystals [8] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry

color is very important for its application, such as paints and full-color displays. In any unstable environment, the periodic arrays of PCs need high structural stability because if the periodic array is ruined, the structural color will disappear [19]. Photonic crystals have a photonic bandgap in which a specific range of electromagnetic wavelengths is prohibited from propagating. When the photonic bandgap falls into the approximate visible light range of 380–780 nm, the visible light of particular wavelengths is selectively reflected instead of being propagated in the PC structure. The constructive interference of the reflected light in the periodic PC structure can generate structural color [20]. One of the most important sources of structural coloration is photonic crystals, whose structures are periodically ordered into 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D (Fig. 8) sub-wavelength lattices for controlling the propagation of light in a similar way as electrons are controlled by atomic crystals [8]. Using and managing light flow, PCs show one of the most appealing materials for creating structural colors. Bragg’s law is used to represent the colors of PC materials. mλ = 2dnsinθ

(8)

In this equation, m is an arbitrary integer named order of diffraction, λ is the wavelength, d is the spacing between two neighboring planes in the lattice, n is the refractive index of the material, and θ is the angle of glancing between the incident light and the diffraction crystal plane [21].

4 Reasons for the Development of Structural Coloration in the Textile Industry Because of the growing awareness of the need to protect the environment by reducing pollution caused by traditional dyeing and printing, researchers are paying close attention to structural coloration as an environmentally friendly dyeing strategy [22– 24]. In traditional dyeing techniques, natural [25] or synthetic dyes [26, 27] are

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used for coloring the fabrics, which create the sensation of color in human eyes by absorbing and reflecting light at particular wavelengths. The residual colorants from the dyeing procedure are not naturally degradable and are responsible for water and environmental pollution. The dyeing and printing industries invest a lot of resources in building the effluent treatment plant for treating wastewater generated by the coloration process [28, 29]. Dye houses use a lot of water during the traditional coloration process, and the water quality must meet certain standards to get uniformly colored textile materials [30, 31]. A water treatment plant is installed in the dye houses for this purpose. Moreover, the colorant present in the colored material at the end of its life cycle also creates a pollution load when dumped into the environment. Many new dyeing technologies have been developed to reduce water consumption and pollution, but it is still not possible to completely avoid the dyes or pigments from textile coloration processes. Therefore, structural coloration can be a promising candidate for replacing the dyeing process [32]. If micro- and nanostructures are not damaged, the structural color will not fade and retain high color contrast and saturation. To get this color, many textile researchers have tried to manufacture textile surfaces with micro-nanostructures [33].

5 Structural Color on Textiles In Fig. 9, we represent the various approaches to the structural coloration on textiles where thin-film deposition is the most common technique. Application of structural color on textiles has started to evolve worldwide. Various techniques including spray coating, vertical deposition, casting, and gravitational sedimentation with building block nanoparticles are being tried to obtain structural color fabrics. However, these methods generally create unmanageable thick photonic coatings after the treatment of fibers in the photonic coating solution. Moreover, fabrics’ flexibility, stretchability, or breathability can also be adversely altered. The structural properties of any textile material depend directly on the properties of the fibers, which are the basic building blocks of fabric, so it is very important to study the fibers. Mainly, two specific processes are practiced for fabricating structural color fibers: the radial axis of the fiber is used for stacking multilayer thin films of 1-D photonic crystals; and the other way is to join 3-D photonic crystals with a fibrous shape. For achieving structural color fibers by thin-film interference, a bilayer with the combination of two-component materials having a useful high refractive index contrast is effectively rolled by many groups. On the one hand, colloidal fibers using polymer spheres for forming periodic structures alongside the fibers show good color saturation and highly adaptable structures, which is why they are interesting. On the other hand, the stacking steps necessary for structural color fibers by multilayer thin-film interference are quite difficult. In early research, structural color fibers were generally developed using the methods of colloidal self-assembly. Extruding or magnet-field assembly methods, which are lengthy and not easy to control, were also used to

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Fig. 9 Application of structural coloration on textiles by different methods; reprinted from [3] with permission from Taylor & Francis

achieve a few functional core–shell spheres. In contrast, it is possible to manufacture color-tunable fibers by a few easier strategies like electrophoretic deposition (EPD), but only conductive fibers are used here. Though there are many ways to use colloidal spheres to build up photonic crystals or structural color materials, it is challenging to fabricate the structural color fibers by maintaining maximum optical properties [6].

5.1 Structural Color by Directly Drawing from Colloidal Suspensions In 2019, Yuan et al. [6], in a research study, showed a strategy where bare fibers were drawn from colloidal suspensions to create structural color fibers. The photonic crystal structure developed by joining nanospheres exhibits vivid colors in the visible light range. To demonstrate the versatility of this strategy, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers were constructed with poly[styrene-co-(butyl acrylate)-co-(acrylic acid)] (P(St-BA-AA) polymer spheres to produce noncracking blue fibers with good mechanical stability for the generation of fault-free structural color fibers. Figure 10 shows a drawing of bare glass fibers from colloidal suspensions for structural color fiber preparation. A strategy is followed wherein the colloidal dispersion, a fiber of hydrophilic characteristics, is submerged in the vertical direction. When the fiber dries because

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Fig. 10 Schematic illustration of bare glass fiber directly drawn from colloid suspension for the generation of structural color fiber (k = the layer number of colloid coating, v = the drawing speed, and L = the meniscus height); reprinted with permission from [6]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society

of the drawing and evaporation of liquid, a particulate film seems to form on it. Vertical convective flow is caused by the withdrawing and evaporation of particles on the meniscus tip, and particles are carried on, connected by their lateral capillary force and finally create a closely packed particle array on the material. The particle assembly rate must be equivalent to the drawing rate of the fiber and dip-coating processes, as the assembly rate is critical for constructing a large area organized array. Colloidal coatings on the fibers can be arranged as per requirement by correctly changing the concentration of particles, temperature, and humidity. It is shown in Fig. 11 that different sized 273, 250, 230, 206, and 185 nm polystyrene (PS) spheres create different red, yellow, green, blue, and purple colors on glass fibers in the visible light region [6]. Defects and cracks created in the photonic structures are the reasons for color variation. Contamination of the structural color fibers and the weak interactions between the fibers and the ‘hard’ polystyrene spheres cause poor mechanical stability of the outer photonic coatings. To check the versatility of this strategy and manufacture crack-free strong colloid fibers, ‘soft’ P(St-BA-AA) polymer spheres were coated Fig. 11 A dark-field microscope observed the images of structural color fibers generation by changing the size i.e., 273, 250, 230, 206, and 185 nm PS nanospheres assembled on 125 μm glass fibers; reprinted with permission from [6]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society

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Fig. 12 SEM image of a the PET fibers coated with P(St-BA-AA) nanospheres; b the colloid fiber with its enlarged close-packed structure (inset); reprinted with permission from [6]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society

on PET fibers. Before dip coating, the bare PET fibers were treated using O2 plasma, which increases the hydrophilicity and adhesion of this fiber by generating enough active-OH groups and enhancing the roughness of the surface to give many interaction sites with the polymer spheres. In Fig. 12a, we observed a colloid fiber of 4–5 cm in length having a uniform core–shell structure, and Fig. 12b is an enlarged image showing that the film consists of a close-packed hexagonal arranged array of polymer spheres with nanosilica embedded in the gaps [6].

5.2 Self-assembly of Colloidal Microspheres by Gravitational Sedimentation A black plain woven polyester fabric is used to fabricate polystyrene/methacrylic acid P(St-MAA) photonic crystals having structural colors by allowing a dilute colloidal suspension of P(St-MAA) microspheres through gravitational sedimentation. A colloidal suspension of P(St-MAA) microspheres was diluted to 1 wt% after 10 min of ultrasonication treatment using deionized water. This polyester fabric was dipped and then dried in a vacuum oven for more than 24 h, depending on the deposition rate of colloidal microspheres, while maintaining a temperature of 60 °C and a relative humidity of 40–60%. A solid structure of well-ordered P(St-MAA) photonic crystals on polyester fabrics was achieved when water was evaporated from the colloidal suspension after the sediment dried [34]. Figure 13 shows a schematic diagram of the overall process of self-assembly on polyester fabrics from the prepared colloidal microspheres to the photonic crystals of the opal structure. P(St-MAA) microspheres in an emulsion move irregularly in a beaker (Fig. 13a); a piece of black polyester fabric is completely covered by the colloidal suspension as it is placed in the beaker bottom (Fig. 13b); below the water– air interface, P(St-MAA) colloidal microspheres begin to become concentrated due to the fall of the evaporating water–air interface at a constant 60 °C temperature (The

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Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of the surface array mechanism in self-assembly process: a colloidal microsphere emulsion of P(St-MAA); b the black polyester fabrics used as substrate; c application of heat to start self-assembly; d microspheres crystallization; and e development of photonic-crystal structure on polyester fabrics; reprinted from [34] with permission from Taylor & Francis

concentrated colloidal microspheres of the beaker’s bottom will go through a transition from disorder to order phase by forming a three-dimensionally ordered lattice in terms of a slow sedimentation process; the lattice starts to arrange closely with the growth of colloidal crystals and converts to a hexagonal lattice having a crystal boundary. As a result, photonic crystal is yielded on polyester fabrics (Fig. 13e) [34].

5.3 Photonic Crystal Structure by Vertical Deposition Self-assembly Liu et al. [34, 35] used emulsion (soap-free) copolymerization to create monodisperse P(St-MAA) colloidal microspheres with proper sphericity and size retention. Also, vertical deposition self-assembly was used for obtaining face-centered-cubic photonic crystal structures on polyester fabrics. It was possible to execute different structural colors by maintaining colloidal microsphere diameters and viewing angles. After cleaning by ultrasonication in deionized water, the vertical deposition method used a plain black woven polyester fabric to fabricate photonic crystals. After 10 min of treatment by ultrasonication, deionized water was used for 1 wt% dilution of a colloidal suspension of P(St-MAA) micro-spheres. Figure 14 showed that diluted micro-sphere suspension was filled in a glass bottle where a polyester woven fabric was vertically placed. After that, the polyester fabric with diluted microsphere suspension was placed in a vacuum drying oven for more than 72 h depending on the colloidal microspheres’

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Fig. 14 Schematic illustration for fabricating P(St-MAA) colloidal microspheres on a textile substrate by vertical deposition method; reprinted from [35] with permission from John Wiley and Sons

different deposition rates, maintaining a 60 °C constant temperature and 40–60% relative humidity. A well-ordered solid structure of P(St-MAA) photonic crystals on polyester fabrics was achieved when water was evaporated from the colloidal suspension after the sediment dried [34]. Another group has prepared a photonic crystal structure of well-ordered SiO2 structures on polyester fabrics with fewer defects using vertical deposition selfassembly [36]. The formation of SiO2 photonic crystals on polyester gave uniform and brilliant structural colors. The size of SiO2 colloidal microspheres has mostly determined the structural colors of the fabric. SiO2 microspheres with a particular size range (320–200 nm) were useful (Fig. 15). The monodispersity of the colloidal microsphere was the other influential factor and played an important role in forming the inner structure and the surface morphology of the colloidal microspheres. The optimal polydispersity index values of SiO2 colloidal microspheres were between 0.08 and 0.05. The optimum conditions of the assembly process to control the deposition rate and reduce the crystal defects were 1.0–1.5% mass fraction of SiO2 microspheres; 60% relative humidity; 25 °C evaporation temperature using ethanol as a solvent.

5.4 Use of Photonic Bandgap and Resonant Mie Scattering Yuan et al. [32] reported a novel homogeneous and noniridescent structural coloration technique to produce colorful colloidal fibers where nanostructured fibers were extensively manufactured by colloidal electrospinning to create tunable structural color, which may open a new door in green dyeing for textiles and other practical coloration processes. Figure 16 represents preparing the colloidal fiber and colorful fibrous membrane. At first, 1 mL of P(St-MMA-AA) colloidal dispersion with a high concentration of 40 wt% and a measured amount of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) solution with a concentration of 13 wt% were blended to make the electrospun precursor solution

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Fig. 15 The structural colors obtained on polyester fabrics using vertical deposition of SiO2 photonic crystals of different sizes: a 312 nm; b 287 nm; c 255 nm; d 240 nm; e 223 nm; f 215 nm; g 200 nm; reprinted from [36] with permission from SAGE Publications

where the weight ratio of P(St-MMA-AA) to PVA colloidal spheres was 4:1, with latex spheres controlling the blend solution. To achieve a uniform milky solution at room temperature, the mixture was vigorously agitated for at least 3 h before being ultrasonically treated for 5 min. The viscous solution was then placed into a 5 mL plastic syringe with a 0.5 mm inner diameter metallic needle. The solution was fed at a steady and predictable rate of 0.5 mL/h using a microinjection pump with a vertical syringe. A high voltage of 10 kV was supplied between the needle and the collector using a power source, resulting in a continuous jetting stream. The white electrospun membranes were gathered at a distance of 15 cm on the surface of a grounded copper plate coated in aluminum foil. Finally, the electrospun fibrous membranes were attached to black PE plates (2 cm × 2 cm) and immersed in 100 mL of deionized water at room temperature for 2 h. The modified membranes were vacuum dried for 4 h, yielding structurally colored fibrous membranes. Colloidal electrospinning was used to incorporate the colloidal nanoparticles into the polymer solution, which is significantly different from conventional electrospinning. The colloidal electrospinning technique was used to manufacture fibrous membranes with noniridescent and tunable structural colors, which originated from the reflectance of photonic bandgap and Mie scattering. The resultant fibrous membranes consist of individual colloidal fibers several micrometers in diameter. By varying the size of the colloidal sphere, a full-color display can be obtained; additionally, only three sizes of nanospheres are required to cover the majority of the visible spectrum.

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Fig. 16 Schematic representation of the process of colloidal electrospinning and construction of colored fibrous membranes; reprinted with permission from [32] Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society

5.5 Non-iridescent Structural Color by Rapid Polymerization of Dopamine Because of the catechol structure of dopamine (DA), it shows outstanding adhesion and film-forming characteristics. Recent research studies suggest DA can be used to create structural colors. Polydopamine (PDA) is used to make brilliant structural color because it is both a structural color component and a light scattering absorber. In their work, Zhu et al. [33] used a novel fabrication method with the application of DA for producing structural color on fabric surfaces which is simple, time-saving, and eco-friendly. At first dopamine hydrochloride (0.03 mol/L) was dissolved in Tris buffer solution (pH = 8.5, 50 mmol/L), then CuSO4 (5 mmol/L) and H2 O2 (19.6 mmol/L) and KH 550 (m(KH 550): m(DA) = 1:2) were immediately added to the aforementioned solution for the creation of uniform PDA-melanin structural color films triggered by CuSO4 /H2 O2 . The bottom of the plastic petri dish having 6 cm diameter was lined with a disc-shaped fabric with a diameter of around 5 cm. To thoroughly cover the fabric’s surface, a sufficient amount of the previously produced solution was inhaled into a plastic Petri dish. At 30 °C temperature, the reaction was carried out for various periods. A syringe drew the unreacted liquid from a plastic Petri dish that had been capped and placed in a vacuum oven where a constant temperature was maintained. After that, the treated sample was transferred to a vacuum oven at a constant temperature, and after drying, the structural color was achieved on the fabric’s surface. Figure 17 shows the schematic diagram of preparing structural color silk fabric. Four different structural colors, such as yellow, red, blue, and green, were created by controlling the thickness of the different upper films. The obtained structural colors were not dependent on the viewing angle and possessed brilliant colors [33].

