Advanced English-Arabic Translation: A Practical Guide 9781474488716

Table of contents :
Contents
Using this Book
Structure of the Book
Map of the Book
Module 1: Introduction to Translation
Module 2: Machine Translation
Module 3: Arabic and English Grammar in Translation
Module 4: Literary Translation
Module 5: Economic Texts
Module 6: Scientific Texts
Module 7: Media Texts
Module 8: Administrative Texts
Module 9: Legal Texts
Bibliography

Citation preview

Advanced English–Arabic Translation

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Advanced English–Arabic Translation A Practical Guide Second Edition El Mustapha Lahlali and Wafa Abu Hatab

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Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university presses in the UK. We publish academic books and journals in our selected subject areas across the humanities and social sciences, combining cutting-edge scholarship with high editorial and production values to produce academic works of lasting importance. For more information visit our website: edinburghuniversitypress.com © El Mustapha Lahlali and Wafa Abu Hatab, 2022 Cover image: © tamer yazici/iStockphoto Cover design: riverdesignbooks.com Edinburgh University Press Ltd The Tun – Holyrood Road 12 (2f) Jackson’s Entry Edinburgh EH8 8PJ Typeset in 14/16 Myriad Arabic by IDSUK (DataConnection) Ltd, and printed and bound in Great Britain A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN ISBN ISBN ISBN

978 1 4744 8868 6 (hardback) 978 1 4744 8869 3 (paperback) 978 1 4744 8871 6 (webready PDF) 978 1 4744 8870 9 (epub)

The right of El Mustapha Lahlali and Wafa Abu Hatab to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 (SI No. 2498).

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Contents Using this Book Structure of the Book Map of the Book

ix xi xiii

Module 1: Introduction to Translation 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Etymology and Definition 1.3 History of Translation 1.4 Basic Translation Concepts 1.5 Foundation Methods of Translation 1.5.1  Word-for-Word Translation 1.5.2  Literal Translation 1.5.3  Faithful Translation 1.5.4  Communicative Translation 1.5.5 Adaptation 1.5.6  Free Translation 1.6 Conclusion 1.7 Module Review Exercises

1 1 1 1 4 5 5 8 10 13 16 18 20 20

Module 2: Machine Translation 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Concept and Emergence 2.3 Machine Translation Approaches 2.3.1  Rule-Based Machine Translation (RBMT) Approach 2.3.2  Empirical Machine Translation Approaches 2.4 Machine Translation Engines 2.5 Generic Machine Translation Platforms 2.5.1  Google Translate 2.5.2  Microsoft Translator 2.5.3 Bing 2.5.4 Yandex 2.6 Customised Translation Engines

23 23 23 24 24 25 26 29 29 32 34 37 40

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2.7 Adaptive Machine Translation 2.8 Conclusion 2.9 Module Review Exercises

44 48 48

Module 3: Arabic and English Grammar in Translation 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Word Order 3.3 Tense and Aspect 3.4 Cohesion 3.5 Conclusion 3.6 Module Review Exercises

52 52 52 54 60 68 69

Module 4: Literary Translation 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Fiction  4.2.1  Narrative Texts: Discourse Problems  4.2.2  Narrative Texts: Syntactic Problems  4.2.3  Cultural Problems, Domestication and Foreignisation  4.3 Drama 4.4 Poetry  4.4.1  Strategies for Translating Poetry 4.5 Conclusion  4.6 Module Review Exercises 

73 73 73 76 83 86 90 95 95 99 99

Module 5: Economic Texts  5.1 Introduction  5.2 Features of Economic Discourse  5.3 Translation Problems and Strategies  5.4 Neologism  5.5 Metaphor in Economic Discourse  5.5.1  Terminology: Marketing  5.5.2  Terminology: Investment  5.5.3  Terminology: Banking  5.5.4  Terminology: Accounting and Audit 

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104 104 104 105 106 110 113 117 120 124

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Contents  vii

5.6 Conclusion  5.7 Module Review Exercises 

130 130

Module 6: Scientific Texts  6.1 Introduction  6.2 Translation Strategies  6.2.1  Borrowing  6.2.2  Coinage  6.3 Translation Problems and Practical Steps  6.3.1  Problems of Word Level Equivalence  6.3.2  Problems above Word Level Equivalence  6.3.3  Textual Equivalence: Cohesion and Coherence  6.4 Translating COVID-19 6.5 Conclusion  6.6 Module Review Exercises 

136 136 136 137 137 140 147 154 160 163 168 168

Module 7: Media Texts 7.1 Introduction  7.2 Features of Media Texts  7.3 Translating Conflicts and Wars 7.4 Translating Uprisings and Revolutions  7.5 Translating Elections and Political Participation  7.6 Translating Natural Disasters  7.7 Conclusion  7.8 Module Review Exercises 

175 175 175 177 182 186 193 198 198

Module 8: Administrative Texts  8.1 Introduction  8.2 Translating Guidelines and Regulations  8.3 Learning and Teaching Regulations  8.4 Translating CVs and Applications  8.5 Conclusion 8.6 Module Review Exercises

205 205 205 209 213 213 214

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viii  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Module 9: Legal Texts  9.1 Introduction 9.2 Types of Legal Texts 9.3 Translating Legal Texts  9.4 Security Council: Terms and Conditions and Peace Agreements 9.5 Translating Agreements and Contracts  9.5.1  Rights and Copyrights: Terms and Conditions 9.5.2  Memorandum of Agreement 9.5.3  Multiparty Negotiations  9.5.4  Tenancy Agreements 9.6 Translating Family Law Agreements and Testaments 9.6.1  Marriage Contracts  9.6.2  Divorce Settlement Agreements 9.6.3  Child Custody Agreements  9.6.4  Last Will and Testament  9.7 Conclusion  9.8 Module Review Exercises 

226 226 226 227 228 235 235 236 238 240 241 241 243 245 247 249 249

Bibliography259

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Using this Book The need for translation from English into Arabic and vice versa has grown substantially over the last two decades or so, following 9/11, the War in Iraq in 2003 and the Arab Spring. Such a need has increased demands for translation services from and into these two languages. Unfortunately, the educational market has suffered from a lack of textbooks that address translation from a practical point of view, taking into consideration the changing nature of the translation market on social, economic and political levels. Translation is a highly demanding process that involves much more than utilising and converting words and phrases from one language into another, and translators and learners need a practical book that addresses the skills and sub-skills of translation: this book is designed to address some of these needs. The present work introduces learners to translation from English into Arabic through a wide range of practical exercises. Offering a variety of texts and multiple drills, it aims for learners to be able to develop and refine their translation skills. The book introduces learners to drills related to the translation of texts within basic genres and covers translation sub-skills. It aims to present an efficient and practical approach to learning the skills of translating different text types from English into Arabic. While most of the published translation books tend to focus on the theoretical aspects of translation from the source text (ST) to the target text (TT), this book follows a practice-based approach in order to assist learners in utilising the concepts and theoretical frameworks that they have acquired. Some theoretical aspects of translation are introduced in the first four modules, but readers are urged to consult other books that elaborate on these theoretical aspects at greater length. In addition to offering advanced material for translation from English into Arabic, the book also includes a wide range of drills pinpointing the differences between the source language (SL) and the target language (TL) so that learners and translators can refresh their knowledge of some aspects of the TL. Not only will the book be useful to learners who wish to familiarise themselves with a varied typology of Arabic and English texts, it will also equip them with some of the necessary translation skills. Furthermore, the book introduces students to general translation skills by focusing on specific technical texts that require certain ‘detective’ skills, which students learn through the practical drills offered in conjunction with each text. These drills are designed to help learners progress from word level over sentence level to discourse level. Since context is at the heart of translation, students are introduced to a variety of drills that allow them to translate different elements of discourse in their appropriate context. It is hoped that the practical drills will enhance learners’ skills in selecting the appropriate equivalence to the source text, especially in the translation of technical texts. In

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x  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

addition to mastering the knowledge of both languages, translators need to have a good command of specific registers, some of which will be acquired through specialised dictionaries, encyclopaedias and technical literature in both languages. In order to facilitate learners’ comprehension and translation of texts, a glossary of technical words and phrases is provided at the end of each text. On completing this book, learners should have acquired technical vocabulary at an advanced level, further enhancing their ability to translate from English into Arabic. All in all, this book is intended to improve and strengthen learners’ translation skills and refine and expand their knowledge of different genres of texts. The main objectives can be summarised as follows: 1. introducing learners to the main features of different genres of texts 2. providing learners with theoretical and practical guidelines on how to translate different genres of text into Arabic 3. identifying the linguistic and cultural features of different text types 4. equipping learners with the necessary skills to deal with the translation of different genres of text from English into Arabic, through practical translation drills 5. enhancing awareness of pragmatic, semantic and sociolinguistic aspects during the translation process 6. introducing learners to contemporary texts and new examples, including COVID-19. 7. introducing students to new machine translation technology

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Structure of the Book This book is composed of nine modules. The first five modules examine various aspects of translating different genres into Arabic. They offer a variety of theoretical approaches and techniques for translating different genres of text, followed by a range of drills, which are designed to help learners digest these concepts. Modules 6, 7, 8 and 9, however, are more practical. They include drills and exercises to help students practise some of the theoretical concepts introduced in Modules 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, and to apply them to different text genres. With this in mind, each module starts with an overview of the genre in question and is followed by drills and exercises to help learners practise the translation strategies outlined. Before these are tackled in detail, Module 1 will cover common strategies of translation in order to acquaint learners with the various ways in which they can translate their texts. The modules are as follows: 1. Introduction to Translation This module introduces students to some of the main translation approaches and frameworks that students will find useful in translating different texts. These approaches are not comprehensive but representative of the main translation approaches used in the field. 2. Machine Translation This module will introduce students to machine translation, its tools and challenges. It will provide a wide range of exercises and samples of analysis to help learners comprehend the usage of machine translation. 3. Arabic and English Grammar in Translation This module introduces students to translating grammar, focusing on the basic differences between Arabic and English syntactic structures, including tenses and sentence order. It starts with the sentence and then moves to the discourse level, addressing issues such as cohesion and coherence. 4. Literary Translation This module introduces students to literary texts and literary translation from English into Arabic, covering poetry, fiction and drama. The characteristics of each genre are illustrated, along with translated examples, mainly from English into Arabic. 5. Economic Texts This module deals with the translation of texts on economics and finance, as well as other issues commonly encountered in business language. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 11

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6. Scientific Texts This module deals with the translation of scientific texts in areas such as medicine, physics, chemistry and psychology. Learners are shown how to deal with scientific discourse by using the appropriate terminology and linguistic structures. This module also introduces the topic of COVID-19, allowing learners to translate current and timely topics. 7. Media Texts This module introduces the learner to a range of media texts. The main objective is to allow learners to familiarise themselves with the media register and to refine their translation skills. The module also introduces the main features of media texts. 8. Administrative Texts Modules 8 and 9 are related to each other. This module introduces students to administrative texts and provides learners with glossaries to help with their translation of texts in this genre. 9. Legal Texts This module introduces learners to the main features and characteristics of legal texts, including civil law documents, business contracts, family law, court documents and orders, international legal documents and resolutions, civil partnership documents, international treaties and conventions. A general introduction to the main features of legal texts, as well as the challenges of translating within this genre, is also provided.

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Map of the Book Module and Topic Module 1: Introduction to Translation

Module 2: Machine Translation

Module 3: Arabic and English Grammar in Translation

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Translation Methods and Strategies / Genre Features 1. Etymology and Definition 2. History of Translation 3. Methods of Translation 3.1 Word-for-Word translation 3.2 Literal Translation 3.3 Faithful Translation 3.4 Communicative Translation 3.5 Adaptation 3.6 Free Translation 1. Machine Translation Concepts 2. Rule-Based Approach 3. Flexible Machine Translation 4. Knowledge-Based Approach 5. Example-Based Approach 6. Statistical Machine Translation 7. Neural-Based Machine Translation 8. Machine Translation Engines 9. Generic Machine Translation Platforms 1. Word Order 2. Tense and Aspect 3. Cohesion 4. Permutation 5. Addition

Genre

Translation Translation Exercises Problems Translation from English into Arabic

Literary texts Poems Texts with cultureTranslating texts specific problems from Arabic into Quotes English to get Proverbs more acquainted with the differences between SL and TL

Texts representing Translation exervarious genres cises using generic machine translation platforms such as Google Translate, Microsoft Translator, Bing, SDL and Yandex

General texts

Accuracy of machine translation Editing Figurative language

Translating Syntactic and sentences and discourse problems texts from English into Arabic with focus on the syntactic differences between SL and TL

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xiv  Advanced English–Arabic Translation Module 4: Literary Translation

1. Adaptation 2. Communicative Translation 3. Domestication 4. Foreignisation

Fiction Poetry Drama

Translating texts Syntactic, disextracts from short course and cultural stories and novels problems into English, applying translation strategies Identifying cohesive devices and syntactic differences between SL and TL

Module 5: Economic Texts

Module 6: Scientific Texts

Features and Methods of Translating Economic Discourse

1. Borrowing 2. Coinage 3. Arabisation 4. Naturalisation 5. Loan translation

Marketing Insurance Investment Banking Accounting and audit Chemistry Medicine Biology Epidemiology COVID-19

Features of Scientific Texts

Module 7: Media Texts

Features of Media Texts

Conflicts/civil wars Uprisings and revolutions Elections and opposition Natural disasters Political speeches

Identifying and translating figures of speech Translating economic texts into English, paying attention to numbers and figures, false cognates and other translation problems Translating scientific texts Applying some of the strategies introduced in Module 1 to scientific texts Translation from English into Arabic

Economics terminology Metaphors False cognates Neologism Word level equivalence Above word level equivalence Collocations and idioms Textual equivalence Syntactic problems

Culture-specific Translation of problems some extracts from Arabic into English Wide range of drills on translating media texts Summaries of texts into TL

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Map of the Book  xv Module 8: Administrative Texts

Features of Administrative Texts

Translating guidelines and regulations Learning and teaching regulations

Translating texts from Arabic into English

Culture-specific problems

Translating texts from English into Arabic Applying various translation strategies to translating administrative texts

Module 9: Legal Texts

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Main Features of Legal Texts Types of Legal Texts

Identifying and correcting translation errors Translating Translating legal Syntactic problems agreements and texts into English Culture-specific contracts Translating legal problems Family law: texts into Arabic Problems of Marriage Applying some accuracy Divorce of the translaChild Custody tion strategies Last Will and introduced in Testament Peace agreements Module 1 Glossaries English Identifying translainto Arabic tion errors

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Module 1 Introduction to Translation 1.1 Introduction This module introduces translation as a concept, key translation approaches and theories, translation contexts, history of translation and areas of translation studies. It closes with a briefing on translation methods and translation as both process and product.

1.2  Etymology and Definition The word ‘translation’ was first used in English in the fourteenth century to mean ‘turning from one language into another’; it was adopted from the Old French translacion, which was borrowed from the Latin word translatio, meaning ‘to carry across’. Translation may be viewed as an activity in which two languages are involved. Newmark (1988: 5) defines translation as ‘rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text’. The focus here is on the main objective of translation, which is the transfer of intended meaning – that is, the final output. Therefore, translation here is dealt with as product rather than process. Hatim and Munday (2004: 6) view translation as the latter, defining it as ‘the process of transferring a written text from source language (SL) to target language (TL)’. Nida and Taber (1982: 12), however, state that ‘translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message’.

1.3  History of Translation The emergence of translation in history has religious roots. The earliest translated work reported in history is believed to be the translation of the Bible into Greek in the third century BCE. This was named the ‘Septuagint’, after the seven translators who translated it in Egypt (Lebert 2020). Furthermore, there exists a reference to translation from Greek into Latin by the Roman playwright Terence, who translated in the second century BCE. Latin was the source language for translation in the West during the Middle Ages. In the ninth century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, translated Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People and Boethius’ The Consolation of Philosophy from Latin to English. Toledo in Spain became a centre for translation in Europe of the twelfth and thirteenth

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2  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

centuries; there, great works on religion, science, medicine and philosophy were translated from Greek and Arabic into Castilian and Latin. In the fourteenth century, Geoffrey Chaucer translated Boethius’s Latin work and the French Roman De La Rose into English. Moreover, he translated several works by Giovanni Boccaccio from Italian into English, as well as English poems into Italian and Latin. This century also marked the first complete translation of the Bible by Wycliffe (Lebert 2020). A famous translation of the fifteenth century was Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur from French into English. The sixteenth century witnessed the first direct translation of the Bible from Hebrew and Greek by William Tyndale. Tyndale translated the New Testament, while the Old Testament’s translation was completed by one of his students. A translation of the Bible into German was completed by Martin Luther and into Polish by Jakub Wujek, while the King James Bible appeared in English between 1604 and 1611 (ibid). The seventeenth century saw more literary translation activity, such as John Drydon’s translation of Virgil and Alexander Pope’s translation of The lliad and The Odyssey from Greek into English. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the focus was on accuracy. Edward FitzGerald, the famous English poet, translated works from Arabic into English and Latin. His major work, The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám, was the first English translation and adaptation of the many poems written by Omar Khayyám. The twentieth century was characterised by an increasing number of female translators, such as Aniela Zagórska who between 1923 and 1939 translated from English into Polish nearly all the novels written by her uncle Joseph Conrad. This century also marks the development of translation studies. Famous translators from Latin to English were Bede and Alfred the Great. Translators of the Bible were John Wycliffe and William Tyndale who translated the Bible from Hebrew and Greek to English (Lebert 2020). High demand for translation service reached a peak in the 1950s, a phenomenon that encouraged computer engineers to experiment with machine translation. The first reported experiment was conducted by Georgetown University and IBM in 1954. Sixty Russian sentences were translated into English within one minute. Since then, machine translation has undergone many developments; these will be discussed in more detail in the module on machine translation. Translation is believed to have existed in the Arab world already in the pre-Islamic period, since Arabs were connected with many parts of the globe through trade. The era of the Prophet Muhammad (570–632) saw a translation movement from Arabic into other languages, motivated by the desire to spread Islam. Zaid bin Thabet, the most famous translator of the time, played a crucial role in translating the letters that the Prophet Muhammad sent to the kings of Persia, Syria and Rome. The Umayyad Caliph Khalid bin Yazid bin Mu’awyah encouraged translation from Greek to Arabic during the seventh century. He is believed to be the first to encourage the translation of chemistry and

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Module 1: Introduction to Translation  3

astrology books. Another caliph was Marwan bin al-Hakam for whom a book on medicine was translated from Syriac into Arabic. The Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik bin Marwan led an Arabicisation movement, replacing Greek and Persian with Arabic as the language of bureaucracy in Iraq and Syria; thus, Arabic became the only official language of the Umayyad state (Zaboon 2016). The first Abbasid period (750–1250) is considered the golden age of translation. Abbasid caliphs used to buy Greek manuscripts and had them translated into Arabic. During Caliph al-Mansour’s reign, translation techniques were improved, and under Caliph al-Ma’mun a ‘translation agency’ named the House of Wisdom (Bait al-Hikma) became the largest institution to lead the translation movement for two centuries. Translations of Greek philosophy, Indian science and Persian literature were very common. Aristotle’s Topics was one of the first works translated at the House of Wisdom. During al-Ma’mun’s reign, most of the Greek philosophical works were translated, such as those by Plato, Aristotle, Hippocates and Plotinus (Zaboon 2016). One of the famous translators of this era was Hunaiyn bin Ishaq who was paid the weight in gold for his translations. He mastered Arabic, Persian and Greek, and he was known for his accurate translations and a translation strategy that focused on finding the most accurate medical equivalent. Ibn al-Muqaffa translated Kalila and Dimna from Persian into Arabic. The Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid used to send delegates to the Roman Empire at that time, so as to buy Greek manuscripts at any price and then translate them into Arabic. Al-Ma’mun encouraged scholars to visit Athens, the Greek capital at that time, so that translators could gain greater access to the source language, Greek, and then revise and modify old translations (ibid). Translation activities declined under the Fatimids, but then flourished again during the Mamluk Dynasty’s era, due to the Mamluk state’s expansion into southern parts of Turkey, Iraq, the Levant, Hijaz and Sudan, as well as various diplomatic, scientific and economic relations with the neighbouring countries at that time. The most frequently translated languages were Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Greek and Mongolian. Under the reign of the Ottomans in the Arab lands, which lasted for four centuries, interpreters were employed by the court; their translations were mostly related to diplomatic and military issues. Translation from Arabic and Persian into Turkish was encouraged, with a focus on Islamic civilisation, mysticism and logic. Translation into Arabic was revived by Mohammad Ali Basha in the nineteenth century, with his establishment of the Dar al-Alsun, thus marking an era of legal translation. Literary translation flourished as well, thanks to the first translation of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet into Arabic and of The Iliad from its English, French, German, Italian and Greek versions by al-Bustani. Translations of Tolstoy’s Russian works were completed by Qub’ain. Prominent men of literature became known for their literary translations, among them al-Zayyat, Taha Husain, Tawfiq al-Hakim and al-Manfalouti (Taggar 2010).

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4  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Today, in most Arabic countries considerable attention is paid to translation into Arabic. Translation programs have been inaugurated at university level, and generous annual awards encourage translation from and into Arabic.

1.4  Basic Translation Concepts Accredited Translator: Translator who has received accreditation from a professional institute. Computer-aided translation (CAT): Computer-assisted, machine-aided or machine-assisted translation using computer programs, such as translation memory and localisation tools. Localisation: The cultural adaptation of the translated material to meet the local cultural context and the local market such as websites, products, manuals and so on. Source language (SL): The language from which you translate. Source text (ST): The original text that is to be translated. Target language (TL): The language you translate into. Target text (TT): The translated text. Translation studies: A discipline that investigates the theory, description and application of translation. Exercise 1. Identify SL and TL in the following. Heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritage are both irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration. What makes the concept of World Heritage exceptional is its universal application. World Heritage sites belong to all the peoples of the world, irrespective of the territory on which they are located. https://whc.unesco.org/en/about/https://whc.unesco.org/en/about/https://whc.unesco. org/en/about/ (accessed 10 January 2021) ‫ فتراثنا الثقافي‬، ‫ وما ننقله إلى األجيال القادمة‬، ‫التراث هو إرثنا من الماضي وما نعيشه اليوم‬ ‫ وما يجعل مفهموم التراث العالمي مفهموما‬.‫والطبيعي مصدرين ال غنى عنهما للحياة واإللهام‬ ‫ فمواقع التراث العالمي تنتمي إلى جميع شعوب العالم بغض النظر‬،‫استثنائيا هو تطبيقه عالميا‬ .‫عن المنطقة التي تقع فيها‬

(SL) __________________ (TL) __________________

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Module 1: Introduction to Translation  5

Exercise 2. Find out about translation accreditation institutes in your country and write a report about their accreditation criteria. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

1.5  Foundation Methods of Translation Before we discuss different types of translation, a distinction should first be made between translation methods (or strategies) and translation procedures (or techniques): ‘While translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language’ (Newmark 1988a: 81). Methods of translation are classified into six types: word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, communicative translation, adaptation and free translation. These will be explained further below, with examples illustrating each type, followed by practice exercises for learners. Other scholars have categorised translation strategies differently, so that various typologies exist (see Fawcett [1983], Ivir [1987], Larson [1984/1998], Vinay and Darbelnet [1958/1995] and Hervey and Higgins [2002]). This module will introduce the reader to these methods of translation, providing a variety of drills in order to contextualise and practise these methods.

1.5.1  Word-for-Word Translation

This type of translation keeps the SL word order; words are translated out of context according to their most common meaning. Such translation can be used as a preliminary translation step, but is not applied in real translation tasks. The following lines are from Gooseberries by Chekov, with their translation into Arabic following the word-for-word method: He was a good fellow and I loved him, but I never sympathised with the desire to shut oneself up on one’s own farm. It is a common saying that a man needs only six feet of land. But surely a corpse wants that, not a man. https://www.colorado.edu/globalstudiesrap/sites/default/files/attached-files/gooseberries_ by_anton_chekhov_1898.pdf (accessed 15 January 2021) The word-for-word translation will be as follows: ‫هو كان جيد صديق وانا احببته لكن انا ابدا تعاطفت مع الرغبة لغلق نفس على واحد مزرعته‬ ‫ لكن بالتأكيد الجثة تريد ذلك ليس‬.‫هو مشهور قول ان الرجل يحتاج فقط ستة اقدام من األرض‬ .‫الرجل‬ 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 5

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6  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Such translation is meaningless to an Arab reader, since neither its grammatical structure nor its semantics can help the reader make sense of what he or she reads. An acceptable translation would be: ‫ لكنني لم أتعاطف أبدا مع رغبة المرء في االنغالق على نفسه‬، ‫لقد كان صديقا جيدا وقد أحببته‬ ‫لكن هذا ما تحتاجه الجثة‬، ‫ وهنالك قول مشهور ان اإلنسان يحتاج لستة اقدام فقط‬. ‫في مزرعته‬ .‫وليس اإلنسان‬

As we can see from the above example, word-for-word translation does not take context into consideration. It might be helpful as a first step in the translation, but a great deal of editing is required and modifications need to be made in order to convey the message to the TL reader. The translator has to make sure that the translation follows the word order of the TL and that the choice of semantic equivalents is carried out accurately. Word-for-word translation can also be called interlinear translation. Exercise 3. Provide a word-for-word translation for the following excerpt, then provide an edited version. Years passed; he was transferred to another province. He completed his fortieth year and was still reading advertisements in the papers and saving up his money. Then I heard he was married. Still with the same idea of buying a farmhouse with a gooseberry bush, he married an elderly, ugly widow, not out of any feeling for her, but because she had money. With her he still lived stingily, kept her half-starved, and put the money into the bank in his own name. She had been the wife of a postmaster and was used to good living, but with her second husband she did not even have enough black bread; she pined away in her new life, and in three years or so gave up her soul to God. And my brother never for a moment thought himself to blame for her death. Money, like vodka, can play queer tricks with a man. Once in our town a merchant lay dying. Before his death he asked for some honey, and he ate all his notes and scrip with the honey so that nobody should get it. https://www.colorado.edu/globalstudiesrap/sites/default/files/attached-files/gooseberries_by_anton_chekhov_1898.pdf (accessed 15 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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Module 1: Introduction to Translation  7

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 4. Study the following Arabic word-for-word translation carefully and identify its problematic aspects. John had not much affection for his mother and sisters, and an antipathy to me. He bullied and punished me, not two or three times in the week, nor once or twice in the day, but continually; every nerve I had feared him and every morsel of flesh on my bones shrank when he comes near. There were moments when I was bewildered by the terror he inspired. Emily Brontë, Jane Eyre http://www.enotes.com/jane-eyre-text (accessed 16 January 2021) ‫ هو عذب وعاقب أنا ليس اثنان أو ثالث مرات‬.‫جون كان ال كثيرا حب له أمه وأخواته وعداء لي‬ ‫ كل عصب أنا لي خاف هو وكل جزء‬،‫ لكن باستمرار‬،‫ ليس مرة أو اثنتين في اليوم‬،‫في األسبوع‬ ‫ كانت هناك لحظات عندما أنا كنت سيطرت‬.‫من اللحم على لي عظم ارتجف عندما هو جاء قريب‬ .‫بالرعب هو أوحى‬

______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Exercise 5. Provide a meaningful translation for the previous excerpt.

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 6. Study the following English word-for-word translation carefully, identify its problematic aspects and then provide an appropriate English translation. ‫ فقرر أن يترك المدينة‬.‫حزن الصياد كثيرا ألنه كان يذهب للصيد كل يوم دون أن يأتي بشيء‬ .‫ويهاجر إلى مكان اخر لعل الحظ يبتسم له هذه المرة‬

Sad the hunter much because was he go for hunting everyday without bringing anything. So decided he to leave city and migrate to place another may be luck smiles to him this time. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

1.5.2  Literal Translation

This type of translation preserves the grammatical structures of the SL, as they are translated into their nearest TL equivalents. This takes place when the SL and TL share parallel structures. Words are translated out of context, paying no attention to their connotative meanings. The following example illustrates this point: To throw dust in the eyes.

‫يلقي التراب في العيون‬

The word ‘dust’ is translated literally as ‫ التراب‬while the equivalent expression in Arabic is ‫ يذر الرماد في العيون‬where ‘dust’ is translated into ‫( الرماد‬ashes). This choice can be justified by the cultural as well as ecological contexts that are different for both languages. As for the English idiom to throw dust in the eyes, its associative meaning is based on the effect of dust thrown in someone’s eyes blurring their vision and impeding their ability to see. The same sense is expressed in Arabic by using the equivalent ashes rather than dust. Dust is, therefore, not expected to blur vision and hide reality in the Arabic context. In the English context, one can rarely talk about deserts or dust storms. Another point has to do with religious rituals where a bit of dust is thrown on the buried person in the grave. Exercise 7. Identify examples of literal translation in the following sentences. 1. I am afraid I lost all saved data. We are back to square one. .‫ عدنا للمربع األول‬.‫أخشى أني فقدت كل البيانات المخزنة‬

____________________________________________________________________________

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Module 1: Introduction to Translation  9

2. She decided to throw the baby out with the bath water and close the shop forever because she lost a few pounds. ْ ‫ّرت أن ترمي الطفل مع ماء الحمام وتغلق الدكان لألبد ألنها خس َر‬ ْ ‫قر‬ .‫ت بعض الجنيهات‬

____________________________________________________________________________ 3. Hold your horses; we still have plenty of time. .‫ لدينا الكثير من الوقت‬،‫أمسك خيولك‬

____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 8. Provide correct translations for the sentences above. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 9. Provide a literal translation for the following excerpt. As doctors often do I took a trial shot at it as a point of departure. Has she had a sore throat? Both parents answered me together, No . . . No, she says her throat don’t hurt her. Does your throat hurt you? Added the mother to the child. But the little girl’s expression didn’t change nor did she move her eyes from my face. Have you looked? I tried to, said the mother, but I couldn’t see. https://web.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/force (accessed 18 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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10  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 10. Provide back translation for the text above and try to judge how accurate your literal translation was. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 11. Provide the correct translation for the excerpt in Exercise 9. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

1.5.3  Faithful Translation

This method maintains a balance between the literal meaning of the SL word and the TL syntactic structures. The result generally sounds more acceptable, as the method takes the context into consideration, aiming at producing a more precise meaning of the SL texts. Study the following quote by Shaw’s Back to Methuselah (1921), Part 1, Act 1: ‘You see things; and you say, “Why?” But I dream things that never were; and I say, “Why not?”’ This can be faithfully translated as: ‫أنت ترى األشياء وتقول لماذا؟ ولكني أحلم بأشياء لم توجد أبدا وأقول لم ال؟‬

Exercise 12. Provide a faithful translation of the following quotes. For if the proper study of mankind is man, it is evidently more sensible to occupy yourself with the coherent, substantial and significant creatures of fiction than with the irrational and shadowy figures of real life. W. Somerset Maugham (1874–1965), British novelist and playwright http://en.proverbia.net/citastema.asp?tematica=470 (accessed 19 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Module 1: Introduction to Translation  11

Fiction is like a spider’s web, attached ever so lightly perhaps, but still attached to life at all four corners. Often the attachment is scarcely perceptible. Virginia Woolf (1882–1941), British novelist and essayist http://en.proverbia.net/citastema.asp?tematica=470&page=2 (accessed 19 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 13. Read the Arabic translation below of the following poem and comment on the strategy used for translation. Requiem by Robert Louis Stevenson Under the wide and starry sky, Dig the grave and let me lie. Glad did I live and gladly die, And I laid me down with a will. This be the verse you gave for me: Here he lies where he longed to be; Home is the sailor, home from the sea, And the hunter home from the hill. http://www.poetry-archive.com/s/requiem.html (accessed 19 January 2021) Arabic translation: ‫تحت سماء رحبة مرصعة بالنجوم‬ ‫لتحفرْ قبري وتدعني أستلقي‬ ‫سعيدا عشت وسعيدا أموت‬ ‫ومعي أرقدت وصية‬ ‫فلترْ ثيني بهذه األبيات‬ ‫ عاد من البحر‬،‫عاد البحّار لبيته‬ ‫والصياد من التالل‬

____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 14. Translate the following stanzas and explain the method(s) you have used. To A Skylark by Percy Bysshe Shelley What objects are the fountains Of thy happy strain? What fields, or waves, or mountains? What shapes of sky or plain? What love of thine own kind? what ignorance of pain? With thy clear keen joyance Languor cannot be: Shadow of annoyance Never came near thee: Thou lovest, but ne’er knew love’s sad satiety. Waking or asleep, Thou of death must deem Things more true and deep Than we mortals dream, Or how could thy notes flow in such a crystal stream? http://www.netpoets.com/classic/poems/057025.htm (accessed 20 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

1.5.4  Communicative Translation

This type of translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original text in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the reader. It is particularly suitable when translating conventional formulae or proverbs and involves a certain level of cultural approximation. Communicative translation aspires to create the same effect on the TL reader as that created by the SL text. Although it is not as accurate as semantic translation, which adheres to the original text, it communicates the meaning at the expense of accuracy. However, it is preferred by many translators, because it resorts to concepts that are more familiar to the TL reader on the cultural and social levels. It is often used for culturally specific idioms, proverbs or clichés, where the translator replaces a SL word or concept with one that already exists in the TL. Communicative translation concentrates on the message and the main force of the text, tends to be simple, clear and brief, and is always written in a natural and resourceful style (Newmark (1988: 48). For some linguists, communicative translation ‘is produced, when, in a given situation, the ST uses a SL expression standard for that situation, and the TT uses a TL expression standard for an equivalent target culture situation’ (Dickins et al. 2005: 17). Study the following examples: Charity begins at home. Diamonds cut diamonds.

‫األقربون أولى بالمعروف‬ ‫ال يفل الحديد إال الحديد‬

Notice here that ‘diamonds’ is rendered by ‫ حديد‬which is the equivalent to iron in English. Literal translation would not convey the message here. In Arabic, ‘diamond’ has positive associations related to beauty and noble characteristics, while iron is associated with strength and physical power. The Prophet Mohammad said: َّ ‫النَّاسُ َم َعا ِد ُن َك َم َعا ِد ِن‬ َّ ِ‫ب َو ْالف‬ ‫ْالم إِ َذا فَقِهُوا‬ ِ َ‫الذه‬ ِ ‫اإلس‬ ِ ‫ ِخيَا ُرهُ ْم فِي ْال َجا ِهلِيَّ ِة ِخيَا ُرهُ ْم فِي‬,‫ض ِة‬

This translates as follows: ‘People are like metals such as gold and silver. The good ones before Islam are also good when converted as long as they learn about Islam’. The word ‘diamond’, then, is used in Arabic to refer to how good or bad a person is.

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14  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Road signs, greetings and compliments are best rendered by communicative translation, as shown in the following examples: Dead end, no exit Detour Bus, load/unload

‫طريق غير نافذ‬ ‫تحويلة‬ ‫موقف باص \تحميل\تنزيل‬

As for everyday greetings, communicative translation is preferred, especially for colloquial phrases. For example, ‘long time no see’ is best rendered by ‫زمان هالقمر ما بان‬. Note also the differences in the following dialogue: Kim: Hi, Ann. What’s happening? Ann: Not much. You? ‫ ما أخبارك؟‬، ‫ مرحبا آن‬:‫كيم‬ ‫ ماذا عنك؟‬،‫ال جديد‬: ‫آن‬

Here the usual formula used for everyday communication was used rather than the literal translation for ‘not much’. Exercise 15. Translate the following English proverbs, using communicative translation. 1. A burnt child dreads the fire. ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. A cat has nine lives. ____________________________________________________________________________ 3. Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched. ____________________________________________________________________________ 4. Let bygones be bygones. ____________________________________________________________________________ 5. Marriage is a lottery. ____________________________________________________________________________

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Module 1: Introduction to Translation  15

Exercise 16. Translate the following dialogue, using communicative translation. Brother: Are you sure you want to tell him? Sister: We should, he has the right to know. Brother: Don’t forget, he has serious heart issues when he gets exposed to surprises. Sister: I know, I know. Besides, he knew all of this already, before the accident happened. Brother: Ok, he might have damaged half of his brain nerves and lost ¾ of his memory, but . . . Sister: He has the right to know! Brother: Fine, but if anything goes wrong, it is your fault. Got it? http://www.bukisa.com/articles/358889_example-of-use-of-dialogue-in-drama (accessed 20 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 17. Translate the following Arabic proverbs into English, using communicative translation. ‫ عصفور في اليد وال عشرة على الشجرة‬1

____________________________________________________________________________ ‫ في العجلة الندامة‬2

____________________________________________________________________________ .‫ غاب القط العب يا فار‬3

____________________________________________________________________________ ‫ الطيور على اشكالها تقع‬4

____________________________________________________________________________ .‫ رب ضارة نافعة‬5

____________________________________________________________________________

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1.5.5 Adaptation

This strategy is considered the freest form of translation, and usually it is not differentiated from free translation. Adaptation is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters and plots are usually preserved; the SL culture is converted to the TL culture; and the text is rewritten. This strategy will be dealt with in detail in the section on drama. The following excerpt from Shaw’s Pygmalion (1912) is translated into Lebanese Arabic, with place names replaced by the names of Lebanese villages. THE NOTE TAKER: And how are all your people down at Selsey? THE BYSTANDER: [Suspiciously] Who told you my people come from Selsey? ‫وكيف أهلك في سرغيتا ؟‬ ‫وشو عرّفك إني من سرغيتا؟‬

Selsey is translated as ‫ سرغيتا‬, a village in Lebanon. This choice might be justified by the translator’s attempt to adapt the play to the Lebanese setting; thus choosing a village in the Lebanese countryside as well as Lebanese dialect in the translation. Exercise 18. Translate the following sentences, adapting them to English culture. .‫ اشترت مريم فستانا بخمسين دينار‬1

____________________________________________________________________________ .‫ يا أخي أقبل دعوتك للعشاء ولو كان صحن سلطة‬2

____________________________________________________________________________ .‫ عيون هذا الطفل جميلة كعيون البقر‬3

____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 19. Translate the following excerpt from Act 1 of Shaw’s Arms and the Man, adapting it to the culture of an Arab country with which you are familiar. You can choose Arabic names for people and places, clothes and food. Your translation should reflect the culture of the language into which you are translating. RAINA [laughing and sitting down again]: Yes, I was only a prosaic little coward. Oh, to think that it was all true – that Sergius is just as splendid and noble as he looks – that the world is really a glorious world for women who

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can see its glory and men who can act its romance! What happiness! What unspeakable fulfillment! Ah! [She throws herself on her knees beside her mother and flings her arms passionately round her. They are interrupted by the entry of Louka, a handsome, proud girl in a pretty Bulgarian peasant’s dress with double apron, so defiant that her servility to Raina is almost insolent. She is afraid of Catherine, but even with her goes as far as she dares. She is just now excited like the others; but she has no sympathy for Raina’s raptures and looks contemptuously at the ecstasies of the two before she addresses them.] http://www.archive.org/stream/armsthemanantiro00shawuoft/armsthemanantiro00shaw uoft_djvu.txt (accessed 21 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 20. Translate the following sentences, adapting them to English culture. ______________________________________________‫ هللا يعطيك العافية‬1 __________________________________________‫ صبر عليه صبر الجمال‬2 ____________________________________________‫ أرا ك غدا إن شاء هللا‬3 _______________________________________________‫ عظم هللا اجركم‬4 ________________________________________________‫ السالم عليكم‬5

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18  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 21. Translate the following proverbs from English, adapting them to Arabic culture. 1. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. Love me, love my dog. ____________________________________________________________________________ 3. A Jack of all trades is a master of none. ____________________________________________________________________________ 4. Haste is waste. ____________________________________________________________________________ 5. Still waters run deep. ____________________________________________________________________________

1.5.6  Free Translation

This strategy preserves the meaning of the original, but uses natural forms of the TL, including normal word order and syntax, so that the translation can be naturally understood. It preserves the content at the expense of the form, and it provides a longer paraphrase of the original. It is a form of idiomatic translation that favours colloquialisms and idioms that do not exist in the SL. The following is a part of Cinderella and its translation into Arabic: Cinderella had a wonderful time at the ball until she heard the first stroke of midnight! She remembered what the fairy had said, and without a word of goodbye she slipped from the Prince’s arms and ran down the steps. As she ran she lost one of her slippers, but not for a moment did she dream of stopping to pick it up! If the last stroke of midnight were to sound . . . oh . . . what a disaster that would be! Out she fled and vanished into the night. ‫أمضت سندريال وقتا في غاية المتعة في حفلة الرقص حتى سمعت دقات الساعة تعلن حلول‬ ‫ فانسلت من غير بخاطركم وال مع السالمة بخلسة من بين‬،‫ فتذكرت ما قالته الجنية‬،‫منتصف الليل‬ ‫لكنها‬، ‫ وبينما كانت تركض سقطت منها إحدى فردتي الحذاء‬.‫ ونزلت الدرج بسرعة‬،‫يدي األمير‬ ‫ألنها إن فعلت ذلك فيا ويلها ويا سواد ليلها فركضت‬، ‫لم تتوقف ولم تحدث نفسها حتى بالتوقف‬ .‫مسرعة واختفت في الظالم‬

Notice that we have longer expressions in the TL. For example, ‘a wonderful time’ is translated into ‫في غاية المتعة‬

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Colloquial expressions are also used, as illustrated in the following examples: Without a word of goodbye

‫من غير بخاطركم وال مع السالمة‬

What a disaster would that be!

‫يا ويلها ويا سواد ليلها‬

Exercise 22. Identify the features of free translation. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 23. Provide a free translation of the following text. Now two women who were harlots came to the king, and stood before him. And one woman said, ‘O my lord, this woman and I dwell in the same house; and I gave birth while she was in the house. Then it happened, the third day after I had given birth, that this woman also gave birth. And we were together; no one was with us in the house, except the two of us in the house. And this woman’s son died in the night, because she lay on him. So she arose in the middle of the night and took my son from my side, while your maidservant slept, and laid him in her bosom, and laid her dead child in my bosom. And when I rose in the morning to nurse my son, there he was, dead. But when I had examined him in the morning, indeed, he was not my son whom I had borne’. http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Kings+3%3A16-28&version=NKJV (accessed 24 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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20  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

1.6 Conclusion Translation is an activity that is deeply rooted in history. A distinction is made in this module between translation strategies or methods and translation techniques. Here, six translation methods have been introduced; other specific translation strategies for scientific and economic texts will be discussed in detail in the modules on economic and scientific translation.

1.7  Module Review Exercises Exercise 24. Illustrate with examples the differences between word-for-word and literal translation. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 25. Provide a faithful translation for the following excerpt. THE POMEGRANATE and Apple-Tree disputed as to which was the most beautiful. When their strife was at its height, a Bramble from the neighbouring hedge lifted up its voice, and said in a boastful tone: ‘Pray, my dear friends, in my presence at least cease from such vain disputing’. https://www.tititudorancea.com/z/aesops_fable (accessed 22 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 20

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Exercise 26. Apply communicative translation to one of your chosen literary genres. Share your translation with a fellow student and work together on evaluating each other’s translations, then present your findings to the class. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 27. Translate the following dialogue, applying the adaptation strategy. Open on a living room in Africa. Enter the INDIAN BUTLER INDIAN BUTLER: Curry? Senor, Curry? Enter TOLSTOY and ANNA ANNA Hello, our Indian Butler, I wonder what you might be doing? TOLSTOY: Yes, I wonder. INDIAN BUTLER: I am selling Curry. TOLSTOY and BULTER begin Curry Song TOLSTOY: I enjoy fine dining! BUTLER: I enjoy refining! TOLSTOY: Cracking plants are the life for me! BUTLER: And the monkey . . . TOLSTOY: Yes the monkey! http://drama.eserver.org/plays/contemporary/tolstoy-in-the-GPAAS.txt (accessed 24 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 21

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22  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 28. Provide a free translation of the following quotes. 1. In three words I can sum up everything I’ve learned about life: it goes on. Robert Frost. ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Throughout life people will make you mad, disrespect you and treat you bad. Let God deal with the things they do, cause hate in your heart will consume you, too. Will Smith. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. Never be bullied into silence. Never allow yourself to be made a victim. Accept no one’s definition of your life; define yourself. Harvey Fierstein. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 29. Provide a communicative translation of the following nursery rhyme. Hush, little baby, don’t say a word, Mama’s going to buy you a mockingbird. And if that mockingbird won’t sing, Mama’s going to buy you a diamond ring. www.nurseryrhymes.com (accessed 24 January 2021)

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Module 2 Machine Translation 2.1  Introduction This module introduces machine translation, its development, tools, systems and challenges. It starts with a brief history before it tackles the most prominent approaches, translation engines and platforms.

2.2  Concept and Emergence Machine Translation (MT) is a term used to refer to translation using automated software, either with or without a human translator. The real emergence of machine translation can be traced to the mid-1930s, when Petr Troyanskii and Georges Artsrouni applied for patents for translation machines. Troyanskii put forward a system for an automatic bilingual dictionary and coding grammatical roles, but this proposal saw light only in the 1950s. Research on machine translation continued at universities in the UK and USA. In 1954, the first demonstration of machine translation was presented by IBM and Georgetown University (Arnold et al. 1994). Machine translation systems at that time relied on bilingual dictionaries that gave words and their equivalents, as well as some word order rules. The operational systems used at that time were the Mark II system developed by IBM and Washington University, and Georgetown University’s system at the US Atomic Energy Commission. Early machine translation focused on scientific translation between Russian and English. Research on machine translation flourished in Canada, Germany and France in the 1970s. Two systems appeared: Systran and Meteo (Hutchin 2005). In the 1980s, the growth in computational power increased interest in statistical models of machine translation such as Logos (German–English and English–French), the systems developed at the Pan American Health Organization (Spanish–English and English–Spanish), the Metal system (German–English) and major systems for English–Japanese and Japanese–English translation from Japanese computer companies (ibid). The spread of the internet and globalisation in the 1990s accelerated the machine translation industry. The ’example-based’ translation approach appeared in Japan, and IBM introduced a statistically based system, Candide. These approaches included larger corpora. Moreover, the 1990s marked a focus on speech recognition, speech synthesis and translation modules, as well as a move from theoretical to practical applications (Hutchins 2005). Systran introduced free translations for short texts in 1996, and AltaVista Babelfish followed

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24  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

in 1997. In 2012, Google announced that its Google Translate could translate one million books a day (Rey 2012).

2.3  Machine Translation Approaches A machine translation (MT) system forms an internal representation of the SL, which is then transferred to the TL form. The first step in this process involves substituting words in the SL with others in the TL. This is not enough, because the system should recognise the most appropriate equivalent phrase in the TL. MT approaches deal with methods of programming a computer to come up with translations close to human translation.

2.3.1  Rule-Based Machine Translation (RBMT) Approach 2.3.1.1 Flexible or Multi-Level MT

The Rule-Based Machine Translation (RBMT) approach – or what is sometimes referred to as the classical Approach of MT – is based on retrieving linguistic information about the SL and TL from (bilingual) dictionaries and grammar books, taking into consideration the semantic, morphological and syntactic patterns of the SL and TL. Sentences in the SL form the input that is transferred via this system into an output in the TL. Consider the following translated examples from Swedish, German and Arabic: När kommer hon? Wann kommt sie? Livet är kort. Das Leben ist kurz.

‫متى ستأتي‬

‫الحياة قصيرة‬

Rule-based machine translation can easily process related languages, such as German and Swedish, which have a similar word order. For Arabic, this is more challenging due to its different word order. Therefore, a flexible grammar-based system is needed to account for this difference. This approach is carried out in three stages: analysis of input language, transfer into output, and then generation on the syntactic and semantic levels. 2.3.1.2  Knowledge-Based Machine Translation

Knowledge-Based Machine Translation focuses on semantic and pragmatic aspects of a domain. This approach ‘has come to describe a rule-based system displaying extensive

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Module 2: Machine Translation  25

semantic and pragmatic knowledge of a domain, including an ability to reason, to some limited extent, about concepts in the domain (the components, installation and operation of a particular brand of laser printer could constitute a domain)’ (Arnold et al. 1994: 180). The prototype systems developed for English-Japanese translation during the late 1980s at CMU, dealing with the translation of instruction manuals for personal computers, contained the following components: • • • •

an ontology of concepts analysis lexica and grammars for English and Japanese generation lexica and grammars for English and Japanese mapping rules between the Interlingua and English/Japanese syntax (ibid)

The domain model is basically used to resolve text ambiguity through the identification of all concepts in the domain, with all concept restrictions. For example, only humans can write. Exercise 1. Explain the difference between Flexible or Multi-Level and KnowledgeBased Machine Translation. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

2.3.2  Empirical Machine Translation Approaches

The Rule-Based Machine Translation (RBMT) approach has been unable to cater to continuously developing linguistic resources with a high-quality output. The need for an empirical architecture paved the way for the emergence of empirical machine translation approaches. These approaches rely on the statistical matching of real texts’ patterns. 2.3.2.1  Example-Based Translation

The Example-Based Translation approach – or what Arnold et al. (1994: 182) refer to as ‘translation by analogy’ – provides the closest example of the SL item, depending on the collected bilingual corpus using the most appropriate matching algorithm. Thus, a translation template is formed, to be filled in by word-for-word translation (ibid). Translation memory is one of the most frequently used forms of example-based machine translation.

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Translation memory is continuously built up by the user. If the same sentence is encountered during the translation, an example will be downloaded in the data base to facilitate the translation process, as it functions as a reference point. 2.3.2.2  Statistical Machine Translation

Statistical Machine Translation (SMT) relies on the statistical analysis of bilingual text corpora. It is derived from information theory, where a text is translated according to the probability distribution p (e|f) that string e in the TL is the translation of string f in the SL. An early Statistical Machine Translation model was based on Baye’s Theorem, proposed by Brown et al. (1992); it postulates that every sentence in one language is a possible translation of any sentence in the other and that the most appropriate is the translation which is assigned the highest probability by the system. 2.3.2.3  Neural-Based Machine Translation

Neural-Based Machine Translation (NMT) is a recent approach that has been introduced in machine translation competitions in 2015. This approach applies an artificial neural network to imitate the way in which the human mind learns, thus building its knowledge gradually by analysing the context of translated material in order to predict the most appropriate equivalent and convey the intended message.

