Admirals of the World : A Biographical Dictionary, 1500 to the Present [1 ed.] 9780786482887, 9780786438099

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Admirals of the World

ALSO

BY WILLIAM STEWART AND FROM MCFARLAND

Biographical Dictionary of Anthropologists (2009) A Biographical Dictionary of Psychologists, Psychiatrists and Psychotherapists (2008) Biographical Dictionary of Sociologists (2008) British and Irish Poets: A Biographical Dictionary, 449–2006 (2007)

Admirals of the World A Biographical Dictionary, 1500 to the Present WILLIAM STEWART

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London

LIBRARY

OF

CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Stewart, William, 1927– Admirals of the world : a biographical dictionary, 1500 to the present / William Stewart. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7864-3809-9 softcover : 50# alkaline paper 1. Admirals — Biography — Dictionaries. 2. Naval history — Dictionaries. I. Title. V61.S74 2009 359.0092' 2 — dc22 2009028573 British Library cataloguing data are available ©2009 William Stewart. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover art: (top) Portrait of Horatio Nelson, ¡st Viscount of Nelson as Vice Admiral by Lemuel Francis Abbott; (bottom) The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October ¡805: End of the Action, Nicholas Pocock, oil on canvas, 28" × 40", 1808 Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640 www.mcfarlandpub.com

Contents Preface 1

THE ADMIRALS 3 Appendix A: Admirals by Nationality 295 Appendix B: Admirals by Year of Birth 301 Index 309

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Preface This book consists of short biographies of men and women from twenty-two countries who have served as admiral, including rear admiral and vice admiral. While the majority of entries are of reasonable length, some are shorter simply because available information is limited. Some countries have many entries, some only a few, or only one, yet each person has contributed something to the history of their nation and to the maritime history of the world. The main criterion is that the person must have served in the rank of at least rear admiral, although not necessarily in enemy action. This rules out people who were granted the rank on retirement, were given the rank as a courtesy title, or—in the case of those known as “tombstone admirals”— were granted the title on death. Some of the admirals have achieved that rank on the reserve list; an officer on the reserve can be recalled to active duty at any time, and many of the people in this book have experienced this; some several times. This book does not cover all the admirals of the world; that would be impossible. Many admirals went through their entire naval careers without achieving anything remarkable, other than they were the backbone of the navy; others achieved remarkable exploits and contributed much to the history of their country and to the history of the world. I have focused on those. Included are women admirals who have made their own contributions to the history

of the seas. However, at the time of writing, a naval career is still very much the province of men. In Britain, the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS) was formed in November 1917 and disbanded in 1919, then reformed in 1938. The service was disbanded in 1993 and since then women have joined the Royal Navy along with men. Prior to 1993, women in the WRNS held the rank of commandant/director, equivalent to commodore/rear admiral, and chief commandant, equivalent to rear admiral. In the United States, Congress opened the way in 1967 for women to become admirals, and this volume has the biographies of many such women who served in the past or are still serving in the U.S. Navy. In 1603, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary Queen of Scots (whom Queen Elizabeth had beheaded in 1567), became the ruler of both nations in the Union of the Crowns; the Union of the Parliaments took place in 1707, thus creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1801 Ireland was included with England and Scotland.Thus reference is made in this book to “English” and to “British,” denoting the difference in dates: pre–1707as English and post–1707 as British. In certain places I refer to Turkey, although at the time the correct term was Ottoman Empire, which lasted from 1299 to 1923, when it became the Republic of Turkey. Although wars feature in this book, there are also many instances of courage and humanity in times of crisis. Every entry represents

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Preface some part of the fascinating history of the various navies of the world, and as far as possible I have given some of the background to the various battles without turning this into a history of war. The book includes appendices that list admirals by nationality and year of birth. A word about sources is necessary. Many of the references are to Web sites, but I have taken great care in checking data to make sure that the facts are as accurate as they can be. Although some of what is said in one reference is repeated in another, each does contain something different. When considering the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1 (Oxford University Press, 1997) and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online, sometimes there are minor — though sometimes significant — differences in these two sources, hence the inclusion of both. These two dictionaries and the American Na-

2 tional Biography Online all contain a wealth of bibliographic references for further study. Generally speaking, in the British entries, I have not listed the various stages of promotion of admiral, but for completion, here are the ranks: rear admiral of the blue, rear admiral of the white, rear admiral of the red, vice admiral of the blue, vice admiral of the white, vice admiral of the red, admiral of the blue, admiral of the white, and admiral of the fleet (the equivalent of fleet admiral in the United States Navy). On a personal note, this book has been a journey through time. As I have dipped into the lives of the various people, in my imagination I have participated in their actions, and in so doing, I have learned so much. I hope that you, too, will share something of the thrill of reading about their lives and that you will, as I have, acknowledge the place of each and every one in the grand map of world history.

THE ADMIRALS ABE, HIROAKI (1889–1949) (JAPAN)

ABRIAL, JEAN-MARIE CHARLES (1879–1962) (FRANCE)

Hiroaki Abe, born in Aichi Prefecture (near the center of the Japanese main island of Honsh¨), graduated as a midshipman from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, Hiroshima, in 1911. He was ensign (1912); sub-lieutenant (1914); lieutenant (1917); and lieutenant commander (1923). He graduated from Naval Staff College (1925) and was commander (1928); captain (1932); rear admiral (1938); and vice admiral (1942). Abe saw extensive sea duty in command of destroyers, cruisers, and battleships (1925–1938). He was commander of the 8th Cruiser Division in the Pearl Harbor Strike Force (November–December 1941); commander of the support force in the assault on Wake Island, about two-thirds of the way from Honolulu to Guam (December 11–23); commander of Combat Division 11 (Battleship Division 3 and Cruiser Division 8) in the Guadalcanal Campaign (August 7, 1942, to February 7, 1943, in the Pacific Theatre of World War II); served in the forefront of the Solomon Islands battle (August 23–25, 1942) and at Santa Cruz (October 26–28). He was commander of the Raiding Force — battleships Hiei and Kirishima, a light cruiser, and fourteen destroyers—in an effort to bombard Henderson Field (the battle took place October 23–26, 1942) on Guadalcanal. He clashed with Rear Admiral Daniel Callaghan’s (see entry) Task Force 67.4 in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal and broke off without bombarding Henderson Field after a night of stiff action (12–13 November 1942). He lost two destroyers and the Hiei. He was relieved by Admiral Yamamoto and resigned from the navy in March 1943.

Born in Réalmont, north of Castres, in the MidiPyrenees, France, Jean-Marie Charles Abrial entered the French Naval Academy in 1882 and became midshipman in 1898. He served during World War I and rose through the ranks to vice admiral (1936), spending most of his career in the Mediterranean area. As commander-in-chief of the northern naval forces in World War II, he played a crucial role in the evacuation of British troops from Dunkirk in May 1940. On June 19, Abrial, as the senior officer in Cherbourg, was forced to surrender the port to the Germans. He was governor general of Algeria ( July 1940 to July 1941), then secretary of navy and commander of naval force under Pierre Laval (1883– 1945, prime minister of the Vichy government from 1942 to 1945, when he was succeeded by General Charles de Gaulle). On 15 September 1945, Abrial was arrested and charged with collaborating with the Nazis to keep the French navy out of Allied hands in 1942. On 12 August 1946, he was put on trial by the French High Court of Justice at Versailles, found guilty and sentenced to 10 years of forced labor. In December 1947 he was granted provisional release and in 1954 he was granted amnesty. Sources: “Jean-Marie Charles Abrial” (June 8, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:09, July 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Jean-Marie_Charles_Abrial&oldid=217902212. “Scuffling.” Time, Monday, August 12, 1946. www. time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,793156,00. html.

Sources: “Hiroaki Abe” (June 17, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:47, July 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hiroa ki_Abe&oldid=220027904. “Hiroaki Abe.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Graduates of Naval Academy Class 39th. homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px39.htm.

ADAM, SIR CHARLES (1780–1853) (BRITAIN)

Charles Adam was the son of the Right Hon. William Adam, of Blair-Adam, Kinross, Scotland. He entered the navy at a very early age under the direct patronage of his uncle, Admiral Lord Keith, and served with his uncle until 1795. He was then

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Agnew

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acting lieutenant on the HMS Victorious, one of the class of 74 guns that formed the backbone of the British Fleet. He saw action in the capture of Cape Town in 1795 before spending most of his career in the East Indies, where the Victorious served as the British flagship. He was promoted captain in June 1799 and took command of the frigate Sybille. In the Seychelle Islands, his masterly seamanship resulted in the capture of the French frigate Chiffonne (August 19, 1801). In May 1803, he took command of the Chiffonne, and in 1805 took part in the blockade of Boulogne and the north coast of France. He commanded the Resistance from 27 August 1805 until 6 April 1810, and from 1811 until 1813, operated off the coast of Spain in command of the Invincible. After the peace, he commanded the royal yacht Royal Sovereign in 1814–1825, when he was promoted to rear admiral. He was made vice admiral (1837); admiral (1848); Knight Commander of the Bath (1835); and was a member of Parliament for Kinross (1831–1832) and for Clackmannan and Kinross (1833–1841). Adam was commander-inchief in the West Indies (1841–1845); one of the lords of the admiralty (November–December 1834, April 1835–August 1841, and 1846–1847); then appointed governor of Greenwich Hospital, where he died. (A royal charter of King William and Queen Mary founded the Royal Naval Hospital for Seamen, known subsequently as Greenwich Hospital, in 1694 on the site of the royal palace at Greenwich.)

Penelope, and the destroyers Lance and Lively. On the night of 8 November, Force K sank seven supply ships bound for North Africa without so much as a scratch on Force K from the escorting German force. As Agnew left the Aurora to report to the vice admiral, Malta, the officers and men of the Penelope spontaneously cheered Agnew, a rare occurrence. For his services in this action he was appointed Companion, Order of the Bath (1941). In November 1942, the Aurora formed part of the naval force in Operation Torch, the British-American invasion of French North Africa. In June 1943 Agnew and the crew of the Aurora received the honor of conveying King George VI from Tripoli to Malta for a visit to the island; the king appointed Agnew commander, Royal Victorian Order. He was appointed to the Distinguished Service Order (1943) and bar (1944). Agnew commanded the battleship Vanguard (1946), was promoted rear admiral (1947), and commanded the Vanguard on the visit of the king and queen to South Africa. On conclusion of the tour he was promoted Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order. He was director of personal services at the Admiralty (1947–1940); retired from the navy at his own request (1950) and later in the year was promoted to vice admiral on the retired list. His ten years of retirement were spent as general secretary of the National Playing Fields Association, working in local government of the parish of Alverstoke, Hampshire, where he died.

Sources: “Charles Adam” (January 12, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:48, July 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Charles_Adam&oldid=183919584. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/ view/article/100. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997.

Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30349. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997.

AGNEW, SIR WILLIAM GLADSTONE (1898–1960) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, William Gladstone Agnew joined the Royal Navy in September 1911 and was at Dartmouth Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, when World War I broke out in August 1914. In 1931 he was appointed specialist gunnery officer of the battleship Queen Elizabeth, flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet. He was promoted to commander in 1932 and captain in 1937. In October 1940 Agnew took command of the cruiser Aurora, and within a few months in 1941 he was part of a force that sank a German cruiser, a destroyer, and two supply ships. In the autumn of 1941, Agnew was sent to the Mediterranean as the senior officer of Force K, consisting of the Aurora, the cruiser

AINSWORTH, WALDEN LEE (1886– 1960) (USA)

Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Walden Lee Ainsworth graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1910. In 1914, he was the adjutant of one of the battalions that landed at Veracruz, Mexico, on 21 April. He served as a gunnery officer in World War I, and was inspector of ordnance at the Navy’s Armor and Projectile Plant in Charles Town, West Virginia (1919–1921), after which he commanded the light cruiser Birmingham and the destroyer Marcus, and then was inspector of ordnance in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. By the end of 1925, Ainsworth’s reputation in the field of ordnance led to his appointment as gunnery officer on the staff of the commander, destroyer squadrons, Asiatic Fleet. He had several sea appointments before becoming professor of naval science and tactics at Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana (1938).

5 In World War II he was a destroyer squadron and cruiser group leader in the Pacific until assigned to Admiral William F. Halsey’s (see entry) staff in 1941, in command of the veteran battleship USS Mississippi. In 1942 he was administrative commander of all Pacific Fleet destroyers and then commander of Task Force 67 (TF 67), which had suffered badly in the recent Battle of Tassafaronga (also referred to as the Fourth Battle of Savo Islands, November 30, 1942). He is remembered for the “Ainsworth Express,” how his cruiser-destroyer force supported the final American drive to defeat Japanese troops on Guadalcanal. In 1943, Rear Admiral Ainsworth commanded the light cruiser task force that engaged in Battles of Kula Gulf and Kolomnangara in the Solomon Islands, which won him a Navy Cross. He also received the Distinguished Service Medal and the Legion of Merit Medal for his overall performance in the Southwest Pacific. Vice Admiral Ainsworth returned to the United States in the summer of 1945 and commanded the Fifth Naval District until retiring in 1948. He died in Washington, D.C., and was buried with full military honors in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. In 1972, the destroyer escort USS Ainsworth (DE-1090) was named in his honor. Sources: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Department of the Navy, Naval Historical Center, Washington D.C. www.history.navy.mil/danfs/a4/ains worth.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Walden L. Ainsworth” (March 27, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:06, July 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wal den_L._Ainsworth&oldid=201329472.

AKIYAMA, SANEYUKI (1868–1918) (JAPAN)

Born in Matsuyama (the capital city of Ehime Prefecture on the Shikoku island of Japan), Saneyuki Akiyama entered the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy in Tokyo in 1886. He graduated (1890) and was ensign (1892); lieutenant (1896); captain (1908); chief of staff of the First Fleet (1911); rear admiral (1913); vice admiral, a member of the Admirals’ Council and placed on the inactive list (1917). He served on the gunboat Tsukush during the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895, between China and Japan, over control of Korea), and in 1897 studied naval theory under the U.S. naval officer Alfred Mahan (1940–1914). In the United States during the SpanishAmerican War (April 25–August 12, 1898), Akiyama observed naval operations against the Spanish with the fleet staff of Admiral William T. Sampson’s (see entry) North Atlantic squadron.

Alava From his study of the traditional strategy of suigun, Japanese medieval pirates, he developed his own unique naval strategy. He studied in England (1900) then was staff officer of the 1st Fleet and the General Fleet concurrently (1903). He served during the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) aboard the battleship Mikasa and in the Battle of the Yellow Sea (1904). In 1905, he developed the “interception and attrition” ambush operation to destroy the Russian fleet in the Baltic. Admiral Heihachiro TÉgÉ (see entry) modified Akiyama’s seven-stage plan at the victorious Battle of Tsushima on May 27–28, 1905. This battle crushed Russian naval power in the Far East for decades. Akiyama was professor at the Naval War College, Tsukiji (1905) and he visited Europe in 1916 to observe the progress of World War I; his observations led him to stress the importance of popular mobilization. Akiyama’s legacy was that he helped the Imperial Japanese Navy become a firstclass naval power. Sources: “Saneyuki Akiyama.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Graduates of Naval Academy Class 17th. homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px17.htm#v001. “Saneyuki Akiyama” (July 1, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:40, July 15, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saneyuki_Akiyama& oldid=222842296. “Saneyuki Akiyama.” Book Rags. www.bookrags.com/wiki/Akiyama_Saneyuki. Marble, Frank. “‘Smells Like Butter?’ The Kaigun’s Akiyama Saneyuki.” The Russo-Japanese War Research Society. www.russojapanesewar.com/butter.html.

ALAVA Y SAENZ DE NAVARRETE, IGNACIO MARIA DE (1750–1817) (SPAIN)

Ignacio Maria de Alava y Saenz de Navarrete joined the Spanish Navy in 1766 and was captain (?1782); commodore (1792); rear admiral (1794); and vice admiral (1803). Alava spent much of his early naval career fighting North African coast pirates. From 1781, he commanded the corvette San Luis, which took part in two major actions: as part of the Spanish fleet that blockaded Gibraltar (1779– 1783) during the American Revolution (1775– 1783), and in the Battle of Cape Spartel at the entrance of the Straits of Gibraltar (October 20, 1782) (see Córdova, Luis de Córdova y). He was flag captain in the fleet of Don Juan de Lángara (1736– 1806) from 1787 to 1790 and took part in the early stages of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792– 1802). Between 1795 and 1802, Alava’s squadron sailed around the world visiting Spanish colonies; one of his accomplishments was reorganizing the Spanish naval forces in the Philippines. In 1805, when second in command of the Spanish fleet, he took charge of the ships in Cadiz when Don Federico

Alden Carlos (see entry) sailed to the Caribbean with the French Mediterranean fleet under Pierre-Charles de Villeneuve (see entry). When Don Carlos and de Villeneuve returned in August, they found Horatio Nelson (see entry) blockading Cadiz. Daring to break the blockade, the combined French and Spanish fleet left Cadiz and met the British fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805). Alava was severely wounded; the British captured his flagship the Santa Ana but only held it for two days before it was recaptured by Commodore Cosmao-Kerjulien (see entry), who sailed her back to Cadiz. He was commander-in-chief in the Caribbean with his base in Havana (1810–1813); governor of Cadiz (1813–1814); member of the Supreme Council of the Spanish Admiralty (1817); and admiral of the Spanish Fleet for only three months before he died. Sources: “Ignacio Maria de Alava y Saenz de Navarrete” (December 17, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:48, August 4, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ignacio_Maria_de _Alava_y_Saenz_de_Navarrete&oldid=178492740.

ALDEN, JAMES, JR. (1810–1877) (USA)

Born in Portland, Maine, James Alden was a direct descendant of John Alden, a Mayflower pilgrim. He was midshipman (1828); lieutenant (1841); commander of the USS Active (1855); captain (1863); chief of the Bureau of Navigation (1869); and rear admiral commanding the naval force on the European Station (1871–1873). While Alden was still a midshipman, he served on board the sloop of war USS John Adams on the United States Exploring Expedition under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1798–1877). Alden was involved in the punitive expedition at Malolo in the Fiji Islands on July 26, 1840, against the tribe that had murdered two members of the expedition. While circumnavigating the globe on the frigate USS Constitution under Captain John (“Mad Jack”) Percival (1779–1862), Alden commanded a successful boat expedition against war junks of a fort at Zuron Bay, Cochin China. He was also involved in the Battles of Tabasco (October 24–26, 1846), Veracruz (March 9–29, 1847), and Tuxpan (April 18, 1847) during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). In 1855, Alden took charge of Active which, in 1856, with the sloop of war USS Decatur and the steamer USS Massachusetts, helped to settle Indian disturbances in the Washington Territory. Active was also involved in what became known as the “Pig War” in the summer of 1859. This was a confrontation between American and British authorities over the boundary between the United States and British North America. On the outbreak of the U.S. Civil War (1861–

6 1865), in command of the steamer USS South Carolina, Alden participated in the relief of Fort Pickens on the western end of Santa Rosa Island, which was besieged by Confederate Forces. In 1862 he commanded the USS Richmond in the Battles of Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip, and in 1863 at the successful siege at Port Hudson, Louisiana. In 1864, in command of the steam sloop USS Brooklyn, Alden engaged Confederate gunboats in the Battle of Mobile Bay, Alabama. Alden’s final command was of the European Fleet from 1871 to 1873, when he retired to San Francisco. The U.S. Navy destroyer USS Alden, launched in 1918, was named in his honor. Sources: American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/04/04-00012.html?a=1&n=ALDEN% 2C%20JAMES%20&d=10&ss=0&q=1. “James Alden, Jr.” (April 23, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:01, July 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=James_Alden%2C_Jr.&oldid= 207580406. Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Department of the Navy, Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. http://history.navy.mil/danfs/ a5/alden.htm.

ALEXANDER-SINCLAIR, SIR EDWYN (1865–1945) (BRITAIN)

Born in Malta, Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair joined the Royal Navy as a cadet in 1879 and served on the China Station in 1881 on the armor-plated Iron Duke, flagship of Sir George Willes (1823–1901). He was midshipman (1881); sub-lieutenant (1886); and commander (1901). As captain, he commanded Osborne Naval College in East Cowes, Isle of Wight, England (1905–1908), then commanded the second destroyer flotilla in home waters until 1914. In 1915 Commodore Alexander-Sinclair commanded the first light cruiser squadron from the Galatea, the ship that sighted the first enemy destroyers that started the Battle Jutland (May 31– June 1, 1916). In 1917, he was appointed rear admiral commanding the Sixth Light Cruiser Squadron with his flag in the Cardiff. In 1918, Alexander-Sinclair escorted the surrendered German High Sea Fleet into Rosyth, Scotland, with the British Grand Fleet in columns on either beam. Alexander-Sinclair also played a vital role in ending the Estonia–Soviet Union War. He was admiral-superintendent of Portsmouth Dockyard (1920–1922); vice admiral commanding the First Battle Squadron with his flag in the Barham and temporary senior admiral in the Atlantic Fleet; commander-in-chief, China Station, with his flag in the Hawkins (1925–1926); and admiral and commander-in-chief at The Nore from 1927 until he retired in 1930. He was appointed Companion, Order of the Bath (1916); Knight Commander, Order of the

7 Bath (1918); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1930). He also received the American Distinguished Service Medal; the French Croix de Guerre and was appointed a commander in the Legion of Honor. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/303 74. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. “Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair” (March 2, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:50, July 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edwyn _Alexander-Sinclair&oldid=195333888.

ALFORD, WILLIAM VAN METER, JR. (USA)

Born in Charlottesville, Virginia, William Van Meter Alford gained bachelor’s and juris doctor (law) degrees from the University of Kentucky and was commissioned from the Officer Candidate School, Newport, Rhode Island, as first lieutenant. Alford participated in the Vietnam campaigns of Operation Market Time, Gulf of Tonkin, and Northern Search and Rescue. He was rear admiral in command of Cruiser Destroyer Group Twelve and a United States Navy representative trying out Exocet missiles in collaboration with the German Navy. Alford was assistant naval attaché in Tel Aviv, Israel, during Operation Desert Storm, the Gulf War of August 2, 1990 to February 28, 1991. He served as commanding officer of the Sixth Fleet Detachment 802 and organized several NATO exercises, including “Partnership for Peace,” aimed at creating trust between NATO and other states in Europe and the former Soviet Union. Alford saw active service in the Kosovo-Serbian Operations Allied Force (NATO’s military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, March 24 to June 10, 1999); the Allied Harbor operation (NATO’s first humanitarian operation in Kosovo); and Joint Guardian, a peace-keeping operation in Kosovo. He participated in planning Operation Enduring Freedom following the terrorist attack on New York and Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001, with special reference to the U.S. Navy Operations in the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Levant and Sub-Saharan Africa. Among his many awards are the Defense Superior Service Medal; the Legion of Merit; the Meritorious Service Medal; the Joint Service Commendation Medal; and the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal. As of 2006, Rear Admiral Alford was the chief of staff for the United States Pacific Command. Sources: “William VanMeter Alford, Jr.” (May 11, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:29, July 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=William_VanMeter_Alford%2C_Jr.&oldid=

Altfater 211578495. “William VanMeter Alford, Jr.” United States Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/navybio. asp?bioID=27.

ALTFATER, VASILI MIKHAILOVICH (1883–1919) RUSSIA

Vasili Mikhailovich Altfater’s short career in the Russian Navy began when he graduated from the Naval College, Kronstadt, in 1902. He went on to specialize in hydrography — the scientific study of seas, lakes, and rivers — and graduated from Naval Academy’s Department of Hydrography in 1908. He saw active service in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), fought over rival designs on Manchuria and Korea. His most significant part in that war was at Port Arthur (Lüshunkou) when he rescued the crew of the battleship Petropavlovsk. The Battle of Port Arthur (February 8–9, 1904) was the starting battle of the war. A squadron of Japanese destroyers attacked the Russian fleet in the port. It ended inconclusively, but further skirmishing around Port Arthur continued until May 1904. On April 13, 1904, Petropavlovsk struck a mine off Port Arthur and lost many of its crew; one of the survivors was Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich (1875–1938), cousin of Emperor Nicholas II (1868– 1918). Altfater was flagship navigator at the headquarters of the commander of the 1st Mining Division of the Baltic Fleet (1909–1910) and spokesperson for the Imperial Russian Navy and head of the Military Administration (1914–1917). He became a rear admiral in 1917 and joined the Soviets that year. He was assistant to the head of the Naval Headquarters (1918) and participated in peace negotiations in Brest-Litovsk between the Ukrainian National Republic and the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria, which resulted in two treaties in 1918. Altfater went on to become a board member at the People’s Commissariat of Naval Affairs (April 1918) and a member of the Revolutionary Military Council and first commander-in-chief of the Soviet Naval Forces (October 1918). His death from a heart attack at such a young age, and just six months into his new post was a great loss to the emerging Soviet Union. Sources: “Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.” Encyclopedia of Ukraine. www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/ B/R/Brest6LitovskPeaceTreatyof.htm. “Russian Battleship Petropavlovsk (1897)” (March 27, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:39, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Russian_battleship_Petropavlovsk_%281897%29&oldi d=201250724. “Vasili Altfater” (February 1, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:09, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Vasili_Altfater&oldid=188284855.

Anaya ANAYA, JORGE ISAAC (1926–2008) (ARGENTINA)

Born in the province of Buenos Aires, Jorge Isaac Anaya participated in the military dictatorship known as the National Reorganization Process (1976–1983) and was a member of the Third Military Junta that ruled Argentina in 1981–1982. Anaya was commander-in-chief of the Navy throughout the 1982 Falklands War between Great Britain and Argentina over the sovereignty of the islands. He masterminded Operation Algeciras, an attempt by underwater teams to sabotage British warships at harbor in Gibraltar. It failed when the team was captured by the Spanish. In the 1985 Trial of the Juntas — the trial of the members of the de facto military government that ruled Argentina during the dictatorship of the Proceso de Reorganización Nacional from 1976 to 1983 — Anaya was acquitted of crimes against the state. In 1997 Anaya was a one of a group for whom extradition was requested by the Spanish Judge Baltasar Garzón for crimes carried out in Argentina during the so-called “Dirty War”— the period of the rule by the juntas. After many applications, the extradition was approved but overturned in 2003, and then approved by the Supreme Court in 2005. Anaya suffered a heart attack in 2006 and was considered unfit to stand trial; he died in January 2008. Sources: “Jorge Anaya” (July 9, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:55, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jorge_Anaya &oldid=224532152. “Jorge Isaac Anaya” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143 6654/Jorge-Isaac-Anaya. “Operation Algeciras” (July 5, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:09, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=Operation_Algeciras&oldid=2237492 43. “Operation Algeciras.” World War II in Color. www.ww2incolor.com/forum/showthread.php?t=4890.

ANDERSON, GEORGE WHELAN, JR. (1906–1992) (USA)

George Whelan Anderson, Jr., was born in Brooklyn, New York, and graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1930. He was lieutenant (by 1937); lieutenant-commander (by 1940); commander (by 1943); rear admiral (1954); vice admiral (1959); commander Sixth Fleet and commander Naval Striking and Support Forces, Southern Europe (1959–1961); admiral (1961); chief of naval operations) in charge of the U.S. blockade of Cuba during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis (1961–1963); ambassador to Portugal (1963–1966); and a member and then chairman of the President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (1973–1977). Anderson qualified as a naval aviator from the

8 Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida (1930), served successively in the aviation units of the cruisers Concord (CL-10) and Raleigh (CL-7) in the Atlantic (1930–1933), and was a test pilot at Norfolk, Virginia (1933–1935) before joining Fighting Squadron Two on the aircraft carrier Lexington (CV-2). He worked at the Bureau of Aeronautics (1940–1943), and as navigator he took part in strikes on the Pacific islands of Marcus and Wake (August and October 1943). He was the navigator on the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown. Until 1945 he was aviation officer in the Strategic Plans Division on the staff of the commanderin-chief United States Fleet and deputy navy planner on the Joint Planning Staff in Washington. After the war he was commanding officer of the Atlantic anti-submarine carrier USS Mindoro and of the attack carrier USS Franklin D. Roosevelt. He was an assistant to General Dwight D. Eisenhower at the North Atlantic Treaty Organization; special assistant to the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and chief of staff to the commander-in-chief Pacific. During the Lebanon Crisis of 1958, from his flagship the aircraft carrier Saratoga (CVA-60) he supported the Marine Corps landings. His naval career ended prematurely in 1963 when he openly disagreed with Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara’s purchase of the controversial TFX (F-111) airplane. His objections were vindicated when the plane failed to meet the needs of the fleet and was dropped from the Navy’s list. He was buried on March 23, 1992, in Section 1 of Arlington National Cemetery. Sources: “George Whelan Anderson, Jr.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery. net/gwanders.htm. “George Whelan Anderson, Jr.” (June 27, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:21, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=George_Whelan_Anderson%2C_ Jr.&oldid=222169642. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

ANSON, GEORGE, LORD ANSON (1697–1762) (BRITAIN)

Born in Shugborough, Staffordshire, England, George Anson entered the Royal Navy in February 1712 and was lieutenant (1716); commander (1722); captain (1724) of the frigate Scarborough protecting the coast of South Carolina against pirates and Spanish cruisers from harassing commerce ships; and commander with the rank of commodore (1740). On the eve of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), he was sent to attack Spanish possessions in South America, and although he lost three ships rounding Cape Horn,

9 he went on to raid Spanish mining settlements on the coast of Chile. With his one remaining ship, the Centurion, Anson captured the Nuestra Señora de Covadonga, a Spanish treasure galleon near the Philippines, which he sold in Canton, China; the Centurion was the first British warship to enter Chinese waters (November 1742). By the time he reached England in June 1744, having circumnavigated the globe, more than half the original crew of nearly 2,000 men had died, chiefly of scurvy. The four-year voyage around the world is one of the great tales of naval heroism. The prize money earned by the capture of the galleon made him a rich man for life. Anson was member of Parliament for Hedon (Heydon), East Riding of Yorkshire (1744–1747). In 1747, he commanded the fleet that defeated the French Admiral JaquesPierre de Jonquière (see entry) at the First Battle of Cape Finisterre. Anson was promoted to vice admiral and elevated to the peerage as Baron Anson of Soberton in Hampshire. He was first lord of the admiralty (1751–1756 and 1757–1762) and admiral of the fleet (1761). The reforms he instituted as a naval administrator increased the efficiency of the British fleet and contributed to its success in the Seven Years’ War against France (1756–1763). He proposed a new corps of Marines, which was formed in 1755. Seven British warships have borne the name HMS Anson in his honor. His 1740 circumnavigation is recorded in A Voyage Round the World 1740–1744 (1748) by himself, Richard Walter, Glyndwr Williams, and Benjamin Robins (Oxford University Press, 1974). Sources: “George Anson, 1st Baron Anson” (June 30, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:40, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=George_Anson%2C_1st_Baron_Anson&ol did=222622654. “George Anson, Baron Anson” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBcheck ed/topic/26843/George-Anson-Baron-Anson. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/574?docPos=1. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997.

APRAKSIN, COUNT FYODOR MATVEYEVICH (1661–1728) (RUSSIA)

Born in Moscow, Russia, from the age of ten, Fyodor Matveyevich Apraksin was page to Tsar Fyodor III of Russia (1661–1682, ruled from 1676), then to Peter I, the Great (1672–1725, ruled from 1682). Apraksin was only eleven years older than the young tsar and the two developed and maintained a lifelong friendship. He was governor of Arkhangelsk, a trade port of northwest Russia (1692), and became a major figure in the develop-

Arbuthnot ment of Russia as a major leading naval power in the Baltic Sea. He supervised the construction of the first Russian fleet in Voronezh (city of southwest Russia). During the Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700), Apraksin aided Peter the Great in capturing the Turkish fortress of Azov, which had been blocking Russia’s access to the Azov Sea and the Black Sea. He was promoted colonel and named the first Russian governor of Azov. He was appointed head of the Russian navy (1707), and during the Great Northern War (1700–1721) between Russia and Sweden, was appointed president of the admiralty (1709). He was vested with the Order of St. Andrew (1711) and governed Estonia and Karelia (a region and autonomous republic of northwest Russia between the Gulf of Finland and the White Sea) (1712–1723). In 1713, he commanded the Imperial Russian Navy in the taking of Helsinki, Finland. He was made a senator and general admiral of the empire and presided over the Russian Admiralty from 1718, and commanded the Baltic Fleet from 1723. When Tsar Peter died his friend Apraksin was not a well man; Catherine I, Empress of Russia (1684– 1727) honored him with the Order of Alexander Nevsky and brought him into the Supreme Privy Council. Apraksin’s grave at the Chrysostom Monastery of Moscow was destroyed by Communists in the 1930s. Sources: “Fyodor Matveyevich Apraksin” (February 29, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:14, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=Fyodor_Matveyevich_Apraksin&ol did=194990975.

ARBUTHNOT, MARRIOT (1711?–1794) (BRITAIN)

Marriot Arbuthnot was born in Weymouth, England, but of his early years, nothing is known for certain. He entered the Royal Navy about 1727 and was lieutenant (1739), commander (1746), captain (1747), vice admiral, and commander-in-chief on the American station in his flagship the Europe (1779). During the Seven Years’ War, he commanded The Portland, one of the ships employed under Commodore Robert Duff (died 1787) in the Battle of Quiberon Bay off the coast of France near St. Nazaire on 20 November 1759. Then he commanded the guard ship (lightship) at Portsmouth Harbor (1771–1773). From 1775 to 1778, he was naval commissioner resident at Halifax, Nova Scotia, then lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia, 1776–1778. At Halifax he dealt with dissent by ordering the prominent merchant Malachy Salter arrested and tried on suspicion of conducting a dangerous correspondence

Arbuthnot with the enemy at Boston, Massachusetts. To alleviate the plight of soldiers’ families, Arbuthnot gave the women work at the dockyard picking oakum. He reached New York on 25 August, and in December he conveyed the troops of Sir Henry Clinton (1738–1795, British commander-in-chief ) to Charleston, South Carolina, and helped besiege to that city. At the end of September 1780, Arbuthnot received a letter from George Rodney (see entry) informing him that he had arrived at Sandy Hook and taken on himself the command of the station. Highly displeased, and with not much tact or diplomacy, Arbuthnot submitted the whole matter to the admiralty, which approved Rodney’s view. Meanwhile, Rodney, realizing that a French assault was not materializing, returned to the Leeward Islands. Upon a plea of ill-health, Arbuthnot requested to be relieved from the command that had again devolved on him. In 1781, Arbuthnot fought a disastrous battle against the French Newport squadron in the Battle of Cape Henry — near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay—on March 16, 1781. Arbuthnot, having received permission to return home, surrendered the command to Rear Admiral Thomas Graves (see entry) and sailed for England on 4 July. He had no further employment at sea, but advancing in rank by seniority he was promoted to admiral on February 1, 1793. In the opinion of some, Arbuthnot was ignorant of his profession, was destitute of even a rudimentary knowledge of naval tactics, and appeared in contemporary stories as a coarse, blustering, foulmouthed bully (Morning Chronicle, 18 May 1781). Sources: Dictionary of Canadian Biography. www.bio graphi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=35857&query=Ar buthnot. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/611. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. “Famous Arbuthnot(t)s.” The Arbuthnott Family Association. www.ar buthnot.org/famous.htm.

ARBUTHNOT, SIR ROBERT KEITH (1864–1916) (BRITAIN)

Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot, fourth baronet, born at Alderminster, Worcestershire, England, entered the Royal Navy in 1877, served on the royal yacht, and was promoted to lieutenant in 1885. In 1897 he became commander. On 9 November 1901, on board HMS Royal Sovereign, a 12-inch gun exploded, wounding Arbuthnot and killing six men. In 1910, he was censured for a speech he made in which he expressed his fear that war with Germany was imminent. Kaiser Wilhelm made a formal complaint; Arbuthnot was removed from his ship, Lord Nelson, and put on half pay. A few months

10 later he was made commodore of the Third Destroyer flotilla. He was aide-de-camp to King George V (1911–1912); was rear admiral (1912); and took command of the First Cruiser Squadron with his flag in the Defence (1915). Arbuthnot was killed at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). Arbuthnot blundered right across the path of the British Grand Fleet and the result was catastrophic. His death was described by Admiral of the Fleet Lord John Fisher (see entry) as “a glorious but not a justifiable death.” Arbuthnot was made a member, Royal Victorian Order (1904); Companion of the Order of the Bath (1916); and Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (1917). A memorial plaque was erected to Arbuthnot in St. Giles’ Cathedral, Edinburgh (1917). In 2001 a diving team found the wreck of Defence to be largely intact. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30432. “Sir Robert Arbuthnot, 4th Baronet” (May 17, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:36, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sir_Robert_ Arbuthnot%2C_4th_Baronet&oldid=213037207.

ARCHITZEL, DAVID (USA)

Born in Ogdensburg, New York, David Architzel gained a bachelor’s degree in mathematics in 1973 at the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, and while serving as a naval aviator, he gained a master’s in aeronautical systems in 1975 from the University of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida. During his career, Architzel has served mainly on aircraft carriers, both traditional and nuclear-powered. He was executive officer of USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN 69) and was awarded the 1992 COMNAVAIRLANT (Commander, Naval Air Forces, Atlantic) Battle Efficiency Award; commanding officer of the amphibious assault ship (helicopter) USS Guam (LPH 9), which won three consecutive Battle Efficiency awards; and commanding officer of the nuclear powered aircraft carrier USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71). He has been deployed in the Mediterranean and Arabian Gulf and supported military action in Bosnia and Iraq following the Gulf War (August 2 1990–February 28, 1991) until the 2003 invasion of Iraq. He held a senior position at the Spanish Naval War College in Madrid, Spain, and as rear admiral he commanded the Defense Force and was commander Fleet Air Keflavik, Iceland. In 2005 he became program executive officer for aircraft carriers. Architzel has accumulated more than 5000 flying hours. His decorations include the Defense Superior Service Medal; four Legions of Merit; three

11 Meritorious Service Medals; the Navy Achievement; the Spanish Naval Cross of Merit; the Navy League’s John Paul Jones Leadership Award for 1998; and the Commander’s Cross with Star of the Icelandic Order of the Falcon. Sources: “David Architzel” (April 29, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:08, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= David_Architzel&oldid=209061889. “United States Biography: Vice Admiral David Architzel.” Navy.mil. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/navybio.asp?bioID=33.

ARICHI, SHINANOJO (1843–1919) (JAPAN)

Born in ChÉsh¨ domain (now Yamaguchi prefecture), Shinanojo Arichi fought in the Boshin War (1868–1869), an attempt to overthrow the feudal rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. He studied military tactics in Europe and was an observer of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and was commissioned a major in the new Imperial Japanese Army, commander, 6th Battalion, Guard Force, and member, military affairs, Ministry of Armed Force (1871). He transferred to the newly formed Imperial Japanese Navy with the rank of lieutenant commander (1873). He was commander (1874); director, Tokai Barracks and commanding officer of the frigate Fujiyama (1878–1879) and of the corvette Nisshin (1881); captain (1882); commanding officer of the ironclad Hiei and of the corvette Tsukuba (1882– 1883); rear admiral (1886); director, Naval Academy, Tokyo (1887–1888); chief of Naval General Staff (1889); and vice admiral (1892). Arichi was commander-in-chief, Readiness Fleet (1891 and 1895), Kure Naval District during the First SinoJapanese War (1892), and of the Combined Fleet (1895). He was created baron (1896); senator (1897–1906); and retired (1911). While he was captain of the Tsukuba, 23 crewmen died from beriberi, a vitamin deficiency most commonly associated with reliance on polished white rice. It is claimed that Doctor Takaki Kanehiro (1849–1920) eliminated beriberi within the Japanese navy using the sailors on the Tsukuba as an experiment. Sources: “Shinanojo Arichi” (April 19, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:06, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Arichi_Shinanojo&oldid=206664118. “Deck Officers, in the Cradle Era: Shinanojo Arichi.” Imperial Japanese Navy. http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px00. htm#v005.

ARIMA, MASAFUMI (1895–1944) (JAPAN)

Born in the Kagoshima Prefecture, Ky¨sh¨ Island, Japan, Masafumi Arima graduated from the

Arora Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, Hiroshima, in 1915. He was midshipman (1915); ensign (1916); sub-lieutenant (1918); lieutenant (1921); lieutenant commander (1927); commander (1933); captain (1937); rear admiral (1944); and vice admiral (1944, posthumous). When Arima was promoted to rear admiral, he was assigned command of the 26th Air Flotilla in late 1944 shortly before the Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 23–26, 1944). At some point during 13–16 October (accounts vary), Arima personally led an air attack against U.S. Task Force 38 near Leyte Gulf in the Philippines. The Japanese credit Arima with introducing the kamikaze attack: suicide bombers. However, the first Allied ship to be hit by a kamikaze attack was the flagship of the Royal Australian Navy, the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia, on October 21, 1944, after Arima was killed in such an attack. The Japanese portrayed Arima as a hero, claiming he sank an aircraft carrier, although it appears that none of Arima’s formation reached their targets. The official Kamikaze Special Attack Corps was formed within days of Arima’s death under command of vice admiral Takijiro ynishi (see entry). Sources: “Arima Masafumi (1895–1944).” The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. http://pwencycl.kgbudge. com/A/r/Arima_Masafumi.htm. “Arima, Masafumi.” Imperial Japanese Navy. http://homepage2.nifty.com/ nishidah/e/px43.htm#v001. “Kamikaze” (July 15, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:24, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Kamikaze&oldid=225810213. “Battle: Kamikaze!” In Foto Parade, July 1954, No. 31. Kamikaze Images, http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/boo ks/comics/battle/index.htm. “Masafumi Arima” (June 13, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:11, July 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=Masafumi_Arima&oldid=219161647.

ARORA, PUNITA (1946–) (INDIA)

Punita Arora’s family arrived in India soon after Partition in 1947 with very little in the way of possessions. She graduated as a doctor from the Armed Forces Medical College in Pune and joined the Army Medical Corps (1968). She did her postgraduate training in gynecology, joined the staff of the college and as lieutenant general of the world’s fourth largest army, became the director general of the college. While she was serving in forward areas in 2002, terrorists attacked an Army camp at Kaluchak, near Jammu, wounding many residents and troops. Arora and her staff provided medical assistance to the wounded. For her services during this incident, she was honored with the Vishisht Seva Medal in 2003. While she was head of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the Armed Forces Medical College, she introduced an assisted repro-

Ashby duction program. On June 16, 2005, Arora became the first woman vice admiral Indian Navy, when she was named director general, medical services at Delhi. Included among Admiral Arora’s awards is the Sena Medal for her work in gyna-endoscopy and oncology within the armed forces. Sources: “Lt. Gen. Punita Arora: First Lady Lieutenant General.” The Journal of India’s Armed Forces, Vol. 51, No. 19 (1–15 October 2004). http://mod.nic.in/ Samachar/oct1-04/body.html. “Punita Arora: Fair Achievements.” The Journal of India’s Armed Forces, Vol. 52, No. 13 (1–15 July 2005). http://mod.nic.in/ samachar/july01-05/Vol52_No13_july1-15.htm. “Punita Arora, First Woman to Don Highest Rank in Army.” Indiainfo.com. http://news.indiainfo.com/2004/08/28/ 2808punith.html. Mashih, Archana, and Jewella C. Miranda. “The General in a Sari.” Rediff.Com. www. bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Articles/ Article36.html.

ASHBY, SIR JOHN C. (1640?–1693) (BRITAIN)

Born in Lowestoft, Suffolk, England, John Ashby was lieutenant (1665) and captain (1668). During the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697) he commanded the Rose, and he saw action in the 1675 rebellion in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon (1640–1676). In May 1685 Ashby succeeded his uncle, Sir Thomas Allin (1612–1685), as governor of Sandgate Castle in Kent. In command of the Mountague, he took part in suppressing the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685 (an attempt to overthrow the king of England, James II, who reigned 1685–1688). In 1689 he was knighted, made rear admiral, and presented by William III with a gold watch set with diamonds. In 1690, under Arthur Herbert (see entry), Ashby commanded the HMS Sandwich as vice admiral at the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690). Herbert ignominiously retreated from Beachy Head and was court-martialed and imprisoned in the Tower of London. The command of the fleet devolved to three admirals, including Ashby. They hoisted their joint flag on board the Royal Sovereign and with a body of land forces under the John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1752), captured the Irish ports of Cork and Kinsale (1690). As admiral under Edward Russell (see entry), Ashby commanded the rear English fleet from his flagship Royal William at the Battle of Barfleur (May 19, 1692). Owing to his strategy, the French scattered and fled, pursued for two days by Ashby. In England, Ashby was criticized for not doing more, and on November 19, 1692, Ashby was called to the bar of the House of Commons to give an account of his actions. Admiral Russell fully supported Ashby and the House was satisfied. Sources: “John Ashby, Royal Navy.” Admiral.com.

12 www.spiritus-temporis.com/john-ashby,-royal-navy. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxfordd nb.com/view/article/744.

ASHWORTH, FREDERICK (1912– 2005) (USA)

Born in Beverly, Massachusetts, Frederick Ashworth graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1933 as an engineering specialist. Thereafter he became one of the U.S. Navy’s advanced weapons specialists and nuclear expert. In the rank of commander, he was assigned to the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, New Mexico — America’s secret initiative to make the world’s first atom bomb — where he was appointed chief operating officer, concerned with the way in which the atomic bomb would be detonated. After the successful test at Alamogordo on July 16, 1945, President Truman decided to use the Abomb against Japan. Ashworth was appointed director of operations on Tinian (one of the three principal islands of the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands in the Pacific Ocean) for Project Alberta. General Leslie Groves (1896– 1970), who had overseen the Manhattan Project, had insisted on having in each of the delivery aircraft a technical expert who thoroughly understood the bomb and would be able to monitor the performance of its components in flight. On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb, “Little Boy,” was dropped on Hiroshima; captain William Parsons (1901–1953), director of Project Alberta, was the weaponeer. Ashworth was the weaponeer on the B-29 Bockscar that dropped the second atomic bomb, “Fat Man,” on Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945. The Bockscar, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress, was a four-engine heavy bomber propeller aircraft flown by the United States Army Air Forces in World War II and other military organizations afterwards. Ashworth was responsible for arming the bomb during the flight and making sure it was ready for delivery. Ashworth stayed in the Navy after the war, serving in various roles. He played an important part in the two nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, the Central Pacific, in July 1946. In 1966 he was appointed vice admiral and commander of the powerful U.S. Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. Prior to being assigned to Project Alberta, Ashworth’s principal commands were of Torpedo Squadron Eleven (VT-11), a Grumman TBF Avenger (torpedo bomber) unit based on Guadalcanal Island, and of the aircraft carrier USS Hornet. He retired in 1968 and died in Phoenix, Arizona.

13 Sources: “Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki” (July 16, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:52, July 17, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomic_bombings_of_ Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki&oldid=226047845. “Cdr. Frederick L. Ashworth (USN) Collection: Image Gallery.” The Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association. http://www.mphpa.org/classic/COLLECTI ONS/CG-FASH/Pages/FASH_Gallery_01.htm. “Frederick Ashworth” (April 14, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:39, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Ash worth&oldid=205580572. Obituary. Los Alamos National Laboratory. http://www.lanl.gov/news/index. php/fuseaction/home.story/story_id/7619.

AUSTEN, SIR FRANCIS WILLIAM (1774–1865) (BRITAIN)

Francis William Austen was born at Steventon, Hampshire; his sister was novelist Jane Austen, who modeled her character of Captain Wentworth in Vol. 1, Chapter 4 of Persuasion upon Francis Austen. In April 1786 Austen entered the Royal Naval Academy, Portsmouth. He was lieutenant (1792); commander (1799); flag-captain to rear admiral Sir Thomas Louis (see entry) (1805) on board the Canopus, a French ship of the line captured in the Battle of the Nile (August 1–2, 1798). Because Austen was temporarily detached from Admiral Horatio Nelson’s (see entry) fleet for convoy duty in the Mediterranean, he missed fighting in the Battle of Trafalgar, west of Cape Trafalgar in southwest Spain (October 21, 1805). The Canopus was engaged at the Battle of St. Domingo (February 6, 1806) during the War of Haitian Independence (1902–1804); Haiti was seeking independence from France. In 1809, his success in resolving a dispute with the Chinese was recognized with a substantial gift of money from the East India Company. He was colonel of Marines (1825–1830) and attained the ranks of rear admiral (1830), vice admiral (1838), admiral (1848), and admiral of the fleet (1863). From December 1844 to June 1848, he was commander-in-chief, West Indies. He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1837); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1860); rear admiral of the United Kingdom (1862); and vice admiral of the United Kingdom (1862– 1863). Sources: “Francis Austen” (March 1, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:01, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran cis_Austen&oldid=195126141. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/903. “William Loney.” Victorian Naval Surgeon Website. www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog.php?id=600.

Ayscue AYLMER, MATTHEW, LORD AYLMER (1650?–1720) (BRITAIN)

Matthew Aylmer, born in County Meath, Ireland, the son of Sir Christopher Aylmer, First Baronet, was a page to George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1628–1687), and entered the Royal Navy as a lieutenant (1678). In October 1688 he was appointed captain of HMS Swallow in the Thames and aligned himself to the cause of the Glorious Revolution (the overthrow King James II and the establishment of William of Orange). In 1690 he took command of the Royal Katherine and was present at the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690) and at the Battle of Barfleur (May 19, 1692). He was rear admiral in 1693 and vice admiral in 1694 accompanying Edward Russell (see entry) to the Mediterranean. Aylmer held the office of commissioner of the Navy in 1694–1702. He was a member of Parliament for Portsmouth (1695–1696) and for Dover (1697–1713 and 1715–1720). He gained the rank of admiral (1708) and was commander-in-chief of the fleet (1708–1711 and 1714–1720). He was governor of Greenwich Hospital, London (1714–1720), and established the hospital school for the sons of seamen, which is still in existence. He was a lord of the Admiralty (1717–1718); was made honorary rear admiral of Great Britain on March 18, 1717/18; and was created 1st Lord Aylmer, Baron of Balrath, County Meath, Ireland, on May 1, 1718. Sources: “Matthew Aylmer, 1st Baron Aylmer” (April 22, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:00, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=Matthew_Aylmer%2C_1st_Baron_ Aylmer&oldid=207323997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 936.

AYSCUE, SIR GEORGE (1616?–1671?) (BRITAIN)

George Ayscue possibly came from Lincolnshire, England, but of his early life there is no record, nor of when he joined the Navy, but by 1641 he had been knighted and by 1646 he was a captain. He appears to have ranked as one of the seniors in the fleet. In 1648, during the English Civil War (1642– 1651), while serving as a captain in the Navy of the English Parliament, Ayscue prevented the fleet from defecting to the Royalists and was promoted to general-at-sea (admiral). In 1651 he served with General-at-Sea Robert Blake (see entry) in the capture of the Scilly Isles (28 miles southwest of Lands End, England), then held for the Prince of Wales. Later that year he captured Barbados, Antigua, Nevis, St. Christopher’s, as well

Backhouse as the settlements on the coast of Virginia. Admiral Michiel de Ruyter (see entry) defeated Ayscue at the Battle of Plymouth, England on August 26, 1652, during the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652– 1654). He served in the Swedish Navy until the Restoration of Charles II (1660), when he was appointed one of the commissioners of the Navy. He was appointed rear admiral (1664) with his flag in the Henry. At the Four Days’ Battle ( June 11–14, 1666) his flagship, the Prince Royal, ran aground and, unable to re-float her, the crew set her alight. Ayscue was a prisoner in the Dutch state prison of Loevestein till after the peace in October 1667. There is no record of his death. Sources: “George Ayscue” (May 22, 2008). In Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:19, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George _Ayscue&oldid=214151310. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 956. “Sir George Ayscue.” British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Protectorate 1638–1660. www.british-civilwars.co.uk/biog/ayscue.htm.

BACKHOUSE, SIR ROGER ROLAND CHARLES (1878–1939) (BRITAIN)

Born at Middleton Tyas, Yorkshire, Roger Roland Charles Backhouse became a naval cadet in 1894 at the Britannia Training-ship (now the Britannia Royal Naval College), Dartmouth, Devon, and was midshipman (1894); sub-lieutenant (1898); lieutenant (1899); commander (1902); captain (1914); rear admiral (1925); third sea lord and controller of the Navy (1928); vice admiral (1929); admiral (1934); commander-in-chief, Home Fleet (1935) with his flag in the Nelson, one of the two newest and most powerful ships; and first sea lord and chief of the naval staff (1938). Backhouse was early recognized as a gunnery expert, winning the Commander Egerton prize (1902). He was on the staff of the gunnery school ship Excellent at Portsmouth, and was gunnery officer of battleships afloat, including the Dreadnought. He served as flag commander to Home Fleet commanders-in-chief Sir F.C. Bridgeman, Sir G.A. Callaghan, and Sir John Jellicoe (see entries). He had command of the light cruiser Conquest in the Harwich force under Reginald Yorke Tyrwhitt (1870–1951). When German battle cruisers bombarded Lowestoft on 25 April 1916, the Conquest was badly damaged. For saving his ship from destruction, Backhouse was praised by the Board of Admiralty. At the coronation review of King George VI in May 1937, the whole assembled fleet was under the command of Admiral Backhouse.