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Fig. 17 Schematic representation of preparing structural color on silk fabric; reprinted from [33] with permission from Elsevier

6 Conclusion In nature, the elegance and versatility of structural coloration have been acknowledged as far back as the seventeenth century. Still, structural colorations have recently gained immense popularity in textile coloring and other color-related areas because of their unique advantages and eco-friendly dyeing technology [37]. Though it is hard to replace the traditional dyeing process completely, it is possible to combine organic pigment coloring with structural coloration to produce green textile dyeing and printing technology. Much current research is still at the laboratory stage. For the industrial production of high-volume or large-scale fabric, it is very important to first accurately study structural coloration and manufacture the necessary production equipment. Fabrication methods, mechanisms, simplifying the deposition process, widening the structural color range, and upgrading the color stability of textiles need to be researched. The structural coloration of fabrics made of polyester, silk, and other fibers having a comparatively smooth surface and strong reflective properties has been studied by many researchers. However, there is still no progress in fabrics composed of cotton, wool, and ramie fibers [3].

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Waste Management in Textile Industry Md. Shamsuzzaman, Ismail Hossain, Tonmoy Saha, Ajoy Roy, Dip Das, Md. Tanvir Ahmed, and Sagor Kumar Podder

Abstract The textile industry is one of the critical industries that fulfils one of the fundamental requirements of human beings and, subsequently, becomes an unavoidable part of human life. Furthermore, the consumption of textile products is increasing rapidly over time, both locally and globally, due to population growth. The increased consumption of textile products has been a concern regarding both increased textile waste streams and environmental impacts. It is because of harmful chemicals and high water and energy consumption. Due to the widespread use of non-biodegradable packaging materials, this industry produces significant volumes of wastewater, sludge, gaseous waste, fabric waste, yarn waste, and fiber waste. The manufacture of textiles may be well controlled while producing the least amount of waste possible. Small quantities of resources used in the textile business, such as raw materials, water, energy, chemicals, and auxiliary materials, result in environmental, social, and economic sustainability. The kinds, origins, management practices, and advantages of textile waste are covered in this chapter. Recommendations are given for efficiently handling textile waste at the chapter’s conclusion. Keywords Waste management · Sustainability · Environmental effect · And degradation of textiles

Md. Shamsuzzaman (B) · A. Roy · D. Das Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] I. Hossain Department of Textile Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering &Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh T. Saha Department of Textile Engineering, National Institute of Textile Engineering and Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh Md. T. Ahmed · S. K. Podder Department of Civil Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_10

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1 Introduction Waste management in the textile industry is a mammoth topic, and it can’t be elucidated in a single chapter of a book, as this topic covers a wide range of elements. Many universities have recently included such courses in their academic curriculum. It is also found that a limited number of books or book chapters related to this field can be valuable references for students. Humankind considers textiles to be the second most crucial need. The rapid development of fashion has resulted in significant diversification in textile manufacturing and consumption [1]. Unfortunately, garments are discarded after five to seven uses. A study showed that 20% of used products are collected for recycling [2]. Therefore, the final destinations of those products are dumping grounds, landfills, or garbage [3]. Universally, from 1975 to 2018, per-capita garment material production increased from 5.9 to 13 kg per person [4]. As a consequence, the amount of textile waste in landfill is getting higher every day. Additionally, the textile industry is considered one of the anthropogenic practices that are accountable for a broad list of natural issues [5]. Textile waste is made both when clothes are being made and when they are being worn. The maximum volume of waste is generated during the manufacturing stage, specifically during wet processing. It involves extensive use of water, dyes, and chemicals. Solid waste (sludge) and wastewater (effluent) affect the ecological system unless they are discharged into the environment with proper treatment. The direct discharge of chemical waste into nature is responsible for the erosion of sewer lines and groundwater contamination, which results in an expansive capital investment to control multidimensional adverse effects [6]. Currently, industries are concerned about environmental issues and are focusing on innovative goods, processing, manufacturing, and purchasing. It creates awareness among consumers and enterprises to develop eco-design and environmentally friendly products and manufacturing processes. Therefore, proper waste management and maintenance have become unavoidable options for reducing textile waste and achieving sustainable production [7, 8].

2 Types of Textile Wastes Textile and Apparel (T & A) industry is regularly condemned for its harmful impact on the environment (such as waste generation, resource consumption, and carbon footprint). A lot of energy, water, and other natural resources are used in the creation of clothes, along with a lot of trash. Figure 1 illustrates how waste from the garment industry may be divided into three main categories: manufacturing waste, preconsumer waste, and post-consumer waste. The details of this waste are discussed below.

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Fig. 1 Types of Textile wastes [9–15]

(a) Production Waste Production waste includes all kinds of garbage that is generated during the manufacturing of textile products. Textile manufacturing processes generate waste, including spinning, weaving, coloration, finishing, and apparel production. Even final packaging generates considerable waste. Different methods generate different types of waste, and the amount varies. A good illustration of this can be found in the garment manufacturing section, where such things as the rolled ends of fabric and fabric cut-offs create tremendous waste [9]. In addition, fabric defects during operation are also responsible for waste production. Different types of chemical processing also discharge effluents in the form of waste. The single-fibre type carpet also generates a lot of waste [10]. (b) Pre-consumer Textile Waste Pre-consumer waste is also known as manufacturing waste, because it is created when clothes are manufactured. It is also known as fabric waste. Pre-consumer waste is also generated from the manufacturing of fibre and yarn. Among all these, fabric waste is the most notable waste that may be converted into assets. It is mainly produced due to mistakes in different garment manufacturing stages such as design, pattern, cutting, and sewing [11]. It is reported that only in China will the amount of pre-consumer waste exceed about 100 million tons in 2021 [12]. Furthermore, products from dead stock, unworn, unsold garments, and returned by customers are all considered pre-consumer textile waste. According to one survey, just one-third of all imported clothing from various EU nations is sold at full retail price, another one-third is sold at a discount price, and the remaining three-quarters are left unsold. However, this data has not been verified [13]. (c) Post-consumer Textile Wastes Post-consumer textile waste includes both natural and synthetic fibers, as well as additional materials including metallic zippers, acrylic buttons, wood buttons, shell buttons, and metallic snap fasteners. Trash is difficult to degrade due of its nature [14]. The post-consumer textile waste does not break down easily in the soil, leading to desirable diseases, inducing pests, and emitting odours into the atmosphere. The

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advanced waste management policy encourages the recycling or reusing of 60–80% of post-consumer waste. The economic value of this waste is about $200 billion [15].

3 Sources of Textile Wastes The life cycle of clothing has a substantial negative influence on the environment in the textile industry. The waste produced during the processing of raw materials and during the creation of the finished product is where the environmental effect begins. Climate change is significantly impacted by trash. According to a research, between 2005 and the present, the effects of climate change have multiplied by 1.5 [16]. From raw materials until the conclusion of a textile product’s life cycle, nearly every stage of manufacturing produces textile waste. As a result, the sources of textile waste may be divided into three categories: manufacturing wastes, post-production wastes, and other sources. The waste produced by the textile industry can be categorized as solid, liquid, or gaseous. Table 1 displays the solid wastes produced by the textile and clothing industries. The solid wastes as shown in Table 1 from the textile and apparel sectors are not the same. Table 2 shows the waste from the textile and apparel industries. The textile wastes are mainly generated during the production process, whereas the apparel industry wastes are final products that come from excess product and rejected product in different stages. Nine groups comprise the functioning of the textile industry in terms of waste streams. Table 3 [17] displays the substantial volume of textile waste from different sources. Table 1 List of material waste in textile production stage Sectors

Raw materials

Waste

Spinning

Cotton and other natural fibers, synthetic fibers

Damaged yarn, unfinished cones, and cotton lint

Knitting/ weaving

Natural and synthetic yarn

Fly and contaminated fiber, scarp yarn, grey fabric

Wet processing

Grey/unfinished fabric

Excess finished fabric and rejected colored fabric

Apparel

Finished fabric

Cut-off pieces of fabric, additional development samples, and excess clothing

Table 2 Textile apparel manufacturing waste Textile industry wastes

Apparel industry wastes

Overproduction, faulty clothing, rejected Fly fiber, greige textiles, rejected fabrics, completed fabrics, cotton lint, damaged yarn, and clothing, and merchandise with canceled shipments cutting wastes

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Table 3 Sources of textile waste generation during manufacturing and its type Sources

Variety of wastes

Ginning

Scrap metal, cotton dust fly, cotton wastes and dust

Spinning

Blow room cotton dust, floor sweeper, iron scrap, paper cone, plastic scrap, rubber scrap, cotton dander, cotton flat waste, flat strips, Waste that lingers, Sliver cut, filter waste, noils, lap wastes, cotton dust from cards, spinning sweep, containers, drums, cones, tubes, and Waste from paper and clothing

Sizing of warp yarn

Cotton dust, cardboard, paper cones, iron trash, polypropylene bags, tota (thread ropes), discharged sizing chemicals,

Modern power looms

5 foot thread ropes, a brass bora, paper cones, scratched paper cones, polypropylene bags, cotton dust, dropper iron hoops, kara iron wire, and metal debris are all often used materials

Knitted fabric section

Oily discard products, iron and plastic scrap, paper cone, polythene bags, Type-B garments, wastage yarn, ragged white and colour garments

Textile coloration

Iron barrels, containers of plastic, flat cardboard, coloured threads, plastic pieces, polypropylene and brass bag, discharge effluent dyes and chemicals

Packing of finished products

Cutting rags, both white and coloured, over lock, polypropylene bags, cardboard, petroleum-based fusing, brass bag

Stitching

B-category and cut piece garments, cutting rags, polypropylene bags

Textile materials accept apparel

Cutting rags, polypropylene and brass bags, paper cone, rubbery scrap, ball bearing, cotton dirt and dust, soil, hard waste, iron container, plastic scrap, colour damage. Sweep spinning, cut pieces of various fibres, open end sweep

4 Textile Waste and Present Scenario About 70.4% of the total solid waste produced by the textile industry is attributable to the fabric and clothing manufacturing processes. The percentage of solid waste produced at various stages in the textile industry is shown in Fig. 2. "Jhut" refers to the textile waste produced by Bangladesh’s apparel industry. Garbage, or solid trash, accounts for around 59% of the total waste generated locally. The cutting part generates the second-highest amount of trash, as seen in Fig. 3, followed by the dying section. Nearly half of the 577,000 tons of trash produced by Bangladesh’s textile and apparel sectors, or 250,000 tons, is comprised completely of recyclable cotton. This garbage has a commercial worth of around $100 million. Additionally, it is anticipated that between 2015 and 2030, global textile waste would increase by 60% annually, resulting in the production of 148 million tons of rubbish overall, plus an additional 57 million tons per year. Clothing and shoes account for the majority of textile waste [18]. The amount of water used in the plant, particularly during the dyeing process, determines how much liquid waste is produced. Research shows that 38% of the water is used for bleaching, followed by 16% for dyeing, 8% for printing, 14% for the boiler, and 24% for other applications. In Bangladesh, there were around 1,700 wet processing facilities for washing, dying, and finishing textiles. A study showed that in Bangladesh, textile factories

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Waste

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0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0

Waste %

Resin 15.20%

Fabric 34.40%

Dye 2.30%

Fiber 12.20%

Apparel 36%

Fig. 2 Percentage of solid waste generated from textile industries in Bangladesh [18]

Percentage

80% 60%

59%

40% 21% 20%

13% 3%

4%

Sewing

Others

0% Cutting

Dyeing

Knitting

Garments Production Stages Fig. 3 Percentage of waste in different production stages [18]

utilize between 250 and 300 L of water for each kilogram of cloth produced. In 2016, textile industries in Bangladesh generated about 2.17 million m3 of waste from the wet processing stage to have about 1.8 million metric tons of textile cloth. In addition, chemicals are used extensively during the cleaning and dyeing steps of the textile manufacturing process. As a result, textile effluents include significant levels of harmful contaminants. Most of these effluents are dumped into rivers without adequate treatment, leading to significant water pollution and what is thought to be the cause of two-thirds of waterborne illnesses. Compared to other polluting industries in Bangladesh, the textile industry comes out on top.

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5 Waste Management System The industries of Bangladesh’s economy that are contributing to increased pollution are labeled as red under the environmental conservation regulations (ECR) of 1997. For these industries to receive the Environmental Clearance Certificate, an effluent treatment plant (ETP) is necessary (ECC). ECR 1997 is really not taken seriously by many sectors, which results in a surge in environmental pollution. Additionally, the ETPs are frequently turned off purposefully to lower operating costs or make them appear to be inoperable. But a study report from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics indicates that at least 37.6% of the country’s industrial units lack waste management systems, and 61% lack waste recycling facilities, which significantly contaminates the environment [19]. Industries are immediately discharging or dumping garbage into the ecosystem without any thought for environmental protection, causing contamination of the water, air, and land or soil. Garbage management entails all the procedures and tasks necessary to control waste from its creation to its final disposal. It relates to the numerous strategies for managing and getting rid of various wastes, which include throwing them away, breaking them up into smaller bits, recycling, reusing, or stopping the production of trash altogether. The reduction of ineffective materials and the mitigation of possible dangers to human health and the environment are the main goals of waste management. The collection, transportation, retrieval, and removal of garbage are all considered to fall under the definition of waste management according to the European Union, which also include acts carried out in the capacity of a merchant or broker. For managing trash at every stage, from creation and collection to final transfer, it comprises a wide range of methods and procedures. Waste management encompasses many methods of hazardous, liquid, gaseous, or solid substance disposal. Most textile industries are used different standards and globally recognized concepts to establish an acceptable waste management system which are: • Waste Management Hierarchy • Zero Waste Concept for Waste Management • 3R Waste Manage Technique Waste Management Hierarchy: The waste management hierarchy as shown in Fig. 4, reflects priority order in waste removal.