2.4  Machine Translation Engines Machine translation engines provide translators with a list of one or more services that can automatically translate text from one language into another. Arnold et al. (1994) classify machine translation engines according to their architecture, abstract and arrangement or processing modules. Transformer architecture engines are based on the notion that the source language is viewed as an input that can be transferred into an output (that is, a TL) by simple parsing, with the source words being replaced by their equivalents (ibid). Exercise 2. Study the following texts and identify problems with the TT, then edit it. ‫الخليفة ومدعي النبوة‬ ‫يحكي ان في ليلة من ليالي رمضان بينما كان المأمون جالسا ً مع بعض الرجال من اخصائه وكان‬ ‫ فما كان من‬،‫ دخل عليهم رجل يدعي أنه نبي هللا ابراهيم الخليل‬،‫من بينهم القاضي يحيي ابن اكثم‬ ‫ لقد كان لسيدنا ابراهيم العديد من المعجزات ومنها ان النار‬: ‫المأمون إال ان قال للرجل في بساطة‬ ‫تكون عليه برداً وسالما ً ولذلك فنحن سوف نقوم بإلقائك في النار فان لم تمسك بسوء سوف نؤمن‬ .‫بك ونصدق قولك‬

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Module 2: Machine Translation  27 ‫ إن معجزة موسى عليه السالم‬،ً‫ حسنا‬: ‫ فقال له المأمون‬،‫ بل انني اريد معجزة أخرى‬: ‫قال الرجل‬ ‫كانت انه يلقي عصاه فتصبح ثعبانا ً ويضرب بها العرب فينشق ويضع يديه في جيبه فتخرج‬ ‫ اريد اخرى أخف‬،‫ هذه المعجزات اثقل من االولى‬: ‫ فقال الرجل‬،‫بيضاء من غير سوء‬ ‫ موافق على‬: ‫ قال الرجل في حماس‬،‫ معجزة عيسى عليه السالم احياء الموتى‬: ‫فقال المأمون‬ ،‫ اثبت مكانك وسوف اضرب اآلن رأس القاضي يحيى فيموت ثم احييه لكم الساعة‬،‫هذه المعجزة‬ ‫ فضحك المأمون وأمر له بجائزة وصرفه‬،‫ أنا أول من آمن بك وصدق‬:ً‫فهبَّ القاضي يحيى قائال‬

https://www.storiesrealistic.com/ (accessed 10 March 2021) Unedited translation: The Caliph and the Pretender of Prophecy He tells that on one of the nights of Ramadan while Al-Maamoun was sitting with some of the men of his specialists, including the judge Yahya Ibn Aktham, entered them a man claiming to be the Prophet of God Ibrahim Al-Khalil, it was not safe to say to the man simply: Our Master Ibrahim had many miracles, including that the fire is cold and peaceful, so we will throw you in the fire, so we will throw you in the fire, so we will not hold on to the bad, we will believe in you and believe your words. The man said: But I want another miracle, and al-Maamoun said to him: Well, the miracle of Moses was that he throws his stick and becomes a snake and hits the Arabs with a finch and puts his hands in his pocket and comes out white without bad, the man said: These miracles are heavier than the first, I want another lighter. Al-Maamoun said: The miracle of Isa (peace be upon him) alive, the man in Hamas said: Ok with this miracle, prove your place, and I will now hit the head of the judge Yahya and die, and then greet him for the hour, so judge Yahya went, saying: I am the first to believe in you and believe, so the safe laughed and ordered him a prize and dismissed him. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Indirect or linguistic knowledge (LK) architecture depends on the linguistic knowledge of the SL and TL. Arnold et al. (1994: 66) state: ‘High quality MT requires linguistic knowledge of both the source and the target languages as well as the differences between them’. This architecture requires a substantial grammar of both the SL and the TL where parsers use this grammar to analyse sentences in SL and TL. Furthermore, it also makes use of comparative grammar, which relates every source item to its target equivalent (ibid). Comparative grammar works through transfer to create a translation from an intermediate representation that simulates the meaning of the original sentence; thus, it basically relies on the language pairs. The transfer system works out the differences between SL and TL through analysis, transfer and, finally, generation. Analysis involves the production of a syntactic representation of the SL, then converting it into the TL. Finally, TL texts are generated by a TL morphological analyser. Interlingual architecture according to Arnold et al. (1994) could also be considered an indirect or linguistic knowledge architecture since the SL is transformed into an interlingual language, a (language neutral) representation that is not related to any language from which the TL is then generated. Exercise 3. Discuss the differences between transfer and interlingual engines. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Module 2: Machine Translation  29

2.5  Generic Machine Translation Platforms Generic machine translation systems are systems that have not been tailored to meet the specific needs of a given field. Examples of this system are Google Translate, Bing, Yandex and Naver. Such systems demand a lot of editing because of their generic nature.

2.5.1  Google Translate

Google Translate is a generic, free neural machine translation service developed by Google. It can be used to translate several types of texts, offering a website interface, mobile app and application programming interface. As of March 2021, Google Translate supports 109 languages at various levels. It can translate written words, websites, documents, spoken language, mobile app translation, image translation and handwritten translation. Google Translate does not translate from SL to TL directly; it translates first to English and then to the TL. For example, to translate a sentence from Italian into German, it first translates it into English, then from English to German. Like other machine translation tools, it has limitations as far as accuracy, word count and technical terms are concerned. One might end up with phrases that do not make any sense since Google Translate follows a statistical approach. Exercise 4. Identify problems with the following Google-translated text, then edit it. The company’s total payments volume (TPV) reached $178.7 billion, growing 27% year-over-year (YoY) on a constant currency basis, per its earnings release. This marks the seventh consecutive quarter in which TPV grew between 25% and 27% on an annual basis. Meanwhile, its number of active accounts jumped 16% YoY to total 295 million, which is the eighth straight quarter where the metric’s annual growth came in between 15% and 17% YoY, highlighting PayPal’s consistent strong growth. The company is now embarking on two key initiatives – its move into China via its acquisition of GoPay and its forthcoming Venmo credit card – that could cause its performance to surge in the future. Becoming the first foreign online payment platform in China should enable it to boost its TPV and account number, both in China and abroad. Taking a 70% stake in GoPay, which is licensed for online and mobile transactions, gives PayPal the ability to reach China’s domestic and international payments industries in a way other foreign companies can’t. It smay have trouble breaking into the domestic industry because of established players like UnionPay, WeChat Pay, and Alipay, but crossborder payments and e-commerce may be a valuable opportunity. For example, PayPal could enable Chinese consumers to make purchases from its international merchants and help Chinese merchants sell abroad, CEO Dan

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‫‪30  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫‪Schulman said on the company’s earnings call. Such efforts might bring more mer‬‬‫‪chants, consumers, and volume into PayPal’s ecosystem, propelling its performance‬‬ ‫‪to new heights. The cross-border opportunity for PayPal may be massive considering‬‬ ‫‪China’s cross-border e-commerce imports were reportedly worth 1.9 trillion yuan‬‬ ‫‪($269 billion) alone in 2018, which would enable PayPal to build on the $31 billion‬‬ ‫‪in cross-border trade TPV it posted in Q3 2019.‬‬ ‫‪https://www.businessinsider.com/paypal-embarking-on-two-initiatives-after-strong‬‬‫)‪q3-growth-2019-10 (accessed 14 March 2021‬‬ ‫‪Arabic translation:‬‬ ‫بلغ إجمالي حجم مدفوعات الشركة ‪ (TPV) 178.7‬مليار دوالر أمريكي ‪ ،‬بزيادة قدرها ‪ 27٪‬على‬ ‫أساس سنوي ‪ ،‬وفقًا إلصدار أرباحها‪ .‬يمثل هذا الربع السابع على التوالي الذي نما فيه ‪ TPV‬بين‬ ‫‪ 25٪‬و ‪ 27٪‬على أساس سنوي‪ .‬وفي الوقت نفسه ‪ ،‬قفز عدد الحسابات النشطة بنسبة ‪ 16٪‬على‬ ‫أساس سنوي إلى ‪ 295‬مليونًا ‪ ،‬وهو الربع الثامن على التوالي حيث جاء النمو السنوي للمقياس‬ ‫بين ‪ 15٪‬و ‪ 17٪‬على أساس سنوي ‪ ،‬مما يسلط الضوء على النمو القوي المستمر لـ ‪ PayPal.‬تشرع‬ ‫الشركة اآلن في مبادرتين رئيسيتين ‪ -‬انتقالها إلى الصين من خالل استحواذها على ‪ GoPay‬وبطاقة‬ ‫ائتمان ‪ Venmo‬المرتقبة ‪ -‬والتي قد تؤدي إلى زيادة أدائها في المستقبل‪.‬‬ ‫أن تصبح أول منصة دفع أجنبية عبر اإلنترنت في الصين يجب أن تمكنها من تعزيز ‪ TPV‬ورقم‬ ‫الحساب ‪ ،‬في كل من الصين والخارج‪ .‬إن الحصول على حصة ‪ 70٪‬في ‪ ، GoPay‬المرخصة‬ ‫للمعامالت عبر اإلنترنت والهاتف المحمول ‪ ،‬يمنح ‪ PayPal‬القدرة على الوصول إلى صناعات‬ ‫المدفوعات المحلية والدولية في الصين بطريقة ال تستطيع الشركات األجنبية األخرى الوصول‬ ‫إليها‪ .‬قد تواجه مشكلة في اقتحام الصناعة المحلية بسبب الالعبين الراسخين مثل ‪ UnionPay‬و‬ ‫‪ Pay WeChat‬و ‪ ، Alipay‬ولكن المدفوعات عبر الحدود والتجارة اإللكترونية قد تكون فرصة ثمينة‪.‬‬ ‫على سبيل المثال ‪ ،‬يمكن لـ ‪ PayPal‬تمكين المستهلكين الصينيين من إجراء عمليات شراء من التجار‬ ‫الدوليين ومساعدة التجار الصينيين على البيع في الخارج ‪ ،‬حسبما قال الرئيس التنفيذي دان شولمان‬ ‫في مكالمة أرباح الشركة‪ .‬قد تجلب مثل هذه الجهود المزيد من التجار والمستهلكين والحجم إلى‬ ‫نظام ‪ PayPal‬البيئي ‪ ،‬مما يدفع بأدائها إلى آفاق جديدة‪ .‬قد تكون الفرصة العابرة للحدود لـ ‪PayPal‬‬ ‫هائلة بالنظر إلى أن واردات التجارة اإللكترونية عبر الحدود في الصين كانت تساوي ‪ 1.9‬تريليون‬ ‫يوان (‪ 269‬مليار دوالر) وحدها في عام ‪ ، 2018‬مما سيمكن ‪ PayPal‬من البناء على الـ ‪ 13‬مليار‬ ‫دوالر في التجارة اإللكترونية عبر الحدود ‪ TPV.‬تم النشر في الربع الثالث من عام ‪.2019‬‬

‫‪Exercise 5. Translate the following, using Google Translate, and make a list of your‬‬ ‫‪modifications.‬‬ ‫‪Although most Americans spend Halloween dressing up and trick-or-treating, other‬‬ ‫‪countries have their own celebratory rituals. Here are 12 Halloween (and Halloween‬‬‫‪like) traditions from around the world. Ireland is considered the birthplace of modern‬‬

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Module 2: Machine Translation  31

Halloween with its origins stemming from ancient Celtic and Pagan rituals and a festival called Samhain, or Samhuinn (end of the light half of the year), that took place thousands of years ago. Today, both Ireland and Scotland celebrate Halloween with bonfires, games, and traditional foods like barmbrack, an Irish fruitcake that contains coins, buttons, and rings for fortunetelling. For example, rings mean marriage, while coins mean wealth in the upcoming year. From November 1 to November 2, Mexico and parts of Latin America celebrate Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) to honor those who have passed away. It is believed that the Gates of Heaven open up at midnight on October 31 and the souls of children return to Earth to be reunited with their families for 24 hours. On November 2, the souls of adults come down from heaven to join in the festivities. People from all around the world flock to celebrate Halloween at Vlad ‘The Impaler’ Tepes’s purported home at Bran Castle in Transylvania, Romania (although it was never actually his castle, and there’s been a long-running debate over whether he ever even visited the site). There are a number of guides and inclusive travel packages in Romania that offer tours and parties at Count Dracula’s castle for Halloween. https://www.globaltiesus.org/news/9-news/833-12-halloween-traditions-from-around-theworld (accessed 14 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

2.5.2  Microsoft Translator

Microsoft Translator provides a free translation service that can be used in computer browsers or mobile browsers (via Bing Translator). It has apps for Windows, Windows Phone, iOS, Android, as well as apps for Apple Watch and Android Wear. Microsoft Translator can also be integrated with other Microsoft applications, such as Microsoft Office, Skype and Visual Studio using the Microsoft Translator API. The browser versions can translate only text and web pages, but the Microsoft Translator apps can work with text, real-time speech and images. It supports 54 languages. Microsoft Translate can help you use real-time speech translation for Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish, most of which can be used also offline. Exercise 6. Translate the following text using Microsoft Translator. Edit as appropriate, then discuss with the class. The results of studies by a University of Manchester-led team suggest that it may be possible to diagnose and potentially even monitor the progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD) by analyzing compounds present on the surface of the skin. Using highresolution mass spectrometry (MS) techniques to profile the complex signature of metabolites in sebum samples from more than 200 participants with and without Parkinson’s disease, the researchers identified novel diagnostic sebum-based biomarkers for Parkinson’s disease, and uncovered subtle, but fundamental changes as the disease progresses. The results point to the future development of a simple, noninvasive skin swab test for diagnosing and potentially monitoring development of PD. Such a test might also be used in clinical trials to help researchers measure whether experimental treatments are able to slow, stop, or even reverse disease progression. Commenting on their studies, research lead Perdita Barran, PhD, professor of mass spectrometry at the University of Manchester, said: ‘We believe that our results are an extremely encouraging step towards tests that could be used to help diagnose and monitor Parkinson’s. Not only is the test quick, simple, and painless but it should also be extremely cost-effective because it uses existing technology

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Module 2: Machine Translation  33

that is already widely available’. Barran and colleagues at Manchester, together with collaborators at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the University of Edinburgh, and Liverpool University, reported on their work, in a paper in Nature Communications, which is titled, ‘Metabolomics of sebum reveals lipid dysregulation in Parkinson’s disease’. Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects more than six million people globally, and is second only in prevalence to Alzheimer’s disease, the authors wrote. Parkinson’s disease typically develops gradually and it may take months or years before the symptoms become obvious enough for an individual to visit their physician. While a DaTscan is used to help specialists confirm the loss of dopamine-producng cells that are associated with Parkinson’s disease, similar neuronal loss may also occur in some other, rarer neurological conditions. And with no molecular test for the condition, a Parkinson’s disease diagnosis is generally made by a neurologist, based on a combination of symptoms such as tremor, slowness, stiffness, and balance issues. ‘ . . . clinical manifestations normally present as a combination of one or more of the four cardinal signs of PD, namely; bradykinesia, resting tremor, rigidity, and postural instability’, the team noted. Diagnosis is further complicated because many of the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease can also overlap with other conditions, especially in the early stages when progression is gradual and symptoms are more subtle. https://www.genengnews.com/news/uk-researchers-progress-toward-simple-skin-swabtest-for-parkinsons-disease/ (accessed 14 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 7. Translate the previous text using Google Translate, then compare the translated text with the translation by Microsoft Translator. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

2.5.3 Bing

Bing Translator is provided by Microsoft. It can be used to translate texts or entire web pages. All translation pairs are powered by the Microsoft Translator and, as of September 2020, Bing Translator offers translations in 70 different language systems.

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Module 2: Machine Translation  35

Exercise 8. Translate the following weather forecast, using Bing. Köppen’s A climates are found in a nearly unbroken belt around the Earth at low latitudes, mostly within 15° N and S. Their location within a region in which available net solar radiation is large and relatively constant from month to month ensures both high temperatures (generally in excess of 18°C [64°F]) and a virtual absence of thermal seasons. Typically, the temperature difference between day and night is greater than that between the warmest and the coolest month, the opposite of the situation in midlatitudes. The terms winter and summer have little meaning, but in many locations annual rhythm is provided by the occurrence of wet and dry seasons. Type A climates are controlled mainly by the seasonal fluctuations of the trade winds, the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), and the Asian monsoon. Köppen specifies three A climates: Wet equatorial climate, major climate type of the Köppen classification characterized by consistently high temperatures (around 30 °C [86 °F]), with plentiful precipitation (150–1,000 cm [59–394 inches]), heavy cloud cover, and high humidity, with very little annual temperature variation. Wet equatorial regions lie within about 12° latitude of the Equator. Wet equatorial regions lie within the influence of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) in all months; the converging, ascending air spawns convectional thunderstorm activity with much of the rainfall occurring in late afternoon or early evening when the atmosphere is most susceptible to thunderstorms. While precipitation is profuse in all months, variations do occur in response to the precise location of the ITCZ – drier months result when the ITCZ moves away from the region in question. Other wet equatorial climate zones are found beyond the usual margins of ITCZ activity – in coastal Madagascar, southeast coastal Brazil, and much of Central America and western Colombia, where trade winds blow onshore all year. In these areas, trade winds encounter coastlines backed by mountain barriers that stimulate the formation of precipitation as warm, moist tropical air is forced to ascend and cool. Some of these regions also may receive precipitation from tropical disturbances, including tropical cyclones. https://www.britannica.com/science/wet-equatorial-climate (accessed 15 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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‫‪36  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫_________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫__________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫____________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫_________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫__________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫____________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫‪Exercise 9. Using Bing, translate the following Arabic text into English.‬‬ ‫اقليم البحر المتوسط ‪ :‬يظهر في األطراف الشمالية للوطن العربي على امتداد خط الساحل وفى‬ ‫ظهيره المباشر ‪ ،‬فهو يتمثل في السهول الساحلية المطلة على البحر المتوسط والسفوح الغربية‬ ‫لمرتفعات الشام ‪ ،‬كما يشمل إقليم التل في المغرب العربي وإقليم برقة في ليبيا ‪ ،‬ومع التجاوز‬ ‫يدخل ضمن نطاق هذا اإلقليم ‪ ،‬السهل الساحلي في ليبيا ‪ ،‬ومصر فأمطار هذه األقاليم كلها نتيجة‬ ‫أحوال مناخية متشابهة وتتأثر بعوامل واحدة ‪ ،‬واألمطار إن اختلفت في المقدار فإنها متفقة في‬ ‫نوعها ونظام سقوطها ‪.‬ويتميز المناخ أساسا في هذا اإلقليم بالخصائص األساسية اآلتية‪:‬‬ ‫‪ 1‬تقسيم السنة إلى فصلين متميزين ‪ :‬شتاء دافئ يتميز بتساقط المطر ‪ ،‬وصيف حار يتميز‬ ‫بالجفاف التام ‪ .‬ففي الشتاء ال تكاد الحرارة تنخفض عن ْ‪8‬م في المتوسط إال أنها في الجهات‬ ‫الداخلية قد تنخفض إلى ‪ْ5‬م في شهر يناير ‪ ،‬وفيه تسجل النهايات الصغرى لدرجات الحرارة‬ ‫لهذا الفصل ‪ ،‬والمألوف أن تميل درجات الحرارة إلى الدفء في أثناء النهار بينما تميل إلى‬ ‫البرودة في أثناء الليل ‪ ،‬ويصل مدى الحرارة اليومي إلى ‪ 5‬أو ‪ 8‬درجات ‪ ،‬وفى الصيف‬ ‫ترتفع درجات الحرارة ارتفاعا ملحوظا ‪ ،‬وهى في أثناء النهار تكون أقرب إلى حرارة نطاق‬ ‫الصحراء إذ تصل إلى أكثر من ْ‪ 29‬م بسبب الجفاف الشديد ‪ ،‬وصفاء السماء ‪ ،‬وفى الليل‬ ‫تنخفض درجات الحرارة ويكون مدى الحرارة اليومي كبير ‪ ،‬وبالطبع فإن الجهات الساحلية‬ ‫ألطف منها في الجهات الداخلية بسبب تأثير البحر‪.‬‬ ‫‪ 2‬في فصل الشتاء ‪ :‬يتركز سقوط المطر ويتساقط معظمه في أشهر ديسمبر ويناير وفبراير ‪،‬‬ ‫ويتراوح في كميته بين ‪ 88‬سم (بيروت) ‪ 9.25 ،‬سم (بغداد ‪ ،‬وهذا المطر الشتوي في جملته‬ ‫يرجع إلى توالد االنخفاضات الجوية اإلعصارية في حوض البحر المتوسط الغربي واتجاهها‬ ‫العام نحو الشرق‪.‬‬ ‫‪ 3‬ويتفاوت التساقط في كميته نظرا الختالف التضاريس ‪:‬وشكل الساحل وامتداده ‪ ،‬والزوايا‬ ‫التي تصنعها الرياح المصاحبة لألعاصير مع هذا االمتداد ‪ ،‬كما يتوقف التساقط على الموقع‬

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Module 2: Machine Translation  37 ‫من حيث قربه وبعده عن فعل هذه األعاصير وعلى األغلب فإن كمية المطر تقل كلما اتجهنا‬ ‫ فيقل التساقط بدرجة‬، ‫ أما في الجهات التي تقع في الظهير يعود نسبيا‬. ‫من الغرب إلى الشرق‬ .‫سم‬9.25 ‫ وفى بغداد‬، ‫ سم‬3 ‫ملحوظة فهو في القاهرة‬ ‫ والسبب في ذلك أن االنخفاضات‬:‫ ويالحظ أن كميات األمطار الساقطة تتذبذب بين سنة وأخرى‬4 ‫اإلعصارية وهى العامل المناخي األهم في سقوط هذه األمطار التي ال تخضع لنظام معين من‬ .‫ وقربها أو بعدها عن البحر المتوسط‬،‫ ومساراتها‬، ‫حيث توالدها‬

https://almerja.com/reading.php?i=7&ida=1849&id=1845&idm=29597 (accessed 15 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 10. Discuss the problems you faced in editing the TTs in Exercises 7 and 8. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

2.5.4 Yandex

Yandex Translate is provided by the Russian company Yandex. It can be used to translate texts or web pages. It supports 90 languages, including Arabic and English. It started first as a statistical machine translation system that has been built from a corpus of millions

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38  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

of translated texts. In 2017, it incorporated the neural machine translation model, thus employing a hybrid model that combines both statistical and neural machine translation models. Exercise 11. Translate the following text into Arabic, using Yandex. Edit the translation and make a list of the problems you encountered. Artificial intelligence (AI) has changed the nature of machine translation, turning it into a tool that can improve and learn by itself. Before recent breakthroughs in AI technologies, such as deep learning and neural networks, machine translation algorithms had to be manually created, tested and managed every step of the way. Minor improvements required hours, days and even years of programming labour. However, the latest deep learning algorithms are able to consume millions of data points every day to improve the accuracy of their output, while innovations in neural language processing (NLP) make these algorithms more capable of understanding the contextual meaning of input dialogue – in the same way Google knows when you’re talking about Apple computers instead of the fruit. We are now at a point where machine translation can learn by itself. Minor improvements are constantly coming, without any extensive input from programmers, while data scientists are continuing to engineer new breakthroughs that result in significant progress every few years. Is AI translation ready to overtake humans? Like many technology fields, there is a lot of hype coming from all angles related to AI technology, but we are not going to see any rise of the machines in the near future. You may remember, in 2015, when Japan wowed the world with the first robot hotel, staffed entirely by machines. This was at the peak of AI hype and a glimpse of things to come for humans that will be doomed to redundancy. Except, four years later, half of the robot staff were fired for not being very good at their job and annoying the human clientele that pays for everything. Humans currently staff the reception desk and handle key services at the world’s first robot hotel. Luckily, machine translation has fared much better in the age of artificial intelligence than its cousins in hospitality. However, there is a familiar distance between hype and reality when you read the latest article claiming that AI translation is ready to replace humans and actually use the technology for yourself. In reality, we’re a long way from algorithms replicating complex cognitive behaviour, such as the decision-making processes made in translation, without any human input. This doesn’t mean progress isn’t being made, though. The issue is that expectations are very high as a result of the hype culture that’s so prominent in the tech industry.

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Module 2: Machine Translation  39

What does the future hold for AI translation? There will continue to be breakthroughs in AI translation in the coming years but the technology’s role will continue to be the same: enhancing the performance of human translators. As things currently stand, we can use the latest machine translation tools to instantly translate text and, for basic pieces of content, the accuracy can be good enough to act as a first draft for professional translators to edit and refine. This can reduce the manual workload of a professional translator by 20–40% if the original text is simple enough for AI translation to achieve its maximum accuracy. Even for more complex texts, machine translation can play a role and the time savings will only increase as the technology continues to improve – and this is where AI translation is going to make its impact. As the technology continues to improve, this process will not be limited to textto-text translation, either. We are at a point now where real-time translation and speech-to-text translation are starting to make genuine progress. Accuracy issues still remain and complex language often poses challenges, even for the most advanced AI algorithms – not to mention the variables of accents, pronunciation, background noise and interference. Sadly, progress will continue to be slow because the complexity of language is so vast. The realistic breakthroughs will be in computer processing that enables algorithms to complete ‘real-time’ tasks much faster or interface designs and deliverability that allow human translators to edit and deploy machine-translated content faster – for example, at live events. This is no different to how Microsoft repackaged existing translation technology into Skype Translator in 2014 – the same technology in a more innovative interface. The accuracy of machine translation has improved marginally over the past five years, but the technology has improved enough in other areas that it is a more capable tool for human translators, who are able to deliver the required quality much faster, thanks to AI translation. https://www.translateplus.com/blog/what-does-the-future-hold-for-machine-translationand-ai/ (accessed 15 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

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40  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

2.6  Customised Translation Engines Customised Machine Translation modifies machine translation systems to suit the needs of a specific domain or topic, by helping it understand the terminology used in the translated text. It is offered by Microsoft Translate and others, such as Language Studio, Media Studio and Workflow Studio. Exercise 12. Choose any of the customised engines mentioned above and translate the following text into Arabic. Workflow Studio is Omniscien’s newest product. Many of the tools provided in Workflow Studio have been used and evolved by the Omniscien team for nearly 14 years. In recent years some of the tools were made available for customer use such as Language Studio Drop Folders, which was accompanied by LSScript and LSTools. These tools have all been updated and are being released as a feature enhanced versions and have been combined with several other modules that collectively make up the Workflow Studio 1.0 product.

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Module 2: Machine Translation  41

Earlier versions of Language Studio Drop Folders, LSTools and LSScript have been deployed successfully in numerous organizations around the world that needed workflow automation and natural language processing. Usually, but not always, these tools were deployed within the organizations in conjunction with machine translation as pre- and post-processing workflows. Some workflows were developed for customers by the Omniscien team developed, with many customers building their own very impressive workflows over time. Examples of some of the workflows that have been built are provided below. At the same time, the Omniscien team has been adding features and enhancing the tools for their own internal use when gathering, processing, cleaning, and preparing data for building custom machine translation engines, and training machine learning and artificial intelligence-based models. With the release of Workflow Studio, these powerful tools are now available for anybody to use for high-volume data workflow automation. Workflow Studio, as its name suggests, is designed to simplify complex workflows. To do this, many power processing tools are provided that are connected by LSScript, Omniscien’s high-performance JavaScript runtime engine. JavaScript is a very common skillset due to most websites being heavily dependent on JavaScript in conjunction with HTML. If your team has a web-developer, then your team already has a Workflow Studio developer who can build complex language processing workflows quickly and easily. The list below is a small sample of some of the things that our customers have been able to achieve with Workflow Studio: • A utomatically detect the language of a document and submit an appropriate machine translation engine so as to convert all documents to English. • Analyze thousands of files to automatically categorize them by domain topic (i. e., medical, technology, news, etc.) • Analyze documents and extract data out into a normalized form. • Connect to a web server application to automatically determine the size of a job to be processed by a Language Service Provider and give an instant quote. Automatically determine the language, document format, number of pages, words, and characters. • Build custom pre- and post-processing for your machine translation workflows. • Mine data from remote websites, extract text, and analyze the content for valuable information. • Determine if customer feedback has a positive or negative sentiment. • Automatically determine the encoding of documents and convert them to UTF-8. • Extract people and organization names from large bodies of text. https://omniscien.com/products/workflow-studio (accessed 15 March 2021)

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42  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 13. Use any of the Customised Machine Translation systems to translate the following text. Ever wonder why getting ahead can sometimes seem like such a struggle? The truth is: If you want to be highly successful, you need to be highly disciplined. I’ve polled countless executives and entrepreneurs about the things they’re doing every day which help them succeed, and typically they credit simple daily routines which have been proven over time to give them an edge. Check out these quotes from 33 high-achieving individuals who share the habits which help them get ahead in business and life. Remove fear. ‘I find when working with others, when we seem to reach a barrier to getting something done, the barrier is really about their fear of failure, fear of being blamed, fear

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of accountability, etc. This fear is rooted in their prior experiences with another boss, another colleague, or even a family member. What I’ve learned is that if I tell them “I’m in this with you, and if this heads south I’ll accept as much or more responsibility for that than anybody”, we can get beyond that fear and become extremely productive’. - Stephanie Smith, microbiologist and cofounder of Cyantific Skin Care, which uses a natural and sustainable source of blue-green algae. Unplug without a device. ‘Time away from the digital world is critical for my sanity, productivity and general wellness. Late night walks along the ocean without my phone provide a tranquil way to get exercise, digest the day, plan the next day and enjoy nature’. - Troy Anderson, cofounder of Sound Oasis, maker of sound therapy systems and electronic sleep masks which help people relax and sleep. Check your pride at the door. ‘Great leaders understand that they are not the best at everything, but rather realizing their greatest asset is deciphering valuable information and how to action it quickly. Business owners have to be able to make tough decisions, but they need good reliable facts. Leaders who listen to their teams come out ahead and complete a better execution vs. leaders who only believe their way is always the right way’. - Kim Landi, founder of fashion and accessory brand ModerneChild. Surround yourself with positive people. ‘Social media has become a cesspool for the haters and trolls. Don’t let negative people hold you back. Understand that negativity generally comes from unhappy people and those who envy you. Happy successful people don’t tear others down. Surround yourself with ambitious, positive people. It’s too easy to focus on the negative and there’s just no upside to that’. Lisa Steele, author of Gardening with Chickens and Let’s Hatch Chicks, as well as founder of the website Fresh Eggs Daily. https://www.inc.com/christina-desmarais/33- (accessed March 26 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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44  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

2.7  Adaptive Machine Translation Adaptive Machine Translation is a recent development that allows machine translation systems already in use the chance to learn from correction input on the fly. The leaders in this technology are the companies Lilt and SDL. Exercise 14. Translate the following text using SDL. An anti-cancer diet is an important strategy you can use to reduce your risk of cancer. The American Cancer Society recommends, for example, that you eat at least five servings of fruits and vegetables daily and eat the right amount of food to stay at a healthy weight. In addition, researchers are finding that certain foods that prevent cancer may be an important part of an anti-cancer diet. Although selecting cancer-fighting foods at the grocery store and at mealtime can’t guarantee cancer prevention, good choices may help reduce your risk. Consider these anti-cancer diet guidelines: • E at plenty of fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are full of vitamins and nutrients that are thought to reduce the risk of some types of cancer. Eating more plant-based foods also gives you little room for foods high in sugar. Instead of

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Module 2: Machine Translation  45

•

•

• •

•

•

filling up on processed or sugary foods, eat fruits and vegetables for snacks. The Mediterranean diet offers foods that fight cancer, focusing mostly on plant-based foods, such as fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nuts. People who follow the Mediterranean diet choose cancer-fighting foods like olive oil over butter and fish instead of red meat. Sip green tea throughout your day. Green tea is a powerful antioxidant and may be an important part of an anti-cancer diet. Green tea, a cancer-fighting food, may be helpful in preventing liver, breast, pancreatic, lung, esophageal, and skin cancer. Researchers report that a nontoxic chemical found in green tea, epigallocatechin-3 gallate, acts against urokinase (an enzyme crucial for cancer growth). One cup of green tea contains between 100 and 200 milligrams (mg) of this antitumor ingredient. Eat more tomatoes. Research confirms that the antioxidant lycopene, which is in tomatoes, may be more powerful than beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and vitamin E. Lycopene is a cancer-fighting food associated with protection against certain cancers such as prostate and lung cancer. Be sure to cook the tomatoes, as this method releases the lycopene and makes it available to your body. Use olive oil. In Mediterranean countries, this monounsaturated fat is widely used for both cooking and salad oil and may be a cancer-fighting food. Breast cancer rates are 50 percent lower in Mediterranean countries than in the United States. Snack on grapes. Red grapes have seeds filled with the super antioxidant activin. This cancer-fighting chemical, also found in red wine and red-grape juice, may offer significant protection against certain types of cancer, heart disease, and other chronic degenerative diseases. Use garlic and onions abundantly. Research has found that garlic and onions can block the formation of nitrosamines, powerful carcinogens that target several sites in the body, usually the colon, liver, and breasts. Indeed, the more pungent the garlic or onion, the more abundant the chemically active sulfur compounds that prevent cancer. Eat fish. Fatty fish – such as salmon, tuna, and herring – contain omega-3 fatty acids, a type of fatty acid that has been linked to a reduced risk of prostate cancer. If you don’t currently eat fish, you might consider adding it to your anti-cancer diet. Another way to add omega-3s to your diet is by eating flaxseed.

https://www.everydayhealth.com/cancer-photos/top-foods-to-fight-cancer.aspx (accessed 15 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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46  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 15. Translate the following text, using an Adaptive Machine Translation platform. Significant advances in therapeutic uses of medical gases have resulted in increased medical gas usage for a number of diverse clinical applications. Hospitals generally have large annual consumption levels of oxygen so bulk liquid is a very cost effective and convenient supply option. Oxygen liquefies at -183°C and to keep it this cold a specific type of container is needed. Other than cost considerations, there are additional advantages to keeping oxygen in liquid form. In particular, it requires minimal maintenance and is easy to access and use.

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Module 2: Machine Translation  47

BOC Healthcare can supply liquid oxygen containers of suitable capacity to match the demands of any healthcare establishment in accordance with the requirements and recommendations of HTM 02-01. This equipment includes: • • • • •

storage vessels vaporisers control/monitoring panels, telemetry all necessary piping to the BOC termination point and connection to the hospitals Medical Gas Pipeline System (MGPS).

Appropriate backup vessels and cylinder manifolds will also be required to ensure adequate supply in the event of any primary supply system failure. Vacuum Insulated Evaporator (VIE) A VIE is a special vessel which could be described as a giant thermos flask – and, indeed, employs the same principles. VIE tanks are located outside hospital buildings and BOC tankers regularly deliver to top up the tanks, generally without the need to ring and place an order. Oxygen is drawn off as needed, passed through a vaporiser and turned into a gas before it is piped to individual wards. A control panel regulates the flow of the gas from the VIE before it enters the hospital pipework. This is an essential safety feature, and an area where BOC’s expertise and experience is second to none. Selecting the right VIE solution Life saving oxygen supply is of critical importance to a hospital. Whether you have a VIE already and are considering re-sizing, or installing one for the first time, you need to ensure you have the right system supported by an experienced and reliable supplier. Either way, the decisions you make are vital as these types of installation are complex and can be expensive so you will need to be well informed and well advised. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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48  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

2.8 Conclusion Machine translation is now very widely used all over the world. With the vast spread of cyberspace interaction and the rapidly increasing need for online translation services, it becomes crucial for translators to learn how to implement MT software and platforms in the translation tasks in which they are involved. Furthermore, translators should always try to keep up to date with any breakthroughs in machine translation.

2.9  Module Review Exercises Exercise 16. Identify problems with the following translated poem, then edit it. Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean, Tears from the depth of some divine despair Rise in the heart, and gather to the eyes, In looking on the happy Autumn-fields, And thinking of the days that are no more. Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail, That brings our friends up from the underworld, Sad as the last which reddens over one That sinks with all we love below the verge; So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more.

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‫‪Module 2: Machine Translation  49‬‬

‫‪Ah, sad and strange as in dark summer dawns‬‬ ‫‪The earliest pipe of half-awaken’d birds‬‬ ‫‪To dying ears, when unto dying eyes‬‬ ‫;‪The casement slowly grows a glimmering square‬‬ ‫‪So sad, so strange, the days that are no more.‬‬ ‫‪Dear as remember’d kisses after death,‬‬ ‫‪And sweet as those by hopeless fancy feign’d‬‬ ‫‪On lips that are for others; deep as love,‬‬ ‫;‪Deep as first love, and wild with all regret‬‬ ‫!‪O Death in Life, the days that are no more‬‬ ‫‪https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45384/the-princess-tears-idle-tears (accessed 15‬‬ ‫)‪March 2021‬‬ ‫دموع دموع عاطلة ‪ ،‬أنا ال أعرف ما تعنيه‬ ‫دموع من عمق بعض اليأس اإللهي‬ ‫‪ ،‬قم في القلب ‪ ،‬واجتمع إلى العيون‬ ‫بالنظر لحقول الخريف السعيدة‬ ‫والتفكير باأليام التي لم تعد موجودة‬ ‫طازجة كأول شعاع يلمع على الشراع‬ ‫هذا يجلب أصدقائنا من العالم السفلي‬ ‫حزين كاألخير الذي يَحْ م ُر على واحد‬ ‫‪.‬التي تغرق مع كل ما نحب تحت الحافة‬ ‫حزين جدا ‪ ،‬طازج جدا ‪ ،‬األيام التي لم تعد موجودة‪.‬‬ ‫آه ‪ ،‬حزين وغريب كما في فجر الصيف المظلم‬ ‫االنبوب االول للطيور النصف مستيقظة‬ ‫إلى اآلذان المحتضرة ‪ ،‬عندما إلى العيون المحتضرة‬ ‫تنمو العلبة ببطء مربعًا المعًا ؛‬ ‫حزين جدا ‪ ،‬غريب جدا ‪ ،‬األيام التي لم تعد‪.‬‬ ‫‪ ،‬عزيزي كما تذكرت قبالت بعد الموت‬

‫وحلوة مثل تلك التي من قبل الهوى ميؤوس منه‪faig‬‬ ‫‪ ،‬على الشفاه التي هي لآلخرين ؛ عميق كما الحب‬ ‫عميقة مثل الحب األول ‪ ،‬وبرية مع كل األسف ؛‬ ‫يا الموت في الحياة ‪ ،‬األيام التي لم تعد!‬

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50  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 17. Translate the following text using Google Translate and edit as needed. FIFA has been working with all Concacaf member associations, with the support of the confederation, to provide guidance ahead of the upcoming qualifiers for the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022™. The match schedule for Qualification Round 1 in the Concacaf region includes 30 member associations who are each scheduled to play two matches between 24 and 31 March. FIFA has in recent weeks held virtual workshops with all member associations to ensure that they are aware of the regulations relating to COVID-19, in particular regarding player release and the possibility of playing matches in a neutral venue should it be required due to quarantine restrictions in certain countries. Owing to the unique and challenging circumstances being faced globally, FIFA regulations allow member associations to request that an official match be played in a neutral venue, provided it is within the applicable confederation and meets a range of other criteria. https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/mens/worldcup/qatar2022/media-releases/update-onupcoming-concacaf-qualifiers-in-march-2021 (accessed 30 March 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 18. Which machine translation system do you find the most appropriate? Why? _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Module 3 Arabic and English Grammar in Translation 3.1 Introduction Arabic and English belong to two different language families. Arabic is Semitic, while English is Indo-European. This module introduces the basic differences between Arabic and English as far as tenses and sentence order are concerned. It starts with the sentence, then moves on to discourse level, addressing issues such as cohesion and coherence.

3.2  Word Order One major aspect of the syntactic differences between Arabic and English is the word order in phrases and sentences. Sentence patterns in English are identified in relation to transitivity, while in Arabic sentence type is governed by the verb position. The English sentence has a fixed word order where the noun phrase precedes the verb phrase. English is therefore considered an SVO language. Arabic is considered a VSO language, as it starts with the verb. Sentences in Arabic are classified as nominative (starting with a noun phrase) or verbal (starting with a verb). The word order of the nominative sentence is subject + predicate: a complement or a transitive or intransitive verb) as in ‫الشمس مشرقة‬ (The sun is rising). The main word order of the verbal sentence in Arabic is verb + subject + (object), as in ‫( اشترت هدى سيارة‬Huda bought a car). Since English is an SVO language, it starts with the noun phrase functioning as subject, followed by the predicate. When translating from English into Arabic, this syntactic difference should be taken into consideration. One strategy that can be followed in order to account for this difference in translation is permutation (Shunnaq and Bataineh 2014), which involves changing the order of the sentence constituents of the SL into the order of the TL, as shown by the following example: Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. ‫يتكون الماء من هيدروجين واكسجين‬

Another strategy suggested by Shunnaq and Bataineh (2014) is addition, where a word, either lexical or functional, is added to the TL, as shown in the example below:

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Aphasia is a language impairment that affects language production and comprehension. .‫تعد الحبسة الكالمية نوعا من الضعف اللغوي الذي يؤثر على انتاج اللغة واستيعابها‬

Here the word ‫‘ تعد‬is considered’ and ‫‘ نوعا من‬kind of’ are added to the TL to make the text fit with the usual word order in the TL. Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences, applying permutation.   1. Social media has facilitated communication between people all over the globe.   2. Exercise can boost your mental and physical health.   3. Your heart pumps about 2,000 gallons of blood a day.  4. True friends remain with you in hard times.   5. Time flies when you are having fun.   6. You should not give up if you fail, keep trying.   7. India has been placed at 60 of 64 countries on safety and security.  8. Abundant job opportunities worldwide are waiting for agricultural engineers.   9. Industry experts predict that mobiles will control our lives. 10. Online learning gained more popularity during the COVID-19 crisis. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences, adding an appropriate lexical or functional item. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Mobile technology is applicable to many aspects of human life. The world population is projected to reach 9.9 billion by 2050. If the vaccine is authorised in the US, it will continue to be monitored for safety. The Gatsby is one of Cape Town’s most famous sandwiches. The exchange of vows is the part of the wedding ceremony. Monday is a very busy day for him. I drive to work every day. God help you.

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

3.3  Tense and Aspect While English grammar books classify tenses into twelve different ones, Arabic grammar books classify verbs into three major categories: the perfect (‫)ماض‬, the imperfect (‫ )مضارع‬and the imperative (‫)أمر‬. English simple past can be rendered by the Arabic perfect verb tense. For example, the verb ‘saw’ in the sentence ‘I saw Mary last Sunday’ can be rendered as ‫رأيت ماري األحد الماضي‬. However, the past perfect is rendered as ‫ كان‬/kāna/ for masculine or ‫ كانت‬/kānat/ for feminine, with the particle ‫‘ قد‬qad’ as the perfect form of the verb. This is shown in the following example: John had left when I arrived. ‫كان جون قد غادر حين وصلت‬

Past progressive and past perfect progressive are expressed in English with auxiliaries, followed by the verb in the progressive tense. Arabic does not have a form for progressive, which is expressed with the perfect form of the verb /kāna/ and the imperfect form of the verb, as in the following example: The child was playing in the garden. .‫كان الولد يلعب في الحديقة‬

The verb ‘was playing’ is rendered as ‫كان يلعب‬ Past perfect progressive is used in English to refer to a past event and to relate it to another event in the past, as in the following sentence: When I arrived at school, the teacher had already left. This sentence is rendered in Arabic with the construction kāna and the particle qad preceding the perfect form of the main verb, as follows: .‫عندما وصلت المدرسة كان المعلم قد غادر‬

English uses the past perfect to denote intentions, hopes or expectation, as in the following example:

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I had hoped to spend New Year’s Eve with my family, but found that flights were banned. This sentence is rendered in Arabic by one form of /kana/ and /ism alfā‘il/as follows: .‫كنت آمل ان اقضي ليلة رأس السنة مع عائلتي ولكني اكتشفت ان الرحالت قد حظرت‬

Exercise 3. Identify verb tenses in the following sentences, then translate them. 1. He had been diagnosed with COVID and was put on a ventilator five days later. 2. Shakespeare wrote at least 37 plays. 3. As a child she played with her friends in the street, went to Brownies, and had piano lessons, but the boy’s flippant remark caused her to realise something important: ‘The world thought I was sick’. 4. An old man lived in the village. He was one of the most unfortunate people in the world. The whole village was tired of him; he was always gloomy, he constantly complained and was always in a bad mood (https://wealthygorilla.com/10-most-inspirational-shortstories/). 5. A gentleman was walking through an elephant camp, and he spotted that the elephants weren’t being kept in cages or held by the use of chains. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 4. Translate the following text, paying attention to the translation of the past perfect. The sugary smell took him back to the last time he’d seen his grandmother. Her eyes had crinkled with mischievousness as she sneaked the usual candy bar into his pocket when his mother wasn’t looking. He thought she was beautiful, blue-grey hair and all. By the time he said goodbye and left with his mother, his pockets were full with several more candies, and he promised to come back soon. But there hadn’t been another visit before her death, and with that thought, the sweet smell now turned his stomach.

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https://jamigold.com/2020/04/beyond-the-past-understanding-the-past-perfecttense/#:~:text=To%20indicated%20a%20completed%20action,snacks%20in%20the%20 house%20already (accessed 2 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ The present tense is classified into simple, progressive, perfect and perfect progressive. Arabic uses the imperfect form of the verb. Simple present tense is rendered by the imperfect from in Arabic, as in the examples below: The earth revolves around the sun. ‫تدور االرض حول الشمس‬

I visit my parents every week. ‫أزور والدي كل اسبوع‬

The present progressive is used in English to denote an action or an activity that is in progress. Arabic does not have a specific form for the present progressive; therefore, this tense is rendered by the imperfect form of the verb. See the example below: She is cleaning the window. ‫انها تمسح النوافذ‬

Some translators mistakenly impose the structure of English on Arabic and try to translate the progressive by adding the word ‫ تقوم‬/taqum/ which literally means ‘is doing’. *‫• أنها تقوم بمسح النوافذ‬

For present progressive used to denote a future plan, again /ism alfa‘il/ (active participle) can be used, as illustrated by the following examples:

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We are going to London next week. ‫نحن ذاهبون إلى لندن االسبوع القادم‬

or ‫سنذهب إلى لندن األسبوع القادم‬

The present perfect is expressed in English with the use of an auxiliary verb and the past participle form. This is rendered in Arabic by the perfect form of the verb preceded by the particle qad or laqad, as in the following example: I have cut my finger. ‫لقد جرحت اصبعي‬

For actions that began sometime in the past and continue to the present, Arabic uses the imperfect form of the verb, as in the following: I have lived here for five years. ‫أعيش هنا منذ خمس سنوات‬

With present perfect denoting future time, Arabic uses a subjunctive of the imperfect form. It is worth mentioning here that the present perfect refers to a future time whenever it is used in subordinate clauses: As soon as I have finished my exams I will travel. ‫حالما أنهي امتحاناتي سأسافر‬

When the present perfect is used to express opinions or attitudes, it is more appropriate to render it in the imperfect form rather than the perfect. For example, ‘they have supported struggle for their freedom’ is better translated as: ‫ إنهم يؤيدون النضال من أجل حريتهم‬rather than ‫لقد أيدوا النضال من اجل حريتهم‬

Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences.   1. Water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.   2. Mona has just arrived.   3. They have been married for forty years.   4. A magnitude 6.4 earthquake has struck central Croatia, with reports of many injuries and at least six deaths.

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  5. Prince Harry said: ‘So many people have been through so much pain this year, experiencing loss, a huge amount of uncertainty’.   6. Prince Harry has urged US citizens to ‘reject hate speech’ and vote in the country’s upcoming presidential election.   7. She has been working hard all day.   8. How long have you been studying English?   9. He has been playing all afternoon. 10. It has been raining all day. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 6. Identify simple present tense in the following text, then translate it. The heart is the body’s engine room, responsible for pumping life-sustaining blood via a 60,000-mile-long (97,000-kilometer-long) network of vessels. The organ works ceaselessly, beating 100,000 times a day, 40 million times a year – in total clocking up three billion heartbeats over an average lifetime. It keeps the body freshly supplied with oxygen and nutrients, while clearing away harmful waste matter. The fetal heart evolves through several different stages inside the womb, first resembling a fish’s heart, then a frog’s, which has two chambers, then a snake’s, with three, before finally adopting the four-chambered structure of the human heart. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/ heart/ (accessed 2 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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The future is expressed in English by different forms of the verb following the modals ‘will’ or ‘shall’. Arabic, however, expresses future time by using the imperfect form of the main verb and the particle (‫ )س‬/sa/ or (‫ )سوف‬/saufa/, as in the following examples: I will help you with your homework. .‫سأساعدك في حل واجباتك‬

We will stay here until you feel better. .‫سوف نبقى هنا حتى تتحسن‬

For future perfect, Arabic uses the particle ‘sa’ and the imperfect form of /kana/ and /qad/, followed by the perfect from of the verb, as shown below: By next year I will have graduated. .‫سأكون قد تخرجت بحلول العام القادم‬

For future plans, Arabic uses the particle (‫ )س‬/sa/ or (‫ )سوف‬/saufa/ before the imperfect form of the verb, as shown below: Alan is going to join our club next summer. ‫سوف\س ينضم الن إلى نادينا الصيف القادم‬

English uses the future progressive to refer to a temporary situation in the future. Arabic expresses this function by /sa/ or /saufa/ and the imperfect form of the verb: I will be attending a training course next summer. ‫سأحضر دورة تدريبية الصيف القادم‬

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences.                

1. What will data analysts be doing in the future? 2. There will be more parents than grandchildren in the future. 3. Sue will learn French next year. 4. Prices are going to rise soon. 5. I will call you as soon as I finish the meeting. 6. My friend is not coming to the party. She will be moving to another house. 7. Jane will be working all day, so she won’t be able to join us. 8. By the time you finish your work, I will have left.

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  9. Will you have done your assignment when I come? 10. By next month, students will have been working online for three semesters. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

3.4 Cohesion Cohesion is related to the grammatical and lexical ties that hold a text together. Halliday and Hasan (1976) is still considered to be a landmark of cohesion analysis, thanks to the comprehensive model it provides for classifying cohesion into grammatical and lexical. Grammatical cohesion is achieved by the use of reference, conjunction, substitution and ellipsis, while lexical cohesion is built through repetition and collocation. There are differences between Arabic and English in using cohesive devices. As stated by Hatim and Mason (1997: 127), repetition is used in Arabic argumentation for emphasis and stylistic effectiveness, while in English repetition has a negative effect and is considered a major source of redundancy. This difference should be taken into consideration when translating texts from English into Arabic. Arabic sentences are usually longer than English sentences. As stated by Hatim (1981), punctuation in English is used as a cohesive device, while Arabic depends on conjunction, as shown by the following example from Encounter by Joyce: In the morning I was firstcomer to the bridge as I lived nearest. I hid my books in the long grass near the ashpit at the end of the garden where nobody ever came and hurried along the canal bank. It was a mild sunny morning in the first week of June. ‫كنت أول الحاضرين إلى الجسر في الصباح حيث أن سكني كان األقرب فأخفيت كتبي بين‬ .‫المنحدر الرطب في اخر الحديقة حيث لم يصل أحد قط وركضت عبر ضفة القناة‬ .‫كان صباحا مشمسا معتدال في األسبوع األول من شهر حزيران‬

Notice here that the Arabic text has more conjunctions than the English text. The English text maintains cohesion by using punctuation, while Arabic uses the conjunctions ‫حيث‬ ‘where’ and ‫‘ ف‬so’.

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Exercise 8. Translate the following text, then comment on the differences between SL and TL as far as cohesion is concerned. It was Joe Dillon who introduced the Wild West to us. He had a little library made up of old numbers of The Union Jack, Pluck and The Halfpenny Marvel. Every evening after school we met in his back garden and arranged Indian battles. He and his fat young brother Leo, the idler, held the loft of the stable while we tried to carry it by storm; or we fought a pitched battle on the grass. http://www.online-literature.com/james_joyce/953/ (accessed 2 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Conjunctions are used in Arabic and English to connect texts cohesively. There are, however, some differences between the two languages in the use and function that have to be taken into consideration. For example, the connective ‘but’ does not always mean ‘‫’ لكن‬. In English, it is used to mean an exception, a reason, ‘almost completely’, ‘only’, or a contrast, as shown in the following table: Meaning of But

English

Arabic

Except for

All are invited but Jane.

‫الكل مدعو عدا جين‬

Reason

But for the flu, I would have won the race.

‫لوال نزلة البرد لتمكنت من الفوزفي‬ ‫السباق‬

Almost completely The student had all but given up hope of passing the exam.

‫كاد الطالب ان يفقد االمل بالنجاح‬ ‫في االمتحان‬

Only

He is but a little child.

‫ما هو اال طفل صغير‬

Contrast

She is 90 years old, but she still ‫رغم انها بلغت التسعين اال انها ما‬ ‫زالت تذهب للتسوق سيرا على االقدام‬ goes shopping on foot.