14 With the king’s approval he had been specially promoted to admiral of the fleet a week before he died. Backhouse was appointed Companion, Order of the Bath (Civil) (1914); Companion, Order of the Bath (Military) (1928); Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George for war service (1917); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1933); Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order at the coronation review (1937); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1938). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30514. “Roger Backhouse” (June 12, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:53, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipe dia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger_Backhouse&oldid=21 8910494.

BACON, SIR REGINALD HUGH SPENCER (1863–1947) (BRITAIN)

Born in Wiggonholt, Sussex, Reginald Hugh Spencer Bacon entered the Britannia Training-ship (now the Britannia Royal Naval College), Dartmouth, in 1877. He was midshipman (1879); lieutenant (1883); and trained in torpedoes at HMS Vernon torpedo school, Portsmouth. He was commander of the cruiser Theseus (1897) in the squadron of Sir Harry Rawson (see entry) on the west coast of Africa sent to deal with massacre of an English visiting party in Benin. Bacon accompanied the land expedition from the coast to Benin City as intelligence officer and was mentioned in dispatches and appointed to the Distinguished Service Order. He was promoted to captain in 1900. Thereafter he supervised the introduction, construction and trials of submarines and the training of crews; he was known as “the father of the submarine service.” In 1907 Bacon succeeded Sir John (later earl) Jellicoe (see entry) as director of naval ordnance and torpedoes and was promoted to rear admiral in 1909. He was placed on the retired list in November 1909 to become managing director of the Coventry Ordnance Works. On the outbreak of World War I (1914), he designed and produced some new 15-inch howitzer guns for use in Flanders and was sent in charge of them to France in January 1915 with the temporary rank of colonel 2nd commandant, Royal Marines. In April he was recalled as rear admiral, Dover Patrol, and senior naval officer, Dover—one of the most important war appointments in the defense of the English Channel. Bacon was promoted vice admiral in 1916 and named controller of the department of munitions inventions. He was admiral (1918) and retired on 31 March 1919. He was appointed Commander, Royal Victo-

15 rian Order, by King Edward VII on his inspection of the Home Fleet in 1907. In 1916 Bacon was appointed Knight Commander, Order of the Bath, and promoted to Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order. Sources: Bacon, Reginald. Benin: The City of Blood. London: E. Arnold, 1897. “Who’s Who: Sir Reginald Bacon.” Firstworldwar.com. www.firstworldwar.com/ bio/bacon.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30516.

BADGER, CHARLES JOHNSTON (1853–1932) (USA)

The son of Commodore Oscar C. Badger (1823– 1899), Charles Johnston Badger was born in Rockville, Maryland. Admiral Oscar C. Badger II was his son (see entry). He was appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885) to the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1869, graduating in 1873. Following graduation, he served on various assignments on Arctic, Atlantic, and Asiatic Stations and saw his first action aboard the gunboat USS Cincinnati at Matanzas, Cuba, during the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898). He later commanded the cruisers USS Newark and USS Chicago. He was promoted to captain on July 1, 1907, and was the superintendent of the Naval Academy (1907–1909) and then commanded the battleship USS Kansas until 1911. He was promoted to rear admiral on March 8, 1911, and ended his career as commander-in-chief, Atlantic Fleet (1913–1914), and was chairman of the Navy General Board throughout World War I, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. Although he officially retired in 1915, he continued on active duty as a member of the Navy General Board until 1921. Rear Admiral Badger is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The Navy destroyer USS Charles J. Badger (DD-657) was named in his honor and the USS Badger (FF-1071) was named for him and his family members who served. Sources: “Charles J. Badger” (April 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:00, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_ J._Badger&oldid=203139983. “Charles J. Badger.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr& GRid=6801982. “Charles J. Badger.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/cjbadger. htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

BADGER, OSCAR CHARLES II (1890–1958) (USA)

Born in Washington, D.C., Oscar Charles Badger, son of Rear Admiral Charles J. Badger (see

Badiley entry), graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland in 1911. He was ensign on the dreadnought battleship Utah (BB31) when American troops occupied Veracruz, Mexico, from April to September 1914. Badger was among fifty-five men awarded the Medal of Honor in 1915. In World War I, Badger served on destroyers in European waters; following the war he was gunnery officer and had time with the Bureau of Ordnance. He commanded the battleship USS North Carolina (BB55) (1941); was promoted to rear admiral (1942); commander Destroyers Atlantic Fleet; assistant chief of naval operations for logistics plans; commander Service Squadrons South Pacific (February 1944); and commander Battleship Division 7 (October 1944). He was the first Navy officer to step on Japanese soil when World War II ended; post-war he commanded the Eleventh Naval District and the Eastern Sea Frontier and was commander Naval Forces Western Pacific (December 1945). He was buried in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The destroyer USS Badger (FF-1071) was named in honor of all the members of the Badger family who served in the U.S. Navy, but when the ship was launched in 1968, her sponsor, Isabelle Austen Badger, Admiral Badger’s widow, said, “I christen thee Oscar Charles Badger II!” Sources: “Oscar Charles Badger II.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/ obadger2.htm and www.homeofheroes.com/gravesites/ arlington/badger_oscar.html. “Oscar C. Badger II” (July 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:14, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Oscar_C._Badger_II&oldid=22328 6980. “Papers of Admiral Oscar C. Badger, 1948– 1970.” Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/ ar/bravo/badger.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

BADILEY, RICHARD (1616?–1657) (BRITAIN)

Little is known of Richard Badiley before the Commonwealth period in England (Oliver and Richard Cromwell) from 1649 to 1660. In April 1649 he was captain of the ship of the line Happy Entrance and commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Downs (the anchorage between Deal Beach and the Goodwin Sands, a 10-mile long sand bank in the English Channel, lying six miles east of Deal in Kent, England). In 1652, a party from Happy Entrance destroyed the Antelope— which had gone over to the side of Prince of Wales, Charles II (1660–1685) against Cromwell — at Helvoetsluys in the Netherlands. From 1652 to 1653, as rear admiral he was commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean Sea

Bagley aboard the flagship Paragon. In August 1652, during the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654), Badiley commanded eight warships, while Captain Henry Appleton (1650?–1654), blockaded at Leghorn, Italy, commanded six. They faced a Dutch naval force of 16 ships under the command of Johan van Galen (1604–1653). Admiral van Galen sent most of the Dutch squadron to intercept Badiley and they engaged in close-range action near Monte Cristo, Italy. The Paragon was badly damaged and the Phoenix was captured. Badiley retreated into Porto Longone on Elba, where he was blockaded by part of the Dutch squadron. In March 1653, Badiley’s forces were engaged in the Battle of Leghorn (Livorno), Italy. Captain Henry Appleton’s squadron was almost destroyed, and Badiley withdrew his squadron from the Mediterranean; the Paragon had 26 killed and 57 wounded out of a complement of 250. Appleton made a formal complaint against Badiley, who was exonerated. Badiley was rear admiral of the fleet, a rank later known as admiral of the blue squadron (1653); rear admiral (1654); and vice admiral in command of the fleet in the Downs (1655). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1025.

BAGLEY, DAVID WORTH (1883– 1960) (USA)

David Worth Bagley, brother of ensign Worth Bagley (1874–1898)— the only United States Navy officer killed in action during the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898)— was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, and graduated in 1904 from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. He was midshipman (1905); ensign (1906); first lieutenant (1914); commander (1915) of the destroyer Drayton (DD-23); rear admiral (1938); vice admiral (1944) and retired as admiral (1946). During his long naval service, Admiral Bagley served on gunboats, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. As ensign he served on the battleship Rhode Island (BB-17) of the Atlantic Fleet, in which he made the voyage around the world with the Great White Fleet (1907–1909). He was on the staff of the Naval Academy (1912–1914 and 1924– 1926). In 1917, commanding the destroyer Jacob Jones (DD-61), Bagley conducted anti-submarine patrols and convoy escort missions around the British shores. On December 6, 1917, the Jacob Jones was torpedoed off the Isles of Scilly (off the southwestern-most tip of England) and sunk within eight minutes with the loss of 64 crewmen. Bagley, Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose, the U-boat

16 commander sent out a radio message to Queenstown, Ireland, and 37 others were rescued two days later. Bagley was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership. Bagley was commander, Battleship Division 2, with his flag in the Tennessee (BB-43) when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941; the Tennessee sustained slight damage. From February 1, 1943, to July 25, 1945, Admiral Bagley commanded the western sea frontier. He was commandant 11th Naval District and commandant 14th Naval District. Admiral Bagley died at the Naval Hospital in San Diego, California, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The first three vessels named USS Bagley —Torpedo Boat No. 24 and destroyers No. 185 and DD-386 — were named for Worth Bagley. The fourth, destroyer DE-1069, honors both Worth Bagley and Admiral David W. Bagley. Sources: “Bagley, David Worth.” The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. http://pwencycl.kgbudge.com/B/ a/Bagley_DW.htm. “David W. Bagley” (July 14, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:28, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=David_W._Bagley&oldid=225560670. Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Department of the Navy, Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. www.history.navy.mil/danfs/b1/bagley-iv.htm.

BAKER, JOHN (1660/1–1716) (BRITAIN)

John Baker was appointed a lieutenant in 1688 and captain in 1691. In 1701 he was appointed to the gunship Pembroke, and from 1702 to 1707 he served in the grand fleet under both Sir George Rooke and Sir Clowdisley Shovell (see entries) on the frigate Monmouth around Spain and southern France. On their return the squadron lost many of the ships among the Scilly Islands off the Coast of England. Baker brought the fleet back safely and was promoted rear admiral under Sir George Byng (see entry) on the coast of Scotland (1708). He afterward conducted the daughter of the emperor, the betrothed queen of Portugal, from The Netherlands to Spithead—an area of the Solent in Hampshire, England — and with Sir George Byng escorted her to Lisbon. In 1709 Baker was promoted vice admiral, as second in command in the Mediterranean under Sir John Norris (1660?–1749) and afterward under Sir John Jennings (see entry). In 1711 he was detached by Jennings to Lisbon and the Azores to protect the Portuguese, East Indian, and Brazilian trade from the French admiral René Duguay-Trouin (see entry). Soon after the accession of George I to the British throne in 1714, Baker commanded a

17 squadron sent out to the Mediterranean to either restrain the Barbary corsairs (pirates) of North Africa or to negotiate a peace treaty. He partially succeeded by concluding a treaty with Tripoli and Tunis and severely punishing some of the Salleeman pirate cruisers operating out of Morocco. Baker died at Port Mahon, Minorca, while serving as the island’s governor and was buried there. A monument to him was erected in the North Aisle of Westminster Abbey in London with the inscription “a brave, judicious, and experienced officer, a sincere friend, and a true lover of his country.” Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1125?docPos=3. “Official Guide.” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition.

BAKER, SIR THOMAS (1771?–1845) (BRITAIN)

Born possibly in Kent, England, Thomas Baker was on the books of HMS Dromedary in 1781–1785, then was in the service of the East India Company (1785–1788), after which he returned to the Navy. He was promoted to lieutenant (1792) and commander (1795). In 1780, on the frigate HMS Nemesis, when in command of a small squadron off Ostend, Belgium, he met a number of Danish merchant vessels under convoy of the frigate Freya. Britain did not subscribe to the unwritten law that neutral ships were exempt from being searched for contraband, so Baker insisted on searching the Danish ships. The Freya resisted, but was quickly overpowered and brought into the Downs (off the Kent coast) with her convoy. Although the affair was settled amicably, it set off a reaction when the emperor of Russia established a coalition of “armed neutrality,” which resulted in the Battle of Copenhagen (1801); the British navy was led by Sir Hyde Parker (1739–1807). In 1805 on the Phenix, attached to the Channel fleet under (Sir) William Cornwallis (see entry), off Cape Finisterre, Spain, Baker captured the French 46-gun frigate Didon. In May 1808 Baker joined the HMS Vanguard as flag-captain to rear admiral (Sir) Thomas Bertie (see entry) in the Baltic. The Prince of Orange invested Baker with the order of William of the Netherlands (1814). He was made a Commander, the Order of the Bath (1815); appointed colonel of Marines (1819); promoted to rear admiral (1821); was named commander-in-chief on the coast of South America (1829–1833); was nominated Knight commander, the Order of the Bath (1831); and became vice admiral (1837). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press,

Balchen 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1139?docPos=1.

BALCH, GEORGE BEALE (1821–1908) (USA)

Born in Shelbyville, Tennessee, George Beale Balch was appointed midshipman in 1837. During the next twelve years he served with the African and Mediterranean squadrons. He also took part in combat operations along the Mexican east coast during 1846–1847 and had two periods of duty in Washington, D.C., the last at the Naval Observatory. Balch was promoted to lieutenant in 1850. From mid–1861 to mid–1862 — during the American Civil War (1861–1865)— he was commanding officer of the steam sloop USS Pocahontas, an active blockader along the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia, and received promotion to the rank of commander during this time. He commanded the steam sloop USS Pawnee for most of the Civil War, operating along the Confederacy’s south Atlantic coast. He was promoted to captain during his time at the Washington Navy Yard (1865–1868). He commanded the sloop of war USS Contoocook (renamed Albany in 1869) (1868– 1870), then was governor of the Naval Asylum at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was named rear-admiral (1878) and superintendent of the U.S. Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Maryland (1879–1881) and commander Pacific Station until he retired from active duty in January 1883. He died in Raleigh, North Carolina, and is buried at the U.S. Naval Academy Cemetery, Annapolis, Maryland. The destroyer USS Balch (DD363), launched 1936, was named in his honor. Sources: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Department of the Navy, Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-b/g-balch.htm. “George Beale Balch.” Virtual American Biographies. http://famousamericans. net/georgebornbalch.

BALCHEN, SIR JOHN (1669/70–1744) (BRITAIN)

Born in Brook on the outskirts of Godalming, Surrey, England, John Balchen joined the Royal Navy in about 1685 and was made lieutenant in 1692 and captain in 1697. On October 12, 1702, in command of the fire ship Vulcan under Sir George Rooke (see entry), he took part in the capture or burning of the French and Spanish ships at Vigo on the coast of Spain. Balchen brought home the Modéré prize of 56 guns. During his long career Balchen was twice tried by court-martial and exonerated for losing his ships to the French admirals Forbin and Duguay-Trouin. At the Battle of the Lizard on October 21, 1707,

Balmert

18

near Lizard Point, Cornwall, the HMS Chester was captured, and on October 26, 1709, the brand-new HMS Gloucester was captured. The French sold the Gloucester to the Spaniards, and for many years she was on the strength of the Spanish navy under the name of Conquistador. Balchen was promoted to rear admiral (1728); vice admiral (1733); and admiral (1744). In April 1744, Balchen was knighted and appointed governor of Greenwich Hospital (now the site of the Royal Naval College). The post of governor was considered as an honorable retirement from the active list. Two months later Balchen was recalled into active service as admiral with his flag on board the HMS Victory. He successfully broke the French blockade of a large fleet of store ships at the river Tagus, Spain. On the return journey, Balchen’s fleet was caught in a violent storm in the English Channel, and the Victory, with some 1100 men—including Admiral Balchen — was lost. A monument to his memory was erected in the North Transept near the Bunyan Window in Westminster Abbey. The monument also commemorates George Balchin, the admiral’s son (1717–1745), who was commander of the Pembroke and died from illness in the West Indies.

commander 7th Fleet; flag secretary for commander 3rd Fleet; operations officer for commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 1; and commander, Expeditionary Strike Group 3, 2006, an amphibious ready group with the ability to disperse strike capabilities across a greater range of the force; naval plans officer at Headquarters, United Nations Command and Combined Forces Command in Seoul, Korea; surface commander assignments branch head in Millington, Tennessee; chief of staff for commander Naval Surface Force U.S. Pacific Fleet; director, Operations Division, Office of Budget in the Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy (financial management and comptroller); and director, Operations Division, Fiscal Management Division in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. He was promoted to rear admiral in 2004. Balmert was commander, Amphibious Group Three, San Diego, California, in 2006. Included in his awards are the Legion of Merit with four Gold Stars; Bronze Star; Defense Meritorious Service Medal; Meritorious Service Medal with two Gold Stars; Navy Commendation Medal with three Gold Stars; and the Joint Service Achievement Medal.

Sources: “John Balchen” (January 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:01, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= John_Balchen&oldid=188014602. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/1152. The Balchin Family Society. www.balchinfamily.org.uk/family_history/people/admiral/index.ht ml. “Official Guide.” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition.

Sources: “Mark W. Balmert” (February 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:53, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Mark_W._Balmert&oldid=194516301. “United States Biography: Rear Admiral Mark W. Balmert.” Navy.mil. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/bio.asp?bioID=36.

BALMERT, MARK W. (USA)

Mark W. Balmert entered the Navy Reserve Officer Training program; gained a bachelor of science degree in chemical engineering from the University of Notre Dame, Indiana; and a master’s in financial management from the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. He completed his joint military education at the Armed Forces Staff College, Norfolk, Virginia. Balmert has served most of his career in destroyers; the USS Chandler (DDG 996) won the Battle Efficiency Award. He commanded Destroyer Squadron 7 during Operation Enduring Freedom — the official name used by the U.S. government for its military response to the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States — and Operation Iraqi Freedom, the war against Iraq that started in 2003, as sea combat commander for the Constellation Battle Group. Balmert was chief staff officer of Destroyer Squadron 13; assistant surface operations officer for

BANCKERT, ADRIAEN VAN TRAPPEN (1615?–1684) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Born in Vlissingen (Flushing) to Rear Admiral Joost van Trappen Banckert (see entry), Adriaen Banckert started his career in his father’s ship. He was promoted to captain (1642); rear admiral of the Zeelandic admiralty (1664); vice admiral (1665); and lieutenant admiral of Zeeland (1666). In 1678 he joined the Admiralty Council, which was exceptional for a navy officer. During the Dutch revolt (1568–1648, the Eighty Years War), Banckert was involved in fighting the Dunkirk Raiders, privateers in the service of the Spanish Empire operating from the port of Dunkirk, France. During the First Anglo-Dutch War (1653– 1654) Banckert was flag captain on the Hollandia in the Battle of Portland off Weymouth, Dorset, when his elder brother Joost was killed. Banckert was taken prisoner the same year during the Battle of Scheveningen (August 8–10, 1653). In 1659, during the Northern Wars (1655–1661), the Seeridder, of which he was captain, lost all her anchors by a storm, ran aground and then was

19 frozen solid near the island of Hven. Banckert held off the Swedish army attacks for three days before he worked his ship free. The admiralty of Zeeland gave him a golden chain worth a great deal of money. In the Battle of Texel (August 21, 1673, the last major battle of the Third Anglo-Dutch War of 1672–1674), Banckert prevented the French and English fleet from joining, giving Michiel de Ruyter (see entry) a better chance. His final expedition was in 1674, when the island of Noirmoutier, on the west coast of France, was sacked. Although Banckert left active service on December 3, 1674, he remained commander of the Zeelandic fleet. Sources: “Adriaen Banckert” (December 4, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:13, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Adriaen_Banckert&oldid=175741521.

BANCKERT, JOOST VAN TRAPPEN (1597?–1647) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Joost van Trappen Banckert’s career was mainly with the Admiralty of Zeeland (an island that is part of Denmark). His son, Adriaen Banckert (see entry) also became an admiral. He was involved fighting the Dunkirk Raiders, privateers for the Spanish Empire operating from the port of Dunkirk, France. He became captain in 1624 and from then until 1636 he served with the Zeeland Chamber of the Dutch West India Company. Banckert and Piet Hein (see entry) attacked and captured the Portuguese settlement of Salvador, Brazil (1624), and as vice admiral he was part of the fleet that captured the Spanish treasure fleet at the Battle of the Bay of Matanzas (1628). Banckert earned two nicknames: “Scourge of the Maranos“ (Maranos being a nickname for the Spanish in general) and “Terror of the Portuguese.“ Even though he was a vice admiral in the West India Company, when he rejoined the Dutch navy in 1637 he was made rear admiral, but was temporary vice admiral part of the time. In 1639, he served under Lieutenant Admiral Maarten Tromp (see entry) as rear admiral and engaged a large Spanish fleet in the English Channel on September 18, 1639, which led to Battle of the Downs near the English Channel on October 31, 1639, a resounding victory for the Dutch. Banckert got the navy rank of temporary vice admiral on December 10, 1646. In 1647, on the return voyage from Brazil, he suddenly fell ill and died at sea. Sources: “Joost Banckert” (April 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:47, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Joost_Banckert&oldid=206815838. “Joost Banckert.” Isle of Tortuga. www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Garden/52 13/bankert.htm.

Barrie BARBEY, DANIEL E. (1889–1969) (USA)

Born in Portland, Oregon, Daniel E. Barbey graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. He was ensign (1912); lieutenant junior grade (1915); lieutenant (1918); lieutenant commander (1922); commander (1933); captain (1940); rear admiral (1942); and vice admiral (1944). His various assignments include engineering officer, executive officer and commanding officer of the destroyer USS Lawrence. From 1919 to 1922 he served at the naval base at Cardiff, Wales; as naval port officer at Cardiff; at U.S. Naval Headquarters in London; as naval port officer in Constantinople, Turkey; aide on the staff of Rear Admiral Mark L. Bristol (see entry), commander, U.S. Naval Detachment in Turkish Waters, and high commissioner to Turkey; as a U.S. delegate on the Allied Commission for the Control of Trade with Turkey; and as an observer with the Russian Army in the Crimea. From 1937 to 1940 Barbey worked at the Bureau of Navigation’s War Plans Section in Washington, D.C., during which time he wrote mobilization plans for America’s involvement in World War II. In 1942 he organized and became head of the Navy’s first Amphibious Warfare Section, working on designs for landing craft. He turned Port Stephens, New South Wales, Australia, into a major amphibious force, and from 1943, he commanded the Seventh Amphibious Force landings on the Trobriand Islands, New Guinea, Indonesia, and the Philippines. He led Allied naval forces at Balikpapan, Borneo, on July 1, 1945, the final amphibious operation of the war. His high-profile career continued after the war until he retired in 1951 as commandant of the 13th Naval District. The frigate USS Barbey (FF 1088) was named in his honor. Sources: “Daniel E. Barbey” (March 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:29, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Daniel_E._Barbey&oldid=201330106. “Papers of Vice Admiral Daniel E. Barbey, 1941–1969.” Naval Historical Center Website. www.history.navy.mil/ar/bravo/bar bey.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

BARRIE, CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER (1945–) (AUSTRALIA)

Born in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, Christopher Alexander Barrie joined the Royal Australian Naval College in the Jervis Bay Territory, south of Sydney, in 1961. He attended Britannia Royal Naval College at Dartmouth, Devon, England, and HMS Excellent Training Establishment, Portsmouth, England, for sub-lieutenant’s

Barrington courses. He served on the guided missile destroyer HMAS Brisbane (1967–1969), which included a tour of duty during the Vietnam War (1959–1975), and on the guided missile destroyer HMAS Perth (1973–1975). Barrie served as directing staff at the Royal Australian Naval Staff College, Sydney (1981–82), and on the international fellows program of the National Defense University, Washington, D.C., in the U.S. (1986–1987). At HMAS Watson, located at Sydney’s South Head, he was director, Royal Australian Navy Surface Warfare School, and commanding officer, the Royal Australian Navy’s Radar Training School (1991–1992). Prior to his promotion to admiral (1998) he was vice chief of the Defense Force from March 1997 and was deputy maritime commander and chief of staff at Maritime Headquarters in Sydney (1992–1995); deputy chief of Naval Staff (1995–1996); and chief of the Defense Force (1988–2002). At the Australian Navy Sea Power Conference in 2006 Barrie raised some controversy about the ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand and the United States) Alliance, that the United States might very well view the alliance as obsolete or near dead and not having a role in the future of the region. Barrie gained a bachelor of arts with a special focus on international relations and politics (1983) and a master of business administration degree in 1996 from Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria. Included in his honors are Fellow of the Australian Institute of Management; Member of the Order of Australia (1994); Officer of the Order of Australia (1998); and Companion to the Order of Australia (2001). Sources: “Chris Barrie” (May 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:00, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chris_ Barrie_%28admiral%29&oldid=213789911. “Australia: Background and U.S. Relations.” Congress Research Service, August 8, 2008. www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL330 10.pdf.

BARRINGTON, SAMUEL (1729–1800) (BRITAIN)

Born at Shrivenham, Berkshire, Wiltshire, the fourth son of John Shute Barrington, Samuel Barrington entered the Royal Navy at age eleven and was promoted to lieutenant in 1745. During the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) while in command of the frigate Bellona off Ushant in the English Channel, he captured on August 18, 1747, the French East Indiaman Duc de Chartres, laden with military stores. On the outbreak of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), Barrington, on the Achilles, served under Edward Hawke (see entry) in the Basque Roads, a sheltered bay on the Biscay

20 shore of France. On April 4, 1759, while cruising off Cape Finisterre, Spain, Barrington captured the Comte de Saint Florentine, laden with merchandise from Africa and the West Indies. At the peace in 1763 Barrington had been almost continuously afloat for twenty-two years. In 1778, he was promoted rear admiral. He was sent out as commander in chief, West Indies, and captured St. Lucia. In April 1782 he was appointed to the Channel Fleet as second in command to Richard Howe (see entry). Acting under Howe’s orders, Barrington assisted in the relief of Gibraltar in February 1783 and in the repulse of the allied fleets of France and Spain. On September 24, 1787, he was advanced to the rank of admiral and hoisted his flag in the Royal George. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1.Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1533.

BART, JEAN (1650–1702) (FRANCE)

Born in Dunkirk, France, Jean Bart served in the Dutch Navy under Michiel de Ruyter (see entry) until war broke out between Louis XIV (1638–1715) and the United Provinces (The Netherlands) (1672–1678), when he entered the French navy. He commanded a fleet of privateering vessels, and his knowledge of the coast was a great asset and assured his success. In the War of the Grand Alliance (1689–1697) Bart was taken prisoner by the English, but within days he, Admiral Forbin, and 20 other sailors succeeded in escaping to Brittany in a row boat. He commanded the Alcyon at the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690) and defended Dunkirk against the English in 1694–1695. In 1696, off The Netherlands’ coast, he captured a huge convoy carrying wheat, which helped to relieve the famine France was facing due to the blockade by the English and Dutch fleets. Until that time Bart had been denied being commissioned as naval officer on account of his lowly birth; however, so grateful was Louis XIV (1638–1715), the “Sun King,” that he made Bart a member of the nobility and commissioned him lieutenant. Bart rose rapidly to captain and then admiral (dates are unknown). In 1697, Bart’s squadron escorted the Prince de Conti (François-Louis de Bourbon), candidate for the Polish crown, to Danzig in spite of a heavy blockade. When the War of Grand Alliance (1688– 1697) ended, Bart was claimed a national hero, having destroyed 30 warships and having captured more than 200 merchant ships. There is a statue in the main square of Dunkirk, and at the annual carnival people sing corsair songs praising Jean Bart as their hero. Many ships have been named in his

21 honor; the French battleship Jean Bart was launched in 1940 but was not commissioned until 1949 and was decommissioned in 1969. On April 12, 2008, Jean Bart (D615), an aircraft frigate (destroyer), took part in Operation Thalathine in the Gulf of Aden against Somalian pirates who had captured the French luxury yacht Le Ponant eight days earlier. Sources: “Bart, Jean” (2008). Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013514. “French Battleship Jean Bart (1940)” (June 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:38, July 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_bat tleship_Jean_Bart_%281940%29&oldid=221736321. “Jean Bart” (July 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 04:51, July 19, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Bart&oldid=225818 264. “Jean Bart (D 615)” (June 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:01, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Bart_ %28D_615%29&oldid=220791259. “Jean Bart: Corsair of Dunkerque 1650–1702.” Theotherside.co.uk. www.theotherside.co.uk/tm-heritage/background/jeanbart.htm. “Le Ponant” (June 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:07, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Le_Ponant& oldid=221674521.

BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM (1600?–1667) (BRITAIN)

William Batten, born in Somerset, supported Parliament during the English Civil War (1642– 1651) and in 1642 was appointed vice admiral to the Lord High Admiral, Earl of Warwick (1587– 1658), who took the fleet out of the king’s hands. In 1643 Batten’s squadron bombarded Bridlington (1643) on the North Sea coast of North Yorkshire, England, when Henrietta Maria (1609–1669), queen consort of the executed Charles I, landed nearby in an attempt to regain the throne. The queen’s lodgings were hit and she with her dog was forced to take shelter in a ditch. He only stopped the bombardment when the Dutch Admiral Maarten Tromp (see entry) threatened to attack the Parliamentarian ships, which could have led to war between England and Holland. In 1645, Batten helped the Parliamentarians to capture Weymouth, Dorset. At the Battle of Colby Moor, Wales (August 1, 1645), he helped defeat the Royalist army by landing a force of sailors behind enemy lines. His daring seamanship was evidenced in 1647 by bringing into Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and merchantmen who had refused the customary salute to the flag. In 1648, during the Second English Civil War, when part of the fleet revolted against the parliament and joined the Prince of Wales, Batten went with them. He was knighted by the prince, but being suspected by the

Baudin Royalists, he was put ashore mutinously in Holland and returned to England. At the Restoration (1660), Batten again became surveyor to the Navy. In 1661 he was member of Parliament for Rochester, Kent, and in 1663 was made master of the Trinity House, the official general lighthouse authority for England, Wales and other British territorial waters (with the exception of Scotland, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland). Sources: “Sir William Batten.” British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Protectorate. www.british-civilwars.co.uk/biog/batten.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 1714. Rickard, J. (April 25, 2001). “Admiral Sir William Batten (d. 1667).” Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. www.historyofwar.org/articles/people_batten. html.

BAUDIN, CHARLES (1792–1854) (FRANCE)

Born in Sedan, France, Charles Baudin entered the navy at age fifteen, and within a year he lost an arm in a skirmish against the Royal Navy in the Indian Ocean. In 1812, as lieutenant and commander of the brig Rénard, pursued by English cruisers, he took his convoy of 14 munitions-laden cargo vessels safely to St. Tropez, where he was promoted to captain. Following the restoration of the Bourbon Dynasty (1814), Baudin was forced into retirement. In 1816 he joined the merchant marine, but under the July Monarchy (1830)— which set Louis-Philippe I on the throne of France, the last French king, until 1848 — Baudin returned to military service. As rear admiral (1838) and commander-in-chief he was sent to Mexico to settle the Pastry War, started with a claim in 1828 by a French pastry cook in the Tacubaya district of Mexico City that he had been ruined by looting Mexican officers. After a one-day bombardment (November 27, 1838), the fort of Vera Cruz, San Juan de Ulúa, surrendered. Baudin was promoted vice admiral in January 1839 and in 1840 was commander-in-chief, South American fleet. In 1841, he was briefly minister of marine, then maritime prefect in Toulon. In 1848, after the February Revolution—which ended the July Monarchy and was replaced by the Second Republic, France (1848–1852), with Napoleon III as first president of the French Republic — Baudin was appointed commander in chief of France’s Mediterranean Fleet. Just after he was promoted to admiral, he died on the Island of Ischia, near Naples, Italy. Sources: “Charles Baudin” (January 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:22, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=

Bayly Charles_Baudin&oldid=187051843. “Charles Baudin.” The Handbook of Texas Online. www.tshaonline.org/ handbook/online/articles/BB/fbaam.html.

BAYLY, SIR LEWIS (1857–1938) (BRITAIN)

Born at Woolwich, London, Lewis Bayly graduated from the Britannia Training-ship (now the Britannia Royal Naval College) in Dartmouth, Devon, in 1872. He was sub-lieutenant (1876); lieutenant (1881); commodore (1907); rear admiral (1908); vice admiral (1914); and admiral (1917). In 1907, he took command of the destroyer flotillas in the Home Fleet in the light cruiser Attentive, at a time when destroyers were a new fighting arm. In 1914, he took command of the First Battle Squadron (flag in HMS Marlborough), part of the Grand Fleet assembled at Scapa Flow, the Orkney Islands off the northeast coast of Scotland, on the outbreak of war in August 1914. In September 1914, Bayly was appointed to command the Channel Fleet (flag in the HMS Lord Nelson), but a few days later was relieved of his command because during exercises one of his battleships, the Formidable, was sunk by a torpedo. Refused a court-martial, he was appointed president of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. In July 1915 he took command of the Western Approaches based at Queenstown, County Cork, Ireland, to protect shipping from U-boat attack. In the beginning of 1916 he was raised to the position of commander-in-chief and commander of a mixed Anglo-American force. He made the senior United States officer Captain Joel Pringle his chief of staff, the first foreign naval officer to hold such an appointment, and he mixed the ships of the two navies in his flotillas and squadrons so that after a few months they were all one navy. He was known to the American sailors as “Uncle Lewis.” Bayly retired in 1919, and in 1921, the Queenstown Association invited him as guest of honor. The association, of which he was vice president, was a club formed by officers who had served under him from 1915 to 1918. In 1934 he was guest of honor at the unveiling of a portrait of his American chief of staff, Vice Admiral Roberts Poinsett Pringle (1873–1932), in the hall of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. Bayly was Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1907); Commander, Order of the Bath (1912); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1914); Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1918); Grand Cross or the Dannebrog (Denmark) (1912); and was awarded the American Distinguished Service Order. Sources: Delany, Walter S. Bayly’s Navy. Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Foundation, 1980. Naval Historical Center: Navy Department Library. www.his

22 tory.navy.mil/library/online/bayly’s%20navy.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/30653.

BEATTY, DAVID, FIRST EARL (1871–1936) (BRITAIN)

Born in Howbeck, Cheshire, England, David Beatty entered the Royal Navy at age 13. He was midshipman (1886); lieutenant (1892); commander 1898); captain (1900); rear admiral (1910); vice admiral (1912); and admiral of the fleet and first sea lord (1919–1927). Beatty gained recognition in the recapture of the Sudan (1897–1899), where he was selected as second in command by Lord Kitchener (1850–1916) for his Khartoum expedition. At the outbreak of World War I (August 1914), he was commander of the Grand Fleet’s Battle Cruiser Squadron. Beatty’s squadron scored a resounding victory at the Battle of Dogger Bank in the North Sea ( January 24, 1915). Beatty’s name is most associated with the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916), the largest naval battle of World War I and the only full-scale clash of battleships in that war. Sir John Jellicoe (see entry), in overall command of the action at Jutland, was blamed for the lack of a clear British success and for the heavy losses. Beatty succeeded him as commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet in November 1916 when Jellicoe was appointed first sea lord, but not everyone approved of Beatty’s rapid promotion. On November 21, 1918, Beatty accepted the surrender of the entire German High Fleet of 90 ships and 87 U-boats, at Rosyth on the northeast coast of Scotland. He was member, Royal Victorian Order (1905); Commander, Order of the Bath (1911); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1914); Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order, and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1916); and Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order (1917). In 1919 he was appointed to the Order of Merit, created Earl Beatty, and made a Freeman of Huddersfield, Yorkshire. He was made a member of the Privy Council in 1927. Sources: “Naval Leaders: Admiral of the Fleet Sir David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty 1871–1936.” Royalnavy. mod.uk. www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server/show/nav.38 88. “David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty” (July 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:05, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= David_Beatty%2C_1st_Earl_Beatty&oldid=226514240. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/30661. “Who’s Who: Sir David Beatty.” Firstworldwar.com. www.firstworldwar.com/ bio/beatty.htm.

23 BEATTY, FRANK EDMUND (1853–1926) (USA)

Born in Jefferson County, Wisconsin, Frank Edmund Beatty graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1875. He was ensign (1876); lieutenant (1892); commander (1904); captain (1908); and rear admiral (1912). Beatty served in various capacities on the screw sloop Tuscarora; the sailing-steam frigate Minnesota; the wooden steam sloop Richmond; the sloop of war Despatch; the wooden-hulled, double-ended steamer Tallapoosa; the dynamite gun cruiser Vesuvius; the sloop of war Monongahela; the gunboat Adams; the gunboat Wheeling; the gunboat Gloucester; the cruisers Columbia (C-12) and Charleston (C-22); the battleship Wisconsin (BB-9); and the warship Miantonomoh. He also served at the Naval Academy and on the nautical school ship Saratoga training naval apprentices. In 1904 he took command of the Naval Base Culebra, Puerto Rico, with additional duty commanding the Gloucester. He was superintendent of the Naval Gun Factory, Washington, D.C., in 1905–1907. At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, he was in command of Division 3 with his flag in the battleship Virginia (BB-13) at Charleston, South Carolina. He retired on November 26, 1915, but was recalled to active duty in 1917, when America entered the war, and was assigned as commandant, 6th Naval District, Charleston, South Carolina. He retired in Charleston (1919), where he died. He was buried in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. Two destroyers were named in his honor: USS Beatty (DD-640) (1941) and USS Beatty (DD-756) (1944). Sources: “Frank Edmund Beatty, Rear Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/fbeatty.htm. “Frank E. Beatty” (April 14, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:23, July 19, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frank_E._Beatty&oldid= 205553722. “USS Beatty (DD-756)” (April 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:23, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=USS_Beatty_%28DD-756%29&oldid=2071751 70. “USS Beatty (DD-640)” (June 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:25, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS_ Beatty_%28DD-640%29&oldid=217502121.

BEAUCLERK, LORD AMELIUS (1771–1846) (BRITAIN)

Amelius Beauclerk, third son of Aubrey, fifth duke of St. Albans, was entered on the books of the Jackal cutter in 1782, and between 1783 and 1789, he served on the Newfoundland Station and in the West Indies. He was lieutenant (1790); rear

Beaumont admiral (1811); vice admiral (1819); and admiral (1830). In March 1794 he was transferred to HMS Juno of 32 guns and attached to the squadron employed under Admiral William Hotham (1772– 1848) in the blockade of Toulon. The Juno was with the fleet in the action of March 14, 1795, led by Hotham — a battle in which Horatio Nelson (see entry), in the HMS Agamemnon, also fought—that resulted in the capture of the French ships Ça Ira and Censeur. On October 7, 1796, the French recaptured the Censeur off Portugal. On June 13, 1796, in command of the 44-gun frigate Dryad, Beauclerk captured the French frigate La Proserpine of equal size, but casualties on the Dryad were minimal compared to that of the French ship. In 1800, Beauclerk took command of the Fortunée, operating in the English Channel, and accompanied George III to Weymouth, Dorset, where the old king hoped that the sea water would cure his porphyria; a statue was erected in 1810 and still stands to this day. Beauclerk ended his active service as commander-in-chief, Plymouth (1836– 1839). He was a fellow of the Royal Society, and was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); Knight Grand Cross, Hanoverian Order (1831); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1835). Sources: “Lord Amelius Beauclerk” (July 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:24, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Lord_Amelius_Beauclerk&oldid=226445819. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/1845.

BEAUMONT, ALAN LEE (1934–2004) (AUSTRALIA)

Born in Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, Alan Lee Beaumont graduated from the Royal Australian Naval College, Sydney, in 1951. He was lieutenant (1956); commander (1969); rear admiral (1987); vice admiral and vice chief of the Defense Force (1989); and admiral and chief of the Defense Force (1993). He retired from the Royal Australian Navy on July 6, 1995. He served as commander on the guided missile destroyer HMAS Brisbane during the Vietnam War (1959–1975). He was a torpedo anti-submarine specialist and served at the United States Navy Fleet Antisubmarine Warfare School, San Diego, and was officer-in-charge, Torpedo Antisubmarine Weapons School, HMAS Watson, at South Head Sydney, New South Wales (1969–1971). He had four major staff postings in Canberra concerned with underwater weapons, destroyers, planning and selection boards. He also served at the Australian Defense

Beaumont Force Headquarters, which consists of the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Army, the Royal Australian Air Force and a number of “tri-service” units. He was chief of staff to the flag officer, Naval Support Command (1987), and assistant chief of the Defense Force (personnel) (1988). He was the first Australian to be promoted three times to the Companion in the Military Division of the Order of Australia (1982, 1989 and 1992) for services as the vice-chief of the Defense Force. The Sydney Morning Herald, August 9, 2004, printed a letter from 43 prominent Australians, including Retired Admiral Beaumont, expressing their concern that “Australia was committed to join the invasion of Iraq on the basis of false assumptions and the deception of the Australian people.” Sources: “Alan Beaumont” (July 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:49, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alan_ Beaumont&oldid=223704723. “Funeral Service for Admiral A.J. Beaumont.” Australian Government: Department of Defense. www.defence.gov.au/media/Alert Tpl.cfm?CurrentId=4243. “Our Military and Diplomatic Elders on Truth in Democracies and the Downside of Invading Iraq.” Smh.com.au: Sydney Morning Herald, August 9, 2004. www.smh.com.au/articles/ 2004/08/09/1092022386212.html.

BEAUMONT, BASIL (1669–1703) (BRITAIN)

Basil Beaumont was the fifth son of Sir Henry Beaumont of Stoughton Grange and Cole Orton, Leicestershire, England. Nothing is known of his early life or naval career. He was lieutenant at Portsmouth (1688); captain (1689); and rear admiral (1702). On 21 April 1689, he was appointed captain of the 34-gun HMS Centurion, which was lost in Plymouth Sound in a violent storm on December 25, 1689, but he was not blamed for the loss. In early 1692, Beaumont was transferred to HMS Rupert, in which he took part in the Battle of Barfleur on May 19, 1692. He served on various ships until November 1698, when he was appointed to the 70gun ship of the line HMS Resolution, and during the next year was senior officer at Spithead in the Solent, Hampshire, England, with a special commission as commander-in-chief and holding courtsmartial. In 1702 he hoisted his flag on board the HMS Mary. During the summer he cruised in the North Sea and off Dunkirk or convoyed the Baltic trade; on the approach of winter he returned to the Downs and anchored. On 27 November, a great storm hurled the ship onto the Goodwin Sands (see Badiley, Richard). Everyone on board, the admiral included, was lost. Beaumont’s service throughout was creditable without being distinguished; the only remarkable point is that, after

24 having held important commands, he attained flag rank when he was only thirty-four years of age. His potential for service to the Royal Navy was never fulfilled. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1869.

BEHRENS, WILLIAM WOHLSEN, JR. (1922–1986) (USA)

Born at Newport, Rhode Island, William Wohlsen Behrens graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1944 after completing the Submarine School, New London, Connecticut, in 1943. He later gained a master’s degree in international affairs from George Washington University, Washington, D.C., and a doctorate in management science from Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania (1971). He was promoted to rear admiral in 1967. Behrens thought of the idea of electronic slip rings to aide training in submarine sonar; wrote a code for submarines in wolf packs to communicate with one another; worked on the Navy’s first underwater telephone for voice communications between ships and submerged submarines; and worked on the first U.S. scanning sonar. He was head of the Engineering Department, the U.S. Submarine School, Groton, Connecticut (1955); director of the first Nuclear Power School, Washington, D.C. (1955–1957); and developed fish protein concentrate, later produced in factories in Southeast Asia and Latin America. He was medically retired in 1973 in the permanent rank of vice admiral and was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. In 1976, he established the Florida Institute of Oceanography, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg. Admiral Behrens is buried in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. His other awards were a Presidential Unit Citation; Navy Unit Citation; Silver Star; Bronze Star with V, with personal citations for “conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity”; a Navy E Ribbon (for battle efficiency) on several occasions; three times decorated by Vietnamese government with Presidential Unit Citation, Meritorious Unit Citation, Vietnamese Gallantry Cross; and the Legion of Merit four times, one for service in the Vietnam War (1959–1975). Sources: “W.W. Behrens, Jr.” (May 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:34, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=W. _W._Behrens%2C_Jr.&oldid=209561377. “William Wohlsen Behrens, Jr.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/wbehrjr.htm.

25 BELKNAP, GEORGE EUGENE (1832–1903) (USA)

Born at Newport, New Hampshire, George Eugene Belknap entered the U.S. Navy in 1847 as a midshipman and was lieutenant (1855); lieutenant commander (1862); commander (1866); and rear admiral (1889). In November 1864, Belknap commanded the ironclad steamer Canonicus, part of David Dixon Porter’s (see entry) amphibious assault against Fort Fisher, North Carolina. The fort fell on January 15, 1865; its defeat helped seal the fate of the Confederate forces in the American Civil War. He was then part of John Dahlgren’s (see entry) fleet that ended the Siege of Charleston, South Carolina, on February 18, 1865, and was one of the officers who accompanied Dahlgren into the city. In 1872 he commanded the sloop of war USS Tuscarora as part of a team sent to the Isthmus of Panama to study a projected route across Central America, and to protect travelers across the isthmus while a revolution raged. While making deep sea soundings between the west coast of the United States and Japan to determine whether laying a submarine cable between the USA and Japan would be possible, Belknap discovered one of the deepest and longest ocean troughs, now named the Tuscarora Deep. He was the senior officer present during the riots following David KalIkaua’s election as king of Hawaii in 1874; the “Merrie Monarch” (1836–1891) was the last reigning king in Hawaii. Belknap was made a commodore in 1885, and in 1886 was made commandant of the U.S. Navy Yard at Mare Island, California. He retired from the U.S. Navy in 1894 and was president of the Board of Commissioners of the Massachusetts Nautical Training School until his death. The USS Belknap, a guided missile cruiser (launched 1963), was named in his honor. Sources: “George Eugene Belknap.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/gb elknap.htm. “George Belknap” (April 14, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:53, July 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= George_Belknap&oldid=205632726. “George Eugene Belknap.” Virtual American Biographies. http://famous americans.net/georgeeugenebelknap. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

BENAVENTE, JUAN JOSÉ LATORRE (1846–1912) (CHILE)

Juan José Latorre Benavente was born in Santiago, Chile, the son of the Bolivian diplomat Don Elías Latorre. Orphaned at an early age, he entered the Naval School at Valparaiso, Chile, in 1855 and was midshipman (1861); first lieutenant (1873); rear

Benbow admiral (1884); and commander general of the navy (1886). Benavente served on the Esmeralda during the Chincha Islands Wars, a series of coastal and naval battles between Spain and its former colonies of Peru and Chile from 1864 to 1866. At the Battle of Papudo (November 26, 1865), part of the Chincha Islands War, he helped in the capture of the Spanish schooner Covadonga. He also participated in the Battle of Abtao on February 7, 1866, between a Spanish naval squadron and a combined Peruvian-Chilean fleet at the island of Abtao in the Chiloé Archipelago of central Chile. As a lieutenant he commanded the Toltén, in which he captured several foreign ships operating in the Chilean area with Argentinean licenses; chief among them the Jeanne Amelie (Argentina) and the Devonshire (Britain). He fought in the Naval Battle of Angamos (October 8, 1879)— part of the War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Saltpeter War because it was fought over ownership of mineral rights—between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru. On September 6, 1879, as commander of the ironclad ship Cochrane, the strongest ship of the Chilean fleet, Benavente’s brilliant seamanship helped capture the large Peruvian warship The Huascar, which became a part of the Chilean fleet. In 1891, while in England supervising the construction of new ships for the Chilean navy, the Chilean Civil War broke out. As a result of his choice to remain loyal to President Balmaceda (1840–1891), he was dismissed following the Congressional victory and remained in exile in Europe. He returned to Chile in 1894, served in the new government, was promoted to vice admiral and was made a commander of the French Legion of Honor. Sources: “Juan José Latorre Benavente” (June 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:30, July 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Latorre&oldid=2207082 56. “Juan Jose Latorre Benavente” (June 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Accessed 05:47, July 20, 2008, from es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Juan_Jos% C3% A9_Latorre&oldid=18216852 (translated from Spanish).

BENBOW, JOHN (1653–1702) (BRITAIN)

Born at Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, John Benbow entered the navy on the April 30, 1678, was promoted to third lieutenant, then was captain (1689). As master of the HMS Sovereign, he was master of the fleet at the Battle of Beachy Head on July 10, 1690. He was also at the Battle of Barfleur (May, 19 1692) off the Cotentin Peninsula, or the Cherbourg Peninsula, in Normandy, northern France. Despite an earlier court-martial for dis-

Benitez respect, he was promoted to rear admiral in 1695. In March 1698 he was appointed commander-inchief West Indies, where he was engaged in operations against Spanish pirates, both in the West Indies and off the coast of North America. On June 30, 1701, Benbow was appointed vice admiral in the Grand Fleet under Sir George Rooke (see entry). On August 19, 1702, in a battle off Cartagena, Columbia, against the French, Benbow’s right leg was shattered by chain shot (two cannonballs or half-balls connected by a chain, used to destroy a ship’s rigging). Under pressure from his various captains, Benbow gave up the chase and returned to Jamaica. He ordered a court-martial of the captains for cowardice, and all were found guilty in 1703, two being sentenced to death. Before their trials took place, Benbow died from his wounds at Port Royal, Jamaica, and was buried in the chancel of St. Andrew’s Church, Kingston, Jamaica. Two battleships and a 74 gun ship of the line were named HMS Benbow in his honor. Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894) commemorated Benbow in his novel Treasure Island. The “Admiral Benbow” is the tavern where Jim Hawkins and his mother lived before it was attacked by pirates. Sources: “John Benbow” (June 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:01, July 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= John_Benbow&oldid=222581564. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/2076?docPos=1. “John Benbow.” Royal Navy Museum Library. www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_ john_benbow.htm.

BENITEZ, RAFAEL CELESTINO (1917–1999) (USA)

The son of a judge, Rafael Celestino Benitez was born and educated in Juncos on the Caribbean Island of Puerto Rico. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1939), and was assigned to submarine duty. During World War II, Benitez worked on submarines and survived several depth charge attacks. For his actions, he was awarded the Silver Star and Bronze Star medals. In 1946 he was lieutenant commander of the submarine USS Trumpetfish. He gained a law degree in June 1949 from Georgetown Law School, Washington, D.C. On August 12, 1949, during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, in command of the submarine USS Cochino off the coast of Norway, Benitez was involved in gathering intelligence by listening to Soviet communications. On August 25, one the Cochino’s 4,000-pound batteries caught fire, emitting dangerous gases. With

26 the exception of Robert Philo, a civilian sonar expert, the men of the Cochino were rescued by the submarine USS Tusk before the Cochino sank, although six of the crew of the Tusk died when their raft overturned. The Cochino sank in 950 feet of water 100 miles off Norway’s coast. By 1955, Benitez was rear admiral, commanding the destroyer USS Waldron. He retired from the Navy in 1959 and became vice president for Latin America’s Pan American World Airways. He was associate dean at the University of Miami Law School and dean of the university’s Graduate School of International Studies, where he introduced several innovative programs for law students. Among his awards were the Silver Star with a Gold Star in lieu of a second Silver Star Medal, and a Bronze Star. The Rafael C. Benitez Scholarship Fund was launched in 2000 by University of Miami School of Law to provide scholarships to foreign students. Sources: Obituary. New York Times, April 5, 1999. www.mishalov.com/Benitez.html. “Rafael Celestino Benitez” (July 16, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:31, July 20, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rafael_Celestino_Ben itez&oldid=225976297. Sontag, Sherry, Christopher Drew, and Annette Lawrence Drew. Blind Man’s Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage. New York: Public Affairs, 1998.

BENSON, ROY STANLEY (1906–1995) (USA)

Born in Concord, New Hampshire, Roy Stanley Benson graduated and was commissioned ensign from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1925. He was lieutenant junior grade (1932); lieutenant (1937); lieutenant commander (1942); commander (1943); captain (1945); and rear admiral (1956). He served most of his time on submarines, having completed a submarine instruction course at the New London Submarine Base in New London, Connecticut (1934). He was an instructor in navigation at the Naval Academy (1937– 1939). Benson served on three different submarines and was authorized to wear the Commendation Ribbon for his service as executive officer and navigator on board the submarine USS Nautilus (SS-168) during the Battle of Midway ( June 4–7, 1942) northwest of Hawaii. In 1943 he commanded Submarine Division 43, for which he was awarded the Legion of Merit. He was commandant of the First Naval District with additional duty as commander of the Boston Naval Base (1967–1969) when he retired. His Navy Cross citation states that Roy Benson “successfully conducted the mine laying operation and observed the destruction of one 8,400 ton enemy vessel from the mines laid by his subma-

27 rine. He then carried out aggressive and skillful torpedo attacks resulting in the sinking of 15,271 tons of enemy shipping” (Wikipedia). Among his other awards were the Navy Cross, a Gold Star in lieu of a second Navy Cross, a Silver Star medal, and a Gold Star in lieu of a second Silver Star medal. The submarine USS Trigger received the Presidential Unit Citation. Admiral Benson is interred at cemetery of the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland. Sources: Applied Mathematics, Inc. “Rear Admiral Roy Stanley Benson.” www.applmath.com/csds50/ pdfs/RADMRoyStanleyBenson.pdf. “Roy S. Benson” (June 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:24, July 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Roy_S._Benson&oldid=216621404.

BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER (1846–1919) (BRITAIN)

Charles William de la Poer Beresford, born at Philipstown, King’s County, Ireland, the second son of the fourth marquess of Waterford, started his training as a cadet at Britannia Training-ship (now the Britannia Royal Naval College) in 1859. He was midshipman (1862); commander (1875); captain (1882); rear admiral (1898); vice admiral (1902); and admiral (1906). He commanded the Channel Squadron (1903–1905); the Mediterranean Fleet (1905–1907); and the Channel Fleet (1907– 1909). He was opposed to the fleet reorganization policies of the first sea lord, John Fisher (see entry), and was ordered to haul down his flag. Their open feud split the navy into the Fisherite “fishpond” and the Beresfordian “syndicate of discontent.” From 1875 to 1876 he was aide-de-camp to the prince of Wales, later Edward VII (1841–1910). Beresford was second in command of the royal yacht HMS Osborne (1878–1881); captain of the gunboat HMS Condor when it took part in the bombardment of Alexandria during the AngloEgyptian War (1882); and part of the expedition to relieve General Charles Gordon (1883–1885), under siege at Khartoum during the Sudan (Mahdist) War (1885). Between 1874 and 1910, Beresford was several times Conservative member of Parliament, and was — in public and in Parliament—a frequent and outspoken critic of admiralty policy. Appointed fourth sea lord (1886), Berersford resigned (1888) over disagreement with admiralty policy. He retired in 1911 and received the Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath. In 1916, he became Baron Beresford of Metemmeh and of Curraghmore. He was made Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order, in the year he died, and was honored with a state funeral in St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. He was widely known to the British

Berkeley public as “Charlie B” and considered by many to be a kind of personification of John Bull, a national personification of the Kingdom of Great Britain. Sources: “Lord Charles Beresford” (June 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:31, July 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Lord_Charles_Beresford&oldid=221377731. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/30723?docPos=1.

BERESFORD, SIR JOHN POO (1766–1844) (BRITAIN)

Born possibly in Ireland, a natural son of Lord de la Poer, afterward first marquis of Waterford, John Poo Beresford entered the navy at age 16 on board the transport ship HMS Alexander. He was lieutenant (1790); acting captain (1794); rear admiral (1814); vice admiral (1825); and admiral (1838). In 1790, he joined the frigate HMS Lapwing, employed at Genoa and Turin, rescuing the English residents caught up in the French Revolutionary War (1792–1802). Beresford escaped in the disguise of a peasant. In command of the sloop Lynx, within a period of three months, he rescued the frigate Thetis from two French ships and captured a powerful French privateer (see Banckert, Adriaen). In command of the frigate Hussar, he captured two French store ships in Hampton Roads (a body of water and the surrounding region of land) in Virginia. The year 1797 in the Bahamas was a successful one for Beresford in the Raison (one of the ships he had captured in 1794); he captured a large and rich Spanish ship, drove another on shore, and added several other prizes to his list. On April 24, 1814, in command of the yacht Royal Sovereign, Beresford had the honor of carrying Louis XVIII of France to Calais; a month later he was created a baronet. In 1815 Beresford received the order of the Tower and Sword from prince regent of Portugal. He was made a Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1819), and was awarded the Grand Cross of the Hanoverian Guelphic Order (1836). From 1809 to 1835 Beresford was a member of Parliament for different constituencies and was appointed a junior lord of the Admiralty (1835). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2197.

BERKELEY, GEORGE CRANFIELD (1753–1818) (BRITAIN)

George Cranfield Berkeley was the second surviving son of Augustus Berkeley, fourth earl of Berkeley (1715/16–1755), and grandson of James

Berkeley Berkeley (see entry). He entered the navy in 1766 on board the yacht Mary under the flag of his cousin, Augustus Keppel (see entry). Berkeley was promoted lieutenant in 1772 and in 1774 was nominated by Admiral Keppel as a lieutenant of HMS Victory (1778). He was at the Battle of Ushant ( July 27, 1778), fought 100 miles west of the French island Ushant, between French and British fleets during the American Revolution (1775–1783). In 1779, in command of the sloop Fairy, he captured nine French privateers off Newfoundland, and in 1781, in command of the frigate Vestal, he was present at the second relief of Gibraltar (October 11, 1782) led by George Darby (see entry). At the third relief of Gibraltar, February 1783, he commanded the frigate Recovery in the fleet under Samuel Barrington and Richard Howe (see entries). Berkeley was appointed rear admiral (1799) and vice admiral (1805). On June 22, 1807, Berkeley, in command of HMS Leopard (50 guns), attacked the American Chesapeake (38 guns) for taking British deserters on board; this was the cause of the AngloAmerican War of 1812–1814. Although his action met with public approval, he was recalled to Britain. From 1808 to 1812 he was chief command on the coast of Portugal and in the River Tagus, Spain, and gave naval support to the Duke of Wellington in his Peninsular Campaign (1808–1814) against Napoleon Bonaparte. He was promoted to admiral (1812), and in acknowledgement of his services to Portugal, was named lord high admiral of Portugal. He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1813), and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1815). Before he retired from public life, for twenty-seven years (1783–1810) he represented Gloucestershire in Parliament. Sources: “Berkeley, Sir George Cranfield.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography. www.biographi.ca/EN/ ShowBio.asp?BioId=36384. “Chesapeake-Leopard Affair” (July 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:24, July 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Chesapeake-Leopard_Affair& oldid=222808450. “George Cranfield-Berkeley” (May 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:58, July 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=George_Cranfield-Berkeley&oldid=214 820685. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2213.

BERKELEY, JAMES (1680–1736) (BRITAIN)

James Berkeley was the second son of Charles, the second earl of Berkeley. Appointed captain of HMS Boyne, an 80-gun ship of the line, he joined Sir George Rooke (see entry) in the Mediterranean and

28 was at the battle of Malaga, Spain (August 13, 1704), during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) between Anglo-Dutch and FrancoSpanish fleets. He was in the Mediterranean in command of HMS St. George, with Sir Clowdisley Shovell (see entry) on his flagship HMS Association, at the siege of the French naval base at Toulon in August 1707. On the return journey, on October 23, 1707, the Association struck the Outer Gilstone Rock off the Isles of Scilly, to the southwest of England, and was wrecked. Losses included the entire crew of Admiral Shovell, about 800 men, and three other ships (including the HMS Eagle and HMS Romney). The St. George ran aground on the same ledge but was lifted off with the next wave. Berkeley was promoted to vice admiral in 1797. He recaptured the HMS Bristol, taken while guarding a convoy, from the French on April 9, 1709, but she sank shortly afterward. In 1717, he was made first lord of the admiralty, vice admiral of Great Britain and a member of the Privy Council (a body of advisors to the British sovereign). He was created a Knight of the Garter (a medieval English order of chivalry or knighthood, and the pinnacle of the British honors system) in 1718. He was dismissed as first lord of the admiralty in 1727 for opposing Sir Robert Walpole (1676–1745), regarded as having been the first prime minister of Great Britain. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2216?docPos=3.

BERKELEY, JOHN (1663–1697) (BRITAIN)

John Berkeley, second son of John Berkeley, first Baron Berkeley of Stratton (baptized 1607, died 1678), was appointed first lieutenant of the Bristol in 1685. He was also a major of the third troop of John Churchill’s Horse Guards Regiment. By 1686 he was captain of the Charles Galley in the Mediterranean. He was rear admiral (1688) and vice admiral (1689). He was vice admiral under Arthur Herbert (see entry) at the inconclusive Battle of Bantry Bay, Ireland (May 11, 1689), during the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697). The French fleet supported the return of the deposed James II against William of Orange. Berkeley is known more for his jealous temper and domineering disposition than for his naval victories. He had a personal animosity toward Sir George Rooke (see entry). He refused to serve under Rooke, and seemed to suffer pique that Rooke was given command of the Mediterranean fleet. The situation was resolved in 1696 when Rooke, by this time one of the lords of the

29 admiralty, was summoned to London, and the commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet remained with Berkeley. He succeeded to the title Third Baron Berkeley of Stratton in 1681 upon the death of his elder brother Charles, a captain in the navy. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2218?docPos=2.

BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM (1639–1666) (BRITAIN)

William Berkeley, the third son of Sir Charles Berkeley of Bruton, Somerset, was appointed lieutenant in 1661, and in 1663 he commanded the Bristol in the Mediterranean squadron under Sir John Lawson (see entry), engaged in one of the many abortive attempts to persuade Ismail Pasha, the dey (ruler), and the divan (council) of Algiers to stop attacking English ships. The year 1664 was a significant one for Berkeley: he took command of the Resolution, was knighted, and was promoted to rear admiral. Berkeley was at the Battle of Lowestoft off the Suffolk coast of England on June 13, 1665. There are mixed accounts of his conduct there. His younger brother, Sir Charles, who volunteered for service in the royal fleet (he was a courtier, not a sailor), was killed by a cannon shot in the first battle of Lowestoft on June 3 and was buried in the Chapel of St. John the Baptist in Westminster Abbey, London. One account says that William Berkeley, with a squadron of six ships, chased nine of the runaway Dutch ships. Another account is that he gave up the fight. Whatever the truth, after the battle he was appointed lieutenant governor of the town and garrison of Portsmouth. He died fighting the Dutch at the Battle of St. James’ Day (August 4–5, 1666) during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667). His body was respectfully embalmed by the Dutch, sent to England and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The Westminster Guide gives the following information: “Berkeley, Vice Admiral Sir William, 1639–1666, Buried in North Ambulatory, but memorial not visible. Berkeley was a very young, and newly promoted, admiral at the Four Days Fight against the Dutch; he was shot by a musket-ball during a ferocious action defending his HMS Swiftsure and later buried here in the Abbey.” Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2224?docPos=3 “Official Guide,” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition.

Bertie BERRY, SIR JOHN (1635–1690) (BRITAIN)

John Berry, born in Knoweston, near Ilfracombe, North Devon, joined the merchant service in 1652 and the Royal Navy as a boatswain in 1663. Within a short time he was promoted to lieutenant of the Swallow. He assisted in capturing a pirate of superior force and took command of the Swallow (1665). In 1667, then a captain in command of the 56-gun Coronation and commander of a squadron of ships from Barbados, West Indies, he conquered a combined force of French and Dutch ships. On May 28, 1672, Berry commanded the Resolution in the hard-fought Battle of Sole Bay, which marked the opening of the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672– 1674), near Southwold in Suffolk, on the east coast of England. Following this action, Berry was knighted by Charles II. Some merchants in the English West Country disliked having settlers in Newfoundland; they said the settlers were bad for the fishery. In 1675, they convinced the English government to remove the settlers from the island, either to return to England or to move elsewhere within the American colonies. Berry commanded the Newfoundland convoy, an annual event to protect the Newfoundland fishing fleet from European attacks. Berry had the task of enforcing the compulsory move. He intervened and made two reports to the British government. He was instrumental in ending the West Country monopoly in Newfoundland and in the eventual reversal of British policy. Berry was appointed a commissioner for Virginia in 1677, presumably in recognition of his Newfoundland achievements. By 1683 he was vice admiral, and from 1684 he served as one of the navy commissioners. Sources: “Berry, Sir John.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography. www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId= 34181. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2265. “Sir John and Lady Berry.” Portrait Gallery of Canada. www.portraits. gc.ca/009001-1300.2-e.html. “Fishing Admirals.” Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage. www.heritage.nf.ca/ law/admirals.html.

BERTIE, SIR ALBEMARLE (1755–1824) (BRITAIN)

Nothing is known of Albemarle Bertie’s career before he was promoted to lieutenant on December 20, 1777, and was first lieutenant of the Fox in the Battle of Ushant ( July 27, 1778) (see Berkeley, George). On September 10, 1778, the Fox was captured by the Junon, a French frigate. Bertie, with the other officers and the ship’s company, became a prisoner of war. He was able, however, to return to England in January 1779 to give evidence on the

Bertie trials of Augustus Keppel and Sir Hugh Palliser (see entries) for their part in the Battle of Ushant; his evidence told heavily against Palliser, who was dismissed. Bertie had a succession of commands and was made rear admiral (1804) and vice admiral (1808). In October 1810, he joined the East Indian squadron in the Africaine frigate in the attack on Mauritius — to free the island from French harassment. Mauritius surrendered on December 3, 1810. Bertie was knighted in 1812, became admiral by seniority on 4 June 1814, and was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath in 1815. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2272. “Sir Albemarle Bertie, 1st Baronet” (May 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:13, July 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sir_Albemarle_Ber tie%2C_1st_Baronet&oldid=214353664.

BERTIE, SIR THOMAS (1758–1825) (BRITAIN)

Thomas Bertie’s name was originally Hoare, but on 20 May 1788 he married Catherine Dorothy, daughter of Peregrine Bertie, Esq., whose name he assumed, in accordance with the terms of Bertie’s will. Entering the navy in 1773 on board the Seahorse, he made friends with two messmates, Horatio Nelson (see entry) and Thomas Troubridge (1758?–1807), and remained so until they died. Bertie was at the Battle of Ushant (see Berkeley, George) on July 27, 1778, aboard the Monarch and was a lieutenant during the Battle of Grenada ( July 6, 1779) during the American Revolution (1775– 1783) in the West Indies between the British Royal Navy and the French Navy. He was promoted to commander (1782) and to captain (1790). He served under Sir Hyde Parker (1739–1807) on the man-of-war the Ardent as part of Nelson’s fleet at the Battle of Copenhagen (April 2, 1801). Early on the morning after the action, Lord Nelson went on board the Ardent to thank her commander, officers, and men for their conduct and exertions. Bertie was promoted to rear admiral (1808) and served on active duty in the Baltic until 19 February 1810, when he was forced by ill health to strike his flag and go on shore. In June 1813 he was knighted and received royal permission to accept and wear the insignia of the Swedish Order of the Sword. He became vice admiral in 1813 and admiral two months before he died. Bertie (Hoar) introduced the lifebuoy into the navy in 1778. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2278.

30 BETANCOURT, JOSE LUIS (1949–) (USA)

Born in Matamoros, Mexico, and raised Brownsville, Texas, Jose Luis Betancourt graduated in English and Spanish from Texas-Pan American University, Edinburg, New York, and from the Industrial College of the Armed Forces in Washington, D.C. He gained a master’s degree from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, then taught in public schools in south Texas. He was commissioned in the U.S. Navy from Officer Candidate School in March 1972 during the Vietnam War (1959–1975). He was rear admiral, one-star in 1998 and two-star in 2001. He has served as commander, Mine Warfare Command, headquartered at various naval air stations. He was commanding officer of the destroyer USS Merrill (DD 976) deployed to the Persian Gulf during Operation Desert Storm, the First Gulf War (August 2, 1990, to February 28, 1991), where his ship served as flagship and was involved in clearing mines. He has served at International Military Staff at NATO headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. He retired in 2005 as commander of the Navy Region Southwest. Among his awards are the Defense Superior Service Medal, Legion of Merit, Bronze Star, Meritorious Service Medal, Navy Commendation Medal, and Humanitarian Service Medal. In August 2007, Betancourt was charged with breaking federal law by seeking a $300 million contract with the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command for a company for which he was a consultant. He was fined $15,000 with a one year probation. A month later, Betancourt agreed to resign as chief administrative officer with the San Diego Unified School District in exchange for six months of compensation totaling $100,406. Sources: “Commencement Speaker and Distinguished Alumnus: Jose Luis Betancourt, Jr.” University of Texas at Brownsville. http://pubs.utb.edu/Commence ment/2005Spring/DAABetancourt.pdf. “Jose Betancourt.” The Official Site for the Medal of Honor. www. medalofhonor.com/JoseBetancourt.htm. “United States Navy Biography: Rear Admiral Jose Luis Betancourt, Jr.” Navy.mil. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/bio.asp? bioID=41. “Schools Exec Resigns Post for $100,406 from District.” SignOnSanDiego.com. www.signonsan diego.com/news/education/20070823-9999–1m23jose. html. “News Release, Office of the United States Attorney, Southern District of California.” United States Department of Justice. www.usdoj.gov/usao/cas/press/ cas70711-Betancourt.pdf.

BHAGWAT, VISHNU (INDIA)

Vishnu Bhagwat graduated from the National Defense Academy and was commissioned into the

31 Indian Navy on January 1, 1960. He was engaged in the 1961 Goa Liberation Operations (freeing Goa from Portuguese control), and during the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war his ship was in the escort groups for missile boats. A specialist in communication and electronic warfare, Bhagwat commissioned the guided missile destroyer INS Ranjit in September 1983 and was in command for 21 ⁄ 2 years. On promotion to rear admiral in 1988 he served as additional director, general defense planning staff, chief of staff of Western Naval Command and commanded the Eastern Fleet. He was deputy chief of the naval staff for two years at the naval headquarters. Bhagwat was a recipient of Ati Vishisht Seva Medal in 1986 and of the Param Vishisht Seva Medal in 1996. Admiral Bhagwat was sacked on 30 December 1998 under Article 310 of the Constitution of India, for refusing to accept the cabinet’s appointment of Vice Admiral Harinder Singh as deputy chief of the naval staff, and aired his grievance in public. His appeal against his dismissal was rejected by the Supreme Court of India and his title of admiral was taken from him. Bhagwat is the only chief of independent India who has refused to carry out the orders of a legitimate government and is the first and only chief of naval staff who was sacked while still serving. Sources: “Glimpses: Admiral Vishnu Baghwat.” Bharat Rakshak: Indian Navy. www.bharat-rakshak. com/NAVY/Navy-Chiefs/Chiefs-Navy17.html. “Navy Chief Admiral Vishnu Bhagwat Sacked; Wife Blames ‘Communal Politics,’” Rediff India Abroad, December 30, 1998. www.rediff.com/news/1998/dec/30navy.htm. “Why Was Bhagwat Sacked?” Rediff India Abroad, January 9, 1999, www.rediff.com/news/1999/jan/09nayar. htm. “Supreme Council Dismisses Bhagwat’s Petition Against Fernandes.” Dailyexcelsior.com. www.dailyexce lsior.com/00aug19/national.htm#1. “Vishnu Bhagwat” (February 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:43, July 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Vishnu_Bhagwat&oldid=18832 8306.

BICKERTON, SIR RICHARD HUSSEY (1759–1832) (BRITAIN)

Richard Hussey Bickerton, son of Vice Admiral Sir Richard Bickerton (1727–1792), entered the navy at age 12 and served with his father until 1774. He was made lieutenant in the Prince George in 1777. In 1778, on board the 50 gun Jupiter, in company with the frigate Medea, he had an inconclusive battle with the French 64-gun Triton on the coast of Portugal. Between then and 1798 he commanded several ships in the English Channel, the West Indies, Newfoundland, and the North Sea Fleet. He succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his father (1792). He became rear admiral in

Black 1799 and hoisted his flag at Portsmouth as assistant to the port admiral. In May 1800, with his flag on board the 74-gun Swiftsure (captured by the French in 1801 and recaptured by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805), Bickerton had the immediate command of the blockade of Cadiz during the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815). For his services in helping to blockade Egypt from Napoleon’s army, the sultan rewarded him with the Order of the Crescent, ceremoniously invested by the Capitan Pasha (the chief admiral of the Turkish fleet) on October 8, 1801. Bickerton was second in command under Horatio Nelson (see entry) during 1804 and 1805 in the blockade of Toulon, then commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1805–1812). His active service ended after the grand review (1814) in the Solent, off Spithead, Hampshire, at which he commanded in the second post under the Duke of Clarence (1864–1892, eldest son of Edward VII). Bickerton was vice admiral (1805); admiral (1810); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); lieutenant general of Marines (1818); and succeeded William IV as general of Marines in June 1830. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2351?docPos=2.

BLACK, BARRY C. (1948–) (USA)

Born in the inner city of Baltimore, Maryland, Barry Black gained a bachelor of arts in theology from Oakwood College in Huntsville, Alabama (1970); a master’s in theology from Andrews Theological Seminary at Berrien Springs, Michigan (1973); a master’s in counseling from Oakwood College (1978); a master’s in management and a doctorate in ministry (1989); and a Ph.D. in psychology (1996). He holds an honorary doctorate in divinity. He was pastor of several churches in North Carolina and South Carolina before joining the U.S. Navy in 1976, and for the next 27 years, he held several posts in the navy, rising to the rank of rear admiral. He was deputy chief of chaplains in 1997 and chief of navy chaplains in 2000. He had pastoral responsibility for all different religious persuasions in the U.S. Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard. In June 2003, Black was appointed by the United States President Bill Clinton as the 62nd chaplain to the United States Senate; he was the first Seventh Day Adventist, the first military chaplain and the first African American to fill the position. He opens each Senate session with prayer, and he supports all personnel on Capitol Hill. His flair for languages includes several European languages as well as Japanese and Korean. His awards

Blackwood include U.S. Navy, Navy and Marine Corps Commendation medals (1985); U.S. Navy, Meritorious Service Medal (1994 and 1988); U.S. Navy, Defense Meritorious Service Medal (1996 and 2001); U.S. Navy, Legion of Merit, 1997; U.S. Navy, Distinguished Service Medal, 2002. Sources: “Barry C. Black.” United States Senate Website. www.senate.gov/reference/common/person/barry_ black.htm. “Barry C. Black Biography.” African American Biographies Vol. 1. http://biography.jrank.org/ pages/2332/Black-Barry-C.html. “Barry C. Black” (June 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:49, July 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Barry_Black&oldid=220767051.

BLACKWOOD, SIR HENRY (1770–1832) (BRITAIN)

The son of Sir John Blackwood of Ballyleidy, County Down, Ireland, Henry Blackwood entered the Royal Navy at age eleven on board the frigate Artois and was at the inconclusive Battle of Dogger Bank on August 5, 1781, between the British and Dutch fleets, during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780–1784), part of the American Revolution (1775–1783). In 1790 he was signal midshipman on board the Queen Charlotte with Richard Howe (see entry), by whom he was made lieutenant (1790). He was promoted to first lieutenant (1794) of the Invincible and to captain (1795) of the 28gun frigate Brilliant. Horatio Nelson wrote a letter of commendation to Blackwood from Palermo on his success in destroying the French 80-gun Guillaume Tell while in command of the 36-gun frigate Penelope on March 30–31, 1800, off Malta. At the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), Nelson ordered Blackwood to return to the Euryalus from the Victory and gave him the command of all the frigates for the purpose of assisting disabled ships; Nelson shook his hand and said, “God bless you, Blackwood, I shall never speak to you again” (Dictionary of National Biography). Blackwood was train-bearer of the chief mourner, Sir Peter Parker (see entry), the eighty-four-yearold admiral of the fleet at Nelson’s funeral (8 January 1806). Blackwood was created a baronet and made rear admiral (1814); made a Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1919); and named vice admiral (1825). He was commander-in-chief at The Nore (1827–1830). He died at Ballyleidy, County Down, Ireland, the seat of his eldest brother, Lord Dufferin and Clanboye. His memorial is in the St. John’s Church, Killyleagh, County Down, Ireland. Sources: “Henry Blackwood” (September 11, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:23, July 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Henry_Blackwood&oldid=157187697. Oxford

32 Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/2548. “Sir Henry Blackwood.” Irish Secrets. www.irishsecrets.ie/history-secrets/promin ent-people/sir-henry-blackwood.php.

BLAIR, DENNIS C. (1946–) (USA)

Born in Kittery, Maine, Dennis C. Blair graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1968. As a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University, England, he earned a master’s degree in history and languages, majoring in Russian studies. He served as a White House fellow at the Department of Housing and Urban Development (1975–1976). During his 34-year Navy career he served aboard the guided missile destroyer USS Tattnall (DDG-19) and commanded the guided missile destroyer USS Cochrane (DDG-15), home ported in Yokosuka, Japan. He also commanded Naval Station Pearl Harbor and the USS Kitty Hawk Strike Group. Kitty Hawk is one of 12 aircraft carriers in the American naval fleet and the only permanently forward deployed aircraft carrier. Ashore, Blair served in budget and policy positions on several major Navy staffs, including the joint staff, and the National Security Council staff. He was also the first associate director of central intelligence for military support. His last job in the military was commander-in-chief of U.S. Pacific Command, the highest ranking officer over all U.S. forces in the Asia-Pacific region. Blair has been awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal four times and the National Intelligence Distinguished Service Medal twice, and has received decorations from the governments of Japan, Thailand, Korea and Australia. He retired from the U.S. Navy in 2002. In 2006, because of a conflict of interest, he resigned from the board of directors of EDO Corporation, a subcontractor for the F-22 Raptor program (a fifth generation fighter aircraft that utilizes fourth generation Stealth technology). In June 2007 Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and the U.S. Army War College announced that Blair was named to the General of the Army Omar N. Bradley Chair in Strategic Leadership for the 2007– 2008 academic year, conducting seminars at both colleges. Sources: “Dennis C. Blair” (April 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:31, July 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Dennis_C._Blair&oldid=209073515. “Former Commander of U.S. Pacific Command to join Dickinson College, U.S. Army War College.” Dickinson College News, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, June 10, 2007. www.colle genews.org/x7110.xml. Smith, R. Jeffrey. “Ret. Admiral to Resign from Board, Senators Questioned Blair’s

33 Dual Role in F-22 Studies.” Washington Post, July 27, 2006, p. D-02. www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/ content/article/2006/07/26/AR2006072601708.html. _____. “Defense Institute Head Resigns, Seats on Contractors’ Boards Seen as Conflict of Interest.” Washington Post, Sept. 13, 2006, p. D-03. www.washington post.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/12/AR20 06091201415_pf.html.

BLAKE, ROBERT (1599–1657) (BRITAIN)

Born at Bridgwater, Somerset, England, Robert Blake—often referred to as the “Father of the Royal Navy”—graduated from Wadham College, Oxford University, in 1625. In 1640 he was elected to the Short Parliament (so called because it lasted only three weeks) for his home town. A staunch Puritan, he joined the Parliamentarians against King Charles I at the outbreak of the English Civil War (1642–1651). He won fame as a general, defending Lyme Regis, Dorset (1644), and by holding Taunton, Somerset, from its besiegers for more than a year (1644–1645). In 1649 Blake was appointed one of three “generals at sea” to command the navy (equivalent to the rank of admiral). In November 1650, Blake annihilated the small royalist fleet of Prince Rupert (grandson of King James I) at Cartagena, Spain, having captured several Portuguese ships on the way. In May 1651, aided by Sir George Ayscue (see entry) he captured the Scilly Isles off southwestern England from the royalists. During the First AngloDutch War (1652–1654), Blake won decisive victories at the Battle of the Kentish Knock (September 1652) and Battle of the Gabbard ( June 1653), both in the North Sea, against Admiral Maarten Tromp (see entry). In April 1655 at Porto Farina on the Gulf of Tunis, Blake destroyed a fleet of the Barbary pirates (sometimes called Ottoman corsairs, these pirates and privateers operated out of Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Salé and ports in Morocco, preying on Christian and non–Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea from the time of the Crusades until the early 19th century). In 1656, while blockading Cadiz, he aided in the capture of a Spanish treasure fleet said to be worth nearly two million pounds. In April 1657, he destroyed the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in the Canary Islands without losing a single ship. He died one hour before his victorious fleet entered Plymouth Sound. After a full state funeral, Blake’s body was placed in a vault in Henry VII’s chapel in Westminster Abbey. After the Restoration (1660) his corpse was exhumed in 1661, along with those of other republican leaders, and buried in the churchyard north of the abbey. In 1945 a memorial was placed in the South Choir Aisle. A series of ships in the Royal Navy have carried the name HMS Blake in honor

Blanco of the admiral. A statue of Admiral Blake was erected in Bridgewater in 1900. Blake’s Sailing Instructions and Fighting Instructions, major overhauls of naval tactics, written while recovering from injury in 1653, were the foundation of English naval tactics in the Age of Sail. He also was responsible for introducing the articles of war, which became the basis of naval discipline. Sources: “Robert Blake.” British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Protectorate. www.british-civil-wars.co. uk/biog/blake.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2582? docPos=2. “Robert Blake” (July 10, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:05, July 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rob ert_Blake_%28admiral%29&oldid=224894478. “Blake Museum, Bridgewater, Somerset.” Sedgemoor in Somerset. www.sedgemoor.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid= 3538. “Official Guide.” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition.

BLANCO, LUIS CARRERO (1903–1973) (SPAIN)

Luis Carrero Blanco entered the Escuela Naval Militar, the Spanish Naval Academy, at Marín, Pontevedra, in northwestern Spain in 1918. Between 1924 and 1926, he was involved in the Second Moroccan War (1921–1927) between the Moorish rebels under Abd-el-Krim and the Spanish forces under Director Primo Rivera. In July 1936, at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War ( July 17, 1936 to April 1, 1939) Blanco was forced to take refuge in the embassies of Mexico and France until he was able to reach the Nationalist side in June 1937. Blanco was chief of naval operations under General Franco (1892–1975) and was opposed to aligning Spain against either the Allies or the Axis powers in World War II (1939–1945), a position that put him at variance with some other politicians. Blanco was a devout Roman Catholic and was the chief patron of the powerful Catholic pressure group Opus Dei (an organization that emphasizes the Catholic belief that everyone is called to holiness and that ordinary life is a path to sanctity) within the Franco government. Blanco became a minister in Franco’s regime in 1957. He was made vice admiral (1963); admiral (1966); vice-president of the state council (1967–1973); prime minister of Spain ( June 1973); and top deputy to Franco. The expectation was that he would succeed the ailing Franco, but four Basque members of ETA (Basque Fatherland and Freedom) assassinated him on 20 December 1973 by bombing his armored car when he was returning from Mass. The murder was in retaliation for the execution of five opponents of the Franco regime.

Blankett Sources: “Luis Carrero Blanco” (June 12, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:02, July 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Luis_Carrero_Blanco&oldid=218952129. “Operation Ogre: The Assassination of Carrero Blanco.” A Dictionary of Spanish History and Culture. http://iberianature. com/spain_culture/culture-and-history-of-spain-o/ operation-ogre. “Spanish Prime Minister Assassinated.” BBC Home: On This Day. http://news.bbc.co.uk/on thisday/hi/dates/stories/december/20/newsid_2539000 /2539129.stm.

BLANKETT, JOHN (1740?–1801) (BRITAIN)

The earliest account of John Blankett is that he served as a midshipman in the Royal Navy during the French and Indian War of North America (1754–1763). He was present in the Somerset with Edward Hughes (see entry) at the Battle of Louisbourg ( July 26, 1758), Nova Scotia, and the Battle of Quebec (September 13, 1759). He was lieutenant (1761) and in 1763 was convicted of murder in Gibraltar but reprieved. In 1770, he was lieutenant of the Albion with Captain Samuel Barrington (see entry). In 1778 he was first lieutenant of the Victory, then carrying the flag of Augustus Keppel (see entry), and was made commander (1779). After the Treaty of Paris (1783), which formally ended the American Revolution, Blankett commanded the frigate Thetis in the Mediterranean. The king of Naples sailed with him several times and in gratitude presented him a royal portrait set in diamonds. In 1795, as commodore of a small squadron, he was present at the occupation of Cape Colony, the future South Africa. He became rear admiral (1799) and in 1800, while at Bombay (Mumbai), he captured the Clarisse, a very active French privateer that had been the terror of the commerce of the Indian seas. He died on board the Leopard near Mocha, Yemen. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2624.

BLAS DE LEZO Y OLAVARRIETA (1689–1741) (SPAIN)

Born in San Pedro, Pasaia, Guipuscoa, Spain, Blas de Lezo y Olavarrieta was a midshipman in the French navy in 1701. He lost his left leg during the Battle of Vélez Málaga, the largest naval battle in the war, south of Málaga, Spain (August 24, 1704). The battle took place three years into the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), when the Franco-Spanish fleet defeated the combined forces of England and Netherlands; after the battle he was promoted to lieutenant. At the Battle of Toulon ( July 29–August 21, 1707) the forces of

34 Austria, the Dutch Republic and Great Britain fought with the French, Spanish and Savoy forces, and here Blas de Lezo lost his left eye. The French side won. In 1713 he was promoted to captain and a year later at the Siege of Barcelona he lost his right arm. For all these losses, he was sometimes called “halfman,” or “wooden-leg.” On February 16, 1723 — when the War of Spanish Succession ended — he command of the flagship Lanfranco, and as general of the South Seas Fleet he was highly successful against British and Dutch pirates operating along the Pacific coasts of the Americas, capturing twelve ships in the process. In 1730 as chief of the Mediterranean Fleet he besieged the city of Genoa because the Bank of San Jorge was refusing to pay two million pesos owed to Spain. They paid up and he demanded that the city salute the Spanish flag. In 1732, on board the Santiago, he and army Commander José Carrillo de Albornoz (1671–1747) commanded a huge fleet and recaptured Oran (a city in northwestern Algeria) with 54 ships and 30,000 men from the Ottoman Empire. He then carried out a blockade that prevented the Algerians from receiving reinforcements from Turkey. King Philip V (reigned 1724–1745) made him general lieutenant of the navy (1734). In 1741 he defeated Sir Edward Vernon (1723–1794) in the Battle of Cartagena that lasted from March to May 1741) (see Samuel Cornish) during the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748); after this the Spanish Empire in the Americas was assured for many years. He died at Cartagena from an infected bullet wound to his good arm. It is not known where he was buried. Sources: “Blas de Lezo” (July 9, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:22, August 4, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blas_de_Lezo &oldid=224572149.

BLIGH, SIR RICHARD RODNEY (1737–1821) (BRITAIN)

It is uncertain where Richard Rodney Bligh was born, though he was baptized in Holy Trinity Church, Gosport, and entered the Royal Navy about 1750–1751. He was a midshipman of the Ramillies with John Byng (see entry) at the battle of Minorca on May 20, 1756, the opening sea battle of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). He was made lieutenant soon after 1756 and commander in 1762. In 1782 he commanded the Asia under Richard Howe (see entry) at the relief of Gibraltar. On November 6, 1794, during the FrancoBritish War (1793–1802), he was rear admiral in command of the Alexander, accompanied by the Canada, when the two ships encountered a French

35 squadron of five 74-gun ships, three frigates, and a brig. The Canada escaped, but the Alexander, in spite of stout resistance and being in an almost sinking condition, was captured and taken into Brest. On his return to England in May 1795, Bligh was tried by court-martial for the loss of the Alexander but was honorably acquitted. He was vice-admiral (1799) and admiral (1804). In 1815, Bligh — after 64 years of service — was aggrieved when eighty naval officers were made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath, and he had been passed over. In 1820, Bligh was invested with the Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2648.

BLIGH, WILLIAM (1754–1817) (BRITAIN)

William Bligh, from Plymouth (some sources say he was from Cornwall), joined the Royal Navy in 1761 and was midshipman (1771); lieutenant (1781); commander (1790); captain (1796); rear admiral (1811); and vice admiral (1814). In 1776, Bligh was sailing master on the Resolution and accompanied Captain James Cook (1728–1779) on Cook’s third and fatal voyage to the Pacific. In August 1781, Bligh fought in the Battle of Dogger Bank under Hyde Parker (1784?–1854) and with Richard Howe (see entry) at Gibraltar (1782). Between 1783 and 1787, Bligh was a captain in the merchant service. In 1787 he commanded HMAV (Her/His Majesty’s Armed Vessel) Bounty. The object of the voyage was to obtain breadfruit plants to see if they would grow in the West India. After ten months, the Bounty arrived at Otaheite (Tahiti), and on the journey to the West Indies, Bligh’s hot temper and overbearing conduct resulted in a mutiny under the leadership of Fletcher Christian. On April 28, 1789, Bligh and eighteen of his crew were cast adrift in an open boat with a small amount of provisions but no chart. After sailing 3,618 miles, they reached the island of Timor at the south end of the Malay Archipelago on June 14, 1789. Bligh returned to England on March 14, 1790; the mutineers settled on Pitcairn Island, where their descendants still live. Lord George Gordon Byron’s (1788–1824) poem The Island tells the story of the relationship of the mutineers with the women of the island. Bligh was at the Battle of Ushant on July 27, 1778, and Battle of Camperdown, The Netherlands, on October 11, 1797. In May-June 1797 the anchorage adjoining the Nore experienced a mutiny in the British Royal Navy fleet then lying there; Bligh addressed the mutineers. Bligh was awarded

Boorda the gold medal of the Society of Arts (1794) and in 1801 was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was captain general and governor of New South Wales, Australia (1805–1808), but both his civil and military subordinates strongly resented his harsh exercise of authority. He was forcibly deposed by Major George Johnston (1764–1823) of the 102nd Foot in what is known as the “Rum Rebellion,” so called because the New South Wales Corps, commanded by Johnston, was also known as The Rum Corps. Bligh was imprisoned until March 1810. Johnston was tried at Chelsea Hospital in 1811 and was dismissed from the Army. Mutiny on the Bounty is the title of a book published in 1932 and a 1935 film based on the book. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2650. “Vice Admiral William Bligh.” The Parish Magazine of St. Tudy [Cornwall], November 2007. Village of St. Tudy. www. sttudy.org.uk/Bligh/bligh.htm. “William Bligh” (July 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:55, July 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=William_Bligh&oldid=226927722.

BOORDA, JEREMY MICHAEL (1939–1996) (USA)

Jeremy Michael Boorda, born in South Bend, Indiana, rose from an enlisted man in 1956 to commissioned rank in 1962, then to vice admiral and chief of naval personnel and deputy chief of naval operations for manpower, personnel and training in 1988, and to four star admiral in 1991. In 1971, he attended the U.S. Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, and gained a bachelor of arts from the University of Rhode Island. During the Vietnam War (1959–1975) he was promoted from ensign to lieutenant to commander, although he did not engage in combat. In December 1991, Boorda became commander-in-chief, Allied Forces Southern Europe (CINCSOUTH, Naples, Italy) and commander-in-chief, U.S. Naval Forces, Europe (CINCUSNAVEUR, London). As CINCSOUTH, he had command of all NATO forces whose task was to enforce United Nations sanctions during Yugoslav wars (1991–2001). From February 1, 1993, Boorda was commander, Joint Task Force Provide Promise, whose task was to air drop humanitarian relief to the people of Bosnia-Herzegovina and to keep up supplies to United Nations troops throughout the Baltic zone of operations. He was involved in the first offensive action in the history of the United Nations when NATO planes attacked Bosnian-Serb fighters for violating a U.N. “no-fly” zone. On April 23, 1994, he became the 25th chief of naval operations, the first

Boscawen who wasn’t a graduate of the United States Naval Academy. His military awards included the Defense Distinguished Service Medal; Navy Distinguished Service Medal (3); Legion of Merit (3); and Meritorious Service Medal (2). Admiral Boorda died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest (although the post-mortem results have never been made public, nor the contents of two reported suicide notes), following news media investigation into his entitlement to wear Valor device enhancements (small brass V’s, signifying valor in combat) on his Navy Achievement Medal and a Navy Commendation Medal. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. Sources: “Boorda, Jeremy Michael” (2008). In Britannica Book of the Year, 1997. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://orig inal.britannica.com/eb/article-9113076. “Jeremy Michael Boorda” (July 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:46, July 22, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeremy_Michael_Boorda &oldid=226369891. “Jeremy Michael Boorda.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery. net/borda.htm.

BOSCAWEN, EDWARD (1711–1761) (BRITAIN)

Edward Boscawen — sometimes called “Wrynecked Dick” from a habit of cocking his head to one side; more commonly known as “Old Dreadnought”— was the son of Hugh Boscawen, 1st Viscount Falmouth, Cornwall. He was a midshipman in late 1727, then was lieutenant (1732); rear admiral (1747); vice admiral (1755); and admiral (1758). He was in the West Indies during the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748), which arose when Robert Jenkins, captain of the Rebecca, claimed that the Spanish coast guard had severed his ear. Boscawen distinguished himself during the sieges of the Spanish strongholds at Porto Bello (Portobelo, Panama) and Cartagena (Colombia), taking part in their destruction, but without winning the battle. He took command of the 60-gun Prince Frederick and left the West Indies on May 1742. In April 1744 in command of the 60-gun Dreadnought, he captured the French frigate Médée in the English Channel, in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). In May 1747, Boscawen was severely wounded in the shoulder by a musket ball in action against the French off Cape Finisterre (see Anson, George). He was given command of a squadron with secret orders to intercept all French reinforcements in America. Part of this turned out to be the removal of the French colonists from Acadia (Nova Scotia) in 1755. On his return to England, Boscawen was hailed as “the Deliverer of America.” As the commander-in-chief, Ports-

36 mouth, he had to sign the order for the execution of Admiral John Byng (see entry). He destroyed a French fleet at the Battle of Lagos Bay, Portugal, on August 18, 1759, the victory for which he is most often remembered. He was appointed general of Marines (1760), but worn out by continuous and trying sea service, in December 1760 he contracted a fever (possibly typhoid) which proved fatal. He is buried in a tomb in St. Michael’s churchyard, Penkivel, Cornwall. The town of Boscawen, New Hampshire, is named after him. Sources: “Admiral Edward Boscawen, Born in Cornwall.” Cornwall Calling. www.cornwall-calling.co.uk/ famous-cornish-people/boscawen.htm. “Boscawen, Edward” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britan nica.com/eb/article-9080795. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/29 31?docPos=1.

BOUËT-WILLAUMEZ, LOUIS EDOUARD (1809?–1871) (FRANCE)

Born Louis Edouard Bouët in Maison-Lafitte, near Paris, he was adopted by his uncle, Vice Admiral Willaumez (1844), and took his name. He joined the French Navy in 1824 and was lieutenant (1834); lieutenant commander (1840); captain (1844); rear admiral (1853); and vice admiral (1860). Bouët-Willaumez saw action at the Battle of Navarino (October 20, 1827), fought in Navarino Bay on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula in the Ionian Sea. In 1834, as a lieutenant he was sent to French-occupied Senegal, West Africa, and in 1836, in command of the steamship L’Africain, he emerged safe and sound — where other explorers had died from disease — from a trip 200 miles up river to the large waterfall at Felou (les Chutes de Felou) in upper Senegal. While charting a trade route along the African coast, in command of the brig La Malouine, he negotiated a commercial treaty with the king of Gabon in 1839. He was made provisional governor of Senegal (1842); signed a commercial treaty with the ruler of the French protectorate of Bondu (1843); restored French sovereignty over Guinea (1848); was made commander of the force leading a bayonet charge against rebellious tribes (1848); and led several campaigns during the Crimean War (1853–1856) (fought between Imperial Russia on one side and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other). Bouët-Willaumez was made a Commander, Order of the Bath, by Britain for his services during the Crimean War. He was a member Senate of France

37 (1865) and was a member of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem (1853). Sources: “Gabon.” World Statesmen.org. www.world statesmen.org/Gabon.html. “Bouët-Willaumez, Louis Édouard” Rulers. http://rulers.org/indexb4.html. “Louis Édouard Bouët-Willaumez” (July 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:31, July 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_ %C3%89douard_Bou%C3%ABt-Willaumez&old id=223913991. “History of the Order.” Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem. www. saintlazarus.org.uk/history.htm.

BOURNE, NEHEMIAH (1611–1691) (BRITAIN)

The first record we have of Nehemiah Bourne is of his being a ship builder in Charlestown and Dorchester, Massachusetts (1638), although it is thought that he was born at Wapping, London. He was made a freeman of Boston, Massachusetts, on June 2, 1641, and in the same year finished the Trial, the first vessel built in Boston. He was a major in the English Parliamentary Army (1644–1645), and then served in the Parliamentary Navy as commander of the Speaker. For two years he was commander-in-chief on the coast of Scotland, and in September 1651 carried the Scottish records and regalia from Stirling Castle to London, for which services he received a gold medal valued at £60. In 1652 he was captain of the Andrew and in May was senior officer in the Downs, wearing a flag by special authority from Robert Blake (see entry), when, on the 18th, the Dutch fleet anchored off Dover. It was thus Rear Admiral Bourne who informed the council of state and Blake of Cornelis Tromp’s (see entry) presence on the coast, and who commanded the division of the fleet that had so important a share in the action of the Battle of Dover (May 19, 1652), the start of the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654). Bourne was given the task of pushing forward the equipment and manning the fleets from late 1652 to the end of the Protectorate (1659). The Protectorate (1643–1659) was the time when Parliament ruled without a monarch. After the Restoration (1660), Bourne immigrated to America, where he spent several years in exile, although it is thought that he died in London. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/3007. “Nehemiah Bourne.” Virtual American Biographies. http://famousa mericans.net/nehemiahbourne.

BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1753–1832) (FRANCE)

François Joseph Bouvet, the son of a captain in the French East India Company, sailed with his fa-

Bowman ther aboard the Villevault in 1765; was lieutenant (1785); and on the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789–1799), he sided with the republicans. He was captain of the Audacieux (1790), part of Republic’s first fleet. He was rear admiral (1793) commanding the Second Squadron of the fleet in Brest and engaged the fleet commanded by Richard Howe (see entry) at the Battle of the First of June (also known as the Glorious First of June by the British or the Third Battle of Ushant, fought in the Atlantic Ocean on May 28 and 29 and June 1, 1794, between the Royal Navy and the navy of Revolutionary France; it was the first major naval battle of the French Revolutionary Wars). In December 1796, Bouvet sailed from Brest in an attempt to land General Louis Lazare Hoche (1768–1797) with an expeditionary force at Mizen Head in the south of Ireland. Although they did arrive off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry Bay on December 21, the atrocious weather prevented the troops from landing. Blown out to sea and separated from the rest of his squadron, by December 29, Bouvet, convinced that the other ships had retreated, steered for Brest, arriving on January 1, 1797. His assumption was wrong; some of the ships had safely anchored at Bantry Bay. The government dismissed him and Napoleon reinstated him. During the peace of Amiens (signed in 1802), Bouvet, in commanded a squadron and with his flagship the Redoutable, occupied Guadeloupe in the Caribbean. He was military chief of Brest Harbor (1803), and when Louis XVIII (1755–1842) was restored in July 1814, Bouvet was created a baron. The French Battleship Bouvet (1898) was named in his honor. Sources: “François Joseph Bouvet” (October 7, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:23, July 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Bouvet&oldid=16 2894225. Encylopedia Britannica Online, 1911 Edition. http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/BOS_BRI/BOUVET_F RANCOIS_JOSEPH_17531832.html. “French Battleship Bouvet.” www.cityofart.net/bship/bouvet.html.

BOWMAN, FRANK (1944–) (USA)

Born in Chattanooga, Tennessee, Frank Bowman gained a bachelor’s degree from Duke University in Durham, North Carolina (1966), and two master’s degrees, in nuclear engineering and naval architecture/marine engineering, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge (1977), where he was elected to the Society of Sigma Xi. Bowman started his naval career in 1966, became a one star admiral in 1991 and received his fourth star in 1996. His career as a submarine officer includes many operational assignments aboard nuclear ballistic missile submarines and nuclear attack submarines.

Bowyer Under his command, his crews have earned the Meritorious Unit Commendation (3), the Navy Battle Efficiency E Ribbon (5), the Navy Expeditionary Medal (2), the Humanitarian Service Medal (2), the Sea Service Deployment Ribbon (3), and the Navy Arctic Service Ribbon. His personal awards include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal; Distinguished Service Medal; Legion of Merit (with three gold stars); medal of Officier de l’Ordre National du Mérite by the Government of the Republic of France; Honorary Knight Commander, Order of the Bath, in recognition of his support of the Royal Navy nuclear submarine program (2006); and honorary doctorate of humane letters from Duke University (2003). Bowman retired from the navy in December 2004 and in 2005 was appointed president and chief executive officer of the Nuclear Energy Institute in Washington, D.C., the policy organization for the USA’s commercial nuclear power industry. The Admiral Frank Bowman Scholar Program is for naval academy midshipmen second class (juniors) who are seeking initial service assignments in the nuclear navy. Sources: “Admiral Frank L. Bowman.” Naval Academy Research. www.usna.edu/BowmanProgram/admi ralBowmanBiography.html. “Frank Bowman” (July 7, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:53, July 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Frank_Bowman&oldid=224042030. “Duke Names Honorary Degree Recipients.” Office of News and Communication, March 26, 2003. www.duke news.duke.edu/2003/03/honorary0326.html.

BOWYER, SIR GEORGE (1740–1800) (BRITAIN)

Thought to have been born in Denham, Buckinghamshire, England, George Bowyer was lieutenant (1758); commander (1761); captain (1762); rear admiral (1793); vice admiral (1794), and admiral (1799). He was captain of the 74-gun Albion in one of the squadrons that sailed for North America under John Byron (see entry), whom he accompanied to the West Indies, taking part in the Battle of Grenada ( July 6, 1779), during the American Revolution (1775–1783). He was present when Sir George Rodney (see entry) and the Count de Guichen had three encounters on April 17, May 15 and May 19, 1780. Many of the crew were killed or injured and the Albion was so damaged it had to be sent to Jamaica for repairs. In 1784 Boyer was returned to Parliament by the borough of Queenborough, Kent, and in 1785 was a member of a committee appointed to consider the defenses of Portsmouth and Plymouth. In 1794, in the Prince, he played a significant part in Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794) in which he lost a leg, which excluded him from

38 further active service. He received an annual pension of £1,000 in addition to a chain and gold medal, and on August 16, 1794, he was created a baronet. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/3089?docPos=1. “Sir George Boyer.” David Nash Ford’s Royal Berkshire History. www.berkshirehistory.com/bios/gbowyer5.html.

BOYLE, WILLIAM HENRY DUDLEY (1873–1967) (BRITAIN)

Born at Hale, Farnham, Surrey, England, William Henry Dudley Boyle entered the Britannia Training-ship (now the Britannia Royal Naval College), Dartmouth, Devon, as a naval cadet at age 14. He was midshipman (1889); lieutenant (1895); commander (1906); captain (1913); rear admiral (1923); vice admiral (1928); admiral (1932); and admiral of the fleet (1938). Boyle served in China during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), fought between Japan and China over the control of Korea. He was part of the China squadron based in Hong Kong during the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901). Boyle was naval attaché at Rome (1913–1915), and in 1913, an observer during the Second Balkan War ( June 16, 1913–July 18, 1913) fought between the Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria on one side and Serbia on the other, with Romania and the Ottoman Empire [Turkey] intervening against Bulgaria). In 1916, as senior naval officer, Red Sea Patrol, Boyle took part in the conference aboard HMS Dufferin that led to the start of the Arab Revolt to gain independence from the Ottoman Empire. He was part of the bombardment and capture of the Turkish held port of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia ( June 1916), thus enabling arms and ammunition to be sent to the Arabs. He worked closely with T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia, 1888–1935) in his fight for Arab independence. He was aide-de-camp to King George V (1922); president of Royal Naval College, Greenwich, London (1929–1932); and commander-in-chief of the Home Fleet (1933), flying his flag aboard the battleship HMS Nelson. In 1934, he had succeeded his cousin as twelfth earl of Cork and twelfth earl of Orrery and Baron Boyle of Marston in the county of Somerset. Boyle bore the Curtana or Sword of Mercy (Edward the Confessor’s sword) at the coronation of King George VI (1937). He was commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1937–1939). He served in World War II at the admiralty and in command of the combined expedition to Narvik, Norway (1940), which resulted in the destruction of the iron ore trade from Narvik to Germany.

39 Included in his many honors are Grand Cross of Legion of Honor; Croix de Guerre avec Palme; Commander of the Order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus of Italy; Grand Cross of Order of St. Olav of Norway; 3rd Class Order of the Nile; 2nd Class Order of El Nahda of the Hedjaz; Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1931); Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order (1935); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1936). Sources: “Admiral Sir William Henry Dudley Boyle.” The Boyle Family Genealogy. www.boyle.family. btinternet.co.uk/18731130.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/art icle/32015.