6 Benefits from Waste Management System The textile and clothing industries in Bangladesh have created a lot of garbage. These wastes are viewed as jewels and can receive several advantages by just adding value to them. The handling of textile waste has produced several environmental, economic, and social advantages. Along with advantages for businesses and communities, it

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Fig. 4 Waste management methods hierarchy

also helps consumers, service providers, and employees who are directly involved. As a result, the advantages of using textile wastes are divided into three categories: environmental advantages, economic advantages, and social advantages. (a) Environmental Benefits Textile wastage accelerates carbon emissions extensively and is considered the primary source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. All activities related to textile and clothing sectors such as production, consumption, transportation of raw materials, usage, and disposal of textile products posture a genuine risk to carbon impression. Therefore, an effective waste management policy is mandatory and leads to a healthier and greener environment. Although right management cannot eliminate all the hazardous elements, reduces the impact, and intensity of harmful matters. For instance, the polyester fabric creates more carbon footprint than fabric from cotton. However, recycling cotton brought zero risk to the environment whereas polyester releases carbon dioxide gases, and increases the size of the footprint. With a proper waste management system, it is possible to diminish the consumption of natural resources by utilizing recycled materials to make innovative products as well as packaging. Besides, by using proper waste removal methods, air quality has improved significantly [20]. On the other hand, the quality of wastewater that releases from several stages in wet processing can improve by using an appropriate wastewater management system. An effective waste management system can improve the decay of the ecosystem, and save aquatic lives as well other organisms and soil degradation. The production of agricultural products depends on the soil quality. Some of the textile waste takes a longer period to decay in the soil which has a significant impact on pollution, therefore an effective waste management system may enhance the quality of soil and the extraction of resources along with dropping contamination and enhancing energy utilization. (b) Economic Benefits A good waste management system, particularly one that encourages recycling and reuse, contributes to socioeconomic benefits. The method for managing garbage is

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essential to creating a robust economy. A study showed that recycling and reuse significantly reduce trash while creating job opportunities. The recycling and reuse business has also contributed more than $1 billion USD and ten thousand new jobs. It is not essential to mention that waste management can help firms save money on overall production expenses over time. Additionally, recycling promotes the preservation of raw materials and natural resources like glass, plastic, paper, and oil. Reusing those materials reduce the burden on our natural resources and cut down on production expenses. The consumer’s living standard is enhanced and results in getting financial rewards. (c) Social Benefits Throwing away textile waste causes pollution, odors, and other environmental damage. The health of the workforce is substantially impacted by this pollution, which also makes life dangerous. Additionally, it deters customers and workers from going to textile factories. The burden of dumping textile waste into the land is lessened by an improved waste management system. Additionally, waste management is a multi-billion dollar industry that promotes social inclusion by generating job possibilities, social development and security, economic benefits, volunteer programs, training, and a host of other initiatives. A successful waste management system promotes environmentally friendly behavior and maintains public and workplace safety [20].

7 Waste Management Scenario The environment, economics, culture, and technology are all instantly impacted by waste. Environmental protection and the preservation of natural resources for future generations depend on effective waste management. Deliberations, research, focused studies, and inventions are therefore essential to minimizing the harmful consequences of rubbish on the ecosystem. Waste management includes the procedures and methods needed to control waste at every stage of its life cycle. To establish an efficient waste management system, the majority of textile industries use the basic waste management concepts. The majority of textile firms use a waste management hierarchy, zero waste ideas, and a 3R waste hierarchy to implement their waste management system. According to a research, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recorded a recycling rate of 14.7% for clothing and footwear in 2018. (or roughly 2.5 million tons). In 2018, 3.2 million tons (9.3%) of textile waste was burned with energy recovery, and landfills received 7.7% of the total (11.3 million tons) [18]. Figure 5 shows the present status of managing textile waste in the US. The textile industry is one of Bangladesh’s fastest growing and most lucrative economic sectors. The textile industry has made a significant financial contribution to Bangladesh. Still, it has done a lot of damage to the environment, especially to the soil, the water supply, and the air quality. As a result, Bangladesh’s ecology has been drastically degrading during the past few years. The environment, particularly

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Waste' 1000 tons

20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Axis Title Generation

Recycled

Composted

Energy Recovery

Landfilled

Fig. 5 Present scenario of textile waste management [18]

in Dhaka, has deteriorated dramatically and turned the city into one of the most polluted globally. More than 92 million tons of waste were generated by the worldwide textile industry in 2014, according to several estimates. Most of it is either burned or dumped in landfills, with just a small part being recycled or used again. According to statistics, Bangladesh’s textile and clothing industries generate about 577,000 tons of rubbish, of which 250,000 tons, or almost half of the total, are textile and apparel waste composed completely of 100% recyclable cotton and are worth around USD 100 million. The amount of textile waste generated worldwide is anticipated to increase by 60%, or 57 million tons per year, between 2015 and 2030 [21].

8 Waste Management Policy Generally, two types of waste are produced, such as (i) solid waste and (ii) liquid waste. In the textile industry, solid wastes include fiber, fabric, packages, cartons, accessories, trimmings, etc. Liquid waste, waste is from several wet processes like dyeing, washing, printing, etc. Solid waste is dumped or thrown away directly into the landfill, which leads to clogs, smells, and pollution of the air, water, and soil. Alternatively, wastewater is either released now or extracted after treatments. It contains colored water and fiber, or fabric wastes in a dissolved state. Liquid waste is more hazardous than solid waste as it contains dyes and chemicals. Solid textile waste can be recycled or reused, but liquid waste needs to be treated afterward with ETP. To reduce environmental effect, the Bangladeshi government has put in place a number of laws, policies, and norms. Environmental protection legislation in Bangladesh include the Marine Fisheries Ordinance of 1983, the Brick Burning (Control) Act of 1989, and the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order of 1973. Before Bangladesh obtained its independence, a few additional significant conservation legislation were established. These laws include the Forest Act of 1927, the Protection and Conservation of Fish Act of 1950, the Agricultural and Sanitary

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Improvement Act of 1920, the Public Parks Act of 1904, and the Agricultural and Sanitary Improvement Act of 1904. Prior to the 1993 passage of the Act, three plans were developed: the National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP), the Forest Policy, and the Forestry Master Plan (1993–2012). In 1989, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry was created. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA) was passed on May 30th, 1995. The Bangladeshi government has also established a number of strong environmental protection legislation, including the Environment Court Act of 2002, the Environment Conservation Rules of 1997, and the Environment Conservation Act of 1995. Even though these policies are still in place, not enough is being done to put them into practice. Additionally, the top-down implementation of policies in the majority of government programs today utterly disregards bottom-up initiatives [22].

8.1 Recycling of Textile Waste The textile sector and consumer services are intimately intertwined. Therefore, the more textile products are produced, the more trash there will be. Recycling and reuse are effective solid waste management practices for solving this problem. In the past, the best way to get rid of textile waste was to bury it, where it would eventually break down and pollute the groundwater, aquatic life, people, and the environment. When solid waste is burned, high temperatures are produced, and dioxin is released, which builds up in the environment and food chain. According to research, waste management has an impact on human health in 46.8% of cases. Furthermore, the landfill’s impact was 1.5% lower than that of incineration [23]. Recycling is one of the best and most effective ways to eliminate textile waste and stop it from getting worse. The reuse and manufacturing of materials from textile waste are known as textile recycling. The biodegradable waste generated by the textile industry is already recyclable and environmentally friendly. Recycling textile waste is a viable business practice that is also environmentally friendly. Textile waste can be recycled in various ways, including physically, chemically, and thermally. (a) Physical recycling Most people think mechanical or physical recycling is the best way to eliminate textile waste [24]. Here, either recoveries or commingled waste treatment is used to deal with goods made or used. Using conventional mechanical recycling, worn-out or defective clothing is transformed into yarns and fibers. After that, recycled yarns can be made into many different things, such as carpets, nonwovens, materials for insulation, filtration, geotextiles, and more. Physical recycling is better than chemical recycling because it is more accessible, practical, and better for the environment [25]. (b) Chemical recycling Molecular weight conversion is made possible through chemical recycling. Compounds with a low molecular weight can be created from high molecular weight

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polymers. These compounds with low molecular weight can be used as raw materials to make other essential chemicals and polymers. Only synthetic fibres and their mixtures should use this approach. Chemical separation of threads, degradation of fibres, and re-polymerization into new fibres are some of the phases in the chemical recycling process [26]. For example, Nike reuses most of its old sports equipment to make brand-new products [27]. Another example is Teijin Fiber Ltd., a Japanese company that manufactures 100% polyester fabrics. By dissolving into tiny particles or granules, this process separates polyesters from other types of fibres. Through a chemical reaction, these tiny particles break down into dimethyl terephthalate (DMT), a chemical compound between the two. The production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can also be done using this [28]. (c) Thermal recycling When fibre waste is burned, thermal recycling is used to get the heat energy back and turn it into more heat or electricity. The pyrolysis method involves heating fibre materials to break down polymers into smaller molecules. The pyrolysis method is used here to heat fibres and break polymer molecules into smaller ones. A cloth loses 74% of its original weight when pyrolyzed, with slightly more than 30% being a light liquid fraction, 42.5 percent being an overwhelming fluid division, 12.5% being solid residue, and 13.5 percent being solid residue non-condensable gases [29]. Depending on the kind of resin, thermal recycling normally occurs between 450 and 700 °C [30]. Utilizing thermocycling, old textiles may be converted into more valuable carbon-based goods. Used acrylic textile fabric may be recycled by thermal recycling [31].

8.1.1

Recycled Products from Textile Pre-consumer and Post-consumer Waste

During the process of making textiles, a lot of leftover cottons, wool, and yarn, among other things, are made. This kind of byproduct can be separated and used as a raw material for recovered goods through efficient waste management. However, after the reprocessing, the yarn quality may somewhat worsen [32]. Table 4 [22] lists recent interests developed from textile waste.

8.2 Wastewater/Effluent Treatment Textile manufacturing, which includes spinning, weaving, knitting, dying, finishing, and making clothes, is the primary source of textile waste. There is a lot of textile waste because of trends like finishing and washing clothes quickly [33, 34]. Mechanical processes primarily create solid and liquid waste. Effluents are produced during wet processing [35]. The effluent discharged has high COD, BOD, TDS, TSS,

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Table 4 Essential repurposed textile waste products Textile wastages

Recycled product

Semi-synthetic Lyocell fabric (Modified cellulose)

Surface- assimilative fibres for adsorbing heavy and complex metals

Cotton and limestone powder

Building materials

Ash wastes from textile

Bricks for construction

Textile waste ash and basaltic pumice

Bricks for paving

Waste of cotton

Chipboards

Wastages from cotton fibre

Reinforced composites and Nano particles

Cotton fabric wastages

Composites, Microcrystalline cellulose

Open-width woven fabric

Reinforced composites

Cotton polyester blended fabrics

Reinforced composites

CVC (65%/35%) Blended fabrics

Composites

turbidity, alkalinity, etc. It also has both inorganic (heavy metals, sulfur, chlorides, nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.) and organic chemicals (such as phenols, surfactants, insecticides, oils, greases, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.) [36]. Wastewater causes environmental, groundwater, air, and soil pollution and health risks that erode septic systems [6]. According to the government-recommended instruments, those compounds must be neutral and effluent characteristics must be brought under control. If not, they will mix with the freshwater source, making the water more hazardous and leading to conditions like cancer of the kidneys, liver damage, dermatitis, skin problems, etc. Wet textile processing that uses dyes and chemicals that are safe for the environment and an effluent treatment plan that works well help a lot to solve the problem.

8.2.1

Wastewater Compositions

During pretreatment, dying, printing, finishing, and washing, a lot of energy, dyes, chemicals, and water are generated. Table 5 displays the components of textile sludge and effluent.

8.2.2

Standard Effluent Treatment Policy

The widely recognized criteria for treated wastewater are established by the Bangladeshi government. However, as seen in Table 6, allowable levels vary depending on the circumstances in each nation.

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Table 5 The compositions of textile sludge and effluent [37] Pollutant nature

Process

Effluent composition

Solid waste

Waste water

Sizing

Fiber and yarn waste

Metal compounds and/or Wetting agent, waxes, carboxymethyl high TDS, TSS, BOD, COD cellulose (CMC), polyvinyl alcohol, and starch (PVA)

Knitting/ weaving

Yarn and fabric scraps

Little or no waste

De-sizing

Fiber lint, yarn waste

High TDS, TSS, BOD, COD

Scouring

Little or Fats, oils, NaOH, pesticides, Inorganic compounds no and other cleaning agents waste

Bleaching

Little or High alkaline, TSS no waste

short fibers, surfactants, Acid, NaOH, Cl2, H2 O, sodium hypochlorite, and NaSiO3

Mercerizing

Little or High alkaline, TDS but low no BOD waste

Wax, Sodium hypochlorite

Dyeing

Little or Heavy metals, colored Wetting agent, reducing agent, acetic no water, high BOD, COD, and acid, dyes, detergents, and urea waste TDS, but low TSS

Printing

Little or High colored, BOD, no alkaline waste

Oils, gums, starches, alkalis, acids, thickeners, and agents for printing

Garment washing

Little or High colored, short fibers, no TDS, Alkalinity, TSS, and waste low BOD and COD levels

Washing agents, acids, alkali

8.2.3

Wax, starch, pectin, PVA, lipids, and CMC

Wastewater Treatment Process

The amount of dangerous discharge effluent can be minimal if ETP plants are changed and run well. The ETP treatment combines primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment processes [6, 40]. (a) Primary Treatment Screening, sedimentation, equalization, neutralization, flocculation, and coagulation are the primary treatment steps. The process, referred to as the mechanical treatment process, is designed to eliminate suspended materials found in wastewater.

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Table 6 Bangladesh Government Standard for effluent [38–45] Parameters

Accepted and approved by government of Bangladesh

Effluent parameters of key apparel manufacturing country Bangladesh

China

India

Pakistan

US

EU

COD (mg/L)

200

200

100

156–400

150

100

160

DO (mg/L)

9

6–9

6–9

6–9

6–9

6–9

6–9

BOD (mg/L)

50

200

100

156–400

150

100

160

TDS (mg/L)

300

450

400

500

400

350

350

TSS (mg/L)

100

150

70

200

150

30

30

Turbidity (NTU’s)

10

pH

6–9

6–9

6–9

6–9

6–10

6–9

6–9

Water hardness

170–900

Heavy metals

10–15

TOC

8.00–64.2

Colour

Light brownish/ watery

Screening: The effluent is cleaned of dense suspended items such rags, fabric fragments, fibers, threads, and lint. The majority of the threads may be removed by contemporary, advanced screening. Otherwise, trickling filters might obstruct carbon beads or seals. Sedimentation: Following screening, the solids in suspension are physically scraped into hoppers and pumped out during the sedimentation process. Smaller and lighter particles are intended to settle by gravity in the sedimentation tanks. The center-feed circular clarifiers and horizontal flow sedimentation tanks are thought to be the most important pieces of machinery. Equalization: In a sump pit, previously mixed effluents are placed, and the pit is moved or compressed air is blown into it to agitate it. Solid particles settle more readily in the hole because of their conical bottom. Neutralization: Textile waste is highly alkaline (pH value 10–12) and must be neutralized before being released into the environment. Treatment with sulphuric acid and flue gas with CO2 can neutralize the alkalinity. Alkalinity is balanced in the subsequent biological treatment in the secondary treatment category. Chemical coagulation: Simple sedimentation can separate solids in the air into two groups: colloidal and suspended solids. The solid particles coagulate and are stored in suspension under water. Mechanical flocculation: Wastewater passes through the tank, coalescing suspended solids and settling them out. The clariflocculator of the sedimentation tank controls the process, forms flocculent precipitant, and produces effluent free from suspension or colloidal state. With mechanical flocculation, 80–90% of the TSS, 40–70% of the BOD, and 30–60% of the COD are taken out of the water.