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Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences, taking into consideration the different meanings of ‘but’. 1. They play everyday but Fridays. 2. Mary is but an intermediate student. 3. We can but hope that the vaccine will make a difference. 4. She is not a singer but an instrumentalist. 5. Without my parents’ support, my success would have been all but impossible. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Another conjunction is the connective ‘so’ which should not always be translated as ‘‫’ف‬. ‘So’ could mean ‫ و‬،‫ حتى‬، ‫ ثم‬، ‫ بحيث‬،‫ حتى‬،‫ يعني‬،‫ بالتالي‬،‫ هكذا‬،‫ للغاية‬،‫ لذلك‬،‫ جدا‬،‫ اذن‬، ‫طالما‬, as shown in the following table . Meaning/Function English Showing how Fold the paper back so, then colour it. Result So is he coming? Avoiding repetition Do you think it is going to rain tomorrow? I don’t think so. Similarity Ann quitted smoking, and so did Sam. Reason She had to leave an hour ago, so she could avoid traffic jams. Very Clare is so clever.

Arabic

‫اثن الورقة للخلف هكذا ثم لونها‬ ‫اذن هل سيأتي ؟‬ ‫هل تعتقد انها ستمطر غدا؟ ال اعتقد‬ .‫ذلك‬ .‫تركت آن التدخين وكذلك فعل سام‬ ‫اضطرت أن تغادر قبل ساعة حتى‬ ‫تتجنب أزمة السير‬ ‫كلير ذكية جدا‬

Exercise 10. Translate the following, identifying the function of ‘so’. 1. It is so kind of you to invite me to your birthday party. 2. Just as some people like to vacate abroad, so others like to stay at home. 3. Will the exams be postponed? I hope so.

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4. So, how are you going to fix it? 5. John was fired. So I heard. ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 11. Identify the conjunctions in the following text, then translate it. The key to becoming an effective student is learning how to study smarter, not harder. This becomes more and more true as you advance in your education. An hour or two of studying a day is usually sufficient to make it through high school with satisfactory grades, but when college arrives, there aren’t enough hours in the day to get all your studying in if you don’t know how to study smarter. While some students are able to breeze through school with minimal effort, this is the exception. The vast majority of successful students achieve their success by developing and applying effective study habits. The following are the top 10 study habits employed by highly successful students. So if you want to become a successful student, don’t get discouraged, don’t give up, just work to develop each of the study habits below and you’ll see your grades go up, your knowledge increase, and your ability to learn and assimilate information improve. https://www.educationcorner.com/habits-of-successful-students.html (accessed 2 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Another difference between cohesion in Arabic and English is related to punctuation. Punctuation functions cohesively in English. For example, the comma in the following example should be rendered as ‫و‬. My son likes apples, oranges, bananas and apricots. ‫يحب ابني التفاح والبرتقال والموز والمشمش‬

Exercise 12. Translate the following text, treating commas as cohesive device (use a suitable conjunction). 1. I work on Sunday, Monday and Thursday. 2. Your proposal should include the objectives, the methodology and the rationale. 3. The jacket was white; the shirt brown. 4. I hope, Mary, that you will help me this time. 5. Upset by his grade, he left early. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 13. Translate the following text, paying attention to the different function of punctuation in English and Arabic. For example, the period could be rendered as ‫و‬. Ever find yourself up late at night expending more energy trying to keep your eyelids open than you are studying? If so, it’s time for a change. Successful students typically space their work out over shorter periods of time and rarely try to cram all of their studying into just one or two sessions. If you want to become a successful student then you need to learn to be consistent in your studies and to have regular, yet shorter, study periods. Not only is it important that you plan when you’re going to study, it’s important you create a consistent, daily study routine. When you study at the same time each day and each week, your studying will become a regular part of your life. You’ll be mentally and emotionally more prepared for each study session and each study session will become more productive. If you have to change your schedule from time to time due to unexpected events, that’s okay, but get back on your routine as soon as the event has passed. https://www.educationcorner.com/habits-of-successful-students.html (accessed 2 January 2021)

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Reference is a cohesive device, which is basically established with the use of pronouns. Halliday and Hasan (1976) classify reference into personal, demonstrative and comparative. Personal reference includes personal pronouns (I, you, we, he, she and they), possessive determiners or possessive adjectives (my, your, his and so on) and possessive pronouns (mine, your, his and so on). Demonstrative pronouns are used to refer to a location (this, that, these, those, here and there). Comparative reference is indirectly established, either by particular or general comparison. Personal pronouns in Arabic are classified into two basic types: free and bound pronouns. Free pronouns include personal pronouns that vary according to person, number and gender, as shown in the following table: Pronoun ‫أنا‬ ‫نحن‬ َ‫أنت‬ ‫ت‬ ِ ‫أن‬ ‫أنتما‬ ‫أنتم‬ َ‫أنتن‬ ‫هو‬ ‫هي‬ ‫هما‬ ‫هم‬ َ‫هن‬

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Gender Feminine, masculine Feminine, masculine Masculine Feminine Feminine, masculine Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine, Feminine Masculine Feminine

Number Singular Plural Singular Singular Dual Plural Plural Singular Singular Dual Plural Plural

Person First First Second Second Second Second Second Third Third Third Third Third

Translation I We You You You You You He She They They They

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Exercise 14. Translate the following sentences.   1. I am very happy to work with you.   2. She is the one who broke the window.   3. He went with his brother.   4. We live on this earth, so we have to protect it.   5. You two, come here quickly.   6. They left early because they wanted to catch their flight   7. You are always late, Sam.   8. You are very clever, Sara.   9. Come on girls, you are members of this team. 10. Have you asked the nurses to join the meeting? They are there, right? ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Bound Pronouns are shown in the following table: Pronoun

‫ي‬ ‫ني‬ ‫نا‬ ‫ك‬ َ ‫ِك‬ ‫كما‬ ‫كم‬ ‫كن‬ ُ‫ه‬ ‫ها‬ ‫هما‬ ‫هم‬ َ‫هن‬

7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 66

Meaning Me, my, mine Me Ours, us Your(masculine) Your (Feminine) Your (dual) both gender Your (masculine, plural) Your (feminine, plural) His Her Their (dual) Their masculine Their feminine

Example

‫هذه مدرستي‬ ‫نعم اخبرني‬ ‫هذه مدرستنا‬ ‫هذه مدرستك‬ ‫هذه مدرستك‬ ‫هذه مدرستكما‬ ‫هذه مدرستكم‬ ‫هذه مدرستكن‬ ‫هذه مدرسته‬ ‫هذه مدرستها‬ ‫هذه مدرستهما‬ ‫هذه مدرستهم‬ ‫هذه مدرستهن‬

Translation This is my school. Yes, he told me. This is our school. This is your school. This is your school. This is your school. This is your school. This is your school. This is his school. This is her school. This is their school. This is their school. This is their school.

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Exercise 15. Translate the following sentences, then make a list of pronouns in both ST and TT.   1. Have you seen my sister?   2. They told us the whole story.   3. Do not blame Jane and Lana, Sue is their sister after all.   4. I think that is their own business, not yours, so leave Tom and Jack alone.   5. I saw their father, I mean, of that boy and girl.   6. Have you seen her new friend?   7. I have given the girls their gifts.   8. This is his book, so please return it to him.   9. Take your mobile, Emily. 10. Is this your brother John? _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ST Pronoun

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TT Pronoun

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Exercise 16. Translate the following text, taking into consideration the differences between Arabic and English pronouns. It was her sister Josephine who told her, in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing. Her husband’s friend Richards was there, too, near her. It was he who had been in the newspaper office when intelligence of the railroad disaster was received, with Brently Mallard’s name leading the list of ‘killed’. He had only taken the time to assure himself of its truth by a second telegram, and had hastened to forestall any less careful, less tender friend in bearing the sad message. She did not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed inability to accept its significance. She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister’s arms. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. She would have no one follow her. There stood, facing the open window, a comfortable, roomy armchair. Into this she sank, pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body and seemed to reach into her soul. She could see in the open square before her house the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life. The delicious breath of rain was in the air. In the street below a peddler was crying his wares. The notes of a distant song which someone was singing reached her faintly, and countless sparrows were twittering in the eaves. https://archive.vcu.edu/english/engweb/webtexts/hour/#:~:text=Kate%20Chopin%20 (1894),that%20revealed%20in%20half%20concealing (accessed 2 January 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

3.5 Conclusion Grammatical differences between Arabic and English should be taken into consideration during translation. Basic differences involve sentence structure and word order. Another

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difference is related to the English tenses that should be rendered in the most appropriate Arabic equivalent. On the level of discourse, considerable attention should be paid to cohesive devices, such as conjunction and reference.

3.6  Module Review Exercises Exercise 17. Translate the following text, enumerating examples of the strategies you followed while translating tenses. He was on his Necker Island retreat in the Caribbean; they were flying out over the Pacific, attempting to demonstrate how you could deliver satellites to space using a booster released from under the wing of a jumbo jet. It was around 19:50 GMT that success was confirmed. Ten shoebox-sized spacecraft had been taken high above the Earth. Sir Richard’s company, Virgin Orbit, immediately sent out a tweet to say everyone not on console at mission control was going ‘bonkers’ with delight. For the British entrepreneur, the feeling was exactly the same – but with a huge amount of relief mixed in there as well. A previous attempt to get to space in May last year had failed, and so it was vital this mission came through. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55721587 (accessed 7 June 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 18. Identify the cohesive devices in the following text, then translate it. Alice was rather doubtful whether she ought not to lie down on her face like the three gardeners, but she could not remember ever having heard of such a rule at processions; ‘and besides, what would be the use of a procession’, she thought, ‘if people had all to lie down on their faces, so that they couldn’t see it?’ So she stood where she was, and waited. https://www.adobe.com/be_en/active-use/pdf/Alice_in_Wonderland.pdf (accessed 7 June 2021) 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 69

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 19. Explain with examples the differences between applying addition and permutation in translation from English into Arabic. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 20. Translate the following, replacing punctuation with a cohesive device where necessary. The parent–child relationship consists of feelings, expectations and behaviour. It starts building with the time of conception. Many of us have heard many times by our elders saying ‘Be careful, of what you listen, see and think during pregnancy’. It is because the child understands and perceives the world through us, the way we feel and understand the outer world. After birth the child does not learn what they are taught or what you want them to learn or the way you want them to behave. Their every learning, reaction and behaviour depend on what they have observed. They observe from parents. https://www.practo.com/healthfeed/types-of-parent-child-relationships-27370/post (accessed 7 June 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 21. Translate the following text, then identify free and bound pronouns in the TT. When the short days of winter came, dusk fell before we had well eaten our dinners. When we met in the street the houses had grown sombre. The space of sky above us was the colour of ever-changing violet and towards it the lamps of the street lifted their feeble lanterns. The cold air stung us and we played till our bodies glowed. Our shouts echoed in the silent street. The career of our play brought us through the dark muddy lanes behind the houses, where we ran the gauntlet of the rough tribes from the cottages, to the back doors of the dark dripping gardens where odours arose from the ashpits, to the dark odorous stables where a coachman smoothed and combed the horse or shook music from the buckled harness. When we returned to the street, light from the kitchen windows had filled the areas. If my uncle was seen turning the corner, we hid in the shadow until we had seen him safely housed. Or if Mangan’s sister came out on the doorstep to call her brother in to his tea, we watched her from our shadow peer up and down the street. We waited to see whether she would remain or go in and, if she remained, we left our shadow and walked up to Mangan’s steps resignedly. She was waiting for us, her figure defined by the light from the half-opened door. Her brother always teased her before he obeyed, and I stood by the railings looking at her. https://americanliterature.com/author/james-joyce/short-story/araby (accessed 7 June 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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Module 4 Literary Translation 4.1 Introduction Literary translation, like other types of translations, makes readers aware of the existence of the literary works of other cultures. It helps them read and appreciate such works, thus fostering cultural dialogue. Indeed, literary works of various cultures have been translated into other cultures all over the world. One can talk about a universal literary canon that has been established via translation. Literary figures in almost all cultures are universally acknowledged, thanks to the role of translation in promoting such masterpieces. Who does not know about Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet or One Thousand and One Nights? Translating literary texts is not an easy task. It is more demanding than other types of translation since it deals with two cultures, a source culture and a target culture. Abu Hatab (2015: 185) states: ‘Since literature is usually viewed as a cultural portrait of nations and communities, it poses a great challenge to the translator who is torn between the aesthetic and cultural component of the source text and culture of the target text reader’. The translator takes on the task of a social mediator between both cultures, since it is necessary to decide how to translate concepts represented in the SL and TL using different ideas and images and to know how to translate idiomatic expressions that may carry additional meaning in the translated literary genre. Furthermore, translated work is often published, and this makes the task more demanding since the needs of the publisher, readers and writers have to be met. A translated text – whether prose or poetry, fiction or nonfiction – is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistics or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, when it gives the appearance that it reflects the foreign writer’s personality or intention, or the essential meaning of the foreign text (Venuti 2008: 1). The basic literary genres to be dealt with in this module are fiction, drama and poetry. Each section will tackle the distinctive features of the genre, problems encountered in translation and strategies to deal with these problems.

4.2 Fiction The word ‘fiction’ is used to refer to a literary genre characterised by narration. It usually consists of prose written in the form of a novel, a short story or a novella; this section will discuss these types of fiction. (You may refer to any introductory book on literary genres

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for other types.) As a literary genre, fiction has been sub-classified into themes such as mystery, historical, romance, fantasy, western, science fiction, action/adventure, humour, medical, tragedy, thriller and horror, in addition to other types. Translating fiction is challenging in general since it relies heavily on narration (see the following section). Each sub-genre of fiction has its own linguistic characteristics. Furthermore, the translator has to make a decision whether to be SL-oriented or TL-oriented. Adapting, managing or monitoring are other issues that the translator encounters while translating different genres of fiction. When translating from English into Arabic, the translator’s job is even more demanding since these languages belong to two different language families. Arabic is a Semitic language, while English is Indo-European. Both languages have different syntactic, phonological and lexical systems, in addition to complex cultural differences. This section will present some exercises to help you practise strategies for translating extracts from novels and short stories from English into Arabic. Exercise 1. Read the following SL and TL texts, then find examples of adaptation strategies and comment on them. He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him. But after forty days without a fish the boy’s parents had told him that the old man was now definitely and finally salao [to be unlucky in fishing], which is the worst form of unlucky, and the boy had gone at their orders in another boat which caught three good fish the first week. It made the boy sad to see the old man come in each day with his skiff empty. Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea ‫ كان هناك رجل اعتاد الصيد لوحده في مركب شراعي صغير في‬،‫كان يا ما كان في قديم الزمان‬ ‫ وقد صحبه فتى‬. ‫ وقد مضى عليه أربعة وثمانون يوما دون أن يصطاد ولو سمكة واحدة‬.‫البحر‬ ‫في األيام األربعين األولى ولكن بعد ذلك طلب والدا الفتى منه أن يذهب في قارب آخر ألن الرجل‬ ‫ أطاع الفتى أمر والديه وذهب في قارب آخر واصطاد ثالث سمكات في االسبوع‬.‫حظه قليل‬ .‫ حزن الفتى لرؤية الرجل العجوز يعود خالي الوفاض كل يوم‬. ‫األول‬

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Exercise 2. Translate the following excerpt from Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, following the translation method you find most appropriate. Explain why you have opted for a particular method. It was a peculiarly beautiful book. Its smooth creamy paper, a little yellowed by age, was of a kind that had not been manufactured for at least forty years past. He could guess, however, that the book was much older than that. He had seen it lying in the window of a frowsy little junk-shop in a slummy quarter of the town (just what quarter he did not now remember) and had been stricken immediately by an overwhelming desire to possess it. Party members were supposed not to go into ordinary shops (‘dealing on the free market’, it was called), but the rule was not strictly kept, because there were various things, such as shoelaces and razor blades, which it was impossible to get hold of in any other way. http://www.laban.rs/orwell/1984/1984_en.html (accessed 10 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 3. Apply communicative translation to translate the following lines from The Lottery, a short story by Shirley Jackson. The morning of June 27th was clear and sunny, with the fresh warmth of a fullsummer day; the flowers were blossoming profusely and the grass was richly green. The people of the village began to gather in the square, between the post office and the bank, around ten o’clock; in some towns there were so many people that the lottery took two days and had to be started on June 2th. But in this village, where there were only about three hundred people, the whole lottery took less than two

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hours, so it could begin at ten o’clock in the morning and still be through in time to allow the villagers to get home for noon dinner. https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/268ass%20was%20richly%20green (accessed 10 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

4.2.1  Narrative Texts: Discourse Problems

Narration is the most distinctive feature of fiction. It forms the plot of the story or the novel, which has a specific setting and a point of view that reflects the voice of the narrator. The reader is taken on a journey by the narrator, to follow a conflict that builds up to reach a climax which is usually followed by a resolution. The translator’s awareness of elements of fiction and narrative techniques facilitates the translation process. Narrative is defined as: One method of recapitulating past experience by matching a verbal sequence of clauses to the sequence of events which (it is inferred) actually occurred [. . .] within this conception of narrative, we can define a minimal narrative as a sequence of two clauses which are temporally ordered: that is, a change in their order will result in a change in the temporal sequence of the original semantic interpretation (Labov (1972: 360). Narrative as a genre has a fibula that consists of chronologically related events; a narrative text has two types of spokesmen: one does not play a role in the fibula, whereas the other does (Bal 1985: 5). Narrative texts contain three layers – the text, the story and the fibula – and these deal with a series of connected events caused or experienced by the actors (ibid). More detail on prose and narration can be found elsewhere (see, for example, Amigoni 2000). Discourse problems are related to aspects of cohesion and coherence in Arabic and English. Arabic, for example, relies heavily on conjunction as a cohesive device, while English more often uses subordination. It is usual to have run-on sentences in Arabic since punctuation is not traditionally utilised as a cohesive device. However, English uses subordinates and general words as lexical cohesive devices, Arabic favours repetition of the same lexical item (Dickins 2002, 2009). According to a comprehensive taxonomy, cohesive devices in English can be classified as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion (Halliday and Hasan 1976). Each device will be discussed below and applied to samples of narrative texts.

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Reference, conjunction and lexical cohesion occur more frequently than substitution and ellipsis, which might be more commonly found in drama. Reference and conjunction have received a comprehensive treatment in the previous module. In this module, more emphasis will be put on lexical cohesion. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 5) state that ‘cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary’. Thus, grammatical cohesion is established by means of reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Lexical cohesion, however, is built into the text by using lexical items that connect words, phrases and sentences. Lexical cohesion is classified into two main categories: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration involves repetition of the same word, synonymy or near synonymy, superordinate and a general word. Reiteration device Repetition of the same word Synonymy Near synonymy Superordinate

Examples To prepare for a job interview you must review the job description. Money can’t always buy you joy and happiness. Was it foggy or misty yesterday?

Analysis The word ‘job’ is repeated.

Joy and happiness are synonyms. Fogy and misty near synonyms. Social media have changed our ‘Thing’ is a general word used life. No one could imagine such a to refer to social media. thing a hundred years ago.

Exercise 4. Identify reiteration devices in the following text. We must live our lives. Yes, we shall live, Uncle Vanya. We shall live through the long procession of days before us, and through the long evenings; we shall patiently bear the trials that fate imposes on us; we shall work for others without rest, both now and when we are old; and when our last hour comes we shall meet it humbly, and there, beyond the grave, we shall say that we have suffered and wept, that our life was bitter, and God will have pity on us. Ah, then dear, dear Uncle, we shall see that bright and beautiful life; we shall rejoice and look back upon our sorrow here; a tender smile – and – we shall rest. I have faith, Uncle, fervent, passionate faith. We shall rest. We shall hear the angels. We shall see heaven shining like a jewel. We shall see all evil and all our pain sink away in the great compassion that shall enfold the world. Our life will be as peaceful and tender and sweet as a caress. I have faith; I have faith. Anton Chekhov, Sonia, Act I http://www.online-literature.com/anton_chekhov/ (accessed 11 February 2021)

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Collocation is ‘cohesion that is achieved through the association of lexical items that regularly co-occur’ (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 284). In general, ‘any two lexical items having similar patterns of collocation – that is, tending to appear in similar context – will generate a cohesive force if they occur in adjacent sentences’ (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 286). For example, cloudy, frosty, icy, rainy, snowy, stormy, sunny and windy are weather collocations. The adjectives chilly, cold, cool, freezing (cold), frosty and wintry collocate with cold weather, while boiling (hot), hot, scorching and warm collocate with hot weather. The verbs drink, pour, slosh, spill, splash, spray, sprinkle, spurt and squirt collocate with water. Collocations create cohesive chains in texts so that readers can establish connection between different parts of the text and make sense of what they read. Exercise 5. Identify collocational chains in the following text, then translate it. HE WAS an inch, perhaps two, under six feet, powerfully built, and he advanced straight at you with a slight stoop of the shoulders, head forward, and a fixed fromunder stare which made you think of a charging bull. His voice was deep, loud, and his manner displayed a kind of dogged self-assertion which had nothing aggressive in it. It seemed a necessity, and it was directed apparently as much at himself as at anybody else. He was spotlessly neat, appareled in immaculate white from shoes to hat, and in the various Eastern ports where he got his living as ship-chandler’s waterclerk he was very popular. A water-clerk need not pass an examination in anything under the sun, but he must have ability in the abstract and demonstrate it practically. His work consists in racing under sail, steam, or oars against other water-clerks for any ship about to anchor, greeting her captain cheerily, forcing upon him a card – the business card of the ship-chandler – and on his first visit on shore piloting him firmly but without ostentation to a vast, cavern-like shop which is full of things that are eaten and drunk on board ship; where you can get everything to make her seaworthy and beautiful, from a set of chain-hooks for her cable to a book of gold-leaf for the carvings of her

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stern; and where her commander is received like a brother by a ship-chandler he has never seen before. http://www.online-literature.com/conrad/lord_jim/1/ (accessed 11 February 2021) Word

Collocational chain

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 6. Read and analyse the following Arabic and English narrative texts. Identify examples of the five cohesive devices, taking into consideration the distinctive characteristics of fiction which is based on narrative. Now you must know that a Town Mouse once upon a time went on a visit to his cousin in the country. He was rough and ready, this cousin, but he loved his town friend and made him heartily welcome. Beans and bacon, cheese and bread, were

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all he had to offer, but he offered them freely. The Town Mouse rather turned up his long nose at this country fare, and said: ‘I cannot understand, Cousin, how you can put up with such poor food as this, but of course you cannot expect anything better in the country; come you with me and I will show you how to live. When you have been in town a week you will wonder how you could ever have stood a country life’. No sooner said than done: the two mice set off for the town and arrived at the Town Mouse’s residence late at night. ‘You will want some refreshment after our long journey’, said the polite Town Mouse, and took his friend into the grand dining-room. There they found the remains of a fine feast, and soon the two mice were eating up jellies and cakes and all that was nice. Suddenly they heard growling and barking. ‘What is that?’ said the Country Mouse. ‘It is only the dogs of the house’, answered the other. ‘Only!’ said the Country Mouse. ‘I do not like that music at my dinner’. Just at that moment the door flew open, in came two huge mastiffs, and the two mice had to scamper down and run off. ‘Good-bye, Cousin’, said the Country Mouse, ‘What! going so soon?’ said the other. ‘Yes’, he replied; ‘Better beans and bacon in peace than cakes and ale in fear’. http://www.online-literature.com/aesop/aesops-fables/7/ (accessed 12 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ،‫في يوم من االيام خرج رجل في سفر طويل مع ابنه وكان معهما دابة وضعا عليها كل امتعتهما‬ ‫ ما حجبه هللا‬:‫ وكان الرجل يردد طوال الطريق‬،‫وكانت رحلتهما طويلة ومرهقة تستغرق يومين‬ ‫ وبينما هما يسيران في‬،‫عنا كان اعظم ! وكان الولد يستمع الي هذه الجملة دون أن يعلق عليها‬ ‫ ما حجبه هللا عنا كان أعظم!!فأخذ كل منهما يحمل متاعه‬: ‫الطريق ُكسرت ساق الدابة فقال الرجل‬ ‫ فأصبح الرجل يمشي‬، ‫علي ظهره وانطلقا معا ً يكمالن طريقهما وفي الطريق ُكسرت قدم الرجل‬ ‫ ما حجبه هللا‬:‫يجر رجله ج ًّرا غير قادر علي حمل اي شيء على ظهره ولكنه استمر في ترديد‬ ‫عنا كان اعظم !!فما كان من االبن اال ان قام بحمل متاعه ومتاع والده ايضا ً علي ظهره وانطلقا‬ ‫ فعاد االب‬،‫ فوقع على االرض من شدة األلم‬،‫ وفي الطريق لدغت االبن أفعى‬،‫معا ً يكمالن السير‬

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Module 4: Literary Translation  81 ‫ وهل هناك ما هو اعظم‬:‫ ما حجبه هللا عنا كان اعظم !! هنا اشتعل االبن غضبا ً وقال ألبيه‬: ‫يردد‬ ‫ وبعد أن شفي االبن واستطاع الحركة اكمال‬،‫من كل ما اصابنا ؟! لم يجيب االب عن تساؤل االبن‬ .‫السير في طريقهما مرة اخرى‬ ‫وعندما وصال إلى المدينة فإذا بها قد ضربها زلزال قوي جداً اباد كل ما عليها وانهارت المدينة‬ ‫ أرأيت يا بني ؟ لو لم يصبنا ما اصابنا خالل‬: ً‫ في هذه اللحظة نظر االب الي ابنه قائال‬،ّ‫تماما‬ ‫طريقنا لكنا وصلنا مبكراً وألصابنا ما هو اعظم وكنا اآلن في تعداد االموات ولكن هللا عز وجل‬ .‫حجب عنا ما كان اعظم برحمته التي وسعت كل شيء‬

https://www.storiesrealistic.com (accessed 11 February 2021) ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 7. Read the following extracts and identify the cohesive devices used. Compare and contrast the cohesive devices in the SL and TL. When I came home to dinner my uncle had not yet been home. Still it was early. I sat staring at the clock for some time and, when its ticking began to irritate me, I left the room. I mounted the staircase and gained the upper part of the house. The high, cold, empty, gloomy rooms liberated me and I went from room to room singing. From the front window I saw my companions playing below in the street. Their cries reached me weakened and indistinct and, leaning my forehead against the cool glass, I looked over at the dark house where she lived. James Joyce, Araby http://www.uk.sagepub.com/upm-data/9680_011352.pdf (accessed 13 February 2021)

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Arabic translation: ‫ فقد كان الوقت ما يزال مبكرا على‬،‫عندما عدت لتناول العشاء لم يكن عمي قد عاد إلى البيت بعد‬ ‫ فجلست أنظر إلى ساعة الحائط لبعض الوقت وعندما بدأ صوت دقاتها يزعجني غادرت‬،‫عودته‬ ‫ وقد حررتني الغرف الباردة والفارغة‬،‫الغرفة وصعدت الدرج إلى الجزء األعلى من البيت‬ ‫ثم شاهدت من الشباك األمامي رفقائي‬. ‫والداكنة فجعلت أتحرك من غرفة ألخرى وأنا أغني‬ ‫يلعبون في الشارع حيث وصل صراخهم إلي خافتا مشوشا فطأطأت رأسي على الزجاج البارد‬ .‫ونظرت إلى البيت المظلم حيث كانت تعيش‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 8. Translate the following extract from Hard Times by Charles Dickens. ‘Fact, fact, fact!’ said the gentleman. And ‘Fact, fact, fact!’ repeated Thomas Gradgrind. ‘You are to be in all things regulated and governed’, said the gentleman, ‘by fact. We hope to have, before long, a board of fact, composed of commissioners of fact, who will force the people to be a people of fact, and of nothing but fact. You must discard the word Fancy altogether. You have nothing to do with it. You are not to have, in any object of use or ornament, what would be a contradiction in fact. You don’t walk upon flowers in fact; you cannot be allowed to walk upon flowers in carpets. You don’t find that foreign birds and butterflies come and perch upon your crockery; you cannot be permitted to paint foreign birds and butterflies upon your crockery. You never meet with quadrupeds going up and down walls; you must not have quadrupeds represented upon walls. You must use’, said the gentleman, ‘for all these purposes, combinations and modifications (in primary colours) of mathematical figures which are susceptible of proof and demonstration. This is the new discovery. This is fact. This is taste’. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/786/786-h/786-h.htm (accessed 10 February 2021) Glossary Commissioners A board Contradiction Combinations

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‫مفوضون‬ ‫مجلس‬ ‫تناقض‬ ‫مزيج‬

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Modifications Susceptible Discovery

‫تعديالت‬ ‫قابل ل‬ ‫اكتشاف‬

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4.2.2  Narrative Texts: Syntactic Problems

Syntax is another problematic area for translators working with Arabic and English texts. Although both languages share some syntactic universals, many differences still challenge the translator. While English is usually considered an SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) language, Arabic is basically a VSO language since SVO structures are less frequent. A translator translating from English into Arabic must take this difference into consideration. English makes use of auxiliary verbs in questions and negation. Such use is not frequent in Arabic. Therefore, auxiliary verbs are not always translated into Arabic. Tense constitutes another challenge for translators who are not fully aware of the Arabic tense structure. Arabic tense is classified into past, present and future. It depends on inflections of both verb and subject to convey the meaning associated with the use of a certain tense. One form of the verb is used to convey different categories of past or present. Sometimes, adverbs are used to indicate various tenses. Study the following English sentences and their translation: English Arabic .‫ذهب مارك إلى المدرسة‬ Mark went to school. .‫ذهب مارك إلى المدرسة‬ Mark has gone to school. .‫عندما أنهيت عملي خرجت في نزهة‬ When I had finished my work, I went for a walk. .‫أنهيت عملي أمس‬ I finished my work yesterday. Notice that both ‘finished’ and ‘had finished’ are translated as ‫ أنهيت‬. The simple past tense might be less problematic than the perfect whose equivalent is not easily found in Arabic. Instead, Arabic usually uses adverbs to indicate the perfective aspect. Consider the following examples:

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They have just arrived from the airport. .‫وصلوا من المطار توا أو حاال‬

They arrived from the airport yesterday. .‫وصلوا من المطار أمس‬

As can be seen, an adverb has to be added to convey the perfective aspect in Arabic. For the present perfect, you need to add adverbs such as ‫ على الفور‬,‫حاال‬,‫ توا‬, ‫في التو‬, or ‫لتوهم‬ Furthermore, the construction ‫ كان‬+ ‫ قد‬with its derivatives is used to convey the past perfect, as shown in the following example: She felt sad about losing her watch because she had had it for twenty years. .‫شعرت بالحزن ألنها أضاعت ساعتها ألنها كانت قد احتفظت بها عشرين عاما‬

The progressive aspect is not rendered by auxiliary verbs in Arabic, although some varieties of colloquial Arabic do have equivalents for auxiliaries used with the progressive aspect. Standard Arabic, however, depends on the use of adverbs to convey the progressive aspect. It combines ‫ كان‬and its derivatives with the past progressive, as illustrated in the following examples: My sister is waiting for me at the park. .‫أختي تنتظرني في المنتزه‬

Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do. .‫كانت أليس قد بدأت تتعب من الجلوس بجانب أختها على ضفة النهر ومن عدم وجود شيء لتفعله‬

Exercise 9. Translate the following excerpt from Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, marking the syntactic differences between Arabic and English. Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, ‘and what is the use of a book’, thought Alice ‘without pictures or conversation?’ So she was considering in her own mind (as well as she could, for the hot day made her feel very sleepy and stupid) whether the pleasure of making a daisy-chain would be worth the trouble of getting up and picking the daisies, when suddenly a White Rabbit with pink eyes ran close by her. There was nothing so VERY remarkable in that; nor did Alice think it so VERY

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much out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself, ‘Oh dear! Oh dear! I shall be late!’ (When she thought it over afterwards, it occurred to her that she ought to have wondered at this, but at the time it all seemed quite natural.) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 10. Translate the following excerpt from The Haunted House by Charles Dickens and identify five different tenses in the SL and TL. Under none of the accredited ghostly circumstances, and environed by none of the conventional ghostly surroundings, did I first make acquaintance with the house which is the subject of this Christmas piece. I saw it in the daylight, with the sun upon it. There was no wind, no rain, no lightning, no thunder, and no awful or unwanted circumstance, of any kind, to heighten its effect. More than that: I had come to it direct from a railway station: it was not more than a mile distant from the railway station; and, as I stood outside the house, looking back upon the way I had come, I could see the goods train running smoothly along the embankment in the valley. I will not say that everything was utterly commonplace, because I doubt if anything can be that, except to utterly commonplace people – and there my vanity steps in; but, I will take it on myself to say that anybody might see the house as I saw it, any fine autumn morning. http://www.classichorrorstories.com/texts/hauntedh.txt (accessed 7 February 2021) Glossary Circumstances Make acquaintance with Embankment Vanity Commonplace

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‫ظروف‬ ‫يتعرف إلى‬ ‫سكة القطار‬ ‫تكبر‬ ‫مألوف‬

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 11. Translate the following Arabic text into English and identify the problematic tenses. ‫ كما جرت‬،‫ركب بهاء الدين قراقوش حصانه وتوجّه إلى مجلسه لمقابلة الناس الذين يقصدونه‬ ‫ وبينما كان يسير في الطّريق تعثّر الحصان‬،‫ فهو الوالي صاحب األمر‬،‫ طلبا لتحقيق العدالة‬،‫العادة‬ ‫ فوقف هذا‬،‫ أسرع حرّاسه لمساعدته في النّهوض‬.‫وفقد توازنه وأوقع قراقوش على األرض‬ ‫ يجب تأديب هذا الحصان ولذلك أمر أن تقطعوا عنه الطعام‬: ‫ وقال لحرّاسه‬،‫وظهره يؤلمه‬ ‫ نظر قراقوش‬،‫ لكن يا موالي سيموت الحصان من الجوع‬:‫بحذر‬ ‫ أجابه أحد الحرّاس‬.‫قصاصا ً له‬ ٍ ‫ ركب‬،‫ أرى أن تطعموهُ لكن ال تخبروه أنني أعرف ذلك‬. . .ً‫ حسنا‬:‫ فقال‬،‫إلى حصانه ورأف به‬ .‫قراقوش حصانا ً آخر وتابع طريقه‬

https://storiestales.com (accessed 7 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

4.2.3  Cultural Problems, Domestication and Foreignisation

Translation is not simply a matter of translating words. When you translate, you are working with language and culture. Language is one of the many social activities through which the culture of its speakers is manifested. As a translator, you need to understand the culture of the audience with whom you are communicating. You are serving as mediator between SL and TL. If the SL is your mother tongue, then half of the problem is solved; all you need now is to understand the cultural background of the target readers/audience so as to be able to convey the SL message to them. You need to develop a strategy that can help you tackle culture-bound idioms, for instance. Cultural problems in translation are also related 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 86

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to sociolinguistic aspects of language, such as politeness and terms of address, as well as aspects related to discourse. Such aspects involve speech acts, maxims of speech, implicature, inference and presupposition. The translator should be aware of how these concepts are manifested in each culture. There are various ways to deal with these aspects of cultures as they occur in texts. You can make use of the following steps for translating culturally bound words (Graedler 2000: 3). These include: • • • •

Making up a new word. Explaining the meaning of the SL expression in lieu of translating it. Preserving the SL term intact. Opting for a word in the TL which seems similar to or has the same ‘relevance’ as the SL term.

The following strategies are suggested to deal with culturally bound words (Harvey 2000: 2–6): • Functional Equivalence: A referent in the TL culture whose function is similar to that of the SL referent is used. • Formal Equivalence, ‘linguistic equivalence’ or ‘word-for-word’ translation. • Transcription or ‘borrowing’ (that is, reproducing or, where necessary, transliterating the original term); this stands at the far end of SL-oriented strategies. • Descriptive or self-explanatory translation, using generic terms to convey the meaning. As we see, various authors give different names to strategies for dealing with these words. In general, Newmark (1988a: 96) provides two methods to deal with cultural problems in translation: transference and componential analysis. He states that transference gives ‘local colour’ – for example, by keeping cultural names and concepts – and that this includes transliteration. Newmark stresses the importance of the translation process in communication, suggesting componential analysis; he describes it as being ‘the most accurate translation procedure, which excludes the culture and highlights the message’ (Newmark 1988a: 96). It involves ‘comparing an SL word with a TL word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components’ (Newmark 1988b: 114). Exercise 12. Translate the following text and identify the steps and strategies you followed. ALL around everything was still as far as the ear could reach. The mist of his feelings shifted between us, as if disturbed by his struggles, and in the rifts of the immaterial veil he would appear to my staring eyes distinct of form and pregnant with vague 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 87

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appeal like a symbolic figure in a picture. The chill air of the night seemed to lie on my limbs as heavy as a slab of marble. ‘I see’, I murmured, more to prove to myself that I could break my state of numbness than for any other reason. ‘The Avondale picked us up just before sunset’, he remarked, moodily. ‘Steamed right straight for us. We had only to sit and wait’. Joseph Conrad, Lord Jim, Chapter 12 Glossary Disturbed Immaterial Symbolic Distinct Numbness

‫مضطرب‬ ‫روحي‬ ‫رمزي‬ ‫مميّز‬ ‫خدر‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 13. Translate the following text, keeping cultural names and concepts and using transliteration where needed. Once, when Roger was a young boy, his father took him to an open day at Nellis AFB [Air Force Base], out in the California desert. Sunlight glared brilliantly from the polished silver plate flanks of the big bombers, sitting in their concrete-lined dispersal bays behind barriers and blinking radiation monitors. The brightly coloured streamers flying from their pitot tubes [a pressure instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity] lent them a strange, almost festive appearance. But they were sleeping nightmares: once awakened, nobody – except the flight crew – could come within a mile of the nuclear-powered bombers and live. http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/colderwar.htm (accessed 11 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ There are other strategies that can be utilised to bridge cultural gaps in translation. These include domestication and foreignisation (Venuti 1995: 49). Domestication aims at making the translated text closer to the TL culture where ‘the foreign text is imprinted with values specific to the target-language culture’ (Venuti 1995: 49). Foreignisation, however, preserves the values of the ST in the sense that it ‘resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text’ (ibid). Foreignisation is seen as an ethical issue because in English it ‘can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations’ (ibid: 20). Those who support domestication argue that it helps the reader understand the text more easily. Others suggest that domestication blurs acculturation and discourages critical thought that challenges the TL. The following examples illustrate the distinction between domestication and foreignisation: English

Domesticated Arabic Translation

Foreignised Arabic Translation

‫أراك ظهر الجمعة في المقهى‬. .‫أراك ظهر الجمعة في الحانة‬ I will see you Friday noon in the bar. .‫استشهد آالف في الغارة‬ .‫قتل آالف في الغارة‬ Thousands were killed in the raid. Their story reminds you .‫ تذكرك قصتهم بقيس وليلى‬.‫تذكرك قصتهم بروميو وجولييت‬ of Romeo and Juliet.

Exercise 14. Translate the following excerpt into Arabic, applying the strategies of domestication and foreignisation. Then cite examples for both strategies. Once upon a time, there was a little girl who lived in a village near the forest. Whenever she went out, the little girl wore a red riding cloak, so everyone in the village called her Little Red Riding Hood. One morning, Little Red Riding Hood asked her mother if she could go to visit her grandmother as it had been awhile since they’d seen each other. ‘That’s a good idea’, her mother said. So they packed a nice basket for Little Red Riding Hood to take to her grandmother. http://www.dltk-teach.com/rhymes/littlered/1.htm (accessed 9 February 2021)

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Foreignisation _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Domestication _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

4.3 Drama Drama as a literary genre differs from fiction. In essence, it is written to be performed on stage. Therefore, dialogue plays a considerable role in this genre. Moreover, drama is not only a literary work; it is a cultural one. The translator deals with both linguistic and metalinguistic elements that include body language and gesture. All linguistic aspects of the play have to be taken into consideration. Special attention should also be paid to prosodic features, since ‘the dialogue will be characterized by rhythm, intonation patterns, pitch and loudness, all elements that may not be immediately apparent from a straightforward reading of the written text in isolation’ (Bassnett McGuire 1991a: 122). Adaptation and domestication are usually the most frequent techniques used in translating drama since ‘adaptation is sometimes regarded as a form of translation which is characteristic of particular genre, most notably, drama’ (Bastin 2009: 4). Adaptation is also viewed as a ‘reterritorialization’ of the original work and an ‘annexation’ in the name of the audience of the new version (Brisset 1986: 10, quoted in Baker 2009). Adaptation is defined as a set of translative interventions which result in a text that is not generally accepted as a translation, but is nevertheless recognized as representing a ST. It involves the following adaptation procedures (Bastin 2009: 4–5): 1. Transcription of the original or word-for-word reproduction of part of the text in the original language, usually accompanied by literal translation. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 90

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2. Omission: the elimination or implication of part of the text. 3. Expansion: the addition or explication of source information either in the body, the footnotes, or a glossary. 4. Exoticism: substitution of stretches of slang, dialect, nonsense word and the like in the original text by a rough equivalent in the TL. 5. Updating: the replacement of outdated or obscure information by modern equivalents. 6. Situational or cultural adequacy: the recreation of a context that is more familiar or culturally appropriate from the target reader’s perspective than the one used in the original. 7. Creation: a more global replacement of the original text with a text that preserves only the essential message/ideas/functions of the original. Adaptation could be caused by (ibid) the following: 1. Cross-code breakdown where no lexical equivalents exist between the SL and TL, especially when translating meta-language. 2. Situational or cultural inadequacy where the context or views referred to in the original do not exist or apply in the target culture. 3. Genre switches: a change from one discourse type to another. 4. Disruption of the communication process: a new epoch or approach or the need to address a different readership. These conditions cause two types of adaptation: a local one applying to some parts of the original texts and caused by internal factors without affecting the text as a whole, and a global one that is determined by factors outside the text and affects the text as a whole. The following extracts from Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw have been translated into colloquial Arabic while using adaptation. Names of characters and places have been replaced by Arabic names. THE FLOWER GIRL: [taking advantage of the military gentleman’s proximity to establish friendly relations with him.] If it’s worse it’s a sign it’s nearly over. So cheer up, Captain; and buy a flower off a poor girl. THE GENTLEMAN: I’m sorry, I haven’t any change. THE FLOWER GIRL: I can give you change, Captain, THE GENTLEMAN: For a sovereign? I’ve nothing less. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 91

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THE FLOWER GIRL: Garn! Oh do buy a flower off me, Captain. I can change half-a-crown. ،‫بياعة الورد (تستغل قرب الشرطي منها لتلطف الجو معه) لو كانت أسوا معنتاها رح تخلص‬ ‫خالص يا باشا فرفش‬ ‫واشتري وردة من البنت المسكينة‬ ‫ متأسف فش معي فراطة‬:‫الزلمة المحترم‬ ‫ بصرفلك يا باشا‬: ‫بياعة الورد‬ ‫ معيش غيره‬,‫ ليش؟ عشان تذكار‬:‫الزلمة المحترم‬ ‫ وبعدين! أنا معاي فراطة نص ليرة‬:‫بياعة الورد‬

Notice here that the names as well as the currency have been adapted to suit the target audience. Since the theme of the play is how to teach a lady to speak properly, standard Arabic would not have been a good choice. The colloquial gives more room for the flower girl to use a variety of utterances associated with low social status. Exercise 15. Translate the following extracts from the same play, employing both adaptation and domestication. THE SARCASTIC ONE: [amazed] Well, who said I didn’t? Bly me!* You know everything, you do. THE FLOWER GIRL: [still nursing her sense of injury] Ain’t no call to meddle with me, he ain’t. THE BYSTANDER: [to her] Of course he ain’t. Don’t you stand it from him. [To the note taker] See here: what call have you to know about people what never offered to meddle with you? Where’s your warrant? SEVERAL BYSTANDERS: [encouraged by this seeming point of law] Yes: where’s your warrant? THE FLOWER GIRL: Let him say what he likes. I don’t want to have no truck with him. THE BYSTANDER: You take us for dirt under your feet, don’t you? Catch you taking liberties with a gentleman! THE SARCASTIC BYSTANDER: Yes: tell him where he comes from if you want to go fortune-telling. THE NOTE TAKER: Cheltenham, Harrow, Cambridge, and India. George Bernard Shaw, Pygmalion, Act 1 http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/gbshaw/bl-gbshaw-pyg-1.htm (accessed 9 February 2021) 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 92

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*Bly me: usually spelled ‘blimey’ = a Cockney exclamation of surprise (reduced form of ‘God blind me’) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 16. Translate the following from the same play, using at least three adaptation procedures. HIGGINS: I was going to India to meet you. PICKERING: Where do you live? HIGGINS: 27A Wimpole Street. Come and see me tomorrow. PICKERING: I’m at the Carlton. Come with me now and let’s have a jaw over some supper. HIGGINS: Right you are. THE FLOWER GIRL [to Pickering, as he passes her]: Buy a flower, kind gentleman. I’m short for my lodging. PICKERING: I really haven’t any change. I’m sorry [he goes away]. HIGGINS [shocked at girl’s mendacity]: Liar. You said you could change half-a-crown. THE FLOWER GIRL [rising in desperation]: You ought to be stuffed with nails, you ought. [Flinging the basket at his feet]: Take the whole blooming basket for sixpence. http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/gbshaw/bl-gbshaw-pyg-1.htm (accessed 9 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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94  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 17. Translate the following lines from Shakespeare’s Macbeth, taking into consideration the prosodic features. Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, To the last syllable of recorded time; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage https://www.enotes.com/shakespeare-quotes/tomorrow-tomorrow-tomorrow (accessed 9 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 18. Translate the following from Arabic into English, applying adaptation. ‫ تبيع الماء في حي السقايين؟‬.‫ امشي من هنا‬:‫سعاد‬ ‫ واذا ما مشيت ؟‬:‫سعيد‬ .‫ ثكلتك امك‬:‫سعاد‬ .‫ كنت ارغب بالحديث معك‬:‫سعيد‬ ‫ سأذهب االن‬.‫ وانا ال ارغب‬:‫سعاد‬ .‫ مع ستين سالمة‬:‫سعيد‬

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

4.4 Poetry Poetry is a literary genre that has its own distinctive and challenging features. It is thought to be the genre most challenging to the translator. What distinguishes poetry from other genres is its reliance on figurative language, rhyme and rhythm. To be a poet is to deviate from the usual linguistic norm of expression. To deviate is to be able to play with words and twist them to suit your needs. Such foregrounding strategies employed by poets put a lot of pressure on the translator, especially when the two languages are linguistically and culturally as distant as is the case with Arabic and English. Before initiating the translation task, you should read the SL poem carefully, understand it and read about the poet, his or her ideology and most frequent metaphors, since each poet has his or her own diction that can be elicited from reading more than one poem. This will give you a basis for the right direction in the translation.

4.4.1  Strategies for Translating Poetry

Various scholars have emphasised the fact that poetry is a special kind of language that requires particular translation strategies. The following could be implemented (BassnettMcGuire 1980: 81–2): 1. Phonemic translation: attempts to recreate the sounds of the SL in the TL, transferring the meaning at the same time. 2. Literal translation: involves word-for-word translation. 3. Metrical translation: reproduces the original meter into the TL. This strategy is not always successful since each language has its own metrical structure. 4. Verse-to-prose translation: producing the TL as prose, unlike the ST which is a poem. This method has some weaknesses, the biggest of which is the loss of the beauty of the original poem, or the beauty of the poetic shape. 5. Rhymed translation emphasises transferring the rhyme of the original poem to the TL. The result will be appropriate phonetically but tends to be semantically inappropriate. 6. Free verse translation. With this method the translator may be able to achieve the accurate equivalents in the TL at the expense of the literary value.

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96  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Clearly, poetry is a difficult genre because it is a condensed form of language that is rich with meaning. In addition, poetry applies imagery and the use of figures of speech, especially metaphor, which makes poetry even more challenging for the translator. The following procedures for translating metaphors may be used (Newmark 1988b: 88–95): 1. Reproducing the same image in the TL 2. Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image 3. Translating metaphors as similes 4. Translating metaphors (or similes) as similes plus sense 5. Conversion of metaphor into sense (explanation) 6. Deletion 7. Translating the same metaphor, but combined with sense Exercise 19. Identify the strategies used in translating the following poem. When You Are Old and Grey by William Butler Yeats When you are old and grey and full of sleep, And nodding by the fire, take down this book, And slowly read, and dream of the soft look Your eyes had once, and of their shadows deep; How many loved your moments of glad grace, And loved your beauty with love false or true, But one man loved the pilgrim soul in you, And loved the sorrows of your changing face; https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43283/when-you-are-old (accessed 9 February 2021) Arabic translation: ‫عندما تكبر ويشتعل رأسك شيبا‬ ‫تترنح نعسا أمام النار‬ ‫خذ هذا الكتاب‬ ‫أقرا ببطء وتذكر كم رأت عيونك؟‬ ‫كم أحبك من ناس وأحبوا صحبتك‬ ‫كم أحبوا جمالك‬ ‫وكم كان صادقا أم كاذبا ذلك الحب‬ ‫ولكن هنالك شخص واحد أحب روح الحاج فيك‬ ‫وأحب حزن وجهك المتغير‬

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Exercise 20. Identify figures of speech in the poem below by Alfred, Lord Tennyson and decide on the best strategy to translate them into Arabic. Tears, Idle Tears by Alfred, Lord Tennyson Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean, Tears from the depth of some divine despair Rise in the heart, and gather to the eyes, In looking on the happy Autumn-fields, And thinking of the days that are no more. Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail, That brings our friends up from the underworld, Sad as the last which reddens over one That sinks with all we love below the verge; So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more. Ah, sad and strange as in dark summer dawns The earliest pipe of half-awakened birds To dying ears, when unto dying eyes The casement slowly grows a glimmering square; So sad, so strange, the days that are no more. Dear as remembered kisses after death, And sweet as those by hopeless fancy feigned On lips that are for others; deep as love, Deep as first love, and wild with all regret; O Death in Life, the days that are no more. http://www.online-literature.com/donne/729/ (accessed 11 February 2021) Glossary Despair Glittering Casement Regret Feigned

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‫يأس‬ ‫تتألأل‬ ‫نافذة‬ ‫ندم‬ ‫مختلق‬

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‫‪98  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫‪Exercise 21. Now translate the poem.‬‬ ‫_________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫__________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫____________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫‪Exercise 22. Translate the following lines by the Lebanese Poet Elia Abu Madi and‬‬ ‫‪identify the strategies that you apply.‬‬ ‫قا َل‪ :‬السما ُء كئيبةٌ وتجهما … ُ‬ ‫قلت‪ :‬ابتس ْم يكفي التجهم في السما‬ ‫ُ‬ ‫األسف الصبا المتصرما‬ ‫قال‪ :‬الصبا ولّى فقلت له‪ :‬ابتــس ْم … لن يرج َع‬ ‫قال‪ :‬الليالي جرعتني علقما … قلت‪ :‬ابتسم و لئن جرعت العلقما‬ ‫فلعل غيرك إن رآك مرنّما … طرح الكآبة جانبًا و ترنما‬ ‫أتُراك تغنم بالتبرم درهما … أم أنت تخسر بالبشاشة مغنما ؟‬

‫)‪https://www.aldiwan.net/poem62735.html (accessed 11 February 2021‬‬ ‫_________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫__________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

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Module 4: Literary Translation  99

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

4.5 Conclusion Literary translation requires close attention from the translator who should take into consideration the specific stylistic features of each literary genre. Translators of literary texts should acquaint themselves with the specific translation strategies that will help them deal with the aesthetic nature of literary texts, on the one hand, and cultural components, on the other.