BRAKEL, VAN JAN (1638?–1690) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Nothing for certain is known about Van Jan Brakel’s early life. In 1666 he was appointed by the admiralty of the Maas (Rotterdam) as captain of the fireship Rotterdam that participated in the Four Days’ Battle on June 11–14, 1666. At the Battle of St. James’s Day (August 4–5, 1666)— fought near North Foreland, off the Kent coast during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667)—Brakel saved the Gelderland, the flagship of Lieutenant Admiral Willem Joseph van Ghent (1626–1672) from an attack by an English fireship, after which he was promoted from fireships to captain of a regular ship. In command of the frigate Vrede, he played a significant part in the Raid on the Medway ( June 9–14, 1667), a successful Dutch attack on English naval ships that were laid up in the dockyards of their main naval base Chatham, Kent. The English flagship Royal Charles was captured and for his part Brakel had the honor of towing the Royal Charles away from England. As captain of the Groot Hollandia he took part in the burning of the HMS Royal James at the Battle of Sole Bay (May 28, 1672). He was captain of the Voorzichtigheid at the Battles of the Schooneveld ( June 7 and June 14, 1673), fought off the coast of the Netherlands between an allied Anglo-French fleet commanded by Prince Rupert of the Rhine (1619–1682), and the fleet of the United Provinces, commanded by Michiel de Ruyter (see entry). He was rear admiral for the admiralty of Amsterdam in 1684 and temporary vice admiral in the invasion fleet of William III that led to the Glorious Revolution in England (1688). While serving as part of the Anglo-Dutch fleet, he was killed in the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690) during the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697). His memorial is in the St. Laurens Church, Rotterdam. The Jan Van Brakel (1936) was

Braun a Dutch fishery protection vessel. The frigate HNLMS Jan van Brakel (F 825) (1981) was named in his honor. Sources: “Jan van Brakel” (December 8, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:16, July 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jan _van_Brakel&oldid=176553805. “HNLMS Jan van Brakel.” Royal Navy Netherlands Warships of World War II. www.netherlandsnavy.nl/Brakel.html.

BRAUN, ROBIN R. (USA)

Robin R. Braun, daughter of a naval aviator, was born in Pensacola, Florida. After graduating from Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, she was commissioned in 1980 and designated a naval aviator in 1981. She was instructor pilot and selectively retained graduate in the T-44 aircraft at Training Squadron 31, Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas; mission commander and aircraft commander in the EC-130Q aircraft at Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron (VQ) 3 (TACAMO), Naval Air Station Barbers Point, Hawaii (1983) providing an airborne communications link for strategic forces throughout the Pacific theater; navy intern in the Operations Directorate ( J3), Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington D.C. (1986); aviation initial assignments detailer and chairman of the Aviation Warfare Transition Board, Navy Personnel Command; Naval Reserve Naval Air Station Keflavik at Naval Air Facility, Washington, D.C.; Fleet Logistics Support Squadron (VR) 61 at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island, Washington; and VR-51 at Naval Air Station Glenview, Illinois, flying worldwide missions in the DC-9 and C-9B aircraft from 1989 to 1995 when Glenview closed down. She was one of the Navy’s first C-20G Aircraft commanders and instructor pilots at Naval Air Facility Washington (1995), where she became commanding officer (1998). She was commanding officer, Tactical Support Center 0793 supporting Patrol and Reconnaissance Wing 5; facilitator for the Naval Safety Center’s Culture Workshop Program; chief of staff, Navy Command Center 106/CNO Ops and Plans supporting OPNAV N3/5; commanding officer of Navy Reserve Carrier Strike Group Ten supporting the super-carrier USS Harry S Truman and Joint Task Force Katrina; and Commanding Officer of Navy Air Logistics Office, New Orleans, Louisiana. She was named rear admiral and deputy commander, Navy Recruiting Command in 2007. Since 1981 Braun has accumulated over 5800 flight hours. Included among her awards are Legion of Merit; Meritorious Service Medal (4); Navy Commendation Medal (2); and the Navy Achievement Medal (3). Sources: “Rear Admiral Robin R. Braun.” Navy.mil: United States Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/ navybio.asp?bioID=379.

Breckenridge BRECKENRIDGE, JODY A. (USA)

Jody A. Breckenridge grew up in Potomac, Maryland, and was commissioned into the U.S. Coast Guard upon graduation from Officer Candidate School in June 1976. Her first assignment was with the National Response Center, the country’s official point of contact for reporting oil and chemical spills. Breckenridge also served President Jimmy Carter’s administration as a social aide, a member of the military presence that facilitates events and welcomes attendees at White House functions. In May 2003, she was named commander of the 1,800-member Maintenance and Logistics Command Pacific in Alameda, California. On July 16, 2007, Breckenridge assumed duties as the Director, Strategic Transformation Team, where one of her many tasks is to modernize the service, and in May 2008 she became assistant commandant for human resources. Prior to 2007, she had oversight of all coast guard operations in the Southwest and Eastern Pacific, based at Alameda, California. Her staff of 3,000 looked after many different waterways, carrying out rescues and antidrug smuggling patrols and maintaining constant terrorist surveillance. Breckenridge gained a bachelor of science in biology from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, and a master’s degree in public policy from the University of Maryland, College Park, where she was elected to the honor society of Phi Kappa Phi and was presented an Excellence in Scholarship award, graduating with honors. She also gained a master of science degree of in national resource strategy from the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. Among her awards are Legion of Merit (3); the Meritorious Service Medal (3); and Coast Guard Commendation (4). Sources: “Alameda, U.S. Coast Guard Admiral Runs a Tight Ship,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 1, 2007. www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/01/01/ BAG57NB5991.DTL&hw=breckenridge&sn=001&sc= 1000. “Jody A. Breckenridge” (July 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:27, July 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jody_ A._Breckenridge&oldid=223812320. “Rear Admiral Jody A. Breckenridge.” United States Coast Guard, U.S. Department of Homeland Security. www.uscg.mil/flag/ cg01t.asp.

BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL (1770–1844) (BRITAIN)

Jahleel Brenton was born in Newport, Rhode Island, to an English father who, at the outbreak of the American Revolution (1775–1783), was a lieutenant in the Royal Navy on the loyalist side (he later became a rear admiral). From 1781 to 1783,

40 young Brenton was a midshipman on his father’s armed ship Queen. At the peace in 1783, he was sent to the maritime school at Chelsea, London, where, with some time in France, he continued till 1787, when he again entered the navy as a midshipman. Brenton accepted a commission in the Swedish navy and took part in the Second Battle of Svensksund on July 9, 1790 (a naval engagement in the Gulf of Finland in the Baltic Sea during the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790, in which Swedish naval forces defeated the Russian coastal fleet), after which he became a lieutenant in the Royal Navy. In July 1803, in command of the frigate Minerve, while chasing French vessels toward Cherbourg in a thick fog, the ship ran aground. After ten hours of sustained fire from the enemy batteries, Brenton was compelled to surrender. He and the whole ship’s company were made prisoners of war. In December 1806, he was exchanged for a nephew of André Masséna, Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling (1758–1817), a French military commander during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) who had been taken prisoner at the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805). At Brenton’s court-martial for the loss of the Minerve, he was honorably acquitted. In 1810, in a bloody fight with a French squadron at Naples, Brenton was badly wounded in the hip by grapeshot (small balls fired from cannon). The Patriotic Fund at Lloyd’s (a British insurance market) gave him a valuable sword. Between 1813 and 1822 he was commissioner of the dockyard at Port Mahon, Minorca, and at the Cape of Good Hope. He was rear admiral (1830); lieutenant governor of Greenwich Hospital (1831); and vice admiral (1837). The king of the Two Sicilies (Southern Italy and the Island of Sicily) presented him with the Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand; he was made a baronet (1812) and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815). A devout man, he devoted a great much of his time and energy to religious and charitable work, especially among sailors. Sources and Selected Publications: “Jahleel Brenton” (July 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:04, July 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Jahleel_Brenton&oldid=227039 300. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.ox forddnb.com/view/article/3326. Breton, Sir Jahleel. The Hope of the Navy. London: James Nisbet, 1839. _____. An Appeal to the British Nation on Behalf of Her Sailors. London: James Nisbet, 1839.

BRICE-O’HARA, SALLY (USA)

Sally Brice-O’Hara, who is from Annapolis, Maryland, gained a bachelor of arts in sociology

41 (1974) from Goucher College, Baltimore, Maryland; a master of arts in public administration from Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts; and a master of science in national security strategy from the National War College, Theodore Roosevelt Hall, Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C. She was commissioned into the Coast Guard in 1975, two years after the branch began recruiting women. In May 2006, she became the first woman commander of the Fourteenth Coast Guard District and Pacific Area deputy commander for East Asia, Pacific Engagement. This district covers 12.2 million square miles of the Central Pacific Ocean, and she is responsible for 29 units that include operations in all aspects of security and protection of the coastal areas that include Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa and the Northern Marianas. She has been director of reserve training in Washington, D.C.; deputy commander of activities, Baltimore, and alternate captain of the port; commander of Group Baltimore; commanding officer of Coast Guard Station Cape May, New Jersey; executive officer of Station New London, Connecticut; planning officer at Support Center Kodiak, Alaska; assistant director of admissions at the United States Coast Guard Academy, New London, Connecticut; and director of reserve and training at Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, D.C. Included in her awards are Legion of Merit (4); Meritorious Service Medal; Coast Guard Commendation Medal (6); Coast Guard Achievement Medal; and the Commandant’s Letter of Commendation. Sources: “Rear Admiral Sally Brice-O’Hara.” United States Coastguard, U.S. Department of Homeland Security. www.uscg.mil/flag/D14.asp. “Sally Brice-O’Hara” (January 12, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:43, July 24, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Sally_Brice-O%27Hara&oldid= 183758894.

BRIDGE, SIR CYPRIAN ARTHUR GEORGE (1839–1924) (BRITAIN)

Born at St. John’s, Newfoundland, son of a clergyman, Cyprian Arthur George Bridge entered the Royal Navy in 1853, served two years as a cadet, and was midshipman in 1855, by which time, barely sixteen, he had been in three ships, had served on foreign stations, and had seen something of the Crimean War (1853–1856). He was mate (1858); lieutenant (1859); flag lieutenant to Sir Alfred Ryder (1868–1869); commander (1860); captain (1877); rear admiral (1892); vice admiral (1898); and admiral (1903). He retired, having reached the age limit in 1904. Bridge is not so remembered for his naval bat-

Bridgeman tles as for his contribution to the development of the navy. He foresaw the menace of the development of Germany as a maritime power and wrote two papers for the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, “Estimates for the German Navy for the Financial Year 1877–1878” (Vol. 21, 1877) and “On the Organization and Strength of the German Navy” (Vol. 22, 1878). During 1878 and 1879, Bridge served on Admiralty and War Office committees on heavy guns, on armor plates and projectiles, and on explosives. For six months in 1881 he was a member of the ordnance committee. He took command of the Espiègle on the Australian Station and rendered a series of well-researched reports on conditions in the islands, which covered every field of activity and interest: political, social, ethnological, and commercial. In 1889 he became director of the recently established Intelligence Department at the Admiralty. In April 1901, he was appointed commander-in-chief, China, and in 1902 he helped to negotiate the Anglo-Japanese treaty (the first Anglo-Japanese Alliance). Besides numerous contributions to the daily press, Bridge wrote many articles on tactics, strategy, and naval policy in the reviews. He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1899), and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1903). Sources and Selected Publications: Stephenson, Samuel. Cyprian Arthur Bridge: 13 March 1839–16 August 1924. Edited by Douglas Fix. http://academic.reed. edu/formosa/texts/BridgeBio.html. “Cyprian Bridge” (May 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:48, July 24, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Cyprian_Bridge&oldid=212698642. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/32058. Bridge, Sir Cyprian. History of the Russian Fleet During the Reign of Peter the Great. London: Navy Records Society, 1899. _____. The Art of Naval Warfare: Introductory Observations. London: Smith Elder, 1907. _____. Sea Power and Other Studies. London: John Murray, 1910. _____. Some Recollections. London: John Murray, 1919.

BRIDGEMAN, SIR FRANCIS CHARLES (1848–1929) (BRITAIN)

Francis Charles Bridgeman was born at Babworth, Nottinghamshire, the son of William Bridgeman Simpson, rector of Babworth; he resumed the family name of Bridgeman in 1896. Having trained as a naval cadet at Britannia Training-ship (now the Britannia Royal Naval College), Dartmouth, Devon, in 1862, he was sub-lieutenant (1869); lieutenant (1873); commander (1884); captain (1890); rear admiral (1903); vice admiral (1907); second sea lord at the admiralty (1910–1911); admiral of the Home Fleet (1911); first

Brind

42

sea lord (1911–1912); retired (1913); and vice-admiral of the United Kingdom (1920–1929). During his fifty years in the Royal Navy, he saw service in the Pacific, the English Channel, the Australian Station, the China Station, and the Mediterranean. He served on corvettes, battleships, and armored cruisers. He served under Sir Michael Seymour and Lord Charles Beresford (see entries). Between 1901 and 1903 he was aide-de-camp to King Edward VII (1841–1910). He was Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1907); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1908); Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order (1911); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1912). Bridgeman was also a commander, Legion of Honor (2nd class), and Commander, Savior of Greece. He died at Nassau in the Bahamas.

Communist forces. Brind initiated and organized the Amethyst’s withdrawal from the Yangtze. At the outbreak of the Korean War ( June 1950 to July 1953), Brind ordered his ships to be placed under American command without waiting for permission from London. His final appointment was as commander-in-chief, Allied Forces Northern Europe (1951–1953), a new NATO command. He retired in 1953. Brind was known throughout the navy as “Daddy.” His widow said that the nickname “Daddy” was given to him when he was a lieutenant doing courses. His hair was prematurely white and he had a benign appearance. He was created Commander, Order of the British Empire (1944); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1946); and Knight, Order of the British Empire (1951).

Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32062.

Sources: “Brind, Sir (Eric James) Patrick.” Held at Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, King’s College, London. AIM25. www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/sear ch2?coll_id=332&inst_id=21. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 32075?docPos=2. “Under Heavy Fire, Am Aground: HMS Amethyst.” Britain’s Small Wars, 1945–2005: Riots, Rebellions, Gun Boats and Peace Keepers. www. britains-smallwars.com/RRGP/AMETHYST.htm.

BRIND, SIR (ERIC JAMES) PATRICK (1892–1963) (BRITAIN)

Born at Paignton, Devon, Eric James Patrick Brind entered the Royal Navy as a cadet in 1905 and passed through Royal Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight, and Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon. He was midshipman (1909); lieutenant (1916); lieutenant commander (1922); commander (1927); captain (1933); rear admiral (1942); vice admiral (1945); president, Royal Naval College, Greenwich (1946–1949); admiral (1949); and commander-in-chief, Far East Station (1949– 1951). Brind saw action as a young lieutenant at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916), aboard the battleship Malaya, which sustained some damage. In 1939, when China and Japan were at war, he captained the cruiser ship Birmingham to Tsingtao, China, to investigate the circumstances of the arrest of a British merchant ship by the Japanese. In no uncertain terms he told the Japanese admiral that he intended to rescue the British ship, no matter how many warships the admiral threatened him with. He escorted the captured ship to safety the next day. On May 27, 1941, he was part of the fleet that destroyed the German battleship Bismarck. He was assistant chief of naval staff (1942–1944), playing a large part in the planning for Operation Neptune (the Normandy landings, June 1944). Brind was present at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo in August 1945. In April 1949 the Communists held the frigate HMS Amethyst hostage, which had sailed 150 miles up the River Yangtze to evacuate British and Commonwealth citizens from the advancing Chinese

BRINGLE, WILLIAM F. (1913–1999) (USA)

Born in Covington, Tennessee, William F. Bringle graduated as an ensign from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1937 and was captain (1955); rear admiral (1964); vice admiral (1967); commander, Naval Air Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet (1970); admiral (1971); commanderin-chief, U.S. Naval Forces, Europe, and the naval component commander of the U.S. European Command, with additional duty as the U.S. commander, Eastern Atlantic. From 1940, Bringle was an aviator, and during World War II he flew combat missions over Italy, southern France, and Japan. Before America entered World War II in December 1941, he was senior aviator aboard the light cruiser USS Milwaukee (CL-5), then was commanding officer of Cruiser Scouting Squadron TWO, with the USS Omaha (CL-4) and the USS Savannah (CL-42). In 1943 he formed the first Observation Fighting Squadron (VOF-1); took part in the Allied Invasion of Southern France in August 1944; was the commandant of midshipmen at the Naval Academy (1958–1960); commander of the super carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) (1960–1962); assistant director of the Aviation Plans Division in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, and director (1963–1964). As vice admiral, he commanded the Seventh Fleet

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Bristol

based in Yokosuka, Japan; the Seventh Fleet’s area of operations included the Vietnam conflict. Among his awards are Navy Cross; Distinguished Flying Cross with Gold Star in lieu of five additional awards; Air Medal with Gold Stars in lieu of 16 additional awards; Navy Unit Commendation Ribbon with star; Croix de Guerre with Silver Star; Legion of Merit with Combat V; and Distinguished Service Medal and Gold Star in lieu of a second award. Admiral Bringle retired in 1974. He is buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery, Annapolis, Maryland.

miral Briscoe commanded the 7th Fleet in Korean waters. He was commander of Naval Forces, Far East; deputy chief of naval operations for Fleet Operations (Readiness); and commander-in-chief, Allied Forces, Southern Europe. His decorations and awards include Legion of Merit with Gold Star; Navy Cross; and Distinguished Service Medal. He was buried with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The destroyer USS Briscoe (DD-977) was launched in 1972 and was decommissioned in 2003 to be used as a target.

Sources: “William F. Bringle” (April 8, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:28, July 24, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= William_F._Bringle&oldid=204313936.

Sources: “Robert P. Briscoe” (January 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:49, July 24, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Robert_P._Briscoe&oldid=187120699. “USS Briscoe (DD-977).” Unofficial U.S. Navy Site. http://navysite. de/dd/dd977.htm.

BRISCOE, ROBERT P. (1897–1968) (USA)

Born in Centreville, Mississippi, Robert P. Briscoe graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1918. During World War I he served on destroyers and post-war on the destroyer Humphreys (DD-236), operating in the eastern Mediterranean during the civil war following the Russian Revolution. The Humphreys also helped to evacuate civilians from the Crimea and put a landing force ashore there under his command. He was lieutenant instructor in mechanical engineering at the Naval Academy. Between 1931 and 1933 as lieutenant commander he served on the China Station, then was head of the Department of Chemistry at the Naval Academy (1934– 1937). Leading up to World War II he was assistant director at the United States Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., where he helped to pioneer modern electronics development in the Navy. As captain (1942) he commanded Destroyer Squadron 5 and served as escort commander for Task Forces 67, 68, and 10. In 1943 in command of the light cruiser ship Denver (CL-58), Briscoe saw action in the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay (a naval battle fought near the island of Bougainville, New Guinea, on November 1–2, 1943) and in the northern Solomon Islands, and helped sink or damage nine enemy ships. On November 13, 1943, the Denver was severely damaged by an aerial torpedo, and Briscoe returned to the United States with her for repairs; the ship was awarded a Navy Unit Commendation medal for this action. When the war with Japan ended on August 14, 1945, Rear Admiral Briscoe was in Manila working on plans for the invasion of the Japanese homeland. He became commander, Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet, on November 1, 1950. Between January 1952 and retirement in January 1959, Vice Ad-

BRISTOL, ARTHUR LEROY (1886–1942) (USA)

Born in Charleston, South Carolina, Arthur Leroy Bristol graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1906 and was ensign in 1908. He served on the presidential yacht Mayflower (1909–1912), then was naval attaché to Berlin until June 1913. The dates of his various promotions are not available, but he was rear admiral in 1941 and was still active when he died from a heart attack on April 27, 1942, at Argentia, Newfoundland. Between 1913 and late 1915, Bristol commanded three destroyers and had command of the 2d Division, Reserve Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet. He was aide and torpedo officer on the staff of commander, Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet; aide and flag secretary to the commander, Destroyer Force, Atlantic Fleet (1916); aide and flag secretary for the commander, Cruiser Force, Atlantic Fleet (1917); and worked in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington, D.C. (February 1918 into the spring of 1919). On the destroyer ship Overton (DD-239) he helped evacuate civilians from the Crimea following the capitulation of White Russian forces to the Bolsheviks in November 1920. He was an instructor on the staff of the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island (1923–1924). Bristol trained as a naval aviator; was commanding officer of the seaplane tender ship Jason (AV-2); commander, Aircraft Squadrons, Asiatic Fleet; and commanding officer, Naval Air Station San Diego (1936). On 1 March 1941, Rear Admiral Bristol (vice admiral from 27 February 1942) became the first commander, Support Force Atlantic Fleet, based at Newport, Rhode Island. His awards were Navy Cross; Distinguished Service Medal; and Order of St. Stanislav, III Class.

Bristol The Arthur Le Roy Bristol (APD-97) launched 19 February 1944. The Arthur L. Bristol School for children of navy personnel at the Naval Air Station in Argentia, Newfoundland, opened in 1957 and closed in 1994. Sources: “Arthur L. Bristol” (May 9, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:48, July 24, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Arthur_L._Bristol&oldid=211289040. “B Schools: Arthur L. Bristol High School.” AOSHS. http://aoshs. wichita.edu/BSchools.html#Arthur%20Bristol%20HS.

BRISTOL, MARK LAMBERT (1868–1939) (USA)

Born in Glassboro, New Jersey, Mark Lambert Bristol graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1887 and was ensign (1889); lieutenant junior grade (1897); lieutenant (1899); captain (1913); and rear admiral (1918). After leaving the academy, he specialized in torpedoes and worked in the equipment department of the Norfolk Navy Yard. He fought aboard the battleship ship Texas in the Battle of Santiago, Cuba ( July 3, 1898), during the Spanish-American War (April 25 to August 12, 1898) and sailed in the round-the-world cruise of the Great White Fleet (1907–1909). He commanded the warship Monterey (1911) and the cruiser ship Albany in 1912– 1913 in the Far East; he ordered the first U.S. salute to the Chinese republican flag after the Manchu dynasty (1644–1911). Bristol was a member of the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics and commander of the newly created naval air station at Pensacola, Florida (1915). He command a naval detachment set up to protect American interests in the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East (1919). During the Turkish nationalist revolution and the Greek-Turkish War (1919–1922), Bristol’s ships evacuated hundreds of Americans from the Crimea and many dependents of the Russian army. As U.S. high commissioner to Turkey, Bristol worked with Mustapha Kemal Atatürk (president of Turkey, 1923–1928) to agree to trade between America and Turkey and set up a joint commission to resolve claims against both governments. The U.S. government was the first to establish relations with Atatürk government in the new capital at Ankara. Bristol was one of the U.S. representatives at the Lausanne conference in Switzerland that brought an end to the Greek-Turkish War in 1922. In 1927 in the rank of admiral, his final act of diplomacy was to try (unsuccessfully) to broker peace between Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975) of the Republic of China and the Communists. Bristol joined the General Board of the Navy (1929) and was its chairman from 1930 until his retirement as rear admiral

44 in 1932. Two ships have been named USS Bristol in his honor. He helped found the American Hospital in Ni£anta£ı, jstanbul, in 1920 as well as the Admiral Bristol Nursing School. Sources: American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/06/06-00062.html?a=1&n=BRISTOL %2C%20MARK%20LAMBERT%20&d=10&ss=0&q =1. “Mark Lambert Bristol” (July 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:19, July 25, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_ Lambert_Bristol&oldid=227697262. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

BROCK, SIR OSMOND DE BEAUVOIR (1869–1947) (BRITAIN)

Born at Plymouth, Devon, Osmond de Beauvoir Brock graduated from Britannia Training-ship, now the Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon. He was midshipman (1886); lieutenant (1889); commander (1900); captain (1904); rear admiral (1915); vice admiral (1919); commanderin-chief, Mediterranean Fleet (1922–1925); admiral (1924); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1926); admiral of the fleet (1927); and placed on the retired list (1934). Brock’s first three and a half years as a midshipman was on masted ships, and while aboard HMS Raleigh he was awarded the Royal Humane Society’s certificate for saving a stoker from drowning in Simon’s Bay, South Africa. He was gunnery officer on HMS Cambrian and on the flagship of the commander-in-chief, Mediterranean. Between 1900 and 1913, Brock was executive officer of HMS Repulse and HMS Renown; commanded the HMS Alacrity in China; was flag captain to Charles Beresford and Berkeley Milne (see entries); served at the Admiralty as assistant director of naval intelligence and as assistant director of naval mobilization. In 1913 he commissioned the new battle cruiser HMS Princess Royal and fought under David Beatty (see entry) at the Battle of Heligoland Bight (August 28, 1914) and the Battle of Dogger Bank ( January 24, 1914). At the Battle of Jutland (May 31– June 1, 1916), commanding the first battle squadron with his flag in HMS Princess Royal, Brock became responsible for passing on all of Beatty’s signals and reports when the wireless of his flagship, the HMS Lion, was shot away. When Beatty became commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet (1916), Brock became his chief of staff. He also accompanied Beatty to the admiralty as deputy chief of the naval staff (1919). Brock was Companion, Order of the Bath (1915); Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1916); Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1917); Knight Commander, Order of St.

45 Michael and St. George (1918); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1919); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1929); and recipient of an honorary doctor of civil law degree, University of Oxford (1929). He was a commander of the Legion of Honor and held a number of other foreign decorations. Sources: “Brock, Sir Osmond de Beauvoir.” Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/ locreg/BROCK1.shtml. “Admiral of the Fleet Sir Osmond De Beauvoir Brock.” Royal Navy Flag Officers 1904–1945. www.admirals.org.uk/admirals/fleet/brock odb.php. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32079.

BRODRICK, THOMAS (1704–1769) (BRITAIN)

Details of Thomas Brodrick’s early career are scarce, but by 1739 he was a lieutenant of the HMS Burford, the flagship of Edward Vernon (1684– 1787) at the siege of the Spanish strongholds at Porto Bello (Portobelo), Panama, and in command of the fireship Cumberland at Cartagena, Colombia, in March–May 1741 during the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748). By 1756 he was rear admiral to Admiral George Byng (see entry) at Gibraltar shortly before Byng was brought back to England under arrest. Brodrick was a member of the admiral’s court-martial in January 1757. While sailing off Ushant—a French island at the mouth of the English Channel off the northwesternmost point of France — Brodrick’s flagship Prince George caught fire and 550 men were lost. The admiral and the other survivors were taken by the frigate Glasgow to Gibraltar. With his flag in the St. George, Brodrick served under Edward Boscawen (see entry) during the blockade of Toulon and at the Battle of Lagos Bay off the coast of Portugal (August 18, 1759), in which the French fleet’s ships were either captured or destroyed by fire. When Boscawen returned to England, so closely did Brodrick blockade the French ships at Cadiz, Spain, that the friendly Spaniards are said to have stuck up a notice to the effect: “For sale, five French menof-war. For particulars apply to Vice Admiral Brodrick.” The French escaped when a gale forced the British ships into Gibraltar. Brodrick had no further employment and died of cancer. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/3492.

BROWN, ERROLL M. (1950–) (USA)

From St. Petersburg, Florida, Erroll M. Brown graduated as ensign from the United States Coast

Brown Guard Academy, New London, Connecticut (1972), with a bachelor of science in marine engineering. In 1998 he became the first African American admiral in the Coast Guard’s 207-year history. He earned two master’s degrees from the University of Michigan, one in naval architecture and marine engineering and the other in industrial and operations engineering. In 1984, Brown earned a master’s degree in national security from the United States Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. His fourth master’s degree is in business administration, from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York (1986). After 33 years, Brown retired in 2005 as assistant commandant for engineering and logistics. During his early career he had various assignments: aboard icebreakers and cutters; instructor in the engineering department, Coast Guard Academy; administrative officer aboard the Coast Guard cutter Rush; military assistant to the secretary of transportation; and chief of the Budget Division in the Office of the Chief of Staff at United States Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, D.C. He was commander of the 13th District in the Pacific Northwest and the Coast Guard’s top ranking engineer, responsible for naval, civil and aeronautical engineering and logistics. Brown led more than 2,000 personnel. Among his many awards and decorations are the Legion of Merit; Meritorious Service Medal; Secretary’s Award for Meritorious Achievement; U.S. Coast Guard Commendation Medal, Unit Recommendation; Meritorious Unit Commendation; National Defense Service Medal; Special Operations Ribbon. Sources: “Erroll M. Brown.” Answers.com. www.an swers.com/topic/erroll-m-brown. Washington, Rudi Williams. “Erroll M. Brown: Coast Guard’s First African American Admiral.” American Forces Press Service News Articles, Feb. 3, 2004. U.S. Department of Defense. www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id =27387. “Rear Admiral Erroll M. Brown.” Real African American History. www.raahistory.com/military/coast/ brown.htm. “Rear Admiral Erroll M. Brown.” United States Coast Guard, Department of Homeland Security. www.uscg.mil/d13/publicaffairs/d13_commanders/bro wn.htm.

BROWN, WILLIAM (1777–1857) (ARGENTINA)

Called the “Father of the Argentine Navy,” William Brown is considered a national hero in Argentina. He was born in Foxford, County Mayo, Ireland, and the family immigrated to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, when William was about nine years old. Soon after his father died of yellow fever, Brown became a cabin boy and worked his way up to the captaincy of a merchant vessel. He was press-

Browning ganged (the act of conscripting people to serve in the military or navy, usually by force and without notice) into a British boat and forced to serve the British Crown. He was captured by a French man-of-war, imprisoned, escaped disguised as French officer, recaptured and imprisoned in the fortress of Verdun, and again escaped in 1809 in the company of a British colonel named Clutchwell. Brown reached German territory and eventually Britain. With his bride, he left for South America, established himself as a merchant in Montevideo, Uruguay, and set up a regular sailing packet service between Uruguay and Argentina, the first of its kind. Spanish ships destroyed Brown’s schooner, the Industria, and to combat Spanish raiders, the government appointed Brown as commander-inchief (admiral) of the Argentine fleet. March 8, 1814, saw the start of a vigorous campaign by Brown’s small fleet. Six days later, with land forces, they took Martín García, a fortified island twenty miles above Buenos Aires. Brown blockaded the Spanish fleet in Montevideo and on May 14, in an engagement in which Brown’s leg was shattered by a cannon ball, the Spanish were defeated, the River Plate was freed from Spanish control and Argentina claimed Montevideo. Brown was raised to the rank of colonel and made commander of the navy. When war broke out between Argentina and Brazil, Brown fought two decisive battles in 1827: the Battle of Juncal (February 8–9) and the Battle of Los Pozos ( June 11). Peace of a sort followed, and at the Treaty of Montevideo (October 4, 1827) Brown acted as Argentine commissioner. Commemorative stamps showing William Brown were issued in Ireland in 1957 and by the Argentine government in 1891, 1935, and 1956. Sources: Murray, Edmundo. “Dictionary of Irish Latin American Biography: William Brown.” Society for Irish Latin American Studies. www.irlandeses.org/dilab_ brownw.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/3661?docPos=7. “William Brown (Admiral)” (June 16, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:11, July 25, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= William_Brown_%28admiral%29&oldid=219696743. “William Brown.” New Advent: The Catholic Encyclopedia. http://home.newadvent.org/cathen/02804a.htm.

BROWNING, SIR MONTAGUE EDWARD (1863–1947) (BRITAIN)

Born in Fornham St. Martin, Suffolk, England, Montague Edward Browning was ensign (1878); sub-lieutenant (1882); lieutenant (1885); commander (1897); captain (1902); rear admiral (1913); vice admiral (1916); second sea lord at the Admiralty

46 (1919); admiral (1919); commander-in-chief, Devonport (1920–1923); first and principal naval aidede-camp to the King George V (1925); placed on the retired list (1926); rear admiral of the United Kingdom (1929); vice admiral of the United Kingdom (1939); and retired (1945). For his part in the Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882, Browning was awarded the War Medal and the Khedive’s Bronze Star. When he was promoted to commander, Browning wrote a handbook for quick-firing guns. In 1889 he lost his left hand through an accident while visiting the ironclad battleship the Inflexible. In July 1909 he commanded of the royal yacht Britannia, and from 1910 until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, he was inspector of target practice. In August 1916, as commander-in-chief of the North America and West Indies station, Browning represented Great Britain in discussions with United States naval authorities on how they could cooperate to win the war at sea. He was president of the allied naval armistice commission when war ended in November 1918, and in the battleship HMS Hercules he supervised disarmament in the German naval ports. Browning was appointed member, Royal Victorian Order (1908); Companion, Order of the Bath (1916); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1917); Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1919); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1924); and Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1933). He held a number of foreign decorations. Sources: “Browning, Sir Montague Edward (1863– 1947).” Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. wwwcache1.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/locreg/BROWNING1.shtml. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/32127.

BRUCE, SIR HENRY HARVEY (1862–1948) (BRITAIN)

Born at Stoke Damerel, Devonport, Devon, Henry Harvey Bruce graduated from Britannia Training-ship in Dartmouth, Devon (now Britannia Royal Naval College) and was midshipman (1877?); sub-lieutenant (1882); lieutenant (1884); commander (1901); captain (1905); rear admiral and admiral superintendent (1917); retired as vice admiral (1922); and promoted admiral (1926). He was aboard the iron turret ship Monarch during the bombardment of Alexandria in July 1882 (see Browning, Montague) and was awarded the Egyptian Medal and Khedive’s Bronze Star. Between 1882 and 1898, Bruce served at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich; on the Australian Station; the China

47 Station; and on the sloop Beagle on the southeast coast of America. He was appointed for gunnery duties to the cruiser ship Marathon in the East Indies. After a short gunnery course in the Excellent, Whale Island, Portsmouth, Hampshire, in 1897, he was gunnery lieutenant in the cruiser Sirius on special duty in the Mediterranean. In 1905 Bruce was naval officer in charge and king’s harbor master at Bermuda, North Atlantic Ocean. In 1911 he commanded the cruiser Defense which, with three others, escorted the liner Medina carrying King George V and Queen Mary to and from India for the official reception or durbar. When World War 1 broke out, he commanded the battleship Hercules, then was the first appointed commodore superintendent of the new Rosyth Dockyard, Fifeshire, Scotland (1915– 1919). Under his leadership Rosyth developed into the most up-to-date of the fleet bases. Bruce was member, Royal Victorian Order (1911); Companion, Order of the Bath (1917); and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1920). After retirement he was active in service charities and at his death was patron of the metropolitan branch of the British Legion. He was knocked down by an automobile in London and died from his injuries. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32134.

BUCHANAN, FRANKLIN (1800–1874) (USA)

Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Franklin Buchanan was midshipman (1814); lieutenant (1825); captain (1885); and admiral (1862). He was the first superintendent of the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1845–1847), and from 1847 to 1848 saw active service in the Mexican-American War. He commanded the USS Susquehanna, a sidewheel steamer in Commodore Matthew Galbraith Perry’s expedition to Japan in 1852–1854. In April 1861, on the eve of the American Civil War, acting on the belief that Maryland would secede from the United States, Buchanan resigned his commission. When Maryland remained loyal to the Union, he tried to recall his resignation but was dismissed the following month and entered the Confederate Navy. He commanded the ironclad ram CSS (Confederate States Ship) Virginia when it sank the Union frigates Cumberland and Congress in Hampton Roads (a body of water and the surrounding land in southeastern Virginia) in March 1862. He was wounded in the leg in an incredible act of bravery; when the Congress was being shelled from the shore, Buchanan started firing

Buckle from the top deck of the Virginia and only stopped when he was brought down by a sharpshooter. At the Battle of Mobile Bay, Alabama (August 5, 1864), Admiral Buchanan fought Union ships with the ram CSS Tennessee after other vessels of his own squadron were disabled or captured. He fought fiercely until he was forced to surrender. Held prisoner until he was exchanged in February 1865, he was reassigned to Mobile, arriving in time to surrender the city on April 12, 1865. After the Civil War, Buchanan was made president of Maryland Agricultural College (1868–1869) and worked as an insurance executive in Mobile. Three U.S. Navy destroyers have been named in honor of Admiral Franklin Buchanan: DD-131, DD-484, and DDG-14, the last a guided missile armed destroyer. The superintendent’s quarters at the United States Naval Academy is named Buchanan House, completed in 1906. Sources: “Admiral Franklin Buchanan, Confederate States Navy (1800–1874).” Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-b/fbuchan.htm. American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/04/04-00169.html?a=1&n=BUC HANAN%2C%20FRANKLIN%20&d=10&ss=0&q=1. “Franklin Buchanan.” Virtual American Biographies. http://famousamericans.net/franklinbuchanan. “Franklin Buchanan” (June 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:53, July 26, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franklin_Buchana n&oldid=221205138. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “United States Naval Academy.” Navpooh’s Virtual Naval Academy. www.geocities.com/Heartland/ Meadows/7432/navy_page.html.

BUCKLE, SIR CLAUDE HENRY MASON (1803–1894) (BRITAIN)

The grandson of Matthew Buckle (see entry), born at Blackheath, Kent, Claude Henry Mason Buckle graduated from the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth (1819), and was lieutenant (1827); commander (1836); captain (1845); rear admiral (1863); commander-in-chief at Queenstown, Ireland; retired vice admiral (1870); and retired admiral (1877). He was employed on the bark Leander during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1823–1826) and took part in the capture of Rangoon in May 1824. From December 1841 to October 1845, Buckle commanded the sloop Growler in Brazil. Early in 1845 he was part of the squadron under the command of Commodore William Jones with his flagship the Penelope, patrolling the west coast of Africa. Buckle led a small force up the Gallinas River, just north of the modern border between Sierra Leone and Liberia, and destroyed several barracoons (barracks in which slaves or convicts were held in temporary confinement).

Buckle In December 1849, with the steamer Teazer and the French steamer Rubis, Buckle routed a horde of pirates who had established bases in the River Geba, West Africa, and were wreaking havoc among small trading vessels. During the Crimean War (1853–1856), Buckle, as captain on the paddle ship Valorous, was sent out to the Black Sea and was present at the Battle of Kinburn (October 17, 1855). Buckle was made Companion, Order of the Bath (1855), and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1875). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/3860. “The Buckle Papers.” West Sussex County Council. www.westsussex. gov.uk/ccm/content/libraries-and-archives/recordoffice/collections/the-buckle-papers.en;jsessionid= addbQdp6Zgy9.

BUCKLE, MATTHEW (1718–1784) (BRITAIN)

Matthew Buckle, grandfather of Sir Claude Buckle (see entry), entered the Royal Navy at age 13. He was lieutenant (1739); captain (1745); rear admiral (1770); vice admiral (1778); and retired (1779). His first command was captain of HMS Russell in 1745, and in October 1747 — during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740– 1748)—Captain Buckle won national fame by capturing the Spanish man-of-war Glorioso. While returning from the Gibraltar off Cape St. Vincent, Spain, the Russell met up with the HMS Dartmouth, which was badly damaged by the more powerful Glorioso. The Dartmouth blew up and the Russell picked up the few survivors. Then for more than five hours she engaged the Glorioso until the Spanish captain surrendered. Of the Russell’s crew of 400, 11 were killed and 10 wounded; the ship was badly damaged. After repairs at Lisbon and having found a new crew for the Glorioso, the Russell and the Glorioso arrived in England in June 1748. When the Glorioso was sold in April 1749, any prize money Buckle and his crew would have had vanished in repairs to the Russell and hiring the crew for the Glorioso. During the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763), Buckle served as flag captain to Edward Boscawen (see entry) in the HMS Namur and took part in the Battle of Quiberon Bay (November 20, 1759) off the coast of France near St. Nazaire. Sources: “The Buckle Family.” Banstead History Research Group: People of Banstead. www.bansteadhistory. com/people_az.html. “The Buckle Papers.” West Sussex County Council. www.westsussex.gov.uk/ccm/content/ libraries-and-archives/record-office/collections/thebuckle-papers.en;jsessionid=addbQdp6Zgy9.

48 BULKELEY, JOHN DUNCAN (1911–1996) (USA)

Born in New York City, John Duncan Bulkeley graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1933), and was lieutenant (1941); lieutenant commander (1943); commander (1944); captain (1945); rear admiral and commander of the Navy Base at Guantanamo, Cuba (1963); and retired from active duty as vice admiral (1975). As a young ensign Bulkeley was traveling to Washington on a steamer when, convinced that the Japanese ambassador had concealed stolen state secrets in his briefcase (this was the time when tensions were mounting between Japan and the U.S.), he stole the briefcase, swam with it and handed it to the intelligence service, which was not impressed. Possibly to avert a diplomatic incidence, Bulkeley was sent out of the country on an assignment as engineer. He served tours on the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga, the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis and the gunboat USS Sacramento. In China, Bulkeley and his bride witnessed the invasion of Swatow and Shanghai by Japanese troops and the bombing by the Japanese (mistakenly, they said) of the gunboat USS Panay (PR-5), anchored in the Yangtze River outside of Nanjing on December 12, 1937. In February 1941, Bulkeley took command of Submarine Chaser Division One, and in September was ordered to the Philippines in command of Motor Torpedo Squadron Three, consisting of six motor torpedo boats. He picked up General of the Army Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964), his family, and his immediate staff, who had been ordered to flee the Philippines, and took them aboard 77-foot motor torpedo boats through 600 miles of ocean. Bulkeley led torpedo boats and minesweepers in clearing the lanes to Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion of June 1944, keeping German E-boats from attacking the landing ships, and picking up survivors. In the early 1960s, he commanded the triservice Clarksville Base, Tennessee. Bulkeley’s decorations include Medal of Honor; Navy Cross; Army Distinguished Service Cross with one Oak Leaf Cluster; Navy Distinguished Service Medal; two Silver Stars; Legion of Merit with Combat V; Purple Heart, twice; Philippine Distinguished Conduct Star; and French Croix de Guerre. He was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The United States Navy named the USS Bulkeley (DDG-84), a guided missile destroyer commissioned in 2001, after him. In the 1945 movie They Were Expendable Robert Montgomery played the part of Bulkeley. Sources: Hargis, Robert, Starr Sinton, and Ramiro Bujeiro. World War II Medal of Honor Recipients (1):

49

Burke

Navy and USMC. Oxford: Osprey, 2003. “John D. Bulkeley” (July 9, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:52, July 26, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_D._Bulkeley&oldid =224502550. “John Bulkeley.” Find a Grave. www.find agrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6129929. “John Duncan Bulkeley.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/jdbulkel.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:41, July 26, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Charles_Bullen&oldid=217941766. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/3911.

BULLEN, SIR CHARLES (1769–1853) (BRITAIN)

Born in Boulder, Colorado, Arleigh Albert Burke graduated as an ensign from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1923), where he pursued postgraduate work in ordnance explosives. He gained a master’s degree in chemical engineering from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1931). From then until 1943, Burke served on destroyers and battleships and at the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C. In January 1943 he was commander of the destroyer squadron in the Solomon Islands known as the “Little Beavers,” which supported the November 1943 landings in Bougainville, New Guinea. They were heavily engaged well into 1944 and destroyed many enemy ships and aircraft. Both the aircraft carriers Bunker Hill and Enterprise were hit by Japanese suicide planes during the Okinawa Campaign (March-June 1945). At the outbreak of the Korean War (1950–1955), he was rear admiral and deputy chief of staff to commander, Naval Forces, Far East; a member of the United Nations Truce Delegation with the Communists to end the war; director of the Strategic Plans Division; commander, Cruiser Division Six; and commander, Destroyer Force Atlantic Fleet. Although he had never served as vice admiral, Burke was promoted over nearly 100 senior admirals to the post of chief of naval operations and served three terms under President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969). His main task was to modernize the navy and make it effective in the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union. To this end he started arming nuclear-powered submarines with Polaris missiles. Burke retired in 1961, and in 1991 the navy launched the USS Arleigh Burke (DDG-51), a stateof-the-art guided missile destroyer named in his honor. Admiral Burke, himself of Swedish descent, represented the United States at the funeral of King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden (1882–1973). Burke’s awards are Navy Distinguished Service Medal; Navy Cross; Legion of Merit; Purple Heart; National Medal of Freedom; and Presidential Unit Citation awarded to Destroyer Squadron 23. Burke died at the National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland, and is buried at the cemetery at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland.

Born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Tyne and Wear, England, Charles Bullen joined the Royal Navy in 1779 and served in the Europe, the flagship of Marriot Arbuthnot (see entry) on the North America Station. He was lieutenant (1791); commander (1798); captain (1802); rear admiral (1840); vice admiral (1846); and admiral (1852). He was first lieutenant on the Monmouth and was taken prisoner during The Nore Mutiny (May-June 1797). It was only through the intervention of his commanding officer, William Carnegie, Lord Northesk (see entry), that he was not executed. Bullen carried messages from the rebels to the government and so helped end the mutiny. At the Battle of Camperdown (October 11, 1797) off the coastal village of Camperduin in the Dutch province of North Holland, during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792– 1802), the Dutch ship Delft struck the Monmouth and lodged into her. Bullen stayed on board the Monmouth and rescued many of his crew, although many were lost. In recognition of his bravery he was promoted to be commander. He was flag captain to Lord Northesk on the Britannia, fourth in line at the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805. The Britannia was heavily engaged all through the battle and suffered 10 killed and 42 wounded. From 1807 to 1830— when he was appointed superintendent of Pembroke dockyard and captain of the yacht Royal Sovereign — Bullen served in the Mediterranean and on the coast of Spain; on the North America Station; and was commodore on the west coast of Africa. During that time he cooperated with the military commander in freeing 10,000 slaves held in the village of Ashantee. Bullen was superintendent of Pembroke Dockyard. He was awarded the Trafalgar Gold Medal and Sword (1805); made a Companion, Order of the Bath (1815); Knight Commander, Hanoverian Order (1835); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1839); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1852). He was knighted in 1835. When he died, Admiral Bullen was the last surviving captain of the British fleet at Trafalgar. Sources: “Charles Bullen” (June 8, 2008). In

BURKE, ARLEIGH ALBERT (1901–1996) (USA)

Burnett Sources: “Admiral Arleigh A. Burke, USN, 19 October 1901–1 January 1996.” Naval Historical Center: Biographies in Naval History. www.history.navy.mil/bios/ burke_arleigh.htm. “Arleigh Burke” (July 10, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:46, July 26, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ar leigh_Burke&oldid=224716918. “Burke, Arleigh Albert” (2008). In Britannica Book of the Year, 1997. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9113 091. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

BURNETT, SIR ROBERT LINDSAY (1887–1959) (BRITAIN)

Born at Old Deer, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Robert Lindsay Burnett graduated from the Britannia Training-ship in Dartmouth, Devon, around 1905 and was lieutenant (1910); commander (1923); captain (1930); commodore, Royal Naval Barracks, Chatham (1939); rear admiral (1941); vice admiral (1943); commander-in-chief, South Atlantic (1944); admiral (1946); and head of Plymouth command (1947–1950). He retired in May 1950. Burnett was an all-around athlete, and in 1910 he qualified as a physical training instructor. Later, as secretary to the Sports Control Board, he was a leading figure in the development of the physical training branch of the navy. He was a Royal Tournament saber championship winner in the 1920s and was a qualified referee for many other sports, including water polo and boxing. During World War I, commanding a torpedo boat, he saw action the Battle of Heligoland Bight (August 28, 1914) and the Battle of the Dogger Bank ( January 24, 1915). He then commanded destroyers with the Grand Fleet until the end of the war. Until 1939, as well as being director of physical training and sports for two years, he commanded a destroyer flotilla on the China Station and the cruiser flagship of the South African squadron. The years 1941 to 1944 were crucial ones; Burnett rendered outstanding service and played a leading part in the saga of the Arctic convoys. (During World War II convoys traveled from the United Kingdom and the United States to the northern ports of the Soviet Union, Archangel and Murmansk. There were 78 convoys between August 1941 and May 1945.) In September 1942 submarines and aircraft attacked a convoy of forty ships for four days, and although thirteen merchantmen were lost, Burnett brought the empty convoy safely back to Britain. In December 1943, in the Battle of North Cape (Norway), Burnett took part in the sinking of the German battle cruiser ship Scharnhorst. Burnett, commanding HMS ship Belfast, and his three cruisers gave the Scharnhorst no quarter. It was

50 finally destroyed by Commander-in-chief Bruce Fisher in his flagship the HMS Norfolk. Burnett’s awards were Officer, Order of the British Empire (1925); Companion, Order of the Bath (1942); Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (1943); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath, and Commander, The Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem (1945); Knight, Order of the British Empire (1950); honorary doctor of laws, Aberdeen University (1944); and high orders from the Soviet Union, Greece, and the Netherlands. Sources: “Burnett, Sir Robert Lindsay.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/locreg/BURNETT5.shtml. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/32189.

BURNEY, SIR CECIL (1858–1929) (BRITAIN)

Born in Jersey, Channel Islands, Cecil Burney entered the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, as a naval cadet in 1871 and was midshipman (1873); sub-lieutenant (1877); lieutenant (1880); commander (1893); captain (1898); rear admiral (1909); vice admiral (1912); admiral (1916); second sea lord (1916); commander-in-chief, coast of Scotland, Rosyth (1917); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1919); admiral of the fleet (1921); and created a baronet (1921). Burney was in charge of a Gatling gun (the first machine gun) at the actions of Mahatu and Kassassin. Around August 11, 1882, Bedouin Arabs in the desert of Mount Sinai murdered the Orientalist Professor Edward Henry Palmer (1849–1882), Captain of Royal Engineers William John Gill (1843– 1882) and Lieutenant Harold Charrington, Royal Navy (1856–1882). Burney was one of the team led by Major General (Sir) Charles Warren (1798– 1866) who captured the murderers and brought them to trial. The remains of the murdered British men are interred in the crypt of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Between 1882 and 1889 he became a gunnery specialist, and then was three years in command of the boys’ training ships HMS Boscawen and HMS Minotaur at Portland, near Weymouth, Dorset. He was inspecting captain of all boys’ training ships (1905–1909). In 1912 Burney took commanded of the Third Battle Squadron, which was involved in curbing disturbances that arose in Montenegro and Albania at the close of the Second Balkan War (1913). Burney’s squadron was sent to ensure that a British man would be senior officer of the combined fleet. He had to secure an agreement between the naval

51 forces of the powers represented: the Balkan League of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria, against Serbia, with Romania and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) intervening against Bulgaria as to how they should act. In addition, he had to try to resolve the differences among the different factions ashore. He established a blockade of the coast during April and May of 1913, and then from May to November commanded the international force occupying Scutari, which the Montenegrins had captured, until the trouble was finally settled. In December 1914 Burney went to the First Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet, being second in command under John Jellicoe (see entry). At the battle of Jutland (May 31, 1916), his squadron was the rear of the line and was more heavily engaged than the rest of the battleships of the main fleet. When his flagship, the Marlborough, was torpedoed, he transferred his flag to the Revenge. He was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1913); Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1916); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1922). His son, an inventor, Commander Charles Dennistoun Burney (1888–1968) succeeded to the baronetcy on his father’s death. Sources: “Cecil Burney” (July 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:30, July 26, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_ Burney&oldid=227400130. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 32192.

BURROUGH, SIR HAROLD MARTIN (1888–1977) (BRITAIN)

Born in Herefordshire, England, Harold Martin Burrough started as a naval cadet in 1903 and was a gunnery officer in the light cruiser HMS Southampton at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). By the early 1930s, Burrough had held several commands, including the heavy cruiser HMS London, the 5th Destroyer Flotilla, and on HMS Excellent, part of the Maritime Warfare School at Whale Island near Portsmouth, Hampshire, before becoming assistant chief of naval staff (1939–1940). He was awarded the Companion of the Distinguished Service Order after a successful raid on the Norwegian islands of Vaagso and Maaloy, on December 27, 1941, in which nine enemy ships were sunk by the Navy and Royal Air Force and the garrisons wiped out by the military forces. By July 1942 he was vice admiral in command of the close escort force for Operation Pedestal to get desperately needed supplies to the island of Malta. He also had command of Allied naval forces in the assault on Algiers during Operation Torch, the

Button North African Campaign started November 8, 1942. Burrough and Major General Donald Ryder (United States) and Air Commodore G.M. Evelegh (Britain) jointly directed operations from the armed merchant cruiser HMS Bulolo and landed the American 34th Infantry Division under Major General Charles W. Ryder (1882–1960), one brigade of the British 78th Infantry Division, and No. 1 and 6 Commandos. A second brigade of 78th Division acted as a floating reserve. In January 1945, Burrough succeeded Bertram Ramsay (see entry), who was killed in a plane crash, as British naval commander-in-chief of the Allied Expeditionary Army. He worked closely with General Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) during the final months of the war; he was one of the signatories to the German surrender documents on May 7, 1945, at Rheims, France. He retired in 1949. His other awards were Knight Commander, Order of the Bath, and Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire. Sources: “Burrough, Sir Harold Martin (1888–1977), Admiral.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/locreg/ BURROUGH.shtml. “German Surrender Documents Ending World War II.” University of Oklahoma College of Law: U.S. Historical Documents. www.law.ou.edu/us history/germsurr.shtml. “Harold Burrough” (July 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:00, July 26, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Harold_Burrough&oldid=227042584. “Operation Torch.” MilitaryPhotos.net. www.militarypho tos.net/forums/showthread.php?t=112763. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/65598.