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Moreover, 80–90% of bacteria can also be eliminated. Chemical coagulation is often done with alum, ferric chloride, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate, lime, and so on. (b) Secondary Treatment The goal of secondary treatment is to significantly reduce or completely remove BOD, oil, phenols, and other contaminants from wastewater. In secondary treatment, colloidal and colored organic compounds are eliminated from the water by dissolving and stabilizing the organic material. In a biological sense, this elimination of organic substances is carried out by bacteria and other microbes. Aerated lagoons: In an aerated tank composed of cement, polythene, or rubber, the waste from initial treatment is collected. Floating aerators hold effluents for two to six days. By the time sludge is produced, 99% of BOD has been eliminated. The main drawback is that biological purification takes up a lot of room. Trickling filters: Circular and rectangular beds of trickling strainers are made of polyvinyl chloride, coal, broken stone, synthetic resins, etc. Wastewater is sprinkled with the help of a rotary sprinkler equipped with orifices or nozzles. This process assists in producing a gelatinous film on the filter surface medium. The film absorbs wastewater and oxidizes it by the bacteria and microorganisms present there. Activated Sludge process: The biological oxidation treatment method is another term for the activated sludge process. This process results in the biological breakdown of wastewater into CO2 and waste compounds by aerobic bacterial flora. Synthesizing microorganisms here devour organic materials. Activated sludge is the term for the microorganisms that are still suspended in water. Wastewater sludge is separated by settling and processed before being released. Oxidation ditch: The conventional activated sludge process is known as the oxidation ditch, where wastewater is passed after screening. The mixed liquor is aerated with the help of a mechanical rotor and recycled on a subsequent treatment cycle. Finally, the sludge is dried on sand drying beds. Oxidation pond: By bacteria and protozoa, the organic matter is stabilized Algae in the wastewater metabolize oxygen in this location and use CO2 for photosynthesis. Anaerobic digestion: In a sludge digester, anaerobic microscopic organisms age or assimilate the slime that results from the sedimentation of necessary and supplemental treatments. The final products are released as CH4 , CO2 , and a little amount of NH3 . (c) Tertiary treatment process Traditional processes are unable to banish significant amounts of non-biodegradable chemical polymers from wastewater. Therefore, tertiary treatment is obligatory. Oxidation techniques: This method involves the de-colorization of textile wastes in a decolorizing bath of sodium hypochlorite. Although it is considered a cheap technique, it is responsible for the formation of absorbable contaminated organic halides. Oxygen and free radicals of ozone combine with the coloring agents and destroy the colors.

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Electrolytic precipitation and foam fractionation: By using a reduction method, concentrated dye wastes are precipitated in an electrolyte bath. The idea behind foam fractionation is that surface-active solutes gather at gas–fluid interfaces. Membrane technology: The appropriate membrane technologies include reverse osmosis and electrodialysis. By blocking the membrane with dyes, reverse osmosis removes ions and species from a dye bath (90% effectively). The excess salt concentration can be removed through reverse osmosis and keeps the effluent neutral. On the other hand, electro-dialysis can break down salts by the movement of cations and anions by means of anionic and cationic porous layers. Electro chemical processes: There is no need for any additional chemicals. No side product is produced through this reaction. However, the problem is that it requires removal of suspended and colloidal solids before electrochemical oxidation unless it can impede the electrochemical reaction. Ion exchange method: The ion exchange technique is preferable for eliminating undesirable anions and cations from wastewater. In this technique, effluents pass through a series of beds of ion exchange resins. Nowadays, manufactured polymeric materials are used as a popular ion exchange method. Photo-catalytic degradation: The photoactive catalyst emits UV light, and the generation of highly reactive radicals can degrade organic compounds. Adsorption: The two immiscible stages exchange materials at their interface. It has significant potential for evacuation of color from wastewater. Thermal evaporation: In a thermal evaporator, sodium per sulfate works better as an oxidizing agent. Through this process, no sludge is produced, and no toxic chlorine fumes are emitted. Therefore, this technique is called the "eco-friendly technique. Here, sodium per sulfate forms free radicals and thermal evaporation takes place.

9 Textile Waste Reduction It is not possible to remove wastage from the textile industry completely, but can minimize the amount to a significant extent. The focus on the following points is helpful to reduce textile wastage [46–49]. • Uses of natural resources: Textile raw material innovation has made it suitable for smooth, higher, and large-scale production. However, most of those are synthetic and take hundreds of years to decompose in nature. These are responsible for polluting the environment. Only the application of natural raw materials can minimize environmental pollution and can keep our surroundings safe. Therefore, it is mandatory to search for natural-based raw materials for environmentally friendly textile production. • Optimization of the resources: The efficient and proper utilization of existing raw materials and technologies can optimize the manufacturing process. Productivity can be increased by using the same quantity of raw materials.

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• Reducing water consumption: Water is used extensively during wet processing of textiles. Textile coloration, finishing, and garment washing use a greater amount of water than usual. Therefore, the water source becomes scanty, and the ground water level is lower. By using water-less technology and reducing water applications can minimize the consumption of water, which is a pre-requisite nowadays to build a safer world [50]. • Reducing the amount of dyestuffs and chemicals: The increased use of dyestuffs and chemicals results in effluent and sludge. When they mix up with another source of water, it reduces the fertility of the soil, deteriorates the water property and becomes unsuitable for microorganisms. This water is so toxic that it can be dangerous for human health. Hence, usage of a lesser amount of dyestuffs and chemicals can minimize waste generation in the textile industry [50]. • Energy conservation: Higher consumption of energy generates large quantities of gaseous waste, resulting in an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, leading to global warming and destroying our natural ecosystem. Such kinds of gaseous waste can be minimized through proper energy conservation as well as alternative energy like renewable energy [51]. • Consumer awareness: Consumer awareness of sustainable approaches has made it easier to learn about transparency and company insights. The availability of benchmarks and sustainable measuring tools forced companies to maintain a minimum standard. The Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAC) has developed multiple tools for assessing environmental sustainability in apparel, footwear, and textile industries [52]. • Recycling and reuse: Garments are generally used 5–6 times and are thrown away as disposed of. Only 20% of them are collected. However, less than half of those is reused or recycled. According to another study, less than 1% of clothing is recycled. Therefore, recycling and reuse of clothes can minimize waste quantity to a significant extent [53]. • Prevention from textile waste: Waste prevention is a better option to reduce waste generation. The prevention policy can be effective, economical, and a revenue generator. This focuses on designers, stakeholders, consumers, and charitable organizations in manufacturing sustainable products [53].

10 Conclusion Waste management is addressed in various ways in the textile and garment industries. Every manufacturer must build up efficient waste management procedures and textile setups. Leftover clothing can not only be recycled or used again but it can also be used as a raw material for other goods. A sound waste management system makes it easier and less stressful to dump and get rid of the trash. It also helps set economic policy, create job opportunities, and, most importantly, clean up our environment. Sadly, not much waste is recycled or reused, and liquid trash is taken out without being treated properly. Therefore, the focus should be finding ways to reuse or recycle that textile

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waste. Waste must be managed by producers, the supply chain, retailers, customers, and regulatory agencies.

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Application of Biochemical in Textile Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Nur-Us-Shafa Mazumder, Umme Salma Ferdousi, Md. Abdus Shahid, and Mohammad Bellal Hoque

Abstract Humans have basic needs for textiles and clothing. To satisfy human needs in varied contexts, a number of textile and garment companies have been formed. Huge work opportunities have been generated and they have also put the environment in danger by producing dangerous garbage. Chemicals and water are extensively used in the textile industry, particularly in the dyeing, printing, and finishing processes. These substances are regarded as harmful and cancerous. These substances damage the biological system by entering the environment through wastewater. Using biochemical engineering or live organisms to treat hazardous waste and stop environmental harm is a smart choice. The key advantages of using live creatures, such as enzymes, are that they can be used in benign environments with neutral or low acidity and medium or low temperatures. Additionally, the biological process’ effluents do not degrade in the environment. This chapter focuses on the history, classification, makeup, and methods of usage of several enzymes in the chemical synthesis of materials for clothing. This chapter also covers the effect of biological processes on the environment. Keywords Biotechnology · enzymes · environment · Textile · Apparels

Md. M. Rahman (B) · U. S. Ferdousi Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] N.-U.-S. Mazumder Textile Protection and Comfort Center, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA Md. A. Shahid Department of Textile Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh M. B. Hoque Department of Textile Engineering, Fareast International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_11

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1 Introduction Biotechnology is the integration of natural science, organisms, cells, and molecular analogs with industrial applications. Biotechnology means the application of biological agents or organisms in the processing of materials, the processing of foods, catalyzing chemical reactions, and many more. Biotechnology is the scientific research and development using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, and production from any living system to produce high-value-added products with forecasting, formulations, and operational processes. Modern genetic technology, bioremediation, and the cleanup of polluted environments are also potential applications of biotechnology. The chemical structure of DNA also fastens the progress of biotechnology. Today, enzymes are significant biochemicals that are extensively used in pharmacology, food processing, transgenic animals and plants, domestic detergent, and in the fabric processing of textile industries. In the fabric processing industries, enzymes not only enhance fabric quality but also reduce a load of pollution in the environment.

1.1 Enzyme Enzymes can be considered as living, protein-made catalysts that speed up all biological reactions. Enzymes carry out catalytic treatment without going through even a single irreversible change. The Greek word “enzume,” which means “in (en) yeast (zume),” is the source of the word “enzyme,” which was first used by German scientist Kuhne in 1878 [1]. The discovery that valuable biochemicals might be extracted from cells was made by Eduard Buchner. It was discovered that enzymes could convert glucose into ethanol, in 1897. In the history of biochemical processes, this was a watershed moment [1]. All enzymes are large molecular-weight proteins connected by peptide bonds and made up of polymers of amino acids. They share many properties with proteins. In addition, a small number of enzymes contain cofactors, which are non-protein molecules that act as catalysts. The molecular weights of enzymes’ three-dimensional structures range from roughly 10,000 to 150,000, and occasionally more than 1,000,000 [2]. Below are some advantages of enzymatic catalysts over chemical catalysts: 1. The catalytic reaction rate of enzymes is faster than chemical catalytic rates, and the enrichment rate is about one million to several million [1]. 2. Enzymes ensure more specific action than chemical catalysts, and the formation of byproducts is also rare in enzymatic catalytic reactions. 3. Enzymes provide catalytic performance under mild conditions such as neutral pH, medium temperature (below 100 °C), and pressure, whereas high temperature, pressure, and extreme pH are common requirements for chemically catalyzed reactions.

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303 Enzyme Example EC 6.3.2.23

Represents one of the six major groups of enzymes

Subdivision of the major groups

The divisions of subdivision

Successive serial of enzymes in the group

Fig. 1 The international numbering system of enzymes

1.2 Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes The applications of enzymes are diverse in terms of the types of catalyzed reactions and in terms of structure. Thousands of enzymatic-catalyzed reactions are available in biological systems, and many more are waiting to be discovered soon. The enzyme consists of single proteins with a molecular mass of 13,000. Enzymes are complex molecules with millions of molecular masses that catalyze a variety of reactions [1]. The Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (NC-IUBMB) looks for classification and naming enzymes and makes suggestions to the global research community. In 1961, the Enzyme Commission of the International Union of Biochemistry invented a structure to classify enzymes by providing an ID number to the enzymes based on catalyzed reactions. The Reaction Commission came up with these ID numbers, which have more than four parts as shown in Fig. 1. They are widely used in the modern enzyme world [1]. Enzymes are mainly classified into six major groups, and these groups are identified by the first figure of the ID number. The second and third numbers of the ID number show what kinds of reactions are being sped up.

1.3 Classification and Terminology of the Major Groups of Enzymes The Enzyme Commission classified the enzymes into the below six keysets following the types of reactions [1]: I.

Oxidoreductases: These enzymes catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions. In this group, the second EC digit specifies the hydrogen donor, such as aldehyde and keto, whereas the third figure specifies the acceptor, such as cytochrome and molecular oxygen. Examples of this group of enzymes are alcohol dehydrogenase (trivial) and alcohol NAD + oxidoreductase (EC 1.1.1.1).

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II. Transferases: The enzymes of this group facilitate reactions by shifting chemical units. The second figure of this group specifies the transported unit, such as methyl or glycosyl, whereas the third figure provides more data on the transported group, such as hydroxymethyl. An example of a transferase enzyme is glucokinase, ATP glucose phosphotransferase (EC 2.7.1.2). III. Hydrolases: These enzymes perform catalysis by splitting C–O, C–N, C–C, and a few more chemical links. In this group, the second figure represents the types of chemical links hydrolyzed, such as ester and glycosyl, whereas the third figure represents the types of substrates, such as carboxylic ester and thiol ester. An example of a hydrolase enzyme is carboxypeptidase (EC 3.4.17.1). IV. Lyases: It accelerates the reaction by splitting C–C, C–O, C–N, and a few more bonds by exclusion, separation of dual links, or adding chemical units to the dual links, such as pyruvate decarboxylase and pyruvate lyase (EC 4.1.1.1). In these groups, the second figure represents the broken link, and the third figure provides more data about the excluded group, e.g., CO2 , H2 O. V. Isomerases: These enzymes catalyze reactions by physical changes in a single molecule, viz., maleate isomerase and maleate cis–trans isomerase (EC 5.2.1.10). In this group, the second EC digit represents the nature of isomerism, and the third EC digit indicates the nature of substrate. VI. Ligases: These enzymes facilitate the catalyzing by joining of two molecules, such as pyruvate carboxylase (trivial) and pyruvate carboxyligase (EC 6.4.1.1). In this group, the second figure represents the bond produced, such as C–O, C–S, and the third figure is simply used in C–N ligases.

1.4 The Systematic Names of Enzymes According to the recommendation of the Enzyme Commission, each enzyme should have a systematic or methodical (EC name) as well as a trivial (working) name. The methodical name defines the catalytic activity of an enzyme clearly, while the trivial name is intended for overall or common usage. The methodical naming of enzymes is based on the type of reaction that is mediated by enzymes and the names of the substrates upon which enzymes function. Also used as the basis for grouping and ID numbers are these criteria. Individual enzymes are typically identified by appending the suffix “ase” to the end of the name of the substrate (for example, cellulose or amylase). These enzymes only carry out a single reaction and are not appropriate for systems containing one or more enzymes. The word “system” appears in the name of an enzyme when it is utilized in a system, such as a succinate oxidase system [1]. The standards and specifications for naming and classifying enzymes can be found in the Enzyme Terminology Databank at the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics.

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1.5 List of Important Enzymes for Textile Application The fabric processing unit of the textile industry consumes an enormous number of different types of enzymes every day, from the pretreatment to the finishing step of the fabric. The use of enzymes in the textile industry not only enhances the aesthetic values of the material but also reduces the effluent load to the environment, which is a significant concern in today’s world as the conventional treatment methods of the textile industry pollute the environment severely. Table 1 shows the names of significant enzymes in the textile industry.