4.6  Module Review Exercises Exercise 23. Translate the following text, following the most appropriate strategy. Looking at the gleaming, bulging pods slung under their wingtip pylons, Roger had a premature inkling of the fires that waited within, a frigid terror that echoed the siren wail of the air raid warnings. He’d sucked nervously on his ice cream and gripped his father’s hand tightly while the band ripped through a cheerful Sousa March and only forgot his fear when a flock of Thunder chiefs sliced by overhead and rattled the car windows for miles around. He has the same feeling now, as an adult reading this intelligence assessment that he had as a child, watching the nuclear powered bombers sleeping in their concrete beds. http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/colderwar.htm (accessed 10 February 2021) ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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100  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 24. Identify figures of speech in the following poem. To A Skylark By Percy Bysshe Shelley Hail to thee, blithe Spirit! Bird thou never wert, That from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. Higher still and higher From the earth thou springest Like a cloud of fire; The blue deep thou wingest, And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest. In the golden lightning Of the sunken sun, O’er which clouds are bright’ning, Thou dost float and run, Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun. The pale purple even Melts around thy flight; Like a star of heaven In the broad daylight Thou art unseen, but yet I hear thy shrill delight – Keen as are the arrows Of that silver sphere Whose intense lamp narrows In the white dawn clear Until we hardly see – we feel that it is there. All the earth and air With thy voice is loud, As, when night is bare, From one lonely cloud The moon rains out her beams, and heaven is overflowed. http://www.netpoets.com/classic/poems/057025.htm (accessed 10 February 2021) ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

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Module 4: Literary Translation  101

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 25. Discuss the most appropriate strategies to translate the figures of speech you have identified. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 26. Translate the poem and discuss your translation with a fellow students. Glossary ‫روح‬ Spirit ‫عفوي‬ Unpremeditated ‫يرتفع‬ Springest ‫صاخب‬ Shrill ‫قوس قزح‬ Rainbow ‫الحان‬ Melody ‫ينثر‬ Scattering ‫مخاوف‬ Fears _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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102  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 27. Translate the following excerpt, applying domestication. CATHERINE (entering hastily, full of good news). Raina – (she pronounces it Rah-eena, with the stress on the ee) Raina – (she goes to the bed, expecting to find Raina there.) Why, where – (Raina looks into the room.) Heavens! child, are you out in the night air instead of in your bed? You’ll catch your death. Louka told me you were asleep. RAINA (coming in). I sent her away. I wanted to be alone. The stars are so beautiful! What is the matter? CATHERINE. Such news. There has been a battle! RAINA (her eyes dilating). Ah! (She throws the cloak on the ottoman, and comes eagerly to Catherine in her nightgown, a pretty garment, but evidently the only one she has on.) CATHERINE. A great battle at Slivnitza! A victory! And it was won by Sergius. http://www.online-literature.com/george_bernard_shaw/arms-and-the-man/1/ (accessed 13 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 28. Translate the following text from Arabic, applying foreignisation. "!..‫ ( وهو يشعل السيجارة ) مبروك يا “مرسي‬: ‫شعبان‬ ..‫ (باسماً) يا “مرسي بيك” من فضلك‬: ‫مرسي‬ ..‫ طبعا ً الدرجة الخامسة‬: ‫شعبان‬

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‫‪Module 4: Literary Translation  103‬‬ ‫مرسي ‪ :‬ورئيس قلم‪ .‬طويل عريض‪..‬‬ ‫شعبان ‪ ( :‬مشيراً إلى الجريدة فوق المكتب ) حركة واسعة‪ ..‬بسم هللا ما شاء هللا‬ ‫مرسي ‪ :‬قلبي عندك‪..‬‬ ‫شعبان ‪ :‬لم ينفع سجودي وال صالتي‪ ..‬منذ أن ظهرت اإلشاعة عن إعداد مشروع الحركة‪ ..‬وأنا‬ ‫أتوضأ كل يوم خمس مرات‪ ..‬وأصلي في اليوم عشرات الركعات‪ ..‬فرضا ً وسنة ‪ ،‬واجبا ً ونافلة‪..‬‬ ‫كل ذلك ألصل إلى الدرجة السابعة ‪ ..‬ترى ماذا يفعل أولئك الذين يريدون أن يصلوا إلى السماء‬ ‫السابعة ؟‪..‬‬

‫‪https://maqola.org/%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84‬‬‫‪%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%AF‬‬‫)‪%D9%86%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A8 (accessed 13 February 2021‬‬

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Module 5 Economic Texts 5.1 Introduction This module deals with the translation of texts on economics and finance, focusing on the linguistic features of this genre and the relevant translation strategies. The economic register pertaining to marketing, investment, banking, accounting and audit is presented, together with authentic sample texts.

5.2  Features of Economic Discourse Economics is a discipline related to the study of production and consumption, as well as the transfer of wealth. It is subdivided into microeconomics, which deals with industries and economic activities on the individual level, and macroeconomics, which studies the economics of an entire country or the international market. There is an increased need for the translation of economics texts due to globalisation and the proliferation of companies worldwide. This has led to more cooperation and partnership between business organisations internationally and, therefore, more translations required for documents related to issuing loans, purchasing shares and establishing multinational companies. Economic translation is required for marketing and commerce, banking and the investment sector, the insurance industry, accounting and auditing, as well as marketing research. It deals with various types of documents such as business plans, blocks of tender documents, invoices, account statements, consignment bills, offers, credit requests, guarantee letters, feasibility reports, audit reports, financial reports and many other documents of economic use. Although economics is related to everyday language, it has its own linguistic features: sometimes the jargon of a specialist group seeps into the common language of the wider community. This is particularly likely to happen when the activities of that sub-group are fashionable or impinge directly on the life of the wider community (Katamba 2004: 168). Economic texts often present visual information linguistically, making use of mathematical systems to represent economic facts. For instance, they may use mathematical symbols, segmental diagrams and tabular information, and other visual data (statistical tables, maps and graphs). The language of economics in particular relies on grammatical structures (for example, conditionals, passive structures, relative clauses and logical connectives) and rhetorical functions (for instance, assumption, hypothesis, prediction, explanation and generalisation). 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 104

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Module 5: Economic Texts  105

Economic discourse is a global discourse. This globalisation has led to the emergence of many loan words. In English-language economic discourse, these loan words are mainly taken from French, Italian, German, Japanese, Greek and Spanish: ‘The enterprising spirit of the English people and their fondness for travel and colonization, as well as the great development of their commerce, have brought in miscellaneous words from every quarter of the world’ (Greenough and Kittredge 2001: 108).

5.3  Translation Problems and Strategies Translating economic texts is demanding, since translators must adhere to the information in the SL. The whole document should be translated without leaving out anything. Figures and numbers, for example, should be given utmost attention, and no new numbers should be added, changed or removed. Another problem is related to false cognates or ‘false friends’. These are words that look alike but have partially or completely divergent meanings in different languages. For example, compare become in English with bekommen in German, which means ‘to get’, not ‘to become’. These words are also related to neologism, as explained below. Exercise 1. Translate the following text, paying attention to numbers and figures. Uranium purchases and prices Owners and operators of U.S. civilian nuclear power reactors (‘civilian owner/operators’ or ‘COOs’) purchased a total of 55 million pounds U3O8e (equivalent) of deliveries from U.S. suppliers and foreign suppliers during 2011, at a weighted-average price of $55.64 per pound U3O8e. The 2011 total of 55 million pounds U3O8e increased 18 percent compared with the 2010 total of 47 million pounds U3O8e. (Uranium quantities are expressed in the unit of measure U3O8e (equivalent)). U3O8e is uranium oxide (or uranium concentrate) and the equivalent uranium-component of hexafluoride (UF6) and enriched uranium. Nine percent of the U3O8e delivered in 2011 was U.S.-origin uranium at a weighted-average price of $52.12 per pound. Foreign-origin uranium accounted for the remaining 91 percent of deliveries at a weighted average price of $55.98 per pound. Australian-origin and Canadian-origin uranium together accounted for 31 percent of the 55 million pounds. Uranium originating in Kazakhstan, Russia and Uzbekistan accounted for 40 percent, and the remaining 20 percent originated from Brazil, China, Malawi, Namibia, Niger, South Africa, and Ukraine. Owners and operators of U.S. civilian nuclear power reactors purchased uranium for 2011 deliveries from 32 sellers, up from the 23 sellers in 2010. http://205.254.135.7/uranium/marketing/pdf/2011umar.pdf (accessed 15 February 2021)

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106  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Glossary Nuclear power reactors Uranium oxide Enriched uranium Foreign-origin Civilian

‫مفاعالت الطاقة النووية‬ ‫اكسيد اليورانيوم‬ ‫اليورانيوم المخصب‬ ‫اجنبي المنشأ‬ ‫مدني‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

5.4 Neologism Neologism is considered one of the most common challenges for translators of economic texts. It is defined as ‘newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire new sense’ (Newmark 1988a: 140). New terms are continuously being created, and translators often cannot find matching translations for them. They have to come up with their own. Newmark (ibid: 140–51) proposes twelve types of neologisms and different translation strategies for each type. They are classified into two main categories, the first referred to as existing lexical items, but with a new sense. This category is subdivided into words and collocations. Suggested translation strategies include transference with inverted commas, TL neologisms with composites, and TL-derived words. The second category of neologisms covers new terms introduced in the TL, and these are subdivided into the following: new coinages, derived words, abbreviations, collocations, eponyms, phrasal words, transferred words, acronyms, pseudo-neologisms and internationalisms. Strategies to deal with this category include: naturalisation, recognised TL translation, functional terms, descriptive terms, literal translation and a translation procedure combination.

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Module 5: Economic Texts  107

Exercise 2. Translate the following text, paying attention to false cognates in English and Arabic. An almost universal feature of most economies is the coexistence of ‘base’ and ‘broad’ money instruments. In modern economies, the monetary base consists of small denomination government paper notes, while broad money consists of electronic book-entry credits created by the banking system redeemable in base money. In earlier historical episodes, the monetary base often consisted of specie (gold or silver coins) with broad money consisting of privately-issued banknotes redeemable in base money. www.sfu.ca/~dandolfa/macro2005.pdf (accessed 25 February 2021) Glossary Monetary base Denomination Paper notes Banknotes

‫األساس النقدي‬ ‫فئة‬ ‫اوراق نقدية‬ ‫اوراق مصرفية‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 3. Identify neologisms in the following text, then provide your translation. Bitcoin is a consensus network that enables a new payment system and a completely digital money. It is the first decentralized peer-to-peer payment network that is powered by its users with no central authority or middlemen. From a user perspective, Bitcoin is pretty much like cash for the Internet. Bitcoin can also be seen as the most prominent triple entry bookkeeping system in existence. Who created Bitcoin? Bitcoin is the first implementation of a concept called ‘cryptocurrency’, which was first described in 1998 by Wei Dai on the cypherpunks mailing list, suggesting the idea of a new form of money that uses cryptography to control its creation and transactions, rather than a central authority. The first Bitcoin specification and proof of concept was published in 2009 in a cryptography mailing list by Satoshi

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108  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Nakamoto. Satoshi left the project in late 2010 without revealing much about himself. The community has since grown exponentially with many developers working on Bitcoin. Satoshi’s anonymity often raised unjustified concerns, many of which are linked to misunderstanding of the open-source nature of Bitcoin. The Bitcoin protocol and software are published openly and any developer around the world can review the code or make their own modified version of the Bitcoin software. Just like current developers, Satoshi’s influence was limited to the changes he made being adopted by others and therefore he did not control Bitcoin. As such, the identity of Bitcoin’s inventor is probably as relevant today as the identity of the person who invented paper. Nobody owns the Bitcoin network much like no one owns the technology behind email. Bitcoin is controlled by all Bitcoin users around the world. While developers are improving the software, they can’t force a change in the Bitcoin protocol because all users are free to choose what software and version they use. In order to stay compatible with each other, all users need to use software complying with the same rules. Bitcoin can only work correctly with a complete consensus among all users. Therefore, all users and developers have a strong incentive to protect this consensus. How does Bitcoin work? From a user perspective, Bitcoin is nothing more than a mobile app or computer program that provides a personal Bitcoin wallet and allows a user to send and receive bitcoins with them. This is how Bitcoin works for most users. Behind the scenes, the Bitcoin network is sharing a public ledger called the ‘block chain’. This ledger contains every transaction ever processed, allowing a user’s computer to verify the validity of each transaction. The authenticity of each transaction is protected by digital signatures corresponding to the sending addresses, allowing all users to have full control over sending bitcoins from their own Bitcoin addresses. In addition, anyone can process transactions using the computing power of specialized hardware and earn a reward in bitcoins for this service. This is often called ‘mining’. To learn more about Bitcoin, you can consult the dedicated page and the original paper. Is Bitcoin really used by people? Yes. There are a growing number of businesses and individuals using Bitcoin. This includes brick-and-mortar businesses like restaurants, apartments, and law firms, as well as popular online services such as Namecheap and Overstock.com. While Bitcoin remains a relatively new phenomenon, it is growing fast. As of May 2018, the total value of all existing bitcoins exceeded 100 billion US dollars, with millions of dollars worth of bitcoins exchanged daily. https://bitcoin.org/en/faq (accessed 15 February 2021)

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Module 5: Economic Texts  109

Glossary ‫شبكة جامعة‬ Consensus network ‫نظام مسك الدفاتر‬ Bookkeeping system ‫العملة المشفرة‬ Cryptocurrency ‫التنقيب‬ Mining ‫المطورين‬ Developers ‫عملة البت كوين‬ Bitcoins ‫سلسلة الحظر‬ Block chain ‫التجارة التقليدية‬ Brick-and-mortar businesses _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 4. Read the following text and identify TL neologisms. Executive compensation, and especially the big bonuses that characterised Wall Street pay in recent years, has come in for a great deal of criticism as financial markets have melted down – particularly given the massive government aid many financial institutions have received. Bail-outs have frequently come with strings attached, limiting or advising against lavish pay packages. But so far, little progress has been made on attempts to claw back bonuses already paid, to traders earning millions of dollars while their desks approached the precipice. But on this score, UBS is proving itself quite innovative: ‘Just as bonuses (Latin for “good”) are paid out for good performance, maluses (“bad”) will be meted out if the bank subsequently makes losses or if the employee misses performance targets, UBS said. The

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110  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

maluses could wipe out all previously agreed share bonuses and two thirds of all cash bonuses under stringent new rules designed to align the interests of executives and traders with those of shareholders’. I’d say that the primary result of such a rule would likely be the quick departure from UBS of anyone able to find work elsewhere, but the Times story quoted above notes that UBS is pulling out the legal stops to see if it can hand ‘maluses’ to employees who have already left the firm. http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2008/11/more_financial_neologisms (accessed 25 February 2021) Glossary Financial markets Interests Traders Shareholders Bonuses

‫األسواق المالية‬ ‫مصالح‬ ‫تجار‬ ‫اصحاب االسهم‬ ‫أرباح‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

5.5  Metaphor in Economic Discourse Another problem in economic discourse is related to the use of figures of speech, puns and polysemy. Economic discourse makes use of metaphors. Metaphors used in economic texts are classified into three types. The first type is used for textual decoration or illustration, referred to as image metaphors. The second type is the generic-level metaphor, which

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Module 5: Economic Texts  111

occurs generally in the language. The third type is the specific-level metaphor, which is used to explain specific economic problems (Henderson 1982). The following strategies are suggested to translate metaphors (Dobrzyń ska 1995: 595): 1. Using an exact equivalent of the original metaphor. 2. Using another metaphorical phrase, which would express a similar sense. 3. Replacing an untranslatable metaphor of the original with its approximate literal paraphrase. Exercise 5. Identify metaphors in the following excerpts from an article in The Economist. The euro-zone crisis: fighting for its life The euro zone is in intensive care WHAT’S the French for ‘this sucker could go down’? Echoes of 2008, when the global financial system wobbled and George Bush gave his pithy view of the American economy, now resound on the other side of the Atlantic. Credit-default-swap spreads for European banks, a measure of how costly it is to buy insurance against their default, are at record highs . . . The rates that banks charge each other for loans in the interbank market are rising, too, as they did then. Rumours swirl and panic flares: shares in BNP Paribas, a well-run French bank, dropped by 12% on the morning of September 13th following reports that no one would lend it dollars. BNP’s denials saw the shares bounce back later in the day. Shares in Société Générale, another French bank, whipsawed too. The French banks’ reliance on short-term dollar funding, which American moneymarket funds are increasingly leery of providing, is one reason why Moody’s, a ratings agency, downgraded Société Générale on September 14th, though exposure to sovereign default is also a key factor. The government at the heart of concerns again this week is that of Greece. Panicked officials are racing to plug a gaping hole in the budget and accelerate reforms in the face of speculation that international lenders will withhold the next €8 billion tranche of the country’s bail-out. If the funds are not released within two weeks, the government risks being unable to pay wages and pensions. A hastily announced property tax should raise about €2 billion, which may just keep the budget deficit below 9% of GDP this year. http://www.economist.com/node/21529044 (accessed 26 February 2021)

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112  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Glossary Insurance Loans Shares Short-term Downgraded Budget Tax Deficit

‫تأمين‬ ‫قروض‬ ‫اسهم‬ ‫قصيرة األجل‬ ‫خفضت ائتمان‬ ‫ميزانية‬ ‫ضريبة‬ ‫عجز‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 6. Now translate the text, applying the most appropriate strategy. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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Module 5: Economic Texts  113

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 7. Identify metaphors in the following excerpt and translate them, using the most appropriate strategy. ‫المشكلة األساس في فهم عمالت اإلنترنت هي المشكلة الناشئة نفسها من فهم العمالت بشكل عام‬ ‫ ولهذا البد من العودة للحديث عن العمالت قبل خوض غمار العمالت‬،‫ودورها في االقتصاد‬ ‫ العملة ال يمكن أن تؤكل أو تشرب‬،‫ األصل أن الناس “ليسوا” في حاجة إلى العملة‬،‫الرقمية عموما‬ ‫ إذا ما هذه‬،‫ نحن البشر نحتاج إلى السلع والخدمات فقط‬،‫أو تلبس أو تقدم أي خدمة ضرورية للحياة‬ ‫ لكن ما الثروة أوال؟ الثروة هي‬،‫ إن العملة مخزن للثروة وهذا عندي صحيح جزئيا‬:‫العملة؟ يقال‬ .‫ بشكل أساس مع ما نحتاج إليه من فائض إنتاج اآلخرين‬،‫ما تنتجه قوة العمل‬

https://www.hashtagarabi.com/96962 (accessed 27 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

5.5.1  Terminology: Marketing

Terminology is a challenging issue, especially for the non-professional translator. A number of terms have specific meanings in economics but are vague and general in everyday language. This problem can be solved once the translator has decided on the most appropriate dictionary to use. The text has to be scanned first, so that the translator can decide on the basic economic genre in question. Specific terms are identified and translated, using specialised dictionaries, before the translator starts the actual translation process. Knowledge of the genre can undoubtedly facilitate the process of understanding economic terminologies, and rigorous training in translating economic texts can be very beneficial to the translator, equipping him or her with the translation terminologies, as well as the relevant strategies to deal with this text type. Marketing terminology is mainly found in the translation of brochures, catalogues, offers, advertisements, web pages, marketing and business reports, marketing news and business articles, and business correspondence in general.

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114  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 8. Translate the following marketing text into Arabic. Then specify a list of the marketing terms used. Multi-level marketing (MLM), also called network marketing or pyramid selling, is a controversial marketing strategy for the sale of products or services where the revenue of the MLM company is derived from a non-salaried workforce selling the company’s products or services, while the earnings of the participants are derived from a pyramid-shaped or binary compensation commission system. An MLM strategy may be an illegal pyramid scheme. In multi-level marketing, the compensation plan theoretically pays out to participants only from two potential revenue streams. The first is paid out from commissions of sales made by the participants directly to their own retail customers. The second is paid out from commissions based upon the wholesale purchases made by other distributors below the participant who have recruited those other participants into the MLM; in the organizational hierarchy of MLMs, these participants are referred to as one’s down line distributors. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-level_marketing (accessed 27 February 2021) Glossary Multi-level marketing  Network marketing  Revenue stream Commission  Pyramid Workforce

‫التسويق متعدد المستويات‬ ‫التسويق الشبكي‬ ‫تدفق االيرادات‬ ‫عمولة‬ ‫هرمي‬ ‫العمالة‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Module 5: Economic Texts  115

Exercise 9. Translate the following English advertisement into Arabic and discuss its discourse features with the class. What is Orange E-Shop? It is the first online telecom E-Shop hosting a wide variety of our products and services that you can purchase with a simple click of a button. What can I find here? Here you can buy any product or service that you desire from the below lines: • • • • • •

Mobile handsets Pay monthly mobile plans Mobile handsets with pay monthly mobile plans ADSL offers Pay monthly and cost control Internet Everywhere wireless internet subscriptions Pay as you go Internet Everywhere wireless internet subscriptions

Do you sell pay as you go lines for mobile subscriptions? No, currently we are not selling any mobile pay as you go offers through E-Shop and this item might be sold in the future. How can I buy any of the products featured on E-Shop? Buying a product through E-Shop is very simple, all you need to do is following the below steps: • Click on the ‘buy’ button after choosing the product you would like to get • After reviewing your order and the price to be paid, click on ‘next’ • Fill in the form that appears to you with your personal details and put a check mark next to ‘I have read and understood the terms and conditions’ then click on next • Validate your order information and price then click on ‘submit’ What are the next steps to get my order? • A n E-mail will be sent to you summarizing your order – You will be contacted by our sales team confirming your order and residence information • You will be contacted again in order to be given the address of the closest shop to your address where you can find your order prepared and ready for pick up Do you offer an online payment and delivery options through your E-Shop? No, these options will be featured soon on E-Shop http://www.orange.jo/sites/Residential/English/HelpAndSupport/Pages/eshop-faqs.aspx (accessed 27 February 2021)

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‫‪116  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫_________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫__________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫____________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫‪Exercise 10. Translate the following advertisement in Arabic and discuss its discourse‬‬ ‫‪features with the class.‬‬ ‫عروض تجارية لم تشاهدها من قبل ‪ ..‬شاهد االن اقوى المشاريع والصفقات االستثمارية‬ ‫فرصة رائعة للمستثمرين ورجال االعمال عروض وصفقات رابحة وخدمات االستشارات من‬ ‫خبير ومستشار دولي في مجال االستثمارات‬ ‫االن اطلق العنان الستثماراتك وزد ارباحك وانطلق بهمة نحو القمة‪.‬‬ ‫لماذا ترضى بالقليل ان كان بمقدورك ان تجني الكثير ‪ ..‬اغتنم فرصتك واستثمر اموالك في‬ ‫مجاالت اثبتت جدواها وعلو قدمها على كثير من المجاالت االستثمارية االخرى حتى لقبها‬ ‫البعض ب المشاريع الذهبية‬ ‫لماذا تنتظر القليل والكثير هنا بانتظارك‪.‬‬

‫)‪http://twitmail.com/email/59076986/1350 (accessed 27 February 2021‬‬ ‫_________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫__________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫___________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫____________________________________________________________________________‬ ‫‪17/12/21 15:49‬‬

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Module 5: Economic Texts  117

5.5.2  Terminology: Investment

Investment discourse pertains to companies’ benefits returned from various purchases. It covers a variety of business documents such as contracts, agreements and documents related to insurance (health insurance, life insurance, car insurance, insurance of machinery and electronic sales and so on). Written investment discourse is highly formal and usually characterised by the use of passive, short sentences, directives and legal terminology. Accuracy is vital, because any mistake in translation might have serious legal consequences. Exercise 11. Translate the following extracts from an insurance agreement. Pay attention to the grammatical structures and try to use the most appropriate grammatical forms. INSURANCE SERVICES FRAMEWORK AGREEMENT Dated: 26 August 2004, effective from 1 January 2004 BETWEEN: (1) Norwich Union Customer Services (Singapore) Pte Ltd, a company registered in Singapore with registration number 200303457R and whose registered office is at 4 Shenton Way, #27-02 SGX Centre 2, Singapore 068807 (the ‘Client’); and (2) Exlservice Holdings, Inc. a company registered in the State of Delaware and whose principal office is at 350 Park Avenue, 10th Floor, New York, NY 10022 (‘EXL Holdings (US)’). 1 DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATION 1.1 In this Agreement, unless inconsistent with the context or otherwise specified, the definitions set out in schedule 1 shall apply. 1.2 References to clauses and schedules are to clauses of and the schedules to this Agreement. 1.3 The schedules form part of this Agreement and have the same force and effect as if expressly set out in the body of this Agreement. 1.4 References to paragraphs are to the paragraphs of an Insurance Services Work Order. 1.5 Words importing gender include each gender. 1.6 References to persons include bodies corporate, firms and unincorporated associations and that person’s legal personal representatives and successors. 1.7 The singular includes the plural and vice versa. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 117

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 2 INSURANCE SERVICES WORK ORDERS 2.1 Where the Client and EXL Holdings (US) agree to enter into a contract for the provision of services (which may include the provision of equipment and other assets), the Parties shall, subject to clause 2.3, complete an Insurance Services Work Order. For the avoidance of doubt, only Vicar Talwar and Rohit Kapoor, or such other persons who have been specifically identified to Client by EXL Holdings (US), shall be authorised to sign any Insurance Services Work Orders on behalf of EXL Holdings (US). _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 3 THE SERVICES 3.1 EXL Holdings (US) shall supply each of the Insurance Services as set out in an Insurance Services Work Order to the Client in accordance with the terms of this Agreement and the Insurance Services Work Order. 3.2 Subject to the Contract Change Control Procedures EXL Holdings (US) and the Client shall comply with the agreed Project Timetable set out in the applicable Insurance Services Work Order.

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3.3 Where the Client is under an obligation to pass on the Insurance Services to an Authorised Agent, Associated Company or Authorised User, EXL Holdings (US) shall as directed by the Client, supply the Insurance Services so that Client can pass them on or procure that they are passed on to that Authorised Agent, Associated Company or Authorised User as the case may be provided that the obligations of EXL Holdings (US) in respect thereof shall be to Client and not the Authorised Agent, Associated Company or Authorised User. The Client shall procure that such Authorised Agent, Authorised Company or Authorised User shall, as necessary, comply with the obligations of the Client hereunder. For the avoidance of doubt, it is expressly understood that Client shall be responsible for the payment of the charges. http://contracts.onecle.com/exlservice/norwich.svc.2004.08.26.shtml (accessed 28 February 2021) Glossary Agreement Insurance Services Representatives Authorised to sign Assets Procedures Comply with Procure

‫اتفاق‬ ‫خدمات تأمين‬ ‫ممثلين‬ ‫مخول بالتوقيع‬ ‫اصول الشركة‬ ‫اجراءات‬ ‫يستجيب ل‬ ‫يتدبر‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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120  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 12. Translate the following phrases into English. ‫األضرار المادية و المسؤولية المدنية‬ ‫مبلغ التحمل‬ ‫االستهالك العادي‬ ‫الخسائر التبعية‬

1 2 3 4

Exercise 13. Translate the following extracts from an Arabic insurance agreement. ‫ القسم األول هو األضرار المادية والثاني هو المسؤولية‬:‫من المعلوم ان الوثيقة تقسم إلى قسمين‬ .‫المدنية تجاه الغير ولكل قسم استثناءاته‬ ):‫القسم األول االستثناءات الخاصة بقسم (األضرار المادية‬ ‫مبلغ التحمل و هو المبلغ أو النسبة التي يتحملها المؤمن له في كل حادث أو خسارة‬ ‫الخسائر التبعية بكافة صورها المادية و الغرامات التي تعرض على المقاول بسبب التأخير‬ ‫في إنجاز العمل‬ .‫و اكتماله في المدة المحددة بموجب عقد المقاولة‬ .‫الخسائر و األضرار التي تنشأ من عيوب التصميم‬ ‫تكاليف استبدال أو إصالح أو تصحيح المواد المعيبة أو العمالة المعيبة‬ ‫االستهالك العادي و التآكل و الصدأ و التأكسد و التلف نتيجة عدم االستعمال أو نتيجة العوامل‬ .‫الجوية العادية‬

1 2 3 4 5 6

http://www.insurance4arab.com/2012/10/blog-post_1617.html (accessed 28 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

5.5.3  Terminology: Banking

Banking discourse involves the translation of annual reports, prospectuses, bank statements, investment marketing translation, macroeconomic survey translation, equity research translation, shareholder information, profit-and-loss reports, insurance policy translation, as well as banking, finance and insurance websites. What distinguishes banking discourse from other economic discourse types is its heavy reliance on figures and statistics. Making use of

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TL-relevant templates facilitates the translation process, by giving the translator more time to concentrate on the linguistic message to be conveyed rather than wasting time looking for a suitable presentation method. Exercise 14. Translate the following Arabic and English extracts from accountopening forms, using the most appropriate terminology. Please complete ALL relevant areas on the form in BLOCK LETTERS. If you are applying for a Joint Account, please complete both applicants’ details. You are required to submit to us all relevant information stated in the Checklist under section VIII with your application. For Joint Account Only We, the undersigned, hereby agree that the signature of any one of us on or in relation to any matter regarding the joint account will bind the other joint-account holders and expressly constitute an authorisation for each joint-account holder to have full powers to conduct any transaction on the joint account by way of instruction to the Bank and other instructions to operate the joint account including but not limited to notice of change in information declared at this form without requiring our joint signatures. We have read and understood the provisions relevant to joint account in the General Terms and Conditions of HSBC Bank (Vietnam) Ltd. and agree to be bound by them. https://www.hsbc.com.vn/1/PA_ES_Content_Mgmt/content/vietnam/pdf_app/html/AOF_ EN_20Jul.pdf (accessed 28 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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122  Advanced English–Arabic Translation ‫التسجيل وفتح الحساب‬ :‫ يقوم الزبون بفتح‬، ‫لغرض تنفيذ هذه االتفاقية‬ ،‫حساب استثمار لدى قسم الوساطة التابع لبنك مسقط يودع فيه الزبون مبالغ لشراء أوراق مالية‬ ‫وسيقوم قسم الوساطة التابع لبنك مسقط بإضافة المبالغ العائدة من بيع أي أوراق مالية مباعة من‬ ‫قبل الزبون من خالل خدمة بنك مسقط دايركت في هذا الحساب‬ ).‫(حساب تداول أوراق مالية مع قسم الوساطة التابع لبنك مسقط‬

http://brokerage.bankmuscat.com/Uploads/Downloads/Brokerage-Account-OpeningForm.pdf (accessed 28 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 15. Translate the following description of a profit-and-loss statement into Arabic. What is a profit-and-loss statement? The profit-and-loss statement is a summary of the financial performance of a business over time (monthly, quarterly or annually is most common). It reflects the past performance of the business and is the report most often used by small business owners to track how their business is performing. As the name indicates the profit-and-loss statement (also known as a statement of financial performance or an income statement) measures the profit or loss of a business over a specified period. A profit-and-loss statement summarises the income for a period and subtracts the expenses incurred for the same period to calculate the profit or loss for the business. Traders, partnerships and small proprietary companies are not required to prepare and lodge a profit-and-loss statement with their annual tax return. However, they are very useful in helping you to objectively determine the financial performance of your business. Most accounting software packages will produce a profitand-loss statement, but you may need the help of a bookkeeper or an accountant unless your business is very small. All public companies and large proprietary companies are required by law to prepare a formal financial report that complies with Australian Accounting Standards for each financial year. http://www.smallbusiness.wa.gov.au/understanding-profit-loss-statements/#profit-andloss (accessed 28 February 2021) 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 122

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_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 16. Translate the following news report into Arabic. It’s February, so it must be time for banks to admit the obscene profits or shattering losses they’ve sustained, and how much bankers have been paying themselves in outrageous bonuses. This year is different, however. Where bonuses are paid, they’re unlikely to be in the bumper category. Profits and share prices have taken a pounding – partly because of the Covid pandemic, but more because interest rates are so low. The gap between interest charged to borrowers and interest paid to savers has narrowed. That’s where banks usually make their money, and with the base rate at 0.1%, it’s tough going. They’re preparing for the possibility of going further down, and into negative territory. Theoretically paying customers to borrow money and charging them to deposit would be a hard adjustment. And they’re testing their computer systems to make sure they don’t get confused by the negative numbers. So what else to watch out for? TSB gave us a taste of it with a pre-tax loss of £204m. Most of that is explained by the accounting adjustment needed for impairments, or bad loans. Some £164m is in expectation of customers defaulting. And as 92% of TSB lending is in mortgages, the assumption must be that an expectation of rising unemployment and growing distress in household finances is on the way. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 123

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124  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Other banks, reporting later this month, will reflect more of the expected defaults on business lending, though a lot of that falls on the UK Government, with its 100% backing for Bounce Bank Loans. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-55896423 (accessed 28 February 2021) Glossary ‫فوائد‬ Profits ‫خسائر فادحة‬ Shattering losses ‫مكافآت‬ Bonuses ‫معدل الفائدة‬ Interest rate ‫ايداع‬ Deposit ‫االقراض التجاري‬ Business lending ‫التخلف عن السداد‬ Default ‫الرهون العقارية‬ Mortgages _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

5.5.4  Terminology: Accounting and Audit

Accounting and audit translations include various documents such as financial statements (accounts statements, balances, memos, memoirs, treasury reports, budget and variance reports, audit reports, accounting software, accounting standards and international accounting standards), in addition to articles on accounting and accounting books.

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Exercise 17. Identify the title, the introduction, the responsibilities of directors and auditors, the basis of opinion of the auditors, the signatures of the auditors and the date of the following report. Independent Auditors’ Report To The Shareholders of XXX Bank Report on the Financial Statements We have audited the accompanying consolidated financial statements of your Corporation and its subsidiaries [together ‘the group’] which comprise the consolidated statement of financial position as at 31 December and the consolidated statements of income, comprehensive income, cash flows and changes in equity for the year then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory information. Board of Directors’ Responsibility for the Financial Statements The board of directors is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these consolidated financial statements in accordance with international financial reporting standards, and for such internal control as the board of directors determines is necessary to enable the preparation of the financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error. Auditors’ Responsibility Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these consolidated financial statements based on our audit. We conducted our audit in accordance with international Standards on auditing. Those standards require that we comply with ethical requirements and plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the consolidated financial statements are free from material misstatement. An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence about the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. The procedures selected depend on the auditors’ judgement, including the assessment of the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to fraud or error. In making those risk assessments, the auditors consider internal control relevant to the entity’s preparation and fair presentation of the financial statements in order to design audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the entity’s internal control. An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies used and the reasonableness of accounting estimates made by the board of directors, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. http://www.etisalat.com/en/system/docs/reports/Q4-2012-Interim-Financial-Report.pdf (accessed 28 February 2021)

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126  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 18. Translate the previous audit report. Make sure you follow the conventional pattern of auditor’s reports. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 19. Read the following text, then identify the economic terms and translate them into Arabic. The first paragraph is translated as an example. Introduction Andy Kilmister There are three important starting points for understanding the current economic crisis. Firstly, what is happening at the moment represents the break-up of the interlocking set of arrangements by which the world economy has been governed since the mid-1980s. These arrangements represented a temporary ‘solution’ for capital to the crises which emerged a decade earlier. Secondly, the crises of the 1970s and the attempts to resolve them of the 1980s arose from a central contradiction within capitalism between the creation of profits in the sphere of production and the realisation of those profits in the sphere of circulation and exchange. Thirdly, the historically weak situation of British capital, at least that section of British capital territorially located in Britain, has left Britain especially vulnerable to the crisis. Arabic translation: ‫ إن ما يحدث حاليا‬،‫ أوال‬. ‫في البداية هنالك ثالث نقاط مهمة لفهم األزمة االقتصادية الراهنة‬ ‫يمثل تفكك سلسلة الترتيبات المتداخلة التي تحكم االقتصاد العالمي منذ أواسط الثمانينات حيث‬ ‫ نبعت أزمات‬،‫ ثانيا‬. ‫شكلت تلك الترتيبات حلوال مؤقتة لألزمة التي ظهرت من عقد مضى‬ ‫السبعينات والمحاوالت لحلها في الثمانينات من التناقض الرئيس في الرأسمالية بين تحقيق‬ ‫ زادت حالة‬،‫ ثالثا‬.‫ ونتائج تلك األرباح في مجال التوزيع والتبادل‬،‫األرباح في مجال اإلنتاج‬ ‫ او على األقل ذلك الجزء الموجود منه في بريطانيا‬، ‫الضعف التاريخية لرأس المال البريطاني‬ .‫من أثر األزمة عليه‬

The crisis itself has a number of dimensions but three in particular are crucial. The first is the build-up of debt, both corporate and household debt, but especially household debt. Linked with this is the likelihood of a return to international monetary instability and of the refusal of the rest of the world to fund US (and UK) trade deficits. The third factor is the effect of the ecological crisis on the world economy, which brings with

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128  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

it the prospect of an end to two decades of low commodity prices. However, these should be seen as medium-term developments, determining the underlying tensions within which more immediate changes take place. A Marxist analysis of the crisis needs to be based on an analysis which can grasp these underlying structural factors, see how these play themselves out in surface phenomena and also understand the competing strategies of capital as it attempts to manage the crisis. http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1581 (accessed 20 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 20. Translate the rest of the article. Pay attention to the cohesive devices and grammatical structures. Recession and the Financial Crisis The most important current development in the wake of the banking crisis is the transmission of that crisis to the rest of the economy and its interaction with the more general economic crisis now emerging. The most obvious issue here is the onset of recession. The central reason for the recession is the dependence of consumer demand in particular but also business investment on high levels of debt over the last two decades. Now that lending is contracting this debt-fuelled expansion is no longer possible and a sharp economic slowdown looks inevitable. The fall in house prices is also worsening the slowdown in consumer spending as households can no longer borrow against rising equity values. There are two fundamental reasons for the reliance on debt. Consumption has come to depend on debt because of the contradiction between driving wages down to generate profits in production and needing to ensure demand in order to sell the goods produced and realise these profits. The most obvious manifestation

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of this is growing income inequality and it is no accident that the build-up of debt has been worst in countries with the greatest disparity in incomes, notably the UK and USA. Linked to this is the way in which production in general, but especially investment, has come to rely on debt as a result of the weakness of profitability in the productive sector. As Robert Wade puts it ‘the rate of profit of non-financial corporation’s fell steeply between 1950–73 and 2000–06 – in the US, by roughly a quarter. In response firms ‘invested’ increasingly in financial speculation’. Consequently, without debt being available to fund expansion recession appears inevitable. http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1581 (accessed 20 February 2021) Glossary Dimensions Economic crisis Interlocking Capitalism Debt Instability Competing strategies Recession Consumer demand Investment Interest rates

‫أبعاد‬ ‫أزمة اقتصادية‬ ‫متداخلة‬ ‫الرأسمالية‬ ‫دين‬ ‫عدم استقرار‬ ‫استراتيجيات منافسة‬ ‫ركود‬ ‫طلب المستهلك‬ ‫االستثمار‬ ‫معدالت الفائدة‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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130  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

5.6 Conclusion This module has dealt with problems involved in translating economic texts, such as neologisms, false cognates, metaphor and economic terminology. Accuracy is a crucial factor to be taken into consideration when translating economic texts in general and accounting and audit texts in particular.

5.7  Module Review Exercises Exercise 21. Translate the following extracts into Arabic. What Is the forex market? The foreign exchange market is where currencies are traded. Currencies are important to most people around the world, whether they realize it or not, because currencies need to be exchanged in order to conduct foreign trade and business. If you are living in the U.S. and want to buy cheese from France, either you or the company that you buy the cheese from has to pay the French for the cheese in euros (EUR). _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ One unique aspect of this international market is that there is no central marketplace for foreign exchange. Rather, currency trading is conducted electronically over-the-counter (OTC), which means that all transactions occur via computer networks between traders around the world, rather than on one centralized exchange. The market is open 24 hours a day, five and a half days a week, and currencies are traded worldwide in the major financial centers of London, New York, Tokyo, Zurich, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Singapore, Paris and Sydney – across almost every time zone. This means that when the trading day in the U.S. ends, the forex market begins anew in Tokyo and Hong Kong. As such, the forex market can be extremely active any time of the day, with price quotes changing constantly.

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___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ There are actually three ways that institutions, corporations and individuals trade forex: the spot market, the forwards market, and the futures market. Forex trading in the spot market has always been the largest market because it is the ‘underlying’ real asset that the forwards and futures markets are based on. In the past, the futures market was the most popular venue for traders because it was available to individual investors for a longer period of time. However, with the advent of electronic trading and numerous forex brokers, the spot market has witnessed a huge surge in activity and now surpasses the futures market as the preferred trading market for individual investors and speculators. When people refer to the forex market, they usually are referring to the spot market. The forwards and futures markets tend to be more popular with companies that need to hedge their foreign exchange risks out to a specific date in the future. https://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/11/why-trade-forex.asp (accessed 28 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 22. Translate the following business letter into Arabic. Dear Ms. Halliday, Thank you so much for taking the time to meet with me to discuss selling my handmade sweaters in your wonderful shop.

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132  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

As I mentioned in our conversation, I’ve been a customer of your store since I used my third-grade allowance to buy my very first pair of knitting needles. I’m honored that you’d consider selling one of my original creations at The Yarn Company alongside your own work. We discussed a trial consignment arrangement in which a portion of the sales would go to the store. This is more than agreeable to me. Let me know how you want to proceed. I’m available most afternoons at 555-5555555, or you can email me at [email protected], and I’ll respond to your message ASAP. Thanks, and best, https://www.thebalancecareers.com/business-letter-examples-samples-and-writingtips-2059673 (accessed 27 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 23. Translate the following into Arabic The balance sheet is a snapshot of a company’s – • assets (what it owns) • liabilities (what it owes) • owners’ equity (net worth – what’s left over for the owners) The balance sheet snapshot is at a particular point in time, such as at the close of business on December 31. The simplest corporate balance sheet possible, showing only totals and leaving out all detail, might look like this:

Assets

$485,000

Total Assets

$485,000

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ALBEGA CORPORATION Balance Sheet December 31, 20xx Liabilities Shareholders’ Equity Total Liabilities and Shareholders’ Equity

$ 285,000 $200,000 $485,000

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Balance sheet equation. Assets are always equal to the liabilities plus equity. You can see the balance sheet as a statement of what the company owns (assets) and the persons having claims to the assets (creditors and owners). Here is the balance sheet equation: Assets = Liabilities + Shareholders’ Equity Liabilities Assets Shareholders’ Equity The equation reflects how information is organized on the balance sheet, with assets listed on the left and liabilities and equity on the right. Like the equation, the two sides of the balance sheet must balance. http://users.wfu.edu/palmitar/Law&Valuation/chapter%203/3-2-1.htm (accessed 25 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 24. Translate the following text on international accounting standards (IAS). When translating abbreviations and acronyms, apply the strategies discussed earlier. Make a list of abbreviations and their translations. IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements as issued at 1 January This extract has been prepared by IASC Foundation staff and has not been approved by the IASB. For the requirements reference must be made to International Financial Reporting Standard. This Standard prescribes the basis for presentation of general purpose financial statements to ensure comparability both with the entity’s financial statements of previous periods and with the financial statements of other entities. It sets out overall requirements for the presentation of financial statements, guidelines for their structure and minimum requirements for their content.

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A complete set of financial statements comprises: a) a statement of financial position as at the end of the period; b) a statement of comprehensive income for the period; c) a statement of changes in equity for the period; d) a statement of cash flows for the period; e) notes, comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory information; and f) a statement of financial position as at the beginning of the earliest comparative period when an entity applies an accounting policy retrospectively or makes a retrospective restatement of items in its financial statements, or when it reclassifies items in its financial statements. http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/9DC65C49-ABA2-4718-954A-49775B5C84E6/0 IAS1.pdf (accessed 25 February 2021) Glossary Financial statements Standard Comprises Comprehensive income Equity Retrospectively

‫كشف الحساب‬ ‫معيار‬ ‫يتألف من‬ ‫الدخل الشامل‬ ‫حقوق الملكية‬ ‫بأثر رجعي‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 25. Translate the following extracts taken from an economics web page. There are some traditions that, even in a pandemic, are being maintained. When March budgets were the norm, it was traditional at this time of year for tax ideas to be run up the flagpole to see whether they would fly. While gardeners can measure the approaching spring by the appearance of crocuses and daffodils, economywatchers could see it in the form of budget stories. Last Sunday this newspaper reported that government sources were still indicating that a corporation tax hike was still on course for the March 3 budget. The story was widely followed. This, you may recall, was part of a trio of tax rises that the Treasury was reportedly considering last summer, in order to bring the public finances back under control after the pandemic. Another was to more closely align the taxation of capital gains and income, as recommended by the Office of Tax Simplification (OTS), which was asked by Rishi Sunak to look at it. The third was an old favourite, reforming higher rate pension tax relief. http://www.economicsuk.com/blog/002403.html (accessed 28 February 2021) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 26. Discuss the linguistic features of the above text and the problems you faced in translating it. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Module 6 Scientific Texts 6.1 Introduction Scientific texts are considered the most challenging for the translator. The term ‘science’ covers a wide range of disciplines that could include, but is not limited to physics, biology, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, geology, biochemistry, astrophysics, ecology and engineering sciences. Scientific texts differ from other texts basically because ‘scientific language draws on humanistic education, while workshop terms are non-literary, practical, colloquial and sometimes humorous’ (Pinchuk 1977: 167). Scientific texts are ‘set out and presented in unqualifiedly objective terms for the reader of SL and TL text alike’ (Bassnett-McGuire 1991b: 79). They are more challenging than, for example, literary texts, especially because ‘if the text is perceived as an object that should only produce a single invariant reading, any ‘deviation’ on the part of the reader/translator will be judged as transgression’ (ibid). Part of the difficulty in translating such texts arises from their use of specialised terminology: a large variety of very specific terms and concepts, as well as numbers, symbols, graphs and diagrams. This can be challenging for the translator who does not have sufficient knowledge of these fields. Indeed, exceptional language and writing skills are required to enable the translator to transmit technical content from one language into another in a clear and precise manner. Furthermore, translators have to keep themselves completely up to date with the continuous changes in scientific terminology, neologisms and new technological advances. However, many of these new terms used in scientific texts might not have a direct translation in the TL. If the text contains a lot of unknown terms, or terms coined for the first time, a common strategy for translators is to leave the term in the original language and insert a footnote to fully explain it in the TL. In some cases, there may be fairly extensive glossaries of terms in the original text. Again, this poses a particular challenge to the scientific translator; providing a faithful translation of a glossary of terms is likely to be a very difficult task since there are no dictionary equivalents for many of the terms used.

6.2  Translation Strategies The translator of scientific texts needs to choose the most appropriate strategy facilitating the accurate transfer of the message from the SL to the TL. Although the easiest is not

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necessarily the most appropriate, it could function as a first step towards finding the strategy that works. This section reviews some of the strategies employed in translating scientific texts.

6.2.1 Borrowing

This strategy involves introducing the SL term into the TL, and it is done in the following three ways: • Total borrowing, where a full phonological borrowing of the terms takes place. • For instance, computer is translated as ‫ كمبيوتر‬/kumbiyūtar/. Such borrowing accepts derivation, so the word computers is translated as ‫ كمبيوترات‬/kumbiyūtarāt/. This strategy works best for new scientific terms that have no equivalent in the TL, new inventions, new diseases or scientific discoveries. It is usually referred to as Arabisation. • Loan translations or calque, which involves providing a translation of the new term in the TL. For example, atomic number is translated as ‫ العدد الذري‬and atomic mass as ‫الكتلة الذرية‬

• Naturalisation, where the SL term is adapted to the morphology of the TL. This strategy is common with the terminology of computer sciences and technology, chemistry and biology. Examples include:  face books (plural) ‫ فيسبوكات‬/faisbūkāt/  to face book: ‫ يفسبك‬/yufasbik/  computers ‫ كمبيوترات‬/kumbiyūtarāt/  e-mails: ‫ إيميالت‬/īmaylāt/  faxes: ‫ فاكسات‬/fāksāt/

6.2.2 Coinage

With this strategy new terms are created in the TL. The following are the three basic strategies for coinage in Arabic (Baker 1987: 186–7): 1. Derivation: According to this process, Arabic derives new terms by analogy, based on its derivation system. Nominal and verbal forms are derived from the trilateral root. Derivation is considered ‘the most natural way of enriching the language without altering its identity’ (ibid). For example, data is translated as ‫ معطيات‬/mu‘tayāt/ (givens), taken from ‫( أعطى‬give). 2. Al-istinbāt (discovery): This involves the revival of old words by extending their meanings to express new concepts – for instance, cloning is translated as ‫استنساخ‬ /istinsākh/. 3. Loan translations: The meaning of the term is translated literally into Arabic. For example, electronic e-mail is translated as ‫البريد اإللكتروني‬

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Other solutions that scholars have suggested to solve the problem of technical terms as well as difficult words in the SL address the lack of lexical correspondence between the ST and TT at the word level, above the word level and in terms of textual equivalence – that is, coping with cohesion and coherence. These problems will be discussed below, with various suggestions for translation methods aimed at solving these issues. Exercise 1. Apply Arabisation or loan translation to the italicised words in the below text. How to send email attachments Email attachments allow you to send files along with your email messages. An attachment can be any type of file, but the most common ones are text documents and images (photos etc). Before you send an attachment, you need to know where it is located on your computer. Usually you will have saved the file using Windows Explorer or some other software. Whenever you save a file to use as an attachment, select ‘Save As . . . ’ and make a note of where you save it. If you cannot find a file, use the Windows search function. Once you know where the file is you can create the email message. • C reate a new email message and enter the usual details (recipient address, subject, etc). • Look for an icon in your toolbar, which looks like a paper clip, and click it. • A ‘Browse’ window will open. Locate and select the attachment file. The file will now be attached to the email. Send the email in the normal way. Important: before you send an attachment, you must be sure the person receiving it will be able to open it. Not all attachments will work on someone else’s computer! In order to open your attachment the recipient must have the appropriate software. Some types of files are very common and most people can open them, but other types can be rare or require expensive software. These files are quite common and safe. http://www.mediacollege.com/internet/email/attachments.html (accessed 15 February 2021) Exercise 2. Read the following text and its translation and find examples of naturalisation, Arabisation and coinage. Chemical reactions A reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water as the only products. Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride and water HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

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‫‪Module 6: Scientific Texts  139‬‬

‫‪Sulphuric acid and potassium hydroxide à potassium sulphate and water‬‬ ‫‪H2SO4 + 2KOH → K2SO4 + 2H2O‬‬ ‫‪Nitric acid and calcium hydroxide à calcium nitrate and water‬‬ ‫‪2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O‬‬ ‫)‪http://www.sky-web.net/science/reaction-types.htm#acidbase (accessed 10 February 2021‬‬ ‫‪Arabic translation:‬‬ ‫إلنتاج الملح والماء كمركبات‪ ،‬تتفاعل األحماض والقواعد‬ ‫حامض الهيدروكلوريك وهيدروكسيد الصوديوم ← كلوريد الصوديوم وماء‬

‫‪HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O‬‬

‫حامض الكبريتيك وهيروكسيد البوتاسيوم ← سلفات البوتاسيوم والماء‬

‫‪H2SO4 + 2KOH → K2SO4 + 2H2O‬‬

‫حامض النتريك وهيروكسيد الكالسيوم ← نترات الكالسيوم والماء‬

‫‪2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2‬‬

‫‪Loan translation‬‬

‫‪Arabisation‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3. Translate the following paragraph into English.‬‬ ‫تتكون الحموض النووية ‪ DNA‬و ‪ RNA‬من سالسل من وحدات كيمائية تسمى بـ النيكلوتيدات‪،‬‬ ‫‪:‬ويتكون كل نيوكلوتيد من ثالث مكونات رئيسية‬ ‫جزيء سكر خماسي (رايبوز‪ ،‬أو رايبوز منقوص األكسجين)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬مجموعة من الفوسفات‬ ‫‪:‬قاعدة نيتروجينية‪ .‬وتتكون القواعد النيتروجينية من‬ ‫أ‪ -‬بيورينات‪ ،‬وتشمل قاعدتين هما‪ :‬أدنين ‪ ،A‬غوانين ‪ ،G‬وتتألف كل منها من حلقتين‪.‬‬ ‫ب‪ -‬بيرمدينات‪ ،‬وتشتمل على ثالث قواعد‪ :‬ثايمين ‪ ،T‬سايتوسين ‪ ،C‬ويوراسيل ‪ ،U‬ويتألف كل‬ ‫منها على حلقة واحدة‪.‬‬ ‫و يختلف تركيب النيوكليوتيدات بعضها عن بعض بناء على نوع القاعدة النيتروجينية الموجودة‬ ‫فيها‪ ،‬وجزيء السكر‪.‬‬

‫)‪ (accessed 12 February 2021‬نووي حمض ‪http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/‬‬ ‫‪17/12/21 15:49‬‬

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140  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

6.3  Translation Problems and Practical Steps Accuracy constitutes a major issue when translating scientific texts. The translator should make sure that the translation conveys the same objectives as in the SL, thus contributing to the major scientific areas introduced in the SL. Proficiency in the TL is not sufficient, since translators also need to know the language of the discipline with which they are dealing, as well as its jargon and historical background, so that they can articulate their ideas competently in the TL following the content and the style of the ST. Scientific translation is sometimes viewed as a communicative service, which offers new information to a new audience; its basic goal is to deliver scientific information that may be used easily, properly and effectively (Byrne 2006: 10). If certain terminology in the original text requires more elaboration in the TL, the translator must ensure that this extended explanation (for example, added in a footnote) remains within the grasp of the reader. For this purpose, the scientific translator should be a competent researcher and keep up with all new developments, since scientific discoveries evolve very rapidly. The first step involves understanding the scientific content of the article so that a conceptual map of the original text is created. This process involves analysing the text on two levels: lexical and grammatical. Lexical analysis involves looking up the technical terms, using a good technical dictionary and identifying the text’s register. Grammatical analysis involves a contrastive analysis of grammatical structures in the SL and TL. In the case of translating from English into Arabic, there are many differences as far as the grammar of both languages is concerned. English is characterised by a scarcity of connectives, limited repetition of keywords, extensive use of passive forms, and the verbs to be and to have. Arabic, however, uses more connectives, repeats key words more often and favours active structures. Tense and aspect are also problematic in both languages.