BUTTON, SIR THOMAS (1575?–1634) (BRITAIN)

Born in Worleton, Glamorganshire, Wales, Thomas Button apparently joined the Royal Navy in 1588 or 1589. In 160l, at the time of the Spanish invasion of Ireland, he was commended for gallantry as captain of Queen Elizabeth’s pinnace Moon at Kinsale, Ireland, and was awarded a pension of almost £1 a day for life. By 1612 Button was a member of the North West Company and in command of the Resolution and the Discovery with the task of searching for the explorer Henry Hudson (1560–1611). Hudson, who explored and named Hudson Bay in Canada and the Hudson River in America, had been put adrift in a small boat by mutineers and was never found. Button was also commissioned to carry on further exploration to search for the Northwest Passage. Button named Resolution Island in Hudson Strait after his ship. The company found no trace of Hudson. Button named Nelson River after the master of the Resolution, who died there.

Byng Around 1615 he was appointed admiral of the king’s ships on the coast of Ireland and was knighted in 1616. He was a rear admiral in a campaign of 1620–1621 against the pirates of the Algerian coast. In 1624 he was a member of the Council of War, and in 1625 was on a commission for inquiring into the state of the navy. He became involved in endless quarrels with the Commissioners of the Navy over supplies and was later in dispute over the non-payment of his pension money, which remained undetermined at his death. Sources: “Button, Sir Thomas.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography. www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp? BioId=34220. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4235. “Sir Thomas Button” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/86754/Sir-Thomas-Button. “Sir Thomas Button.” Virtual American Biographies. http:// famousamericans.net/sirthomasbutton. “Thomas Button.” Manitoba Historical Society. www.mhs.mb.ca/ docs/people/button_t.shtml.

BYNG, GEORGE, VISCOUNT TORRINGTON (1663–1733) (BRITAIN)

Born at Wrotham, Kent, England, George Byng entered the Royal Navy as a king’s letter boy on board the Swallow in 1678; he was lieutenant and posted to the East Indies in 1683. In 1688 he persuaded the British navy to switch allegiance to William III, Prince of Orange, which played a leading role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and William was installed as king of England (1689), replacing James II. Byng’s allegiance to William possibly accounts for his meteoric rise within the navy. In 1702, he was promoted to rear admiral on the Ranelagh serving under Sir Clowdisley Shovell (see entry) in the Mediterranean. While there he succeeded in renewing the treaty with Algiers for the protection of English commerce. In August 1704, still in the Ranelagh, Byng was involved in the Battle of Gibraltar and at the indecisive Battle of Malaga against France and Spain. On his return, Byng was knighted by Queen Anne (reigned 1702–1714). He was vice admiral (1704) and admiral (1707). In 1715, he played a decisive part in the collapse of the Jacobean uprising in Scotland; James Stuart, the Old Pretender (son of James II), made an unsuccessful attempt to claim the crown and re-establish Roman Catholicism. For this, George I (reigned 1714–1727) made Byng a baronet. Byng was admiral of the fleet (1717) and in this capacity scored a resounding victory on August 11, 1718, at the Battle of Cape Passaro, the most southeasterly point of Sicily. In 1721 Byng was created rear admiral of Great Britain and treasurer of

52 the navy. He was made a member of the Privy Council (see Berkeley, James), and made Baron Southill and Viscount Torrington in Devon. He was the father of John Byng (see entry), also an admiral. Sources: “George Byng, 1st Viscount Torrington” (March 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:27, July 26, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=George_Byng%2C_1st_Viscount_T orrington&oldid=195885184. “Byng’s Battles.” www.ci chw.net/pmbapass1.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4262 ?docPos=1.

BYNG, JOHN (1704–1757) (BRITAIN)

The son of George Byng (see entry), Viscount Torrington, John Byng entered the Royal Navy in 1718 and was lieutenant (1724); captain (1727); governor of Newfoundland (1742); rear admiral (1745); vice admiral and commander-in-chief, Mediterranean (1747); and admiral (1756). Apart from his early service, mainly in the Mediterranean and as commodore-governor of Newfoundland (1742), his life is unremarkable; his death is noteworthy. As admiral, in 1756, he was ordered to the Mediterranean to relieve the British garrison of Fort St. Philip at Port Mahon, Minorca, a British possession since 1706. The squadron was not very well manned, and to add to Byng’s chagrin, his Marines were taken off to make room for soldiers to reinforce the garrison. Upon arrival, he found the fort taken by the French. The sea Battle of Minorca was fought on May 20, 1756, and the French fleet escaped; the garrison surrendered on June 29. The garrison troops were allowed passage back to England, and the fort and island came under French control. Byng’s actions in failing to press on to relieve the garrison or further pursue the French fleet resulted in public outrage and severe criticism. The admiralty, perhaps covering for its own illpreparedness for this disastrous venture, charged Byng with breaching the Articles of War by failing to do all he could to fulfill his orders and support the garrison. On his own flagship, the Monarch, Byng was court-martialed, found guilty and sentenced to be shot; the sentence was carried out on March 14, 1757, in Portsmouth harbor. Byng’s execution is referred to in Voltaire’s play Candide with the line “Dans ce pays-ci, il est bon de tuer de temps en temps un amiral pour encourager les autres.” (“In this country, it is wise to kill an admiral from time to time to give courage to the others.”) In 2007, a petition by some of Admiral Byng’s descendants for a posthumous pardon was refused by the Ministry of Defence. Their refusal stresses the fact that

53 a naval officer is expected to do everything humanly possible to execute his mission. Sources: “Admiral Byng: Shot to Death on Board the Monarque, at Spithead, for Misbehavior Before the French Fleet in the Mediterranean.” The Ex-classics Web Site: Newgate Calendar. www.exclassics.com/newgate/ ng270.htm. “Byng, John.” Dictionary of Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www.biographi.ca/EN/ ShowBio.asp?BioId=35353. “John Byng” (July 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:12, July 26, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=John_Byng&oldid=227790854. “John Byng.” Ward’s Book of Days. www.wardsbookofdays. com/14march.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4263?doc Pos=1.

BYRD, RICHARD EVELYN (1888–1957) (USA)

Born in Winchester, Virginia, Richard Evelyn Byrd graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1912. He was made lieutenant commander in 1924 and rear admiral in 1930. In 1914, he was assigned to the USS Washington during the occupation of Veracruz, Mexico (1914). For his rescue of a seaman in Santo Domingo — the capital and largest city of the Caribbean Dominican Republic — Byrd was awarded the Congressional Life Saving Medal. He gained his wings from Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida (1917), and became assistant superintendent with responsibility for investigating aircraft crashes. He was involved in creating the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics at Washington, D.C., and in 1922 he was assigned to create an air station in Massachusetts to train reserve pilots. His flight over the North Pole, piloted by Floyd Bennett (1890–1928), in May 1926 earned Byrd widespread acclaim. Byrd’s attempt to win the Orteig Prize in 1927 — for making the first non-stop flight between the United States and France — was unsuccessful. On take-off the Fokker trimotor plane crashed, seriously injuring Floyd Bennett. The prize was won by Charles Lindbergh (1902– 1974). In 1928, Byrd began his first expedition to the Antarctic involving two ships and three airplanes. On November 29, 1929, Byrd, piloted by Bernt Balchen (1899–1973), flew from the base “Little America” to the South Pole and back in 18 hours, 41 minutes. He was honorary national president of Pi Gamma Mu, the international honor society in the social sciences (1931–1935). Byrd undertook four more expeditions to Antarctica: 1933–1935, 1939–1940, 1946–1947, and 1955–1956. In the winter of 1934 Byrd nearly lost his life from carbon monoxide poisoning from a poorly ventilated stove

Byron at Advance Base, but was rescued weak and in poor shape. Among his many honors and awards were the Medal of Honor, Navy Cross, Navy Distinguished Service Medal, and Distinguished Flying Cross. He had three ticker-tape parades and nine citations for bravery and two for extraordinary heroism in saving the lives of others. Places named after Richard Byrd include the Richmond International Airport in Henrico County, Virginia, originally the Richard Evelyn Byrd Flying Field; Mount Byrd on Ross Island, Antarctica; lunar crater Byrd; Richard E. Byrd School, Glen Rock, New Jersey; and the Polar Research Center at Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. The guided missile destroyer USS Richard E. Byrd (DDG-23), launched 1962, and the dry cargo ship Richard E. Byrd (T-AKE-4) launched in 2007 were named in his honor. He was buried in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia, and there is a memorial for him on Memorial Drive just outside the gates of Arlington. (See also, Dufek, George John.) Sources: American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/20/20-00133.html?a=1& n=BYRD%2C%20RICHARD%20EVELYN%20&d= 10&ss=0&q=1. “Byrd, Richard E.” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-901839 7. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Richard Evelyn Byrd.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/rebyrd.htm. “Richard Evelyn Byrd” (July 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:56, July 26, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Evelyn_Byrd&ol did=223288663. Stewart, John. Antarctica: An Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2009.

BYRON, JOHN (1723–1786) (BRITAIN)

John Byron entered the Royal Navy in 1731, and in 1740 he was appointed as a midshipman to the Wager, one of the squadron under George Anson (see entry). The Wager was lost on May 14, 1741, after rounding Cape Horn on the southern coast of Chile. Byron eventually reached a Spanish prison and was repatriated in 1745. His account was to some extent used by his grandson, the poet Lord George Gordon Byron, in Don Juan (Canto 83 onward). He was promoted to commander on returning to England, having been made lieutenant in the meanwhile. He made captain (1745); rear admiral (1775); and vice admiral (1778). Byron commanded a squadron at the Battle of Louisbourg ( July 26, 1758) and in the Bay of Chaleur, an arm of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence separating Quebec’s Gaspé Peninsula from New Brunswick’s North

Calder Shore. He also led the last naval engagement in North America of the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763) at the decisive Battle of the Restigouche ( July 8, 1760). In 1764 he was appointed commander-in-chief of all his majesty’s ships in the East Indies. Byron circumnavigated the world as captain of HMS Dolphin (1764–1766). He claimed the Falkland Islands for Britain, which almost led to war between Great Britain and Spain and did lead to war between Britain and Argentina in 1982. He discovered the Pacific islands of Tuamotus, Tokelau and the Gilbert Islands, and was governor of Newfound in 1769–1772. Byron was beyond question a brave man, a good seaman, and an esteemed officer, but not a brilliant strategist, and he lacked the truly combative instinct. His nickname was “Foulweather Jack” for the storms his ships so often endured. Sources: “Byron, John.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp? BioId=35909. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4282?docPos=2.

CALDER, SIR ROBERT (1745–1818) (BRITAIN)

Born in Elgin, Scotland, Robert Calder entered the Royal Navy in 1759. As a midshipman in the Active he received £1,800 in prize money for his part in the capture of the Spanish treasure ship Hermione on May 21, 1762. He was lieutenant (1762); captain (1780); captain of the fleet (1796); knighted (1797); baronet (1798); rear admiral (1799); vice admiral (1804); and admiral (1810). As captain of the fleet to Admiral John Jervis (see entry), Calder saw action at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent on February 14, 1797 (see also, Nelson, Horatio). After the battle Calder was selected as bearer of the dispatches announcing the victory and was knighted on March 3, 1797, by George III (reigned 1760–1820). He also received the thanks of Parliament and was created 1st Baronet Calder of Southwick (August 22, 1798). On July 23–24, 1805, during the War of the Third Coalition (1805–1806)— a military conflict between an alliance of primarily Austria, Russia, and Great Britain against France under Napoleon Bonaparte — the Battle of Cape Finisterre was a serious defeat for Napoleon. After fighting for four hours, and with night falling, Calder ordered a cease fire. The French did not accept his challenge the following day, so the battle fizzled out and the French withdrew. Calder, criticized in England for not routing the enemy, demanded a court-martial and thus missed the Battle of Trafalgar (October

54 21, 1805). The court-martial, held December 23, 1805, concluded that he had been guilty of an error in judgment and issued a severe reprimand for Calder for not having done his utmost to renew the engagement, at the same time acquitting him of cowardice and disaffection. Calder never served at sea again. He was created Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815), and appointed commander-in-chief, Portsmouth. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4370. “Robert Calder” (May 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:55, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Calder&oldid=2150765 74.

CALDWELL, SIR BENJAMIN (1737?–1820) (BRITAIN)

Born in Liverpool, Benjamin Caldwell entered the Royal Naval Academy, Portsmouth in 1754, and was on the Namur, the flagship of Edward Boscawen (see entry), at the defeat of a French squadron at the Battle of Lagos Bay (August 18–19, 1759) and in the victory at the Battle of Quiberon Bay (November 20, 1759). Caldwell, commanding the Agamemnon of 64 guns, was one of the small squadron with Rear Admiral Richard Kempenfelt (see entry) in the HMS Victory at the decisive Second Battle of Ushant in the Bay of Biscay off Spain (December 12, 1781). The Agamemnon was detached to pick up any stragglers of the scattered French convoy and succeeded in capturing five more of their ships. She returned in time to sail with George Rodney (see entry) for the West Indies, where she had a brilliant share in the victorious Battle of the Saintes (April 9–12, 1782) during the American Revolution of 1775–1783. The Agamemnon remained on the West India and North America Station till the peace and was paid off in May 1783. In April 1794, as rear admiral in the Impregnable of 98 guns, in Admiral Richard Howe’s (see entry) fleet, he took part in the Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794) in which the Impregnable had thirty-one men killed or wounded. What followed was a blot on British Naval history. Lord Howe committed a serious blunder by not mentioning Calder and several other flag officers and captains in his report about the battle. Thus they were deprived of the gold medal that other officers received. This was followed by what Caldwell considered a second insult. Although some of the details are confusing, the gist is that Calder considered that in 1795–1796 as vice admiral he was unjustly succeeded as commander-in-chief, the

55 Leeward Islands, in the Caribbean, with his flag in the Majestic, by Sir John Laforey (1729?–1796), when there was no reason given. He returned to England in the frigate Blanche and neither applied for nor accepted any further appointment. He became admiral (1799) by virtue of seniority. Calder’s name was markedly omitted from the honors conferred at the end of the war with France in 1802. It was not until 1820, when George IV was on the throne, that the injustice was righted to some degree when he was awarded a Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath. Sources: “Benjamin Caldwell” (June 13, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:41, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Be njamin_Caldwell&oldid=219087022. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/4383.

CALLAGHAN, DANIEL JUDSON (1890–1942) (USA)

Born in San Francisco, California, Daniel Callaghan graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1911. He was initially attached to the armored cruiser ship California, where he commanded an eight-inch turret, then to the destroyer ship Truxton as engineer officer, eventually becoming its commander. During World War I he was engineering officer of the cruiser ship New Orleans (1916–1918) on convoy duty between New York and the Mediterranean. Between 1918 and 1937, Callaghan served on the Idaho, Colorado, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, and California. From 1938 to 1940 he was naval aide to President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945). Callaghan, at his own request, returned to sea as rear admiral and commander of Task Group 67.4 —five cruisers and ten destroyers — and was killed on the bridge of the USS San Francisco in the night naval Battle of Guadalcanal (November 12–15, 1942). Callaghan was posthumously honored with the Congressional Medal of Honor and mourned by Roosevelt as “my close personal friend.” Said the president in a letter to his widow, Mary Tormey Callaghan, dated November 17, 1942, “I am very sure I need not tell you of the sense of great personal loss to me. Dan and I had a very wonderful relationship during the years he was at the White House. I took great pride in him, and I must have been nearly as happy as he over his new command. In spite of our grief, we will always remember a gallant soul who died leading his ship and his command to a great victory.” The destroyer Callaghan (DD-792) was launched 1 August 1943. Sources: “Callaghan, Daniel Judson; Rear Admiral, USN.” San Francisco Memorial Foundation. www.uss

Callaghan sanfrancisco.org/Callahan,%20Daniel%20Judson.html. “Daniel J. Callaghan” (July 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:47, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel_J._Callagh an&oldid=223141975. “Callaghan.” Dictionary of American Navy Fighting Ships, Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c2/call aghan.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “World War II Congressional Medal of Honor Recipient, Rear Admiral Daniel Judson Callaghan.” www. medalofhonor.com/DanielCallaghan.htm. Roosevelt’s quote is from http://usspotomac.org/pdf/newsletter_ v01_number03.pdf.

CALLAGHAN, SIR GEORGE ASTLEY (1852–1920) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, George Astley Callaghan graduated from the Britannia Training-ship, now Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, and was sub-lieutenant (1872); lieutenant (1875); commander (1887); captain (1894); rear admiral (1905); vice admiral (1910); acting admiral and commander-in-chief, Home Fleet (1911); and admiral (1913). During his first appointment as lieutenant aboard the Ruby, East Indies Station, one of the ship’s boats capsized in the Irrawaddy River, Burma. Callaghan earned the commendation of the Admiralty for rescuing several of the crew. While captain of the first-class cruiser Endymion, he was in China at the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901). Under Admiral Sir Edward Hobart Seymour (1840–1929) and Lieutenant General Sir Alfred Gaselee (1844–1918), commanding a multi-national force, Callaghan, commanding a British naval brigade, was the first to enter Peking (August 1900) in time to relieve the legations. He was specially mentioned in dispatches and awarded Companion, Order of Bath. On December 28, 1908, an earthquake of 7.5 (on today’s Richter scale) hit the town of Messina, Sicily, Italy. Casualties ran into tens of thousands. Rear Admiral Callaghan, as second in command of the Mediterranean Station, on his flagship Duncan, rendered assistance, and was made Grand Officer of the Crown of Italy. Callaghan was awarded the Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order, after the inspection of the fleet by King George V (reigned 1910–1936) at Weymouth, Dorset, in 1912. In honor of President Poincaré’s (1869–1934) official visit to the fleet in 1913, Callaghan was awarded the Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honor. At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, First Sea Lord Winston Churchill (1874–1965) created a storm in naval circles by appointing John Jellicoe (see entry), Callaghan’s second-incommand, to replace him as Britain’s commander-

Callenburgh

56

in-chief of the Home Fleet. Churchill believed that Callaghan’s health was not up to the task. After his effective dismissal, Callaghan (known as the “‘teetotal admiral” on account of his views against alcohol) was commander-in-chief, The Nore, throughout the war and was promoted to the navy’s highest rank, admiral of the fleet (1917). From 1919 to 1920 he was King of Arms of the Order of the Bath, and his funeral was held in Westminster Abbey, London. Other awards were Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1909), and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1916).

Callenburgh achieved his greatest fame during the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714). In 1702, the Beschermer was again his flagship in the Battle of Vigo Bay (October 23, 1702). He participated in the Anglo-Dutch invasion of Gibraltar and helped in its defense in the Battle of Malaga against the French (August 24, 1704). Callenburgh was a member of the town council of Vlaardingen (1678– 1711) and for a short time was one of the burgomasters. The Gerard Callenburgh class was a group of four destroyers ordered for the Royal Netherlands Navy just before World War II.

Sources: “Admiral of the Fleet Sir George Astley Callaghan.” Royal Navy Flag Officers 1904–1945. www. admirals.org.uk/admirals/fleet/callaghanga.php. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/32247. “The Messina 1908 Earthquake.” Almanacco Siciliano. www.grifasi-sicilia.com/ messina_terremoto_1908_gbr.html. “Who’s Who: Sir George Callaghan.” Firstworldwar.com. www.firstworld war.com/bio/callaghan.htm.

Sources: “Gerard Callenburgh” (July 11, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:40, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Gerard_Callenburgh&oldid=225051862. “Gerard Callenburgh.” Anglo Dutch Wars. http://anglo-dutch-wars. blogspot.com/2005/04/dutch-admiral-gerard-callen burgh.html.

CALLENBURGH, GERARD (1642–1722) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Born in Willemstad, Gerard Callenburgh was second lieutenant (1666); lieutenant (1671); extraordinary captain (1673); captain (1674); vice admiral, the Admiralty of the Northern Quarter (1689); vice admiral, Admiralty of the Maze (1692); lieutenant admiral, Admiralty of the Northern Quarter (1697); lieutenant admiral, Admiralty of Amsterdam (1709); and lieutenant admiral, Admiralty of the Maze (1711). He was at the Battle of Lowestoft ( June 13, 1665) during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667); the Battle of Sole Bay (May 28, 1672), in Michiel de Ruyter’s (see entry) flagship, De Zeven Provinciën, in the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674); and the Battle of the Dogger Bank (August 5, 1781) during the Fourth AngloDutch War (1780–1784). He was second flag captain of De Zeven Provinciën in the Battle of Texel (August 11, 1673), the last major battle of the war. In 1676 he commanded the Eendragt, the flagship of Admiral de Ruyter in the Mediterranean. When de Ruyter was killed, Callenburgh became acting vice admiral as squadron leader of the foremost division, bringing home the body of the admiral (1676). He was captain of the Maagd van Dordrecht in the invasion fleet of William III of Orange (1650–1702) during the Glorious Revolution, which marked the end of the English Civil War (1642–1651) and established William of Orange as William III of Great Britain, with Mary II as joint ruler. He commanded the 90 cannon Beschermer in the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690).

CAMOCKE, GEORGE (1666?–1732?) (BRITAIN)

George Camocke, a native of Ireland, could be aptly described as a “right character,” one who bucked the system and was continually petitioning the lords of the Admiralty for financial support. Dismissed from the Royal Navy, he allied himself with the Stuart cause and became a rear admiral in the Spanish navy. Camocke appears to have joined the Royal Navy about 1682, and in 1690 was a lieutenant appointed to the 60-gun Lion. He fought at the battles of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690), Barfleur (May 19, 1692), and La Hougue (a battle linked to Barfleur). He rose to the rank of captain in 1702 but was still plaguing his superiors and even wrote in 1712 that he had been promised the rank of vice admiral in the tsar of Muscovy’s service. In 1714, in the Monck, instead of obeying an order to transport soldiers from Port Mahon, Menorca, to England, Camocke undertook to convoy the Spanish army from Palermo to Alicante before picking up the soldiers, making several other calls on the way. He was struck off the list of captains (1715), and three years later was a rear admiral in the Spanish navy. He held a junior command in the fleet that was destroyed by Sir George Byng (see entry) at the Battle of Cape Passaro ( July 31, 1718). Camocke wrote to Byng to the effect that, in the name of King James Edward Stuart, The Old Pretender (1688–1766), he could offer Byng a handsome monetary reward and the title of duke of Albemarle if he would take his fleet into Messina or any Spanish port. Camocke tried to run the blockade of Messina set up by Byng; his small frigate was captured, but he escaped, leaving behind his king’s commission for being admiral of the white and many highly incriminating papers. No longer

57 in favor in Spain, he was imprisoned on Ceuta, an exclave of Spain in northwest Africa, bordered by Morocco. It is said that he died in Rouen, France, in extreme want and degradation. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4460.

CAMPBELL, JOHN (1720?–1790) (BRITAIN)

Born at Kirkbean, near Dumfries, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, John Campbell joined the Royal Navy at a young age and sailed around the world as midshipman on the Centurion, flagship of George Anson (see entry) in 1740. One of his fellow midshipmen was Augustus Keppel (see entry), with whom he was a lifelong friend. Campbell was lieutenant (1745); captain (1778); and vice admiral (1779). It appears that around 1747, Campbell was the first person to use a Hadley quadrant to measure the angular distance between the moon and fixed stars ( John Hadley, 1682–1744). The findings of the astronomer royal, James Bradley (1692– 1762), were exactly what Campbell found; the two men worked together on many occasions at Greenwich, London (the location of Greenwich mean time), on the movements of the stars and the moon and their distances from one another. Campbell was flag captain in the Royal George, under Edward Hawke (see entry), at Battle of Quiberon Bay on November 20, 1759. Hawke sent Campbell to England and, accompanied by Lord Anson (then first lord of the Admiralty), Campbell personally gave King George II (who reigned 1727– 1760) the news of the victory. An anecdote relates that Anson told him that the king would knight him if he wished. He replied, “Troth, my lord I ken nae use that will be to me.” “But,” said Anson, “your lady may like it.” To which Campbell replied, “Aweel, his majesty may knight her if he pleases.” He never was knighted. He was admitted as a fellow of the Royal Society (1764) and was one of the team who evaluated the findings of the trials of John Harrison’s longitude watch (1693–1776). After thirty years of experimentation, Harrison finally designed and built the world’s first successful marine chronometer, a highly accurate maritime time-keeping instrument which for the first time allowed a navigator to accurately assess his ship’s position in longitude. In some respects, Campbell jeopardized his naval career by standing by Keppel in his court-martial (1747), and it was not until Keppel was installed as first lord of the Admiralty (1782) that Campbell was appointed commander-in-chief and governor of Newfoundland (1782–178). During his term as

Campioni governor, Campbell proclaimed religious freedom for all inhabitants of Newfoundland, including Roman Catholics. As a result, James Louis O’Donel, the Roman Catholic bishop, authorized the construction of a chapel and celebrated mass. Sources: “Campbell, John.” Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage: Government House. www.heritage. nf.ca/govhouse/governors/g28.html. “John Campbell (Royal Navy Officer)” (July 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:45, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Camp bell_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29&oldid=227792502. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/4518?docPos=14.

CAMPBELL, SIR PATRICK (1773–1841) (BRITAIN)

Patrick Campbell, a son of Colonel John Campbell of Melfort, Argyllshire, Scotland, was lieutenant (1794); commander (1797); captain (1800); rear admiral (1830); vice admiral (1838). In 1799, he was appointed to the sloop Dart, a powerful vessel of an experimental character, designed by naval architect and engineer Sir Samuel Bentham (1757– 1831). Proof of the value of this experimental ship came on the night of July 7, 1800, when Dart captured the French frigate Désirée from Dunkirk and brought her out safely. On January 12, 1805 Campbell had to abandon and set fire to the frigate Doris, which was wrecked on a rock in Quiberon Bay off the coast of France near St. Nazaire. The survivors were rescued by the Tonnant of 80 guns, commanded by captain W.H. Jervis. However, a few days later at Brest, Jervis and Campbell were on their way to board the flagship when their boat was swamped. Campbell survived but Jervis drowned. Campbell was commander-in-chief at the Cape of Good Hope, with his flag in the frigate Thalia (1834–1837). He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1836). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4530. “Patrick Campbell (Royal Navy Officer)” (May 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:24, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Patrick_Campbell_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29&oldi d=215073251.

CAMPIONI, INIGO (1878–1944) (ITALY)

Born in Viareggio, Tuscany, Inigo Campioni was a naval academy student from 1893, and in 1898 was promoted to ensign, then to lieutenant in 1905.

Canaris Between 1911 and 1912, Campioni fought in the Italo-Turkish War between the Ottoman Empire and Italy (September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912). In the First World War he served on the battleships Conte di Cavour and ship Andrea Doria. Promoted lieutenant commander in 1916, he distinguished himself in a battle in the Adriatic in September 1917 and was awarded the Bronze Medal and the Cross of War, both for Military Valor. In 1926, he was naval attaché to Paris, and in 1929 he had command of the battleship ship Caio Duilio. From May 1930 to May 1931 he had the command of the cruiser ship Trento. He was rear admiral (1932); vice admiral (1934); admiral (1936); head of cabinet of the minister of the navy; then had the command of the naval division during the Italian-Ethiopian War (1935–1936). Italy entered World War II in June 1940 as an ally of Germany. Campioni was involved in the Battle of Punta Stilo ( July 9, 1940), and the Battle of Cape Teulada, Sardinia (November 27, 1940). He was awarded Knight of the Military Order of Savoia for action June 1940–July 1941. Following these battles Campioni was appointed governor of the Islands of the Aegean and commander of all the operating armed forces in that area; he attended the armistice between Italy and the Allies there on September 8, 1943. The German army occupied Italy and Campioni steadfastly refused any collaboration with the Germans. He was taken prisoner and transferred to a concentration camp in Germany, was tried by a court-martial at Parma and killed on (May 24, 1943) by firing squad, formed from youths of 17–18 years. Campioni’s remains rest in the military Cemetery of Bariums. Sources: “Campioni, Inigo (1878–1944).” History and the Headlines, September 18, 2007. www.history andtheheadlines.abc-clio.com/ContentPages/Content Page.aspx?entryId=1145110¤tSection=1130224& productid=3. “Inigo Campioni” (July 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:38, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Inigo_Campioni&oldid=223185114.

CANARIS, WILHELM (1887–1945) (GERMANY)

Born in Aplerbeck, near Dortmund in Westphalia, Germany, Wilhelm Canaris joined the German Imperial Navy in 1905, and on the outbreak of World War I he was intelligence officer on board the cruiser SMS Dresden. The Dresden was sunk in March 1915 in Cumberland Bay, the Falkland Islands; Canaris and most of the crew were prisoners in Chile but he escaped back to Germany and ended the war as a U-boat commander in the Mediterranean, having sunk eighteen ships. He was promoted rapidly, becoming a captain

58 (1931); was executive officer of the cruiser ship Berlin; commanding officer of the battleship ship Schlesien; head of Abwehr, the German intelligence organization (1933); and rear admiral (1935). He organized a German spy network in Spain in 1935– 1936 and attempted to dissuade Hitler from attacking Czechoslovakia in 1938. Canaris personally advised the Spanish dictator General Franco (1892– 1975) not to permit German troops to pass through to capture. In 1939, he protested at the massacre of 200 Polish Jews who were herded into a synagogue at Bedzin, which was then set alight. But General Wilhelm Keitel (1882–1946), chief of the armed forces high command, urged Canaris to take the matter no further. Appalled by the atrocities, Canaris got reports smuggled out of Germany to the pope and to the English Bishop George Bell in Sweden. Canaris, along with his second-incommand, Hans Oster, was playing a dangerous double game — giving false information to Hitler and revealing German plans to the Allies. After the failed attempt on his life in July 1944, Hitler had Canaris and many others arrested; he was kept in solitary confinement and in chains at Gestapo cellars at Prinz Albrechtstrasse, where he was halfstarved and humiliated by the SS guards. On February 7, 1945, Canaris was taken to the Flossenbürg concentration camp in the Oberpfalz region of Bavaria, near the Czech border; he denied all personal complicity in the conspiracy against Hitler and he never betrayed his fellow participants in the Resistance Movement. In the morning hours of April 9, 1945, he knelt naked and prayed then was hanged. His body was left to rot. The Nuremberg Trials (a series of trials most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military and economic leadership of Nazi Germany, held from 1945 to 1949 in Nuremberg, Germany) revealed Canaris’ strenuous efforts in trying to stop the crimes of war and genocide committed by the SS regime. The court also revealed that Canaris prevented the killing of captured French officers in Tunisia, just as he had saved hundreds of Jews during the war. Canaris advised Hitler not to incorporate Switzerland into his New Europe. At the time of his execution, he had been decorated with Iron First and Second Class; Silver German Cross; Cross of Honor and the Wehrmacht’s Twelve and TwentyFive Year Long Service Ribbons. Sources: “Admiral Wilhelm Canaris.” Jewish Virtual Library. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/canaris.html. “Wilhelm Canaris” (July 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:02, July 27, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Wilhelm_Canaris&oldid=227912032.

59 CAPEL, SIR THOMAS BLADEN (1776–1853) (BRITAIN)

Thomas Bladen Capel, youngest son of William, fourth earl of Essex, joined the Royal Navy in 1792 and was midshipman (1795); lieutenant (1797); captain (1798); rear admiral (1825); vice admiral (1837); and admiral (1847). As a midshipman he served aboard the HMS Sans Pareil (captured from the French in 1794) at the Second Battle of Groix, off the west coast of France on June 23, 1795. In 1798 he was signal officer on Vanguard, the flagship of Horatio Nelson (see entry) at the Battle of the Nile (August 1, 1798) when Nelson’s fleet destroyed the French fleet. Nelson was so impressed with Capel that he gave Capel the honor of carrying the second set of dispatches to London with the first news of England’s victory on October 2, 1798. (The first set of dispatches was lost when the Leander was captured.) Capel was one of Nelson’s dashing “band of brothers,” Royal Navy captains who served under the command of Horatio Nelson while he pursued the French expeditionary force led by Napoleon Bonaparte to Egypt and in the decisive Battle of the Nile. On his return to England, Capel sat as a member of the court-martial on Sir Robert Calder (see entry). As captain of the frigate Phoebe, he was present throughout the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), and although not actually engaged with the enemy, Phoebe saved hundreds of lives, bringing them all safely to Gibraltar. In December 1811 Capel was appointed to the La Hogue on the North America Station, where he continued during the War of 1812. Capel had command of the royal yacht (1821–1825); was commander-in-chief, Far East Squadron (1834– 1837); and was commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1848–1852). In 1847, Admiral Capel sat on the board that decided to issue the Naval General Service Medal for service in the Napoleonic War, and which contained a Trafalgar clasp that Capel himself wore. His honors were Companion, Order of Bath (1821); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1832); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1852). Sources: “Bladen Capel Memorial 1776–1853: Life of Admiral Bladen Capel.” Bladen Family Trees and Family History. www.bladens.co.uk/id28.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/4587. “Thomas Bladen Capel” (July 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:46, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Thomas_Bladen_Capel&oldid=226733906.

CAPERTON, WILLIAM BANKS (1855–1941) (USA)

Born in Spring Hill, Tennessee, William Banks Caperton graduated as a midshipman from the

Caperton United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1875), and was ensign (1877); lieutenant junior grade (1883); and lieutenant (1889). He progressed to the rank of rear admiral in 1913, and admiral and commander-in-chief, Pacific Fleet, in 1916. Although transferred to the retired list of the Navy in 1919, he continued on active duty for another two years. Caperton held several major shore and sea appointments, including three years’ service with the Coast and Geodetic Survey; inspector of steel at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; secretary of the Steel Inspection Board, Washington, D.C.; recorder of the Examining Board at Norfolk, Virginia; executive officer aboard the USS Marietta during the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898); inspector of ordinance at the Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. (December 1899–July 1901); inspector of the 15th Light House District at St. Louis, Missouri (1904–1907); and secretary of the Light House Board, Department of Commerce and Labor (October 1909–June 1910). Caperton commanded the naval forces at the occupation of Vera Cruz (1914); at Haiti (1915–1916); and at the occupation of Santo Domingo (1916). As commander-in-chief, Pacific Fleet, he cleared southern waters of German raiders during World War I and greatly aided in the development of good will between the U.S. and her allies. He was a special representative with the rank of ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at the inauguration of Dr. Francisco de Paulo Rodriquez Alves (1848–1919) as president of the Republic of Brazil (1918), and was special naval delegate at the inauguration of Dr. Brun as president of Uruguay (1919). His awards include the Spanish Campaign (1898); Army of Cuban Pacification Medal; Mexican Service Medal (presented to the USS Washington, 1915); Dominican Campaign Medal (presented to the USS Dolphin, 1916); and Distinguished Service Medal (1918). Admiral Caperton was buried in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. In 1943, the destroyer USS Caperton (DD-650) was named in his honor. Sources: American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00087.html?a=1&n=CAPERTON%2C%20WILLIAM%20BANKS&d=10&ss =0&q=1. “Rear Admiral William Banks Caperton, USN (Ret.) 30 June 1855–21 December 1941.” Naval Historical Center: Biographies in Naval History. www.history. navy.mil/bios/caperton_w.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “William Banks Caperton.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery. net/caperton.htm. “William B. Caperton” (March 7, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:13, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=William_B._Caperton&oldid=196471537.

Capps CAPPS, WASHINGTON LEE (1864–1935) (USA)

Washington Lee Capps is remembered for his remarkable contribution to U.S. Navy shipbuilding. Born in Portsmouth, Virginia, Capps graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1884. He was ensign (1886) and from there on, no dates are certain, but by 1903 he was a rear admiral. Capps studied naval architecture at the University of Glasgow, Scotland (1886–1888), and on return to America he was appointed assistant naval contractor. He undertook brief duty at the Navy Department and was then assigned to Cramp’s Shipyard in Philadelphia. Capps moved to the New York Navy Yard, Brooklyn (1889), joined the Bureau of Construction and Repair (1892–1895), and then was superintending constructor at the Union Iron Works in San Francisco, California, where he supervised the construction of battleships, torpedo boats and gunboats. Later, attached to the staff of George Dewey (see entry), commander of the Asiatic Squadron, Capps was present during the Battle of Manila Bay (1898). After the capture of Manila, Capps had three of the Spanish warships salvaged and repaired. As constructor of the navy, as well as chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair (1903–1910), he tested and adopted numerous new ideas in warship design. Among his notable innovations was the decision to mount battleships’ main batteries on the centerline, which enabled greater broadside efficiency. During World War I, Capps was senior member of the Navy Compensation Board and was general manager of the U.S. Shipping Board’s Emergency Fleet Corporation, established in 1917. Although placed on the retired list from in 1928, he remained on active duty until the day of his death at Washington, D.C. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. During World War II, the Navy honored Rear Admiral Capps by naming two vessels after him: the destroyer USS ship Capps (DD-550), commissioned in 1942, and the transport ship Admiral W.L. Capps (AP-121), commissioned 18 September 1944.

60 (1908); and vice admiral (1914). Before he reached captain’s rank he had taken part in the Egyptian and Sudan campaigns (1882–1884) and, under Harry Holdsworth Rawson (see entry), had served in the Benin Punitive Expedition (February 1897). The expedition — which was in reprisal for the massacre in January of British political officers — was led by J.R. Phillips, the acting consul-general, that captured, burned, and looted the city of Benin (now in Nigeria), bringing to an end the highly sophisticated West African Kingdom of Benin. From 1908 to 1909, with his flag in the battleship London, he was rear admiral in the Atlantic Fleet, followed by special service at the Admiralty, then was admiral superintendent of Malta Dockyard (1912–1914). In accordance with a naval convention concluded between the Allies soon after the outbreak of the war, the French had been given command of all the Allied naval forces in the Mediterranean. The German battle cruiser Goeben escaped from the British fleet into Turkish waters. Although admiral Sir Berkeley Milne (see entry), commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, was exonerated, his continued presence in southern waters was an embarrassment. On 20 September 1914, Vice Admiral Carden was chosen to replace Milne as commander-in-chief. What follows leads up the Battle of Gallipoli (April to December 1915). Carden, as part of the War Council, when asked by First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill if he thought that the Dardanelles could be forced by naval action without military support, said that the straits could not be “rushed,” but that the forts might be silenced by a bombardment from a large number of men-of-war. In spite of opposition from John Fisher (see entry), the first sea lord, Carden’s plan was approved. The Turks, having been forewarned of the attack, had strengthened their fortifications and laid sophisticated minefields. After nine months of bloody battle, the Allies withdrew. The War Council had to take responsibility, but Carden’s advice was criticized. Poor health forced his retirement as admiral in 1917. He was made Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George, in 1916.

Sources: “Rear Admiral Washington Lee Capps.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/wlcapps.htm. “Washington Lee Capps” (February 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:30, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Washington_Lee_ Capps&oldid=194499764.

Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32286. “Who’s Who: Sir Sackville Carden.” Firstwoldwar.com. www.first worldwar.com/bio/carden.htm.

CARDEN, SIR SACKVILLE HAMILTON (1857–1930) (BRITAIN)

CARLOS, DON FEDERICO, DUKE OF GRAVINA (1756–1806) (SPAIN)

Sackville Hamilton Carden, born at Templemore, County Tipperary, Ireland, entered the Royal Navy in 1870. He was captain (1899); rear admiral

Born in Palermo, Sicily, Don Federico Gravina entered the Spanish Navy as a naval cadet (1768) and ten years later was lieutenant aboard a ship

61 whose purpose was to stop the activities of Algerian pirates in the Mediterranean. He commanded the San Luis at the Siege of Gibraltar (1779–1782), and as commander, Gravina participated in the Battle of Minorca (May 20, 1756) against the British and was promoted to captain. It was Gravina in the frigate Paz who carried the news from Spain to the Spanish colonies in Central America that King Charles III (1716–1788) had died. During the Nootka Sound Crisis (a confrontation in 1798 between Spain and Britain over the disputed ownership of Nootka Island, near Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada, which threatened to trigger a major imperial war for control of the Pacific), Gravina organized a massive Spanish fleet to do battle. As it was, diplomacy ruled and the crisis was averted. Gravina commanded the Spanish fleet during the Haiti Genocide (1803) (resulting from Napoleon’s attempt to re-establish slavery on Haiti) under French General Charles Leclerc. As ambassador to France, Gravina attended Napoleon’s coronation as emperor (December 2, 1804) and was a leading player in setting up the Franco-Spanish pact that put the Spanish Navy at Napoleon’s disposal. King Charles IV (1748–1819) appointed him commander-in-chief of the Spanish Navy, and Gravina hoisted his flag in the Argonauta at Cadiz in February 1805. During the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), Gravina’s flagship ship Principe de Asturias was simultaneously attacked by three British ships and crippled. In the battle his left arm was shattered by grapeshot; realizing that he faced defeat, he ordered a retreat and his flagship was towed back to Cadiz (see Cosmao-Kerjulien, Julien Marie). He was promoted to capitán general de la armada (admiral of the fleet) but died from his wounds. Sources: “Federico Carlos Gravina y Nápoli” (July 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:27, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Federico_Carlos_Gravina_y_N%C3%A1poli &oldid=222953479.

CARNEGIE, WILLIAM, EARL OF NORTHESK (1758–1831) (BRITAIN)

Born in Hampshire, William Carnegie entered the Royal Navy in 1771 and was lieutenant (1777); commander (1780); captain (1782); rear admiral (1804); vice admiral (1808); admiral (1814); rear admiral of Great Britain (1821); and commander-inchief, Plymouth (1827–1830). During the American Revolution (1775–1783) he served on the HMS Beaulieu and the HMS Sandwich, and was involved in the inconclusive Battle of Martinique (April 17, 1780) between the British fleet commanded by George Rodney (see entry) and the French fleet

Carney commanded by Luc Urbain de Bouexic, Comte de Guichen (see entry). Upon the death of his elder brothers, Carnegie became Lord Rosehill (1788), and upon death of his father he became Seventh Earl of Northesk (1792). In 1797 Carnegie was caught up in The Nore Mutiny (May-June) and was kept a prisoner in his cabin on board the Monmouth. He was afterward brought before the committee of delegates on board the Sandwich and employed by them to lay their demands before King George III (reigned 1760– 1820). Carnegie had some sympathy with the initial stages of the mutiny, and so when the demands were refused, he resigned the command of the Monmouth as untenable following his failure to restore order on his ship or gain concessions from the government. The official reply was “All that could reasonably be expected by the seamen and Marines has already been granted them. Their Lordships cannot accede to any further requests.” At the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), Carnegie’s flagship Britannia was the fourth (some reports say sixth) ship in the weather line led by Horatio Nelson, and was thus early in the action, continuing closely engaged till the end; Carnegie lost fifty-two killed and wounded. He was made Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath, in 1806. As the Seventh Earl of Northesk, he sat in four Parliaments as a representative peer of Scotland (1796, 1802, 1806, and 1830). His eldest son, then Lord Rosehill, was lost in the Blenheim with Sir Thomas Troubridge in February 1807. Carnegie was buried in the crypt of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, on June, 8; a plain slab marks his grave near those of Horatio Nelson and Cuthbert Collingwood (see entries). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4719. “William Carnegie, 7th Earl of Northesk” (May 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:31, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= William_Carnegie%2C_7th_Earl_of_Northesk&oldid =215146205. “Demands of the Nore Mutineers.” Napoleonic Guide. www.napoleonguide.com/navy-no re-articles.htm.

CARNEY, ROBERT BOSTWICK (1895–1990) (USA)

Born in Vallejo, California, Robert Bostwick Carney graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1916 and was lieutenant commander (by 1928); commander (by 1936); captain (1942); rear admiral and chief of staff to Admiral William Halsey (see entry), and commander, South Pacific Force, which included all ground, sea, and air forces in the South Pacific area

Cary (1943); vice admiral (1946); admiral (1950); and chief of naval operations (1953). During World War I he was gunnery and torpedo officer aboard the destroyer Fanning, contributing to the sinking of the German submarine U-58. During the 1920s he taught navigation at the naval academy and was flag secretary to Admiral Louis R. de Steiguer (1867–1947) during the admiral’s time in command of various battleship forces. He was gunnery officer aboard the light cruiser Cincinnati, and then had command of the destroyers Buchanan and Reid and attack cargo ship Sirius. In February 1941, Carney was moved from the Pacific Fleet to assist in organizing, equipping, and training a special surface-air force that, under Admiral Arthur LeRoy Bristol (see entry), was fully involved in convoy escort prior to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941). From October 1942 until July 1943, Carney commanded the cruiser USS Denver during the Solomon Islands Campaign ( January 1942–August 21, 1945). Still in command of the Denver, he was part of Admiral William Halsey’s (see entry) 3rd Fleet task force that attacked Japanese-held Islands of Kolombangara, Shortland, and Bougainville in the Solomon Islands ( July 26, 1943), laying mines and bombarding shore installations. He was chief of staff to Admiral Halsey of the 3rd Fleet in the Central Pacific ( June 1944); he also took part in many of the major naval attacks of the Pacific War (1941–1945), in the China Sea, and against the Japanese homeland. Vice Admiral Michitaro Totsuka (1890–1966) of the Imperial Japanese Navy surrendered Yokosuka Naval Base to Carney. Carney was aboard Admiral Halsey’s flagship, the Battleship USS Missouri (BB-63), and witnessed the final surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945. Carney retired as chief of naval operations (1955). Included in his awards are the Navy Cross, the Distinguished Service Medal with three Gold Stars, the Legion of Merit with Combat V, and the Bronze Star Medal with Combat V. Carney held decorations from twelve foreign countries, many including highest military recognition. The Arleigh Burke Class Fleet escort destroyer USS Carney (DDG-64) was launched in 1994. Sources: Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Robert Bostwick Carney, Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/rbcarney.htm. “Robert Bostwick Carney” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/96345/Robert-Bostwick-Carney. “Robert Carney” (July 8, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:52, July 28, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Carney&oldi d=224277583.

62 CARY, ROBERT WEBSTER, JR. (1890–1967) (USA)

Born in Kansas City, Missouri, Robert Webster Cary, Jr., graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1914. Early in 1915 as ensign, he was awarded the Medal of Honor for saving the lives of three men by dragging them out of the boiler room when an explosion occurred on board the armored cruiser USS San Diego. In World War I, on the destroyer USS Sampson based in Queenstown, Ireland, he and three crewmen saved the ship from being blown up when they secured one of their depth charges that had broken loose during a severe storm. He was awarded the Navy Cross for this action. During the years between World War I and World War II, Cary was director of base maintenance, and in the capacity of chief of naval operations he carefully selected and secured bases in America and abroad for the war he could see coming; his judgment proved correct when America entered World War II after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. During the war Cary took part in various campaigns in the European Theater of Operations. Cary retired as rear admiral. His other two awards were the Legion of Merit with 4 Oak Leaf Clusters and the British Distinguished Service Order. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. Sources: “Robert Webster Cary” (July 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:07, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Robert_Webster_Cary&oldid=223291074. “Robert Webster Cary, Jr.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/rwcaryjr.htm.

CASE, AUGUSTUS LUDLOW (1812–1893) (USA)

Born in Newburgh, New York, Augustus Ludlow Case was midshipman (1934); lieutenant (1841); commander (1858); captain (1863); fleet captain of the European Squadron (1865); commodore (1867); and rear admiral (1872). Case participated in the Wilkes Expedition (1838–1842), which explored the South Seas and brought back proof of the Antarctic Continent. He served in the Gulf of Mexico during the Mexican-American War (1846–1858) and superintended the landing of men, ordnance, and stores at the Battle of Veracruz (March 9–29, 1847). He then took part in the Paraguay Expedition (October 1858). An example of U.S. gunboat diplomacy, the naval mission was sent to Asunción, Paraguay, in October 1858 to demand indemnity and apology from the Paraguayan government for the February 1, 1855, firing on the U.S. Navy vessel USS Water Witch that had resulted in the death of the ship’s helmsman.

63 In the American Civil War (1861–1865), Case was fleet captain of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the Confederate States of America. The blockade was designed to prevent the passage of trade goods, supplies, and arms to and from the Confederacy and to stop blockade runners, mostly new high speed ships with small cargo capacity. They were operated by the British using Royal Navy officers on leave and ran between Confederate-controlled ports and the neutral ports of Havana, Cuba, Nassau, Bahamas, and Bermuda, where British suppliers had set up supply bases. In this blockade, Case was involved in the capture of forts Clark and Hatteras (August 28–29, 1861) and commanded the Iroquois in the blockade of New Inlet, North Carolina. He was chief of the Bureau of Ordnance (1869–1873). From 1873 to 1875, Case commanded the European Squadron and the combined European, North and South Atlantic Fleet assembled at Key West, Florida, in 1874 at the time of the Virginius affair (1874). Virginius was a blockade runner captured by the Spanish, and after a court-martial, 53 of the crew and passengers (mainly American and British) were executed. Relationships between Spain and the United States were strained until the matter was settled in court in 1875 and Spain agreed to indemnities being paid to America and Britain. Case retired in 1875. Two destroyers were named in his honor; USS Case (DD-285) in 1919 and USS Case (DD-370) in 1935. Sources: “Augustus Case” (October 8, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:43, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Augustus_Case&oldid=163080681. “Augustus Ludlow Case.” Virtual American Biographies. http://famousame ricans.net/augustusludlowcase. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

CERVERA Y TOPETE, PASCUAL (1839–1909) (SPAIN)

Born in Medina Sidonia, Cádiz, Spain, Pascual Cervera y Topete entered the Naval Academy of San Fernando in 1852, and although exact dates are unavailable, he was rear admiral by the outbreak of the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898). He was vice admiral (1901); chief of staff of the Spanish navy (1902); and made life senator (1903). Early in his career he was engaged in operations off Morocco and in the Sulu Islands in the Philippines. He was on the West India Station during the early part of the Cuban-Spanish War (1868–1878) and returned to Spain in 1873, where he fought in the Carlist (Spanish civil) Wars (1833– 1876). In 1892 he became minister of marine but resigned in 1896, when he was refused backing for naval reforms and additional funds.

Chads In April 1898, at the start of the SpanishAmerican War (April 25–August 12, 1898), Cervera commanded a squadron in the Cape Verde Islands off the western coast of Africa to relieve the blockade by the Americans. Despite repeated messages to the minister of marine and the prime minister that his ships were inadequate and were insufficiently provided with coal and ammunition, he went on. He took part in the defense of the landlocked harbor of Santiago de Cuba by landing some guns and a naval brigade. He was blockaded in the harbor by William Sampson (see entry), and on July 3, attempting to break out, his squadron was beaten by a superior United States force. Cervera, three of his captains, and 1,800 sailors and Marines were imprisoned at Camp Long, Portsmouth, New Hampshire. After the war Cervera and his captains were tried before the supreme naval and military court of Spain, which honorably acquitted them all. Sources: “Pascual Cervera y Topete.” Library of Congress. www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/cervera.html. “Pascual Cervera y Topete” (July 10, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:08, September 7, 2008, fromen.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pascual_ Cervera_y_Topete&oldid=224889574. “Pascual Cervera y Topete” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved September 07, 2008, from www.britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/103685/Pascual-Cervera-yTopete. “Pascual Cervera y Topete.” Web Guide: Encyclopedia. www.ebroadcast.com.au/lookup/encyclope dia/pa/Pascual_Cervera_y_Topete.html.