2 Parameters of Enzymatic Treatment One of the significant characteristics of enzymes is their specificity. A single enzyme is only active on one substrate in a specific condition, i.e., a fixed temperature, pH, and time needed to maintain it. It is also necessary to be careful when selecting other processing chemicals such as reducing, oxidizing, and surfactants. During treatment with an enzyme, otherwise, these chemicals may decrease the enzyme’s activity. The manufacturer of the specific enzyme commonly provides literature for the processing parameters of that enzyme. The enzyme activation will be damaged or impaired if these parameters are not maintained. Table 1 Enzymes for textile application with their effects [2, 3] Name of enzymes

Application area/effect

Cellulases hemicellulases

In bio-polishing, anti-pilling, softness, luster improvement, and stone-washed effects on denim of cellulosic fabrics

Amylases

In the removal of size materials from warp yearn

Proteases

Domestic washing powder or agents remove the protein-containing soil or stains. Also used in degumming silk but may harm silk fibroin

Lipases

Used for the hydrolysis of lipids

Pectinases

Hydrolysis of pectin (during scouring of vegetable fibers)

Catalases

To catalyze the decomposition of residual hydrogen peroxide after the bleaching process

Peroxidases

To enhance the wash fastness properties, in after-treatment rinse process for oxidative splitting of hydrolyzed dyes and also in the de-colorization of effluent water

Ligninases

For the removal of burrs and plant components from wool fiber

Collagenases

To remove the residual skin parts from wool fiber

Nitrilases

In the preparatory stage of Acrylic fiber for better coloration

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pH: Generally, enzymes show their maximal activity in a certain pH range. The range can be acidic, neutral, or alkaline. Over- or under-pH from the recommendation of the manufacturer may impair the enzyme activity, and sometimes it can cause damage to the enzyme. Normally, textile-based enzymes work at a pH range of 4.5 to 6.5 [2]. Temperature: Every enzyme has a specific temperature range. An enzyme remains inactive at a low temperature and denatured above a threshold temperature. Normally, the catalyzing rate of enzymes increases with temperature, and the rate nearly doubles for every 10 °C growth in temperature up to the threshold temperature [1]. The general temperature range of enzymes for textile application is 40–60 °C. Surfactant: Surfactants, also known as wetting agents, are used in the processing batch of chemical treatment to reduce the surface tension of water as well as increase the interaction among the used chemicals. Surfactants are mainly of four types: anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and non-ionic. All of these contain a polar tail. Due to electrostatic interaction among the charged surfactants and side chains of amino acids, the polar part of the surfactant enters into the protein of enzymes. Finally, this causes irreversible inactivation of the enzymes. In this aspect, non-ionic surfactants are safe, and this surfactant provides the highest compatibility with enzymes, whereas anionic surfactants ensure the lowest compatibility. Oxidizing Agent: Sulfur contains cysteine and methionine, and aromatic residues of tryptophan. The oxidation processes of tyrosine and histidine are delicate. In the bleaching process by oxidation mechanism, the amino acid residues are oxidized in the active position of the enzyme. The functional part’s oxidation might hamper the substrate’s tying, and the enzyme activeness will reach nil. Finally, the oxidation of surface amino acids will lead to structural changes in the enzymes with permanent inactivity. Reducing Agent: In the fabric processing bath, reducing agents are restricted to the enzyme-containing disulfide bonds. The presence of reducing agents causes the breaking of disulfide bonds, which results in the unfolding of protein and, finally, the inactivation of the enzyme. An enzyme without disulfide bonds has been prescribed.

3 Use of Enzymes in Different Textile Processing In 1912, the enzymatic desizing method was successfully launched. Enzymes were initially utilized in the desizing procedure in 1857, while enzymatic textile processing began in the middle of the nineteenth century [4]. In addition, cellulase enzymes for de-pilling and de-fuzzing cellulosic fiber-based fabrics were introduced in the 1980s with the goal of desizing [5]. Early in the 1990s, enzymes break down into pectin and are introduced to take the place of conventional alkaline scouring [1]. Out of the 7000 known enzymes, only roughly 75 are regularly utilized in the textile

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Fig. 2 Uses of enzymes in various operations in textile wet processing (self-drawn)

business [6]. Cellulase enzymes have also been employed to give jeans or clothing made of cellulose fibers an aged appearance. The anti-felting qualities of wool can be increased by using enzymes to remove the wool scales [7, 8]. For instance, according to Madhu et al. (2017), enzymes can be utilized to clean wastewater and process various kinds of wet textiles [9]. Due to the textile industry’s pollution and consumers’ growing awareness of green technology, biotechnological research is being conducted all over the world, especially in contemporary businesses, to implement environmentally friendly textile processing methods [10]. Enzymes in the textile industry help us produce textile fibers in an environmentally friendly manner while also enhancing the quality of the finished product. Enzymes are used mostly because producing textile fibers requires more energy and raw resources, and is concerned about pollution, from the disposal of chemicals [7, 11]. The employment of enzymes during several stages of the wet processing of textiles is depicted in Fig. 2.

3.1 Desizing Before the weaving process, the cotton warp yarns are sized to increase their strength, which prevents yarn breakage during the weaving process. Sizing chemicals include mainly starch-based products. In addition, synthetic and semi-synthetic polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) size chemicals are used [1, 4, 5, 10, 12]. However, starch is the preferred chemical for sizing for many reasons. Other

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available size chemicals require acids and oxidizing agents, which are harsh and may cause fiber degradation [13]. The coated-size chemicals work as lubricating agents, which give abrasion protection and eventually protect the yarn from breakage during the weaving process in a loom [7, 10]. The sizing agent on the cotton yarn surface is removed after weaving to prepare the fabrics for wet textile processes. Therefore, removing the sizing chemical, known as “desizing,” is the first step of the wet textile process. The enzymes are used in wet textile processing and have been pioneered in desizing [7–10, 12]. The most used chemical starch, poly-glucopyranose, can be removed after degradation by amylases, followed by simple washing out. Starch is insoluble in water and can be solubilized by enzymatic degradation, shortening the compound chain. The conversion of starch into soluble compounds is the object of the desizing process [8, 10, 14–17]. The stages of starch hydrolyzing are as follows:

For desizing, the starch enzyme desizing method is the most widely used. The advantages of enzymes are many in the textile processing industry. The enzyme can remove the chemicals without degrading the cotton fiber. Usually, this desizing method is carried out at a low temperature of around 65 °C, and the preferred pH is between 5 and 7 [8, 18]. Most people agree that raising the temperature makes thermophile amylases work better and remove starch [10, 19]. Before the discovery of amylases, acids, alkalis, and oxidizing agents were used in the desizing process. These processes were not effective in removing the starch. The fibers are damaged due to the use of strong chemicals. So, amylases are the only chemicals used for desizing because they are very good at getting rid of the sizing chemicals without hurting the fiber [7].

3.2 Scouring Scouring is an impurity removal process where hydrophobic and other non-cellulosic compounds are removed. Raw cotton usually contains about 90% cellulose; the remaining 10% are different non-fibrous impurities. The hydrophobic pollutants contain waxes and fats, and other non-cellulosic contaminants contain pectin, protein, organic acids, etc. Pectin acts as an adhesive material, which is a non-cellulosic substance. Therefore, removing this substance will help remove the other noncellulosic substances. Before the gray fabric proceeds to the dyeing and finishing processes, these impurities are removed to make the fabric hydrophilic [12]. The conventional scouring process includes boiling the fabric with sodium hydroxide, followed by extensive washing. This traditional scouring process can remove most impurities required to achieve good absorbency. However, this process requires high

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alkali usage and heavy washing. This process damages the fibers and makes several byproducts that are hard to get rid of in wastewater treatment, leading to high COD and BOD [7, 8, 10, 16, 20]. The decomposition of pectin can be done using an enzyme known as bio-scouring. Bio-scouring targets non-cellulosic impurities without damaging the fibers, which reduces weight and strength loss. Since this process is eco-friendly and energyefficient, the traditional scouring process can be replaced by bio-scouring. The natural cotton fiber properties are preserved in the bio-scouring process. Furthermore, the fabric is softer than the conventional scouring process [7, 10]. Pectinase [17, 21–23], cellulase [21, 24], protease [21], and lipase/cutinase enzymes are applied together or individually [25–27] in cotton fabrics. Bio-scouring and pectinases are the most effective [8]. Pectinase enzymes can be used in both acidic and alkaline conditions. A slight acidic medium (pH 4 and 6) activates the acidic pectinases. On the other hand, a pH value between 7 and 9 is preferred for alkaline pectinases [28]. The optimum concentration varies, and enzymes are generally most effective in the low concentration (0.005–2%) range. Furthermore, the optimum temperature is between 40 and 60 °C, above which the enzyme activity decreases. After the bio-scouring process, a high-temperature rinsing is required to remove the waxes [24]. As a result, lipase enzymes can assist in eliminating natural fats and lubricants, which helps with better absorbency and levelness in dyeing. Bio-scouring containing lipases is more effective in attaining good water absorption for cellulosic fibers [29]. In this method, bacterial alkaline pectinase is incredibly effective [8].

3.3 Bleaching Following scouring, cotton fabric is bleached to enhance its whiteness, particularly for lighter colors. The fabric needs to be permanently and fundamentally white for dyeing and printing to work well. This can be done by bleaching the fabric with or without erasing the fiber’s original color or other materials. Historically, bleaching treatments including chlorine or oxygen have been used to make cotton fibers appear white. Hydrogen peroxide, on the other hand, has become a popular bleaching chemical over the past three decades. Decolorization is caused by the creation of perhydroxyl ions (HOO–), which are produced by the dissociation of hydrogen peroxide and grow with increasing temperature. High temperatures and extended processing durations are needed for this bleaching process, which results in depolymerization and, finally, loss of tensile strength and weight. Additionally, a lot of water is required to remove the bleaching agent from the cloth because if it is left on the fabric, the dyeing process would be hampered [8–10, 30]. To find an alternative to traditional alkaline oxidizing bleaching, many researchers have researched enzymatic eco-friendly bleaching techniques. One of the procedures involves employing glucose oxidase to produce hydrogen peroxide. For bleaching, there is an alkaline bath. Utilizing glucose created during the desizing phase of starch breakdown, the indirect bleaching approach is used [8, 17, 31]. Cotton fabric’s

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whiteness is improved through the bleaching process. The pH is alkaline, and the temperatures vary from 80 to 90 °C [32]. The use of copper-containing laccases in the presence of oxidoreductase enzymes for bio-bleaching is another method of enzymatic bleaching [33]. In the textile industry, a peroxidase- and enzyme-based bleaching technique is also being investigated [9].

3.4 Hydrogen Peroxide Removal About 10–15% hydrogen peroxide remains on the fabrics after bleaching. The excess bleaching agent is removed from the fabric before dying to prevent dye oxidation. This excess hydrogen peroxide can also cause fiber degradation and may form pinholes on the fabric surface, leading to strength loss. There are usually two ways to remove the excess bleaching agent: (i) using reducing agents to eliminate the bleaching agent and (ii) rinsing the fabrics with a large amount of water [8, 10]. However, the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide can be done by the catalase enzyme [34]. The catalase enzymes quickly and effectively decompose the hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water. The good things about this process are that it cuts down on the amount of water used and gets rid of the need for strong reducing agents [8]. Moreover, the cost of the enzymatic process is reduced by immobilizing catalase enzymes [35]. The method of bleach cleanup is as follows: • • • • • •

after bleaching, drain the bleached liquor. cold water filled. pH of 6.7–7.7 is maintained, as is a temperature of 45 °C. add the catalase enzyme. after 10–20 min, check the H2 O2 removal progress. start the dyeing process when the removal process is done.

The enzymatic peroxide removal process saves energy consumption by 24%, reduces chemical costs by 83%, water consumption by 50%, and process time by 33% [8].

3.5 Bio-polishing On cotton fabric, cellulase enzymes can produce a variety of effects. The same enzyme class is also capable of giving cotton fabrics an updated or vintage appearance. On cotton denim fabric, the aged appearance can be achieved by treating the cloth with cellulase enzymes while applying a specific amount of agitation and shear force [12, 36–39]. On the surface of cotton fabrics, short microfiber can be seen and is referred to as “fuzz”. When these threads become intertwined, pills can be created. Bio-polishing [40] is the process of removing these microfibers off the surface of the

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fabric, giving it a fresh appearance. By eliminating the fuzz or pills from the fabric’s surface, the appearance of the surface is improved [41]. The creation of pills is significantly decreased because of this technique, which also improves color brightness, hand feel, and fiber water absorption [9]. Cellulase enzymes that hydrolyze cellulose are used to do bio-polishing. A smoother yarn surface is produced because of the cellulose’s hydrolysis, which weakens the microfibers and eventually causes them to separate from the surface [7]. Either before or after the dying process, this procedure is carried out. Due to enhanced softness, this procedure aids in producing a postdyeing effect and a resin finish. For bio-polishing, either a neutral or acid cellulase bath at pH 7 or 4.5–5.5 is maintained. At 55 °C, the procedure is heated to begin with. At 85 °C, the procedure is finally finished. By immobilizing cellulase, the action can be confined to the fiber surface exclusively [10, 42].

3.6 Denim Finishing Due to its worn-in and faded appearance, denim is a particularly well-liked cotton fabric. To get the weathered effect with flexibility and suppleness, pumice stone cleaning was utilized. Pumice stone washing, however, has a number of drawbacks, including serious harm to fabrics and equipment and the need for a significant amount of water throughout the washing process to remove the pumice stone residue. Due to the blockage of stone dust, machine drainage and sewer pipes may also become blocked [43, 44]. Consequently, the cellulase enzyme procedure has essentially taken the role of the outdated pumice stone washing method. The cellulase enzyme can remove the retained indigo color from the fiber in an uneven manner, giving the fabric a faded appearance. The use of this enzyme in textile processing for denim finishing began in the late 1980s. Pumice washing can be replaced with this bio-washing method that uses the cellulase enzyme. The required appearance and improved quality can be produced with this washing process [9]. Depending on the application, neural cellulase enzyme can be employed at temperatures between 30 and 60 °C with a pH ranging from 6.6 to 7 [45, 46].

4 Other Potential Applications of Enzymes Enzymes are the most significant alternative to harmful chemicals in the textile industry. Enzymes are utilized in finishing procedures when only damaging chemicals are used, such as desizing, scouring, bio-polishing, and bleaching. Enzymes can be used in more than just pretreatment and post-treatment procedures. In terms of improving the dyeability of natural and synthetic fibers, enzymes do quite well. By using enzymes, it is now feasible to produce environmentally friendly anti-felt wool that contains chlorine. Enzymes are used to remediate various

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textile effluents. For instance, different enzymes are currently used to decolorize and neutralize hazardous azo dyes. Different enzymes are used to alter the chemical and mechanical characteristics of natural and synthetic fibers to increase functionality.