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Exercise 4. Read the following text, then complete the exercises below. An overview of diabetes types and treatments Diabetes is a condition that impairs the body’s ability to process blood glucose, otherwise known as blood sugar. In the United States, the estimated number of people over 18 years of age with diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes is 30.2 million. The figure represents between 27.9 and 32.7 percent of the population. Without ongoing, careful management, diabetes can lead to a buildup of sugars in the blood, which can increase the risk of dangerous complications, including stroke and heart disease. Different kinds of diabetes can occur, and managing the condition depends on the type. Not all forms of diabetes stem from a person being overweight or leading an inactive lifestyle. In fact, some are present from childhood. Types: Three major diabetes types can develop: Type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type I diabetes: Also known as juvenile diabetes, this type occurs when the body fails to produce insulin. People with type I diabetes are insulin-dependent, which means they must take artificial insulin daily to stay alive. Type 2 diabetes: Type 2 diabetes affects the way the body uses insulin. While the body still makes insulin, unlike in type I, the cells in the body do not respond to it as effectively as they once did. This is the most common type of diabetes, according to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, and it has strong links with obesity. Gestational diabetes: This type occurs in women during pregnancy when the body can become less sensitive to insulin. Gestational diabetes does not occur in all women and usually resolves after giving birth. Less common types of diabetes include monogenic diabetes and cystic fibrosisrelated diabetes. Prediabetes: Doctors refer to some people as having prediabetes or borderline diabetes when blood sugar is usually in the range of 100 to 125 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL). Normal blood sugar levels sit between 70 and 99 mg/dL, whereas a person with diabetes will have a fasting blood sugar higher than 126 mg/dL. The prediabetes level means that blood glucose is higher than usual but not so high as to constitute diabetes.

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142  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

People with prediabetes are, however, at risk of developing type 2 diabetes, although they do not usually experience the symptoms of full diabetes. The risk factors for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes are similar. They include: • b eing overweight • a family history of diabetes • having a high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level lower than 40 mg/dL or 50 mg/dL • a history of high blood pressure • having gestational diabetes or giving birth to a child with a birth weight of more than 9 pounds • a history of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) • being of African-American, Native American, Latin American, or Asian-Pacific Islander descent • being more than 45 years of age • having a sedentary lifestyle If a doctor identifies that a person has prediabetes, they will recommend that the individual makes healthful changes that can ideally stop the progression to type 2 diabetes. Losing weight and having a more healthful diet can often help prevent the disease. How insulin problems develop: Doctors do not know the exact causes of type I diabetes. Type 2 diabetes, also known as insulin resistance, has clearer causes. Insulin allows the glucose from a person’s food to access the cells in their body to supply energy. Insulin resistance is usually a result of the following cycle: A person has genes or an environment that make it more likely that they are unable to make enough insulin to cover how much glucose they eat. The body tries to make extra insulin to process the excess blood glucose. The pancreas cannot keep up with the increased demands, and the excess blood sugar starts to circulate in the blood, causing damage. Over time, insulin becomes less effective at introducing glucose to cells, and blood sugar levels continue to rise. In the case of type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance takes place gradually. This is why doctors often recommend making lifestyle changes in an attempt to slow or reverse this cycle. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323627#how-insulin-problems-develop (accessed 19 February 2021)

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Exercise 5. Identify the basic technical terms and provide their Arabic translation. Term

Translation

Exercise 6. Identify the passive structures and decide how they should be rendered in Arabic. SL passive

TL structure

Exercise 7. Translate the first two paragraphs into Arabic. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 8. Read the following text, then translate it into English, using the most appropriate tense. ‫يرتبط مرض السكري بهرمون االنسولين الذي تفرزه البنكرياس حيث يسبب نقص افراز هذا‬ ‫الهرمون مرض السكري حيث يزيد السكر في الدم وال يستطيع الجسم االستفادة منه ولذلك يظهر‬ .‫ وهناك نوعين من السكري وهو سكري االطفال والسكري الذي يصيب البالغين‬.‫في الدم‬

_________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Arabic is a highly inflected language when compared to English, which uses very few inflections. Arabic has inflections for tense, number and gender. Furthermore, while English has inflection for plural only, Arabic has inflections for singular, dual and plural. English uses the pronoun ‘it’ to refer to both the electron and the atom, while Arabic treats the electron as masculine and the atom as feminine. This grammatical gender distinction is shown in the inflections of the verbs that follow these nouns. For instance, if you wanted to translate the sentence ‘the proton is located in the centre of the atom’, you should treat the proton as masculine: .‫يقع البروتون في مركز الذرة‬

The word ‘atoms’ in the sentence ‘Atoms are the smallest particle into which an element can be divided’ is treated as feminine plural; therefore, the verb is inflected with feminine inflection at the beginning: ‫الذرات أصغر الجزيئات التي يمكن أن تقسم لها العناصر‬

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Exercise 9. Read the following text and answer the questions below before you translate it. Atoms and molecules Most of the Universe consists of matter and energy. Energy is the capacity to do work. Matter has mass and occupies space. All matter is composed of basic elements that cannot be broken down to substances with different chemical or physical properties. Elements are substances consisting of one type of atom; for example, carbon atoms make up diamond, and also graphite. Pure (24K) gold is composed of only one type of atom, gold atoms. Atoms are the smallest particle into which an element can be divided. The ancient Greek philosophers developed the concept of the atom, although they considered it the fundamental particle that could not be broken down. Since the work of Enrico Fermi and his colleagues, we now know that the atom is divisible, often releasing tremendous energies as in nuclear explosions or (in a controlled fashion in) thermonuclear power plants. Subatomic particles were discovered during the 1800s. For our purposes we will concentrate only on three of them, summarized in Table 1. The proton is located in the centre (or nucleus) of an atom, each atom has at least one proton. Protons have a charge of +1, and a mass of approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu). Elements differ from each other in the number of protons they have, e.g. Hydrogen has 1 proton; Helium has 2. The neutron also is located in the atomic nucleus (except in Hydrogen). The neutron has no charge, and a mass of slightly over 1 amu. Some scientists propose the neutron is made up of a proton and electron-like particle. The electron is a very small particle located outside the nucleus. Because they move at speeds near the speed of light the precise location of electrons is hard to pin down. Electrons occupy orbitals or areas where they have a high statistical probability of occurring. The charge on an electron is –1. Its mass is negligible (approximately 1800). http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookchem1.html (accessed 14 February 2021) Glossary Matter Energy Elements Atom

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‫مادة‬ ‫طاقة‬ ‫عناصر‬ ‫ذرة‬

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146  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Atomic mass Nucleus Electron Particle

‫الوزن الذري‬ ‫النواة‬ ‫الكترون‬ ‫جزيء‬

Exercise 10. Identify the verbs to be and to have in the text and decide how to translate them. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 11. Underline the passive sentences in the text above and choose the most appropriate tense when translating them into Arabic. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Notice that Arabic does not have an equivalent perfective aspect or verb to be used as in English. These are not normally translated into Arabic. For example, the sentence below is usually translated as follows:

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Elements are substances consisting of one type of atom. .‫العناصر مواد تتألف من نوع واحد من الذرات‬

As you can see, the verb ‘are’ is not translated into Arabic. Exercise 12. Find similar examples in the previous text and provide their Arabic translation. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

6.3.1  Problems of Word Level Equivalence

Problems with finding the right scientific equivalents are basically related to the types of words used. The following instances require special care in translation (Baker 1992/2006: 21–26). • • • • • • • • • • •

Culture-specific concepts The SL concept is not lexicalised in the TL. The SL word is semantically complex. The SL and TL make different distinctions in meaning. The TL lacks a superordinate. The TL lacks a specific term (hyponym). Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective Differences in the expressive meaning Differences in form Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms The use of loan words in the ST

The following strategies can be applied to deal with these instances (Baker 1992/2006: 26–42): • Translation by a more general word (superordinate) • Translation by a more neutral/less expressive word • Translation by cultural substitution

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148  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

• • • • •

Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation Translation by paraphrase using a related word Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words Translation by omission Translation by illustration

Exercise 13. Read the following text and identify the problems related to the lack of a superordinate or a specific term (hyponym) in the TL, and the problems related to the differences in physical or interpersonal perspective. Then suggest the most appropriate strategies before you provide your translation. Complete the table below. Etiology Sources Coronaviruses (CoVs) are found in a wide range of animal species, including in cats, dogs, pigs, rabbits, cattle, mice, rats, chickens, pheasants, turkeys, and whales, as well as in humans. They cause numerous veterinary diseases (e. g., feline infectious peritonitis, avian infectious bronchitis); they can also cause upper and, more commonly, lower respiratory tract illness in humans (group 1 [human CoV 229E] and group 2 [human CoV OC43]). The near absence of SARS-CoV antibodies in persons who did not have SARS demonstrated that SARS-CoV had not circulated to any significant extent in humans before 2003 and was introduced into humans from animals. Preliminary data after the outbreak started suggested that animals in the markets of Guangdong province in China may have been the source of human infection. However, SARS-CoV like viruses were not found in animals prior to arrival in the markets. A wide range of other coronaviruses in bats has been found, suggesting that bats are the most likely animal reservoir for the SARS outbreak. SARS infection in animals before arrival in the markets was uncommon, and these animals were probably not the original reservoir of the outbreak, although they may have acted as amplifying hosts. The proximity in which humans and livestock live in rural southern China may have led to the transmission of the virus to humans. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/237755-overview (accessed 14 February 2021) Glossary Etiology Peritonitis Antibodies

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‫علم اسباب االمراض‬ ‫التهاب الصفاق‬ ‫اجسام مضادة‬

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  149 ‫تنفسي‬ ‫نقل‬ ‫مضخم‬ ‫مضيف‬

Respiratory Transmission Amplifying Hosts Strategies

Problems

Examples

Exercise 14. Provide your translation here. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

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150  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 15. Read the following text, identify translation problems and choose strategy most appropriate for each. Complete the table below. Pathophysiology The lungs and gastrointestinal tract have been demonstrated to be the only major organ systems that support SARS-CoV replication. After establishment of infection, SARS-CoV causes tissue damage by (1) direct lytic effects on host cells and (2) indirect consequences resulting from the host immune response. Autopsies demonstrated changes that were confined mostly to pulmonary tissue, where diffuse alveolar damage was the most prominent feature. Pathologic slide of pulmonary tissue infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome–associated coronavirus. Diffuse alveolar damage is seen along with a multinucleated giant cell with no conspicuous viral inclusions. Courtesy of the US Centers for Disease. Control and prevention Multinucleated syncytial giant cells were thought to be characteristic of SARS but were rarely seen. Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2), being a negative regulator of the local rennin-angiotensin system, was thought to be a major contributor to the development of this damage. The other mechanism was thought to be the induction of apoptosis. The SARSCoV–3a and –7a proteins have been demonstrated to be inducers of apoptosis in various cell lines. Immunologically, SARS is characterized by a phase of cytokine storm, with various chemokines and cytokines being elevated. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/237755-overview#a0104 (accessed 13 February 2021) Glossary Gastro Infection Apoptosis Coronavirus Immunologically Multinucleated Major contributor Inducers 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 150

‫معدي‬ ‫عدوى‬ ‫الموت الخلوي المبرمج‬ ‫فيروس كورونا‬ ‫مناعيا‬ ‫متعدد النوى‬ ‫عامل اساسي‬ ‫محرضات‬

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  151

Strategies

Problems

Examples

Exercise 16. Provide your own translation of the above text. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 17. Read the following texts. Then choose two problems that were not tackled in the previous exercises, comment on them and provide the most appropriate strategies. Complete the table below. After translating the texts, exchange your work with a fellow student; comment on each other’s translation and discuss. Cellular binding Single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses such as the SARS-CoV have no inherent proofreading mechanism during replication. Accordingly, mutations in the RNA 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 151

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152  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

sequence replication of coronaviruses are relatively common. Such mutations can cause the resulting new virus to be either less or more virulent. The surface envelop S protein of SARS-CoV is thought to be a major determinant in establishing infection and cell and tissue tropism. This protein, after binding to its receptor – which is thought to be angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) and is expressed in a variety of tissues, including pulmonary, intestinal, and renal – undergoes conformational change and cathepsin L-mediated proteolysis within the endosome. The binding of SARS-CoV to DC-SIGN (dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-grabbing nonintegrin), which recognizes a variety of microorganisms, does not lead to entry of the virus into dendritic cells. It instead facilitates the transfer and dissemination within the infected host. Immune response The type I interferon (IFN-alfa/beta) system represents a powerful part of the innate immune system and has potent antiviral activity. However, SARS-CoV discourages attack by the IFN system. Replication of the virus occurs in cytoplasmic compartments surrounded by a double membrane layer. Such concealment within cells probably causes a spatial separation of the viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and the cellular cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). In addition, the activation of IFN regulatory factor–3 (IRF-3) is actively inhibited by SARS-CoV, with IRF-3 being targeted by 5 known SARS-CoV proteins in order to prevent IFN-system activation. IFN induction can also be affected by unspecific degradation of host messenger RNA (mRNA). These defensive measures prevent tissue cells from mounting an antiviral IFN attack following SARS-CoV infection. Ultimately, however, an IFN immune response can occur. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) use Toll-like receptors (TLRs) to recognize pathogen structures and use IRF-7 to induce IFN transcription. Large amounts of IFN are thus produced by the PDCs following infection with SARS-CoV. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/237755-overview#aw2aab6b2b3 (accessed 12 February 2021) Epidemiology In November 2002, an unusual epidemic of severe pneumonia of unknown origin in Guangdong Province in southern China was noted. There was a high rate of transmission to health care workers (HCWs). Some of these patients were positive for SARS-CoV in the nasopharyngeal aspirates (NPA), whereas 87% patients had positive antibodies to SARS-CoV in their convalescent sera. Genetic analysis showed that the SARSCoV isolates from Guangzhou had the same origin as those in other countries,

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with a phylogenetic pathway that matched the spread of SARS to other parts of the world. The 2002–2003 SARS outbreak predominantly affected mainland China, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. In Canada, a significant outbreak occurred in the area around Toronto, Ontario. In the United States, 8 individuals contracted laboratoryconfirmed SARS. All patients had travelled to areas where active SARS-CoV transmission had been documented. SARS is thought to be transmitted primarily via close person-to-person contact, through droplet transmission. Most cases have involved persons who lived with or cared for a person with SARS or who had exposure to contaminated secretions from a patient with SARS. Some affected patients may have acquired SARS-CoV infection after their skin, respiratory system, or mucous membranes came into contact with infectious droplets propelled into the air by a coughing or sneezing patient with SARS. Leaky, backed-up sewage pipes; fans; and a faulty ventilation system were likely responsible for a severe outbreak of SARS in the Amoy Gardens residential complex in Hong Kong. Transmission may have occurred within the complex via airborne, virusladen aerosols. The worldwide number of SARS cases from the original outbreak (November 2002 through July 31, 2003) reached more than 8000 persons, including 1706 healthcare workers. Of those cases, 774 resulted in death, with a case fatality ratio of 9.6% deaths, and 7295 recoveries. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/237755-overview#a0156 (accessed 12 February 2021) Glossary Tropism Immune response Epidemiology Pneumonia Contaminated Secretions Mucous membrane Strategies

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‫انتحاء‬ ‫االستجابة المناعية‬ ‫علم االوبئة‬ ‫التهاب رئوي‬ ‫ملوث‬ ‫افرازات‬ ‫الغشاء المخاطي‬

Problems

Examples

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154  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 18. Provide your translation here. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

6.3.2  Problems above Word Level Equivalence

These problems are related to collocation, idioms and fixed expressions (Baker 1992: 46–77). For collocations, the following problems were identified:

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• • • • •

The engrossing effect of ST patterning Misinterpreting the meaning of SL collocation The tension between accuracy and naturalness Culture-specific collocations Marked collocations in the ST

The solutions suggested by Baker include the following steps: • Take the effect of SL into consideration • Put the translation draft aside for a few hours and return to read the target text so that the possible interfering influence of source text patterning is reduced • Evaluate the significance of a potential change in meaning • Translation by a marked collocation depending on the constraints of the target language and the purpose of the translation For idioms and fixed expressions, the following problems are identified: • • • • •

Recognition No equivalent in the TL A similar counterpart in the TL with a different context of use An idiom used in the ST both in its literal and idiomatic sense at the same time Difference between the convention, context and frequency of use in the SL and TL

The suggested methods include: • • • • • • • • •

Resourcing Using an idiom of similar meaning and form Using an idiom of similar meaning but differing form Paraphrase Omission Compensation Rewording Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words Translation by illustration

Exercise 19. Identify problems above word level related to the collocations in the text below and determine the strategies to be followed in translating them. Complete the table below. Prognosis The World Health Organisation data indicate that mortality from SARS is highly variable. The mortality rate has been found to range from less than 1% in patients below

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156  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

age 24 years to more than 50% in patients aged 65 and older. Certain risk factors, including the following, have been associated with a poorer prognosis: • Older age • Chronic hepatitis B infection • Laboratory features – Including marked lymphopenia and leukocytosis, elevated lactate dehydrogenase level, hepatitis, high SARS-CoV viral load, and comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus. Elevated levels of interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10), monokine induced by IFNgamma (MIG), and interleukin 8 (IL-8) during the first week, as well as an increase of MIG during the second week, have also been associated with a poor prognosis. A study of SARS survivors found that most of these had significant improvement clinically, radiographically, and in their pulmonary function studies. However, 27.8% of patients still exhibited abnormal radiographs at 12 months. Significant reductions in the diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide and in exercise ability (6-min walking distance) were also documented at 12 months. Polyneuropathy and myopathy associated with critical illness, avascular necrosis (possibly steroid induced), steroid toxicity, and psychosis were some of the other long-term sequel observed in the SARS survivors. Morbidity and mortality SARS can result in significant illness and medical complications that require hospitalization, intensive care treatment, and mechanical ventilation. Morbidity and mortality rates were observed to be greater in elderly patients. The overall mortality rate of SARS has been approximately 10%. According to the CDC and WHO, the death rate among individuals older than age 65 years exceeds 50%. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/237755-overview#aw2aab6b2b5 (accessed 10 February 2021) Glossary Mortality Chronic Hepatitis Comorbidities Toxicity

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‫معدل الوفيات‬ ‫مزمن‬ ‫التهاب الكبد‬ ‫االمراض المصاحبة‬ ‫سمية‬

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  157 ‫نسبة انتشار المرض‬

Morbidity Myopathy Necrosis Psychosis Problems

‫التهاب العضالت‬ ‫موت االنسجة‬ ‫اضطراب عقلي‬

Strategies

Examples

Exercise 20. Provide your translation here. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

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158  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 21. Identify problems and strategies related to the translation of idioms and fixed expressions in the following text before providing a full translation. Complete the table below. Alzheimer’s Disease: your role as caregiver Do You Realize How Much You Do? Your role as caregiver to a loved one suffering from Alzheimer’s disease can be very involved. • Y ou help maintain the quality of life for your spouse, parent, family member, or friend with Alzheimer’s disease. • You have become educated about symptoms, treatments and the progression of the disease. • You probably keep track of appointments with the doctor, medication schedules, and exercise. • You offer the love and support necessary to meet the challenges of Alzheimer’s disease. You are a caregiver. While many patients retain their independence for a period of time after being diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease, some may need more help with performing daily activities. For others, the diagnosis may come after weeks or months of you coping with symptoms that did not have a name. Regardless of how long you’ve been dealing with Alzheimer’s disease or to what degree, in some way Alzheimer’s has affected your life and responsibilities – physically, emotionally, or economically. Alzheimer’s Disease Diagnosis Unfortunately, getting an Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis is not simple. Your doctor can’t check for the disease by doing a quick blood test. That’s because signs of Alzheimer’s disease do not appear in your blood. Instead, Alzheimer’s disease is the result of a problem inside your brain. The only way to be 100% certain a person suffers from Alzheimer’s disease is to examine samples of brain tissue. This can only be done during an autopsy, after a person has died. Take care of yourself, too. Use these tips to improve your connection to your loved one and your life as a caregiver: • Take time for yourself. Make sure you have time to relax. If necessary, enlist the help of other family members or even hire someone to help out. • Learn as much as you can about your loved one’s disease so you will know how you can help. You’ll also understand what changes to expect in your loved one’s behavior or symptoms. http://www.webmd.com/alzheimers/guide/role-caregiver (accessed 15 February 2021) 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 158

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Glossary Symptoms Diagnosed Autopsy Consult Caregiving Problems

‫اعراض‬ ‫مشخص‬ ‫تشريح‬ ‫يستشير‬ ‫تقديم الرعاية‬

Strategies

Examples

Exercise 22. Provide your translation here. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 159

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160  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

6.3.3  Textual Equivalence: Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion and coherence are two main aspects of discourse. Coherence is defined as ‘a tacit, but discernible, thematic or emotional development running through the text’ (Dickins 2005: 128), as shown by the following example: I was hungry. I went downstairs. I knew the kitchen was on the ground floor. I was pretty sure the kitchen was on the ground floor. I didn’t expect to find it easily. I made myself a sandwich (ibid: 135). Arabic translation: ‫ كنت‬.‫ كنت أعرف أن المطبخ كان بالطابق األرضي‬. ‫ ذهبت إلى الطابق األرضي‬.‫لقد كنت جائعا‬ .‫ أعددت لنفسي شطيرة‬.‫متأكدا بأن المطبخ كان بالطابق األرضي لم أتوقع أن أجده بسهولة‬

According to Dickins, although the above text lacks cohesive markers to link the sentences, it is nonetheless coherent as a result of the chronological narrative structures. The following problems and strategies are related to maintaining cohesion and coherence between the SL and TL: 1. The tension between word order and communicative function. Suggested strategies: voice change, change of the verb, nominalisation and extraposition. 2. Maintaining a balance between accuracy and naturalness as far as the cohesion of the text is concerned. Suggested strategies: gender adding, person deleting, verb tense reordering, restrictions of word order, producing different lexical chains, change of meaning explicitation according to word order deictic, rechunking (reorganising or renumbering paragraphs, sentences) and text-type repunctuating (Baker 1992: 166–215). Exercise 23. Read the following text and provide a cohesive translation. Then carry out a contrastive analysis of the SL and TL as far as the cohesive devices are concerned. Cardiac enzyme studies measure the levels of the enzyme creatine phosphokinase (CPK, CK) and the protein troponin (TnI, TnT) in the blood. Low levels of these enzymes and proteins are normally found in your blood, but if your heart muscle is injured, such as from a heart attack, the enzymes and proteins leak out of damaged heart muscle cells, and their levels in the bloodstream rise. Because some of these enzymes and proteins are also found in other body tissues, their levels in the blood may rise when those other tissues are damaged. Cardiac enzyme studies must always be compared with your symptoms, your physical examination findings, and electrocardiogram (EKG, ECG) results.

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  161

Why it is done Cardiac enzyme studies are done to: • D etermine whether you are having a heart attack or a threatened heart attack (unstable angina) if you have chest pain, shortness of breath, nausea, sweating, and abnormal electrocardiography results. • Check for injury to the heart after bypass surgery. • Determine if a procedure, such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), or a medicine to dissolve the blockage (thrombolytic medicine) has successfully restored blood flow through a blocked coronary artery. How to prepare No special preparation is required before having this test. Many medicines may affect the results of this test. Be sure to tell your health professional about all the nonprescription and prescription medicines you take. Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results will mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form. How it is done The health professional drawing your blood will: • W  rap an elastic band around your upper arm to stop the flow of blood. This makes the veins below the band larger so it is easier to inject a needle into the vein. • Clean the needle site with alcohol. • Put the needle into the vein. More than one needle stick may be needed. • Attach a tube to the needle to fill it with blood. • Remove the band from your arm when enough blood is collected. • Put a gauze pad or cotton ball over the needle site as the needle is removed. • Put pressure on the site and then put on a bandage. http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/cardiac-enzyme-studies (accessed 17 February 2021) Cohesive devices in ST

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Cohesive devices in TT

Examples

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‫‪162  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫‪Exercise 24. Provide your own translation of the above text.‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 25. Provide your own translation of the following text, taking into‬‬ ‫‪consideration the differences in the use of cohesive devices.‬‬ ‫من األسباب التي تستدعي إجراء عملية زراعة القلب اإلصابة بالقصور القلبي الذي يعرف ب‬ ‫“بالقصور القلبي االحتقاني” أيضاً‪ ،‬ويحدث عندما ال يتمكن القلب من ضخ الكمية الكافية من الدم‬ ‫الذي يحمل األكسجين إلى أعضاء الجسم المختلفة‪ ،‬بحيث يستمر القلب في عملية الضخ إال أنها‬ ‫ليست بنفس فعالية القلب السليم‪ .‬فيحتفظ جسم اإلنسان المصاب بالقصور القلبي االحتقاني بكمية‬

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  163 ‫ كما و تتجمع السوائل في الرئتين مسببة‬،‫أكبر من السوائل مما تؤدي إلى انتفاخ الكاحلين والساقين‬ .‫ضيق في التنفس‬

https://www.alkhaleej.ae/‫“مات‬-‫قلب‬-‫زرع‬/‫( ملحق‬accessed 12 February 2021) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

6.4  Translating COVID-19 In 2020, the world was engulfed by a pandemic that originated in China in 2019 and spread around the globe. Covid-19 has pushed scientists and media to coin new terminologies and phrases to describe and characterise the new disease. This has great impact on other languages, where terms have been translated differently, and in some cases scholars, translators and linguists have debated and discussed the best ways to translate new issues and terms into various TLs. In the context of Arabic, different strategies have been adopted to translate this new register. Some of these strategies include borrowing, foreignisation, domestication and adaptation. The following texts, glossaries and a wide range of exercises offer learners the opportunity to adopt and implement some of the strategies introduced earlier in this and in other modules. Exercise 26. Read the following text and answer the questions that follow. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus. Most people infected with the COVID-19 virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and recover without requiring special treatment. Older people, and those with underlying medical problems like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are more likely to develop serious illness. The best way to prevent and slow down transmission is to be well informed about the COVID-19 virus, the disease it causes and how it spreads. Protect yourself and others from infection by washing your hands or using an alcohol based rub frequently and not touching your face. The COVID-19 virus spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or discharge from the nose when an infected person coughs or sneezes, so it’s important that you also practise respiratory etiquette (for example, by coughing into a flexed elbow).

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164  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

To prevent infection and to slow transmission of COVID-19, do the following: • W  ash your hands regularly with soap and water, or clean them with alcohol-based hand rub. • Maintain at least 1 metre distance between you and people coughing or sneezing. • Avoid touching your face. • Cover your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing. • Stay home if you feel unwell. • Refrain from smoking and other activities that weaken the lungs. • Practise physical distancing by avoiding unnecessary travel and staying away from large groups of people. COVID-19 affects different people in different ways. Most infected people will develop mild to moderate illness and recover without hospitalization. On average it takes 5–6 days from when someone is infected with the virus for symptoms to show; however, it can take up to 14 days. https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 (accessed 18 June 2021) Glossary Infectious Respiratory illness Chronic respiratory disease Transmission Physical distancing Hospitalisation Sore throat Shortness of breath Chest pain Symptoms Medical attention

‫مرض معدي‬ ‫مرض الجهاز التنفسي‬ ‫أمراض الجهاز التنفسي المزمنة‬ ‫انتقال‬ ‫التباعد االجتماعي‬ ‫العالج في المستشفى‬ ‫ألم الحلق‬ ‫ضيق في التنفس‬ ‫ألم صدر‬ ‫أعراض‬ ‫الرعاية الطبية‬

Exercise 27. Translate the following into English. ‫ وسيت ّم تحديث‬.‫تواصل منظمة الصحة العالمية رصد هذه الفيروسات واالستجابة لها باستمرار‬ ‫ وكيف ينتشر وكيف يؤثر‬19-‫هذه األسئلة واألجوبة كلما توفر المزيد من المعارف عن مرض كوفيد‬ .‫على الناس حول العالم‬ ‫ما هو فيروس كورونا؟‬ .‫فيروسات كورونا هي ساللة واسعة من الفيروسات التي قد تسبب المرض للحيوان واإلنسان‬ ‫ومن المعروف أن عدداً من فيروسات كورونا تسبب لدى البشر أمراض تنفسية تتراوح حدتها من‬

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  165 )‫نزالت البرد الشائعة إلى األمراض األشد وخامة مثل متالزمة الشرق األوسط التنفسية (ميرس‬ ‫ ويسبب فيروس كورونا ال ُمكتشف مؤخراً مرض‬.)‫والمتالزمة التنفسية الحادة الوخيمة (سارس‬ .19-‫كوفيد‬ ‫؟‬19-‫ما هو مرض كوفيد‬ ‫ ولم‬.‫ هو مرض معد يسببه آخر فيروس تم اكتشافه من ساللة فيروسات كورونا‬19-‫مرض كوفيد‬ ‫يكن هناك أي علم بوجود هذا الفيروس الجديد ومرضه قبل بدء تفشيه في مدينة ووهان الصينية‬ ‫ اآلن إلى جائحة تؤثر على العديد من بلدان‬19-‫ وقد تح ّول كوفيد‬.2019 ‫ ديسمبر‬/‫في كانون األول‬ .‫العالم‬ ‫؟‬19-‫ما هي أعراض مرض كوفيد‬ ‫ وتشمل‬.‫ في ‏الحمى واإلرهاق والسعال الجاف‬19-‫تتمثل األعراض األكثر شيوعا ً لمرض كوفيد‬ ‫ واحتقان‬،‫ اآلالم واألوجاع‬:‫األعراض‏األخرى األقل شيوعا ً ولكن قد يُصاب بها بعض‏المرضى‬ ‫ وظهور‬،‫‏وفقدان حاسة الذوق أو الشم‬،‫ واإلسهال‬،‫ وألم الحلق‬،‫ والتهاب الملتحمة‬،‫‏والصداع‬،‫األنف‬ ‫ وعادة ما ‏تكون هذه األعراض خفيفة وتبدأ‬.‫طفح جلدي ‏أو تغير لون أصابع اليدين أو القدمين‬ .ً‫‏ويصاب بعض الناس بالعدوى دون أن يشعروا إال‏بأعراض خفيفة جدا‬.‫بشكل تدريجي‬

https://www.oie.int/en/scientific-expertise/specific-information-and-recommendations/ questions-and-answers-on-2019novel-coronavirus (accessed 2 February 2021) Exercise 28. Translate and discuss with your fellow students the domestication and foreignisation strategies in your translation of the above text. Please complete the following table. Examples of domestication

Examples of foreignisation

Exercise 29. Translate the following text into Arabic. Apply some of the strategies introduced in this module. After translating the text, exchange your work with a fellow student and comment on each other’s translations. What is the difference between Influenza (Flu) and COVID-19? Influenza (Flu) and COVID-19 are both contagious respiratory illnesses, but they are caused by different viruses. COVID-19 is caused by infection with a new coronavirus (called SARS-CoV-2), and flu is caused by infection with influenza viruses.

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COVID-19 seems to spread more easily than flu and causes more serious illnesses in some people. It can also take longer before people show symptoms and people can be contagious for longer. More information about differences between flu and COVID-19 is available in the different sections below. Because some of the symptoms of flu and COVID-19 are similar, it may be hard to tell the difference between them based on symptoms alone, and testing may be needed. While more is learned every day about COVID-19 and the virus that causes it, there is still a lot that is unknown. This page compares COVID-19 and flu, given the best available information to date. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html (accessed 16 February 2021) Exercise 30. Complete the following table based on your translation of the above text. ST

Possible borrowing in TT

Exercise 31. In pairs, discuss strategies of translating texts, with comparative and contrastive ideas. Use the above text as an example. Exercise 32. Translate the following into Arabic and comment on your strategy of translating listed items into Arabic. When to self-isolate Self-isolate immediately if: • y ou have any symptoms of coronavirus (a high temperature, a new, continuous cough or a loss or change to your sense of smell or taste) • you’ve tested positive for coronavirus – this means you have coronavirus • someone you live with has symptoms or tested positive

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• s omeone in your support bubble has symptoms and you’ve been in close contact with them since their symptoms started or during the 48 hours before they started. • someone in your support bubble tested positive and you’ve been in close contact with them since they had the test or in the 48 hours before their test • you’ve been told you’ve been in contact with someone who tested positive https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/self-isolation-and-treatment/whento-self-isolate-and-what-to-do/ (accessed 17 February 2021) Exercise 33. Translate the following texts into Arabic and comment on key challenges encountered. Discuss the strategies you applied in order to overcome these with your fellow students. Symptoms of coronavirus If you have any of the main symptoms of coronavirus (COVID-19), get a test as soon as possible. Stay at home until you get the result. Main symptoms The main symptoms of coronavirus are: • a high temperature – this means you feel hot to touch on your chest or back (you do not need to measure your temperature) • a new, continuous cough – this means coughing a lot for more than an hour, or 3 or more coughing episodes in 24 hours (if you usually have a cough, it may be worse than usual) • a loss or change to your sense of smell or taste – this means you’ve noticed you cannot smell or taste anything, or things smell or taste different to normal Most people with coronavirus have at least 1 of these symptoms What to do if you have symptoms If you have any of the main symptoms of coronavirus: • G et a test to check if you have coronavirus as soon as possible. • You and anyone you live with should stay at home and not have visitors until you get your test result – only leave your home to have a test. • Anyone in your support bubble should also stay at home if you have been in close contact with them since your symptoms started or during the 48 hours before they started. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/symptoms/ (accessed 17 February 2021)

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Exercise 34. Provide a translation for the following terms into Arabic. English Airborne Contact tracing Disinfect Epidemic Face mask Herd immunity Infectious Intensive care Isolation Lockdown Outbreak Pandemic Quarantine Sanitising Social distancing State of emergency Symptoms

Arabic

6.5 Conclusion This module has introduced the reader to key strategies of translating scientific texts at different levels of text. It examines translation strategies at word, sentence and textual levels, highlighting key challenges and providing possible ways of overcoming them. The module has also introduced the reader to texts on Covid-19, the recent pandemic that has engulfed the entire globe.

6.6  Module Review Exercises Exercise 35. Read the following article carefully and complete the exercises that follow. The first paragraph has been translated as an example. DNA AND MOLECULAR GENETICS: The physical carrier of inheritance While the period from the early 1900s to World War II has been considered the ‘golden age’ of genetics, scientists still had not determined that DNA, and not protein, was the hereditary material. However, during this time a great many genetic discoveries were made and the link between genetics and evolution was made.

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  169 ‫( والجبن الجزيئي الناقل العضوي للوراثة‬DNA) ‫الـ د ن أ‬ ‫ وحتى الحرب العالمية الثانية العصر الذهبي لعلم الجينات فإن‬1900 ‫في حين اعتبرت الفترة من‬ ‫ ورغم ذلك فقد‬.‫( هو مادة الوراثة وليس البروتين‬DNA) ‫العلم لم يكن قد حسم أمره في الـ د ن أ‬ .‫شهدت هذه الفترة عدة اكتشافات جينية وتم الربط بين الجينات والنشوء‬

Friedrich Meischer in 1869 isolated DNA from fish sperm and the pus of open wounds. Since it came from nuclei, Meischer named this new chemical, nuclein. Subsequently the name was changed to nucleic acid and lastly to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Robert Feulgen, in 1914, discovered that fuchsin dye stained DNA. DNA was then found in the nucleus of all eukaryotic cells. During the 1920s, biochemist P. A. Levene analyzed the components of the DNA molecule. He found it contained four nitrogenous bases: cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine; deoxyribose sugar; and a phosphate group. He concluded that the basic unit (nucleotide) was composed of a base attached to a sugar and that the phosphate also attached to the sugar. He (unfortunately) also erroneously concluded that the proportions of bases were equal and that there was a tetranucleotide that was the repeating structure of the molecule. The nucleotide, however, remains as the fundamental unit (monomer) of the nucleic acid polymer. There are four nucleotides: those with cytosine (C), those with guanine (G), those with adenine (A), and those with thymine (T). During the early 1900s, the study of genetics began in earnest: the link between Mendel’s work and that of cell biologists resulted in the chromosomal theory of inheritance; Garrod proposed the link between genes and ‘inborn errors of metabolism’; and the question was formed: what is a gene? The answer came from the study of a deadly infectious disease: pneumonia. During the 1920s Frederick Griffith studied the difference between a disease-causing strain of the pneumonia causing bacteria (Streptococcus peumoniae) and a strain that did not cause pneumonia. The pneumonia-causing strain (the S strain) was surrounded by a capsule. http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookdnamolgen.html (accessed 12 March 2012) Exercise 36. Provide Arabic equivalents for the following English terms. English DNA Nucleotide Adenine Guanine

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Arabic

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Deoxyribose sugar Thymine Cytosine Exercise 37. Translate the third and fourth paragraphs of the above text. Use a specialised dictionary. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 38. Translate the following text, bearing in mind gender and number differences between English and Arabic. The atomic number is the number of protons an atom has. It is characteristic and unique for each element. The atomic mass (also referred to as the atomic weight) is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Atoms of an element that have differing numbers of neutrons (but a constant atomic number) are termed isotopes.

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Isotopes can be used to determine the diet of ancient peoples by determining proportions of isotopes in mummified or fossilized human tissues. Biochemical pathways can be deciphered by using isotopic tracers. The age of fossils and artefacts can be determined by using radioactive isotopes, either directly on the fossil (if it is young enough) or on the rocks that surround the fossil (for older fossils like dinosaurs). Isotopes are also the source of radiation used in medical diagnostic and treatment procedures. http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookchem1.html (accessed 12 February 2021) Glossary Atomic number Atomic mass Radioactive Diagnostic

‫الرقم الجزيئي‬ ‫الكتلة الذرية‬ ‫مشع‬ ‫تشخيصي‬

....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 39. Translate the following excerpt and make a glossary of the scientific terms. Most heart attacks are the result of coronary heart disease, a condition that clogs coronary arteries with fatty, calcified plaques. As blood flow is gradually impeded, the body may compensate by growing a network of collateral arteries to circumvent

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‫‪172  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫‪blockages; the presence of collateral vessels may greatly reduce the amount of heart‬‬ ‫‪muscle damaged by a heart attack. In the early 1980s, researchers confirmed that‬‬ ‫‪the precipitating cause of nearly all heart attacks is not the obstructive plaque itself,‬‬ ‫‪but the sudden formation of a blood clot on top of plaque that cuts off blood flow‬‬ ‫‪in an already narrowed vessel.‬‬ ‫‪http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/guide/heart-attack-causes-treatments (accessed 15‬‬ ‫)‪February 2021‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 40. Translate the following scientific terms from Arabic into English, using a‬‬ ‫‪specialised dictionary.‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫عملية التمثيل الضوئي‪......................................................................................‬‬ ‫انقسام الخلية ‪.................................................................................................‬‬ ‫النظرية النسبية ‪..............................................................................................‬‬ ‫المركبات الكيميائية ‪.........................................................................................‬‬ ‫التفاضل والتكامل في الرياضيات ‪........................................................................‬‬

‫‪Exercise 41. Translate the following text into English.‬‬ ‫ماذا أفعل إذا كنت مصابا ً بأعراض كوفيد‪ 19-‬ومتى ينبغي أن التمس الرعاية الطبية؟‬ ‫ً‬ ‫إذا كانت أعراضك خفيفة‪ ،‬من قبيل الكحة البسيطة أو الحمى الطفيفة‪ ،‬فال حاجة عموما إلى طلب‬ ‫الرعاية الطبية‪ .‬الزم المنزل واعزل نفسك وراقب أعراضك‪ .‬واتبع اإلرشادات الوطنية عن العزل‬ ‫الذاتي‪ .‬ولكن إذا كنت تعيش في منطقة تنتشر فيها المالريا أو حمى الضنك‪ ،‬فمن الضروري‬ ‫أال تتجاهل أعراض الحمى‪ .‬اطلب المساعدة الطبية‪ .‬وعندما تتوجه إلى مرفق الرعاية الصحية‬ ‫ضع كمامة إن أمكن‪ ،‬وحافظ على مسافة متر واحد على األقل بينك وبين اآلخرين وتجنب لمس‬ ‫األسطح المحيطة بيديك‪ .‬وإذا كان المريض طفالً‪ ،‬فساعده على االلتزام بهذه النصائح‪.‬‬ ‫التمس الرعاية الطبية على الفور إذا كنت تشعر بصعوبة في التنفس أو بألم‪/‬ضغط في الصدر‪.‬‬ ‫اتصل بالطبيب مسبقاً‪ ،‬إن أمكن‪ ،‬ليتسنى له إرشادك إلى المرفق الصحي المناسب‪.‬‬

‫‪https://www.who.int/ar/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for‬‬‫)‪public/q-a-coronaviruses (accessed 2 March 2021‬‬

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Module 6: Scientific Texts  173

Exercise 42. Translate the following English text into Arabic and comment on key issues encountered in its translation. Most common symptoms: • fever. • dry cough. • tiredness. Less common symptoms: • • • • • • •

aches and pains. sore throat. diarrhoea. conjunctivitis. headache. loss of taste or smell. a rash on skin, or discolouration of fingers or toes.

Serious symptoms: • difficulty breathing or shortness of breath. • chest pain or pressure. • loss of speech or movement. Seek immediate medical attention if you have serious symptoms. Always call before visiting your doctor or health facility. People with mild symptoms who are otherwise healthy should manage their symptoms at home. On average it takes 5–6 days from when someone is infected with the virus for symptoms to show; however, it can take up to 14 days. https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 (accessed 2 March 2021) Exercise 43. Extract a glossary of key terms on vaccination from the following text, then translate the whole text. How the COVID-19 vaccine is given The COVID-19 vaccine is given as an injection into your upper arm. It’s given as 2 doses. You will have the 2nd dose 3 to 12 weeks after having the 1st dose. You will have 2 doses of the same vaccine.

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174  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

How to get the COVID-19 vaccine You can book your vaccination appointments online if any of the following apply: you are aged 50 or over you are at high risk from coronavirus (clinically extremely vulnerable) you are an eligible frontline health or social care worker you have a condition that puts you at higher risk (clinically vulnerable) you have a learning disability you are a main carer for someone at high risk from coronavirus You can book appointments at a larger vaccination centre or a pharmacy that provides COVID-19 vaccinations. You do not need to wait to be contacted by the National Health Service. Book your COVID-19 vaccination appointments. How safe is the COVID-19 vaccine? The vaccines approved for use in the UK have met strict standards of safety, quality and effectiveness set out by the independent Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). Any coronavirus vaccine that is approved must go through all the clinical trials and safety checks all other licensed medicines go through. The MHRA follows international standards of safety. Other vaccines are being developed. They will only be available on the NHS once they have been thoroughly tested to make sure they are safe and effective. So far, millions of people have been given a COVID-19 vaccine and reports of serious side effects, such as allergic reactions, have been very rare. No long-term complications have been reported. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/coronavirus-vaccination/coronavirusvaccine/ (accessed 13 June 2021)

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Module 7 Media Texts 7.1 Introduction This module introduces the reader to the translation of media texts from English into Arabic. It covers a wide variety of registers, ranging from diplomacy and conflicts, over uprisings and revolutions, to political participation and natural disasters. It concludes with a variety of exercises capturing key concepts and terms introduced and discussed in the module.

7.2  Features of Media Texts Media texts are the main means for receiving information and entertainment, consisting of language usually found in articles and advertisements published in newspapers or broadcast on radio, TV, websites and so on. These texts depend on the addressee, and their main function is to express the message effectively; therefore, they emphasise the layout and mode of presentation. In newspapers, for example, the message is conveyed with much focus on the display of headlines/banners (font size, organisation, prominence and other typographical features) in the way most appealing to readers. As a sub-category of non-fiction, media texts do not always apply the literary use of language. First, media texts tend to adopt a different structure. Careful structuring is important for all types of text: ‘whether you’re writing a novel, a letter to a friend, or a recipe, clear structuring is the key of effective communication’ (Rowland and Avery 2001: 111). Indeed, the structuring of texts is vital, not only for strengthening one’s argument, but also for the coherent flow of information. However, unlike conventional writing, media texts often have a different opening and emphasis. While, for example, literary texts habitually offer a clear introduction, media texts open with what is often referred to as a ‘lead’ which is used to ‘create suspense or surprise, or shock or arouse emotions in the reader’ (ibid: 112). Moreover, the language of media texts is characterised by greater freedom than what is found in standard language. The media style, unlike the literary, is often geared towards the production of news and information within a very limited timeframe. The nature of news production necessitates a simple style, with very short sentences and subtle cohesive devices that are almost absent. On the sentence and paragraph level, therefore, language is short and economical, and on the grammatical level the use of active rather than passive verbs is preferred and the presence of adjectives limited (Garcia Suares 2005; Hernandez Guerrero 2005, quoted in Bielsa 2009: 147–48). When the language is

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attention-grabbing (for example, in headlines), it tends to be free from grammatical constraints. For example, a newspaper headline may read: ‘State population to double by 2040; babies to blame’ instead of a grammatically more correct sentence such as ‘The state population is expected to double by 2040, and babies are the ones to blame’. It is clear how short the headline is, omitting functional words and focusing only on the meaningful lexis. According to Reah (2002: 13), ‘the headline has a range of functions that specifically dictate its shape, content and structure, and operates within a range of restrictions that limit the freedom of the writer’. These restrictions are indicated in the condensed heading or title that is often used for marketing purposes, with the intention of attracting the reader. To this end, ‘headline writers use a wide range of devices to create a very specific style, which is sometimes called headlines’ (Verdonk 2002: 4). Media language internally is also less elaborate than other types. In Arabic, for instance, media sentences are less complex, serving the main function of conveying information rather than the creative stylistic aspects of the text. Rhetorical and aesthetic features are minimised, with more emphasis on plain language to convey the meaning. The elaborate cohesive devices that ordinarily are the ingredients of Arabic writing style are less common in media texts. Sentences and paragraphs are often connected by the conjunctive device wa (and) (Lahlali 2022). However, because it aims to grab attention, media language tends to make more use of emotive language, although this depends on the type and category of media texts. This variation in style is often heavily influenced by the pressing need to publish information, in some cases instantly, but sometimes also with emphasis on the creative aspects of writing so as to appeal to readers’ emotions in a piece of news. Media texts can be divided into four categories: hard news, feature articles, specialtopic news and headlines. These categories have different features, depending on the theme and structure of the text. Some of the texts are written very quickly, with the sole aim of publishing and disseminating news and information, often on the same day (Bell 1991: 14). They may take many forms, for example, ‘an interview with a person in the news or an eyewitness to a press release from a public relations agency, a government media briefing, a copy from an international news agency such as Reuter’s or United Press International’ (Rowland and Avery 2001: 121). Such categories will normally differ in form and language. Different kinds of media also have their own characteristics, depending on their purpose. Magazine covers, for example, have less text and no advertising when compared to newspapers. For instance, a newspaper usually contains different sections for sports, entertainment, a TV guide, medical and scientific news and so on, each with its own genrespecific language (ibid). Each of these sub-categories of media language has different features, all of which serve the purpose of creating expressive and informative texts. With regard to the translation profession, media texts more often require interpreting rather than written translation. Interpreting is usually more complicated than written

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Module 7: Media Texts  177

translation because of difficulties regarding the setting, time, voice, participants and so on. As for written translation, media texts can be more easily translated than other complex genres such as literary texts. In translating lexis, for example, the translation strategies applied are restricted to using a borrowed term, being either transliterated or translated literally. This is especially because these terms tend to be restricted in meaning and cannot normally be used in other connotative senses such as metaphor or metonymy. For example, media terms such as piggyback have straightforward equivalents in other languages, for example, ferroutage in French and huckepack in German. This characteristic makes media texts a successful candidate for machine translation programs. Such programs can be more refined and much appreciated since the language of the media can be anticipated, similar to other ‘technical’ language uses. Indeed, media texts could be called a category of technical texts, if we considered the media as a ‘field’ and not strictly a discipline. What follows is a wide range of drills designed to help learners and translators practise translating media texts, taking into account some of the translation strategies introduced in the previous modules.

7.3  Translating Conflicts and Wars Translating texts about conflicts and wars remains one of the most complex tasks faced by translators. This is due to the fact that the type of register used may be interpreted differently by different parties involved in the conflict. For example, what may be considered a ‘holy war’ by some may be regarded as ‘guerrilla war’ by others. These ideological differences in the way in which terms are approached and actions labelled make it difficult for translators to provide a representative translation for certain terms and actions. In this case, the translator needs to take into account various aspects (that is, the cultural, social and political contexts) of the TT and ST, meaning that the translator should be very aware of these cultural differences in order to provide a balanced translation. In translating what may be deemed controversial terms, the translator could resort to footnotes to explain or contextualise these key terms in the SL, so that the TL audience is aware of the main aspects underlining these terms in the ST. Exercise 1. Read the text below, then complete the exercises. Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire breached with fighting under way Armenia and Azerbaijan accuse each other of violating a peace deal that ended six weeks of fighting over the disputed territory. Fighting continued on Sunday between Azerbaijan and Armenia in the breakaway region of Nagorno-Karabakh, violating the November ceasefire that ended the bloody conflict.