CHADS, SIR HENRY DUCIE (1788?–1868) (BRITAIN)

Henry Ducie Chads entered the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth in 1800 and served on the ship of the line Excellent in the Mediterranean (1803–1806). He was lieutenant (1806); commander (1813); captain (1825); rear admiral (1854); vice admiral (1858); and admiral (1863). In July 1808, Chads joined the frigate Iphigenia and distinguished himself at the occupation of the small but strategic island Île de la Passe during the Battle of Grand Port (1810) to gain control of French Mauritius, for without that island the way to India and the Far East was blocked. When the French defeated the British squadron, Chads was made prisoner, but was rescued when the British captured Mauritius on December 3 and was re-appointed first lieutenant of Iphigenia. He was senior lieutenant of the frigate Java at the start of the War of 1812 (1812–1815) when she engaged the American frigate Constitution. When Captain Lambert was fatally wounded, Chads, although wounded, took command and only surrendered after four hours’ fighting. In 1823, Chads played a prominent role in the capture of Rangoon during the First Anglo-

Chandler Burmese War (1823–1826); he received the thanks of the government of India and praise in the British House of Commons. He commanded the Andromache in the East Indies (1834–1837). While he commanded the Royal Navy’s gunnery school HMS Excellent, Whale Island, Portsmouth (1845– 1854), Chads reformed the whole system of naval gunnery regarding both weight of metal and rapidity of fire. In 1854 Chads was one of the leaders in the bombardment and capture of the fortress of Bomarsund (a 19th century fortress in Sund on the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea). He ended his career as commander-in-chief in Ireland (1856– 1858). Admiral Chads was made Companion, Order of Bath (1826); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1856); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1865). A plaque memorializing him is on the back of one of the chorister stalls in the chancel of the Royal Garrison Church, Portsmouth. Sources and Selected Publications: “Admiral Sir Henry Ducie Chads, G.C.B., Royal Garrison Church, Portsmouth.” Memorials and Monuments in Portsmouth. www.memorials.inportsmouth.co.uk/churches/royal_g arrison/chads.htm. “Henry Ducie Chads” (May 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:25, July 28, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Henry_Ducie_Chads&oldid=212692683. “Henry Ducie Chads.” William Loney [Royal Navy]: Victorian Naval Surgeon. www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog. php?id=407. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5012. O’Brian, Patrick. The Fortune of War. New York: W.W. Norton, 1991. Roosevelt, Theodore. The Naval War of 1812. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1882.

CHANDLER, THEODORE EDSON (1894–1945) (USA)

Born at Annapolis, Maryland, Theodore Edson Chandler graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1915) and was lieutenant junior grade (1918); lieutenant commander (1926); captain (1941); and rear admiral (1944). Chandler served the last six months of World War I aboard the destroyer USS Conner in Brest, France, and remained until May 1919. He then helped to commission the destroyer Chandler (DD-206), named in honor of his late grandfather, former Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler (1835– 1917), at the shipyard of the William Cramp and Sons Shipbuilding Co., Philadelphia. In December 1920, he left the Chandler for service at the Naval Post Graduate School at Annapolis, Maryland (now at Monterey, California), where he studied ordnance related topics. From then until 1932 he saw service on battleships and light cruis-

64 ers and had various shore appointments. From 1932 to 1934, Chandler was gunnery officer on the staff of the commander, Destroyers Battle Force, part of the organization of the United States Navy from 1922 to 1941, followed by command of the destroyer Buchanan (DD-131). Between August 1935 and June 1938, he served as assistant naval attaché at Paris, France, Madrid, Spain, and Lisbon, Portugal. On the morning of November 6, 1941, as commanding officer of the light cruiser Omaha, in company with the destroyer Somers (DD-381), Captain Chandler challenged a German blockade runner Odenwald bound for Germany carrying raw rubber. The German crew attempted to scuttle her, but Chandler salvaged the ship. It is believed that this was the last time that American sailors received prize money. Chandler was present in Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France on August 15, 1944. On December 8, 1944, kamikaze suicide planes started attacking Chandler’s Pacific Squadron. According to history, the first Allied ship to be hit was the flagship of the Royal Australian Navy, the large heavy cruiser HMAS Australia, on October 21, 1944. In late January 1945, about 100 miles from Manila Bay in the Philippines, Chandler’s flagship, the heavy cruiser Louisville (CA-28), was attacked by 16 kamikaze planes. In spite of being seriously burned, Chandler helped with the fire hoses. Suffering from badly burned lungs, the admiral died next day. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. Two U.S. Navy ships have been named after him: the destroyer USS Theodore E. Chandler (DD-717) (1945), and the Kidd Class guided missile destroyer USS Chandler (1983). Sources: “Kamikaze.” Australia’s War 1930–1945. www.ww2australia.gov.au/waratsea/kamikaze.html. “Kamikaze.” Spartacus Educational. www.spartacus. schoolnet.co.uk/2WWkamikaze.htm. “Theodore E. Chandler” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:12, July 29, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore_E._Chandler &oldid=228558177.

CHATFIELD, ALFRED ERNIE MONTACUTE (1873–1967) (BRITAIN)

Born in Southsea, Portsmouth, Hampshire, Alfred Ernie Montacute Chatfield graduated as midshipman from the Britannia Training-ship (1888), now Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, and was sub-lieutenant (1892); lieutenant (1894); commander (1903); captain (1909); rear admiral (1920); vice admiral (1926); admiral (1930); and admiral of the fleet (1935). As a lieutenant, Chatfield specialized in gunnery; this was a time

65 in naval history when such specialists were well placed for promotion. It was also a time when German and British shipbuilding were in a race against time. He was flag captain to David Beatty (see entry) aboard the flagship Lion, where his main task was to train the squadron in gunnery. During World War I, Chatfield took part in the Battle of Heligoland Bight (August 28, 1914), the Battle of the Dogger Bank ( January 24, 1915), and the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). The Lion sustained considerable damage at the Dogger Bank and Jutland battles. When Beatty became commander-in-chief, Grand Fleet (1916), Chatfield was his flag captain and chief of staff first in the battleship Iron Duke and later in the battleship Queen Elizabeth. In 1919, Chatfield went to the Admiralty, and between then and 1938 he moved from fourth sea lord to first sea lord. His part in the Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armaments was of great significance, and he also resisted pressure from the Americans for Britain to reduce her cruiser strength. He was responsible for building up Singapore as a defended naval base in the Far East. In the coronation honors list (King George VI) (1937) he was raised to the peerage as first Baron Chatfield of Ditchling in the County of Surrey. Admiral Chatfield was Commander, Royal Victorian Order (before 1916); Companion, Order of Bath (1916); Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1916); Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1919); Cross of the Order of the Phoenix (?1933); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1934); and Order of Merit (1938). Sources: “Admiral of the Fleet, The Right Honourable, Sir Alfred Ernle Montacute Chatfield.” Royal Navy Flag Officers 1905–1945. www.admirals.org.uk/ad mirals/fleet/chatfieldaem.php. “HMS Excellent: Lord Chatfield.” Memorials and Monuments in Portsmouth. www.memorials.inportsmouth.co.uk/others/excellent/c hatfield.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32381.

CHATTERJI, ADHAR KUMAR (1914–2001) (INDIA)

Adhar Kumar Chatterji’s naval career started in 1933 when he was one of the first cadet-entry officers to join the Royal Indian Navy. After qualifying as an anti-submarine specialist in the United Kingdom (1940), he served in both Royal and Royal Indian navies during World War II in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean. Chatterji was appointed director of naval plans in Naval HQ (1947), and as captain he was the first Indian officer to take command of the flagship of the Indian fleet, INS Delhi (the HMS Achilles of the Battle of River

Cheshire Plate fame) in 1950. He took the Delhi on several goodwill visits to the Far East and the Mediterranean. Chatterji was the Indian naval adviser to the high commissioner for India in London (1950–1953), and one of his responsibilities was training Indian cadets and junior officers attached to the Royal Navy. He was commander-in-charge, Bombay (1953–1955); deputy chief of the naval staff; rear admiral (1958); and flag officer commanding the Indian Fleet (1962). His flagship INS Mysore paid several goodwill visits, including Thailand, the first Indian naval vessel to visit that country. He was vice admiral and commandant of the National Defense College in New Delhi (1964), where he was responsible for the education of senior officers of all the Indian armed forces and of the civil services. He assumed command of the Indian Navy and was promoted to admiral in 1968. Throughout the entire navy world, Admiral Chatterji enjoyed a reputation as a fine naval officer. Sources: “Admiral A.K. Chatterji.” Chiefs of the Indian Navy. www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/NavyChiefs/Chiefs-Navy07.html. “Former Chief of Naval Staff Passes Away.” News Digest. http://mod.nic.in/sam achar/15sept01/html/nd.htm.

CHESHIRE, DAME MARY KATHLEEN (1902–1972) (BRITAIN)

Mary Lloyd, born in Eastbourne, East Sussex, was the first woman from Portsmouth to volunteer to join the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS) when it was re-formed in 1939 and began her service as a WRNS steward. In 1940 she was commissioned as an officer, and by 1946 she was acting superintendent, the equivalent of a junior naval captain, the first person to come through the ranks to this position. She was appointed officer, Order of the British Empire, in the 1946 King’s Birthday Honors list. The year 1947 was a turning point in the history of the WRNS; the service was not to be disbanded, as it had been at the end of World War I. Dame Jocelyn Woollcombe (see entry), the first director (equivalent to rear admiral) of the WRNS, was the person responsible for drawing up the new regulations and conditions of service. When Lloyd succeeded Woollcombe (1950), she saw her main task as recruiting young women into the WRNS. She was made Dame (equivalent to Knight) Commander, Order of the British Empire in 1952 and retired in 1954. Lloyd spent some years helping her husband with work relating to the Cheshire Foundation, and helped organize the WRNS golden jubilee reunion in 1970. A requiem mass, held for Lloyd in Westminster Cathedral on 28 July 1972 was at-

Chinofotis tended by Queen Elizabeth, representing Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, as commander-inchief, WRNS. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/63325.

CHINOFOTIS, PANAGIOTIS (1949–) (GREECE)

Born in Athens, Greece, Panagiotis Chinofotis graduated from the Hellenic Naval Academy, Piraeus, as ensign of the Hellenic Navy in 1971 and from the Hellenic Naval War College, Athens, in 1986. On promotion to commander, Chinofotis was head of the Hellenic Navy General Staff section of the NATO and National Exercises and Operational Training. He studied at the United States Naval War College and gained an M.A. in international relations from Salve Regina University, Newport, Rhode Island (1989). He was director of studies at the Hellenic Naval War College (1989– 1991) and commander to the commander-in-chief, Hellenic Fleet in the flagship HS Lemnos (1991– 1993). Captain Chinofotis was Hellenic military representative of NATO in Brussels (1993–1995), then assistant director of the Strategic Plans and Policy Directorate on the Hellenic National Defense General Staff. In 1997 he was appointed as deputy military representative of Greece in the Western European Union in Brussels and in addition, assumed the duties of chairman in the Military Representatives Working Group during the Greek presidency of the Western European Union. He was made commodore in 1998 and rear admiral in 2002. He became chief of the Hellenic Fleet (2004); was promoted to admiral (2005); and was chief of the Hellenic National Defense General Staff. He resigned in August 2007, was elected to Parliament as a member for New Democracy, and was appointed vice minister of the interior. His awards and decorations include the Knight Gold Cross of the Order of Honor; Knight Gold Cross of the Order of Phoenix; and Medal of Military Merit. The Community of Gavdos (Crete) conferred on him the title of Honorary Citizen of Gavdos Island in 2006. Admiral Chinofotis served at sea duty for a total of 22 years, mostly aboard destroyers and frigates. Sources: “Biography of the Commander of Greek Armed Forces: Panagiotis Chinofotis.” Strategic Analysis and OSINT Management. http://strategicanalysis.word press.com/2007/04/28/biography-of-the-commanderof-greek-armed-forces. “Panagiotis Chinofotis” (December 14, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:55, July 30, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Panagiotis_Chinofotis&oldid=1 77834557.

66 CHRISTIAN, SIR HUGH CLOBERRY (1747–1798) (BRITAIN)

With his origins in the Isle of Man, Hugh Cloberry Christian was born at Hook Norton, Oxfordshire, England. He entered the navy about 1761 and was lieutenant (1771); captain (1778); rear admiral (1795); and invested as a knight (1796). Christian had a varied career, serving in the Channel and Mediterranean fleets and in command of the Vigilant on the coast of North America. He was captain of the Suffolk, carrying Commodore Joshua Rowley’s broad pennant in the squadron that went to North America with Lord Molyneux Shuldham (see entry). During the American Revolution (1775–1783), the Suffolk was sent on to the West Indies and took part in the Battle of Grenada ( July 6, 1779). When Rowley shifted his flag to the Conqueror, Christian was appointed to the frigate Fortunée, in which he was present at the Battle of the Chesapeake (September 5, 1781), Battle of St. Kitts ( January 26, 1782), and Battle of the Saintes (April 12, 1782). In the years 1795 and 1796, Rear Admiral Christian, as commander-in-chief, West Indies, was beset by violent storms in which many lives were lost and his two flagships, Prince George and Glory, were severely damaged. In 1796, Christian again sailed for the West Indies, with his flag in the Thunderer. He arrived at Barbados in the end of April, and accompanying General Sir Ralph Abercromby (1734– 1801), captured St. Lucia on May 25, 1796. Christian died suddenly in November 1798, a few months into the post of second commander-inchief, Cape of Good Hope, Cape Province, South Africa. When he was created a peer in 1798 he chose the title of Lord Ronaldsway, to honor his forebear, the Manx nationalist and politician William “Illiam Dhone” Christian (1606–1663). However, he died before the patent reached him. The sword of honor he would have received from Parliament was sent to his widow. Sources: “Admiral Sir Hugh Cloberry Christian.” Peerage.com. www.thepeerage.com/p15543.htm#i1554 24. “Christian, William” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http:// original.britannica.com/eb/article-9002234. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/5357.

CLAREY, BERNARD AMBROSE (1912–1996) (USA)

Born in Oskaloosa, Iowa, Bernard Ambrose Clarey graduated as a midshipman from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1934 and was first lieutenant (1937); lieutenant

67 commander (1944); rear admiral (1958); vice admiral (1964); and admiral (1968). He trained as a submariner and was executive officer on board the submarine Dolphin at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese attacked the naval base on December 7, 1941. His service as executive officer on the submarine Amberjack (1942) and then as commanding officer of the new submarine Pintado (SS-387) (1944) is remarkable. The Amberjack is credited with sinking three Japanese ships, including a transport and a cargo ship, in the Pacific Ocean; delivering vital fuel and bombs and pilots to the Tulagi Island; and destroying a 4,000-ton freighter. The Pintado is credited with sinking five freighters and damaging another; sinking a large whaling ship of nearly 20,000 tons; contributing to the destruction of a Japanese light cruiser; leading submarines in an attack to sink a destroyer and damage an aircraft carrier; and conducting three surface attacks in heavy seas to sink two enemy merchantmen. All told, the Pintado sank over 40,000 tons of Japanese shipping. Clarey’s post-war service, until 1951, was mainly in administrative posts at Washington, D.C., then as executive officer of the heavy cruiser Helena (CA75), operating with the U.S. Seventh Fleet during the Korean War (1950–1953). In 1959 he became director for military personnel in the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower). From 1970 until he retired in 1973, he was commander in chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor. He was a vice president for the Bank of Hawaii (1973–1977) and died at the Tripler Army Medical Center in Hawaii. Among his many awards were three Navy Cross Medals; the Silver Star Medal; Bronze Star Medal; five Distinguished Service Medals; and Korean Presidential Unit Citation. He also wore the ribbon for the Presidential Unit Citation awarded to the Pintado. The floating bridge connecting Ford Island at Pearl Harbor to the mainland was named the admiral Clarey Bridge (1998). Sources: “Bernard A. Clarey” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:07, July 30, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Bernard_A._Clarey&oldid=228559483 Bernard A. Clarey. “Bernard A. Clarey.” The New York Times, Obituary, June 24, 1996. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

CLARK, JOSEPH JAMES (1893–1971) (USA)

Born in Pryor, Indian Territory, in the northeast corner of Oklahoma, Joseph James Clark (known as “‘Jocko”) of Cherokee background is said to have been the first Native American to graduate as ensign from the United States Naval Acad-

Clark emy, Annapolis, Maryland (1917). He served in World War I aboard the armored cruiser USS North Carolina (ACR-12) on convoy duty in the Atlantic, and in 1925, he earned his pilot’s wings, graduating from Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. His contribution during World War II, in command of several aircraft carriers, was enormous. He commanded the carriers Suwannee (ACV-27), which took part in the invasion of North Africa. In 1943, in command of the carrier Yorktown, he struck against the Pacific Japanese Marcus Island and Wake Island and participated in assaults on Tarawa, Abemama and Makin in the Gilbert Islands. In 1944, as rear admiral of Task Force 58, with his flagship the aircraft carrier Hornet (CV12), he took part in the Marianas campaign, including the Battle of the Philippine Sea. On the second day of the battle, with his planes returning after sundown, Clark took the unprecedented action of ordering his ships to light up. The USS Hornet displayed a vertical searchlight beam. The black night sky was emblazed by ship’s lights that stretched for miles as returning planes with just sufficient fuel made safer deck landings. It went down in history as one of the great moments of the war. Clark also provided support for General Douglas MacArthur’s (1880–1964) landing at Hollandia and Aitape on the north coast of New Guinea, launching air strikes against Japanese installations in the Caroline Islands, northeast of New Guinea. In June 1944, Clark launched a two-day strike against the airfield on Iwo Jima, although the number destroyed is not known, 91 of those destroyed were still on the ground. During the Korean War (1950–1953), Clark commanded the Fast Carrier Task Force (TF) 77, and later, as vice admiral, the entire 7th Fleet. Clark retired in 1953 with the rank of full admiral. His awards included the Navy Cross; Distinguished Service Medal; Silver Star Medal; Legion of Merit; Navy Commendation Medal; and the Korean Order of Military Merit. Admiral Clark died at St. Albans, New York, and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The guided-missile frigate USS Clark (FFG-11), named in his honor, was launched in 1979. Sources: “Biography of Rear Admiral Joseph James ‘Jocko’ Clark.” Jacklummus.com. www.jacklummus. com/Files/Files_R/rear_admiral_joseph_james_jocko_c lark.htm. “Joseph James Clark.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/jjclark. htm. “Rear Admiral Joseph James Clark.” The Pacific War: The U.S. Navy. www.microworks.net/PACIFIC/ biographies/joseph_clark.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

Cochrane COCHRANE, SIR ALEXANDER FORRESTER INGLIS (1758–1832) (BRITAIN)

Alexander Forrester Inglis Cochrane, the ninth son of Thomas Cochrane, eighth earl of Dundonald, Ayrshire, Scotland, was lieutenant (1778); commander (1781); captain (1782); rear admiral (1804); and vice admiral (1809). As a junior lieutenant of the ship of the line HMS Montagu, he was wounded in the inconclusive Battle of Martinique (April 17, 1780) against the French during the American Revolution (1775–1783). From then until 1799 he continued to serve in the West India Station under George Rodney (see entry), had some success against French privateers in 1793, served on the North America Station; and captured two heavily armed French frigates in 1795. In 1780, in command of the ship of the line HMS Ajax of 80 guns, Cochrane was engaged in the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, Portugal (February 14, 1797). When the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815 broke out in 1803, Cochrane hoisted his flag in the Northumberland of 74 guns (1804) and for some time commanded the squadron off Ferrol, southwest Spain, from which station he was able to send home the news that the Spanish were re-arming, which led to the seizure of the treasure ships off Cape Santa Maria on October 5 — but the intelligence about re-arming proved to be false. He spent a frustrating six months in early 1805 chasing the French fleet around the West Indies without making contact and was appointed commander-inchief at the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean, with his base in Barbados. As second in command under John Duckworth (see entry), Cochrane had a very important share in the Battle of St. Domingo on February 6, 1806. The Northumberland was severely damaged and 21 were killed and 79 wounded. On his return, Cochrane was presented with the Freedom of the City of London and a Sword of Honor. After the capture of the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe ( January 1810), Cochrane was governor until 1814, then was appointed to the command of the North America Station. He was commanderin-chief, Plymouth (1821–1832). He died suddenly in Paris and was buried in Père-la-Chaise. He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1806), and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1815). His son was Thomas John Cochrane (see entry), also an admiral. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5749?docPos=1. “Significant Scots: Sir Alexander Cochrane.” ElectricScotland.com. www.electricscotland.com/history/other/ cochrane_alexander.htm.

68 COCHRANE, SIR THOMAS JOHN (1789–1872) (BRITAIN)

The eldest son of admiral Sir Alexander Forrester Inglis Cochrane (see entry), Thomas John Cochrane entered the Royal Navy as a volunteer on board his father’s ship, the HMS Thetis, at the age of seven, and served with his father until 1805. He was lieutenant (1805); commander (1805); captain (1806); rear admiral (1841); vice admiral (1850); admiral (1856); admiral of the fleet (1865); and knighted (1812). The fact that Cochrane was promoted to captain only two months after being promoted to commander over seventeen others constitutes his principal claim to distinction, but which, carried out as it was by the commander-in-chief of a foreign station for the advantage of his son, has been called gross corruption of public office. He was second in command in China (1842–1845) with his flag in the warship Agincourt; commander-in-chief (1845–1847); and commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1852–1855). His tenure as first resident governor of Newfoundland (1825–1834), which ended over 100 years of naval administration, was marked by major reforms. He spent thousands of pounds on building Government House, between Fort William and Fort Townshend, and on building the sumptuous Virginia Cottage with its own private road to Government House. He appointed a council, overhauled the poor relief system by which those on benefits were put to work building roads to connect St. John’s to nearby secondary ports; put an end to the deportation of the destitute; and built up agricultural development through smallholdings, though fishing remained the prime industry. However, politically he was not a huge success, although a new constitution was granted and Cochrane became the first civil governor in 1832. But there was constant friction between various factions, including clashes with the Roman Catholic bishop, Michael Fleming, which ended with Cochrane being recalled. The population pelted him and his daughter with refuse as they made their way down Cochrane Street (named in his honor) to the ship that was to take them back to England. Whatever his failings, Cochrane had set England’s oldest colony on the road to representative government. He was made Companion, Order of Bath (1839); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1847); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1860). Sources: “Cochrane, Sir Thomas John (1789–1872), Governor of Newfoundland (1825–1834).” Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage. www.heritage.nf.ca/govhouse/governors/g42.html. “Cochrane, Sir Thomas John.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www. biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=39025. Oxford

69 Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/5758.

COCHRANE, THOMAS, TENTH EARL OF DUNDONALD (1775–1860) (BRITAIN)

Thomas Cochrane was one of the most remarkable of all naval sea captains. It is thought that he was the inspiration for both C.S. Forester’s Horatio Hornblower series and Patrick O’Brian’s Jack Aubrey novels. (The recent film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World is based on O’Brian’s novels.) Born at Annisfield in Lanarkshire, Scotland, Cochrane joined the Royal Navy as a 17-year-old midshipman, serving first under his uncle, Alexander Cochrane (see entry), and had a colorful career. His dates are uncertain, but as a lieutenant, he took command of the brig HMS Speedy, capturing more than 50 ships, 120 guns and 500 prisoners within a year. In 1801, Captain Cochrane wielded a cutlass as he and his men boarded and captured the Spanish frigate El Gamo. Cochrane was immediately promoted to captain. Napoleon called him Le Loup de Mer (the Sea Wolf ) and ordered his capture. In 1806 he became member of Parliament for Honiton, Devon, and then in 1807 for Westminster, London. Cochrane exposed abuses at the Admiralty and was placed on half-pay for further attacks; he made enemies in high places. In 1814 he was prosecuted and wrongfully convicted of stock exchange fraud, imprisoned, lost his seat in Parliament and, regardless of its statutes, was expelled from the Order of the Bath. His stall-plate was removed from Henry VII’s Chapel and his banner kicked down the steps, and he was expelled from the Royal Navy. His Westminster constituents immediately re-elected him, whereupon he was harassed by the government with fines and imprisonments (1814–1816). He escaped from jail, was rearrested in the House of Commons and fined another £1,000, which was paid by his Westminster electors who gave a penny each. He accepted command of the Chilean Navy, and secured the independence of Chile and Peru from the Spanish (1819–1822). As admiral of the Brazilian fleet he secured the independence of Brazil (1823–1825). He was admiral of the Greek Navy (1827–1828). Cochrane succeeded to the Dundonald earldom in 1831; received a royal pardon from William IV; was fully reinstated and was made an admiral. He first used steam power in warships and in 1843 urged the adoption of screw propellers. Prince Albert (Queen Victoria’s consort) became interested in Cochran’s case, and he was reinstated

Cockburn as a Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1847). He was commander-in-chief, North America Station (1848). Only his age (he was 79) prevented him from being put in command of the British fleet during the Crimean War (1853–1856). He is buried in the center of the Nave of Westminster Abbey. He is Scotland’s greatest naval hero. Sources: “Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9031470. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5757?docPos=2. The Georgian Era: Memoirs of the Most Eminent Persons Who Have Flourished in Great Britain, from the Accession of George I to the Demise of George IV. Vizetelly, Branston and Co., 1832. “Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald” (2008, July 6). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:24, July 30, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Th omas_Cochrane%2C_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald&oldi d=223906629. “Official Guide.” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition.

COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE (1772–1853) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, George Cockburn entered the navy in 1786 and was lieutenant (1793); captain (1795); rear admiral (1812); vice admiral (1819); admiral (1837); admiral of the fleet (1851); first sea lord (1828–1830, 1834–1835, and 1841–1846); privy councilor (1827); and commander-in-chief on the North America and West India Station (1832– 1836). He was employed (1796–1797) in the Gulf of Genoa under Horatio Nelson (see entry). In 1809 the House of Commons thanked him for his services as commander of the naval force on shore at Martinique and for signing the surrender document that handed the island over to the British. In 1811 he was sent on an unsuccessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her American colonies. Cockburn played a conspicuous part in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom and its colonies, especially upper Canada (Ontario), lower Canada (Quebec), Nova Scotia, and Bermuda. In 1813 he sent off marauding expeditions in all directions to the coasts of Virginia, Delaware, and Maryland. He deprived three villages on the Chesapeake of property worth about $70,000, burned many towns and farm houses, and carried away livestock and slaves, which were afterward sold in the West Indies to his own account. In addition he implemented Alexander Cochrane’s (see entry) plan of recruiting a corps of colonial Marines from among the black refugees. On August 24, 1814, Cockburn ordered the burning of the Capitol, the White House, and the Navy

Codrington Arsenal at Washington, D.C. Although this did not affect the outcome of the war, it did focus the minds of many Americans on the White House as the capital of the nation. In 1815, Cockburn conveyed Napoleon in the Northumberland to his exile in Saint Helena and where he also acted as the emperor’s jailor. He was member of Parliament for Portsmouth, Hampshire (1818–1820); Weobly, Herefordshire (1820–1828); Plymouth, Devon (1828–1832); and Ripon, Yorkshire (1841–1847). In 1839 he became the first president of the Shipwrecked Fishermen and Mariners’ Royal Benevolent Society. In 1852, he inherited the family baronetcy from his elder brother. Cockburn was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1818); and fellow, Royal Society (1820). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5770?docPos=2. “Sir George Cockburn” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britanni ca.com/EBchecked/topic/123628/Sir-George-Cock burn. “Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet” (March 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:14, July 30, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph p?title=Sir_George_Cockburn%2C_10th_Baronet& oldid=198745655.

CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD (1770–1851) (BRITAIN)

Edward Codrington entered the Royal Navy in July 1783 and was lieutenant (1793); commander (1794); captain (1795); rear admiral (1814); vice admiral (1825); Knight of France, Knight of Russia and Knight of Greece (1827); and admiral (1841). Codrington was on board the Queen Charlotte, Richard Howe’s flagship, at the Battle of the First of June (fought in the Atlantic Ocean on May 28– 29 and June 1, 1794, between the Royal Navy and the navy of Revolutionary France) and won acclaim for himself firing each gun in succession into the Montagne’s stern. In May 1805 he took command of the Orion of 74 guns, joined the fleet off Cadiz in August, and on October 21 took part in the battle of Trafalgar. Horatio Nelson selected Codrington to be leader of the reserve squadron, to strengthen either of the columns of attack. In command of ship of the line HMS Blake, Codrington took part in the Walcheren Campaign, an unsuccessful British expedition to the Netherlands in 1809 intended to open another front in the Austrian Empire’s struggle with France during the War of the Fifth Coalition. He was the commander-in-chief at the Battle of Navarino during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) in Navarino Bay, on the west coast of

70 the Peloponnese peninsula in the Ionian Sea (October 20, 1827), in the battle between the British allies and the Turkish allies. This battle was the turning point of the Greek War of Independence (1821– 1829) and led to the Treaty of Constantinople (1832), which formally recognized the new Kingdom of Greece as an independent state. However, Codrington suffered severe criticism in Britain for his heavy-handed gunboat diplomacy at Battle of Navarino. In September and October 1830, Codrington visited St. Petersburg, where he was received by Nicholas I of Russia and by Louis-Philippe I of France. His final command was commander-inchief, Portsmouth (1839–1842). He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1827); and Knight, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1832). Sources: “Navarino, Battle of” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9055077. “Edward Codrington” (June 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:46, July 30, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Codrington&oldid=221390196. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 5796.

COFFIN, SIR ISAAC (1759–1839) (BRITAIN)

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of an officer of the customs, Isaac Coffin entered the Royal Navy in 1773 under the patronage of Rear Admiral John Montagu (1719–1795), then commander-in-chief, North America Station. Coffin was lieutenant (1778); commander (1781); captain (1782); rear admiral and baronet (1804); vice admiral (1808); and admiral (1814). He was one of the lieutenants of the Royal Oak with vice admiral Marriot Arbuthnot (see entry), and was signal lieutenant in the Battle of Cape Henry, near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay (March 16, 1781) between a British squadron and a French squadron under Captain Des Touches. In 1782 he served on board the Barfleur, the flagship of Sir Samuel Hood (see entry) and was thus at the Battle of St. Kitts in the Caribbean (also known as the Battle of Frigate Bay; January 25 and 26, 1782) during the American Revolution (1775–1783). When Coffin took command of HMS Shrewsbury, he was embroiled in a difficulty which had consequences far beyond what anyone would have imagined. When three young lieutenants were appointed to the Shrewsbury, Coffin, deeming them not sufficiently qualified, according to the instruc-

71 tions, and incapable of doing the duty, refused to accept them and only did so when he knew that they had been appointed by Admiral George Rodney (see entry). He was tried by court-martial at Port Royal, Jamaica, on July 29, 1782, for disobedience and contempt and was acquitted on both charges. The lieutenants, however, having been appointed by the commander-in-chief, remained on board the Shrewsbury and it was not until Coffin wrote on September 20, 1782, begging their lordships to have them suspended that their commissions were cancelled. Before the order came out Coffin had been removed into the Hydra, which he took to England and paid her off. In 1786, commanding the frigate Thisbe, he carried the newly appointed governor of Quebec — Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester (1724–1808)—and his family to Canada. While in the North America Station he was again court-martialed, and although he could have been cashiered (dismissed the service) for “cooking the books” by counting four crewmen who were not on board (apparently a common practice), the court sentenced Coffin to be dismissed from his ship. Lord Howe, then first lord of the Admiralty, ordered Coffin’s name to be struck from the list. After an appeal, Coffin was reinstated. The case established the limits of admiralty interference with the sentence of a court-martial. In 1790, appointed to HMS Alligator at The Nore (a sandbank at the mouth of the Thames Estuary, England, near Sheerness), Coffin risked his life by saving a crewman who had fallen overboard, but in the exertion he ruptured himself badly. A second accident in 1794 exacerbated his former rupture and he was never again fit for active service. From 1795 he was commissioner of the navy in various places and superintendent of Portsmouth until 1808. He sat in Parliament from 1818 to 1826 as member for Ilchester, Somerset. Although there is no mention of his having been given any awards, Coffin Bay, South Australia (now a thriving community) was discovered by Matthew Flinders in 1802 and named in honor of his friend Sir Isaac Coffin. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5807?docPos=1.

COLLIER, SIR FRANCIS AUGUSTUS (1783?–1849) (BRITAIN)

Francis Augustus Collier entered the Royal Navy in 1794 and was lieutenant (1803); commander (1805); captain (1808); commodore (1826); knighted (1830); and rear admiral (1846). After a few years’ service in the English Channel, early in 1798 at the desire of Horatio Nelson (see entry),

Collingwood Collier was appointed to the Vanguard, Nelson’s flagship, in the Mediterranean and was at the Battle of the Nile (August 1–2, 1798). In December 1819 Collier was sent to the Persian Gulf in naval command of a joint expedition against the coastal pirates. They operated out of Ras Al-Khaimah (one of the United Arab Emirates). Collier captured and completely destroyed pirate bases around the coasts. Knowing that the sultan of Oman was unable to control the region, on January 8, 1820, Britain signed the first General Maritime Treaty with the sheiks of Bahrain, Ajman, Dubai, Sharjah and Umm al-Qaiwain as a “perpetual” truce from piracy against ships from outside the region. In 1822 Ras Al-Khaimah signed the General Maritime Treaty with Britain, and in 1853, the Treaty of Peace in Perpetuity, or Permanent Truce, between Britain and the sheikdoms that outlawed all piracy was signed. From 1826 to 1830 Collier was commodore on the west coast of Africa; from 1841 to 1846 he was superintendent of Woolwich Dockyard, London, and in 1846 he commanded a squadron in the English Channel. In 1848 he was appointed to the command of the China Station, where he died suddenly of a stroke. He was awarded Companion, Order of Bath (1818); Knight Commander, Hanoverian Order (1833); and Order of the Lion and Sun, for his services in the Persian Gulf. Sources: “General Maritime Treaty [of] 1820.” Flags of the World. www.crwflags.com/FOTW/flags/ae1820tr. html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5914. “Francis Augustus Collier.” William Loney [Royal Navy] Background. www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog.php?id=529.

COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT (1748–1810) (BRITAIN)

Born in Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, Cuthbert Collingwood was entered as a volunteer at the age of eleven on board the frigate Shannon, commanded by his cousin, Captain Braithwaite, and served there until 1766. He was lieutenant (1775); captain (1780); rear admiral (1799); and vice admiral (1804). Collingwood sailed to Boston, Massachusetts, in 1774 with Admiral Samuel Graves (1713–1787), where he fought in the British naval brigade at the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775. As captain of HMS Barfleur, Collingwood participated at the Battle of the First of June, also known as the Glorious First of June or the Third Battle of Ushant, the naval battle fought in the Atlantic Ocean on May 28–29 and June 1, 1794, between the Royal Navy and the navy of Revolutionary France). He was on board the HMS Excellent in the vic-

Collins tory of the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, Portugal, on February 14, 1797. At the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), with Horatio Nelson in the Victory leading one line and Vice Admiral Collingwood, with his flag in 100 gun Royal Sovereign, leading the other, they challenged Pierre de Villeneuve (see entry), the French Admiral who had drawn up his fleet in the form of a crescent. The Royal Sovereign, because its hull had been given a new layer of copper, was much faster and drew ahead of the Victory and engaged the Spanish Santa Ana, which was on the verge of sinking almost before another British ship had fired a gun. Several other vessels hemmed in the Royal Sovereign, and after having his ship severely damaged, Collingwood was relieved by the arrival of the rest of the British squadron. On the death of Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command. Despite Nelson’s dying command that the fleet should anchor, Collingwood did not issue the order (battle damage may have prevented ships from anchoring even if ordered). In the ensuing storm, many of the captured prizes were lost. Collingwood was created Baron Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool (Northumberland) (1805) and received the thanks of both houses of Parliament with a pension of £2000. Prior to Trafalgar, Collingwood’s health had begun to decline, and in spite of repeated requests to retire, the government persuaded him to carry on, on the grounds that his country could not dispense with his services; he died of cancer on board the Ville de Paris off Port Mahon, Minorca. Collingwood was a humanitarian and was called “father” by the common sailors. He was opposed to the press gang and to flogging. He and Nelson are buried side by side in St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Collingwood’s memorials are the Maritime Warfare School of the Royal Navy—commissioned as HMS Collingwood —a shore establishment, home to training for warfare, weapon engineering and communications disciplines in Plymouth, Devon; the Royal Marines School of Music in Portsmouth Naval Base; the town of Collingwood, Ontario, on Georgian Bay and the suburb of Collingwood, Melbourne, Australia; and the Collingwood Channel near Vancouver, in Howe Sound, British Columbia. The HMS Collingwood is another shore establishment at Fareham, Hampshire, England. A statue of Collingwood overlooks the River Tyne in the town of Tynemouth, at the foot of which are some of the cannon from the Royal Sovereign. Sources: “Biography: Cuthbert Collingwood” (2004). Royal Naval Museum. www.royalnavalmuseum. org/info_sheets_cuthbert_collingwood.htm. Rickard, J. “Collingwood, Cuthbert, First Baron Collingwood.”

72 Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. www.history ofwar.org/articles/people_collingwood.html. “Cuthbert Collingwood:1st Baron Collingwood” (July 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:48, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Cuthbert_Collingwood%2C_1st_Baron_Collingwo od&oldid=227373542. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5930 ?docPos=1.

COLLINS, SIR JOHN AUGUSTINE (1899–1989) (AUSTRALIA)

Born in Deloraine, Tasmania, John Augustine Collins joined the Royal Australian Navy in 1912 and graduated from the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, New South Wales, in 1916. He was midshipman (1917); sub lieutenant (1918); lieutenant (1919); lieutenant commander (1927); commander (1933); captain (1937); rear admiral (1947); chief of naval staff and the first naval member (1948–1955); vice admiral (1950); retired from the Navy (1955); and Australia’s high commissioner to New Zealand (1956–1962). In 1927 Collins was the naval liaison officer for the 1927 royal visit by the duke and duchess of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth). He accompanied the royal party at both the opening of Parliament House in Canberra and in the subsequent passage in the battle cruiser HMS Renown back to the United Kingdom. In 1935 he received a Royal Humane Society’s Parchment for (with the help of his wife) rescuing a girl swept away by a strong tide at Portwinkle, Cornwall. In 1938 Collins became the assistant chief of naval staff and director of naval intelligence at Navy Office in Melbourne, and played an important staffing role in developing much-needed anti-submarine escorts of Bathurst class corvettes. Early in World War II, Collins commanded the light cruiser HMAS Sydney in the Battle of the Mediterranean, and led Allied ships in sinking the state-of-the-art Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni ( July 1940). In June 1941, Collins was transferred to Singapore, as assistant chief of staff to the British naval commander in chief, China Command, Vice Admiral Geoffrey Layton (see entry). Following the outbreak of war with Japan in December 1941, Collins was appointed commodore commanding China Force, the combined Royal Navy–Royal Australian Navy cruiser and destroyer force based in Jakarta, Java. After the fall of Singapore and the Allied defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea (both in February 1942), Collins organized the evacuation of Allied civilians and military personnel from Jakarta and was on one of the last ships to leave before the city fell on March 12, 1942. He was mentioned in

73 dispatches and was later made a commander of the Dutch Order of Orange-Nassau. He transferred to HMAS Australia in 1944 as a task force commander and commodore, and was on Australia’s bridge when, on October 21, 1944, a kamikaze attack killed the captain and other officers, wounding Collins. He returned to duty in July 1945 and was the Royal Australian Navy representative at the surrender ceremonies in Tokyo Bay in September, and then was involved with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force. He was made Companion of the Order of the Bath (1940) and Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (1951). A class of submarines now bears his name. At the Australian bicentennial celebrations in 1988, Collins was named among the 200 greatest Australians. Sources: “John Augustine Collins” (July 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:55, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= John_Augustine_Collins&oldid=223360287. “Collins, Sir John Augustine (1899–1989).” Sea Power Centre: Australia. www.navy.gov.au/spc/maritimepapers/piama 17/collinsjohn.html. “Who’s Who in Australian Military History: Vice Admiral John Augustine Collins.” Australian War Memorial. www.awm.gov.au/people/14 5.asp.

COLPOYS, SIR JOHN (1742?–1821) (BRITAIN)

John Colpoys entered the Royal Navy (around 1756) and was lieutenant (1770); captain (1773); rear admiral (1794); vice admiral (1795); and admiral (1801). He served at the Battle of Louisbourg, Nova Scotia on July 26, 1758; at the Battle of Martinique on June 24, 1762 during the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763); in the West Indies; the North America Station; and in the Mediterranean. By the time he was made rear admiral, he had served almost four decades at sea, with more than twenty of them actually in command of ships of war. He was at Spithead when mutiny broke out on April 15, 1797. When order was to some extent restored, the greater part of the fleet, under Alexander Hood (see entry), was taken to St. Helens Bay, the Isle of Wight, leaving Vice Admiral Colpoys on board the London at Spithead. When the delegates had completed their meeting at St. Helens, they set off to Spithead to inform the ships there of the latest developments. On learning of their approach, Admiral Colpoys decided to take firm action. Having spoken to his company and assuming that he had their support, he ordered most of them below. Armed officers and Marines were prepared to prevent the delegates from boarding the London. When the delegates approached to board the London, the crew forced their way onto the upper deck.

Colville Colpoys gave the order to fire and five men were killed. The Marines laid down their weapons. When the crew threatened to hang First Lieutenant Bover, who they thought had given the order to open fire, Colpoys said that they should hang him, and for twenty-four hours he thought he might be hanged. The mutineers, having read admiralty instructions, decided against execution. The outcome was a king’s pardon, and the mutiny officially ended on May 14, 1797, with many of the officers returning to their ships. The last event of the day was a dinner at which Lord Richard Howe entertained the delegates. After the party, the delegates rowed back to St. Helens to take up their former duties, to continue the war with the French. Colpoys, ordered ashore, received a letter of congratulations from the Admiralty, and he was made Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1798). He was commander-in-chief, Plymouth (1803–1804); treasurer at the Admiralty (1804–1816); and governor of Greenwich Hospital (1816–1821). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5985.

COLVILLE, SIR STANLEY CECIL JAMES (1861–1939) (BRITAIN)

Stanley Cecil James Colville, born in London, was the second son of Charles John, Viscount Colville of Culross, in the Kingdom of Fife, Scotland. He entered the Britannia Training-ship, now Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, as a naval cadet in 1874 and was midshipman (1876); sub-lieutenant (1880); lieutenant (1882); commander (1892); captain (1896); rear admiral (1906); vice admiral (1911); admiral (1914); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1916–1919); aide-de-camp (1920–1922) to King George V (reigned 1910–1936); rear admiral of the United Kingdom (1926–1929); and vice admiral of the United Kingdom and lieutenant of the Admiralty (1929). Colville served several years at different times under Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh (1844–1900). He served in the English Channel squadron on the North America and West Indies stations under Frederick William Richards (see entry) and on shore in the Anglo-Zulu War ( January 11-July 4, 1879); he took part in the bombardment of Alexandria ( July 11–13, 1822) during the Anglo-Egyptian War (1822) and in the subsequent land operations. In 1883 he was appointed to the Canada, North America, Station, in which Prince George (afterwards King George V) was midshipman. Colville was wounded in the capture of Dongola during the Anglo-Sudan War (1896).

Colvin In 1914 he was appointed vice admiral, Orkneys and Shetlands, with the task of protecting the undefended base at Scapa Flow, where the main Grand Fleet was stationed, and for the general defenses of the islands and base. The chief peril was the entry of German submarines into the anchorage and so successful were his measures that none gained entry. Colville was Companion, Order of the Bath (1896); Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1902); Knight, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1919); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1921). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32515. “Stanley Colville” (May 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:25, July 31, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stanley_Colville&oldi d=212623913.

COLVIN, SIR RAGNAR MUSGRAVE (1882–1954) (BRITAIN)

Born at Whitehall, London, Ragnar Musgrave Colvin joined the Britannia Training-ship, now Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, as a cadet in 1896. He was lieutenant (1902); commander (1913); assistant director, Plans Division, Admiralty (1918–1919); captain (1917); naval attaché, Tokyo (1922–1924); director, Naval Tactical School, Portsmouth (1927–1929); rear admiral (1929); chief of staff, Home Fleet (1930– 1932); vice admiral, president of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, and commander of the Royal Naval War College (1934–1937); first naval member, Australian Naval Board (1937–1941); and admiral (1939). Colvin qualified as a gunnery specialist in 1904, and in World War I he served as executive officer on the cruiser Hibernia and in the battleship Revenge, seeing action in the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). After the war Colvin commanded the cruiser Caradoc in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. During the early years at the Australian Naval Board he was frustrated at the laid back attitude of the Australian government toward re-armament, until the Munich crisis in 1938, when Nazi Germany invaded Czechoslovakia. Only then, and under Colvin’s guidance, did Royal Australian Navy start to build up its fleet of cruisers, destroyers, corvettes, frigates and motor torpedo boats ready for service in World War II. In April 1939 Colvin represented both Australia and the British Admiralty at the Pacific Defense Conference in New Zealand. Owing to failing health, Colvin returned to Britain in 1940, retired from the Royal Navy in 1941 and was naval adviser to the high commissioner for Australia (1942–

74 1944). He died and at the Royal Naval Hospital, Haslar, Gosport, Hampshire. Colvin was made Commander, Order of the British Empire (1917); Companion, Order of Bath (1932); and Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire (1937). Sources: Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition. www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A080089b. htm. “Colvin, Sir Ragnar Musgrave (1882–1954).” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/locreg/COLVIN.shtml.

COMMERELL, SIR JOHN EDMUND (1829–1901) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, John Edmund Commerell entered the Royal Navy in 1842 and was lieutenant (1848); commander (1855); captain (1859); rear admiral (1876); vice admiral (1881); admiral (1886); and retired (1899). Soon after joining the navy he was sent to China during the First Opium War (1839–1842). Later on he served at the Battle of Vuelta de Obligado (between the Argentine Confederacy, under the leadership of the ardent nationalist Juan Manuel de Rosas, and an Anglo-French fleet, on November 20, 1845, on the waters of the Paraná river), and saw action in the Baltic, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azoff during the Crimean War (1853–1856). Commerell and two of his men were awarded the Victoria Cross (the highest British decoration for valor) for their bravery in setting fire to a large store of forage and corn on October 11, 1855. In command of HMS Terrible, Commerell assisted in the laying of telegraph cable from Ireland to Newfoundland in May 1866. In December 1869, Commerell conveyed the body of George Peabody to Massachusetts aboard the Monarch. Peabody (1795–1869) was an American philanthropist who, when he died in England, was given a temporary burial in the Nave of Westminster Abbey, London. Peabody donated five houses for the poor of London. During the Ashantee War (August 1873), while reconnoitering up the river Prah on the west coast of Africa, Commerell was severely wounded by a musket shot in the lungs. He was commanderin-chief on the North America Station in 1882– 1885. As Conservative member of Parliament for Southampton, Hampshire (1885–1886), he was largely responsible for the passing of the Naval Defense Act (1889). Under this act, a huge sum of £21 million was earmarked for the construction of ten battleships, forty-two cruisers and other vessels over the next five years. In 1891, Commerell was groom in waiting to Queen Victoria, who appointed him to be senior naval officer in attendance upon the German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II during his visit to England. The emperor afterward presented

75 Commerell with a sword, accompanied by a letter of appreciation. On February 13, 1892, by special desire of Queen Victoria, Commerell was promoted to admiral of the fleet, although not the senior admiral. He was made Companion, Order of Bath (civil, 1886, and military, 1870); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1874); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath, on the occasion of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee in June 1887. He was a director of the Royal Sailors Home, Queen Street, Portsea, Portsmouth, Hampshire. Sources: “John Edmund Commerell” (July 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:20, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =John_Edmund_Commerell&oldid=222922401. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/32520. “The Victoria Cross Awarded to Men of Portsmouth: John Edmund Commerell.” Memorials and Monuments in Portsmouth. www.memo rials.inportsmouth.co.uk/vc/commerell.htm.

CÓRDOVA, LUIS DE CÓRDOVA Y (1706–1796) (SPAIN)

Luis de Córdova was born in Seville, the son of a sea captain. Before he was thirteen, his father had taken him on two voyages to America. In 1721 he entered the Naval Academy of San Fernando at Cadiz as guardiamarinas (midshipman) and was alférez de frigata (ensign) (1723); commander (1740); captain (soon after 1740); and lieutenant general (vice admiral) (1775). He ended his career as captain general of the Spanish Navy (admiral of the fleet). In 1730 Córdova had command of the naval escort for the duke of Parma, Infante Carlos de Borbón, who journeyed from Spain to Italy to take part in the War of the Polish Succession (1733– 1738). In 1751 Córdova sank the Algerian battleship Danzik, armed with 62 cannons in the Bay of Cádiz, a feat that earned him the prestigious Cross of Calatrava, founded in Castile in the twelfth century. King Carlos and his generals went on to reclaim the Kingdom of Naples for Spain at the Battle of Bitonto (May 25, 1774) with naval assistance from a squadron commanded by Córdova. In 1789, during the American Revolution (1775– 1783), Córdova’s exploits included the capture of two British convoys totaling 79 ships, including a fleet of 55 merchant vessels and frigates at Santa Maria Island in the Azores. This defeat of the English Navy, a long-awaited hope for many European nations, made Córdova the hero of the day. However, his attempts to command another Spanish Armada of 1588 and to conquer Britain failed, although he did capture more than 25 British ships.

Cornish On October 20, 1782 he engaged a Royal Navy fleet at the Battle of Cape Spartel (October 20, 1782) (a promontory in Morocco about 1,000 feet above sea level at the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar), but was unsuccessful in preventing its escape. Córdova retired from the Spanish Navy when he was well over eighty years of age. Sources: “Battle of Cape Spartel” (June 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:32, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Battle_of_Cape_Spartel&oldid=220745582. ReyTejerina, Arsenio. “Cordova in Alaska.” ExploreNorth. http://explorenorth.com/library/bios/bl-cordova2.htm. “Luis de Córdova y Córdova” (October 12, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:26, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Luis_de_C%C3%B3rdova_y_C%C3%B3rdova&oldid =163980085.

CORNISH, SIR SAMUEL (1715?–1770) (BRITAIN)

The first certain knowledge available is that Samuel Cornish was lieutenant (1739); commander (1741); captain (1742); rear admiral (1759); vice admiral (1762); and baronet (1766). As first lieutenant of the Weymouth he served at the Battle of Cartagena (in present day Colombia), which started in March 1741. He commanded the 50-gun Guernsey during the Battle of Toulon (February 22–23, 1744, off the coast of Toulon, France) during the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763). Rear Admiral Cornish took over command of the East Indies in 1761 when Rear Admiral Charles Steevens (1705–1761) died, having only been in post for one year. By that time the French power in the East had been annihilated, Pondicherry, India, the last stronghold, having surrendered on January 15, 1761. Cornish had orders to capture the Philippines from the Spanish, and in October 1762 the Spanish surrendered Manila and all Philippine islands. Under the Treaty of Paris (February 1763) Britain ceded the Philippines back to Spain. Cornish was Whig (predecessor of the Liberal Party) member of Parliament for Shoreham, West Sussex, from 1765 till his death. Having no children, his title became extinct on his death. His large fortune, acquired in the East Indies and by the Manila prize money, went to his nephew, Samuel Pitchford, captain in the navy who, in accordance with the will, took the name of Cornish. The city of Cornish in New Hampshire, established in 1763, was named in honor of the admiral. Sources: Stephens, H. Morse. “How Manila Was Taken in 1762.” New York Times, May 7, 1898. http:// query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=2&res=9 E07E0DD1738E433A25754C0A9639C94699ED7CF &oref=slogin&oref=slogin. Oxford Dictionary of Na-

Cornwallis tional Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6334. “Sir Samuel Cornish, 1st Baronet” (April 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:56, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph p?title=Sir_Samuel_Cornish%2C_1st_Baronet&oldid= 209193935.

CORNWALLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1744–1819) (BRITAIN)

William Cornwallis, the fourth son of the first Earl Cornwallis, entered the Royal Navy in 1755 and was lieutenant (1761); captain (1766); commodore (1788); rear admiral (1793); vice admiral (1794); and admiral (1799). He served under Edward Boscawen (see entry) on the North America Station and saw action at the Battle of Louisbourg, Nova Scotia ( July 26, 1758), and at Quiberon Bay, off the coast of France near St. Nazaire (November 20, 1759). Between 1760 and 1778 he served in the Mediterranean, the West Indies, and for the second time, on the North America Station under Richard Howe (see entry). He was in command of HMS Lion, which suffered severe damage at the Battle of Grenada on July 6, 1779 during the American Revolution. Toward the close of 1780, Cornwallis, in the Lion, carried his ill friend Horatio Nelson (see entry) for recuperation back in England. Cornwallis served under Sir Samuel Hood (see entry) at Battle of St. Kitts ( January 25–26, 1782) and with George Rodney at the Battle of the Saintes (April 9–12, 1782). Cornwallis was commander-in-chief, East Indies (1789–1794). On June 16, 1795, during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), Cornwallis performed an act of bravery, which is spoken of as “the retreat of Cornwallis.” In the English Channel off Brest, his small squadron of four ships of the line and two frigates was confronted by a much larger French fleet of twelve sail of the line and several large frigates commanded by Villaret Joyeuse. Cornwallis ordered a retreat, and though the Royal Sovereign was attacked on both sides, he turned to aid two of his slower moving ships. Joyeuse, thinking that reinforcements were on the way, gave up the pursuit. In 1796, Cornwallis was tried by court-martial on the charge of refusing to obey an order from the Admiralty, in that he objected on the grounds of health to taking a small frigate to the West Indies. The court censured him for not pursuing the voyage in one of the other ships of the squadron, but acquitted him on the charge of disobeying the order, accepting his defense that the selected ship was unworthy and that his health was below par. He successfully blockaded Brest in 1801–1802, thus

76 denying France and her allies much needed supplies. Cornwallis was member of Parliament for Eye, Suffolk (1768–1774, 1782–1784, 1790–1807), and for Portsmouth, Hampshire (1784–1790). He was made Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath in 1815. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6346?docPos=2. “William Cornwallis” (2008, July 20). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:22, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Cor nwallis&oldid=226739314.