4.1 Wool Anti-Felting To make the wool fabric washable by reducing the tendency to feel, anti-felting treatments are performed to partially eliminate the scales or to give the edges a smooth finish from the overlapping scales. Three methods of anti-felting are used commercially. Reducing, oxidizing, coating, or combining these processes are steps in the Hercosett process. Wool is given a chlorine treatment throughout this process. The wool that has been exposed to chlorine is next coated with resin to undergo an anti-chloric treatment. As a result, there is a chance of developing a yellowing look and losing woolly traits. Additionally, this technique is eco-friendly. Wool is a fiber made of protein that contains 18 different amino acids. Cysteine, glutamate, and serine are three noteworthy amino acids. There are three components to this fiber. The cuticle is the top layer, followed by the cortex and the medulla, which are the inner layers. Epicuticle, exocuticle, and endocuticle are the three layers that make up the cuticle [47]. There are many cysteine-made proteins below the epicuticle. This portion must be eliminated [48]. There were not many enzymes available before for treating wool. The enzymes that were available were trypsinase, pawpaw proteinase, and pepsinase. New enzymes frequently appear as microbial technology develops. The three groups of enzymes employed in wool felting are as follows. The most popular enzyme is an animalderived substance called porcine trypsin. Papain is an endolytic cysteine protease that comes from plants. It can speed up the production of keratin protein. Synthetic enzyme is the last and least expensive type. A synthetic enzyme created specifically for wool is called woolase [48]. Using enzymes to prevent wool from felting is a responsible action. The pretreatment of wool involves the application of the lipase enzyme. It eliminates lipids from the wool’s outer layer. Glutathione reductase participates in the reduction process by reducing the disulfide bonds in wool keratin. The same enzyme is used in this step to find the reduced form of nicotine amide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. During the after-treatment stage, papain is utilized to smooth wool scales [49]. When utilized in this fashion, treated wool exhibits stronger antifelting qualities than untreated wool. However, when compared to the wool that has been treated with Hercosett, these qualities are of poorer quality.

4.2 Increasing Dye Ability of Different Fibers Enzymes are being used in improving the dyeability of various textile fibers alongside the pretreatment process. These are used to improve the dyeing properties [48].

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Cellulose The reaction of Exo-kind and Endo-kindgluconases shorter chain remains+ Cellobiose

Exo-kind and Endo- kind glucanases and ß-Glucosidases make more cleavage

Glucose (Final Product) Fig. 3 Hydrolysis of cellulose by enzyme (self-drawn)

Cellulase is an environmentally friendly enzyme which helps cellulosic fibers have improved dyeability. The best performance of cellulase can be obtained at a temperature range of 40–55 °C along with a particular pH range. Cellulase enzymes mainly consist of three kinds of proteins that have a high molecular weight. The β-glucosidic bond of the substrate in cellulose is cleaved by the catalyzation of these proteins. During this, cellulases of Exo-kind cut the chain from the end of the non-reducing part, and, the other kinds, like the Endo one, work randomly. As a result of these two, short-chain remains are produced (Fig. 3). This remains with the addition of cellobiose, which gives the final product glucose [50]. Cellulases initially work on the surface of the fiber during the primary stages of hydrolysis. Along with this, substantial mechanical action is done, which assists the enzyme to be absorbed as well as desorbed. As a result, the fiber surface becomes smooth. Along with changing the fiber surface, cellulases produce fresh dyeable areas. Cotton fiber, which has been pretreated with cellulose, showed a good increase in color strength while dyeing with direct dye, vat dye, and reactive dye [50]. In an experiment, jute fiber was treated with cellulase enzyme, which cleared the surface, and dyed with reactive dye. The treatment slightly enlarged the amorphous area in the jute structure. Hence, more active spots were produced. This made it easier for a covalent bond to form between the dye and the fiber, which made it easier to dye [51]. The surface of polyamide fibers can be hydrolyzed by various types of enzymes. The lipase enzyme can change the dyeability and color fastness properties of nylon 6. Treatment with cutinase produces free groups of amines. Proteases hydrolyze nylon 66 into its original monomer by breaking the linkages of amides. In the amorphous region of the chains, proteases catalyze this hydrolysis and create more functional groups. This free group contributes to the attraction of acids and reactive dyes. Molecules of dye can easily penetrate (Fig. 4). Thus, dyeability increases [52]. Cutinase, lipase, esterase enzymes can act on polyester. Lipases can hydrolyze ester linkages of polyester into –COOH (carboxyl), and –OH (hydroxyl) groups. Due to the breakage of the linkage dyeability of polyester increases [53].

314 Fig. 4 Hydrolysis of protease-treated nylon 6,6 (self-drawn)

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(-HN - (H2C)6 -NH-CO-(CH2)4-CO-) n Protease

-HN - (H2C)6 –NH2

HOOC-(CH2)4-CO-

4.3 Decolorization of Textile Effluent In the textile industry, various effluents are generated during pretreatment, dyeing, and printing. High concentrations of organic matter from sizing ingredients and natural impurities are produced due to the scouring process. Bleaching effluent contains residues of oxidizing agents such as sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), sodium chlorite (NaClO2 ), hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), and alkalis or acids. Mercerizing effluent is a concentrated caustic solution and suspension. During dyeing, different kinds of discharged liquor contain surface active agents. Liquor containing sodium sulfide (Na2 S) causes staining, and liquor from chrome dyeing contains metal which can hamper the normal biochemical process. The wastes made by printing are the leftover printing paste and the stuff left on the rollers, screens, and machines. Enzymes are made of protein molecules. For this reason, they don’t break down dyes. Yet they perform a particular kind of transformation. Enzymes do not mineralize dyes, but they modify them. This modification is enough to abolish chromophores and decrease toxicity. Dye molecules exhibit various structures. Yet, they can be degraded by just some enzymes [1]. Dyes, which are used in the processing of textiles, among them, around 60–70%, are sulfonated azo amalgams [54]. Scientists discovered a bacterial strain that can degrade Orange II (Acid Orange 7). The enzyme, known as azoreductase, is responsible for the breakdown of azo dye [54]. It catalyzes the reduction of the azo bond. This reduction needs the presence of oxygen, which is unusual. According to some studies, azo dye decolorization is linked to the azoreductase activity of some organisms that can only grow on azo dyes. But this sort of effluent treatment, like the activity of 213 azoreductase-enzymes in stimulated sludge, is a metabolic outcome of unparticular reductive enzymes like cytochrome P450 reductases and oxidoreductases, which depend on cofactor. The reduction of azo dye is not dependent on the activity of enzymes. The reduction can occur by establishing a reductive environment within the organism. Because of the unspecific reduction process, breaking azo bonds in the absence of oxygen is frequently aided by redox-active compounds such as NADH (biochemical cofactors), Fe2+ , and H2 S (inorganic compounds). As these are the metabolic end products of anaerobic bacteria, the dyes, which are reduction vulnerable, can have transformation as well as azo dyes [1]. Usually, intracellular mono- and bi-oxygenases (which can be found in living organisms) in aerobic conditions can work for the transformation of dyes throughout the secondary metabolism. They break down the aromatic rings by integrating oxygen, and the breaking of the aromatic ring results in carboxylic acids. These

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Fig. 5 Oxidative degradation passageway of indigoid dyes (self-drawn)

enzymes rely on non-protein chemicals such as NAD(P)(H) to aid in biochemical transformation. For the decolourization of textile dyes, laccases (polyphenol oxidases) are the most workable enzymes. Laccases can decolorize many industrial dyes. Using this enzyme, you can very effectively remove the color from the most important indigoid dyes, which are used to dye blue jeans (Fig. 5): (a) Indigo dye (b) lacasse breaks down indigo and catalyzes the electron transfer, resulting in isatin (c) decarboxylation, anthranilic acid, the final steady oxidation compound is found [1]. Peroxidases are the other significant enzymes that can decolorize textile dyes. They use H2 O2 to oxidize aromatic compounds. They can catalyze the oxidative breakdown of azo dyes as well as other dye classes, for instance, triphenylmethane dyes. These dyes are unmanageable by biodegradation, but peroxidases can oxidize them. Lacceses and peroxidases are both enzymes that can deal with dyes of the anthraquinoid type. Oxidases, found in different types of organisms, can be easily found and exhibit various temperature, pH, and inhibition features, such as laccases from bacteria exhibit optimal activity above pH 7. On the contrary, fungal laccases show the greatest activity in an acidic region, specifically less than pH 3.

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Fig. 6 Hydrolysis of PET by enzyme (Esterases)

4.4 Synthetic Fiber Modification In the textile industry, synthetic fiber has a large market share (54.4%), and it is growing every day. Quicker drying ability, easier cleaning, and better transportation of water are the prime catalysts behind this rise. The most used synthetic fibers for textiles are Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), PAN (Polyacrylonitrile), and PA (Polyamide) as shown in Fig. 6 [55]. Though these fibers have advantages over natural fibers, they are hydrophobic. This feature has made finishing and dyeing very tough for the mentioned fibers. A way of achieving this dyeing affinity to water soluble dye or finishing properties such as flame retardancy is possible by treating these fibers chemically or using plasma [56]. The chemical treatment produces harmful discharge for the environment. Plasma treatment is a difficult one. Therefore, the enzyme is the rescuer in both cases. PET has hydrophobicity, and it does not dissolve in water or many solvents of organic origin. This feature creates enzyme action on the polymer surface. Nonetheless, some enzymes can perform the hydrolysis of PET. By hydrolysis, it is possible to increase the independent carboxylate and hydroxyl groups on the PET surface. Thus, PET becomes hydrophilic and treatable. Hydrolysis of the ester linkage of PET can be done by esterases and lipases [58]. Cutinases, a plant-derived enzyme, also hydrolyze the esters [55]. It has been proven that these enzymes can increase the hydroxyl groups of polymer powder and fabrics. Esterase treatment on the fabric surface for 48 h increased the end groups of hydroxyls from 62 mmol/kg fabric to 138 [57]. These enzymes also decrease the pilling properties of PET. It is found that lipases can hydrolyze PET in such a way that the hydrophilic nature of PET increases strongly. Moreover, color clarity has been improved [55]. Nylon 6,6 and nylon 6 are the polyamides which are used in the textile industry. Polyamides are as stubborn as PET in the case of microbial degradation. Hence, a small number of enzymes are capable of modifying polyamides. Enzymes allow the hydrolysis of nylon oligomers. Oxidative enzymes can modify the surface of nylon 6,6 and nylon 6, and they will not reduce the diameter of the fiber [52]. The

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target of modifying PA is to increase hydrophilicity and to introduce functional groups. Generally, hydrolytic enzymes act on the surface and result in an increase in carboxylate amino groups. Oxidative enzymes introduce functional groups by breaking the backbone [55]. When treated with cutinase, free amino groups are formed, which enables the dye affinity to reactive dyes. It is found that enzymetreated and acid dyed nylon 6,6 has improved wash-fastness. Nylon 6 shows changes in dyeability, surface properties, moisture absorption, and various color fastness properties. In an experiment, various percentages of protease solutions were used to treat nylon 6,6. The degradation temperature shows a mentionable decrease depending on the protease enzyme kind. By analyzing UV-Vis spectrophotometry, it has been found that the absorption of reactive and acid dyes has been improved by treating them with enzymes. Fastness to wash and light has been improved due to the same treatment [52]. In the case of polyacrylonitrile nitrile hydrolyzing, enzymes can hydrolyze the nitrile groups. The hydrolysis of nitrile can be shown in the below pathways. Nitrilases have catalyzed the nitrile hydrolysis into the corresponding acid [55] in Fig. 7. Hydrolysis by amidase or nitrile hydratase is catalyzed in 2 steps. This enzyme system is used frequently for the modification of polyacrylonitrile fiber. Treated PAN fabric by using the mentioned enzymes shows an increase in amide groups, but acid groups are missing. This modified PAN showed higher color K/S values [55]. Nitrile hydratase-treated polyacrylonitrile shows improved hydrophilicity, resulting in good dyeability [1]. Fig. 7 Nitrilase (upper one) and a nitrile hydratases/amidase enzyme reaction system

+2 H2O CN-RCOOH+NH3 Nitrilase R + H2O

+ H2O

CN-R

CONH2

Nitrile

R

hydratas

COOH+NH3 Amidase

R

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5 Advantages of Enzymatic Processing or Using Enzymes In comparison to traditional chemical catalytic reactions, enzymatic processes have the following advantages: • Enzymes are biodegradable biocatalysts and are very specific in their activity. • Most of the enzymes perform catalytic activity in mild conditions, i.e., at medium temperature and at neutral or light acidic pH, which reduce energy, other chemicals, and water consumption and have a positive influence on the industry’s economy. • Enzymatic treatment also reduces the use of natural gas as less energy and steam are required in the enzymatic process. • The enzymatic process produces less effluent than conventional processes, which is significant for environmental issues and has a positive impact on the industry’s economy. • The enzymatic process confirms better productivity. • Enzymatic processes provide high-quality finished goods in the textile industry. • Enzymes are biodegradable and needed in small quantities for the treatment. It can be summarized that the enzymatic process is an eco-friendly as well as economical process. For this reason, this technology is also known as “white biotechnology.”

6 Conclusion Conventional wet processing treatments of textile industries are characterized by corrosive chemicals, high alkaline or acidic pH, and elevated temperatures, which cause great power consumption as well as threaten the environment by producing heavy pollutants. To overcome the mentioned difficulties, the application of enzymatic treatment in textile industries is gaining more importance. It is expected that conventional hazardous chemical treatment will be replaced by an eco-friendly enzymatic process in the next 5–10 years [47]. To maintain the living environment for the next generation, it is also necessary to reduce the use of different corrosive chemicals in different industries. This chapter mainly describes the application of enzymes in different treatments of fabrics in the textile industry. The introduction of enzymes with classification and benefits is also analyzed in this chapter.

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Nano Materials in Textile Processing Mohammad Abdul Jalil, A. F. M. Fahad Halim, Md. Moniruzzaman, Md. Tanjim Hossain, and Syed Zubair Hussain

Abstract Nanotechnology is developing the field of science and technology to a great extent. Nanotechnology has also marked its footprint in the textile sectors. Functional finishing of textile have dramatically improved with the help of nanomaterials (NMs). Water repellency, antimicrobial, self-cleaning and anti-odor treatment are some of the repellent and cleaning treatments using nano-particles. On the other hand, UV protection, anti-static treatment, wrinkle resistance and flameretardant finishing are some of the smart treatments for textiles. This book chapter discusses about the application of NMs and nano-particles in textiles having special features and a higher surface area to volume ratio which ensures the better acceptance and greater performance in the finishing of textile materials. Keywords Nanotechnology · Nano-materials · Nano-particles · Unique properties · Functional finishing · Textiles

1 Nano and Nano-Materials The word “nano” refers to a length dimension of about 10–9 m. NMs, a product of nanotechnology, are the study of the area of engineering where materials exhibit unusual characteristics that result in amazing applications. Due to the need for practical and long-lasting apparel, NMs have experienced extraordinary growth in the textile industry over the past few decades. NMs have made significant advancements in nano-finishing, the creation of nano coatings and nanofibers on textile surfaces, M. A. Jalil (B) · Md. Moniruzzaman · S. Z. Hussain Department of Textile Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] A. F. M. F. Halim Murdoch Applied Innovation Nanotechnology Research Group, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia Md. T. Hossain Northern University Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_12

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and the creation of nano-composites for a variety of uses in functional or highperformance textiles [1]. These materials have revolutionized engineering research since their discovery. They are particularly helpful for development since they can alter things at the application level, which aids in creating a society that can last.