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178  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Azerbaijan’s defence ministry said four of its soldiers were killed when their units were attacked in areas adjacent to the Nagorno-Karabakh region, while authorities in Armenia said six of their troops had been wounded. ‘Armenia shouldn’t try to start it all over again’, Aliyev said during a meeting with top diplomats from the United States and France, who have tried to mediate the decades-old conflict. ‘It must be very cautious and not plan any military action. This time, we will fully destroy them. It mustn’t be a secret to anyone’. Earlier on Saturday, Nagorno-Karabakh forces said three of their fighters had been wounded in an attack by Azerbaijani forces. The Armenian army also reported attacks from Azerbaijan on two villages that are under the control of Nagorno-Karabakh forces. Yerevan said Armenian forces repelled attempted intrusions into territories supposed to remain under the control of the rebel province’s government, namely the Hin Tagher and Khtsaberd villages. ‘The provocations of Azerbaijan continued today in the direction of the villages of Mets Shen and Hin Shen in the Hadrut region’, Armenia’s foreign ministry said in a statement. In another statement, Armenia’s defence ministry said: ‘negotiations between Armenian, Russian and Azerbaijani servicemen are under way to resolve the situation in Hadrut and ensure the return of the parties to their former positions’. A spokesman for the Russian peacekeeping forces confirmed ‘exchanges of fire with automatic weapons’, telling the Ria Novosti press agency that requests to respect the ceasefire had been sent to both parties. ‘One case of ceasefire violation was reported on December 11 in the Hadrut district’, said a statement from the Russian ministry of defence, without assigning any blame. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/13/karabakh-ceasefire-breached-says-russianarmy (accessed 14 January 2021) Glossary Ceasefire Breach Authorities Military action Peacekeeping Military parade Heavy losses Raids Withdraw of forces 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 178

‫وقف اطالق النار‬ ‫خرق‬ ‫سلطات‬ ‫عملية عسكرية‬ ‫حفظ السالم‬ ‫استعراض عسكري‬ ‫خسائر فادحة‬ ‫غارات‬ ‫سحب قوات‬

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Exercise 2. Identify the main media features in the above text. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 3. Find out collocations in the above text and translate them into Arabic. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 4. Summarise the above text in Arabic. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 5. Translate the following paragraphs into Arabic. Nagorno-Karabakh is internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan but is populated and, until recently, was fully controlled by ethnic Armenians after a bloody war in the 1990s that saw them seize outlying regions belonging to Azerbaijan. In 44 days of fighting that began in late September and left more than 5,600 people dead on both sides, the Azerbaijani army pushed deep into NagornoKarabakh, forcing Armenia to accept last month’s peace deal that saw Azerbaijan reclaim significant territory. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 179

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Russia deployed nearly 2,000 peacekeepers for at least five years to monitor the peace deal and to facilitate the return of refugees. Azerbaijan marked its victory with a military parade on Thursday that was attended by Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and involved more than 3,000 troops, dozens of military vehicles, and a flyby of combat aircraft. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/13/karabakh-ceasefire-breached-says-russianarmy (accessed 14 January 2021) Exercise 6. Identify and correct any inaccurate translations in the Arabic translation of the English text below. Police in Hong Kong have fired pepper-spray balls at crowds protesting against a government decision to delay legislative elections in the territory. Nearly 300 people were arrested at Sunday’s unauthorised demonstration. The elections had been due on 6 September, but the government postponed them by a year saying it was necessary amid a rise in coronavirus infections. The opposition is accusing the government of using the pandemic as a pretext to stop people from voting. Opposition activists had hoped to obtain a majority in the Legislative Council (LegCo), capitalising on anger at Beijing’s imposition of a controversial national security law in Hong Kong, and fears that the territory’s freedoms are being eroded. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-54048907 (accessed 10 January 2021) Arabic translation: ‫ احتجوا على‬،‫أطلقت الشرطة الوطنية في هونغ كونغ كرات رذاذ الفلفل على بعض المتظاهرين‬ .‫قرار الحكومة بتأجيل االنتخابات التشريعية السنوية في اإلقليم‬ .‫ في مظاهرة مصرح بها جرت مساء األحد‬،‫ شخص‬300 ‫واعتُقل ما يقرب من‬ ‫ لكن الحكومة ألغتها عاما‬،‫ أيلول‬/‫وكان من المقرر إجراء االنتخابات األحد السادس من سبتمبر‬ .‫ في ظل ارتفاع حاالت اإلصابة بفيروس كورونا‬،‫عادة أن االلغاء ضروري‬ .‫ لمنع بعض المعارضين من التصويت‬،‫وتتهم المعارضة الحكومة باستخدام الوباء ذريعة‬ ‫ مستفيدين‬،‫ في المجلس التشريعي لإلقليم‬،‫وكان نشطاء المعارضة يأملون في الحصول على األقلية‬ ‫ والمخاوف من‬،‫من الغضب إزاء فرض بكين لقانون األمن القومي المثير للجدل في هونغ كونغ‬ .‫تآكل الحريات في اإلقليم‬

Exercise 7. Translate the following into English. ......................................................................................................‫ تو ّغل في‬1 ................................................................................................ ‫ دارت معارك‬2

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Module 7: Media Texts  181 ..................................................................................................... ‫أفرج عن‬ ......................................................................................... ‫وجّه ضربة قاصمة‬ ....................................................................................... ‫الوصول إلى السلطة‬ ............................................................................................ ‫البقاء في السلطة‬ .......................................................................................... ‫التخلي عن السلطة‬

3 4 5 6 7

Exercise 8. Use the following terms and phrases in English sentences and then translate them into Arabic. 1. Resume fighting ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... 2. Repercussions ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... 3. Armed attack ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... 4. Military intervention ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... 5. Nuclear-free zone ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... 6. Disarmament ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... 7. Deployment of forces ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... 8. Undergo, sustain losses ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………....... Exercise 9. Translate the underlined words/phrases in the following paragraph into Arabic. Hong Kong, a former British colony, was handed back to China in 1997 under an agreement meant to guarantee a high degree of autonomy for 50 years. Pro-democracy candidates had made unprecedented gains in last year’s district council elections, winning 17 out of 18 councils. What’s the latest from Sunday’s protests? Thousands of people took to the streets of Hong Kong to mark the day the elections had been due to be held. Chanting ‘Give me back my right to vote!’ groups of protesters walked a short distance before they were confronted by heavily armed riot police. At least 289 people were arrested, local media report.

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‘I want my right to vote! Shame [on the government] for postponing the elections!’ Leung Kwok-hung, one of those detained on Sunday, was quoted as saying by the South China Morning Post website. Earlier, a high-profile opposition activist, Tam Tak-chi, was detained, accused of making speeches that could incite hatred and contempt of the government. He was held by police working to enforce the Chinese territory’s new strict national security law, which was imposed by Beijing in June and criminalises many forms of political expression. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-54048907 (accessed 10 January 2021)

7.4  Translating Uprisings and Revolutions The 2011 uprisings/revolutions engulfing the Middle East have led to the coining of new terms and phrases which have become part of the Arabic glossary and culture, and with which some translators might not be familiar. Some of this new register is specific to individual countries and groups. This could pose a challenge to the translator who might not be aware of this new register. Translators ought to be aware of the new register, as well as the internal/local context associated with it, in order to be able to provide a representative and accurate translation of the meaning of the text. Another challenge that translators may face when translating such a type of text is the culture-specific nature of some of this register. For instance, the historical context could prove essential in translating these texts, as some of the terms are directly linked to national and regional issues and very specific to the SL. The following section will introduce learners and translators to some key terms related to uprising and revolutions. The wide range of drills offered will allow students to practise their translation skills. Exercise 10. Read the following text and create your own glossary of key terms to add to the list below. Chile protests: what prompted the unrest? At least 20 people have been killed in protests over inequality in the worst unrest to hit the country in decades. Santiago – Chile has been gripped by protests against high living costs and inequality for nearly two weeks. Angry over President Sebastian Pinera‘s response to the protests, demonstrators are calling for him to step down. Although the country is no longer under a state of emergency, which was initially declared after the demonstrations began, protests have continued, with frequent

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clashes between police and protesters. Police have used tear gas, water cannon, rubber bullets and pellets, prompting allegations of rights abuses. Looting has also taken place and supermarkets and petrol stations have been set on fire. At least 20 civilians have been killed, according to officials. It is the worst violence the country has witnessed since the 17-year-long military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, which ended in 1990. Despite the unrest, the majority of protesters have been peaceful, with many banging spoons against cooking pots – a form of protest known as cacerolazo. As the protests continue, Al Jazeera examines the underlying reasons behind the protests in what is considered one of South America’s most stable countries. How did the protests start, and who was behind them? The protests began as a student-led demonstration against transport fares. In early October, the government announced that the metro rush hour prices would rise by 30 pesos ($0.04). Responding to public outcry against the rising fare, then-Minister of Economy Juan Andres Fontaine announced that those upset with the price rise could wake up earlier and pay a lower rate. Outrage grew after the remarks, leading students to conduct a mass fare evasion by jumping over the metro turnstiles, and, in some instances, destroying them. ‘Evade, and not pay, is another way of fighting’, they chanted at the time. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/30/chile-protests-what-prompted-the-unrest (accessed 14 January 2021) Glossary English Protests Demonstrations Outcry Tear gas Looting Transport fares Rush hours Increase of cost of living Inequality

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Arabic

‫احتجاجات‬ ‫مظاهرات‬ ‫صرخة‬ ‫غازات مسيلة للدموع‬ ‫النهب‬ ‫تذاكر‬ ‫ساعات الذروة‬ ‫ارتفاع أسعار المعيشة‬ ‫عدم المساواة‬

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Exercise 11. Read the above text and find the equivalence of the following vocabulary in Arabic. Step down – state of emergency – clash with – political movements – outrage – water cannon – rubber bullets – allegations – took to the street – protests Exercise 12. Read the following text and (a) identify strategies of addition and omission in the TT; (b) compare and contrast the cohesive devices employed in the ST and TT. Our great revolutionary youth, who started and are still guarding the revolution, must also bear their solemn responsibility before the country and history. The handover of the power to the people in a peaceful manner through the ballot box is the safest and quickest way of ensuring the return of the armed forces to their natural role. We all want to build a new police force imbued with a new culture: one that respects the citizens and their rights, protects them when they express their opinions, and dares not to attack them. Arabic translation: ‫ أن يتحمل‬،‫ الذي وبكل صدق وإخالص بدأ الثورة وحماها‬،‫وعلى الشباب العاقل الثائر والغاضب‬ ‫ وأن يدرك أن تسليم السلطة المؤقت للشعب‬،‫مسئوليته كاملة وبدون شك أمام هللا والوطن والتاريخ‬ ‫بسالسة عبر صناديق االقتراع هو أسلم وأقصر الطرق للخروج من عنق الزجاجة الضيق وإعادة‬ ‫ وأننا جميعا ً متفقون كليا على تسليم السلطة‬، ‫القوات المسلحة إلى دورها الطبيعي والدستوري‬ ‫ وإننا جميعا نريد بناء جهاز شرطة جديد بثقافة أخرى‬، ‫للشعب ليختار بإرادته الحرة من يحكمه‬ .‫جديدة وسلوكيات تحترم المواطن المتضامن وحقوقه وتحميه أثناء تعبيره عن رأيه وال تعتدي عليه‬

Exercise 13. Find the English equivalents of the following. .......................................................................................... ‫ اجتاحت الثورات‬1 .................................................................................................‫ خلفت خسائر‬2 .....................................................…............................‫ اسقاط األنظمة المستبدة‬3 ........................................................…..........................................‫ قام بثورة‬4 .........................................................................................‫ االلتفاف على الثورة‬5 ...............................................................................................‫ اجهاض الثورة‬6 ...........................................................................................‫ أفضت الثورة إلى‬7 .................................................................................................‫ شرارة الثورة‬8 ...................................................................................................‫ تعثر الثورة‬9 ..............................................................................................‫ هتافات جماهير‬10 .........................................................................................‫ اندالع احتجاجات‬11

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Module 7: Media Texts  185 .....................................................................................‫نشوب مشادات كالمية‬ .......................................................................................‫العقل المدبر للثورة‬ ..........................................................................................‫ع ّمت االحتجاجات‬ .....................................................................................‫رفع شعارات وهتافات‬

12 13 14 15

Exercise 14. Put the following into sentences and translate them into Arabic. 1. The popular movement 2. Popular revolts; mass protests 3. Make concessions 4. Widespread 5. Oppression and deprivation 6. Taking to the street 7. Uprising 8. Chanting slogans 9. Security apparatus 10. Heavy clampdown Exercise 15. Translate the following paragraph, comparing the word order in the English text to the Arabic one. A demonstrator holds a Chilean flag during a protest against inequality in Santiago. According to Victor Villegas, a sociologist at Santiago’s Alberto Hurtado University, ‘it’s not a coincidence’ that the movement began with high school students because ‘they have always driven Chilean social movements’. ‘Since the dictatorship, they have been involved in political movements, and this time again, they again took the baton and started the protests’, he said. As police attempted to stop the students at the stations with force, the protests spilled out into the streets. Metro stations, supermarkets, and petrol stations were burned, leading the president to declare a state of emergency. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/30/chile-protests-what-prompted-the-unrest (accessed 14 January 2021) ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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7.5  Translating Elections and Political Participation Translating election texts and events is often considered a straightforward practice, but in reality it can be a challenging process for translators who have little or no knowledge of the TT culture, as some election terminology may have different interpretations, depending on the context of the ST. The obvious strategy for dealing with such a type of texts is through acquainting oneself with current affairs, as well as with registers related to elections and oppositions. In Arabic, different groups and opposition parties are given different labels and attributions, which may be confusing for translators not aware of these political differences. A glossary of these terms as well as knowledge of current affairs can help translators overcome some of the challenges related to translating this register. Exercise 16. Translate the following text, employing the strategy of adaptation (see Module 1). Then provide antonyms in Arabic for the following underlined words and phrases. Uganda: Bobi Wine claims election victory as vote count continues Ugandan opposition leader Bobi Wine on Friday claimed victory in presidential elections, rejecting as a ‘joke’ early results that gave President Yoweri Museveni a wide lead. The electoral commission said on Friday that Museveni led in Thursday’s vote with results in from 29 percent of polling stations, receiving 63 percent of ballots while Bobi Wine had 28 percent. Final results are expected Saturday afternoon. The 38-year-old former musician turned politician has been the main rival to 76-year-old Museveni, who has been in power since 1986 and is seeking a sixth term. ‘We secured a comfortable victory’, Bobi Wine told reporters in Kampala. ‘I am very confident that we defeated the dictator by far’, Bobi Wine, whose real name is Robert Kyagulanyi Ssentamu, said. ‘The people of Uganda voted massively for change of leadership from a dictatorship to a democratic government. But Mr. Museveni is trying to paint a picture that he is in the lead. What a joke!’ he added. He was considering ‘peaceful and nonviolent protests’ over the declared results. The internet remained down for a third day as vote counting continued. Bobi Wine said he would detail election irregularities by the ruling party once the internet was restored. Earlier an election commission official responded to Bobi Wine’s accusations of fraud and violence saying: ‘Let him show the country in what manner, in what form the results are rigged’. On Friday morning the capital Kampala was quiet and some businesses remained closed, while soldiers and police patrolled on foot the day after the election.

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https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/15/bobi-wine-says-uganda-poll-marred-by-widespread-fraud-violence (accessed 15 January 2021) Glossary Absentee ballot Ballot paper Ballots Cancelled elections Candidate Counting of votes Election campaign Election results Electorates Free and fair elections General elections Heavy turnout Interim government International monitors Majority Municipal elections Opinion polls Parliamentary elections Polling day Polling stations Preliminary results Presidential elections Second-term Secret ballot Sweeping victory To abstain from voting To delay; to postpone elections To form a government To hold elections Transparency Vote-rigging Voting Win a landslide victory With majority

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‫اقتراع غيابي‬ ‫ورقة االنتخابات‬ ‫بطاقات االقتراع‬ ‫ألغى االنتخابات‬ ‫مرشح‬ ‫فرز األصوات‬ ‫حملة انتخابية‬ ‫نتائج االنتخابات‬ ‫الناخبون‬ ‫انتخابات حرة ونزيهة‬ ‫انتخابات عامة‬ ‫كثيف‬/‫اقبال كبير‬ ‫الحكومة المؤقتة‬ ‫مراقبون دوليون‬ ‫أغلبية‬ ‫االنتخابات البلدية‬ ‫استطالعات الرأي‬ ‫االنتخابات التشريعية‬ ‫يوم االقتراع‬ ‫مراكز االقتراع‬ ‫النتائج األولية‬ ‫انتخابات رئاسية‬ ‫والية ثانية‬ ‫اقتراع سري‬ ‫فوز كاسح‬ ‫أحجم عن التصويت‬ ‫أجل االنتخابات‬ ‫يشكل حكومة‬ ‫أجرى انتخابات‬ ‫الشفافية‬ ‫تزوير االنتخابات‬ ‫التصويت‬ ‫فاز فوزا ساحقا‬ ‫بأغلبية‬

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Exercise 17. Translate the following text into Arabic, highlighting key culture-specific differences between the two languages. Tunisia presidential election: Kais Saied declared winner Electoral commission confirms landslide victory for law professor over rival Nabil Karoui in presidential runoff vote. Independent law professor Kais Saied has won Tunisia’s presidential election with 72.71 percent of the votes, the country’s electoral commission has confirmed. Saied secured 2.7 million votes against one million received by his opponent, Nabil Karoui, in Sunday’s runoff vote, the commission said on Tuesday. Karoui, a business tycoon who was in jail for most of the campaign, conceded defeat earlier on Monday. The electoral commission said turnout stood at 55 percent, higher than during the first round on September 15, in Tunisia’s second free presidential election since the 2010–11 uprising that toppled long-standing ruler Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. Saied, 61, is an independent candidate with no political experience. Backed by the conservative Ennahdha party, he has pledged to fight corruption and support decentralisation. (…) His anti-establishment platform helped to woo younger voters disenchanted with politicians whom they accuse of failing to improve their lives since the Arab Spring uprising. Some 90 percent of 18-to-25-year-olds voted for Saied, according to estimates by the Sigma polling institute, compared with 49.2 percent of voters over 60. Following the release of exit polls on Sunday, Saied had described his projected victory as a ‘revolution within the constitutional legitimacy’. ‘Thank you … to those who opened a new page in history’, he said. ‘For those who did not vote for me, thank you too, because they have chosen freely’. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/14/tunisia-presidential-election-kais-saieddeclared-winner (accessed 20 February 2021) ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 18. Indirectly report the following direct speech in Arabic. My fellow Americans, the people of this nation have spoken. They have delivered us a clear victory. A convincing victory. A victory for ‘We the People’. We have won with the most votes ever cast for a presidential ticket in the history of this nation – 74 million. I am humbled by the trust and confidence you have placed in me. I pledge to be a president who seeks not to divide, but to unify. Who doesn’t see red and blue states, but a United States. And who will work with all my heart to win the confidence of the whole people. For that is what America is about: the people. And that is what our administration will be about. I sought this office to restore the soul of America. To rebuild the backbone of the nation – the middle class. To make America respected around the world again and to unite us here at home. It is the honor of my lifetime that so many millions of Americans have voted for this vision. And now the work of making this vision real is the task of our time. (. . .) To make progress, we must stop treating our opponents as our enemy. We are not enemies. We are Americans. The Bible tells us that to everything there is a season – a time to build, a time to reap, a time to sow. And a time to heal. This is the time to heal in America. Now that the campaign is over – what is the people’s will? What is our mandate? I believe it is this: Americans have called on us to marshal the forces of decency and the forces of fairness. To marshal the forces of science and the forces of hope in the great battles of our time. The battle to control the virus. The battle to build prosperity. The battle to secure your family’s health care. The battle to achieve racial justice and root out systemic racism in this country. The battle to save the climate. The battle to restore decency, defend democracy, and give everybody in this country a fair shot. Excerpts from Joe Biden’s acceptance speech, November 2020 Exercise 19. Identify and correct any inaccurate translations of the following English text. This is America’s day. This is democracy’s day. A day of history and hope, of renewal and resolve. Through a crucible for the ages, America has been tested anew and

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190  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

America has risen to the challenge. Today we celebrate the triumph not of a candidate but of a cause, a cause of democracy. The people – the will of the people – has been heard, and the will of the people has been heeded. We’ve learned again that democracy is precious, democracy is fragile and, at this hour my friends, democracy has prevailed. So now on this hallowed ground where just a few days ago violence sought to shake the Capitol’s very foundations, we come together as one nation under God – indivisible – to carry out the peaceful transfer of power as we have for more than two centuries. As we look ahead in our uniquely American way, restless, bold, optimistic, and set our sights on a nation we know we can be and must be, I thank my predecessors of both parties for their presence here. I thank them from the bottom of my heart. And I know the resilience of our Constitution and the strength, the strength of our nation, as does President Carter, who I spoke with last night who cannot be with us today, but who we salute for his lifetime of service. Excerpts from Joe Biden’s inaugural speech, 20 January 2021 https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-55656824 (accessed 15 February 2021) Arabic translation: ‫ يوم التجديد‬،‫ يوم يش ّكل التاريخ ويمثل األمل‬،‫ هذا هو يوم الديمقراطية‬.‫هذا هو يوم أميركا‬ ‫ واجهت أميركا مرة أخرى اختبارًا‬،‫ بعد اجتياز اختبارات قاسية على مر العصور‬.‫والعزيمة‬ ،‫ نحتفل بانتصار ليس لمرشح بل لقضية‬،‫ اليوم‬.‫ وقد ارتقت أميركا إلى مستوى التحدي‬.‫جديدًا‬ .‫ واستُجيب إلرادة الشعب‬،‫ وإرادة الشعب‬،‫ لقد سُمع صوت الشعب‬.‫قضية الديمقراطية‬ ،‫ يا أصدقائي‬،‫ وفي هذه الساعة‬.‫ وأن الديمقراطية هشة‬.‫لقد تعلمنا مرة أخرى أن الديمقراطية ثمينة‬ .‫سادت الديمقراطية‬ ‫ حيث كان العنف قبل أيام قليلة يسعى إلى زعزعة أساس‬،‫ على هذه األرض المقدسة‬،‫فاآلن‬ ‫ لتنفيذ انتقال سلمي للسلطة‬،‫ غير منقسمة‬،‫ نجتمع معًا كأمة واحدة في ظل رعاية هللا‬،‫الكابيتول ذاته‬ ‫ ال نهدأ‬،‫ بينما نتطلع إلى األمام بطريقتنا األميركية الفريدة‬،‫كما نفعل على مدى أكثر من قرنين‬ ‫ ونضع أنظارنا على األمة التي نعرف أننا يمكن أن نشكلها‬،‫ نتسم بالجرأة والتفاؤل‬،‫وال نتوانى‬ .‫ويجب أن نشكلها‬ ‫ إنني‬.‫أتوجه بالشكر إلى من سبقوني في هذا المنصب من كال الحزبين على حضورهم هنا اليوم‬ ‫ مثلما يعلم الرئيس‬،‫ وأنا أعلم – وأعرف مرونة دستورنا وقوة أمتنا‬.‫أشكرهم من أعماق قلبي‬ ُ ‫ لكننا نوجه له التحية‬،‫ والذي ال يمكنه أن يكون معنا اليوم‬،‫تحدثت معه الليلة الماضية‬ ‫كارتر الذي‬ .‫على سنوات عمره التي أمضاها في الخدمة‬

Exercise 20. Replace the Arabic phrases in the text with their English equivalents. I’ve just taken ‫ القسم المقدس‬each of those patriots have taken. The oath first sworn by George Washington. But the ‫ القصة األميركية‬depends not on any one of us, not on 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 190

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some of us, but ‫علينا جميعًا‬. On we the people who seek a more perfect ‫اتحاد‬. This is ‫أمة عظيمة‬, we are good people. And over the centuries through ‫ العواصف‬and strife in peace and in war we’ve come so far. But ‫ال يزال أمامنا الكثير لنقطعه‬. We’ll press ‫ قد ًما‬with speed and ‫ عاجل‬for we have much to do in this winter of peril and significant possibility. Much to do, much to heal, much to restore, much ‫ لبنائه‬and much to gain. Few people in our ‫ تاريخ أمتنا‬have been more challenged or found a time ‫ أكثر تحديًا‬or difficult than the time we’re in now. A once in a century virus that silently stalks the country has taken as many lives in one year as in all of World War Two. ‫ وأغلقت مئات اآلالف من الشركات‬،‫فُقدت ماليين الوظائف‬. A cry for racial justice, some 400 years in the making, moves us. The dream of justice for all ‫لن يتم تأجيله بعد اآلن‬. A cry for survival comes from ‫الكوكب نفسه‬, a cry that can’t be any more desperate or any more clear now. The rise of ‫التطرف السياسي‬, white supremacy, domestic terrorism, that we must confront and we ‫وسنهزمه‬. Excerpt from Joe Biden’s inauguration speech, 2021 https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-55656824 (accessed 15 February 2021) Exercise 21. Read and comment on the Arabic translation of the following English text, then answer the questions below. 1. Are there any inaccuracies? 2. What could you have done differently? 3. What are key strategies used in the translation? To overcome these challenges, to restore the soul and secure the future of America, requires so much more than words. It requires the most elusive of all things in a democracy – unity. Unity. In another January on New Year’s Day in 1863 Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. When he put pen to paper the president said, and I quote, ‘if my name ever goes down in history, it’ll be for this act, and my whole soul is in it’. My whole soul is in it today, on this January day. My whole soul is in this. Bringing America together, uniting our people, uniting our nation. And I ask every American to join me in this cause. Uniting to fight the foes we face – anger, resentment and hatred. Extremism, lawlessness, violence, disease, joblessness, and hopelessness. With unity we can do great things, important things. We can right wrongs, we can put people to work in good jobs, we can teach our children in safe schools. We can overcome the deadly virus, we can rebuild work, we can rebuild the middle class and make work secure, we can secure racial justice and we can make America once again the leading force for good in the world. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 191

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‫‪192  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫‪I know speaking of unity can sound to some like a foolish fantasy these days. I‬‬ ‫‪know the forces that divide us are deep and they are real. But I also know they are‬‬ ‫‪not new. Our history has been a constant struggle between the American ideal, that‬‬ ‫‪we are all created equal, and the harsh ugly reality that racism, nativism and fear‬‬ ‫‪have torn us apart. The battle is perennial and victory is never secure.‬‬ ‫)‪https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-55656824 (accessed 15 February 2021‬‬ ‫‪Arabic translation:‬‬ ‫إن التغلب على هذه التحديات‪ ،‬واستعادة الروح‪ ،‬وتأمين مستقبل أميركا‪ ،‬يتطلب أكثر من مجرد‬ ‫كلمات‪ .‬هذه األمور تتطلب الشيء الصعب المنال من بين كل األشياء في الديمقراطية‪ ،‬الوحدة‪.‬‬ ‫الوحدة‪ .‬في كانون الثاني‪/‬يناير من عام آخر‪ ،‬في يوم رأس السنة الجديدة في العام ‪ ،1863‬وقّع‬ ‫أبراهام لنكن إعالن تحرير العبيد‪ .‬وعندما وضع القلم على الورقة‪ ،‬قال الرئيس‪ ،‬وأنا هنا أقتبس‬ ‫كلماته‪ “ ،‬إذا دخل اسمي التاريخ‪ ،‬فسيُعزى السبب لهذا العمل‪ ،‬والذي كانت روحي كلها فيه‪”.‬‬ ‫اليوم‪ ،‬في هذا اليوم من شهر كانون الثاني‪ /‬يناير‪ ،‬روحي كلها في ما يلي‪ :‬ل ّم شمل أميركا‪ ،‬وتوحيد‬ ‫شعبنا‪ ،‬وتوحيد أمتنا‪ .‬وإنني أطلب من كل أميركي أن ينضم إل ّي في هذه القضية‪) .‬تصفيق(‬ ‫االتحاد في محاربة األعداء الذين نواجههم‪ ،‬الغضب واالستياء والكراهية والتطرف والفوضى‬ ‫والعنف والمرض والبطالة واليأس‪ .‬بالوحدة‪ ،‬يمكننا القيام بأشياء عظيمة‪ ،‬أشياء مهمة‪.‬‬ ‫يمكننا تصحيح األخطاء‪ .‬يمكننا تشغيل الناس في وظائف جيدة‪ .‬يمكننا تعليم أطفالنا في مدارس‬ ‫آمنة‪ .‬يمكننا التغلب على هذا الفيروس القاتل‪ .‬يمكننا أن نكافئ – نكافئ على العمل ونعيد بناء‬ ‫الطبقة الوسطى ونجعل الرعاية الصحية متاحة للجميع‪ .‬يمكننا تحقيق العدالة العرقية ويمكننا أن‬ ‫نجعل أميركا مرة أخرى القوة الرائدة في العالم من أجل الخير‪.‬‬ ‫إنني أعلم أن الحديث عن الوحدة يمكن أن يبدو للبعض مثل خيال أحمق هذه األيام‪ .‬أعلم أن القوى‬ ‫التي تفرق بيننا عميقة وحقيقية‪ .‬لكنني أعلم أيضًا أنها ليست جديدة‪ .‬لقد كان تاريخنا صراعًا‬ ‫مستمرًا بين المثل األعلى األميركي القائل بأننا جميعًا خلقنا متساوين‪ ،‬والواقع القبيح القاسي الذي‬ ‫مزقتنا فيه لفترة طويلة العنصرية والعداء للمهاجرين والخوف والشيطنة‪ .‬المعركة مستمرة‪،‬‬ ‫والنصر غير مضمون أبدًا‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 22. Translate the following phrases into Arabic.‬‬ ‫‪  1. To cast one’s vote‬‬ ‫‪  2. To run a survey‬‬ ‫‪  3. To conduct a polling survey‬‬ ‫‪  4. The electoral process for the presidential elections‬‬ ‫‪ 5. President-elect‬‬ ‫‪  6. Interim government‬‬ ‫‪  7. Constituency seat‬‬ ‫‪  8. Heated election campaign‬‬ ‫‪  9. The Electoral Commission‬‬ ‫‪10. Counting the votes and announcing the winner‬‬ ‫‪17/12/21 15:49‬‬

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7.6  Translating Natural Disasters As with previous genres, translating this genre of texts requires adequate knowledge of both the ST’s and TT’s cultural contexts, as some of the texts may be influenced by cultural and religious beliefs, which can be received differently by various audiences. Arabic culture is religion-oriented, and this often shapes texts. For example, there is a common belief among most Arabs and Muslim that natural disasters are an act of God, but this may not be the case in other cultures, and therefore the translator should exercise great caution when attempting to convey the meaning of the ST to the target audience. Translators ought to be aware of the recipients’ cultural beliefs and values. The Arabic style in this genre of texts can be very informative, but still contain religious and sentimental lexis. Exercise 23. Read the following text, then complete the exercises that follow. Iran earthquake: five killed and hundreds injured At least five people have been killed and hundreds more injured in an earthquake in north-western Iran, officials say. The 5.9-magnitude tremor struck in the early hours of Friday in East Azerbaijan province, Iran’s Seismological Center said. Most of the injuries were caused by crowd stampedes, state-run TV reports. Iran sits on two major tectonic plates and is prone to frequent seismic activity. In 2003, a 6.6-magnitude earthquake destroyed the historic city of Bam in the south-east of the country, killing 26,000 people. More recently, in 2017, a magnitude 7 earthquake hit the Iran-Iraq border region, killing 600 people and injuring more than 9,000. What happened with the latest quake? It struck near the town of Tark, some 400km (250 miles) north-west of the capital Tehran, at 02:17 local time (22:47 GMT). As well as killing five people, the quake injured 312 – though only a dozen or more of them required treatment in hospital. ‘Rescue teams and helicopters have been dispatched to the quake-hit areas and hospitals are on full alert to help injured people’, Iran’s emergency medical services chief, Pirhossein Kolivand, told state TV. State-run IRINN TV said most of the injuries were due to overcrowding as people rushed out of their homes and into the streets in panic. Up to 30 homes were destroyed near the epicentre, it added. More than 60 aftershocks have been reported. Rescue workers are operating in 41 villages, but most of the damage was concentrated in the two villages of Varnakesh and Varzaghan, provincial governor Mohammad-Reza Pourmohammadi was quoted as saying. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 193

17/12/21 15:49

194  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Emergency services have been distributing survival kits, cooking equipment, blankets and tents, according to AFP news agency. According to the US Geological Survey, the epicentre of the earthquake was at a depth of 10km, although Iran’s Seismological Center said it was at a depth of 8km. Shallower earthquakes are more likely to cause greater damage. Tremors were reportedly felt as far away as Tehran. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-50344824 (accessed 15 January 2021) Glossary Aftershocks Disaster Earthquake Embark on digging Epicentre Refugee Rescue teams Shallow earthquakes Shelter (n) Stampedes Survivors Tectonic plates Tremor Under the debris

‫هزات ارتدادية‬ ‫كارثة‬ ‫زلزال‬ ‫انكب على الحفر‬ ‫بؤرة زلزال – مركز زلزال‬ ‫نازح‬ ‫فرق االغاثة‬ ‫الزالزل الضحلة‬ ‫مأوى‬ ‫التدافع‬ ‫الناجون‬ ‫الصفائح التكتونية‬ ‫هزة أرضية – رعشة أرضية‬ ‫تحت األنقاض‬

Exercise 24. Based on the above introduction, read and translate the following text into Arabic. Exercise 25. Read the above text and answer the following questions in Arabic. 1. Describe the magnitude of the Earthquake. ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. Are there any causalities and damages? ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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3. Describe the rescue efforts in the affected areas. ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 26. In Arabic, provide a summary of the above text. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 27. Provide the equivalents of the underlined words/phrases in Arabic and use them in English sentences. Flooding hits six million people in East Africa The number of people hit by seasonal flooding in East Africa has increased more than five fold in four years, according to UN figures. Nearly six million people have been affected this year with 1.5 million of them forced from their homes. Parts of the region are recording the heaviest rains in a century. In 2019, a big temperature differential between the east and west sides of the Indian Ocean was blamed for heavy rainfall. The data gathered by the UN’s Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs paints a worrying picture, reports the BBC’s Catherine Byaruhanga. The number of people affected by flooding in East Africa has gone from 1.1 million in 2016 to four million in 2019, to close to six million so far this year – this is before the short rains, which normally peak in November and hit most countries in the region.

7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 195

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196  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

In Sudan, one of the worst affected countries, 860,000 people have had their homes destroyed or damaged and more than 120 have died, the UN says quoting government figures. Nearly every state in Sudan has experienced heavy flooding and in neighbouring South Sudan, 800,000 people have been affected with 368,000 people forced from their homes. ‘Entire communities have fled to higher ground to escape the rising waters’, the UN said in a statement. After a visit to some of the worst hit areas in South Sudan last month, the UN’s humanitarian coordinator for the country, Alain Noudéhou, said that ‘vast areas of the country along the River Nile are now under water’. In Ethiopia, which has a much larger population, 1.1 million people have been affected by flooding. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-54433904 (accessed 15 January 2021) English Flood Seasonal flooding Heavy rainfall The worst hit areas UN’s humanitarian coordinator Destroyed or damaged Vast areas

Arabic

‫فيضان‬ ‫فيضانات موسمية‬ ‫تساقطات غزيرة‬ ‫األكثر المناطق تضررا‬ ‫منسق األمم المتحدة للشؤون االنسانية‬ ‫دمرت أو تضررت‬ ‫مناطق شاسعة‬

Exercise 28. In English, write a short report on a natural disaster that you have experienced or read about. Try to use some of the vocabulary introduced in this module. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

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‫‪Module 7: Media Texts  197‬‬

‫‪Exercise 29. Translate the following Arabic text into English and comment on the‬‬ ‫‪strategies you applied in your translation. Please refer to Modules 1 and 3.‬‬ ‫الكوارث الطبيعية‪ :‬تعريفها وأنواعها‬ ‫تتغير المنظومات البيئية التي تعرفها سابقا بفعل اإلنسان إما سلبيا أو إيجابيا لكن الطبيعة مهما‬ ‫قويت تطلعات اإلنسان للتحكم فيها وتحويلها لصالحه‪ ،‬تظل باسطة سلطانها الذي يتخذ مظهرا‬ ‫غير متوقع وذي أضرار كبيرة‪ ،‬تلك هي الكوارث الطبيعية‪ ،‬فهي مجرد ظاهرات ككل الظواهر‬ ‫الطبيعية التي تنساب جوف وسطح كوكب األرض‪.‬‬ ‫معرفة مفهوم الكوارث الطبيعية ومخاطرها‪:‬‬ ‫‪-1‬معرفة الكوارث ذات األصل المناخي‪:‬‬ ‫تتجلى هذه الكوارث ذات األصل المناخي في الفيضانات المحلية والعواصف الثلجية‪،‬‬ ‫والحرائق الناتجة عن الجفاف ثم األعاصير التي هي زوابع تدور فيها الرياح المحملة برطوبة‬ ‫كبيرة بسرعة تتراوح ما بين ‪ 120‬و ‪ 300 km/h‬حول منطقة هادئة تسمى عين اإلعصار وتتكون‬ ‫بالعروض المدارية التي تتجاوز بها حرارة السطح ‪.º27‬‬

‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 30. Summarise the following Arabic text in English.‬‬

‫األخطار الطبيعية‬ ‫األخطار الطبيعية هي الظواهر الجوية والمناخية القاسية والمتطرفة التي تحدث بصورة طبيعية‬ ‫في شتى أنحاء العالم‪ ،‬مع تعرض بعض المناطق‪ ،‬أكثر من غيرها‪ ،‬ألخطار معينة‪ .‬وتُعد األخطار‬ ‫الطبيعية كوارث طبيعية إذا ما تسببت في القضاء على حياة اإلنسان وسبل العيش‪ .‬والخسائر‬ ‫التي تتسبب فيها الكوارث الطبيعية‪ ،‬سواء كانت بشرية أو مادية‪ ،‬عقبة كأداء في طريق التنمية‬ ‫المستدامة‪ .‬ويمكن حماية األرواح والممتلكات من خالل إصدار تنبؤات وإنذارات دقيقة في شكل‬ ‫يسهل فهمه‪ ،‬وكذلك من خالل تعليم الجمهور كيفية التأهب لألخطار قبل أن تتحول إلى كوارث‪.‬‬ ‫وتقوم المنظمة )‪ (WMO‬بتوحيد وتنسيق أنشطة الحد من مخاطر الكوارث مع المنظمات الدولية‬ ‫واإلقليمية والوطنية األخرى‪ ،‬كما تقوم بتنسيق الجهود التي تبذلها المرافق الوطنية لألرصاد‬ ‫الجوية والهيدرولوجيا )‪ (NMHSs‬من أجل الحد من الخسائر في األرواح والممتلكات من خالل‬ ‫تحسين خدمات التنبؤ واإلنذار المبكر وتقييم المخاطر‪ ،‬وكذلك من أجل إذكاء وعي الجمهور‪.‬‬ ‫وينصب التركيز في عملية الحد من مخاطر الكوارث على أن‪ :‬استثمار دوالر واحد على التأهب‬ ‫للكوارث يمكن أن يحول دون وقوع خسائر اقتصادية متصلة بالكوارث قدرها سبعة دوالرات‬ ‫– وهو عائد استثماري كبير‪ .‬وتهدف المنظمة )‪ (WMO‬إلى تخفيض متوسط عدد الوفيات التي‬ ‫حدثت بسبب الكوارث الطبيعية المتصلة بالطقس والمناخ والماء ‪ .‬وتحدث األخطار الطبيعية على‬

‫‪17/12/21 15:49‬‬

‫‪7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 197‬‬

‫‪198  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬ ‫نطاقات زمنية ومكانية مختلفة‪ ،‬وكل منها فريد في طبيعته‪ .‬فتتسم أعاصير التورنيدو والفيضانات‬ ‫الخاطفة بأنها ظواهر قصيرة المدة ولكنها عنيفة تؤثر على مناطق صغيرة نسبياً‪ .‬وبخالف ذلك‪،‬‬ ‫فالجفاف مثالً يستشري ببطء ولكنه يمكن أن يؤثر على معظم أنحاء قارة من القارات وعلى جميع‬ ‫السكان لشهور أو حتى لسنوات‪ .‬ويمكن أن تنطوي ظاهرة جوية متطرفة على أخطار عديدة في‬ ‫آن واحد‪ ،‬أو تنطوي على أخطار متعددة سريعة التعاقب‪ .‬ويمكن أن تؤدي العواصف المدارية‪،‬‬ ‫وكذلك الرياح الشديدة واألمطار الغزيرة إلى حدوث فيضانات وانهيارات وحلية‪ .‬وفي خطوط‬ ‫العرض المعتدلة‪ ،‬يمكن أن يكون الطقس القاسي في فصل الصيف (العواصف الرعدية والبرقية‬ ‫أو أعاصير التورنيدو) مصحوبا ً ببَ َرد كثيف وفيضانات خاطفة‪ .‬وقد تسهم أيضا ً العواصف‬ ‫الشتوية المصحوبة برياح شديدة وثلوج غزيرة أو أمطار متجمدة في حدوث تيهورات في بعض‬ ‫المنحدرات الجبلية وفي حدوث جريان سطحي وفيضانات شديدة الحقة في موسم الذوبان‪.‬‬ ‫الجفاف‬ ‫السبب األساسي ألي حالة جفاف هي قلة هطول األمطار‪ .‬فالجفاف يختلف عن غيره من األخطار‪،‬‬ ‫فهو يمتد ببطء وأحيانا ً على مدى سنوات‪ ،‬ويمكن أن تستتر بدايته وراء عدد من العوامل‪ .‬وقد‬ ‫يكون للجفاف آثار مدمرة‪ :‬منها نضوب مصادر المياه‪ ،‬وتوقف نمو المحاصيل‪ ،‬ونفوق الحيوانات‪،‬‬ ‫وسوء التغذية‪ ،‬واعتالل الصحة‪ ،‬التي تصبح أموراً واسعة االنتشار‪.‬‬

‫‪https://www.alr7alh.com/new/s/129/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85%D‬‬ ‫‪8%A9-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84‬‬ ‫‪%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A‬‬‫)‪8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9 (accessed 10 February 2021‬‬

‫‪7.7 Conclusion‬‬ ‫‪This module has introduced the reader to key media texts and registers widely used in‬‬ ‫‪everyday practice. The introduction of key terms and phrases is designed to help learners‬‬ ‫‪and translators translate from English into Arabic. We have considered four registers in‬‬ ‫‪this module: translating uprisings and revolutions, translating war and conflicts, translat‬‬‫‪ing elections and translating natural disasters. Each register has offered a wide range of‬‬ ‫‪phrases, concepts and terms, which we hope will better serve learners and translators.‬‬

‫‪7.8  Module Review Exercises‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 31. Select the correct Arabic translation of the underlined words from the‬‬ ‫‪options given in the brackets.‬‬ ‫)قوات إقليمية – قوات دولية – قوات أجنبية( ‪– There are international and regional forces‬‬ ‫‪ ) the peace and stability.‬إعادة التشكيل – الحفاظ – استعادة( ‪that seek to restore‬‬ ‫)إعادة استقاللهم – إعادة قوتهم( ‪– The people will regain their independence‬‬

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Module 7: Media Texts  199

– The differences of opinion between the political parties will only produce increased co-operation (‫ )زيادة التضامن –زيادة التعاون –زيادة التكامل‬for the greater good of our country; and the stability (‫ )التفاؤل – االستقرار – التوازن‬of the country. – Its transition to an economic power in ( ‫ )تحولها – تغييرها – برمجتها‬tandem with (‫ )إلى جنب مع – باإلضافة إلى – مع ذلك‬other developing countries in the continent. Exercise 32. Translate the following text into Arabic, drawing on key approaches to translation in Modules 1 and 2. Chile protests: president sacks whole cabinet after protests Chile’s President Sebastian Piñera has dismissed his whole cabinet in order to form a new government and introduce social reforms demanded by protesters. ‘I have put all my ministers on notice in order to restructure my cabinet to confront these new demands’, he said. It is not yet clear what form the reshuffle will take. More than a million people joined a peaceful rally on Friday in the capital Santiago, calling for social justice. Mr Piñera said he had heard the demands from the streets. ‘We are in a new reality’, he said. ‘Chile is different from what it was a week ago’. The president also announced that a curfew imposed in cities across Chile a week ago had been lifted. The opposition has called for an ongoing state of emergency to end too. At least 17 people have been killed and hundreds injured since the anti-inequality protests began just over a week ago. What happened at the march? Santiago Governor Karla Rubilar said at least a million people had marched in the capital – more than 5% of the country’s population. On Twitter she said the protesters ‘represent a dream for a new Chile’. Organisers said it was the biggest demonstration there since democracy was restored in 1990. Demonstrators march with flags and signs during a protest against Chile’s state economic model in Santiago, Chile October 25, 2019. Participants walked for miles around the city, banging pots, waving flags and calling for reform. Protesters also took to the streets in every other major Chilean city. ‘We’re asking for justice, honesty, ethical government’, 38-year-old Francisco Anguitar told AFP news agency in Santiago.

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What is the background? The protests were originally sparked by a now-suspended increase in metro fares, but grew to take in wider grievances over living costs and inequality. In the days of demonstrations, there have been outbreaks of looting and arson. More than 7,000 people have been detained. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-50197673 (accessed 10 February 2021) Exercise 33. Remove any irrelevant translation and add additional information to the following translation, without distorting the original meaning of the English text below. Capitol riots: Congress certifies Joe Biden’s victory after chaotic scenes The US Congress has certified Joe Biden’s victory in the presidential election, hours after supporters of Donald Trump stormed the building in an attack that saw four people die. Lawmakers resumed the session after police removed a mob that had been encouraged by President Trump as part of his attempt to overturn his defeat. The certification clears the way for Mr Biden to be sworn in on 20 January. In response, Mr Trump finally pledged an ‘orderly transition’ of power. Wednesday’s chaotic scenes followed months of escalating rhetoric from Mr Trump and some Republican allies that sought to undermine the result of the 3 November election. The invasion of the Capitol by the president’s supporters – some armed – was an event without precedent in modern American history. Washington DC Mayor Muriel Bowser said one of the four who died – a woman named as Ashli Babbitt – was part of a group that forced entry into the chamber of the House of Representatives while it was still in session. They were confronted by plainclothes officers, and an officer pulled out a weapon and fired it. One woman and two men died as a result of ‘medical emergencies’, officials said, without giving details. At least 14 members of the police were injured. The FBI is now seeking to identify those involved in the rampage, which came after Mr Trump had told a rally he would never concede the election and urged his supporters to march on the Capitol. It also came on the day two Democrats won Senate seats in elections in Georgia, giving the party effective control of the whole of Congress. This major political victory will ease the passage of Mr Biden’s agenda after he is inaugurated. What happened in Congress? Democrat Joe Biden’s victory was confirmed at about 03:30 local time (08:30 GMT) on Thursday in a joint session presided over by Republican Vice-President Mike Pence, who called the violence a ‘dark day in the history of the United States Capitol’.

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Mr Biden blasted the ‘insurrection’ as Mr Trump, while telling the mob to ‘go home’, continued to make false claims of electoral fraud. The outgoing president’s Twitter and Facebook accounts were later frozen and remain blocked. Objections by some Republican lawmakers to overturn the result in Arizona and Pennsylvania were rejected. Congress formally certified the final electoral college vote, with Mr Biden receiving 306 votes to Mr Trump’s 232. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-55568621 (accessed 15 January 2021) Exercise 34. Identify any culture-specific items in the text above and translate them into Arabic. Exercise 35. Summarise the following paragraphs into Arabic. Georgia voters start early visits to polls in elections that will set U.S. Senate control MARIETTA, Ga. (Reuters) – Hundreds of people lined up in a cold rain on Monday to cast ballots in a pair of U.S. Senate races in Georgia that will determine control of the chamber and influence Democratic President-elect Joe Biden’s ability to enact his agenda. The Southern state, dominated by Republicans for decades, is now one of the most competitive U.S. political battlegrounds after Biden’s narrow victory in the Nov. 3 presidential election. President Donald Trump and other top Republicans have campaigned to help incumbent Republican senators David Perdue and Kelly Loeffler win on Jan. 5, while Democrats have spent millions to back challengers Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock. ‘Look at this line, all these people. This is what it’s about: turnout’, said Brenda Reed, 40, a Democrat who works in the hospitality business. ‘We’re in the second round of a two-round bout’. Election experts said turnout on the first day of early voting in a contest could offer clues to which side ultimately prevails. Civil-rights monitors said they had received no reports of voting problems. Republican voter David Koon waited more than an hour to cast his vote on Monday in Marietta, about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Atlanta. ‘We can’t risk it being close’, said Koon, 62, a sound engineer. ‘I hope any Republican who sat on the sidelines (in November) will come out and vote this time’. The races will determine control of the Senate, and Democrats face an uphill battle as they would need to win both seats to be able to control the chamber and use that power to help advance Biden’s priorities. Republicans, meanwhile, are warning voters that Trump’s policies are on the line.

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Biden’s narrow victory has buoyed Democratic hopes of another win, aided by aggressive Democratic voter registration drives and demographic trends that have nudged the electorate away from Republicans. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-georgia/georgia-voters-start-early-visitsto-polls-in-elections-that-will-set-u-s-senate-control-idUSKBN28O18G (accessed 14 January 2021) Exercise 36. Comment on the following Arabic translation of the English text below, taking into consideration the following: 1. The accuracy of the translation 2. The accuracy of the grammatical construction in the Arabic text below 3. Strategies used in the translation We can see each other not as adversaries but as neighbours. We can treat each other with dignity and respect. We can join forces, stop the shouting and lower the temperature. For without unity there is no peace, only bitterness and fury, no progress, only exhausting outrage. No nation, only a state of chaos. This is our historic moment of crisis and challenge. And unity is the path forward. And we must meet this moment as the United States of America. If we do that, I guarantee we will not failed. We have never, ever, ever, ever failed in America when we’ve acted together. And so today at this time in this place, let’s start afresh, all of us. Let’s begin to listen to one another again, hear one another, see one another. Show respect to one another. Politics doesn’t have to be a raging fire destroying everything in its path. Every disagreement doesn’t have to be a cause for total war and we must reject the culture in which facts themselves are manipulated and even manufactured. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-55656824 (accessed 18 June 2021) Arabic translation: ‫ يمكننا أن نعامل بعضنا‬.‫ ولكن جيران‬،‫ ليس كأعداء أو خصوم‬،‫يمكننا أن نرى بعضنا البعض‬ .‫ يمكننا أن نوحد قوانا ونتوقف عن الصراخ ونخفض حرارة االختالف‬.‫البعض بكرامة واحترام‬ ‫ ولن توجد‬.‫ وإنما غضب مرهق‬،‫ ولن يوجد تقدم‬.‫فبدون الوحدة لن يوجد سالم وإنما مرارة وسخط‬ .‫ وإنما حالة من الفوضى‬،‫أمة‬ ‫ ويجب أن‬.‫ والوحدة هي السبيل األمثل للمضي قدما‬،‫هذه هي اللحظة التاريخية لألزمة والتحدي‬ ‫ إننا لم‬.‫ بأننا لن نفشل‬،‫ سأضمن لكم‬،‫ فإذا فعلنا ذلك‬.‫نواجه هذه اللحظة كواليات أميركية متحدة‬ .‫نفشل أبدًا في أميركا عندما عملنا معًا‬

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Module 7: Media Texts  203 ‫ دعونا نبدأ في‬.‫ جميعنا‬،‫ دعونا نبدأ من جديد‬،‫ ومن هذا المكان‬،‫ في هذا الوقت‬،‫وهكذا فاليوم‬ .‫ ونرى بعضنا البعض‬.‫ نصغي إلى بعضنا البعض‬.‫االستماع إلى بعضنا البعض مرة أخرى‬ .‫ فالسياسة يجب أال تكون نارًا مستعرة تدمر كل شيء في طريقها‬.‫ونظهر االحترام لبعضنا البعض‬ ‫ وعلينا أن نرفض الثقافة التي يتم فيها التالعب‬.‫ويجب أال يكون كل خالف سببًا لحرب شاملة‬ .‫ بل وتصنيعها‬،‫بالحقائق نفسها‬

Exercise 37. Translate parts of the following text into Arabic. Rescuers search for 171 missing people after Indian glacier causes devastating flood Twenty six bodies have been recovered in the Indian Himalayas and scores more people are still missing after a second day of rescue efforts after a glacier break that caused an avalanche of water and debris to engulf a river valley and demolish two dams. A surge of water, thought to be triggered when a glacier broke off from Nanda Devi mountain in the state of Uttarakhand, left a trail of devastation when it hit on Sunday morning. Authorities have said 171 people are still missing. The force of the fast-moving flood waters obliterated two hydropower dams located along the Rishiganga and Dhauliganga rivers, where hundreds of personnel had been working. Several bridges, roads, homes and hundreds of grazing sheep, cattle and goats were also swept away in the deluge and two other hydropower projects were damaged. Hundreds of troops, paramilitary and rescue operatives were brought to Chamoli district to recover bodies from the muddy aftermath. Much of Monday’s rescue operation focused on a 1.5-mile (2.4km) tunnel beneath the Tapovan Vishnugad hydropower dam, which suffered severe damage in the flash flood. About 39 workers were believed to be trapped inside the 3-metre-high tunnel, which had become blocked with mud and rocks when the floods hit. Heavy machinery was brought in to try to dig out the entrance of the tunnel, working alongside rescuers digging manually with shovels. But as darkness fell, they had still not had any contact with those trapped in the runnel. Vivek Pandey, spokesperson for the Indo-Tibetan border police, who are overseeing the rescue operation, said: ‘About 100 metres inside the tunnel is cleared and accessible, and it looks like about 100 metres of debris more will have to be cleared. This will take a few more hours’. Earlier, 12 workers were rescued from a smaller tunnel beneath the TapovanVishnugad dam. Lal Bahadur, one of the dam workers who was left trapped in the tunnel for almost eight hours, described the scenes when the flood water hit: ‘We

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heard people screaming at us to come out of the tunnel but before we could react, a sudden gush of water and heavy silt swamped upon us’, he said. At least nine villages in the impacted Chamoli valley were cut off after several bridges were destroyed and supplies had to be dropped from the air. Scientists and researchers were also airlifted to the site to determine the exact cause of the flash flood. LK Sinha of the Defence Research and Development Organisation told Indian media his team had done an aerial survey of the mountain area where the incident took place. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/08/rescuers-search-for-missing-deadglacier-dam-india-north (accessed 11 February 2021)

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Module 8 Administrative Texts 8.1 Introduction Administrative texts are associated with the governing bodies of any type of entity, from large countries to small companies. They include documents associated with the administrative tasks of such bodies – for example, the regulations of a company or the responsibilities of a job (job descriptions). Therefore, they are usually linked to legal texts. Administrative language features are very similar to legal ones and will be discussed at length in the following module. Most of the vocabulary used in these texts includes terms of speech and idioms that are usually associated with public authorities. Undoubtedly, these texts are very formal. In addition, they differ from language to language; therefore, the translator is advised to become acquainted with the terminology of the texts of both the SL and TL. Administrative discourse is characterised by a high degree of formality, reliance on administrative terminology and certain syntactic structures. For the most part, administrative texts have a relatively strict language style that can be translated easily. This style contains a lot of tabular information with shorter phrases that do not require complicated translation strategies, as will be shown in the various examples given here as drills. It is also close to legal language because it deals with formal sets of rules or regulations to be followed and administered within the relevant entity. This language is characterised by a formal tone and manner which uses a lot of modal auxiliaries (Thorne 1997). Paragraphs may be marked numerically with various sub-divisions. All these features will be highlighted in Module 7 regarding legal texts.