COSBY, PHILLIPS (1727?–1808) (BRITAIN)

Born in Nova Scotia, where his father, Colonel Alexander Cosby, was lieutenant governor, Phillips Cosby joined the Royal Navy in 1745 and was lieutenant (1760); commodore and commander-inchief in the Mediterranean (1786–1789); rear admiral (1790); port admiral, Plymouth (1792); vice admiral (1794); and admiral (1799). Cosby served at the siege of Pondicherry (see Cornish, Sir Samuel); at the Battle of Louisbourg, Nova Scotia ( July 26, 1758); and at the Battle of Quebec (September 13, 1759) while commanding HMS Orford. He was naval aide-de-camp to General James Wolfe (1727–1779) and was with him at his death on the Heights of Abraham. In October 1767, as commander of the frigate Montreal, Cosby had the honor of carrying the body of Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of York, back to England. The duke, the younger brother of George III (who reigned 1760–1820), was taken ill on his way to Genoa and died in the Palace of Honoré III, Prince of Monaco, on September 17 and is interred in the nave of Westminster Abbey. Cosby was receiver general (treasurer) of the Caribbean island of St. Kitts from 1771 to 1778, a lucrative post which he resigned on the outbreak of the Anglo-French War (1778–1783). In 1779, he commanded the Robust and accompanied the flagship Europe of Vice Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot (see entry) to North America and had the honor of leading the line in the Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5, 1781. The Robust was badly damaged but made it to New York for repairs. In 1793, with his flag in the Windsor Castle, he was third in command in the Mediterranean Fleet under Lord Alexander Hood (see entry). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6370. “Official Guide,” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition.

77 COSMAO-KERJULIEN, JULIEN MARIE (1761–1825) (FRANCE)

Born in Châteaulin, northwest France, Julien Marie Cosmao-Kerjulien joined he French navy and was lieutenant (1781); captain (1793); rear admiral (1806); Knight in the Order of Saint Louis (founded by Louis XIV). From around 1775 to 1805, he captured several British privateers near Bordeaux and Belle-Isle, Brittany, and in Guyana, where he also captured two East Indiamen (ships operating under charter or license to the Honorable East India Company). Commanding the 80-gun ship of the line Tonnant, Cosmao-Kerjulien took part in the Battle of Genoa on March 14, 1795, off the coast of Genoa, Italy, between French and British warships. In 1803 he assumed command of the 74-gun Pluton in the squadron of Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve in Toulon, and commanded the force that captured in June 1805 the British fortress of the Diamond Rock (a 570 foot high basalt island south of Fortde-France, the main port of the Caribbean island of Martinique). At the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), the Pluton was part of the reconnaissance squadron created by Pierre-Charles Villeneuve and commanded by Spanish admiral Don Federico Carlos (see entry). Although the Pluton caused some damage to the Royal Sovereign, the flagship of Cuthbert Collingwood (see entry) and managed to free the Principe de Asturias of Don Federico Carlos, the Battle was already lost. Cosmao-Kerjulien took command and sent five ships back to Cadiz, bearing the dying Carlos. And with the remaining five ships, including the Pluton, he retook from the British two of the captured ships (which sank on the journey back) and forced the British to scuttle a number of their prizes. After Trafalgar, Cosmao-Kerjulien continued in his inspirational career and was made baron in 1810. In 1813 he commanded the Mediterranean squadron with his flag on the Wagram. On November 5, 1813, he rescued the Agamemnon and the frigates Pénélope and Melpomène from superior British forces. In March 1815, Napoleon made him maritime prefect of Brest (one who exercises authority over the sea in one particular region), and in June 1815, just before the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon made Cosmao-Kerjulien peer of France, an honor granted only to very few dukes or counts, including princes of the French church. He retired in 1816 with twenty-five campaign years to his credit, having engaged in eleven battles without once being wounded or captured. Sources and Selected Publications: “Julien Cosmao.” NationMaster.com. www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Julien-Cosmao. “Julien Cosmao” (May 4,

Cowan 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:01, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Julien_Cosmao&oldid=210187532. Pope, Dudley. Ramage at Trafalgar. London: Alison Press/ Martin Secker and Warburg, 1986.

COWAN, SIR WALTER HENRY (1871–1956) (BRITAIN)

Born at Crickhowell, Brecknockshire, Wales, Walter Henry Cowan joined the Britannia Training-ship, now Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, as a naval cadet (1884) and was midshipman (1886); sub-lieutenant (1890); lieutenant (1892); commander (1901); captain (1906); commodore (1917); rear admiral (1918); vice admiral (1923); and admiral (1927). Between 1886 and 1898, Cowan served on a battleship, sloop, corvette, gunboat, and light cruiser, in the Mediterranean Fleet, in the East India Station and in West Africa. In 1898, in the Second Sudan War, on the Nile gunboat HMS Sultan, he commanded the entire Nile gunboat flotilla during the Fashoda Incident (between the British and French in East Africa, which was solved diplomatically), for which he received the Distinguished Service Order. Cowan then participated in the Second Boer War (1899– 1902), acting as aide-de-camp to Lord Kitchener (1850–1916) and then to Lord Roberts (1832–1914). From 1901 to 1912 Cowan worked mainly on destroyers and in 1908 took command of all destroyers of the Channel Fleet. In 1912 he became chief of staff to John de Robeck (see entry), flag officer patrols. In 1914 he took over the battle cruiser HMS Princess Royal as flag captain to Osmond Brock (see entry) and commanded her at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916) where she was badly damaged. In January 1919, Commodore Cowan took the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron to the Baltic to keep the sea lanes open for Estonia and Latvia, which were newly independent from Russia. Cowan’s coastal torpedo boats sank two Bolshevik battleships and one cruiser at Kronstadt naval base in the Gulf of Finland. Between 1921 until he retired in 1931, he had commands in Scotland, America and the West Indies, and in 1930 was first and principal naval aide-de-camp to King George V (reigned 1910–1935). In 1941, in the rank of commander, at age 70, he went to Scotland to help train the commandos in small boat handling. He served in North Africa, and on 27 May 1942, having attached himself to the Indian 18th King Edward VII’s Own Cavalry (his commando unit having been disbanded), he was captured fighting an Italian tank crew singlehandedly armed only with a revolver. Repatriated

Cowles in 1943, he rejoined the commandos and saw action in Italy during 1944. He was awarded a bar to his Distinguished Service Order. He retired finally in 1945. He was member, Royal Victorian Order (1904); Companion, Order of Bath (1916); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1919); and baronet (1921). The Estonian navy dedicated a mine hunter in his honor in 2007. Sources: Bevand, Paul. “Biography of Admiral Sir Walter Cowan.” HMS Hood Association. www.hmshoo d.com/crew/biography/cowan_bio.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/32592. “Cowan, Sir Walter Henry (1871–1956), Admiral.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/locreg/CO WAN1.shtml. “Walter Cowan” (July 28, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:00, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Walter_Cowan&oldid=228445078.

COWLES, WALTER CLEVELAND (1853–1917) (USA)

Born in Connecticut, Walter Cleveland Cowles graduated from the United States, Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, as a midshipman in 1873. He was ensign (1874); junior lieutenant (1883); lieutenant (1885); and rear admiral (1911). In the last decades of the nineteenth century Cowles was inspector of steel at the Washington Navy Yard when he oversaw the construction of several new cruisers, then supervised the Navy’s Bureau of Equipment. After the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898), he was ordnance officer at Cavite near Manila Bay in the Philippines; captain of the battleship USS Kentucky (BB-6) with the Great White Fleet’s voyage around the world (1908– 1909); commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet (1913– 1914); and commander of the U.S. Asiatic Fleet (1914–1915). In March 1915, the three commandersin-chief of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic fleets were all promoted to the temporary rank of full admiral, thus making them, including Cowles, the first full admirals in the history of the U.S. Navy while they were still service officers; quite often such rank was only conferred upon them on retirement or as a “tombstone promotion.” Cowles retired in August 1915, died in Redlands, California, and is buried at Riverside Cemetery, Farmington, Hartford County, Connecticut. Sources: Ault, Jonathan. “Connecticut in the Spanish American War.” Spanish-American War Centennial Website. www.spanamwar.com/Connecticut.htm. “Walter C. Cowles” (July 29, 2008). Biography and Service Profile, in Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:05, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Walter_C._Cowles&oldid=228560498.

78 CRACE, SIR JOHN GREGORY (1887–1968) (AUSTRALIA)

Born in the area of New South Wales that later became Gungahlin in the Australian Capital Territory, John Gregory Crace graduated as a midshipman from the Britannia Training-ship, now Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, England (1904), and was commander (1920); captain (1928); and rear admiral (1939). He joined the Royal Australian Navy in 1913, specialized as a torpedo officer, and between the wars, served on both shore and sea postings. In 1939 he took command of the Australian Squadron and served a frustrating two years kicking his heels ashore. So frustrated was he that he asked to resign, but when war with Japan started in December 1941, Crace was made commander of the Allied Naval Squadron, ANZAC Force (February 1942), and served on operations in the waters around New Guinea. In April 1942, command arrangements in the Pacific were reorganized and Crace’s squadron was renamed Task Force 44, but despite his seniority, he was made subordinate to the U.S.N. tactical commander. The squadron was detached on May 7 to intercept Japanese troop ships heading for Port Moresby, New Guinea. Lacking air cover, it came under heavy enemy attack and the flagship, HMAS Australia, narrowly escaped being bombed. He served during the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8, 1942) but was in a position peripheral to the main action. The Battle of the Coral Sea marked the end of Japanese expansion in South Pacific waters. Crace returned to England as vice admiral, then admiral, on the retired list, and was superintendent, Chatham Naval Dockyard, Kent, England (1942–1946). He was made Companion, Order of Bath (1941) and Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire (1947). Sources: “Crace, Sir John Gregory (1887–1968).” Sea Power Centre Australia. www.navy.gov.au/spc/maritime papers/piama17/crace.html. “John Gregory Crace” (June 19, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:52, July 31, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=John_Gregory_Crace&oldid=22 0415250. “Vice Admiral John Gregory Crace.” Who’s Who in Australian Military History. www.awm.gov. au/people/151.asp.

CRADOCK, SIR CHRISTOPHER GEORGE FRANCIS MAURICE (1862–1914) (BRITAIN)

Born at Hartforth, Yorkshire, Christopher George Francis Maurice Cradock entered the Royal Navy in 1875, and as midshipman of the Pallas, was at the British occupation of Cyprus (1878). He was sub-lieutenant (1884) and rear admiral (1810). In 1884, he landed with the naval brigade for gar-

79 rison duties in Upper Egypt as sub-lieutenant of the Dolphin. In 1891 he took part in the Eastern Sudan Field Force, serving as an aide-de-camp to the governor general of the Red Sea, and was awarded the khedive’s Bronze Star with Clasp and appointed to the order of the Mejidiye (fourth class). During the Boxer Rebellion (1900) he commanded the naval brigade which led the Allied forces at the storming of the Taku Forts, Northern China on July 17, 1900. Later, as commander of the British naval brigade, Cradock directed the allied forces in the relief of the Tientsin Settlement. With the start of World War I in August 1914, Cradock, commanding the 4th Squadron of the Royal Navy, was ordered to pursue and destroy Admiral Maximilian von Spee’s (see entry) fleet of two armored cruisers and three light cruisers. Cradock’s fleet of two armored cruisers and two light cruisers was significantly weaker than Spee’s, consisting of mainly elderly vessels manned by largely inexperienced crews. Cradock found Spee’s force off Chile and decided to engage it. In the resulting Battle of Coronel, at 07:35 hours on November 1, 1914, the Good Hope (Cradock’s flagship) exploded, with total loss of life including Cradock’s own. The Scharnhorst and Gneisenau outgunned him — only the two 9.2-inch guns on the Good Hope had the range to compete with von Spee’s 8-inch guns. Cradock was blamed by many for the defeat, but others saw his actions as being honorable and unselfish. The Monmouth was also lost, while the Glasgow and Otranto escaped. Many blamed the massacre on false intelligence. A monument to Admiral Cradock was placed on the east side of the North Transept towards the Chapter House entrance of York Minster. He was made Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1912), and was awarded the Board of Trade Silver Medal for gallantry in saving life at sea when he helped rescue Louise, Princess Royal (1867–1931) (eldest daughter of Edward VII and Queen Alexandra) and her husband, the duke of Fife, when the liner Delhi was shipwrecked off the Moroccan coast near Cape Spartel in December 1911. The duke died a month later in Egypt in mid–January 1912. Sources and Selected Publications: “Christopher Cradock” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:33, August 1, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Cradock &oldid=229018227. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32607. “The Princess Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife” (July 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:29, August 1, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louise%2C_Princess_Roy al_and_Duchess_of_Fife&oldid=227786704. “Who’s

Crea Who: Sir Christopher Cradock.” FirstWorldWar.com. www.firstworldwar.com/bio/cradock.htm. Cradock, Christopher. Sporting Notes in the Far East. London, 1890. _____. Whispers from the Fleet. Portsmouth, England: J. Griffin and Co., 1907. _____. Wrinkles in Seamanship. Portsmouth, England: J. Griffin and Co., 1894.

CRAIG-MCFEELY, ELIZABETH SARAH ANN (1927–) (BRITAIN)

Daughter of the late Lieutenant Colonel Cecil Michael Craig McFeely, Elizabeth Craig-McFeely gained a diploma in physical education, London University, and taught physical education at various schools until 1952, when she joined the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS). She was third officer (1953) and served in various Royal Naval, Royal Marines and Royal Naval Reserve establishments until 1967. From 1967 to 1969 she commanded the WRNS in the Far Eastern Fleet, then had various appointments in the Ministry of Defense (Navy), 1969–1974, and on the HMS Centurion, 1974–1976. (Centurion is a Ministry of Defense–owned establishment in Gosport, Hampshire, mainly responsible for personnel.) She was superintendent of WRNS in 1977, and director of WRNS (equivalent to rear admiral) and honorary aide-de-camp to the queen in 1979–1982. She was made Companion, Order of Bath (1982). She retired in 1982. Sources: Who’s Who. London: A&C Black, 2005.

CREA, VIVIEN S. (1952–) (USA)

Born in Seoul, South Korea, and brought up in Virginia, Vivien S. Crea holds master’s degrees from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Central Michigan University, and a bachelor’s degree from the University of Texas. After entering the Coast Guard in 1973, Crea became the first female aircraft commander in the Coast Guard; she has flown the HC-130 Hercules turboprop, HH-65 Dolphin helicopter and Gulfstream II jet. She was commanding officer of Air Station Clearwater, Florida; executive assistant to the commandant of the Coast Guard; commanding officer, Air Station Detroit; operations officer, Air Station Borinquen, Puerto Rico; and was Coast Guard aide to President Ronald Reagan (1984). In 2002 she became commander of the First Coast Guard District, northeastern United States; in 2004, she assumed command of Coast Guard Atlantic Area, which covered a vast area of the United States down to Mexico as far east as the Caribbean, and was responsible for all military and civilian staff. In 2006 she became the first woman second in command to commandant of the Coast Guard and the highest ranking woman in the history of the U.S. military. Should Vice Admiral Crea be ele-

Creasy vated to commandant (which would be usual), she would be the first female four-star admiral and the highest ranking Coast Guard officer. Her military decorations include the Defense Superior Service Medal, Legion of Merit (4), and the Meritorious Service Medal. Sources: “Vice Admiral Vivien S. Crea, Vice Commandant of the United States Coast Guard.” United States Coast Guard, Department of Homeland Security. www.uscg.mil/comdt/vicecomdt. “Vivien Crea” (June 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:04, August 1, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Vivien_Crea&oldid=216950801.

CREASY, SIR GEORGE ELVEY (1895–1972) (BRITAIN)

Born at Badulla, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), George Elvey Creasy joined the Royal Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight, in 1908. He was midshipman (1913); sub-lieutenant (1915); lieutenant (1916); commander (1930); captain (1935); rear admiral (1943); vice admiral, fifth sea lord and deputy chief of the naval staff (1948); vice chief of the naval staff (1949–1951); admiral (1951); commander-in-chief, Home Fleet (1952); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1954); and admiral of the fleet (1955). During World War I, Creasy served on the battleship Conqueror, the minesweeper Recruit and destroyers Milne, Nonsuch and Lively. He trained as a torpedo specialist at the torpedo school, HMS Vernon, Portsmouth, and spent ten years in various appointments that required his specialized knowledge. His destroyer, HMS Grenville, was hit by a mine in the North Sea on January 19, 1940, and was lost with 77 officers and crew. On May 10, 1940, the invasion of the Netherlands started, and three days later, Creasy rescued Princess Juliana and her family in the destroyer HMS Codrington. For this action and for his part in the evacuation of the British Army from Dunkirk (May 26–June 4, 1940, in which the Codrington brought back nearly 6,000 men), he was appointed to the Distinguished Service Order on July 11, 1940. In September 1940, Creasy became director of anti-submarine warfare at the Admiralty. Creasy and his assistant Sir Charles Roger Noel Winn (1903–1972), temporary commander Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve, played a crucial role in anticipating and blocking the submarine attacks carried out admiral Karl Dönitz (see entry), head of the U-boat section of the German navy. The success of the landings in Europe was due in great measure to the details worked out by Creasy for the movement of some 5,000 ships. Creasy was made member, Royal Victorian Order (1934); Commander, Order of the British Empire (1943); Companion, Order of Bath (1944);

80 Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1949); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1953). He was commander of the U.S. Legion of Merit, of the Dutch Order of Orange Nassau, and of the Polish Order of Polonia Restituta. Sources: “Allied Warships: HMS Grenville (i) (H 03).” Uboat.net. www.uboat.net/allies/warships/ship/ 4390.html. “Creasy, Sir George Elvey (1895–1972), Admiral of the Fleet.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/ locreg/CREASY.shtml. “HMS Codrington.” Dover Past and Present: 2000 Years of History. www.doverpages. co.uk/albums/dunkirk/pages/codrington_jpg.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/30981.

CRESWELL, SIR WILLIAM ROOKE (1852–1933) (AUSTRALIA)

William Rooke Creswell, considered the “Father of the Australian Navy,” was born in Gibraltar to Edmund Creswell, who was head of the postal service at Gibraltar and for the Mediterranean. He graduated as midshipman from Britannia Trainingship, now Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1867 and was sub-lieutenant in 1871 and lieutenant in 1873. In the Australian Navy he was first lieutenant (1885); captain (1895); commandant, Queensland Naval Forces (1900); naval officer commanding the Commonwealth Naval Forces (1904); rear admiral (1911); and vice admiral (1922). His career in the Royal Navy was from 1865 to 1878; he immigrated to Australia in 1879 to try his hand at farming. From 1885 he is firmly associated with the Royal Australian Navy. In 1873 he was wounded in the hip during an engagement with Chinese pirates off Malaya. After recuperation in England, he commanded a flotilla around Zanzibar suppressing the slave trade. Illness, possibly malaria, again forced his return to England. Soon after joining the Australian Navy, Creswell began agitating for the establishment of an Australian naval force, considering that the Royal Navy squadron based in Sydney was inadequate. In 1900 he was appointed commandant of the Queensland naval forces and was in command of the Protector in helping to put down the Boxer Rebellion (1900) in China. After federation (1901), Creswell’s lobbying for an Australian navy gained momentum. He was regarded by many as Australia’s chief spokesman on naval matters; the Defense Act of 1910 led to the creation of the Royal Australian Navy. Without Cresswell’s constant agitating, it is doubtful that the navy would have been prepared for World War 1. What he started before the war, he continued

81 when it ended, and when he retired in 1919 he left the navy in a healthier state as it looked toward the future. When he retired he took up farming in Victoria. Upon his death he was accorded a state funeral. Creswell was knighted (1911) and made Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire (1919). Sources: Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition. www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A080163b. htm. “Creswell, Sir William Rooke (1852–1933).” Sea Power Centre Australia. www.navy.gov.au/spc/maritime papers/piama17/creswell.html. “William Rooke Creswell.” Australian Sea Power: Who’s Who in Australian Military History. www.awm.gov.au/people/152.asp. “Vice Admiral William Rooke Creswell” (July 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:27, August 1, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=William_Rooke_Creswell&oldid=227785255.

CRISP, DONNA L. (1951–) (USA)

Donna L. Crisp, born in Bay Shore, New York, and raised in Redlands, California, graduated from California State University, Long Beach, in 1971 and was commissioned an ensign at Officer Candidate School, Newport, Rhode Island, in 1974. Between 1974 and 1988, she was protocol officer and district public affairs officer at Naval District Washington; had tours in security group, communications, and public affairs at Pearl Harbor; was manpower and personnel department head on the staff of commander, 3rd Fleet; manpower and budget analyst on the staff of the chief of naval operations; project officer for carrier navy tactical data systems, weapons control and air traffic control programs at Fleet Combat Direction Systems Support Activity, San Diego; director, Combat Systems Maintenance Training Facility and Tactical Data Systems ‘C’ Schools; and executive officer and comptroller at the Integrated Combat Systems Test Facility. She was fleet personnel assignment and distribution officer and deputy N1 on the staff of commander-in-chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet (1988– 1992); commanded the naval consolidated ship Brig Miramar, a Department of Defense Level II prison (1992–1994); director, Distribution Management and Control Division (PERS-46), program manager, permanent change of station funds, Bureau of Naval Personnel (1994–1996); and commanded personnel support activity in Norfolk, Virginia, providing pay, personnel and passenger transportation support to one million sailors, retirees and their family members throughout the East Coast MidAtlantic States and Guantanamo Bay, Cuba (1996– 1999). Crisp was director of manpower, personnel, and quality (TCJ1), U.S. Transportation Command, Scott Air Force Base, Ill., executive assistant with the additional duty of director of staff to the deputy

Crosby commander-in-chief (1999–2001); rear admiral (2001); deputy chief of staff for shore installation management on the staff of commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet, and head of human resources officers in the Navy (2002–2004). From April to August 2004 she was commander, Task Force Warrior, responsible for integrating and interfacing the navy’s human capital system, and sea warrior. She was director for manpower and personnel for the Joint Staff, Pentagon, Washington, D.C. (September 2004 to December 2007); and commander of the joint prisoner of war/missing in action (POW/MIA) accounting command (from January 2008). Crisp attended cooperation talks in Laos on POW/MIA in April 2008. Her awards include the Defense Superior Service Medal with one oak leaf cluster; Legion of Merit with three gold stars; Meritorious Service Medal with two gold stars; Navy Commendation Medal; Navy Achievement Medal, and various other unit and service medals, and the Defense Reengineering Excellence award. Sources: “JPAC Commander, Rear Admiral Donna Crisp Visits Laos for Consultative Talks on POW/MIA Cooperation.” Embassy of the United States: Ventiane, Laos. http://laos.usembassy.gov/jpac_apri20-22_2008. html. “Rear Admiral Donna L. Crisp, Commander, Joint POW /MIA Accounting Command.” Navy.mil: United States Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/ navybio.asp?bioID=83.

CROSBY, PEIRCE (1824–1899) (USA)

Born in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, Peirce Crosby was midshipman (1838); lieutenant (1853); captain (1868); commodore and commandant, League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia (1877–1881); and rear admiral commanding the South Atlantic Station (1882–1883) and the Asiatic Station (1883). He served in the Home Squadron in the Mediterranean Squadrons on coastal survey duty and was aboard the sloop of war USS Decatur and on the gunboat USS Petrel in the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). From April to October 1861, during the American Civil War (1861–1865), Crosby served in the sloop of war Cumberland and briefly commanded the gunboat Pembina. He went to the Gulf of Mexico as commanding officer of the gunboat Pinola at the beginning of 1862. The Pinola and the gunboat Itasca broke the chain barrier across the Mississippi, thus allowing Flag Officer David Farragut’s (see entry) squadron to capture New Orleans. His last assignment of the war was in command of the gunboat Metacomet helping to clear mines from Mobile Bay in the Gulf of Mexico. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The destroyer USS Crosby (DD-164) was launched in 1919.

Crosse Sources: “Peirce Crosby, Rear Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/peirce-crosby.htm. “USS Crosby, DD 164 (Wickes class).” Destroyers Online. www.destroyersonline.com/usndd/info/infdw164.htm.

CROSSE, SIR ROBERT (1547?–1611) (BRITAIN)

Robert Crosse was born in Charlinch, Somerset, and though he went to sea as early as 1569, he spent most of the years until 1584 in soldiering, at times in Ireland and in Scotland, where he served with the Regency forces. He was wounded at the “Lang Siege” of Edinburgh Castle (1573), in which Mary Queen of Scots’ supporters tried and failed to hold the castle in her name against Queen Elizabeth’s forces, who were fighting to prevent Mary from re-establishing Roman Catholicism in Scotland. From 1585 to 1599 Crosse served at sea. He sailed with Sir Francis Drake (see entry) to the West Indies (1585–1586) and in 1587, during the AngloSpanish War (1585–1604), took part in the successful raid on Cadiz, a prelude to the Spanish Armada (1588). During the Spanish Armada (August 8, 1588), Crosse was rear admiral of Drake’s squadron. It is said that he is included in the Armada tapestries, although it difficult distinguish him. From 1590 to 1595 Crosse is linked with Sir Walter Raleigh (or Ralegh) (1552?–1618), the archetypal Elizabethan adventurer in their many privateering exploits. In 1591, Crosse was rear admiral of the royal fleet whose cruise climaxed with the loss of the Revenge, the flagship of Richard Grenville (1541?–1591). In 1592 Raleigh assembled a fleet and appointed Crosse as vice admiral of the Foresight. They captured the Portuguese ship Madre de Dios, said to have been richest single prize of Elizabeth’s reign (1558–1602); the fabulous cargo was worth £150,000. In 1596 he was a vice admiral at the capture of Cadiz, where he was knighted. On February 19, 1601, Robert Devereux, second Earl of Essex (1566–1601), was executed for organizing a plot against Queen Elizabeth. Crosse refused to be a part of it and in modern parlance “blew the whistle” on the conspirators. James I (reigned 1603–1625), who did not approve of Crosse’s close association with Raleigh, found no place at court for Crosse, and he retired. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/37326. “Chapter IV: The Armada.” Plymouth Armada Heroes. www.welbank.net/hawkins/pah/chap4.html.

CROWE, WILLIAM J. (1925–2007) (USA)

Born in La Grange, Kentucky, William J. Crowe graduated from the United States Naval Academy,

82 Annapolis, Maryland, in 1947. He was assistant in 1954–1955 to the naval aide of President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969); executive officer of the submarine USS Wahoo (1956–1958); aide to the deputy chief of naval operations (1958); and commander of the submarine USS Trout (SS-566) (1960–1962). Crowe gained a master’s degree in education at Stanford University, California, and a master’s and Ph.D. in political science at Princeton University, New Jersey. During the Vietnam War (1959–1975) he was the senior advisor to the Vietnamese, the joint U.S. Army and U.S. Navy force. In 1969, he commanded Submarine Division 31, San Diego, California. He was rear admiral and deputy director, Strategic Plans, Policy (1973); director, East Asia and Pacific Region, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (1975); commander, Middle East Force (1976); deputy chief of naval operations, Plans and Policy (1977); commander-in-chief, Allied Forces Southern Europe (1980); and commander-in-chief, United States Pacific Command (1983). Crowe served as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1985 to 1991, when he was succeeded by Army General Colin L. Powell (1937–). Appointed by President Bill Clinton, Crowe was ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1994 to 1997. In 2004 Crowe was among several prominent people who criticized the leadership by the George W. Bush administration. Crowe has been awarded honorary degrees from numerous universities, including the University of Liverpool; George Washington University, Washington, D.C.; and Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois. Among Crowe’s many awards are Defense Distinguished Service Medal with three oak leaf clusters in lieu of four awards; Navy Distinguished Service Medal; Legion of Merit with two gold stars; Bronze Star Medal with Valor device. Following his retirement from the Navy, he was awarded a 2000 Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States’ highest civilian honor. Sources: “Admiral William Crowe,” obituary. The Times (London), October 23, 2007. www.timesonline. co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article2718310.ece. “Admiral William James Crowe, USN (Ret.), 2 January 1925–18 October 2007.” Biographies in Naval History: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/bios/ crowe_william_j.htm. “William J. Crowe” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:05, August 1, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=William_J._Crowe&oldid=228561316.

CRUTCHLEY, VICTOR ALEXANDER CHARLES (1893–1986) (BRITAIN)

Victor Alexander Charles Crutchley, a godchild of Queen Victoria (from whom he derived his first two names), was born in Chelsea, London, and

83 joined the Royal Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight, in 1906. He was lieutenant (1915); lieutenant commander (1923); commander (1928); captain (1932); commodore, 2nd class (1940); rear admiral (1942); vice admiral (1945); and admiral (1949). Crutchley served on the dreadnought battleship HMS Centurion, part of the Grand Fleet, and took part in the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). Under Commodore Roger Keyes (see entry), Crutchley took part in the raid on German-held Zeebrugge and Ostend (April 23, 1918). Crutchley went to Ostend on the cruiser HMS Brilliant, accompanied by the cruiser HMS Sirius, while Keyes went to Zeebrugge on the Centurion. The plan to block Ostend by scuttling Brilliant went wrong because the Germans had moved a navigation buoy more than a mile east. The Brilliant came under heavy fire. Although several more attempts to block Ostend and the U-boat pens at Zeebrugge failed, Crutchley, having taken command of two ships when their captains were wounded or killed, and having saved the lives of the wounded and crew while under shell and machine-gun fire, was awarded the Victoria Cross. As commodore on the battleship ship Warspite in the Second Battle of Narvik, Norway (April 1940), Crutchley, with nine destroyers, took a heavy toll on the German guns overlooking the fjord area, paving the way for the Allied retaking of the port. After Japan entered the war in December 1941, Rear Admiral Crutchley was lent to the Royal Australian Navy for service in the Southwest Pacific, and on June 13, 1942, succeeded Rear Admiral John Crace (see entry) in command of Task Force 44, the Australian Squadron based in Brisbane, Australia; he was the last Briton to do so. Throughout the Battle of Guadalcanal (November 12–15, 1942), from his base in HMAS Australia, Crutchley commanded the allied naval Task Force 62.2. He remained with the Royal Australian Navy in the Southwest Pacific commanding Task Force 74 until June 1944. His final command, until he retired in 1947, was flag officer commanding Gibraltar. In 1957 he was appointed deputy lieutenant and high sheriff of the county of Dorset, and at the time of his death was one of the last surviving admirals from the Second World War. Crutchley was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross; made Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath; and awarded the United States Legion of Merit (1944). Sources: “List of Godchildren of Members of the British Royal Family” (May 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:42, August 1, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_god children_of_members_of_the_British_Royal_Family &oldid=215069928. Oxford Dictionary of National Bi-

Cunningham ography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/655 99. “Victor Crutchley” (June 13, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:28, August 1, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victor_Crutc hley&oldid=219061726.

CUMMING, SIR ARTHUR (1817–1893) (BRITAIN)

Born at Nancy in France, Arthur Cumming entered Royal Naval College at Portsmouth (1831) and was mate (1837); lieutenant (1840); commander (1846); captain (1854); rear admiral (1870); vice admiral (1876); and admiral (1880). In September 1843, the brig Frolic, commanded by Captain William Alexander Willis (1799–1862), was cruising on the coast of South America southward of Rio de Janeiro. Cumming was in command of Frolic’s pinnace, when, on the 6th, off Santos, he fell in with the pirate slaver ship Vincedora, a large brigantine with a crew of thirty men. The Vincedora threatened to run the pinnace down but the captain’s heart was not up such drastic measures. Cumming shot him and captured the ship, which was taken to Rio, but two other slavers escaped. Cumming and his crew rightly felt hard done by; all the thanks Cumming received was an attack of smallpox, for which he was invalided home. As captain of the destroyer Conflict, he fought in the Baltic during the Crimean War (1853–1856), a conflict between Russia and Britain and her allies. It is reported that between 15 April and 22 May 1854, the Conflict boarded nineteen vessels. He commanded HMS Glatton, a screw-propelled floating battery in Black Sea (1855–1856). He was commander-in-chief in the East Indies from 1872 to 1875. Cumming was made Companion, Order of Bath (1867) and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath, on the occasion of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee, 21 June 1887. Sources: “Captain Arthur Cumming.” William Loney [Royal Navy]: Album. www.pdavis.nl/Cumming.php. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/6894.

CUNNINGHAM, ANDREW BROWNE (1883–1963) (BRITAIN)

Often referred to by his initials “ABC,” Andrew Browne Cunningham was born at Rathmines, County Dublin, Ireland. He graduated as a midshipman from Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth (1898), and was sub-lieutenant (1902); lieutenant (1904); lieutenant commander (1912); commander (1915); captain (1919); rear admiral (1932); vice admiral (1936); acting admiral (1939); admiral (1941); and admiral of the fleet (1943). Cunningham served on the Cape station during

Cunningham the Second Boer War (1899) and commanded a destroyer during the First World War at the Battle of Gallipoli (April to December, 1915). In June 1939, he was appointed commander-inchief, Mediterranean Station, hoisting his flag in the battleship Warspite. His policy was “seek out and destroy,” and at all costs, Alexandria and Malta had to be maintained as British naval bases to provide support for the army and the Royal Air Force. When Cunningham received orders from London to seize the French fleet at Alexandria, he used diplomacy and secured an agreement from French Admiral René-Emile Godfroy (1885–1981) that the French warships would remain permanently immobilized in Alexandria harbor, safe from misappropriation by the Axis. Cunningham led British naval forces in several critical Mediterranean naval battles: the Battle of Taranto on November 11–12, 1940; the Battle of Cape Matapan, off the Peloponnesian coast of Greece, on March 27–29, 1941, and the Battle of Crete in May 1941. Cunningham was also responsible for the ongoing struggle to supply Malta with oversight of the naval support for the various major allied landings on the Mediterranean shoreline, North Africa, and Sicily; headed the British Admiralty delegation in Washington (1942); and accepted the surrender of the Italian Fleet at Malta on the morning of September 11, 1943. Cunningham was first sea lord at the Admiralty and chief of the naval staff (1943–1946) when he retired. Wearing his two hats as first sea lord and as a member of the chiefs of staff committee, Cunningham directed naval strategy until the war ended. He attended all the major conferences to discuss the how to end the war both in Europe and in the Far East. He was lord high commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland (1950 and 1952) and was lord high steward at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. In 1945 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Cunningham of Hyndhope in the County of Selkirk, Scotland, and in 1946, was created 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope. A Sailor’s Odyssey (London: Hutchinson, 1951) is his autobiography. Cunningham’s awards are Distinguished Service Order (1916, Bars, 1919, 1920); Companion, Order of Bath (1934); Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (1939); Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1941); Knight, Order of the Thistle (1945); and Order of Merit (1946). He also had awards from China, France, Greece, Morocco, The Netherlands, Tunisia, and the USA. Sources: “Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Browne Cunningham.” Royal Navy Flag Officers 1904–1945. www.admirals.org.uk/admirals/fleet/cunninghamabc.p hp. “Admiral Sir Andrew Browne Cunningham, 1883–

84 1963.” Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. www. historyofwar.org/articles/people_cunningham.html. “Andrew Browne Cunningham” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1058752/An drew-Browne-Cunningham. “Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope, 1883–1963.” Naval Leaders. www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server/show/nav.38 93. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32665.

CUNNINGHAM, SIR JOHN DACRES (1885–1962) (BRITAIN)

Born at Demerara, British Guiana (now the independent state of Guyana), John Dacres Cunningham trained on the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, and was midshipman (1901); sub-lieutenant (1904); lieutenant (1905); commander (1917); captain (1924); rear admiral (1936); fifth sea lord (1938); vice admiral (1939); knighted, and fourth sea lord (1941–1943); acting admiral (1943); admiral and commander-in-chief, Mediterranean Fleet (1944–1946); first sea lord (1946); Freeman of the City of London (1946); and admiral of the fleet (1948). Cunningham was a graduate of the Royal Navy School of Navigation, Portsmouth, and for a time was instructor there. He saw service in the cruiser HMS Berwick in the West Indies Station (1914); in the battleship HMS Russell in the Mediterranean (1915), and survived a sinking by a mine off Malta (1916). He also served in the battle cruiser HMS Renown (1916) and HMS Lion in the Grand Fleet (1918). In 1920 he was navigator on the newly commissioned battle cruiser HMS Hood and became the squadron navigator for the entire battle cruiser squadron, commanded at the time by Roger Keyes (see entry). Cunningham was commander of the navigation school (1922) then master of the fleet in the HMS Queen Elizabeth, the flagship of Admiral Sir John de Robeck (1923). He was director of plans at the Admiralty (1930–1932) and aide-decamp to King George V (reigned 1910–1936) in 1935, and in 1937 he assumed responsibility for administering the Fleet Air Arm. In May 1940, on HMS Devonshire, he led the evacuation of roughly 5700 allied troops from Namsos, Norway, and in June, brought King Olaf VII of Norway, Crown Prince Olav, and the Norwegian government from Tromsö to Britain. In 1943 he was commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, with the responsibility for all allied warships. He oversaw the Operation Shingle amphibious landings at Anzio, Italy, on January 22, 1944, and the landing of three attack forces in the south of France, between Toulon and Cannes.

85 After retiring from the military in 1948, Cunningham was chairman of the Iraq Petroleum Company, before retiring finally in 1958. In addition to the Companion, Order of Bath; Knight Commander, Order of the Bath; Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath and member, Royal Victorian Order, Cunningham received distinguished orders and decorations from France, Greece, Norway, and the United States. Sources: “John Cunningham (Royal Navy Officer)” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:50, August 1, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=John_Cunningham_%28Royal_ Navy_officer%29&oldid=229049785. “Cunningham, Sir John Henry Dacres (1885–1962), Admiral of the Fleet.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/locreg/CUNN INGHAM4.shtml. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32668.

CURSETJI, JAL (1919–) (INDIA)

Jal Cursetji, the first Parsi (a member of the close-knit Zoroastrian community in or from the Indian subcontinent) admiral of the Royal Indian Navy, joined the naval service as a cadet in January 1938 and was commissioned in September 1940. He served on board several royal naval ships during World War II, including the destroyer HMS Foxhound, and by 1943 he was in command of the corvette INS Bombay. Specializing in hydrography — measuring and charting characteristics of water bodies, such as depth and flow — Cursetji commanded naval survey ships for a number of years. He was the surveyor-in-charge, Marine Survey of India (1950–1954), and was the first Indian chief hydrographer to the government (1955–1957). In 1957 he became commanding officer of 11th Destroyer Squadron. In 1961 he became the first attaché to the embassy in Washington. In 1966 he took over as the commanding officer of the aircraft carrier INS Vikrant. Promoted to the rank of rear admiral in 1967, he became the chief of personnel at Naval Headquarters, New Delhi, and then in 1970 he was appointed vice chief of the naval staff in the rank of vice admiral. During the IndoPakistan war (December 3–16, 1971), he was the chief of operations and coordinated the twin attacks on the harbors in Karachi and Chittagong. He was awarded the Param Vishist Seva Medal for distinguished service of the most exceptional order. He was flag officer-in-charge, Western Naval Command (1973–1976), and took over as the 8th chief of naval staff in March 1976, becoming the first hydrographer ever to become chief of a navy. He was also the first Indian naval chief to receive the United States Legion of Merit (1978).

Curtis Sources: “Admiral Jal Cursetji.” Information Resource Information Centre. www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/modules. php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=84. “Admiral Jal Cursetji.” Chiefs of the Indian Navy. www.bharat-rak shak.com/NAVY/Navy-Chiefs/Chiefs-Navy10.html. “Brief History.” Indian Naval Hydrographic Department. http://hydrobharat.nic.in/brief_history.htm. The Naval Hydrographic Department. http://indiannavy. nic.in/t2t2e/Trans2Trimph/chapters/24_naval%20hyd rography-1.htm.

CURTIS, SIR ROGER (1746–1816) (BRITAIN)

Born at Downton, Wiltshire, Roger Curtis entered the Royal Navy in 1762, served on the coast of Africa, and spent three years aboard the frigate Gibraltar in Newfoundland. While there he compiled a record of the coastline, which he dedicated to Lord Dartmouth, secretary of state for the American colonies. He was lieutenant (1771); knighted and made captain (1793); rear admiral and baronet (1794); vice admiral (1799); and admiral (1804). In 1780, in command of HMS Brilliant, on his way to help relieve the besieged Gibraltar, he was chased through the straits by three French frigates and ended up in Minorca. He was later charged with allowing himself to be blockaded there by an inferior force, but no disciplinary action was taken. In 1781 he headed a convoy of store ships, mostly private adventurers, which brought relief to the besieged Gibraltar. For the next eighteen months he cooperated with the governor, and had an important share in the defense of the beleaguered fortress, and especially in the repulse and destruction of the formidable floating batteries on September 13, 1782. When some of the batteries were blown up, Curtis rescued many Spanish crewmen. On October 18, Gibraltar was relieved by the grand fleet under Richard Howe (see entry). Curtis was captain of Queen Charlotte at the Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794) and was sent home with Howe’s dispatches. King George III (reigned 1760–1820), on visiting the Queen Charlotte at the Spithead Review, placed a massive gold chain around Curtis’ neck, commanding him to keep it in his family as a lasting proof of the royal regard and friendship. In January 1805 Curtis was appointed to the commission for revising the civil affairs of the Royal Navy, and one of the traditions he abolished was that of requiring British ships of war to compel all foreign ships to salute the king’s flag within the “narrow seas” (the English Channel and Irish Sea). In January 1809 he was appointed commander-inchief, Portsmouth, and seven months later was president of the court-martial that tried and acquitted James Gambier (see entry). Curtis was made Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1815).

Curzon-Howe Sources: Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36473. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/6961. “Roger Curtis” (June 9, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:22, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Roger_Curtis&oldid=218207996.

CURZON-HOWE, SIR ASSHETON GORE (1850–1911) (BRITAIN)

Assheton Gore Curzon-Howe, born at Gopsall, Leicestershire, was the grandson of Vice Admiral John Gore and great-grandson of Admiral Richard Howe (see entries). Curzon-Howe entered the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon (1863), and was sub-lieutenant (1870); lieutenant (1872); commander (1882); captain (1888); aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria (1899–1901); rear admiral (1901); vice admiral (1905); acting admiral (1908); admiral (1909); and commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1910). Curzon-Howe served aboard the frigate Galatea, captained by Albert, Duke of Edinburgh, on its tour around the world. He again served with the Duke of Edinburgh aboard the broadside ironclad Sultan in the Mediterranean (1876) whom two years later he followed into the battleship ship Black Prince. In July 1879, Curzon-Howe served aboard the frigate ship Bacchante, which took Albert Edward, Duke of Clarence (1864–1892), and Prince George of Wales, afterward King George V (reigned 1910–1936), for a cruise around the world to give them their sea training as cadets. As flag captain and chief of the staff aboard the frigate Boadicea, flagship of Rear Admiral Edmund Fremantle (1836–1929), he took part in the Vitu expedition, which blockaded the coasts of Zanzibar in an attempt to suppress the transport of slaves in 1890. Curzon-Howe commanded the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth (1897–1900), then the battleship ship Ocean on the China Station, where in 1903 he became second in command with his flag in the battleship Albion. In 1908, as commander-in-chief, Mediterranean, with his flag in the battleship Cæsar, he was involved in relief work following the disastrous earthquake at Messina in December (See Callaghan, Sir George Astley). He was buried with naval honors at Highcliffe, near Christchurch. A memorial tablet was placed in northeast corner of the nave, behind the pulpit of St. Ann’s Church, Portsmouth dockyard. He was made Companion, Order of Bath (1890); Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1896); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1905); and Knight Commander, Royal Victorian

86 Order (1909). There is a Curzon-Howe Road in Portsea, Portsmouth. Sources: “Assheton Curzon-Howe” (April 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:53, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Assheton_Curzon-Howe&oldid=208979 598. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.ox forddnb.com/view/article/32681?docPos=1. Memorials and Monuments in Portsmouth. www.memorials.in portsmouth.co.uk/churches/st_anns/curzon-howe.htm.

D’AIGALLIERS, FRANÇOIS-PAUL BRUEYS (1753–1798) (FRANCE)

Born in Rue Boucairie, Uzès, Gard, southern France, François-Paul Brueys D’Aigalliers began his life at sea at the age of 13 and served during the American Revolution (1775–1783). By 1792 he was captain, and in 1796 as junior admiral he captured the Ionian Islands, Greece, and with them a larger force of Venetian ships lying at Corfu. In 1798 he was promoted to vice admiral and led the naval forces during the expedition to Egypt, which resulted in the Battle of the Nile (August 1–2, 1798) (see Nelson, Horatio). Part of d’Aigalliers difficulties was that many of his ships were old and illfitted and crews were under strength. An added worry was, although supposedly in charge of the naval side of the operation, he took orders from Napoleon who, with his staff, installed himself on d’Aigalliers’ flagship L’Orient. Napoleon further complicated the situation by ordering d’Aigalliers to remain at Aboukir Bay (Ab¨ Qnr). D’Aigalliers was forced to fight at anchor rather than in the open sea, which any admiral would prefer. At 7 P.M. on August 1, 1798, although seriously wounded in the head and arm, D’Aigalliers refused to have his wounds attended to, even trying to staunch the blood with his handkerchief. Thirty minutes later a cannon ball broke his legs; even then he refused treatment and stayed on deck. It is reported that he said, “A French admiral ought to die on his own quarterdeck.” He died at 7:45 P.M. in the arms of his helmsman, with his staff around him. The ship was destroyed by fire and explosion at 10 P.M. Napoleon remained at Cairo and from there wrote a compassionate letter of condolence to d’Aigalliers’s widow. Sources: ”François-Paul Brueys d’Aigalliers.” Napoleonic Guide. www.napoleonguide.com/sailors_ brueys.htm. “François-Paul Brueys d,Aigalliers” (January 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:07, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois-Paul_Brueys_ d%27Aigalliers&oldid=185957210. “Napoleon’s Letter to Madam Brueys, Cairo, August 19, 1798.” Napoleonic Guide. www.napoleonguide.com/lettbrueys.htm. “Vice

87 Admiral Francois Paul Brueys d’Aigalliers, Compte de Brueys (1753–1798).” Yahoo France Groupes. http://fr. groups.yahoo.com/group/amiralganteaume/message/14.

D’ARGENLIEU, GEORGES THIERRY (1889–1964) (FRANCE)

Born in Brest, France, Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu joined the Naval Academy at Brest in 1906. He was midshipman on the ship of the line Du Chayla, taking part in the campaign in Morocco that led to the 1912 Treaty of Fez, in which Sultan Abdelhafid (1873–1937) gave up the sovereignty of Morocco to the French, making the country a protectorate. During World War I, d’Argenlieu served in the Mediterranean and was promoted to lieutenant (1917). As commanding officer of the patrol boat Tourterelle (1918), he distinguished himself in the rescue of a troop transport. At the end of the war, d’Argenlieu undertook theological studies in Rome and joined the religious order of the Discalced Carmelites as Father Louis of the Trinity (1921), then studied for four years in the Catholic university of Lille. In 1932, he was made provincial superior of the Carmelite Order in France. In September 1939, d’Argenlieu was mobilized as a reserve navy officer, made captain (1940) and was captured defending the arsenal of Cherbourg when France fell in June 1940. After three days he escaped from the prison train taking him to Germany, got to Jersey and then to England, where on June 30 he joined General Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970), head of the Free French Forces in London. It was not long before he asked his superiors for special dispensation to allow him to take up arms, and in July 1940 de Gaulle made him his chief of staff. He was severely wounded on September 23, 1940, during the Battle of Dakar in French West Africa (September 23–25, 1940), and two months later he directed successful operations at the Battle of Gabon (part of the West African Campaign. On January 29, 1941, General de Gaulle named him first chancellor of the Order of Liberation, and in July, high commissioner for the Pacific with full civil and military powers; he was promoted to rear admiral in December 1941. In July 1943 he was given command of all Free French Forces in Britain. On June 14, 1944, he had the honor of conveying de Gaulle to France aboard the destroyer Combattante and was with him in the triumphal entry into Paris on August 25. He was promoted to vice admiral in December 1944. In April 1945 he was one of the delegates at a conference in San Francisco that laid the foundations for the United Nations. After the war defeat in the Far East in August 1945, d’Argenlieu, now high commissioner for France and Indochina, led

d’Entrecasteaux the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to re-establish French sovereignty in French Indochina. He was promoted to admiral in 1945. He was inspector general of the Naval Forces, France (1947), but soon retired to the Convent of the Carmelite friars of Avon-Fontainebleau. His many awards include Grand Cross of the Légion d’Honneur; Croix de Guerre 39–45 with 3 palms; Belgian Croix de Guerre with palm; Commander of the Order of Léopold (Belgium); Companion, Order of the Bath (United Kingdom). His funeral service at Brest was attended by General de Gaulle and many officers of the Free French Forces. Sources: “Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu” (June 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:43, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Georges_Thierry_d%27Argenlieu&oldid=21 9485063. “Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu.” The World at War. http://worldatwar.net/biography/a/argenlieu. “Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu.” Find a Grave. www. findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=84742 21.

D’ENTRECASTEAUX, ANTOINE RAYMOND JOSEPH DE BRUNI (1739–1793) (FRANCE)

Antoine Raymond Joseph de Bruni d’Entrecasteaux, born at Aix-en-Provence, was enlisted into the French Navy by his father at the age of 15. He was a midshipman aboard La Minerve at the Battle of Minorca (May 20, 1756), the opening sea battle of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) in the European theater, which secured the Mediterranean Balearic Islands for Spain. D’Entrecasteaux was commissioned as an ensign in 1757. He commanded a French Squadron in the East Indies in 1785 and opened up a new route to Canton, China, by way of the Sunda Strait, between the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra, connecting the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. He also opened up the Molucca Islands (Maluku, the Spice Islands, part of the larger Malay Archipelago) for use during the southeast monsoon season. He was then appointed Governor of the French slave colony of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. On September 28, 1791, d’Entrecasteaux, as rear admiral, left Brest to search for Jean François de Galaup, Comte de La Pérouse (1741–1788?), a French Navy officer and explorer of whom nothing had been heard for some time since his ship left Botany Bay, New South Wales, Australia. Between 1791 and 1793 d’Entrecasteaux discovered Recherche Bay on the extreme southeastern corner of Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania), Australia; the Derwent estuary and the d’Entrecasteaux Channel between Bruny Island and mainland Tasmania; and

d’Estaing Esperance Bay and the Archipelago of the Recherche in Western Australia. One of his scientists was Charles Francois Beautemps-Beaupré (1766–1814), who is generally regarded as the father of modern French hydrography. His Atlas du Voyage de BrunyDentrecasteaux, which includes detailed charts of Tasmania, was published in Paris in 1807. After searching vast areas of the South Pacific, and finding no trace of La Pérouse, d’Entrecasteaux died at sea of scurvy. Although all the papers of the expedition were captured by the British, they were returned after the Peace of Amiens (1802) and published by one of the ship’s officers, Joseph Antoine Bruni d’Entrecasteaux Rossel, as Voyage d’Entrecasteaux, envoye à la Recherche de La Pérouse (Paris, 1808). Sources: Rayment, Leigh. “Antoine Raymond Joseph de Bruni D’Entrecasteaux.” Discoverers Web. www.win. tue.nl/~engels/discovery/entrecast.html. “Bruni d’Entrecasteaux” (February 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:48, August 3, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruni_d%27 Entrecasteaux&oldid=193120666. “Bruny D’Entrecasteaux: Voyages to Australia and the Pacific, 1791– 1793.” Edward Duyker and Maryse Duyker, ed. and trans. Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 2001. Australian Public Intellectual Network. www.api-network. com/main/index.php?apply=reviews&webpage=api_re views&flexedit=&flex_password=&menu_label=& menuID=homely&menubox=&Review=4572. “The Voyages of d’Entrecasteaux.” Jane Resture’s Oceana Page. www.janesoceania.com/oceania_dentrecasteaux.