1.1 Classifications of Nano-Materials NMs can be categorized into several groups based on several standards like their size, form, condition, and chemical make-up.

1.1.1

On the Basis of Dimensions

Based on dimensionality, NMs can be categorized as: (a) Zero-dimensional (0D) nano-material: Zero-dimensional NMs are materials that are smaller than 100 nm and have all their dimensions at the nanoscale. Nanorods, cubes polygons, hollow nano spheres, metals, quantum dots, spherical and core–shell nano-materials are all included in zero-dimensional [2, 3]. (b) One-dimensional (1D) nano-material: 1D NMs are substances with two dimensions that are on the nanoscale but only one dimension that exists. Examples of 1D material include metallic, polymeric, ceramic, nanotube and nano-rod filament or fiber, nanowires, and nano fibers [2, 3]. (c) Two-dimensional (2D) nano-materials: At the nanoscale, 2D NMs have only one dimension, while the other two do not. Nanoplates, nanocoatings, and single & multi-layered crystalline or amorphous thin films are examples of two-dimensional materials [2, 3]. (d) Three-dimensional (3D) nano-materials: Materials that are 3D have dimensions larger than 100 nm. Multiple nanocrystals are combined in various directions in 3D NMs. Foams, fibers, poly-crystals, carbon nano-buds, nanotubes, fullerenes, pillars, honeycombs, and layer skeletons are examples of similar materials [2, 3] (Fig. 1). 1.1.2

On the Basis of Morphology

The morphological characteristics of NMs include aspect ratio, flatness, and sphericity. Depending on homogeneity, NMs can be categorized as: (a) High-aspect ratio: The high aspect ratio NMs can have dissimilar shapes, for instance, nanowires, nano-helices, nano-zigzags, nano-pillars, nanotubes, or nano-belts. (b) Low-aspect ratio: The low-aspect ratio NMs can also take on a variety of shapes including spherical, helical, pillar-like, pyramidal, and cubes, among others [4].

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Fig. 1 NMs classification. Reprinted from [3] with permission from Elsevier

1.1.3

On the Basis of State

NMs can be categorized as isometric or inhomogeneous depending on how uniform they are. NMs can either be distributed or agglomerate depending on their agglomeration condition. Their electromagnetic characteristics, including surface charge and magnetism, determine how they aggregate. Their ability to aggregate in a liquid depends on the shape and functionalization of their surface, which can give either hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity [2].

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On the Basis of Chemical Structure

NMs may also be categorized depending on the chemical structure of their components. It may be hollow or constructed of a single substance. Additionally, nanomaterials may contain two or more materials as coatings, encapsulations, barcodes, or mixtures. For their unique features at the nanoscale, the NMs are typically made of metal alloys, metal oxides, silicon, silicates, carbonates, nitrides, or other materials. Now-a-days, it is simple to create NMs made of various composite materials by utilizing a physical vapor deposition method at grazing incidence over a nanoseeded pattern. This approach involves controlling the temperature and motion of the substrate [2].

1.2 Characteristics of Nano-Materials Nanotechnology is the most inventive and adaptable field of science in the twentyfirst century. Because of their distinctive qualities, nano-materials have found utility across the spectrum of science, from medicine to electronics to contemporary manufacturing. Since they are more compact and have a greater surface area, NMs are well known for their distinctive optical, electrical, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and magnetic capabilities.

1.2.1

Optical Properties

NMs have exceptional optical qualities. The unique optical properties of NMs allow the making of glass, glassware, windows, and walls out of pigment for use as textile dyes. For instance, matter can alter its hue at the nanoscale level. For instance, the diameter and wall thickness of gold nanospheres can alter their hue from blue to red. Due to the surface plasmon resonance phenomenon, opaque compounds, including TiO2 , ZnO and Cu could also be made apparent. NMs’ optical properties are affected by many things, such as their shape, size, type of modifier, and size distribution. Additionally, it is impacted by nanostructure composition, including surface alteration and metal ion doping. The particle size of NMs has a remarkable impact on scattering and reflection processes. With an increase in particle size and a fall in refractive index, the reflectivity rises. Because of this, when materials are exposed to light, the particle size impacts the scattering particle pattern, which changes the spectral reflectance.

1.2.2

Electrical Properties

The electrical characteristics of NMs be influenced by their dimension, surface area, chemical composition, and alteration. The various surface properties of NMs can

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emerge due to the presence of organic substances, like ligands. The different ligand monomers used can affect the material’s structural properties. For instance, the size of the material produced during the aggregation process can be controlled by modifying Al2 O3 using organic ligands. Additionally, this alteration offers various electrical properties. Barium titanate (BT) can increase conductivity and dielectric constant because of its perovskite nanostructure and piezoelectric characteristics [2].

1.2.3

Mechanical Properties

NMs display distinct mechanical characteristics when compared to particles or bulk materials. Because NMs have a wide surface area and are simple to modify, their mechanical properties are improved. Hardness, adhesion, stress and strain, and elastic modulus are a few examples. NMs and nanostructured materials exhibit a lower modulus due to the smaller grain size, which causes more sliding at the grain borders. Due to more significant grain boundaries blocking dislocations, they are stronger, more complicated, and more resistant to wear. Due to their wide grain boundary surface area, which restricts the migration of dislocations, NMs typically show a loss in ductility and toughness. The mechanical properties of NMs are stronger than those of organic compounds, which are usually lower because they are made of inorganic parts.

1.2.4

Chemical Properties

NMs are more chemically reactive because they have a larger surface area and more edges, angles, and crystal flaws. NMs are excellent for use as catalysts due to their higher chemical reactivity. It has a large surface area, which allows it to be used for operational support. The fact that nano-scale stimuli produce a stable solution and have a more extensive temperature range is another benefit. The high chemical reactivity of NMs can also be used to make sensors, compounds that kill microbes, nanofiltration, and inverse osmosis [5, 6].

1.2.5

Thermal Properties

Because NMs have a higher surface area than their liquid form, heat transmission occurs immediately on the material’s surface, improving thermal performance. It encompasses the drop in characteristic temperatures, and it is associated with melting, glass transition, deterioration, evaporation, and sintering, all of which are brought on by an abundance of free surface atoms. The thermal behavior of NMs slowly improves with the same metal oxide level. The thermal characteristics of NMs change if nanofillers with high intrinsic thermal conductivity are added. In general, the increased surface area, mass concentration, ratio of energy atoms in NMs, and scattered NM volume percentage all affect the thermal characteristics of NMs [2, 3].

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Magnetic Properties

Magnetism is the specific behavior shown by NMs. The transition of metals and their alloys display super-para appeal at the nanoscale scale. Under an external magnetic field, the magnetization is strong, and there is no residual magnetization. The number of magnetic atoms directly indicates the value of a molecule’s magnetic moment for a nano-particle containing a single component. The number of lone pairs of electrons in a nano-particle with many parts indicates its magnetic value by the valence of the electron pair and repulsion principle.

1.3 Characterization of Nano-Materials NMs are used in a wide range of technical and medical industries. It is crucial to characterize NMs before using them. The performance of NMs is determined by their characteristics. Numerous techniques are also used to analyze the surface characteristics of NMs [7]. Table 1 provides a description of NMs’ characteristics. Additionally, Fig. 2 illustrates the common methods for characterizing nano-particles. Table 1 Methods used for NMs characterization Methods

NMs properties evaluation

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

Structure with composition

FTIR spectroscopy

Functional groups and chemical properties

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)

Surface chemical & elemental composition

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Morphological shape, size as well as appearances

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Morphological shape, size, appearances, heterogeneity as well as aggregation

X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Surface properties, crystallinity

Atomic force microscopy (AFM)

Morphological shape, distribution of size, and appearances

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

Thermal properties, physicochemical state

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Identifying, calculating each components

Raman and Infrared spectroscopy (IR)

Structure analysis, identifying functional groups

Zeta-potential

Surface charge determination, stability of the concoction

Mass spectroscopy (MS)

Surface analysis, assembly, and molecular weight

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Fig. 2 Portrays the common techniques used to characterize nano-particles

2 Application of Nano-Materials in Textiles 2.1 Nanotechnology for Water Repellent Textiles The hydrophobic coating can achieve a maximum water contact angle of 120°, which lowers surface energy. A surface with contact angles between 150° and 180° is necessary to achieve a greater contact angle and self-cleaning capability [8]. Surface coating cannot produce this kind of surface treatment. The super hydrophobicity grows as surface roughness rises, resulting in a greater geometric area. The roughened surface typically resembles a base film with micrometers to nanometers sized protrusions. The contained air between the surface gaps gives the rough surface its hydrophobicity. To increase the air or water interface while decreasing the interaction between solids and water. In this situation, there won’t be any diffusion, and the water will form spherical droplets. The principal materials used to treat surfaces to make them super-hydrophobic are SiO2 and Al2 O3 nano-particles. A solid surface’s wet ability is considered one of its most essential characteristics. The contact angle typically describes the wettability of the character. Superhydrophobic feelings are usually defined by a water contact angle greater than 150° and a short slide angle. Super-hydrophobic surfaces have generated much interest because of their potential applications in real life (for example, anti-sticking, antipollution, and self-cleaning coatings). Many attempts have been made to create artificial, highly hydrophobic surfaces by mimicking the structure of the lotus leaf due to its potential industrial applications. Porous structures, nanofibers, and carbon nanotubes have all been used to produce highly hydrophobic surfaces. The impregnation of nano-spheres involves the construction of a 3D surface structure with gel-forming additives that can withstand moisture and prevent dust particles from adhering to

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Fig. 3 Self-cleaning cotton textiles coated with SiO2 nano-particles. Reprinted with permission from [65]

one another. The technique is comparable to the phenomena of the lotus leaf found in nature. The lotus plant’s surface has a rough texture and a high hydrophobicity. When water droplets contact with one another, they generate beads that roll down a surface that is slightly inclined. Therefore, the surface doesn’t become soggy even during heavy rain. Additionally, water droplets pick up dirt particles as they move, keeping the lotus leaf’s leaves clean even with a little shower [43] (Fig. 3).

2.1.1

Self-Cleaning Property of Textiles

One of the main objectives of fiber and textile researchers for ages has been to create textiles with water and dirt-resistant characteristics. A combination of innovative fiber-producing materials and surface treatments has been devised to create conditions with limited wettability. Nanotechnology offers a revolutionary hypothesis of self-cleaning textiles that can produce clean clothes daily and clean themselves, which is both economically and technically advantageous. Typically, nanotechnology is used in two different kinds of self-cleaning aircraft. First off, dust is easily removed by rain or simply washing it with water because of the surface’s exceptional hydrophobicity and micro-roughness. Due to the presence of the nano-crystalline TiO2 layer, the photocatalytic layer serves as a self-cleaning layer. The biological matter that causes pollution is destroyed by sunlight. A thin nano TiO2 and ZnO film is deposited on the cloth to ensure self-cleaning and antibacterial qualities. Carbon nanotubes are carefully positioned on fabrics to produce a replica of a lotus leaf structure. Carbon nanotubes and nanotubes with surface modifications mimic the lotus leaf’s surface microstructure at the nanoscale scale. To be used in sensors and smart textiles, cotton fabric, which has an ideal water absorption capacity, has been given super-hydrophobic characteristics. Suits and other garments can be made by coating a highly hydrophobic surface with silver nano-particles. These materials are

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far easier to clean than conventional fabrics and have good water and dirt resistance (Fig. 4). Du et al. [9] created a super-hydrophobic fabric for separating oil from water using silicone dioxide nano-particles and poly-dimethylsiloxane. Tetraethyl orthosilicate and SiO2 were combined to develop NguyenTri’s [10] super-hydrophobic fabric, which has a 173° water contact angle. To create super-hydrophobic cotton for separating oil from water, Xiao combined poly-3-triisopropoxysilylpropyl methacrylate, polydimethylsiloxane, and poly-N, N-dimethylamino methacrylate [11]. Lin et al. [12] made polyester fabrics that repel water by controlling how methyl-trimethoxysilane breaks down in water (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4 Super-hydrophobic phenomenon on lotus leaf surface a water droplets on lotus leaf surface, b SEM image of lotus leaf

Fig. 5 The self-cleaning mechanism of ZnO coated cotton fabric. Reprinted from [69] with permission from Elsevier

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2.2 Nanotechnology for UV Protection Textiles Our culture is becoming more and more affected by UV light’s negative impacts [13]. Ultraviolet light has a wavelength range of 40 to 400 nm. Its energy is, therefore, high enough to harm various cellular components. UV radiation can also seriously affect textiles, plastics, dyes, and wood items by discoloring, chalking, and reducing their mechanical characteristics. Because of this, the development of active UV protection materials is crucial for our health, civilization, and environment. Due to their distinct qualities, such as flexibility, strength, softness, and trendy appeal, clothing has been used in ultraviolet protection applications for ages. By changing certain factors, such as fabric thickness, fabric opening, fiber kind, and color, textile UV protection can be improved [14]. A recent research topic is using UV absorbers on clothing to boost the ultraviolet protection of textiles [15–19]. However, several organic UV absorbers have been studied [20, 70]. Organic ultraviolet absorbers can be used on various dyed fabrics since they are generally transparent, inexpensive, and cost-effective [21, 22]. Nevertheless, UV radiation will eventually cause damage to the majority of organic absorbents. They absorb, and as a result, the efficiency of ultraviolet absorption decreases over time. Small compounds called organic UV absorbers have leached from fabrics. They might cause health issues if they contaminate food and drinks [23]. Inorganic UV absorbers like ZnO, TiO2 and CeO2 exhibit exceptional light resistance compared to organic ultraviolet absorbers. Fewer advantages exist for organic UV absorbers compared to inorganic UV absorbers. For instance, zinc oxide works as a skin-healing agent, is safe for topical application, and does not irritate [24]. However, zinc oxide has weak chemical stability and can disintegrate at high and low pH levels. Excellent chemical stability is found in titanium dioxide. But because it absorbs less UV light than zinc oxide, it often relies on light scattering effects in addition to blocking light absorption. Xin et al. [25] investigated the usage of TiO2 to enhance the UV barrier qualities of cotton fabrics. The coating was made using the sol–gel technique and ethanol. A titanium dioxide film with a thickness of roughly 100 nm on the fiber’s surface develops. The film is constructed of continuous nano-particles rather than dispersed ones [26]. Cotton fabric, however, demonstrated an increased UV protection factor value from 10 to 50+. The ultraviolet protection factor rating is still high even after 55 domestic items of washing. Sójka-Ledakowicz et al. [27] treated polyester fabric with commercial nano titanium dioxide, with an average particle size of 300–460 nm, and modified aminosilane-nano titanium dioxide using filling, spraying, and sol–gel coating processes. The obtained UV protection factor value is 50 or above. The degradation of red wine stains on the treated fabric was effective. Yadav et al. [28] investigated the usage of zinc oxide nano-particles to enhance the UV barrier characteristics of cotton fabrics. Using soluble starch as a stabilizer and zinc nitrate and sodium hydroxide as precursors, ZnO was created via a wet chemical process, with an average particle size of 40 nm. An acrylic adhesive covers

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Fig. 6 The mechanism of nano-particle for UV protection

these nano-particles on a cotton fabric that has been breached. About 75% of incident UV rays may be blocked by cotton fabric treated with 2% nano ZnO (Fig. 6). According to Mao et al., cotton fabric was coated via the direct creation of zinc oxide nano-particles on silicon dioxide [29]. The cotton fabric is then treated hydrothermally to coat it with 24 nm diameter zinc oxide nanorods that resemble needles. The coated fabric offers exceptional UV defense with an ultraviolet protection factor value of more than 50. Nevertheless, the UV protection factor was only 50% effective after five items of washing.