8.2  Translating Guidelines and Regulations Translating guidelines and regulations can be very challenging, as it may involve using specific terminology and phrases. Such texts have a very limited style and specific meanings that should be handled carefully when translating into another language, as different languages have divergent requirements and cultural specificities – Arabic is no exception.

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206  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Exercise 1. Summarise the following text in Arabic. GUIDELINES AND REGULATIONS Students in all Middle Eastern Studies degree programmes except the BA (Hons) in a Modern Language and a Middle Eastern Language must write a dissertation as part of the final assessment for their degree. GENERAL AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The dissertation provides students with an opportunity to engage in a defined research project and to produce a substantial piece of work with a sustained focus. The aim of the dissertation is thus to foster independent study through: • the identification of a particular theme or problem • the identification of appropriate sources • the development of a sustained and balanced argument based on those sources, leading to a conclusion. In writing the dissertation students will apply, develop and extend the analytical and critical skills that they have acquired in earlier stages of the programme. As for essays, students will need to follow the appropriate scholarly conventions in terms of presentation, bibliography, footnotes and references. Detailed guidelines are available from the convenors of MEST 30000 or MEST 30010. In fulfilling the requirements for a satisfactory dissertation, students will have demonstrated that they can identify a subject that is worthy of in-depth investigation and that they can independently master a substantial body of complex material, articulating their findings by means of a clear, consistent and analytical argument in a manner that is appropriate to the discipline. Students will also have demonstrated high levels of motivation and discipline, as the student input of 200 hours (10 hours per credit) for MEST 30010 (20 credit dissertation) or 400 hours (10 hours per credit) for MEST 3000 (40 credit dissertation in Modern Middle Eastern History) represents a substantial commitment of time and energy, equivalent to five (ten) 40-hour weeks devoted solely to the dissertation. http://www.bio.txtshr.com/docs/index-4037.html?page=26 (accessed 18 June 2021) Glossary English Dissertation Final assessment Findings

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Arabic

‫أطروحة‬ ‫التقييم النهائي‬ ‫النتائج‬

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Module 8: Administrative Texts  207

Consistent Critical skills Source

‫ثابت‬ ‫مهارات‬ ‫مصدر‬

Exercise 2. Apply one of the translation strategies discussed in Module 2 while translating the above text. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 3. Identify any inaccuracies in the Arabic translation of the following English text. Students in all Middle Eastern Studies degree programmes except the BA (Hons.) in a Modern Language and a Middle Eastern Language must write a dissertation as part of the final assessment for their degree. Students doing the BA (Hons.) in a Modern Language and a Middle Eastern Language may if they choose, write a dissertation as part of the final assessment for their degree. A. GENERAL AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The dissertation provides students with an opportunity to engage in a defined research project and to produce a substantial piece of work with a sustained focus. The aim of the dissertation is thus to foster independent study through: • • • •

the identification of a particular theme or problem the identification of appropriate sources the development of a sustained and balanced argument based on those sources, leading to a conclusion.

Arabic translation: ‫يتعين على الطلبة في جميع برامج شهادة الدراسات الشرق أوسطية كتابة أطروحة للتخرج‬ ‫ ويستثنى من ذلك طلبة درجة البكالوريوس‬،‫كجزء من التقييم النهائي للحصول على شهادتهم‬ ‫ ويحق لطلبة‬،‫)مرتبة الشرف( في برنامج بكالوريوس اللغة الحديثة ولغة الشرق األوسط‬ .‫بكالوريوس )مرتبة الشرف( في اللغة الحديثة ولغة الشرق األوسط كتابة‬

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208  Advanced English–Arabic Translation ‫هذه األطروحة اختياريا ً كجزء من التقييم النهائي لشهادتهم‬. ‫ األهداف العامة‬.١ ‫ وتهدف‬،‫تقدم األطروحة للطلبة فرصة العمل على بحث محدد وإنتاج عمل هام ذو تركيز رصين‬ ‫األطروحة بالتالي‬ :‫للتشجيع على الدراسة الذاتية من خالل‬ ‫• التعرف على فكرة أو مشكلة معينة‬ ‫• التعرف على مصادر المعلومات المناسبة‬ ‫• تقديم حجة قوية ومتزنة على أساس هذه المصادر وصياغة خاتمة لها‬

1. ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2. ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3. ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4. ................................................................................................................................................................................ Exercise 4. Identify and amend any inaccuracies in the Arabic translation of the following English text. In fulfilling the requirements for a satisfactory dissertation, students will have demonstrated that they can identify a subject that is worthy of in-depth investigation and that they can independently master a substantial body of complex material, articulating their findings by means of a clear, consistent and analytical argument in a manner that is appropriate to the discipline. Students will also have demonstrated high levels of motivation and discipline, as the student input of 200 hours (10 hours per credit) for ARAB 3200 (20 credit dissertation) or 400 hours (10 hours per credit) for ARAB 32000. Arabic translation: ‫ فإنه يتعين على الطلبة عرض قدرتهم على تعريف‬،‫وحرصا على متطلبات األطروحة الجيدة‬ ‫ حيث تطرح ما‬،‫موضوع مبني على العمل العميق وعلى تقديم ورقة بحثية ذات مواد مركبة‬ ‫ كما ينبغي‬.‫توصلوا إليه من خالل تقديم حجة متكاملة وتحليلية بأسلوب يتالءم مع فرع المعرفة‬ 10 ‫ ساعة دراسية‬200 ‫ حيث يتعين على الطالب إكمال‬،‫على الطلبة إبداء مستويات عليا من البحث‬ (ARAB 3200 ‫ساعات لكل ساعة معتمدة )لمساق‬ ‫ ساعات لكل ساعة معتمدة‬10 (‫ ساعة دراسية‬400 ‫ ساعة دراسية لألطروحة ) أو‬40 (ARAB 32000 ‫)لمساق‬

....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

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Module 8: Administrative Texts  209

....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

8.3  Learning and Teaching Regulations Translating this genre of texts is not a straightforward process, as it requires substantial knowledge of the field of education. Familiarity with such a register will help the translator provide an accurate and reliable translation. Another challenge could be translating registers pertaining to Islamic education, as some of the terminology may be very specific and associated with a particular school of thought or religious sect. The translator would have to translate these culture-specific terms into the TL, without distorting the meaning of the ST. To overcome this challenge, awareness of the equivalence to these terms in the TL is vital in order to provide an acceptable translation. The style of such a register can be very limited in its use of rhetorical devices. Exercise 5. Provide a summary for the following text in Arabic. GENERAL TERMS OF ENGAGEMENT FOR GRADUATE TEACHING ASSISTANTS 1. All appointments are subject to the Charter, Statutes, Ordinances and Regulations of the University for the time being in force and to any conditions prescribed by the Council at the time of appointment. 2. Graduate Teaching Assistants are students of the University of XXX and are paid a maintenance grant by the University. They are also employed to teach a limited number of hours, the stipend for which is specified in the formal letter of appointment. The stipend is paid monthly, in arrears, through a bank account by direct credit transfer. 3. It is a condition of all appointments to Graduate Teaching Assistant posts that the person appointed must register for a higher degree by research at the University. The appointment will be terminated if the Graduate Teaching Assistant withdraws from or fails to re-register for the higher degree. 4. Graduate Teaching Assistants are responsible to their Deans of Faculty for the performance of their duties.

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210  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

5. Graduate Teaching Assistants are required to undertake up to a maximum of 180 hours teaching in a year and, in addition, are required to undertake the necessary preparation, assessment and marking of such teaching. They are required to take part in any relevant training programmes as required by the University. 6. Other paid work may not be undertaken without the prior approval of the University Council. Persons who wish to take on other work should apply to their Deans of Faculty in the first instance. 7. Graduate Teaching Assistants may not enter into any negotiation, or make any representation, on behalf of the University in connection with any patent, invention, process or manufacture unless specifically authorised by the University to do so in any particular instance. Glossary English Appointments Statutes and ordinances Maintenance grant Necessary preparation Prior approval

Arabic

‫التعيينات‬ ‫المراسيم واللوائح‬ ‫منحة صيانة‬ ‫التحضيرات الالزمة‬ ‫موافقة مسبقة‬

Exercise 6. Provide three main headings in Arabic for the above text. 1. ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2. ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3. ................................................................................................................................................................................. Exercise 7. Provide the equivalent of the underlined words/phrases in Arabic and use them in sentences. Graduate Teaching Assistants are students of the University and are paid a maintenance grant by the University. They are also employed to teach a limited number of hours, the stipend for which is specified in the formal letter of appointment. The stipend is paid monthly, in arrears, through a bank account by direct credit transfer. It is a condition of all appointments to Graduate Teaching Assistant posts that the person appointed must register for a higher degree by research at the University. The appointment will be terminated if the Graduate Teaching Assistant withdraws from or fails to re-register for the higher degree. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

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Module 8: Administrative Texts  211

....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 8. Provide synonyms in Arabic for the underlined English words and phrases, and identify three main features of the administrative text in the following paragraph. Graduate Teaching Assistants are required to inform the Faculty Human Resources Office, through their Deans of Faculty, of any periods of illness whether in semester or in vacation, during which they are eligible for Statutory Sick Pay or sickness benefit under the Housing Benefits and Social Security Acts. The amounts which they are entitled to receive as Statutory Sick Pay will be offset by the University against contractual sick pay (see separate statement) and recovered by the University from the Inland Revenue. Any sickness benefits payable by DSS after the expiry of Statutory Sick Pay will be deducted from salary. It is the responsibility of the individual Graduate Teaching Assistants to obtain the necessary Medical Certificates when required and to forward claims for sickness benefit to the Faculty Human Resources Office, not direct to DSS. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 9. Provide antonyms in Arabic for the following underlined words and phrases. ‫فتح باب تقديم طلبات االنتقال بين التخصصات والجامعات‬ ‫أعلنت وحــدة تنسيق القبول الموحد في وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي بأن عملية تقديم‬ ‫طلبات االنتقال من تخصص إلى آخر أو من جامعة إلى أخرى ستبدأ اعتباراً من مساء اليوم‬ ،2020/10/5 ‫ وحتى الساعة الثالثة ظهراً من يوم االثنين الموافـــق‬،2020/10/1 ‫الخميس الموافق‬

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‫‪212  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬ ‫وذلك من خالل الموقع االلكتروني للوحدة‪ ،‬علما ً بأن عملية تقديم طلبات االنتقال محصورة بالطلبة‬ ‫األردنيين الحاصلين على شهادة الثانوية العامة األردنية لعام ‪ 2020‬فقط‪ ،‬والذين تم ترشيحهم‬ ‫للقبول في قائمة القبول الموحد التي أعلنت قبل يومين إضافةً إلى الذين تم ترشيحهم للقبول ضمن‬ ‫قائمة إساءة االختيار التي أعلنت اليوم‪.‬‬ ‫وستقوم الوحدة بإعالن أسماء الطلبة الذين حققوا الحد األدنى لمعدل القبول التنافسي للعام الجامعي‬ ‫الحالي للتخصص الراغبين باالنتقال إليه ‪ ،‬إضافةً إلى الشواغر المتوفرة في نفس التخصص بعد‬ ‫انتهاء عملية التقديم‪.‬‬ ‫وعلى الطالب استخدام نفس البيانات (رمز المستخدم‪ ،‬الرمز السري) التي حصل عليها برسالة‬ ‫نصية على الهاتف الخلوي عند شراء طلب االلتحاق ألول مرة‪.‬‬

‫‪/ (accessed 25 February‬فتح‪-‬باب‪-‬تقديم‪-‬طلبات‪-‬االنتقال‪-‬بين‪-‬التخص‪https://alghad.com/‬‬ ‫)‪2021‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 10. Translate the following meeting agenda.‬‬ ‫‪Date and time – Location‬‬ ‫‪1. Welcome‬‬ ‫‪2. Minutes of previous meeting held on . . .date / location, – review and accept‬‬ ‫‪(previously circulated.‬‬ ‫‪3. Chair’s action‬‬ ‫‪4. Review actions from previous meeting‬‬ ‫‪5. Students Education‬‬ ‫‪ a. Teaching and Feedback‬‬ ‫‪ b. Assessment and exams‬‬ ‫‪ c. Students’ performance‬‬ ‫‪6. Discussion and setting of objectives for next period of work‬‬ ‫‪ a. Students’ satisfaction‬‬ ‫‪ b. Recruitment and marketing of programmes‬‬ ‫‪ c. Research and scholarship activities‬‬ ‫‪7. Any other business (AOB).‬‬ ‫‪8. Date / time of next meeting.‬‬

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8.4  Translating CVs and Applications Exercise 11. Translate the following text into Arabic, commenting on key strategies adopted. Dear Candidate, Thank you for your interest in applying for this post. Your application should be in the following format: • A completed Application Form (application forms should be completed fully and not replaced by a Curriculum Vitae, although you may wish to include your CV to support your application) • A completed Equal Opportunities Form • A completed Disability Form Because of the large numbers of applications received by this office it is not possible to notify applicants if you have been unsuccessful. If you do not hear from the University within six weeks of the closing date please assume that you have been unsuccessful in your application. I look forward to receiving your application. Yours sincerely Exercise 12. Translate the following text into English, commenting on the strategies adopted for this translation. ‫وزارة الداخلية‬ ‫إدارة األحوال المدنية‬ :‫ فصيلة اسم‬ :‫ تاريخ االنتهاء‬

:‫ الرقم‬ :‫ الديانة‬ :‫ الجنس‬ :‫ مكان ورقم السجل‬ :‫ تاريخ اإلصدار‬ :‫ اسم وتوقيع أمين السجل‬

‫بطاقة هوية‬ :‫االسم‬ :‫اسم األب والجد‬ :‫الدم العائلة‬ :‫مكان وتاريخ الوالدة‬ :‫اسم األم‬ ‫الوظيفة‬

8.5 Conclusion This module has offered insight into the translation strategies and techniques of different genres of administrative texts. It has provided a wide range of activities designed to support 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 213

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learners to digest key concepts and vocabulary pertaining to administrative texts. The module concludes with module review exercises that cover most of the sections discussed in the module and are designed to allow learners further practice.

8.6  Module Review Exercises Exercise 13. Translate the following text into Arabic. Dear Candidate, Thank you for your interest in applying for this post. Your application should be in the following format: • A completed Application Form (application forms should be completed fully and not replaced by a Curriculum Vitae, although you may wish to include your CV to support your application). • A completed Equal Opportunities Form • A completed Disability Form Applications are not usually acknowledged. If you wish your application to be acknowledged please return the enclosed postcard with stamp, affixed. Because of the large numbers of applications received by this office it is not possible to notify applicants if you have been unsuccessful. If you do not hear from the University within six weeks of the closing date please assume that you have been unsuccessful in your application. ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… Exercise 14. Choose the most appropriate Arabic translation for the underlined words in the following English text. When arriving at an overall mark for a dissertation, examiners take into account a wide range of factors. Credit will be given for: 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 214

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  1. the identification of an appropriate theme, the nature of the overall approach to the subject and the relevance with which it is tackled  2. clear and coherent overall structure, with appropriate division into modules which contribute to the progression of the argument as a whole.   3. an introduction which contextualises the issues and sets down the general line of the approach which will follow.   4. a clear and convincing line of argument, showing logic, consistency and intelligent handling of concepts, culminating in a conclusion.   5. exploration and critical analysis of the issues and concepts raised in the dissertation topic.   6. critical understanding of an appropriate breadth of research   7. appropriate use of examples, sources (primary and secondary), data, documentary evidence etc.   8. evidence of independent thought   9. good formal presentation (as per guidelines) 10. clear and appropriate discourse: correct use of language, including grammar, punctuation, spelling etc. Arabic translation: ‫ معايير التقييم‬.‫ب‬ ‫ متتبعو) األطروحة مجموعة‬-‫ فاحصو‬-‫ يأخذ (مراقبو‬،‫وفيما يتعلق بتحديد الدرجة الكلية لألطروحة‬ :‫ التقييم – المراجعة) على النحو التالي‬- ‫ ويتم (التلخيص‬،‫واسعة من المعايير بعين االعتبار‬ ‫ وتعريف طبيعة المنهج الكلي المتبع‬، )‫ نحو مناسب – مناسبة‬- ‫تعريف الموضوع على (تماثل‬ .‫في الموضوع وارتباطه بمشكلة البحث‬ ‫ وأن‬،‫أن يتسم الهيكل العام للموضوع ( بالوضوح – الصراحة – االعتبار) والترابط المنطقي‬ .‫ينقسم إلى فصول مناسبة تساهم في تطور الحجة ككل‬ )‫عرض مقدمة تتضمن مشكلة البحث وتوضح ( الخط العام – المنهج العام – السبيل العام‬ .‫للمنهج المتبع‬ ‫ وأن تتسم بالمنطقية واالنتظام وأن تثبت اإللمام‬،‫صياغة الحجة على نحو واضح ومقنع‬ .‫ وصوالً إلى الخاتمة‬،‫بالمفاهيم على نحو جيد‬ ‫استقراء وتحليل نقدي للقضايا والمفاهيم ( المثارة – المناقشة – المطروحة ) في موضوع‬ .‫األطروحة‬ .‫فهم ناقد لعرض البحث على نحو مناسب‬ ‫ والبيانات واألمثلة و األدلة‬،)‫االستخدام المناسب لألمثلة والمصادر (األولية والثانوية‬ .‫ إلخ‬،‫الوثائقية‬ .‫إثبات استقاللية الفكر‬ ً )‫تقديم عرض منهجي جيد (وفقا لإلرشادات‬ ‫ استخدام صحيح للغة وقواعدها وعالمات الترقيم‬:‫صياغة واضحة ومناسبة للخطاب‬ .‫ إلخ‬،‫واإلمالء‬ 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 215

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Exercise 15. Identify and correct the major grammatical errors that affect the Arabic translation below. Note: Presentation is a significant criterion in the assessment of a dissertation, and marks will be lost for failure to adhere to the guidelines, e. g., with respect to missing, incomplete or incorrect bibliographies; quotations without references or with incorrect or incomplete references; incorrect presentation of quotations; unacknowledged use of sources (plagiarism). Arabic translation: ‫ وسيتم خصم الدرجات في حال عدم التزام‬،‫ يعد التقديم معياراً هاما ً لتقييم األطروحة‬:‫مالحظة‬ ‫ أو في حال إضافة اقتباس‬،‫اإلرشادات مثل عدم تضمين فهرسه أو تقديمه ناقصا أو غير صحيحا‬ ‫ أو عرض اقتباسات على نحو‬،‫دون إشارة إلى المراجع أو تقديم مراجع غير صحيحة أو ناقصة‬ ).‫ أو في حال استخدام مصادر دون تعريفها (السرقة األدبية‬،‫خاطئ‬

Exercise 16. In the following translation, replace the underlined words with Arabic synonyms, without distorting the meaning of the ST. ‫ يأخذ فاحصو األطروحة مجموعة واسعة من‬،‫وفيما يتعلق بتحديد الدرجة الكلية لألطروحة‬ :‫ ويتم التقييم على النحو التالي‬،‫المعايير بعين االعتبار‬ ‫ وتعريف طبيعة المنهج الكلي المتبع في الموضوع‬،‫تعريف الموضوع على نحو مناسب‬ .‫وارتباطه بمشكلة البحث‬ ‫ وأن ينقسم إلى فصول مناسبة‬،‫أن يتسم الهيكل العام للموضوع بالوضوح والترابط المنطقي‬ .‫تساهم في تطورالحجة ككل‬ .‫عرض مقدمة تتضمن مشكلة البحث وتوضح الخط العام للمنهج المتبع‬ ‫ وأن تتسم بالمنطقية واالنتظام وأن تثبت اإللمام بالمفاهيم‬،‫صياغة الحجة على نحو واضح ومقنع‬ .‫ وصوالً إلى الخاتمة‬،‫على نحو جيد‬ .‫استقراء وتحليل نقدي للقضايا والمفاهيم المثارة في موضوع األطروحة‬

• • • •

Exercise 17. The Arabic translation below inaccurately reflects the meaning of the following English text. Rewrite the text, correcting the inaccuracies in the translation. Section D: general statement Please attach a general statement relating to the introduction of the programme of study which should address the following issues as appropriate: • t he place of the proposal within the University’s and department’s overall teaching portfolio and whether it represents consolidation, strengthening or new directions

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• t he national context of the proposal including, for example, evidence of student demand, national need, distinctiveness, academic importance, existing provision at other universities and other features prompting the proposal. • the department’s overall view of the proposal • the relationship of the programme content to its stated learning outcomes • the range of teaching methods to be used, drawing attention to any innovative practices • assessment procedures, their relationship to faculty norms and any innovative practice • the degree of conformity to faculty norms in respect of elective elements, structure of joint honours programmes etc. • arrangements for supervision of projects, fieldwork • departmental programme management structure and arrangements for review. • When appropriate, for programmes including a year abroad: – information on language training should be supplied. This should be an integral part of the programme. Information on how language competence will be assessed and a plan of action identified for where competence is insufficient. information on what courses can be followed abroad should be supplied, and indications, using ECTS credits, etc., of how the work is commensurate with the credit rating assigned to the period abroad should be given. It should be demonstrated how work done abroad links with that done at Leeds in terms of providing prerequisites for further study or avoiding duplication. – information on assessment and use in classification of work abroad should be supplied and where appropriate an indication of what work has been done to establish equivalence of marking scales should be given. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/aqst/approval/programme-spec-guidance.pdf (accessed 18 June 2021) Arabic translation: ‫ البيان العام‬:‫فقرة د‬ ‫برجاء ضع البيان العام المتعلق بتقديم المقرر الدراسي و الذي يجب أن يهتم بالمواد اآلتية كما‬ :‫هو مالئم‬ .‫وضع العرض في ملف التربية الشامل للجامعة و القسم و هل يمثل اتجاه جديد‬ ،‫ األدلة على الطلب من قبل طالب‬،‫ علي سبيل المثال‬،‫المضمون الوطني للمقترح متضمنا‬ ،‫االحتياج القومي‬ ‫ مالمح أخرى في صالح‬،‫ تقديم نفس البرنامج في جامعات أخرى‬،‫ األهمية األكاديمية‬،‫التميز‬ .‫البرنامج المقترح‬ .‫النظرة المثالية للقسم على البرنامج المقترح‬

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• • • •

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218  Advanced English–Arabic Translation .‫عالقة محتوي البرنامج بمخرجات التعلم المعترف بها‬ ‫ بتوجيه النظر نحو المعامالت الحديثة‬،‫أنواع أساليب التدريس المقترحة‬ .‫أساليب التقويم و عالقته بمقاييس الجامعة و أية ممارسات حديثة‬ ‫درجة التماثل مع مقاييس الكلية فيما يتعلق بالعناصر اإلجبارية و شكل البرامج الدراسية‬ ‫المشتركة إلخ‬ ‫ترتيبات مراقبة المشروعات و العمل الميداني‬ ‫ كما هو‬،‫هيكل إدارة القسم للبرنامج و تصميمات المواد للبرامج التي تتضمن عام خارج البلد‬ .‫مالئم‬ .‫ يجب أن يكون هذا جزء ال يتجزأ من البرنامج‬.‫توفر المعلومات الخاصة بالتدريب على اللغة‬ .‫معلومات عن كيفية تقويم المستوى اللغوي و خطة عمل لمناطق الضعف في الجدارات‬ ‫ مستخدمين‬،‫يجب توافر معلومات عن الدورات التي يمكن إتباعها خارج الدولة و الدالئل‬ ‫ يجب استعراض‬.‫الساعات المعتمدة إلخ لكيفية معادلة الشغل المبرمج خالل العام الخارجي‬ ‫ بالعمل الذي تم إنجازه في ليدز فيما يتعلق بتوفير متطلبات‬ECTS ‫كيفية ربط العمل الخارجي‬ .‫مقدمة للدراسة الممتدة أو االبتعاد عن التكرار‬ ‫توفر معلومات عن تصنيف العمل الخارجي و مؤشر للعمل الذي تم إنجازه لتأسيس معادلة‬ .‫ عندما يكون ذلك مالئما‬،‫لوضع الدرجات‬ ‫ يجب إعطاء إقرارات لتوافر الدعم الكافي‬.‫توفر معلومات عن الترتيبات اإلدارية للتبادل‬ .‫للطالب في جامعة التبادل‬

• • • • • • • •

• •

Exercise 18. Translate the following text and comment on the strategies you have applied. This page describes the different types of ‘entry clearance’, including visas, and explains who needs to apply for entry clearance before travelling to the UK. There are 4 types of entry clearance that can give someone permission to travel to or enter the UK: • A visa is for nationals of the countries or territories listed in Appendix 1 of the Immigration Rules (known as ‘visa nationals’) – see ‘More information’ below. • An entry certificate is issued to nationals of other countries outside the European Economic Area (EEA) and Switzerland (known as ‘non-visa nationals’). • An EEA family permit is issued to the family members of EEA nationals. • An exempt vignette is issued to people who are exempt from the requirements of the Immigration Act 1971, such as diplomats. On this website, we use the term ‘visa’ to cover visas and entry certificates. The entry clearance process for the UK is operated by the UK Border Agency, through our overseas network. The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK and have their own immigration laws and policies, but our visa offices also issue visas for these islands.

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Entry clearance requirements You might need to obtain entry clearance before you travel to the UK, depending on your nationality and your reason for wanting to travel here. You can use the ‘Do you need a visa?’ tool to find out whether you need a visa to come here. If you are a visa national, you will need to obtain a visa before you come to the UK. If you are a non-visa national, you might need to obtain a visa if you want to come to the UK for up to 6 months. You will need a visa if you want to come here for more than 6 months. For more information, see the Non-visa nationals page. Some visa nationals do not need a visa if they want to ‘transit’ the UK for a short time on their way to another country – see the In transit through the UK pages. You will not need a visa if you hold a passport issued by the UK or any other country in the European Economic Area (EEA), or Switzerland. http://www.findlaw.co.uk/law/immigration_emigration/immigration_basics/30639.html (accessed 18 June 2021) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 19. Convert the translated ideas of the following English text into a coherent and cohesive Arabic text, paying attention to the use of cohesive devices. Then correct any inaccuracies in the translation. Generic skills Threshold level On graduating with an honours degree in area studies, students should have the ability to: • • • • • • •

identify and represent a range of issues and differing opinions identify and offer resolutions to relevant problems synthesise information and develop argument communicate ideas with clarity and coherence work independently and to deadlines within a guided framework respond to constructive feedback employ effective essay and report writing skills, showing ability to deploy material from a variety of sources • develop collaborative skills in group work to achieve shared goals

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• u tilise proficiently a range of information technology resources, including word processing, use email, search databases and text files, and locate and employ internet sites. (The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education 2008) Arabic translation: :‫المهارات العامة‬ ‫المستوي األساسي‬ :‫ القدرة علي اآلتي‬،‫ عند التخرج بمرتبة شرف في دراسات المنطقة‬،‫يجب أن يكون لدى الخريج‬ .‫تمييز وعرض نطاق من الموضوعات و اآلراء المختلفة‬ .‫تمييز وعرض حلول للمشاكل المتعلقة‬ .‫توصيل اآلراء بوضوح و تماسك‬ .‫العمل باستقاللية ضمن إطار المواعيد النهائية وذلك من خالل هيكل عمل موجّه‬ .‫االستجابة للتغذية العكسية البناءة‬ ‫توظيف مهارات الكتابة و التقرير بكفاءة و إظهار القدرة على استخدام مواد من مصادر‬ .‫متنوعة‬ .‫تطوير مهارات تعاونية في العمل الجماعي من أجل تحقيق هدف مشترك‬ ‫استخدام نطاق من مصادر تكنولوجيا المعلومات بكفاءة متضمنة معالجة الكلمات واستخدام‬ .‫البريد اإللكتروني و قواعد البيانات و ملفات البحث واستخدام مواقع اإلنترنت‬

• • • • • • • •

....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 20. Omit any redundant information in the Arabic translation of the following paragraph and then comment on the strategies used in the translation. Typical level On graduating with an honours degree in area studies, students should have the ability to: • c ritically analyse and demonstrate detailed knowledge of the area; its history, culture and society as defined by the programme provider. • demonstrate awareness and critical understanding of relevant vocabulary of contributory disciplines and critical theories, and the capacity to assess and compare the merits of contrasting approaches. • describe, differentiate and compare concepts from different disciplines and/or interdisciplinary approaches as a means of understanding the area under study. • demonstrate awareness of, and ability to use, evaluate and compare a diverse range of relevant information and research resources. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 220

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• w  here relevant, acquire knowledge of a language as required by the degree programme concerned and apply these linguistic skills effectively at an appropriate level. (The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education 2008) Arabic translation: ‫المستوى النموذجي‬ :‫ القدرة على اآلتي‬،‫يجب أن يكون لدى الخريج الجامعي في دراسات المنطقة‬ ‫• التحليل النقدي واظهار معرفة مفصلة عن المنطقة؛ تاريخها و ثقافتها و مجتمعها كما هو‬ .‫معرف من قبل مقدم البرنامج‬ ‫• اظهار وعي و فهم نقدي للمفردات المالئمة الخاصة بالمجاالت المساهمة و النظريات النقدية و‬ .‫القدرة علي تقييم و مقارنة استحقاقات المناهج المتغايرة‬ ‫أو منظور ما بين‬/‫• وصف و تمييز و مقارنة المفاهيم الخاصة بالفروع الدراسية المختلفة و‬ .‫الفروع كوسيلة لفهم المنطقة تحت الدراسة‬ ‫• اظهار وعي وقدرة على استخدام و تقييم و مقارنة نطاق مختلف من المعلومات المالئمة و‬ .‫مصادر البحث‬ ‫• اكتساب معرفة باللغة كما هو مطلوب بموجب البرنامج الدراسي و تطبيق هذه المهارات‬ .‫اللغوية بكفاءة عند مستوى مالئم‬

Exercise 21. Add further information to the translation of the following English text, without distorting the meaning of the ST. Benchmark standards Benchmark standards for area studies graduates are defined at ‘threshold’ and ‘typical’ levels of achievement. The threshold standard is the minimally acceptable attainment of an honours graduate. The standard expected of the majority of honours graduates is defined as the typical standard. Graduates at both levels will show knowledge and understanding of their area. Those at threshold level will do so by basic presentation of information, evidence and argument. Graduates at typical level will show abilities to evaluate information independently, to assess evidence critically, and to develop argument individually. Subject-specific skills Threshold level On graduating with an honours degree in area studies, students should have the ability to: • d emonstrate knowledge of the area; its history, culture and society, as defined by the programme provider. • demonstrate awareness of relevant vocabulary and of contributory disciplines and theories. 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 221

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‫‪222  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫‪• d escribe concepts from different disciplines and/or interdisciplinary approaches as a‬‬ ‫‪means of understanding the area under study.‬‬ ‫‪• demonstrate awareness of a diverse range of relevant information and research‬‬ ‫‪resources.‬‬ ‫‪• where relevant, acquire knowledge of a language as required by the degree‬‬ ‫‪programme concerned. (The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education‬‬ ‫)‪2008‬‬ ‫‪Arabic translation:‬‬ ‫مقاييس المقارنة‬ ‫يتم تعريف مقاييس المقارنة لخريجي المادة الدراسية عند مستويات إنجاز «أساسية» و “نموذجية”‪.‬‬ ‫المقياس األساسي هو أدنى مستويات اإلنجاز المقبولة لخريج الجامعة‪ .‬يتم تعريف المستوى المتوقع‬ ‫من معظم الخريجين بالمستوي “النموذجي”‪ .‬سوف يظهر خريجي كل من المستويين معرفة و‬ ‫فهم لمجال دراستهم‪ .‬هؤالء الذين عندهم المستوى “األساسي” سوف يظهرون ذلك من خالل‬ ‫العرض األساسي للمعلومات و األدلة و النقاش‪ .‬سوف يظهر خريجي المستوى “النموذجي”‬ ‫‪.‬قدرات على تقييم المعلومات باستقاللية و تقييم األدلة بأسلوب نقدي و تطوير نقاش بمفردهم‬ ‫مهارات خاصة بالمادة الدراسية‬ ‫المستوى األساسي‪:‬‬ ‫يجب أن يكون لدى الخريج الجامعي في دراسات ما‪ ،‬القدرة على اآلتي‪:‬‬ ‫• اظهار معرفة بالمنطقة؛ تاريخها و ثقافتها و مجتمعها كما تم تعريفه من قبل مقدم البرنامج‬ ‫• اظهار الوعي بالمفردات المالئمة و المجاالت و النظريات المساهمة‪.‬‬ ‫• وصف المفاهيم الخاصة بالمجاالت المختلفة و‪/‬أو النهج ما بين المجاالت كوسيلة لفهم المنطقة‬ ‫التي تحت الدراسة‪.‬‬ ‫• استعراض الوعي بالنطاق المتنوع من المعلومات المالئمة و مصادر البحث‪.‬‬ ‫• اكتساب معرفة باللغة كما هو مطلوب بموجب الدرجة العلمية للبرنامج الدراسي‪ ،‬حين يكون‬ ‫ذلك مالئما‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 22. Comment on the Arabic translation of the following English text, taking‬‬ ‫‪into consideration:‬‬ ‫?‪• The selection of lexis. Is the choice of words appropriate to the context‬‬ ‫‪• The grammatical construction of sentences. Does it take into consideration the‬‬ ‫?‪distinctive features of Arabic grammar‬‬ ‫‪• The strategies employed in the translation (see Module 1).‬‬ ‫‪Section C: External Review‬‬ ‫‪The University of Leeds‬‬ ‫‪External Review of a new programme of study‬‬ ‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬

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Module 8: Administrative Texts  223

Department / School .................................................................................................................. Proposed Programme of Study .............................................................................................. External Reviewer ......................................................................................................................... Thank you for agreeing to act as external reviewer for this new programme of study. All programmes of study are subject to approval of the Learning and Teaching Committee of the relevant faculty. The committees work on the premise that the expertise on a subject rests in the proposing academic department and that any judgements it makes on the academic content of a proposed new programme must be limited. For this reason proposers are asked to seek a review from a peer in their subject area. We would welcome your comments in this spirit. You may wish to consider addressing the following: Overall curriculum design Subject content and skills covered Assessment arrangements Relationship of the proposals to other subject provision in the same area in the UK and the relevant QAA Subject Benchmark Statement(s) Likely marketability and recruitment prospects Likely employment of graduates ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Signature .................................................................... Date ............................................................ Please continue on additional sheet(s) if necessary. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/qat/policy (accessed 18 June 2021) Arabic translation: ‫ المراجعة الخارجية‬:‫الفقرة ج‬ ‫مراجعة خارجية لبرنامج دراسي جديد‬ : ................................................................................................... ‫ الكلية‬/‫القسم‬ : ................................................................................... ‫البرنامج الدراسي المقترح‬ : ............................................................................................. ‫المراجع الخارجي‬ ‫ جميع البرامج‬.‫شكرا لموافقتك على أن تقوم بدور المراجع الخارجي لهذا البرنامج الدراسي الجديد‬ ‫ تقوم اللجان بالعمل في مكان تواجد‬.‫الدراسية تخضع لموافقة لجنة التعلم والتدريس للكلية المعنية‬ ‫الخبرة الخاصة بالمادة في القسم األكاديمي المقترح و أنه يجب أن تكون األحكام الصادرة من‬ ‫ لذا فهو مطلوب من‬.‫قبل هذه اللجان على المحتوى األكاديمي لبرنامج جديد مقترح محدودة‬

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224  Advanced English–Arabic Translation ‫ سوف نرحب‬.‫المقترحين السعي للحصول على مراجعة من نظير لهم في المجال الخاص بالمادة‬ :‫ قد ترغب في مخاطبة اآلتي‬.‫بمالحظاتك‬ ‫التصميم الشامل للمنهج‬ ‫محتوى المادة و المهارات المتضمنة‬ ‫ترتيبات التقييم‬ ‫عالقة البرنامج المقترح بالمواد األخرى في نفس المنطقة ببريطانيا و المقاييس المالئمة لهيئة‬ ‫ضمان الجودة‬ ‫رجاحة التسويق و إمكانيات االلتحاق‬ ‫رجاحة حصول الخريجين على وظائف‬

• • • • • •

................................. ‫ التاريخ‬....................................................‫التوقيع‬ .‫برجاء االستكمال على صفحات إضافية إذا لزم األمر‬

Exercise 23. Read the following letter carefully and translate it into Arabic. Comment on any culture-specific items in your translation. Today’s Date Hiring Manager’s Name Company Address Company City, State xxxxx (xxx) xxx-xxxx [email protected] Dear [Mr./Mrs./Ms.] [Hiring Manager’s Name], Please accept my enclosed application for the position of administrative assistant at [Company Name]. Having read through your job description, I am thrilled to be applying for this position as my 6 years of experience and skillset match the requirements you’re looking for. At my current company, Redford & Sons, I am valued by the CEO and his staff as a critical support pillar for the team – keeping meetings, papers, travel arrangements, and office items organized at all times. I have spearheaded the effort to ‘go digital’ for almost all planning and paperwork, increasing office efficiency to the point of saving $3,000 per year in contracted labor expenses. Allow me to highlight three bullet points from my resume that I believe demonstrate why I am the perfect candidate for this position: • T rained two administrative assistants during a period of company expansion, ensuring that they pay explicit attention to company policies and minute details • Maintained utmost discretion when dealing with sensitive topics

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Module 8: Administrative Texts  225

• T yped documents such as correspondence, drafts, memos, and emails, and prepared three reports weekly for management. My resume goes into more detail about my daily job duties and achievements during my tenure as an administrative assistant at two companies. However, I believe that these bullet points demonstrate that I have the ability to perform the major administrative assistant duties, and train others in how to perform this role effectively, should the need arise. I would love to have the opportunity to join the team at [Company Name] and use my skills to create an efficient, stress-free office environment for your executives. I believe that I can meet and exceed the expectations that you have for this role. I look forward to speaking more with you about my candidacy. Feel free to contact me at any time. Sincerely, Your Name https://resumegenius.com/cover-letter-examples/administrative-assistant-cover-lettersample (accessed 23 February 2021)

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Module 9 Legal Texts 9.1 Introduction Legal language is known to be very strict and precise, with no freedom for creative style. Yet, although legal translation belongs to specialised translation, it shares some of the characteristics of general translation. It can be classified according to the functions of legal discourse and in connection with sub-types of legal discourse. Similar to other specialised translation texts, according to Reiss, legal texts serve ‘an informative function’ (cf. Šarčević 1997: 7). Legal texts can have both directive and imperative function, as well as an expressive function (Newmark 1982). To Sager (1993), legal texts are informative for the general reader and directive for a specific group of people.

9.2  Types of Legal Texts There are three different types of legal writing to be distinguished: (a) academic texts which consist of academic research journals and legal textbooks, (b) juridical texts covering court judgements or law reports and (c) legislative or statutory writings consisting of Acts of Parliament, contracts, treaties and the like (Hiltunen 1990: 81). Legal texts are classified as follows: • Legislative texts (e. g., domestic statutes, subordinate laws, international treaties, multilingual laws and other laws produced by law-making authorities • Judicial texts produced in the judicial process by judicial officers and other legal authorities • Legal scholarly texts produced by academic lawyers of legal scholars in scholarly works and commentaries whose legal status depends on the legal systems in different jurisdictions • Private legal texts that include texts written by lawyers (i. e., contracts, leases, wills, etc.) (Cao 2007: 9–10) Legal texts may also be categorised into descriptive and prescriptive texts, in addition to hybrid texts, which contain both functions (for example, judicial decisions, appeals, petitions) (cf. Šarčević 1997: 11). The first type describes the course of the action that individuals ought to take and respect. This includes, for instance, laws, regulations, codes, contracts, treaties and conventions. The second group of legal texts involves judicial decisions and

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Module 9: Legal Texts  227

instruments such as actions, pleadings, briefs, appeals, requests, petitions and the like. The third group of legal texts includes legal opinions, law textbooks and articles (ibid).

9.3  Translating Legal Texts These varied types of legal writing clearly reflect the complexity and diversity of the features that constitute legal texts, and such complexity makes their translation a challenging task. Therefore, even though we might believe that legal terms are rendered word-for-word, thereby making legal translation easy, the translation process is not in fact easy, especially because it is bound by culture and language. It is ‘a translation from one legal system into another – from the source legal system into the target legal system’ (Šarčević 1997:13), and it is this transfer which makes the process very complex. It can be argued here that the translation of legal terminology is the backbone of legal translation. Translating these terms often requires a sound translation strategy, especially in contexts where some of them do not have equivalents in the TT. Terms should be translated as exact as possible, lest a change in meaning causes undesirable legal consequences. This is especially true because these terms tend to be restricted in meaning and can only be used denotatively. Particular care should be taken with regard to synonyms or polysemous words. For example, the Arabic word ḥukm should be carefully studied before translating it into a possible English equivalent (decision, sentence, ruling, holding, verdict and so on). Furthermore, certain words (such as herewith, therefore, the consequences), which are not strictly circumscribed terms, also need be translated literally, using the known equivalents in the TL. Legal vocabulary is a ‘primarily symbolic lexicon which places great stress upon the legal signifier or legal word as an entity in itself. It is a vocabulary of possibilities purportedly comprising a comprehensive system of meanings that are internal or latent within the lexicon itself’ (Goodrich 1987: 177). It is this complexity of legal vocabulary, as referred to above, that makes legal translation a challenging task. Alcaraz and Hughes (2002: 16–18) classify legal vocabulary into three sub-types: 1. Purely Technical Terms, which serve specific purposes, giving therein pure legal meaning. 2. Semi-Technical or Mixed Terms, which serve general purposes. 3. Everyday Vocabulary, which exists in legal texts without losing its everyday function and purpose (Alcaraz and Hughes 2002: 16–18). In addition to requiring a sound knowledge of the specific nature of the language, the syntactic structures of legal texts can pose problems for translators, especially at the level of nominal structures where peculiar legal syntax can be found. The prevalence of nominal constituents alongside long sentences, which contain subordinated clauses (Hiltunen 1990: 69), makes it particularly difficult to render the text into the TL. As we will see from the range of drills provided below, the syntactic structure of legal texts remains a challenge to translators.

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228  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

9.4  Security Council: Terms and Conditions and Peace Agreements One of the immediate challenges to translators when translating this genre of text is the need for a sound knowledge of current political affairs, as well as the historical factors governing agreements. Adequate knowledge of the conflict and the parties involved are crucial to a balanced and representative translation. Familiarity with key agreement terminology is vital for a successful translation. Glossaries as well as familiarity with the United Nations formalities and register can help with overcoming any problems that might arise as consequence of the complexity of the terminology related to the genre. Again, a glossary of key terms and phrases in both Arabic and English can assist with providing a clear and reliable translation. Exercise 1. Provide synonyms and antonyms in Arabic for the underlined Arabic words and phrases below. Then comment on the strategies used in the Arabic translation. Article 39 The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security. Article 40 In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the Security Council may before making the recommendations or deciding upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such provisional measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take account of failure to comply with such provisional measures. https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/repertoire/actions (accessed 12 December 2020) Arabic translation: 39 ‫المادة‬

‫يقرر مجلس األمن ما إذا كان قد وقع تهديد للسلم أو إخالل به أو كان ما وقع عمال من أعمال‬ ‫ و‬41 ‫ ويقدم في ذلك توصياته أو يقرر ما يجب اتخاذه من التدابير طبقا ألحكام المادتين‬،‫العدوان‬ .‫ لحفظ السلم واألمن الدولي أو إعادته إلى نصابه‬42

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Module 9: Legal Texts  229

40 ‫المادة‬

‫ قبل أن يقدم توصياته أو يتخذ التدابير المنصوص عليها في‬،‫ لمجلس األمن‬،‫منعا ً لتفاقم الموقف‬ ‫ وال تخ ّل‬،‫ أن يدعوالمتنازعين لألخذ بما يراه ضروريا ً أو مستحسنا ً من تدابير مؤقتة‬، 39 ‫المادة‬ ‫ وعلى مجلس األمن أن يحسب‬،‫هذه التدابير المؤقتة بحقوق المتنازعين ومطالبهم أو بمركزهم‬ .‫لعدم أخذ المتنازعين بهذه التدابير المؤقتة حسابه‬

Exercise 2. Identify and correct all errors in the Arabic translation of the following English text. Article 41 The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations. Article 42 Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations. https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/repertoire/actions (accessed 18 June 2021) Arabic translation: 41 ‫المادة‬

‫لمجلس األمن أن يقرر ما يجب أخذه من التدابير التي ال تتطلب مستخدم القوات المسلحة تنفيذا‬ ‫ ويجوز أن يكون من بينها‬،‫ وله أن يطلب إلى أعضاء “األمم المتحدة” تطبيق هذه تدابير‬،‫لقراراته‬ ‫وقف صالت االقتصادية والمواصالت الحديدية والبحرية والبريدية والبرقية والالسلكية وغيرها‬ .‫من وسائل المواصالت وقفا كليا وقطع العالقات دبلوماسية‬

42 ‫المادة‬ 41 ،‫إذا يرى مجلس األمن أن تدابير الموجودة في المادة ال تفي بالغرض أو ثبت أنها لم تف به‬

‫جاز له أن يتخذ بطريق القوات الجوية والبحرية والبرية من األعمال ما يلزم لحفظ السلم واألمن‬ ‫الدولي أو إلعادتها إلى نصابها‬. ‫ويجوز أن تتناول هذه األعمال المظاهرات والحصر والعمليات األخرى بطريق القوات الجوية‬ ‫أو البحرية التابع ألعضاء األمم المتحدة‬

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‫‪230  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3. Replace the underlined words in the following text with appropriate synonyms.‬‬ ‫قواعد عمومية‪:‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪3‬‬

‫‪4‬‬

‫‪5‬‬

‫‪6‬‬

‫‪17/12/21 15:49‬‬

‫مادة‬ ‫تسرى أحكام هذا القانون على كل من يرتكب في القطر المصري جريمة من الجرائم‬ ‫المنصوص عليها فيه‪.‬‬ ‫مادة‬ ‫تسرى أحكام هذا القانون أيضا على األشخاص اآلتي ذكرهم‪.‬‬ ‫أوال‪ :‬كل من ارتكب في خارج القطر فعال يجعله فاعال أو شريكا في جريمة وقعت كلها أو‬ ‫‪.‬بعضها في القطر المصري‬ ‫ثانيا‪ :‬كل من ارتكب في خارج القطر جريمة من الجرائم اآلتية‪.‬‬ ‫أ) جناية مخلة بأمن الحكومة مما نص عليه في البابين األول والثاني من الكتاب الثاني من‬ ‫هذا القانون‪.‬‬ ‫ب) جناية تزوير مما نص عليه في المادة ‪ 206‬من هذا القانون‪.‬‬ ‫ج) (‪ )1‬جناية تقليد أو تزيف أو تزوير عملة ورقية أو معدنية مما نص عليه في المادة ‪202‬‬ ‫أو جناية إدخال تلك العملة الورقية أو المعدنية المقلدة أو المزيفة أو المزورة إلى مصر أو‬ ‫إخراجها منها أو ترويجها أو حيازتها بقصد الترويج أو التعامل بها مما نص علية في المادة‬ ‫‪ 203‬بشرط أن تكون العملة متداولة قانونا في مصر‪.‬‬ ‫مادة‬ ‫كل مصري ارتكب وهو في خارج القطر فعال يعتبر جناية‬ ‫‪ )1‬البند (ج) من المادة ‪ 2‬استبدل بموجب القانون رقم ‪ 68‬لسنة ‪ . 1956‬أو جنحة في هذا القانون‬ ‫يعاقب بمقتضى أحكامه إذا عاد إلى القطر وكان الفعل معاقبا عليه بمقتضى قانون البلد الذي‬ ‫ارتكبه فيه‪.‬‬ ‫مادة‬ ‫ال تقام الدعوى العمومية على مرتكب جريمة أو فعل في الخارج إال من النيابة العمومية‪.‬‬ ‫وال تجوز إقامتها على من يثبت أن المحاكم األجنبية برأته مما أُسند إليه أو أنها حكمت عليه‬ ‫نهائيا واستوفى عقوبته‪.‬‬ ‫مادة‬ ‫يعاقب على الجرائم بمقتضى القانون المعمول به وقت ارتكابها‪ .‬ومع هذا إذا صدر بعد وقوع‬ ‫الفعل وقبل الحكم فيه نهائيا قانون أصلح للمتهم فهو الذي يتبع دون غيره‪.‬‬ ‫وإذا صدر قانون بعد حكم نهائي يجعل الفعل الذي حكم على المجرم من اجله غير معاقب عليه‬ ‫يوقف تنفيذ الحكم وتنتهي آثاره الجنائية‪.‬‬ ‫غير انه في حالة قيام إجراءات الدعوى أو صدور حكم باإلدانة فيها وكان ذلك عن فعل وقع‬ ‫مخالفا للقانون ينهى عن ارتكبه في فترة محدودة فان انتهاء هذه الفترة ال يحول دون السير في‬ ‫الدعوى أو تنفيذ العقوبات المحكوم بها‪.‬‬ ‫مادة‬ ‫ال يمس الحكم بالعقوبات المنصوص عليها في القانون ما يكون واجبا للخصوم من الرد‬ ‫والتعويض‪.‬‬

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Module 9: Legal Texts  231 ‫ مادة‬7 ‫ال تخل أحكام هذا القانون في أي حال من األحوال بحقوق الشخصية المقررة في الشريعة‬ .‫الغراء‬ ‫ مادة‬8 ‫تراعى أحكام الكتاب األول من هذا القانون في الجرائم المنصوص عليها في القوانين واللوائح‬ .‫الخصوصية إال إذا وجد فيها نص يخالف ذلك‬

https://egylawsite.wordpress.com/‫العـقـوبـات‬-‫قـانـون‬/ (accessed 26 March 2021) 1. ................................................................................................................................................................................ 2. ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3. ................................................................................................................................................................................ Exercise 4. Identify and amend any inaccuracies in the Arabic translation of the following English text. Then comment on the strategies utilised in the translation of the following text. The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. It is so organized as to be able to function continuously, and a representative of each of its members must be present at all times at United Nations Headquarters. On 31 January 1992, the first ever Summit Meeting of the Council was convened at Headquarters, attended by Heads of State and Government of 13 of its 15 members and by the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of the remaining two. The Council may meet elsewhere than at Headquarters; in 1972, it held a session in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and the following year in Panama City, Panama. When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council’s first action is usually to recommend to the parties to try to reach agreement by peaceful means. In some cases, the Council itself undertakes investigation and mediation. It may appoint special representatives or request the Secretary-General to do so or to use his good offices. It may set forth principles for a peaceful settlement. http://www.un.org/docs/sc/unsc_background.html (accessed 12 February 2021) Arabic translation: ‫ المسؤولية األساسية عن الموافقة على السالم واألمن‬،‫ بشروط الميثاق‬،‫يتولى مجلس األمن‬ ‫ ويجب أن يكون ممثل من كل واحد من‬،‫ وهو منظم بحيث يستطيع العمل بدون توقف‬.‫الدوليين‬ ‫ ُعقد أول‬، 1992 ‫يناير‬/‫ كانون الثاني‬31 ‫ وفي‬.‫أعضائه موجودا في مكان األمم المتحدة طول الوقت‬ ‫ ووزيرا‬15 ‫ من أعضائه ال‬13 ‫ وحضره رؤساء دول وحكومات‬،‫اجتماع قمة للمجلس في المقر‬ ‫ عقد‬، 1972 ‫ ويمكن للمجلس أن يجتمع في مكان غير المقر؛ ففي عام‬.‫خارجية العضوين اآلخرين‬ .‫ بنما‬،‫ وعقد في العام التالي دورة في مدينة بنما‬،‫ إثيوبيا‬،‫دورة في أديس أبابا‬

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232  Advanced English–Arabic Translation ‫ يبدأ عادة بتقديم توصيات إلى‬،‫وعندما تصل إلى المجلس قضية تتعلق بخطر يتهدد السالم‬ ‫ يضطلع المجلس‬،‫ وفي بعض الحاالت‬.‫األطراف بمحاولة التوصل إلى اتفاق بالوسائل السلمية‬ ‫ ويجوز له أن يعيّن ممثلين أجنبيين أو يطلب إلى األمين العام أن يفعل ذلك‬.‫نفسه بالعمل والوساطة‬ .‫ كما يجوز له أن يضع مبادئ من أجل تسوية سلمية‬.‫أو يبذل إمكانياته الحميدة‬

....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 5. Identify the translation errors in the Arabic translation of the following English texts. Text 1: The Purposes of the United Nations are: 1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace; 2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace; 3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and 4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter/full-text (accessed 8 March 2021) Arabic translation: :‫مقاصد األمم المتحدة هي‬ ‫ وتحقيقا ً لهذا الهدف تتخذ الهيئة القوانين المشتركة الفعّالة لمنع‬،‫ حفظ السلم واألمن الدولي‬1 ،‫ وتقمع أعمال العدوان وغيرها من وجوه اإلخالل بالسلم‬،‫األسباب التي تهدد السلم وانعدامها‬ ‫ لحل االختالفات الدولية التي‬،‫ حسبا لقوانين العدل والقانون الدولي‬،‫وتتذرّع بالوسائل السلمية‬ .‫قد تؤدي إلى اإلخالل بالسلم أو لتسويتها‬ 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 232

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‫‪Module 9: Legal Texts  233‬‬

‫‪ 2‬إنماء العالقات التفاهمية بين األمم على أساس احترام المبدأ الذي يقضي بالتسوية في الحقوق‬ ‫بين الشعوب وبأن يكون لكل منها تحديد مصيرها‪ ،‬وكذلك اتخاذ التدابير األخرى المناسبة‬ ‫لتقوية السلم العام‪.‬‬ ‫‪ 3‬خلق التفاعل الدولي على حل المسائل الدولية ذات الصبغة االقتصادية واالجتماعية والثقافية‬ ‫واإلنسانية وعلى تعزيز احترام حقوق اإلنسان والحريات الثانوية للناس جميعا ً والتشجيع على‬ ‫ذلك إطالقا ً بال تمييز بسبب الجنس أو اللغة أو الدين وال تفريق بين الرجال والنساء‪.‬‬ ‫‪ 4‬جعل هذه الهيئة مرجعا ً لجمع أعمال األمم وتقنينها نحو إدراك هذه المسائل المشتركة‪.‬‬

‫‪Text 2:‬‬ ‫‪The UN does not make any specific warranties or statements with regards the accu‬‬‫‪racy of these materials or its completion. The UN regularly changes, improves, and‬‬ ‫‪updates the material shown without prior notification. The UN is not responsible‬‬ ‫‪under any circumstance for any loss, damage, liability, or expense as a result or‬‬ ‫‪claimed result of the use of this site, including without limit any error, mistake, omis‬‬‫‪sion, interruption, or delay in this respect. The User is fully responsible for the use of‬‬ ‫‪this site. The UN and her/its affiliated bodies/affiliates are not responsible under any‬‬ ‫‪circumstance from any direct, indirect, incidental or dependent loss, even when the‬‬ ‫‪UN has knowledge of the possibility of such a loss.‬‬ ‫)‪https://unctad.org/terms (accessed 12 March 2021‬‬ ‫‪Arabic translation:‬‬ ‫وال تقدم األمم المتحدة أي بيانات تفيد تأييدها أو تبنيها لدقة أو موثوقية أي نصيحة أو رأي أو‬ ‫بيان أو غير ذلك من المعلومات المتاحة من قبل أي مقدم للمعلومات‪ ،‬أو مستعمل لهذا الموقع‬ ‫أو أي شخص أو كيان آخر‪ .‬كما يكون المستعمل مسئوال كامل المسؤولية عن اعتماده على مثل‬ ‫هذه النصائح أو اآلراء أو البيانات أو غيرها من المعلومات‪ .‬وال تكون األمم المتحدة أو هيئاتها‬ ‫الفرعية‪ ،‬أو أي من الوكالء‪ ،‬أو الموظفين‪ ،‬أو مقدمي المعلومات أو كتاب محتوى اإلنترنت‬ ‫التابعين لهما‪ ،‬مسئولة أمام أي مستعمل أو أي جهة أخرى عن أي خطأ‪ ،‬أو غلط أو إغفال أو‬ ‫انقطاع أو حذف أو عيب أو تغيير‪ ،‬في المحتوى أو عن استخدامه‪ ،‬أو تقديمه في الوقت المناسب‬ ‫أو اكتماله‪ ،‬وليستا مسئولتين عن أي قصور في األداء أو أي فيروس حاسوبي أو انقطاع في خط‬ ‫االتصال‪ ،‬مهما كان السبب في ذلك‪ ،‬وعن أي أضرار ناجمة عن ذلك‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 6. Identify the major grammatical errors in the following Arabic translation.‬‬ ‫‪Then replace the underlined words with appropriate synonyms, without distorting‬‬ ‫‪the meaning of the text.‬‬ ‫وعندما يفضي نزاع ما إلى القتال‪ ،‬كان شغل المجلس الشاغل إنهاء ذلك في أقرب وقت ممكن‪.‬‬ ‫وفي مناسبات عديدة‪ ،‬أصدر المجلس تعليمات لوقف إطالق النار كان لها أهمية حاسمة في‬ ‫الحيلولة دون اتساع رقعة اقتتال‪ .‬وهو يوفد أيضا قوات األمم المتحدة لحفظ السالم للمساعدة على‬ ‫تخفيف التوتر في مناطق االضطرابات‪ ،‬والفصل بين القوات المتحاربة وتهيئة ظروف الهدوء‬ ‫‪17/12/21 15:49‬‬

‫‪7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 233‬‬

‫‪234  Advanced English–Arabic Translation‬‬ ‫التي يمكن أن يجري في ظلها البحث عن تسويات سلمية‪ .‬ويجوز للمجلس أن يقرر اتخاذ تدابير‬ ‫إنفاذ‪ ،‬أو جزاءات اقتصادية (مثل عمليات الحظر التجاري) أو اتخاذ إجراء عسكري جماعي‪.‬‬ ‫وعندما يتخذ مجلس األمن إجراء منع أو إنفاذ ضد دولة عضو ما‪ ،‬يجوز للجمعية العامة‪ ،‬أن تعلق‬ ‫تمتع تلك الدولة بحقوق العضوية وامتيازها‪ ،‬بناء على توصية المجلس‪ .‬وإذا كررت انتهاكات‬ ‫دولة عضو ما لمبادئ الميثاق‪ ،‬يجوز للجمعية العامة أن تقصيها من األمم المتحدة‪ ،‬بناء على‬ ‫توصية المجلس‪.‬‬ ‫ويجوز الدولة العضو في األمم المتحدة التي ليست عضوا في مجلس األمن‪ ،‬أن تشارك في‬ ‫مناقشات المجلس‪ ،‬بدون حق التصويت‪ ،‬إذا اعتبر هذه األخير أن مصالحها عرضة للضرر‪.‬‬ ‫ويُدعى كل من أعضاء األمم المتحدة وغير األعضاء‪ ،‬إذا كانوا أطرافا في نزاع معروض على‬ ‫المجلس‪ ،‬إلى المشاركة في مناقشاته‪ ،‬بدون حق التصويت؛ ويضع المجلس شروطا مشاركة‬ ‫الدولة غير العضو‪.‬‬

‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 7. Identify the major grammatical errors in the following Arabic translation.‬‬ ‫‪Then replace the underlined words with appropriate synonyms without distorting‬‬ ‫‪the meaning of the text.‬‬

‫وعندما يفضي نزاع ما إلى القتال‪ ،‬كان شغل المجلس الشاغل إنهاء ذلك في أقرب وقت ممكن‪.‬‬ ‫وفي مناسبات عديدة‪ ،‬أصدر المجلس تعليمات لوقف إطالق النار كان لها أهمية حاسمة في‬ ‫الحيلولة دون اتساع رقعة اقتتال‪ .‬وهو يوفد أيضا قوات األمم المتحدة لحفظ السالم للمساعدة على‬ ‫تخفيف التوتر في مناطق االضطرابات‪ ،‬والفصل بين القوات المتحاربة وتهيئة ظروف الهدوء‬ ‫التي يمكن أن يجري في ظلها البحث عن تسويات سلمية‪ .‬ويجوز للمجلس أن يقرر اتخاذ تدابير‬ ‫إنفاذ‪ ،‬أو جزاءات اقتصادية (مثل عمليات الحظر التجاري) أو اتخاذ إجراء عسكري جماعي‪.‬‬ ‫وعندما يتخذ مجلس األمن إجراء منع أو إنفاذ ضد دولة عضو ما‪ ،‬يجوز للجمعية العامة‪ ،‬أن تعلق‬ ‫تمتع تلك الدولة بحقوق العضوية وامتيازها‪ ،‬بناء على توصية المجلس‪ .‬وإذا كررت انتهاكات‬ ‫دولة عضو ما لمبادئ الميثاق‪ ،‬يجوز للجمعية العامة أن تقصيها من األمم المتحدة‪ ،‬بناء على‬ ‫توصية المجلس‪.‬‬ ‫ويجوز الدولة العضو في األمم المتحدة التي ليست عضوا في مجلس األمن‪ ،‬أن تشارك في‬ ‫مناقشات المجلس‪ ،‬بدون حق التصويت‪ ،‬إذا اعتبر هذه األخير أن مصالحها عرضة للضرر‪.‬‬ ‫ويُدعى كل من أعضاء األمم المتحدة وغير األعضاء‪ ،‬إذا كانوا أطرافا في نزاع معروض على‬ ‫المجلس‪ ،‬إلى المشاركة في مناقشاته‪ ،‬بدون حق التصويت؛ ويضع المجلس شروطا مشاركة‬ ‫الدولة غير العضو‪.‬‬

‫‪17/12/21 15:49‬‬

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Module 9: Legal Texts  235

9.5  Translating Agreements and Contracts The process of translating agreements and contracts is fraught with many challenges, some of which have to do with the specific nature of the material to be translated. Translating agreements and contracts requires a specific knowledge of the subject area, especially since this type of register has a very formal style and tone. Such knowledge can be achieved through the accumulation of vocabulary lists or glossaries related to this genre of texts. Therefore, the translator is required to have not only a broad knowledge of the ST, but also a sound knowledge of the TT, especially the equivalent terms in it. A good grounding in both languages not only helps in preserving the meaning of the ST, but can also contribute to producing an accurate and reliable translation.

9.5.1  Rights and Copyrights: Terms and Conditions Exercise 8. Use the glossary below and translate the following text into Arabic. Then discuss your translation with your fellow students. TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION Copyright © 1999–2001 Michael Stutz Verbatim copying of this document is permitted, in any medium. 1. DEFINITIONS. ‘License’ shall mean this Design Science License. The License applies to any work which contains a notice placed by the work’s copyright holder stating that it is published under the terms of this Design Science License. ‘Work’ shall mean such an aforementioned work. The License also applies to the output of the Work, only if said output constitutes a ‘derivative work’ of the licensed Work as defined by copyright law. ‘Object Form’ shall mean an executable or performable form of the Work, being an embodiment of the Work in some tangible medium. ‘Source Data’ shall mean the origin of the Object Form, being the entire, machine readable, preferred form of the Work for copying and for human modification (usually the language, encoding or format in which composed or recorded by the Author); plus any accompanying files, scripts or other data necessary for installation, configuration or compilation of the Work. ‘Author’ shall mean the copyright holder(s) of the Work. The individual licensees are referred to as ‘you.’ 2. RIGHTS AND COPYRIGHT. The Work is copyrighted by the Author. All rights to the Work are reserved by the Author, except as specifically described below. This License describes the terms and 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 235

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236  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

conditions under which the Author permits you to copy, distribute and modify copies of the Work. In addition, you may refer to the Work, talk about it, and (as dictated by ‘fair use’) quote from it, just as you would any copyrighted material under copyright law. Your right to operate, perform, read or otherwise interpret and/or execute the Work is unrestricted; however, you do so at your own risk, because the Work comes WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/dsl.html (accessed 27 March 2012) English License Under the terms Aforementioned As defined by law Executable Copying and modification Accompanying Copyright Copyright reserved Unrestricted

Arabic

‫الترخيص‬ ‫وفقا ألحكام‬ ‫اآلنفة الذكر‬ ‫وفقا للقانون‬ ‫قابل للتنفيذ‬ ‫النسخ و التعديل‬ ‫المرفقة‬ ‫حقوق الطبع والنشر‬ ‫حقوق النشر محفوظة‬ ‫غير مقيد‬

9.5.2  Memorandum of Agreement Exercise 9. Translate the following text into Arabic and comment on key differences between the ST and TT, considering lexis, sentence structure and cultural features. This Memorandum of Agreement (this ‘MOA’ or this ‘Memorandum of Agreement’) is made and entered into on this [DAY] day of [MONTH] [YEAR] (‘Effective Date’) by and between: [PARTY 1], a [PARTY 1 STATE OF INCORP] company, with an office located at [PARTY 1 ADDRESS]; and [PARTY 2], a [PARTY 2 STATE OF INCORP] company, with an office located at [PARTY 2 ADDRESS]; I- What is a memorandum of agreement? A memorandum of agreement is a cooperative agreement between two or more parties, documenting the details of the collaboration, but different from a memo-

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Module 9: Legal Texts  237

randum of understanding, the agreement is more likely to impose obligations on those involved. 1. PURPOSE & SCOPE. The purpose of this Memorandum of Agreement is to set forth the terms and conditions, scope of work and responsibilities of the parties associated with their collaboration on [DESCRIBE COOPERATIVE PROJECT]. Specifically, both parties will cooperate to develop [SPECIFICS AND OBJECTIVES RELATED TO PROJECT]. 2. BACKGROUND. Both parties see the benefits of this project, have a desire to pursue the project and have determined that each brings unique expertise and experience necessary to accomplish the objectives outlined above. [PARTY 1] has unique expertise and experience in the following areas: [PARTY 2] has unique expertise and experience in the following areas: 3. [PARTY 1] RESPONSIBILITIES. [PARTY 1] shall undertake the following activities under this MOA: 4. [PARTY 2] RESPONSIBILITIES. [PARTY 2] shall undertake the following activities under this MOA: 5. TERMS AND CONDITIONS. It is mutually understood and agreed by and between the parties that: 1. Each party takes legal and financial responsibility for the actions of its respective employees, officers, agents, representatives and volunteers. Each party agrees to indemnify, defend and hold harmless the other to the fullest extent permitted by law from and against any and all demands, claims, actions, liabilities, losses, damages, and costs, including reasonable attorney’s fees, arising out of or resulting from the indemnifying party’s acts or omissions related to its participation under this Memorandum of Agreement, and each party shall bear the proportionate cost of any damages attributable to the fault of such party, its officers, agents, employees and independent contractors. It is the intention of the parties that, where fault is determined to have been contributory, principles of comparative fault will be applied. 2. Each party, at its sole cost and expense, shall carry insurance or self insure to cover its activities in connection with this MOA, and obtain, keep in force and maintain, insurance or equivalent programs of self-insurance, for general liability,

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238  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

workers compensation and business automobile liability adequate to cover its potential liabilities hereunder. 3. This MOA may be amended from time to time by mutual agreement of the parties in a written modification signed by both parties. 4. This MOA may be terminated by mutual agreement of the parties, and shall automatically terminate upon completion of all responsibilities as stated herein, unless otherwise amended. 6. FUNDING; COSTS. The parties shall each be solely responsible for any and all costs associated with their responsibilities under this MOA. 7. EFFECTIVE DATE AND SIGNATURE. This Memorandum of Agreement shall be effective upon the date of the last party to sign this MOA below. The parties indicate agreement with this Memorandum of Agreement by their signatures below. [PARTY 1] ____________________________ [NAME], [TITLE] [PARTY 2] ____________________________ [NAME], [TITLE]

______________ DATE ______________ DATE

https://www.pandadoc.com/memorandum-of-agreement-template/ (accessed 2 March 2021)

9.5.3  Multiparty Negotiations Exercise 10. Provide a summary of the following text in Arabic. BRITISH-IRISH COUNCIL 1. A British-Irish Council (BIC) will be established under a new British-Irish Agreement to promote the harmonious and mutually beneficial development of the totality of relationships among the peoples of these islands. 2. Membership of the BIC will comprise representatives of the British and Irish Governments, devolved institutions in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, when established, and, if appropriate, elsewhere in the United Kingdom, together with representatives of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

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3. The BIC will meet in different formats: at summit level, twice per year; in specific sectoral formats on a regular basis, with each side represented by the appropriate Minister; in an appropriate format to consider cross-sectoral matters. 4. Representatives of members will operate in accordance with whatever procedures for democratic authority and accountability are in force in their respective elected institutions. 5. The BIC will exchange information, discuss, consult and use best endeavours to reach agreement on co-operation on matters of mutual interest within the competence of the relevant Administrations. Suitable issues for early discussion in the BIC could include transport links, agricultural issues, environmental issues, cultural issues, health issues, education issues and approaches to EU issues. Suitable arrangements to be made for practical co-operation on agreed policies. 6. It will be open to the BIC to agree common policies or common actions. Individual members may opt not to participate in such common policies and common action. 7. The BIC normally will operate by consensus. In relation to decisions on common policies or common actions, including their means of implementation, it will operate by agreement of all members participating in such policies or actions. https://www.britishirishcouncil.org/agreement-reached-multi-party-negotiations/strand3-british-irish-council-and-intergovernmental (accessed 15 March 2021) Exercise 11. Provide the Arabic equivalents of the underlined English words/phrases in the following text and use them in sentences. 1. A British-Irish Council (BIC) will be established under a new British-Irish Agreement to promote the harmonious and mutually beneficial development of the totality of relationships among the peoples of these islands. 2. Membership of the BIC will comprise representatives of the British and Irish Governments, devolved institutions in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, when established, and, if appropriate, elsewhere in the United Kingdom, together with representatives of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. 3. The BIC will meet in different formats: at summit level, twice per per year; in specific sectoral formats on a regular basis, with each side represented by the appropriate Minister; in an appropriate format to consider cross-sectoral matters. 4. Representatives of members will operate in accordance with whatever procedures for democratic authority and accountability are in force in their respective elected institutions.

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240  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

5. The BIC will exchange information, discuss, consult and use best endeavours to reach agreement on co-operation on matters of mutual interest within the competence of the relevant Administrations. Suitable issues for early discussion in the BIC could include transport links, agricultural issues, environmental issues, cultural issues, health issues, education issues and approaches to EU issues. Suitable arrangements to be made for practical co-operation on agreed policies. https://www.britishirishcouncil.org/agreement-reached-multi-party-negotiations/strand3-british-irish-council-and-intergovernmental (accessed 15 March 2021) Exercise 12. Provide two main titles in Arabic for the following text. The Irish Government will also take steps to further strengthen the protection of human rights in its jurisdiction. The Government will, taking account of the work of the All-Party Oireacht as Committee on the Constitution and the Report of the Constitution Review Group, bring forward measures to strengthen and underpin the constitutional protection of human rights. These proposals will draw on the European Convention on Human Rights and other international legal instruments in the field of human rights and the question of the incorporation of the ECHR will be further examined in this context. The measures brought forward would ensure at least an equivalent level of protection of human rights as will pertain in Northern Ireland. https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/matrix/status/6/human_rights (accessed 7 August 2013) 1. ................................................................................................................................................................................ 2. ...............................................................................................................................................................................

9.5.4  Tenancy Agreements Exercise 13. Translate the following paragraphs into Arabic, paying special attention to the translation of negation. Tenancy Obligations: Tenants must: • pay the rent and any other specified charges • avoid causing or make good any damage beyond normal wear and tear • notify the landlord of any repair requirements

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Module 9: Legal Texts  241

• • • •

a llow access for repairs to be carried out and by appointment for routine inspections keep the landlord informed of the identity of the occupants not engage in or allow anti-social behaviour not act, or allow visitors to act in a way that would invalidate the landlord’s insurance • not cause the landlord to be in breach of statutory obligations • not alter, improve, assign, sub-let or change the use of the dwelling without written consent from the landlord. Landlords must: • allow the tenant to enjoy peaceful and exclusive occupation • carry out repairs, subject to tenant liability for damage beyond normal wear and tear • insure the dwelling, subject to the insurance being available at a reasonable cost • provide a point of contact • promptly refund deposits unless rent is owing or there is damage beyond normal wear and tear • reimburse tenants for expenditure on repairs that were appropriate to the landlord • enforce tenant obligations • not penalise tenants for making complaints or taking action to enforce their right https://www.solicitorsireland.com/practice/14 (accessed 5 March 2021)

9.6  Translating Family Law Agreements and Testaments This section deals with the translation of agreements and contracts pertaining to family affairs. It particularly focuses on the translation of marriage, divorce, child custody and will statements. It provides key glossaries to aid learners and translators with their translations of these genres of text and reflects on the translation of culture-specific items and their features into Arabic.

9.6.1  Marriage Contracts Exercise 14. Translate the following marriage contracts into Arabic, highlighting key culture-specific items.

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242  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Example 1:

https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1997/2349/schedule/1/made

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Module 9: Legal Texts  243

Example 2:

https://www.indiamart.com/certificate-attestation-chennai/

9.6.2  Divorce Settlement Agreements Exercise 15. Read the following text and complete the following: a) provide a glossary for the text; b) translate the text into Arabic; c) comment on challenges encountered in your translation and the strategies used to overcome them. THIS DIVORCE SETTLEMENT AGREEMENT (this ‘Agreement’ or this ‘Divorce Settlement Agreement’) is made and entered into as of DATE (the ‘Effective Date’) by and between: LEGAL NAME OF WIFE, formerly MAIDEN NAME OF WIFE, currently residing at ADDRESS, and LEGAL NAME OF HUSBAND, currently residing at ADDRESS. WHEREAS: 1. Husband and Wife (hereinafter also referred to in the singular as a ‘Party’ and collectively as the ‘Parties’) were lawfully married to each other on DATE, in CITY, STATE, in the United States; and 7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 243

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244  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

2. The Parties resided together in cohabitation until their separation as of DATE (the ‘Separation Date’) due to certain ‘irreconcilable differences’; and 3. The Parties wish to live apart from and independent of each other; and 4. Wife has filed a petition for divorce against Husband in the Superior Court of . . . ; and Or was this filed by the Husband? Or, take this out if not filed. 5. The Parties are the parents and legal guardians of the following minor children: a. Name of child b. Name of child c. (Add more children as needed or omit this if not needed) 6. The Parties desire to settle in perpetuity their respective rights, duties and obligations, and all claims either Party may have against the other. In consideration of the above, and of the mutual promises and agreements contained in this Divorce Settlement Agreement, the parties, intending to be legally bound, do hereby agree as follows: 1. AGREEMENT TO LIVE SEPARATE AND INDEPENDENT. The Parties agree to live separate and apart from each other, as if not married, and each Party shall be free from any interference, harassment, authority or control whatsoever of the other Party. The Parties shall each have full and unfettered control over their own destiny. AGREEMENT WITH RESPECT TO PROPERTY. The following property is subject to equitable division between the Parties and the Parties agree to the division of such property as described in the subparagraphs below. 1. The real estate property located at ADDRESS (hereinafter the ‘Marital Residence’). Title to the Marital Residence is in both Parties’ names, and other than a mortgage on the Marital Residence held by BANK NAME, there are no liens or encumbrances on the Marital Residence. Upon execution of this Divorce Settlement Agreement, Wife shall assume ownership of the Marital Residence as well as any and all rights, responsibilities and obligations related to the Marital Residence and Husband releases and relinquishes to the Wife any and all right, title, claim or interest Husband may have in or to such Marital Residence. 2. Tangible property (other than automobiles) currently held at the Marital Residence (hereinafter ‘Tangible Property’).  By execution of this Divorce Settlement Agreement, the Parties represent and warrant that the Parties have resolved any and all issues or disagreements regarding equitable division of Tangible Property. As of the Effective Date of this Divorce Settlement Agreement, Husband, having departed the Marital Residence as of the

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Separation Date, has removed from the Marital Residence all of the Tangible Property he has any claims on and Wife makes no claims, now or in the future, related to such property. As such, all Tangible Property existing at the Marital Residence shall be the sole and exclusive property of the Wife, and Husband releases and relinquishes to the Wife any and all right, title, claim or interest Husband may have in or to such tangible property. https://www.pandadoc.com/divorce-settlement-agreement-template/ (3 March 2021)

9.6.3  Child Custody Agreements Exercise 16. Provide a glossary (English-Arabic) of key terms for the following text, then translate it into Arabic. THIS CUSTODY AGREEMENT (also referred to herein as this ‘Agreement’) is made and entered into by and between [FATHER’S NAME] (‘the father’) and [MOTHER’S NAME] (‘the mother’), on [DATE] in [CITY], [STATE]. IN CONSIDERATION of the circumstances and mutual covenants set forth in this Custody Agreement, and such other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which is hereby acknowledged, the parties agree as follows: WHEREAS the parties are the parents of the following minor children: 1. [CHILD’S NAME], born on [DOB], and 2. [CHILD’S NAME], born on [DOB] (both children collectively referred to herein as ‘the children’), and WHEREAS the parties wish to enter into this Custody Agreement in order to settle the care and custody of the children. 1. LEGAL CUSTODY & DECISION MAKING. The mother shall have sole and exclusive custody of the children and all final decision-making authority related to significant matters impacting the welfare of the children, including but not limited to, matters of education, religion and health care. Notwithstanding the foregoing, the father shall, in every case (except in the event of an emergency), be provided the opportunity to participate in the decision-making process as to any such significant matters. 2. RESIDENTIAL CUSTODY & ACCESS RIGHTS. The mother shall have residential custody of the children. As such, the children will reside at the mother’s residential address, and the mother shall be entitled to child

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support, which will be paid by the father. In the event of the mother’s death or in the event the mother is otherwise incapable or unable to perform her responsibilities as custodial parent for the children, the father will assume all such responsibilities as custodial parent. Notwithstanding anything contained in or implied by the foregoing, and subject to the below provisions pertaining to the mother’s access to the children, the father shall have access to the children in accordance with the schedule and terms set forth below (or as otherwise agreed between the parties on a per event basis). The father will not have access to the children on any weekday, and shall only have access to the children on every other weekend (including 3 days weekends per school schedules). The only exception to the foregoing is as follows: i. Father’s Day. The father shall have access to the children on every Father’s Day from [TIME] to [TIME]. ii. Children’s Birthdays. If the father would not otherwise have access to a child on his or her birthday, the father shall nevertheless have access to such child for up to [NUMBER] hours. iii. Father’s Birthday. If the father would not otherwise have access to the children on his birthday, the father shall nevertheless have access to the children for up to [NUMBER] hours. iv. Holidays (‘Odd’ years). The father shall have access to the children on the following holidays in year one (1) of this Agreement and all other odd number years of this Agreement. v. Holidays (‘Even’ years). The father shall have access to the children on the following holidays in year two (2) of this Agreement and all other even number years of this Agreement. vi. Vacations. The father shall have up to two (2) weeks of unrestricted access to the children, during the summer months, for vacation, provided the father works in good faith with the mother and uses best reasonable efforts to schedule such vacation on dates convenient for the mother. The mother will have access to the children at all times where the father does not have access. In addition, notwithstanding anything contained or implied in the foregoing: 1. Mother’s Day. The mother shall have access to the children on every Mother’s Day from [TIME] to [TIME]. 2. Children’s Birthdays. If the mother would not otherwise have access to a child on his or her birthday, the mother shall nevertheless have access to such child for up to [NUMBER] hours.

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3. Mother’s Birthday. If the mother would not otherwise have access to the children on his birthday, the mother shall nevertheless have access to the children for up to [NUMBER] hours. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have caused this Agreement to be executed and duly delivered and effective as of the date of the last party to sign this Agreement below. [MOTHER] _________________________________ ______________ DATE [FATHER] _________________________________ ______________ https://www.pandadoc.com/custody-agreement-template/ (5 March 2021)

9.6.4  Last Will and Testament Exercise 17. Translate the following into Arabic and comment on key culture-specific differences, as well as the strategies adopted in your translation. Last Will and Testament OF [NAME] 1. DECLARATION. I, [NAME], a legal adult with an address at [ADDRESS], being of competent and sound mind, do hereby declare this to be my last will and testament (hereinafter, ‘Last Will & Testament’) and do hereby revoke any and all wills and codicils heretofore made jointly or severally by me. I further declare that this Last Will & Testament reflects my personal wishes without any undue influence whatsoever. 2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION. At the time of this Last Will & Testament, I am married to [NAME OF SPOUSE], and I have [NUMBER] children who are listed as follows: i. [CHILD 1 NAME] born [DATE] ii. [CHILD 2 NAME] born [DATE] 3. EXECUTOR APPOINTMENT. I hereby nominate and appoint [EXECUTOR 1 NAME] as Executor/Personal Representative of this Last Will & Testament. Should the aforementioned individual be unavailable, unable or unwilling to serve as Executor/Personal Representative when needed, then I nominate and appoint [EXECUTOR 2 NAME] as the alternate Executor/Personal Representative of this Last Will & Testament.

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Immediately following my death, the Executor/Personal Representative will be authorized to exercise all provisions of this Last Will & Testament and to use the assets from my estate to make necessary arrangements, without any unnecessary delay, for the payment of personal debts, obligations and funeral expenses. 4. GUARDIAN APPOINTMENT. In the event I am the sole parent or legal guardian of my non-adult children at the time of my death, then I hereby nominate and appoint [GUARDIAN 1 NAME], an individual with an address at [ADDRESS], as legal guardian of my children. Should the aforementioned individual be unavailable, unable or unwilling to serve as legal guardian when needed, then I nominate and appoint [GUARDIAN 2 NAME] as the alternate legal guardian of my children. 5. BEQUESTS & REQUESTS. i. After payment of all of personal debts, expenses and liabilities, I request and direct that my property be bequeathed as follows: I give, devise and bequeath all of the remaining and residual property I have ownership in at the time of my death, whether real property, personal property or both, of whatever kind and wherever situated to [INHERITOR 1 NAME] absolutely and entirely. Should [INHERITOR 1 NAME] not be living, then I give, devise and bequeath all of the remaining and residual property I have ownership in at the time of my death, whether real property, personal property or both, of whatever kind and wherever situated to [INHERITOR 2 NAME] absolutely and entirely. ii. Upon my death, I direct that my remains: IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I hereby subscribe my name to this Last Will & Testament, as of the date set forth below, at the address set forth below, in front of the attesting witness who also subscribe their names to this Last Will & Testament below as of the same date, at my request, and in my company. [NAME] [ADDRESS WHERE SIGNED] _________________________________ ______________ SIGNATURE

DATE

WITNESSES ATTESTATION: As of the date of [NAME]’s signature above, [NAME] declared to us, the undersigned witnesses, that the foregoing Last Will & Testament, consisting of [NUMBER] pages, including this page, expresses [NAME]’s true and sincerest wishes and will. [NAME] signed this Last Will & Testament in our presence, and then we signed this Last Will

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& Testament in [NAME]’s presence and in the presence of each other at the address shown immediately above [NAME]’s signature. [WITNESS 1 NAME] of [ADDRESS] _________________________________ ______________ SIGNATURE DATE [WITNESS 2 NAME] of [ADDRESS] _________________________________ ______________ SIGNATURE

DATE

https://www.pandadoc.com/last-will-testament-template/ (accessed 4 March 2021)

9.7 Conclusion This module has offered insight into the translation of legal texts. It has begun with a brief account of translating legal texts, outlining key approaches and frameworks relevant to this module, followed by a wide range of texts and activities reflecting a variety of legal text types. The module has also highlighted some of the challenges and difficulties of translating legal texts, offering, where practical, strategies of overcoming this. The multiplicity of tasks is designed to allow learners to practise translating key terms and texts pertaining to the legal register.

9.8  Module Review Exercises Exercise 18. Provide antonyms for the underlined words in the following text. ‫ إن مديري ومستخدمي المصارف ملزمون‬: 1956/9/3 ‫قانون سرّية المصارف الصادر بتاريخ‬ ‫بكتمان الس ّر المصرفي كتمانا ً مطلقا ً لمصلحة زبائن المصرف وعدم إفشاء أسماء الزبائن وأموالهم‬ ّ ‫والمعطيات المتعلّقة بهم أل‬ .‫ي شخص أو سلطة عامة إدارية أو عسكرية أو قضائية‬ ‫ يمكن للمصارف أن تفتح لزبائنها‬: 1961/12/19 ‫قانون إجازة فتح حساب مشترك الصادر بتاريخ‬ ‫ عند وفاة أحد أصحاب الحساب‬.ً‫حسابا ً مشتركا ً يُستعمل بتوقيع أحد أصحاب هذا الحساب منفردا‬ .‫المشترك يتصرّف الشريك والشركاء بكامل الحساب مطلق التصرّف‬ ‫ هذا القانون هو الركيزة‬:1963/8/1 ‫ في‬13513 ‫قانون النقد والتسليف الصادر بالمرسوم رقم‬ ،‫األساسية للجهاز المصرفي والمالي إذ يرعى تنظيم النقد ودور المصرف المركزي وعملياته‬ .‫وينظّم عمل المصارف إضافة الى المهن التابعة للمهنة المصرفية‬

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250  Advanced English–Arabic Translation ‫ صدقت التدابير االستثنائية التي اتخذت بالنسبة‬: 1966/6/9 ‫ الصادر بتاريخ‬66/62 ‫القانون رقم‬ .‫لعمليات التسليف وتأمين السيولة المصرفية‬ ‫ وأنشأ لدى‬،‫ الذي ع ّدل وأضاف بعض األحكام المتعلقة بقانون النقد والتسليف‬67/28 ‫القانون رقم‬ ‫ وأنشأ المؤسسة الوطنية‬.‫ ولجنة الرقابة على المصارف‬،‫ الهيئة المصرفية العليا‬،‫مصرف لبنان‬ ‫ منه أوقفت لمدة خمس سنوات (قابلة التمديد مرة واحدة) الترخيص‬45 ‫ كما أن المادة‬،‫لضمان الودائع‬ .72/ 3321 ‫ وقد ُم ّدد هذا الحظر لمدة خمس سنوات جديدة بموجب المرسوم رقم‬.‫لمصارف جديدة‬ ‫التشريعات التي تتضّمن أحكاما ً تتعلّق بالمصارف التي تتوقف عن العمل أو الموضوعة اليد عليها‬ ‫ المرسوم‬،‫ مع تعديالته‬67/2 ‫ القانون رقم‬:‫إضافة الى التدابير واالجراءات الواجب اتباعها بشأنها‬ ‫ القانون‬،1979/1663 ‫ القانون المنفّذ بالمرسوم رقم‬،67/8 ‫ المرسوم االشتراعي رقم‬،67/7739 ‫رقم‬ .2004/628 ‫ القانون رقم‬،1991/110 ‫رقم‬

https://www.abl.org.lb/arabic/lebanese-banking-sector/main-banking-amp-financialregulations (accessed 4 March 2021) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 19. Translate and comment on the grammatical difference between the ST and TT at both sentence and discourse levels. 1. The WTO shall provide the common institutional framework for the conduct of trade relations among its Members in matters related to the agreements and associated legal instruments included in the Annexes to this Agreement. 2. The agreements and associated legal instruments included in Annexes 1, 2, and 3 (hereinafter referred to as ‘Multilateral Trade Agreements’) are integral parts of this Agreement, binding on all Members.

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3. The agreements and associated legal instruments included in Annex 4 (hereinafter referred to as ‘Plurilateral Trade Agreements’) are also part of this Agreement for those Members that have accepted them, and are binding on those Members. The Plurilateral Trade Agreements do not create either obligations or rights for Members that have not accepted them. 4. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 as specified in Annex 1A (hereinafter referred to as ‘GATT 1994’) is legally distinct from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, dated 30 October 1947, annexed to the Final Act Adopted at the Conclusion of the Second Session of the Preparatory Committee of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment, as subsequently rectified, amended or modified (hereinafter referred to as ‘GATT 1947’). https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto_e.htm (accessed 29 February 2021) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 20. Translate the following text into Arabic. Then comment on the translation difficulties you encountered at both sentence and discourse levels. RENT. Resident shall pay to Owner the Monthly rent of $ . . . . . . , in advance on or before the first day of each month without deduction or offset. On signing this Agreement Resident shall pay one full month’s rent in the form of a cashier’s check or money order only. The rent for the partial month’s prior shall be prorated on the basis of a 30-day month and shall be paid on or before the next rental due date. SECURITY DEPOSIT. On signing this Agreement, Resident shall pay to Owner the sum of $ . . . . . . as a deposit to secure resident’s performance of the covenants contained herein. No part of this deposit is to be considered as an advance payment of rent, including last months’ rent, nor is it to be used for refunded prior to the leased premises being permanently and totally vacated by all Residents. After Resident has vacated the premises, Owner shall furnish Resident with an

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itemized written statement of the basis for, and the amount of, any of the security deposit retained by Owner. Owner may withhold that portion of Resident’s security deposit necessary (a) to remedy any default by Resident in the payment of rent or any other provision of this Agreement, (b) to repair damages to the premises, to include repainting, but exclusive of ordinary wear and tear, and (c) to remove trash and clean the premises to meet Owner’s re-rental standards, as provided by law. The unused portion of this deposit shall be returned to Resident without interest, according to law. https://www.hill-properties.com/pdfs/2020_Rental_Lease_Agreement_SAMPLE.pdf (accessed 1 March 2021) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 21. Translate the above text, using the communicative translation strategy. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................

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‫‪Exercise 22. Translate the following text into English.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫•‬

‫•‬ ‫•‬

‫•‬

‫•‬

‫المادة ‪ 49‬من القانون رقم ‪ 66‬تاريخ ‪ 2017/11/3‬موازنة العام ‪ : )2017‬إجراء إعادة تقييم استثنائية‬ ‫لعناصر االصول الثابتة (بما فيها االسهم و سندات الدين وسندات وحصص المشاركة و‬ ‫العقارات و الموجودات الثابتة االخرى) لتصحيح اثار التضخم النقدي عن التغيير في قيم تلك‬ ‫االصول‪ .‬يقبل ضمن االموال الخاصة المساندة للمصرف‪ %50 ،‬من ربح التحسين الناتج عن‬ ‫اعادة تخمين موجودات المصرف العقارية (االراضي واالبنية) المملوكة منه بكامل اسهمها‬ ‫بنا ًء لتعميم مصرف لبنان االساسي رقم ‪ .1998/44‬قرار وزارة المالية التطبيقي رقم ‪1/514‬‬ ‫تاريخ ‪2018/4/17‬‬ ‫قرار وزارة المالية رقم ‪ 1/1504‬تاريخ ‪ 2017/12/22‬تحديد دقائق تطبيق المادة ‪ 51‬من القانون‬ ‫رقم ‪ 2003/497‬المع َّدلة بموجب القانون رقم ‪ 64‬تاريخ ‪ 2017/10/20‬المتعلقة بضريبة الـ‪%7‬‬ ‫على فوائد وايرادات كافة االلتزامات المصرفية‪ .‬بموجب هذا القرار إن ودائع المصارف لدى‬ ‫مصرف لبنان غير مستثناة من هذه الضريبة‪.‬‬ ‫فيما المادة ‪ 36‬من القانون رقم ‪ 79‬موازنة العام ‪ 2018‬استثنت الودائع بين المصارف الخاصة‬ ‫“االنتر بنك” من هذه الضريبة‪.‬‬ ‫قانون رقم ‪ 85‬تاريخ ‪ 2018/10/10‬الذي ع ّدل بعض أحكام المرسوم االشتراعي رقم ‪ 46‬الصادر‬ ‫في ‪ 24‬حزيران ‪( 1983‬نظام الشركات المحصور نشاطها خارج لبنان – أوف شور)‪ ،‬سمح هذا‬ ‫ي (الشريك الواحد) بتأسيس شركة أوف شور‬ ‫التعديل بأن يقوم شخص واحد طبيعي او معنو ً‬ ‫باإلضافة الى الشركات المغفلة اللبنانية المتع ّددة الشركاء‬ ‫قانون رقم ‪ 81‬تاريخ ‪ 2018/10/10‬المتعلق بالمعامالت اإللكترونية والبيانات ذات الطابع‬ ‫الشخصي‪ :‬احكام تشريعية تتعلق باالسناد االلكترونية والتوقيع االلكتروني وكيفية حمايتها‬ ‫والمصادقة عليها لقبولها كوسيلة اثبات‪ .‬تنظيم قانوني للتجارة والعقود االلكترونية السيما‬ ‫عمليات الدفع االلكتروني والتحويل االلكتروني لألموال النقدية‪ ،‬البطاقات المصرفية و الشيك‬ ‫االلكتروني‪ .‬تنظيم معالجة البيانات ذات الطابع الشخصي لحماية خصوصيتها‪.‬‬ ‫المادة ‪ 31‬من القانون رقم ‪ : 144/2019‬تعديل الفقرة “أوالً” من المادة ‪ 51‬من القانون رقم‬ ‫‪ 497/2003‬المعدلة بموجب المادة ‪ 17‬من القانون رقم ‪ 64/2017‬وبموجب المادة ‪ 36‬من القانون‬ ‫رقم ‪ ،79/2018‬بحيث رفع معدل الضريبة من ‪ %7‬الى ‪( %10‬الضريبة على فوائد الودائع وسائر‬ ‫االلتزامات المصرفية) ويستمر العمل بهذا المعدل لفترة ثالث سنوات على ان يعاد تطبيق معدل‬ ‫‪ 7%‬بعد انتهاء هذه الفترة‪.‬‬

‫‪https://www.abl.org.lb/arabic/lebanese-banking-sector/main-banking-amp-financial‬‬‫)‪regulations (accessed 4 March 2021‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪.......................................................................................................................................................................................‬‬

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‫‪7459_Lahlali & Hatab.indd 253‬‬

254  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................... Exercise 23. Translate the following offer letter into Arabic. [DATE] Mr./Mrs. [EMPLOYEE NAME] [EMPLOYEE ADDRESS] Re: Offer of Employment Dear [EMPLOYEE NAME], It is a pleasure to extend to you our written offer of employment for the position of [POSITION TITLE] at our office in [CITY], [STATE]. This position will report to [MANAGER NAME], [MANAGER TITLE]. Your gross base starting salary will be [MONTHLY SALARY] per month payable bi-weekly at a gross rate of [GROSS SALARY]. This position is classified as Regular Full Time salaried exempt position. The position is benefits eligible. [COMPANY] benefits and related information can be found in the [COMPANY] handbook, which is provided under separate cover. You will be eligible for one week (40 hours) paid vacation for the remainder of calendar year 2014 and three weeks (120 hours) paid vacation for calendar year 2015. You will receive three weeks paid vacation each calendar year thereafter until you become eligible for four weeks paid vacation in accordance with [COMPANY] policies in effect. While we are seeking to have your employment commence with [COMPANY] as soon as possible, this offer of employment is contingent upon your: (i) acceptance of this written offer of employment via this offer letter; (ii) passage of a post offer, pre-employment physical and drug and alcohol screening, which we will schedule for you in the city of current residence as soon as possible following receipt of

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Module 9: Legal Texts  255

your acceptance of this written offer of employment; (iii) not being subject to any secrecy, confidentiality, non-compete or other agreement with a third party which would restrict or interfere with your ability to perform all responsibilities of the position; (iv) your execution of [COMPANY]’s standard confidentiality agreement; and (v) passage of a reasonable background check conducted by [COMPANY] based on your completion of an employment application and furnishing professional references. You will be an employee ‘at will’ of [COMPANY]. As a formality we would request that you sign this offer letter below as your acceptance of this offer by [DATE] [TIME] [TIME ZONE]. If we do not receive your written acceptance by that time, this offer is void. We are looking forward to your joining our team. Meanwhile, if there is any further information we can provide regarding this offer or the position, please do not hesitate to contact me at [PHONE NUMBER] or [EMAIL ADDRESS]. Very truly yours, _________________________________ [COMPANY REP] [TITLE OF COMPANY REP] https://www.pandadoc.com/offer-letter-template/ (accessed 4 March 2021) Exercise 24. Create a glossary for the following text and then translate the first two paragraphs into Arabic. Intellectual Property Sale Agreement Template Prepared for: [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] [Client.Company] Created by: [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] [Sender.Company] This Intellectual Property Sale Agreement (the ‘Agreement’ or this ‘Intellectual Property Sale Agreement’) is made and effective as of Date (the ‘Effective Date’) by and between Name Of Intellectual Property Seller, a State corporation, with a place of business at Address (individually and collectively referred to as the ‘Assignor’) and Name Of Intellectual Property Buyer, a State corporation, with a place of business at Address (the ‘Assignee’). The Assignor and the Assignee may be referred to individually as a ‘Party’ or collectively as the ‘Parties.’

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256  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

WHEREAS: The Assignor desires to assign and transfer to the Assignee all of its right, title, and interest in and to the ‘Intellectual Property’ (as such term is defined in this Agreement below); and The Assignee desires to acquire all of the Assignor’s right, title, and interest in and to the Intellectual Property; and Each Party is duly authorized and capable of entering into this Agreement. NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of the mutual covenants and premises set forth herein, and for other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties agree as follows: 1. ASSIGNMENT OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY. 1. Effective as of the Effective Date, the Assignor sells, transfers, conveys, assigns, and delivers to the Assignee, and the Assignee accepts and assumes all right, title, and interest of the Assignor in and to the following: 2. the intellectual property specified in Exhibit A hereto; 3. all precursors, portions, and works in progress with respect thereto and all inventions, works of authorship, mask works, technology, information, know-how, materials, and tools relating thereto or to the development, support, or maintenance thereof; 4. all copyrights, patent rights, trade secret rights, trademark rights, mask works rights, and all other intellectual property rights and all business, contract rights, and goodwill in, incorporated, or embodied in, used to develop, or related to any of the foregoing; and 5. any registrations and applications for registrations of the foregoing (1.a.i, 1.a.ii, 1.a.iii and 1.a.iv shall be referred to herein collectively as the ‘Intellectual Property’). 2. CONSIDERATION. As consideration for the assignment of the Intellectual Property and the Assignor’s representations and warranties, the Assignee promises to commercially exploit the Intellectual Property and to pay future royalties to Assignor in an amount equal to five percent (5%) of any and all revenues received by Assignee related to exploitation of the Intellectual Property up to a maximum aggregate royalty payout by Assignee to Assignor of $ USD (the ‘Total Royalty Obligation’). Such royalty payments will be paid to Assignor on a semi-annual basis based on total revenues related to Assignee’s commercial exploitation of the Intellectual Property. For the avoidance of doubt, revenues related to the Intellectual Property shall mean any Assignee revenue related to.

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Assignee may make payments toward the Total Royalty Obligation from other sums at any time. https://www.pandadoc.com/intellectual-property-sale-agreement-template/ (accessed 4 March 2021) Exercise 25. Translate the following legal text and comment on the key strategies you adopted in your translation. Loan agreement template Prepared for: [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] [Client.Company] Created by: [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] [Sender.Company] This loan agreement is hereby agreed to by the following parties: Lender Borrower Name Name   Street   Street City, State, Zip City, State, Zip [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] and [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] shall collectively be referred to as ‘The Parties’ for the purposes of this loan agreement. [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] hereby agrees to extend a loan to [Client. FirstName] [Client.LastName], and [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] agrees to accept and repay a loan from [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] pursuant to the entire terms of this agreement. Loan [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] agrees to loan amount to [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] as of loan date. [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] agrees to repay that amount plus interest in accordance with the terms of this loan agreement. Loan delivery [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] shall make the full loan amount available to [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] via the following method: (Note: If Lender indicates ‘wire transfer’ as the loan delivery method, the Borrower should complete the ‘wire transfer’ of this loan agreement).

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258  Advanced English–Arabic Translation

Wire Transfer Account Number Routing Number Account Holder Name Loan repayment [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] agrees to make monthly payments in the amount of payment amount no later than the 1st calendar day of each month. [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] will make payments amount payments to [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] in this manner. The initial loan repayment installment shall be due on __________ and shall continue monthly until the final payment, due on _____________. Payment shall be considered late if not made by 5:00pm lender timezone on the 1st calendar day of each month. All late payments shall be subject to a late fee amount late payment fee. Payments can be made via the following methods: Governing law The terms of this loan agreement shall be governed by the laws of [Sender.State]. Any disputes, suits, or grievances must be filed in the state of [Sender.State]. Non-payment penalty Should [Client.FirstName] [Client.LastName] fail to make payments in accordance with this loan agreement, [Sender.FirstName] [Sender.LastName] may bring due the full remaining balance of the loan. In such a case, [Client.FirstName] [Client. LastName] must pay the full remaining balance of the loan within 30 days. Legal fees Both parties agree that, in the event of a court dispute regarding this loan agreement, the prevailing party’s full legal costs, including attorneys’ fees, shall be reimbursed by the opposite party. https://www.pandadoc.com/lo-agreement-template/ (accessed 4 March 2021)

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