2.3 Nanotechnology for Anti-Bacterial Textiles The development and reproduction of microbes can take place in textile fabrics. Natural fibers’ chemical components provide nourishment to bacteria and promote their growth. The development of microbes in textiles can lead to various issues, including unbearable odors, decreased fabric strength, stains, and health problems for the wearer. As a result, it’s critical to impart an antibacterial effect to the textile material. Textiles have frequently been treated with antibacterial agents [30]. Inorganic materials, such as metal oxides and metals, have drawn more attention in the last ten years due to their capacity to withstand difficult processing conditions [31, 32]. Metal oxides, for example TiO2 , ZnO, MgO, and CaO are inorganic materials. They are considered stable in hostile process conditions moreover they are also frequently considered as secure materials for humans as well as animals [33]. Silver and zinc oxide nano-particles effectively stop the spread of infectious diseases because of their antibacterial capabilities. Most of what is unique about metal nano-particles come from their size, shape, composition, crystallinity, and morphology [34, 67] (Fig. 7). In one study, 100% cotton and 45:55, polyester: cotton blended woven and knit fabrics were sprayed with TiO2 nano-particles using the pad dry curing process. Improved antibacterial, UV barrier, and self-cleaning capabilities were demonstrated by fabric treated with nanoscale TiO2 [35]. TiO2 is better than other titanium compounds because it works better at keeping infections away.

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Fig. 7 The mechanism of nano-particle antibacterial activity

Fabrics in four categories have been produced using knitted and woven forms of 100% cotton and (45%/55%) polyester/cotton. Under mild magnetic stirring, ZnO nano-particles are sprayed onto the textiles. A qualitative analysis of materials’ antibacterial properties revealed that 100% cotton fabrics have the inhibitory effects on Staphylococcus aureus [36, 68]. According to washing durability studies, fabrics treated with ZnO nano-particles can maintain a relatively lengthy antibacterial activity for up to 10 washes (Fig. 8). In a different investigation, silver nano-particles were applied to cotton and wool fibers using the exhaustion approach. The fabric is then treated for 45 min at boiling temperature before being rinsed in regular water. The AATCC 124-2001 approach has been used to assess the permanence of treated fabrics five, ten, and twenty times after treatment [37]. AgNO3 was used to cure silk fabric, with a pH range of 3–4. The fabric can retain up to 80% of its antibacterial activity even after five washing items, and it has been demonstrated to be effective against Staphylococcus aureus [38].

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Fig. 8 Antibacterial activity of ZnO NP treated fabric. Reprinted with permission from [68]

2.4 Anti-Static Nano Finishes for Textiles For example, artificial fabrics like nylon and polyester tend to build up static charges while absorbing less water. The cellulose fibers have a high moisture content and absorb fixed costs, they won’t build up static charges. Synthetic fibers have poor antistatic properties. Research has been done to use nanotechnology to enhance the antistatic properties of clothing. According to reports, silane nano-sol, nanoantimony-doped SnO2 , nano-sized TiO2 and ZnO2 whiskers can all give artificial fibers antistatic characteristics. ZnO2 and TiO2 are both conductive compounds that help get rid of static electricity [39–42]. Nanotechnology has been applied to the production of antistatic apparel. William Gore and Associates GmbH developed nanotechnology and PTFE to create an antistatic sheet for protective clothing. The wearer can be protected from electrostatic discharge by wearing Gore-Tex® I work clothes. Gore-Tex® I membrane from Teflon has conductive nano-particles permanently embedded in the fibrils, creating a conductive system that prevents the development of remote charged zones and voltage peaks, typically present in traditional antistatic materials. [43].

2.5 Nano Finishes for Wrinkle Resistant Textiles Resins are typically utilized in traditional procedures to give clothes wrinkle resistance. However, resins are restricted due to the possibility that they may lower the tensile strength, abrasion resistance, water absorption, dyeability, and air permeability of fibers. A few researchers have employed nano-TiO2 [44, 45] and nanostructured silica [46] on cotton and silk fabric to improve wrinkle resistance and get

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over these restrictions. Carboxylic acid is combined with nano-TiO2 under UV light, acting as a catalyst to speed up the cross linking of acid and cellulose molecules. As an alternative, nano-SiO2 was coated with C4 H2 O3 as a catalyst. The results demonstrated that using nano-silica in combination with C4 H2 O3 can significantly improve silk’s ability to resist wrinkles. Additionally, nano-engineered cross linking agents can be utilized during the fabric finishing process to give cotton fibers their wrinkle-resistant properties. This finishing product may remove poisonous gases while maintaining the optimum comfort of cotton, in addition to its anti-wrinkle capabilities.

2.6 Nano-Particles for Fabrication of Electronic Textiles Two primary ways to create electronic textiles are: (i) conductive materials are printed or coated onto fibers and fabrics; and (ii) textiles are integrated with conductive fibers or yarns. Metal nano-particles can be used to create composites of conductive polymers or printed inks to create electronic textiles for sensing purposes. Ag or Au nano-particles are used as metal precursors in metal nano-particle printing inks, together with a carrier media like water. Stabilizers, primarily polymers, prevent metal dispersion from precipitating or forming clusters whileproducing high-quality ink with repeatable qualities [57]. The ink can be printed on the fabric to create a conductive pattern using an inkjet or screen printer [58]. The ability of a material to conduct electricity comes from the sintering process, which heats the printed pattern below the melting point of the metal. This causes electrical connections or percolation networks to form [59] (Fig. 9). To create conductive fibers from nano-particles, there are typically two methods: (i) dipping the fibers in a nano-particle solution made by a reducing agent to dissolve the metal salts; and (ii) the in-situ method, in which metal ions are first adsorbed

Fig. 9 Application of PEDOT/magnetite nanoparticles to make electronic textiles. Reprinted from [66] with permission from Elsevier

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on the surface of the fiber before being reduced to metal nano-particles by heat, ultraviolet radiation, or chemicals [61].

2.7 Nano-Materials for Textile Wastewater Treatment One of the leading industrial sectors that pollute water is the textile industry, particularly the wet processing division. Water is used extensively in the textile industry by dyeing and printing facilities to treat textiles. Influenced water needs to be treated to meet the standards for the wet processing of textiles. The waste produced has a significant pollutant load and is made up of inorganic and organic compounds. Different technologies and equipment have been created and tested in the lab, on a pilot scale, or in fully functional technical applications. Three types of application technologies can be used to treat wastewater: (i) nano-filtration technology; (ii) contaminant adsorption on nano-particles; and (iii) contaminant decomposition by nano-catalysts. The approach in the textile business, color emissions are controlled via nano-filtration [71]. Low molecular weight organic molecules, divalent radicals, massive monovalent radicals, hydrolysis-responsive colorants, and dyeing additives can all be accommodated by nano-filtration membranes [62]. The most popular wastewater management technology is adsorption. Adsorbents are made up of nano-materials with a large surface area and are employed in the adsorption process. For instance, MnO, ZnO, TiO2 , MgO, Fe2 O3 , and carbon nanotubes [63]. Textile wastewater can be cleaned of contaminants thanks to the characteristics of nano-catalysts. Magnifying nano-particles can eliminate metal salts, heavy metals, and organic contaminants from water [64] (Fig. 10). Fig. 10 Nanotechnology for wastewater treatment

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3 Methods of Application of Nano-Particles on Textile Textiles can be treated with nano-particles by coating the fabric’s surface. Several coating methods are available, such as sol–gel, plasma polymerization, and layerby-layer coating, for applying nano-particles to textile fibers. These innovations can make the cloth more resilient to harsh weather conditions and durable.

3.1 Sol–gel Technique In sol–gel method, the materials are submerged in a colloidal solution. When the colloid’s pH and temperature vary, the gel residues and deposits on the impregnated material create a specific rough surface. The application of sol–gel technology to textile finishing procedures has received more attention in recent years. Low chemical consumption, low-temperature processing, simple equipment application and equipment operation in textile mills, and no need for advanced instruments are some of the benefits of sol–gel technology [47, 48]. Sol–gel technology can give textiles, or certain types of textiles, a wide range of functional properties. It can also improve the properties that textiles already have in one or more steps.

3.2 Electro Deposition of Nano-Material The surface qualities, aesthetics, and functionality of various materials can all be improved using the unique conventional surface-altering technique known as electro deposition. The deposition of complex elements, such as metal oxide ceramic ware, bio-minerals, and metal chalcogenide semiconductors, can be triggered by electro deposition, sometimes known as “electroplating” [49–51]. Since metal oxide deposition is not a line-of-sight process, conformal layers may be transformed into composite structures. On the target surface, which serves as the system’s cathode during the coating process, pure metal is electrodeposited, or an alloy is co-deposited. The electro deposition operation is carried out with the aid of an external current. This technique works well for depositing 2D and 3D nano-structured metals, alloys, and nano-composites.

3.3 Plasma Polymerization Coating Electric monomer discharge can be used in plasma polymerization to create thin coatings on various substrates, giving textiles varied functional qualities, such as super hydrophobic, antistatic, conductive, and biocompatible fabrics [52–54]. Gas phase

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instigation and plasma substrate can interact to produce nanostructured coatings with skinny layers less than 100 nm through plasma polymerization. This waterless and environmentally safe method offers a clever replacement for the wet chemical process for clothing surface alteration. It has advantages over the conventional damp chemical method since it uses a lot less material and energy, is environmentally benign, and does not alter the hand feel, luster, or tensile strength of fabrics or clothing. Also, because nano-scale plasma polymer coatings can be covalently attached to the surface of textiles, plasma-assisted coatings last longer than other ways to change the surface.

3.4 Layer-By-Layer Assembly Layer-by-layer assembly is a novel technique for creating composite layers and nano-precision coatings. Numerous papers have been published on the modification of organic or inorganic solid surfaces using this straightforward and adaptable technique since Decher et al. introduced the polyelectrolyte multilayer structure using alternative electrolyte deposition layer-by-layer self-assembly of poly-cation and poly-anion. It has not been extensively researched how the layer-by-layer approach can be used to change the fiber or fabric surface, which is the fabric substrate. There are few studies in recent years on the deposition of polyelectrolyte nanolayers on cotton, silk, and nylon fibers. However, this technology appears to be promising for usage in the future. Layer-by-layer technology may deposit thin nano-composite materials on fabric surfaces to offer various properties, such as color, water resistance, flame resistance, and UV protection [55]. According to studies on durability, it remains stable even after numerous items of washing. The technology is economical, safe for the environment, and energy-free. As a result, it can be used on a regional basis [56].

4 Prospect of Nano-Materials—Possibilities and Limitations The development of several unique and improved materials, polymers, and textiles is now possible thanks to nanotechnology, which has boosted material science. Although many obstacles must be overcome to manufacture these products, an indepth study is necessary to produce outstanding dispersion and stability of nanoparticles in polymer matrix to accomplish the preferred nano effect. Additionally, the greatest obstacle to the effective integration of nano-additives during surface coating and nano-composite preparation is the potential for agglomeration brought on by the extensive surface area. Overall, nanotechnology will undoubtedly cause

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a revolution in the world of technical textiles. However, there is a warning because industrializing nanotechnology items may happen. The issues are: • Mass manufacturing and cost control. • Under the term “Nano toxicity,” all the effects of uncontrolled nanoparticle release on human health and ecosystems are covered in depth. • Moral guidelines for the widespread use of goods related to nanotechnology.

4.1 Next-Generation Finishing Technologies 4.1.1

Nano Care Finishing

This method is designed to be used with cellulosic fibers, including cotton and linen. It can offer an utterly worry-free fabric with anti-wrinkle, anti-shrink, waterproof, and anti-fouling features. It is a cutting-edge, simple-to-care-for finishing technique that exclusively offers anti-wrinkle and anti-shrink capabilities. More than 50 standard laundry loads are no match for Nano Care. It has better antifouling and water resistance than other methods and can keep its important water and oil resistance after washing 20 items at home.

4.1.2

Nano-Pel Finishing

Natural textiles like cotton, linen, wool, and silk and synthetic fibers like polyester, nylon, and acrylic can also benefit from this nanotechnology application of water and oil-repellent finishing chemicals. Natural fibers can be expected to have unmatched durability and water and oil resistance. Cotton made with Nano-Pel can survive 50 home items of washing. Even after 20 items of washing, its functional level can still repel water and oil well.

4.1.3

Nano Dry Finishing

This hydrophilic finishing, which has significantly impacted the areas of polyester and synthetic nylon clothes, can offer exceptional durability for more than 50 home washings. As there is no dye migration during deep dyeing, Nano dry has more outstanding durability than polyester’s hydrophilic finishing, which typically employs polyethylene glycol polymer molecules. Such long-lasting hydrophilic finishing chemicals are beneficial in nylon since they are not currently used in sportswear and undergarments, which require sweat absorption. In the next three to six months, the sportswear business is likely to grow very quickly.

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Nano Touch Finishing

Cellulose can be wrapped in synthetic fibers for an extended time with this final finishing technique. A concentric structure is created when the synthetic fiber core and cellulose sheath are combined that generally addresses the drawbacks of synthetic fibers regarding hydrophobicity, static electricity, an artificial hand feel, and brilliant sheen. It will increase the applications for synthetic materials now in use and eliminate the drawbacks of synthetic clothing’s hydrophobicity, static electricity, and abnormal sensation. The following examples of novel application areas produced by Nano Touch, a new standard for fiber composites, are provided. A significant obstacle for traditional textile coatings is the self-assembled nano-layer (SAN) coating. Research in this area is currently in its infancy. The target chemical molecules on the textile material surface self-assemble into a thin layer (SAN coating) with a thickness of less than a nanometer. To produce nano-layer structures, additional layers can be stacked on top of already-existing ones. Investigations into various SAN techniques are being done to provide textile materials with specific functions.

5 Conclusions Nanotechnology is the twenty-first century’s most innovative and versatile branch of science. Nanotechnology is used in fields as diverse as electronic engineering, modern engineering, and medicine. Like how it has the potential to significantly alter modern lifestyles, civilization, and the entire world economy. However, many methods and materials used in this innovation rely on nonrenewable resources and produce dangerous waste. Most green NMs are now routinely used in commercial applications. Still, they also confront significant obstacles due to substantial research into natural NMs and the design of nature’s helpful synthetic processes. But green science and innovation may have a big impact on how nanoscience and nanotechnology are used in the future.

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