D’ESTAING CHARLES HECTOR, COMTE (1729–1794) (FRANCE)

Born at Ruvel, Auvergne, France, Charles Hector d’Estaing was a colonel of infantry in the French Army and in 1757 was brigadier general, serving under French General Thomas Arthur, Comte de Lally (1702–1766), in the East Indies. In 1759, while taking part in the siege of Madras (December 16, 1758–February 16, 1759) during the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763), he was taken prisoner. While he was on parole he joined the French East India Company and successfully destroyed the factories in Sumatra and the Persian Gulf belonging to the British East India Company. He was lieutenant general in the French navy (1763); governor of the Antilles in the Caribbean (1763–1766) and vice admiral (1767). Between the 11th and the 22nd of July 1778, during the American Revolution (1775–1783), his fleet blockaded Richard Howe (see entry) at Sandy Hook, the entrance to New York harbor, but for some reason did not attack the British fleet. After a failed attack on Newport, Rhode Island (owing to bad weather, which drove the British and French fleets apart), and another failed attempt to retake

88 Santa Lucia from Samuel Barrington (see entry), he captured St. Vincent and Grenada. With not a great track record behind him, when d’Estaing returned to France in 1780, he fell out of favor; his fortunes changed when the French Revolution broke out in 1789. He was appointed to the National Guard at Versailles, and in 1792 the National Assembly appointed him admiral. During the Reign of Terror (September 5, 1793–July 28, 1794) d’Estaing spoke in defense of Marie Antoinette (1755–1793) at her trial but was himself brought to trial, charged with being a reactionary and sent to the guillotine on April 28, 1794. D’Estaing was one of the earliest French military leaders sent to America by France. Many Americans assumed that French aid would be the key to victory. Therefore d’Estaing had lots of expectations to live up to. He was supposed to be able to end the war. Unfortunately for him, he never defeated the British. Sources: ”Charles-Hector, Count d’Estaing” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/19 3274/Charles-Hector-comte-dEstaing. “Charles Hector, Comte d’Estaing” (July 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:27, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Hec tor%2C_comte_d%27Estaing&oldid=227332940.

D’ORLÉANS, FRANÇOIS, PRINCE DE JOINVILLE (1818–1900) (FRANCE)

Prince François was born in Neuilly, France, the son of Louis-Philippe, duc d’Orléans (1773–1850), later king of the French from 1830 to 1848, in what was known as the July Monarchy; he was the last king to rule France. D’Orléans joined the navy in 1831 and was lieutenant (1836); captain (1839); and vice admiral (1844). He was at the bombardment of San Juan de Ulloa in November 1838, during the Pastry War (see Baudin, Charles). At Veracruz he headed a landing party and himself captured the Mexican General Mariano Arista (1802–1855). In 1840 he brought the remains of Napoleon from Saint Helena to France. During the First Franco-Moroccan War (August 6–14, 1844) he conducted naval operations on the coast of Morocco, bombarding Tangier and occupying Mogador. (The war arose because Morocco refused to recognize the French Empire’s conquest of Algeria. The Moroccans were forced into signing the Treaty of Tangiers on September 10, 1844, whereby they recognized French imperial sovereignty over Algeria.) He was serving in Algeria when the Revolution of 1848 ended the July Monarchy; he and the other Orléanses, being in danger, fled to Claremont in Surrey, England.

89 When the American Civil War broke out (1861), his son and two of his nephews offered their services to President Abraham Lincoln. His son was appointed to the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, and the two nephews received commissions under General George B. McClellan. At the overthrow of the Second French Empire — which lasted from 1852 to 1870— he reentered France and was promptly expelled by the government of national defense. (The Second French Empire, which came between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, was the imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III [1808–1873].) Determined to serve his country, d’Orléans reentered under the assumed name of “Colonel Lutherod” to join the army of General d’Aurelle de Paladines (1804–1877). When he revealed his true identity he was again exiled to England, but the law that exiled the Orléans family was repealed in 1871. Although elected deputy of Haute-Marne in 1871, he was unable to make any significant contribution owing to severe deafness; he resigned his seat in 1876. Always interested in inventions, the prince patronized Dupuy de Lôme, the French naval architect and inventor who designed the first French steam-powered warship, the Napoléon, launched in 1852. Sources: “François-Ferdinand-Philippe-Louis-Marie d’Orléans, Prince de Joinville” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/305686/Fran cois-Ferdinand-Philippe-Louis-Marie-dOrleansprince-de-Joinville. “François d’Orléans, Prince de Joinville” (June 16, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:37, August 2, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_d %27Orl%C3%A9ans%2C_prince_de_Joinville&oldid =219643748. “Prince de Joinville Dead.” New York Times, June 17, 1900. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/ archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9E07E1DF163FE433A2 5754C1A9609C946197D6CF&oref=slogin.

DACRES, SIR SIDNEY COLPOYS (1805–1884) (BRITAIN)

Sidney Colpoys Dacres entered the Royal Navy in 1817 and was lieutenant (1827); commander (1834); captain (1840); captain-superintendent, Haslar Hospital, Gosport, Hampshire, and the Royal Clarence Victualling Yard, Gosport (1855– 1858); rear admiral (1858); vice admiral (1865); commissioner of the Admiralty, second naval lord, then first naval lord (1866–1872); admiral (1870); and retired admiral (1875). In 1828, while lieutenant of the frigate ship Blonde, Dacres was landed in command of a party of seamen to assist in saving Morea Castle at the Battle of Navarino on October 20, 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) in

Dahlgren Navarino Bay, on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea, for which he received the crosses of the Legion of Honor and of the Redeemer of Greece. In command of the battleship Sans Pareil, he took part in the bombardment of Sebastopol (October 17, 1854) in the early stages of the Crimean War. In August 1859, Dacres was appointed captain of the fleet in the Mediterranean on board the Marlborough with Vice Admiral Edward Fanshawe (1814–1906) and afterward with Sir William Martin (1801–1895), then was commander-in-chief in the English Channel (1863–1865). Upon his retirement he was made visitor and governor of Greenwich Hospital (1872). Dacres was made Companion of the Bath (1854); Knight Commander of the Bath (1865); and Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (1871). Sources: “Admiral Sidney Colpoys Dacres.” William Loney [Royal Navy]: Background. www.pdavis.nl/Show Biog.php?id=30. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6997.

DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLPHUS BERNARD (1809–1870) (USA)

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, John Adolphus Bernard Dahlgren, known as the “father of American naval ordnance,” joined the United States Navy in 1826 as a midshipman. His mathematical proficiency won him a place in coastal survey in 1834. He was commissioned lieutenant in 1837, and in the same year, incessant close work so threatened his hitherto exceptionally fine sight that absolute rest was needed, which he found on a farm. In 1842 he resumed duty, and in 1847 he became ordnance officer at the Washington Navy Yard, where, under his command, the U.S. Navy established its own foundry. There he produced the boat howitzer — an improvement of the shell gun invented by French Admiral Henri-Joseph Paixhans (1783–1854). His name is most associated with his cast iron cannon “Dahlgren gun.” Starting with six ships in 1854, by 1856 the Dahlgren was the standard armament of the United States Navy. When the Civil War (1861–1865) broke out, Dahlgren was one of three officers in the Washington Navy Yard who did not resign and go over to the Confederate side. Dahlgren became head of the Washington Navy Yard (1861), and in 1863, as rear admiral, he took command of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. In 1864, he helped Major General William Sherman (1820–1881) capture Savannah, Georgia. He served at the Washington Navy Yard from 1869 to 1870. The naval station in Dahlgren,

Dalrymple-Hamilton Virginia, Dahlgren Hall at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, and several ships were named for him, as was Dahlgren, Illinois. Admiral Dahlgren’s son, Colonel Ulric Dahlgren (1842–1864), was killed during the Civil War in a cavalry raid on Richmond, Virginia. Papers found on his body contained orders for an assassination plot against Confederate President Jefferson Davis (1809–1889). Deeply troubled by the circumstances of his son’s death, the admiral spent much of his later life advancing the theory that documents implicating Ulric had been forged. Sources and Selected Publications: American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/04/0400291.html?a=1&n=DAHLGREN%2C%20JOHN%2 0ADOLPHUS%20BERNARD%20&d=10&ss=0&q=1. “John Adolphus Bernard Dahlgren (1809–1870)” Smithsonian Institution. www.civilwar.si.edu/navies_ dahlgren.html. “John A. Dahlgren” (July 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:02, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= John_A._Dahlgren&oldid=228155525. “John Adolphus Bernard Dahlgren.” Virtual American Biographies. www.virtualology.com/johnadolphdahlgren. “Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren.” Biographies in Naval History. www.history.navy.mil/bios/dahlgren.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. Galloway, Joseph L. “Purloined Poison Letters.” U.S. News Online: Mysteries of History. www.usnews.com/usnews/doubleissue/myster ies/dahlgren.htm.

DALRYMPLE-HAMILTON, SIR FREDERICK HEW GEORGE (1890–1974) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, Frederick Hew George Dalrymple-Hamilton entered the Royal Navy (1905) and was sub-lieutenant by the outbreak of World War I, August 1914. No date is given for his promotion to lieutenant. He was captain (1931); rear admiral (1941); vice admiral (1944); admiral (1948); and admiral, British Joint Services Mission, Washington, D.C. (1949 until his retirement in 1950). Dalrymple-Hamilton’s first posting as sublieutenant was to the royal yacht Victoria. In August 1914 he joined the cruiser Cumberland, seeing action and in charge of armed boats around Cameroon, West Africa. Thereafter he served throughout the war in destroyers, gaining command in 1917. Between the wars he was on the HMS Renown, which carried Edward, Prince of Wales (heir to the British throne, later Edward VIII), on his visit to Emperor TaishÉ of Japan (1879–1926) in 1922 on the royal yacht for a second time. He was also aboard the cruiser Effingham on the East Indies station; commander of the Royal Naval Barracks, Devonport; in command of the fourth destroyer flotilla in

90 the Mediterranean; and commander, the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth (1937). In November 1939 Dalrymple-Hamilton commanded the battleship Rodney and took part in chasing and sinking the German battleship Bismarck on May 27, 1941. Almost immediately he was appointed as admiral commanding Iceland Command. In 1942, he became naval secretary to the first lord of the Admiralty. Early in 1944, Vice Admiral DalrympleHamilton took command of the tenth cruiser squadron and was made second in command of the Home Fleet. He was highly successful in commanding the Russian convoy operations until the end of the war, leading his cruisers in the bombardment force at the Normandy landings ( June 6, 1944) and clearing the Bay of Biscay of German surface warships. He developed an effective system of support of convoys by the use of an aircraft carrier. He was vice admiral, Malta (1945), where for a time he was acting governor. In 1946 he became flag officer, Scotland and Northern Ireland. In his retirement he was an elder of Inch Parish Church, Wigtownshire, Scotland; lieutenant in the Royal Company of Archers, a ceremonial unit that serves as the Sovereign’s Bodyguard in Scotland; deputy lieutenant for Wigtownshire. He was made Companion, Order of the Bath (1941) and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1945). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30995. “Sir Frederick Hew George Dalrymple-Hamilton.” Royal Navy Officers 1939–1945. www.unithistories.com/officers/ RN_officersD.html.

DARBY, GEORGE (1720?–1790) (BRITAIN)

George Darby, the second son of Jonathan Darby of Leap Castle in King’s County, Ireland, was lieutenant (1742); captain (1747); rear admiral (1778); vice admiral (1779); and rear admiral of Great Britain (1781). During the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763) Darby, commanding the Norwich of 50 guns, served under Admiral George Rodney (see entry) in the West Indies (1757). He commanded the Devonshire of 66 guns at the capture of Martinique ( January 5, 1762). Rodney afterwards sent him home with dispatches. He also covered the bombardment of Havre de Grace, Maryland (1779), in the American Revolution (1775–1783). He then hoisted his flag on board the Britannia as second in command of the Channel Fleet, and sat as president of the court-martial on Sir Hugh Palliser (see entry). He took command of the Channel Fleet (1780) and was also appointed one of the lords of the Admiralty.

91 In April 1781 Darby relieved Gibraltar from its siege by the Spanish, for the second time during the American Revolution. This event is recorded in a full-length portrait by George Romney (1734– 1802), painted 1783–1786, which hangs in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London. In August 1781, when the combined fleets of France and Spain again invaded the English Channel, Darby, with the English fleet, took up a position in Torbay, Devon, where the foreign allied commanders did not consider it prudent to attack him. He resigned his command in 1782 and did not again serve at sea. He was member of Parliament for Plymouth, 1780–1784, and an elder brother of Trinity House (see Batten, Sir William) from 1781 till his death. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7140.

DARLAN, JEAN-FRANÇOIS (1881–1942) (FRANCE)

Born at Nérac Lot-et-Garonne, France, JeanFrançois Darlan graduated from the French Naval Academy, Brest (1902), and during World War I, he commanded an artillery battery. He remained in the French Navy after the war and was rear admiral (1929); vice admiral (1932); admiral and chief of staff (1936); admiral of the fleet (1939), a rank created only for him, and given command of the entire French Navy. When German troops occupied Paris in June 1940, Darlan supported the premier and head of state, Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain (1856–1951). Darlan was anti–British and the success of the German attack on Western Europe in the spring of 1940 convinced him that Nazi Germany would win World War II. His personal belief was that it would be better for France to come to terms with Hitler rather than court any alliance with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874–1965). Darlan retained his post as minister of the navy, and moved most of the ships to Mers El Kébir, Algeria, in French North Africa. To prevent the French fleet from falling into German hands, on July 3, 1940, the Royal Navy destroyed the French fleet, which resulted in over 1000 deaths. This act strengthened Darlan’s dislike of the British; ironically, unknown to the British, he had sent instructions that all warships should be scuttled if the Germans attempted to seize them. Darlan entered Pétain’s government serving as vice premier and foreign minister from February 1941 to April 1942. In order to become commander in chief of all French military forces in 1942, he had to give up his ministerial posts except deputy

Davis premier. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had led the allies in freeing North Africa, appointed Darlan civil and military chief of French North Africa, a move that angered General Charles de Gaulle, although it was approved by both Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. In November of that year he was visiting his ill son in Algiers when the Allied invasion of Frenchruled Morocco and Algeria began on November 8, 1942. Darlan persuaded the local Vichy French forces to let the landings continue unopposed, and he then concluded an armistice with the Allies under which his forces came under Free French command. Darlan was assassinated in Algiers by Ferdinand Bonnier de la Chapelle on December 24, 1942. The assassin was a member of the French Resistance but the evidence points indicated he was working alone. Sources: “Darlan, François” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9028785. “François Darlan” (July 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:50, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3% A7ois_Darlan&oldid=228081517. “Jean-François Darlan.” Spartacus Educational. www.spartacus.schoolnet. co.uk/FRdarlan.htm.

DAVIS, CHARLES HENRY (1807–1877) (USA)

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Charles Henry Davis studied at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, though there is no mention of him having graduated. He was midshipman (1823) and returned frequently to Harvard to continue his study of mathematics. He was lieutenant (1834); commander (1854); captain (1861); commodore (1862); and rear admiral (1863). He worked aboard the USS Nantucket on coastal survey (1846–1849) and added a shoal to the charts that had led to many shipwrecks off the coast of New York. Davis’s survey of the coasts of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Maine was the first ever carried out. During his service to the United States Coast Survey, in addition to researching tides and currents, he was an inspector of a number of naval shipyards. In 1849 he helped establish the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac and worked on it for several years. In 1859, while commanding the sloop of war USS St. Mary’s, Davis was ordered to go to Baker Island in the North Pacific (annexed by the United States in 1857) to obtain samples of guano for fertilizer. In 1863 Davis helped found the National Academy of Sciences. During the American Civil War (1861–1865) he was one of the men who recommended building the Monitor, a turreted ironclad warship. Davis was given command of the Mississippi Flotilla and

Dawson fought at the Battle of Fort Pillow (sometimes known as the engagement at Plum Point Bend), which took place on the Mississippi River between the Confederate River Defense Fleet and Federal ironclads four miles above Fort Pillow, Tennessee, on May 10, 1862. Davis was only involved in the naval battle but inflicted heavy losses on the Confederate navy, although it was a Confederate victory. In the naval Battle of Memphis on June 8, 1862, Davis and his five gunboats destroyed the Confederate flotilla and accepted the surrender of the city. He was chief of the Bureau of Navigation (1863) and superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C. (1865–1867). Davis died on duty. The Rhodactis davisii, a species of sea anemone found in New England and Nova Scotia, is named for Davis, as is the torpedo boat Davis (TB-12) and two destroyers, DD-65 and DD-395. Sources: “Charles Henry Davis.” The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2008. www.encyclopedia. com/doc/1E1-DavisCh.html. “Charles Henry Davis” (August 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:30, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Henry_Davis&oldid=2 29221335. “Charles Henry Davis” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/152752/ Charles-Henry-Davis. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “The Battle of Fort Pillow (April 12, 1864).” The Official Records of the War of the Rebellion. www. civilwarhome.com/ftpillow.htm.

DAWSON, OSCAR STANLEY (INDIA)

Although no confirmation is available, by inference Oscar Stanley Dawson was admiral by 1982. Born in Burma, Dawson moved to India in March 1942 when the Japanese occupied Burma. He was commissioned in the Royal Indian Naval Volunteer Reserve in January 1943 and was subsequently absorbed in the Royal Indian Navy. He participated in attacks on Burma and on convoy escort duty in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. After the war he was engaged in mine-sweeping operations. He trained as a specialist in navigation and direction at the Navigation and Direction School, HMS Dryad, Portsmouth. From 1953 to 1954 he was aide-de-camp to President Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1884–1963). He graduated from the Defense Services Staff College in 1957, and then served as the navigating officer of the aircraft carrier INS Vikrant and as fleet navigating officer. Later, he held appointments of officer-in-charge, Navigation and Direction School, and as director, Tactical School, and chief staff officer at Cochin, India. He graduated from the National Defence College, New Delhi (1973), and was flag officer commanding the Eastern Fleet

92 (1978–1979); director of naval operations at Naval Headquarters during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War; flag officer and commander-in-chief of the Southern Naval Command; 12th chief of naval staff (1982–1984); and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee. On retiring from the Navy in 1984 he was high commissioner of India to New Zealand (1985– 1987). His awards include the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal and the Param Vishisht Seva. In the 1980s, Admiral Dawson conceived the idea of a “blue water navy,” a naval force that could operate in deep waters of the ocean. The first phase — the completion of a large base at Karwar in Karnataka, on the west coast — was completed in 2005. Sources: “Admiral O.S. Dawson.” Chiefs of the Indian Navy. www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/NavyChiefs/Chiefs-Navy12.html. Sharma, Ravi. “For a Base at Karwar.” Frontline: India’s National Magazine, Vol. 15, No. 18, August 29–September 11, 1998. www.hindu onnet.com/fline/fl1518/15180680.htm. “Project Seabird: INS Kadamba” (July 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:32, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=INS_Kadamba&ol did=226521195.

DE AVILÉS, PEDRO MENÉNDEZ (1519–1574) (SPAIN)

No dates of his promotion to admiral can be confirmed, but it is known that by age 46, Don Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, always referred to as admiral, occupied the highest rank in the Spanish navy. Born in Avilés, a member of the lower aristocracy, Don Pedro was from an immensely wealthy family. He ran away from home to be a sailor at age 14. He was captain general (1554) in command of the royal galleon that carried King Philip II of Spain (1527–1598) to England to marry Queen Mary I (reigned 1553–1558). Spain transported thousands of tons of treasure from the New World to Spain, and their fleets were often attacked by other nations; in 1561, Don Pedro brought back one such treasure fleet from Mexico. Don Pedro landed in Florida on the Feast Day of St. Augustine, August 28, 1565. He founded St. Augustine, Florida, which claims to be the oldest city in the United States. In September he destroyed Fort Caroline and with it the French fleet on the St. Johns River, Florida. Apparently, King Philip II of Spain sent Don Pedro to Florida to annihilate the French Huguenots who had settled there. Accordingly, Don Pedro ordered that the survivors of Fort Caroline be put to the sword. Several of the survivors claimed that they were Catholic, so he allowed them to return to France. He then claimed all of Florida for Spain and became Florida’s first Spanish colonial governor. The first Christian worship service held in a permanent set-

93 tlement in the Continental United States was a Catholic Mass celebrated in St. Augustine. Many of the Caribbean forts can be attributed to him as well as forts along the coastline of United States as far north as St. Helena Island, South Carolina. He returned to Spain in 1567 and later died in a naval battle with the British at Santander, Spain. The Pedro Menendez High School in St. Augustine was opened in 2000. Sources: “Pedro Menéndez de Avilés” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3 74916/Pedro-Menendez-de-Aviles. “Pedro Menéndez de Avilés.” Enchanted Learning. www.enchantedlearn ing.com/explorers/page/a/aviles.shtml. “Pedro Menéndez de Avilés.” NNDB. www.nndb.com/people/654/0 00097363. “Pedro Menéndez de Avilés” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:37, August 2, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A 9s&oldid=228987246.

DE BAZÁN, ÁLVARO (1526–1588) (SPAIN)

Born at Granada — the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain—the son of a Spanish naval commander, Álvaro de Bazán entered the Spanish Navy in his youth and was created the marqués de Santa Cruz in 1569. In the Battle of Lepanto (October 7, 1571) against the Ottoman Empire, Uluj Ali (see entry under “U”), who commanded the left wing of the Turks, broke the Allied line; de Bazán’s prompt action averted a disaster and helped crush the enemy fleet. De Bazán commanded the fleet in the Duke de Alba’s conquest of Portugal in 1580. He defeated the French (1583) who were sent to the Azores to support a rebellion against King Philip II of Spain (1527–1598). Ignoring protests from his own men, he executed all French prisoners, but his did not count against him with Philip II, who appointed him “captain general of the ocean.” Soon after 1583 de Bazán began urging King Philip to invade Britain, and so began plans for the Spanish Armada (1588). King Philip dawdled and left de Bazán without sufficient funds to complete the task; de Bazán blamed the king. He was at Lisbon, Portugal, without adequate funds to get his fleet in order when Francis Drake (see entry) attacked and destroyed the Spanish ships at Cádiz (1587). De Bazán died at Lisbon before the Armada, and it is said that he died a bitter man at the criticism and lack of support from the king. He was a member of the Military Order of Santiago (St. James). The air defense frigate Alvaro de Bazan (F101) was commissioned in 2002, and in late 2005 the Álvaro de Bazán was deployed as part of the USS Theodore Roosevelt aircraft carrier battle group in the Persian Gulf, the first time a Span-

de Bouexic ish warship had been part of an American naval battle group. In early March 2007, the Álvaro de Bazán was the first Spanish naval vessel to visit Australia in 150 years. Sources: “Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz” (May 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:25, August 3, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz% C3%A1n%2C_1st_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz&oldid=21 4502525. “Álvaro de Bazán (F101)” (July 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:41, August 3, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= %C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_%28F101%29&oldi d=227041474. “Álvaro de Bazán, Marqués de Santa Cruz” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EB checked/topic/522825/Alvaro-de-Bazan-Marques-deSanta-Cruz. “Theodore Roosevelt Strike Group MED 05 Deployment.” GlobalSecurity.org. www.globalsecu rity.org/military/agency/navy/batgru-71-med05.htm.

DE BOUEXIC, LUC URBAIN, COMTE DE GUICHEN (1712–1790) (FRANCE)

Comte de Guichen entered the French Navy at age 18 and was lieutenant (1746); captain (1756); awarded the Order of Saint Louis (1748); rear admiral (1776); and vice admiral (1779). In 1748, while escorting a huge convoy from the Antilles in the Caribbean to France, de Guichen ran into heavy British opposition on five separate occasions and still made it home. In 1755 on board the L’Heros sailing under the command of Dubois de La Motte (1683–1764), he was unsuccessful in relieving Louisbourg, Nova Scotia. In the American Revolution (1775–1783), France allied herself with America, and in la Ville de Paris de Guichen took part in the Battle of Ushant (see George Berkeley) and acquitted himself well against the British fleet. In January 1780 he clashed with George Rodney (see entry) off Martinique and turned a potential defeat into a drawn battle, although the objective to attack and seize Jamaica was cancelled. And although de Guichen had not scored any huge success, Rodney had been stopped from harming the French islands in the Caribbean. In December 1781 de Guichen — carrying stores and reinforcements to the West Indies — was intercepted by Richard Kempenfelt (see entry) in the Bay of Biscay. Twenty of the transports were destroyed and the others, followed by de Guichen, fled back to the port from which they had come. De Guichen was present at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe in 1782. Sources: “Luc Urbain de Bouexic, Comte de Guichen” (March 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:46, August 3, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luc_Urbain_de_B ouexic%2C_comte_de_Guichen&oldid=200844920.

de Burgues DE BURGUES, EDOUARD JACQUES (1756–1837) (FRANCE)

Born in Forcalquier, Provence, France, Comte de Burgues entered the French Navy in 1766 and was ensign (1777); lieutenant (1781); captain (1792); rear admiral (1793); and vice admiral (1809). During the American Revolution (1775–1783) he served with Charles Hector d’Estaing (see entry), and in 1782 his ship, the cutter Le Pygmée, was captured by the British. He was commander of a frigate in the Mediterranean when the French Revolution started (1789–1799), and in January 1792, he took command of the Centaure in the squadron of Admiral Truguet (1752–1839). In May 1793, de Burgues was arrested for being of noble birth. In 1803 he took part in the attempt by Napoleon Bonaparte to keep Haiti and to restore slavery. In May 1805, de Burgues sailed with his squadron from Rochefort to join with Pierre-Charles de Villeneuve (see entry) in the West Indies and between them to clear the Atlantic of British ships. De Burgues arrived on June 20 off Fort de France, Martinique. He took the Caribbean islands of Nevis, St. Christopher (now St. Kitts) and St. Lucia, and in Santo Domingo forced Jean-Jacques Dessalines, a leader of the Haitian Revolution (1759–1806), to raise the siege of Cape Francais. Not having received any news of de Villeneuve, de Burgues returned to France, thus causing the collapse of Napoleon’s plan of ridding the Atlantic of British ships. In 1814 de Burgues defended Antwerp and in the same year was maritime governor of Toulon. Sources: “Edouard Jacques Burgues de Missiessy” (December 10, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:05, August 3, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edouard_Jacques_Burg ues_de_Missiessy&oldid=176907051. “Edouard Thomas Burgues Missiessy.” Virtual American Biographies. www. famousamericans.net/edouardthomasburguesmissiessy.

DE CHAIR, SIR DUDLEY RAWSON STRATFORD (1864–1958) (BRITAIN)

Born at Lennoxville, Canada, Dudley Rawson Stratford de Chair joined the Britannia Trainingship, Dartmouth, Devon (1878), and was midshipman (1880); lieutenant (1893); commander (1897); captain (1902); rear admiral (1912); naval secretary to the first lord, Winston Churchill (1913); admiral of the training squadron, then commander, Tenth Cruiser Squadron (1914); vice admiral (1917); admiral commanding Coast Guard and Reserves (1918); admiral (1920); president of the inter-allied commission on enemy warships (1921–1923); retired (1923); and governor of New South Wales, Australia (1923–1930). As a midshipman, de Chair joined the Alexandra, flagship in the Mediter-

94 ranean, and in 1882 during the Egyptian Revolt he was held prisoner by Colonel Arabi Pasha, a fact that hit the headlines in England. When Cairo was taken, Sir Garnet (later Viscount) Wolseley (1833–1913) selected de Chair to take dispatches to Alexandria. With the exception of a short period as torpedo lieutenant in the flagship Royal Sovereign (1893–1894), he was an instructor in the HMS Vernon, the torpedo school at Portsmouth (1892–1897). As commander he served aboard the flagship HMS George of his uncle, Sir Harry H. Rawson (see entry) at the Cape Station. He was then commander of the battleship HMS Majestic (1899–1902). After serving as naval attaché at Washington, D.C. (1902–1905) and commanding two cruisers, he was assistant controller of the navy under Sir (later earl) John Jellicoe (see entry) (1908–1911). He commanded the tenth cruiser squadron task force during World War I, patrolling the North Sea from the Shetlands to the Norwegian coast against German shipping; very few enemy ships slipped past the blockade, thus contributing significantly to the outcome of the war. He died at his home in Rottingdean, Sussex and his ashes were scattered in the English Channel from HMS Hardy. He was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1916) and Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1933). He also received the Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.) and was a commander of the Legion of Honor. McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, conferred on him an honorary doctor of laws. Sources: Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition. www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A080287 b.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32767.

DE FORBIN-GARDANNE, CLAUDE, CHEVALIER (1656–1733) (FRANCE)

Born in Gardanne, in the Provence, France, Claude, Chevalier de Forbin-Gardanne, ran away from home as a boy and entered the French navy, serving in his first campaign around age 19. He became a musketeer (infantry soldier), killed a man in a duel, was sentenced to death by the Parliament of Aix, was pardoned, and rejoined the navy under his brother’s identity. He served with distinction under Abraham Duquesne (see entry) in Algiers in 1682, and 1683 in the fight against Barbary pirates (see Robert Blake). He was promoted lieutenant in 1684 and accompanied Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont (1640–1710), the first French ambassador for King Louis XIV, in Siam (Thailand), where

95 de Forbin served as grand admiral, general of all the king’s armies, and governor of Bangkok. (1685– 1687). Promoted to captain (1689) during the War of the Grand Alliance (1689–1697), as commandant of a frigate stationed at Dunkirk, de Forbin was captured by the English but managed to escape (see Jean Bart). He commanded the Neptune in the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690). In 1692 he commanded the Perle at the Battle of Barfleur (May 19, 1692) and was wounded. Early in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713), his squadron in the Adriatic cut the supply line of the imperial forces in Italy. De Forbin was transferred to the northern squadron, where he wreaked havoc with the Dutch Baltic convoy off the Dogger Bank in October 1706 and seized 22 English merchantmen and two men-of-war, and soon afterward captured 34 ships of the Dutch Muscovy convoy. He was promoted to rear admiral (1707) and on May 12 he captured a British convoy of 18 ships en route for Portugal, and later the same year he captured 34 ships in the White Sea (Russia). De Forbin failed in his task of transporting James Stuart the Old Pretender (1688–1766) to Scotland (1708), in his attempt to reclaim the English throne. He quit the navy in 1715. Six French ships have been named after Admiral de Forbin, the latest was the frigate D6620, launched in 2005. Sources: “Claude de Forbin” (July 11, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:13, August 4, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Claude_de_Forbin&oldid=225079509. “Claude de Forbin” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EB checked/topic/213047/Claude-de-Forbin. “Forbin (D620)” (April 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:40, August 4, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forbin_%28D620%2 9&oldid=209054767.

DE GRASETILLY, COUNT FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL, MARQUIS, COMTE DE GRASSE (1722–1788) (FRANCE)

Born at Bar-sur-Loup, in the present département of the Alpes-Maritimes in the extreme southeast corner of France, when he was eleven, Marquis de Grasse became a page of the grand master in the Order of Malta, a Catholic order based in Rome, Italy. He was an ensign on the galleys of the Knights Hospitaller of Malta (1734), serving in wars against the Turks and the Moors; entered the French Navy (1740); was a prisoner in England (1747–1749); lieutenant (1749); captain (1762); rear admiral (1779); and admiral (1781). During the American Revolution (1775–1783), de Grasse,

de Jonquière commanded a division under Comte d’Orvilliers (1708–1792) at the First Battle of Ushant on July 27, 1778 (see George Berkeley). In 1779, he joined the fleet of Count d’Estaing (see entry) and distinguished himself in various battles in the Caribbean, particularly at the Battle of Grenada ( July 6, 1779), and on June 2, 1781, de Grasse captured the Island of Tobago. He landed 3,000 French in Virginia, reinforcing the troops of George Washington (1732–1799) and Comte de Rochambeau (1725–1807), and went on to defeat the British fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake (September 5, 1781). After General Charles Cornwallis (1738–1805) surrendered Yorktown on October 19, 1781, securing American independence, General George Washington wrote to de Grasse complimenting him on his action. In January 1782 de Grasse engaged Admiral Samuel Hood’s (see entry) fleet at Battle of St. Kitts ( January 25–26, 1782) in an indecisive action. He was defeated and taken prisoner by Admiral George Rodney (see entry) at the Battle of the Saintes (April 9–12, 1782) and was in London until 1783, then court-martialed in France in 1784 and acquitted. His son, Alexandre de Grasse (born 1765, date of death unknown), published Notice biographique sur l’amiral comte de Grasse d’après les documents inédits in 1840. A monument commemorates Admiral de Grasse and the sailors who helped the United States achieve its independence from Great Britain at the Cape Henry Memorial, Fort Story, Virginia Beach, Virginia. The French Navy named an anti-aircraft cruiser and a frigate in his honor. The United States Navy named a large multi-role destroyer, a Craterclass cargo ship, and a yacht in his honor. The liner De Grasse (I) (CGT: 1924–40, 1947–53) was seized by the Germans in 19540, sunk by gunfire in Bordeaux in 1944, raised in 1945 and ended her days as the Empress of Australia, part of the Canadian Pacific fleet. Sources: “Cape Henry.” National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. www.nps.gov/came. “François Joseph Paul de Grasse” (May 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:03, August 4, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Paul_de_Grasse&oldid=214 513936. “François-Joseph-Paul Grasse.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. www.newadvent.org/cathen/06728a.htm. “Grasse, François-Joseph-Paul, Comte de, Marquis de Grasse-Tilly” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.bri tannica.com/eb/article-9037766.

DE JONQUIÈRE, JACQUES-PIERRE (1685–1752) (FRANCE)

Born at the family chateau near Albi in southern France, Jacques-Pierre de Jonquière entered the French Navy in 1697 and was sub-lieutenant

de Latouche (1703); lieutenant (1711); lieutenant-commander (1720); captain (1731); inspector of the colonial regular troops of the department of Rochefort (1741); rear admiral and governor general of New France, Canada (1746–1752). He saw action at Constantinople (1698); in the Levant (1699); and at Cadiz (1701). In 1702 he distinguished himself under Claude de Forbin-Gardanne (see entry) in the operations in the Adriatic, where he took several prizes and participated in the capture of the town of Aquileia, Italy. In 1706 he was captured by a British ship during a patrol off Alicante (Spain) and exchanged in 1707. In 1711 he took part in René Duguay-Trouin’s (see entry) capture and pillage of Rio de Janeiro. In 1747, during the War of the Austrian Succession (1700–1748), on his way to New France he was attacked by a British squadron led by George Anson (see entry) and Sir Peter Warren (1703–1752). After a brave defense, flying his colors on the Diamant, de Jonquière was defeated at the Battle of Cape Finisterre (May 14, 1747). De Jonquière, who had been wounded, was captured and taken to Portsmouth, England. He was released after the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), after which he took up his post in New France in 1749. In his two and a half years as governor of New France, de Jonquière’s main concern was the defense of the colony against British encroachments. It is widely believed that de Jonquière himself was involved in parts of the monopoly that governed the fur trade at the time, which would not have been approved for a man in his position. He used his considerable military skills to build up the military strength of New France in the face of an increasing British threat. Versailles did not approve of the new barracks he built in Montreal and Quebec, but he went ahead. He was also keen to establish shipbuilding at Quebec, and he laid plans to build a printing house in New France and carried out administrative reforms of the hospital at Montreal. He was buried at Notre Dame de Quebec Basilica-Cathedral Jonquière City, Quebec, was named in his honor. Sources: ”Jacques-Pierre de Taffanel de Jonquière, Marquis de la Jonquière” (May 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:19, August 4, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacques-Pie rre_de_Taffanel_de_la_Jonqui%C3%A8re%2C_Mar quis_de_la_Jonqui%C3%A8re&oldid=212706595. “Taffanel de la Jonquière, Jacques-Pierre De, Marquis de la Jonquière.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography. www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBioPrintable.asp?BioId=3 5794. “Jacques Pierre de Taffanel.” Find A Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid =9000459.

96 DE LATOUCHE TRÉVILLE, LOUISRENÉ LEVASSOR (1745–1804) (FRANCE)

Born in Rochefort-sur-Mer, Louis-René Levassor de Latouche joined the Gardes-Marines (Naval Guards) at age 13 and spent time on his father’s ship, the Dragon. In 1768, he was promoted to ensign, but resigned, was a captain in the cavalry, then rejoined in 1782; he was an aide to the governors of Martinique and Saint-Domingue (1770 and 1771). During the American Revolution (1775–1783), he was lieutenant in command of the corvette ship Rossignol, escorting convoys, and is credited with capturing five British ships. He was made captain in 1781. In July 1781, in an attack upon an English convoy near the coast of Nova Scotia (New Scotland), Latouche captured two escort ships and three merchantmen and took them to Boston, Massachusetts. He also took part to the Battle of Yorktown in October 1781 (see de Grasetilly, Count François Joseph Paul). In 1782, his ship of the line Aigle captured the HMS Hector, ran aground in the mouth of the Delaware River, was captured, and liberated after the Treaty of Paris (1783). He was vice-director of the Harbours and arsenals (1784); inspector general of the gunner (1786); chancellor of the duke of Orléans (1787); and rear admiral (1793). In September 1793 he was arrested as a “suspect against the state,” spent one year in La Force prison, Paris, and was freed only after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794)— one of the bestknown leaders of the French Revolution — and regained his rank in 1795. In 1801, Bonaparte gave de Latouche command of a flotilla in Boulogne, where in August he repelled the attacks of Horatio Nelson (see entry). In October 1801, de Latouche, under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse (see entry), carried troops to quell the slave revolt on the Caribbean island of Saint-Domingue, and assisted in the capture of Port-au-Prince and Léogane, Haiti. He negotiated the peaceful surrender of the native General Laplume while, in the South, General Leclerc (1772–1802) forced Toussaint L’Ouverture to submit. He was made vice admiral in 1803, less than a year before he died of yellow fever aboard his flagship Bucentaure. Three ships have been named in his honor; the most recent is Latouche-Tréville (1984), an F70 type anti-submarine frigate (destroyer). Sources: “Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville” (November 20, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:55, August 4, 2008, from en.wikipe dia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis-Ren%C3%A9_ Levassor_de_Latouche_Tr%C3%A9ville&oldid=17272 6858.

97 DE ROBECK, SIR JOHN MICHAEL (1862–1928) (BRITAIN)

Born in Naas, County Kildare, Ireland, John Michael de Robeck was a Royal Navy Cadet at Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon (1875); midshipman (1878); sub-lieutenant (1882); lieutenant (1885); commander (1897); captain (1902); rear admiral (1911); vice admiral (1917); high commissioner at Constantinople (1919–1920); admiral (1920); and admiral of the fleet (1925). Between 1878 and the outbreak of World War I (1914), de Robeck had experience on twenty-four ships, as inspecting-captain of training ships and admiral of patrols, and with four flotillas of destroyers and cruisers under his command. In 1914, he commanded the Ninth Cruiser Squadron based at Finisterre, Spain, whose duty was to protect British merchant ships and to harass ships of the enemy in the mid–Atlantic areas. At that station he captured two German liners, the ship Schlesien and the ship Græcia. De Robeck was second in command to Admiral Sir Sackville Carden (see entry) of the Allied naval forces at the Dardanelles. He hoisted his flag in the battleship Vengeance and took part in the ineffective bombardment of the outer forts of the Dardanelles in February 1915. De Robeck succeeded Carden as commander-in-chief in March, when Carden was sent home ill. Although the attempt to force the Straits on March 18 failed, no blame was attached to de Robeck; in fact, the military commanders heaped praise on the Royal Navy for its handling of the rescue from the Dardanelles. He was commander-in-chief, Mediterranean Fleet (1915–1916). De Robeck was one of the senior officers who subsequently received the special thanks of Parliament for his war services, being given a grant of £10,000 and created 1st Baronet de Robeck of Naas in the County of Kildare (1919). He was commander-in-chief of the Atlantic fleet, with his flag on the Queen Elizabeth (1922–1924). De Robeck was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1916); Grand Officer Legion of Honor (France) (1916); Grand Cross, Order of the Crown (Italy) (1917); Order of Sacred Treasure 1st Class ( Japan) (1917); Knight, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1917); Grand Officer, Order of Crown of Romania (1919); Bailiff, Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem (1920); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1921); and Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order (1924). Sources: “Admiral of the Fleet, Sir John Michael De Robeck.” Record Royal Navy Flag Officers 1904–1945. www.admirals.org.uk/admirals/fleet/derobeckjm.php. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edi-

de Ruyter tion, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/32790.

DE RUYTER, MICHIEL (1607–1676) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Born in Flushing, Netherlands, between 1618 and 1635, Michiel de Ruyter served in the Dutch Navy, fought as a musketeer in the Dutch army, worked for a business house in Dublin and became a merchant captain. A Dutch fleet with de Ruyter as third in command defeated a Spanish-Dunkirk fleet off Cape St. Vincent, Portugal (1641), and from then until 1651, while in the merchant service he fought the Barbary pirates (see Robert Blake) off the North African coast. During the First AngloDutch War (1652–1654), back in the Dutch Navy, he served with distinction under Maarten Tromp (see entry), defeating George Ayscue (see entry) at the Battle of Plymouth (August 26, 1652). De Ruyter was made vice admiral around 1653. He fought with the Swedes against the Danes (1659) in the Baltic during the First Northern War (1655–1660); relieved the besieged city of Gdaüsk without loss of life; was knighted by King Frederick III of Denmark (1609–1670) for helping to liberate Nyborg (central Denmark); fought against the English (1664–1665) off the Guinea Coast of Africa when the Dutch West India Company was being threatened; and fought unsuccessful campaigns against the English in the West Indies. He was made commander of the Dutch fleet (1665) and lieutenant-admiral of the Amsterdam Admiralty. His successes in the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) were the Four Days’ Battle on June 11–14, 1666, and the daring raid on the Medway in June 1667 (see Brakel, Van Jan) when the English fleet was massacred. De Ruyter blamed Cornelis Tromp (see entry) for the defeat at the Battle of St. James’s Day (August 4–5, 1666); Tromp was forced to resign from the Navy, and not until 1673 were the two reconciled. De Ruyter’s performance in the Third AngloDutch War (1672–1674) was brilliant, particularly at the Battle of Sole Bay on May 28, 1672, against the British and at the Battle of Texel on August 11, 1673, the last major battle of the Third AngloDutch War (1672–1674). During the FrancoDutch War (1672–1678), he was fatally wounded at the Battle of Agosta, Italy. After a state funeral, his body was buried in the Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), Amsterdam. Several ships of the Royal Netherlands Navy have been named HNLMS de Ruyter. Sources: ”Anglo-Dutch Wars: Admiral Michiel de Ruyter.” About.com: Military History. http://military history.about.com/od/naval/p/deruyter.htm. “Michiel

de Suffren de Ruyter” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:55, August 5, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michiel_de_Ruyter& oldid=229080433. “Michiel de Ruyter.” Zeeland Philately. http://members.lycos.nl/filazeeland/ruyter.html. “Ruyter, Michiel Adriaanszoon” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9064530.

DE SUFFREN SAINT TROPEZ, PIERRE ANDRE (1729–1788) (FRANCE)

The son of noble French parents, Pierre Andre de Suffren Saint Tropez was born near Aix-enProvence in the present département of Bouchesdu-Rhône. He entered the French navy as a midshipman (1743) aboard the battleship Solide and took part in the Battle of Toulon (February 22–23, 1744). While escorting a convoy through the Bay of Biscay in 1747, he was taken prisoner by Edward Hawke (see entry) at the battle First Battle of Cape Finisterre (May 14, 1747). De Suffren was a knight, then commander, then a baillie of the Order of Malta. He was a lieutenant at the Battle of Minorca (May 20, 1756), when the French defeated the British and which led to the court-marital and execution of Admiral John Byng (see entry). He was captured a second time, by Edward Boscawen (see entry), at the Battle of Lagos Bay (August 15, 1759). In 1778 and 1779, during the American Revolution (1775–1783), de Suffren formed part of the squadron of Vice Admiral Charles D’Estaing (see entry) operating on the coast of North America and in the West Indies. He was in the Battle of Grenada ( July 6, 1779) in the West Indies against British Admiral John Byron (see entry). In March 1780, Suffren commanded of a squadron of five ships to help the Dutch, who had joined France and Spain to defend the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, against an expected English attack. On April 16, 1781, he found the English expedition on its way to the Cape at anchor in Porto Praya, in the Portuguese-owned Cape Verde Islands, off the west coast of Africa. His attack inflicted some damage on the British ships, but more importantly, he saved the Cape from the British. In 1782 de Suffren engaged in four actions against Sir Edward Hughes (see entry) off the coasts of India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka): the Battle of Sadras, south of Madras (Chennai) on February 17; the Battle of Providien on April 12, 1782; the Battle of Negapatam, off Cuddalore, South of Pondicherry, in the Bay of Bengal on July 6, after which Suffren seized the anchorage of Trincomalee, compelling the small British garrison to surrender; and the Battle of Trincomalee, Ceylon, on September 3. No ship was lost by Sir Edward Hughes in

98 any of these actions, but none was taken by him; Trincomalee provided a safe anchorage for the French fleet. In 1781 he became vice admiral of France. Some said he died of a stroke; others said he died following a duel. Sources: “Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez” (July 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:51, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Andr%C3%A9_de_Suf fren_de_Saint_Tropez&oldid=228198373. “Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 1911 Edition. http://encyclopedia.jrank. org/STE_SUS/SUFFREN_SAINT_TROPEZ_PIERR E_AND.html.

DE TOURVILLE, ANNE HILARION (1642–1701) (FRANCE)

Born in Manche, France, Anne Hilarion de Tourville joined the Order of Malta at age 13 and served on their galleys until the age of 25 and fought against the Barbary pirates in Algiers and Tripoli. He joined the French Royal Navy in 1667, took part in Louis XIV’s war against the Dutch (1672–1678), and was present when Agosta, Italy, was captured in 1673, in command of the Syrene and later the Sceptre. As lieutenant general, in 1682 he continued his previous war against the Barbary pirates. When the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697) started between France and the other major European powers, de Tourville prevented an English invasion of Brittany by breaking broke the blockade of Brest. Soon afterward he became vice admiral of the Mediterranean fleet and Naval commander-in-chief. He scored a momentous victory at the Battle of Beachy Head against a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet on July 10, 1690); it is said this caused panic in London, though had he not failed to follow it up, the victory would have been much greater. His fleet was annihilated by the English at the Battle of La Hogue, Normandy, France (related to the Battle of Barfleur, May 19, 1692), which resulted from an attempt to restore James II to the English throne. As a reward for his services, Louis XIV (1638–1715) made de Tourville a Marshal of France (1693). He defeated a convoy commanded by George Rooke (see entry) at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent on June 27, 1693 near Lagos Bay in Portugal. The “Smyrna fleet” disaster, as it came to be known, saw ninetyfour of the richly laden merchant ships either captured or sunk. De Tourville retired after the Peace of Ryswick, which ended the War of the Grand Alliance, and died in Paris, regarded as a national hero. Sources: “Anne Hilarion de Tourville” (January 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:28, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Anne_Hilarion_de_Tourville&oldid=187916

99 270. “Anne-Hilarion de Cotentin, Count de Tourville” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBche cked/topic/600901/Anne-Hilarion-de-Cotentin-co mte-de-Tourville. “De Tourville, Anne Hilarion.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 1911 Edition. http://encyc lopedia.jrank.org/TOO_TUM/TOURVILLE.html.

DE VILLARET, LOUIS THOMAS (1750–1812) (FRANCE)

Born in Auch in southwest France, Louis Thomas de Villaret joined the French Navy as a volunteer in 1768 and was lieutenant (1773); captain (1792); rear admiral (1794); and vice admiral (1794). De Villaret served with de Suffren (see entry) in the Indian Ocean at the battles of Pondicherry (and was promoted to captain) and Cuddalore in 1782. That year, as aide to de Suffren, he set out to warn the French ships blockading Madras (Chennai) of an approaching superior English fleet. Near Madras, a five-hour battle resulted in de Villaret surrendering. The English captain refused to accept de Villaret’s sword, saying that he fought honorably and that his frigate was a worthy prize. De Villaret was exchanged in 1783. In 1791, commanding the frigate La Prudente, he transported troops to Saint-Domingue, arriving shortly before the slave revolt that launched the Haitian Revolution (1791). He was promoted to rear admiral (1794) and commanded the fleet in the Battle of the Glorious First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794) when escorting a convoy of grain from the United States. Although defeated, he did not give up; 130 of the merchant ships delivered their grain to Brest. He resigned in 1796, partly as a protest at the appalling neglect of the French navy and because his idea for an aggressive campaign in the Indian Ocean was turned down in favor of invading Ireland. In 1797, he was elected to the Council of Five Hundred (the lower house of the legislature of France) representing Morbihan, Breton, France. Two of his main themes were he did not approve of the emancipation of slaves, and he lobbied for support to strengthen the navy. Because of his Royalist sympathies he was deported in 1797 and lived on the Island of Oleron, off the west coast of France. In 1801, Napoleon reinstated him, giving him command of the Brest fleet. Twelve of these ships under de Villaret carried the major portion of General Emmanuel Leclerc’s expedition to Saint Domingue. In April 1802, Napoleon named de Villaret capitaine-general of Martinique and Santa-Lucia. Upon taking control of Martinique in September, he was faced with three perils: the threats of slaveuprisings, yellow fever and British invasion. In Jan-

de Villeneuve uary 1809, the British laid siege to Martinique, and after one month Fort-de-France surrendered. In Napoleon’s view the surrender was not justified and de Villaret was found guilty at a court-martial, but pardoned by Napoleon in 1811 and made governor of Venice — occupied mainly with maritime affairs — from 1811 until he died. Napoleon had de Villaret’s name engraved on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. De Villaret was Knight of the Order of Saint Louis (1783); Knight of the Legion of Honor (1803); Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor (1804); and Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honor (1805). Sources: “Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse” (August 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:52, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Louis_Thomas_Villaret_de_Joyeuse &oldid=229323496. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 1911 Edition. http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/VAN_VIR/ VILLARET_DE_JOYEUSE_LOUIS_THOMA.html.

DE VILLENEUVE, PIERRECHARLES-JEAN-BAPTISTESILVESTRE (1763–1806) (FRANCE)

Born in Valensole, France, Pierre-Charles-JeanBaptiste-Silvestre de Villeneuve joined the French Navy (1778) and was captain (1793) and rear admiral (1796). He commanded a section of the French fleet in Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt from his flagship, the Guillaume Tell. The Généreux and the Guillaume Tell were the only two warships to escape the British massacre at the Battle of the Nile (August 1–2, 1798). Soon after the Battle of the Nile, having taken refuge in Malta, he was taken prisoner by the British but was quickly released. Although criticized for his weakness at the Nile, Napoleon seemed not to hold that against him; in autumn of 1804 Napoleon put Vice Admiral de Villeneuve in command of the fleet at Toulon. Napoleon’s ruse of drawing the British fleet under Horatio Nelson (see entry) to the West Indies, leaving the English Channel open for invasion, failed to work out just like that. Although Nelson did pursue de Villeneuve, and although de Villeneuve did recapture the island fort of Diamond Rock, his supporting ships failed to make contact, so he sailed for home, with Nelson hot in pursuit. In the Bay of Biscay he met another British fleet commanded by Robert Calder (see entry) at the Battle of Cape Finisterre ( July 22, 1805). The British, though outnumbered, were able to cut off and capture two Spanish ships. He received orders from Napoleon to sail to Brest and Boulogne as planned; instead, perhaps believing a false report of a superior British fleet in the Bay of Biscay, he sailed back to Cádiz, making the planned invasion of Britain wholly impossible. Contrary to

de Vries Napoleon’s orders, de Villeneuve tried to escape from Cadiz and met Nelson’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805). De Villeneuve’s flagship Bucentaure was captured along with many other French and Spanish ships, and was on parole at Sonning in Berkshire until 1806. He died from six stab wounds in the chest on 22 April in his room at the Hotel de Patrie in Rennes. Despite the strong likelihood that he was murdered by agents of Napoleon, a verdict of suicide was recorded. There was no state funeral. Sources: Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 1911 Edition. http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/VAN_VIR/VILLE NEUVE_PIERRE_CHARLES_JEAN_.html. “PierreCharles-Jean-Baptiste-Silvestre de Villeneuve” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/629 227/Pierre-Charles-Jean-Baptiste-Silvestre-de-Villene uve. “Pierre-Charles Villeneuve” (July 19, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:24, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Pierre-Charles_Villeneuve&oldid=226635516.

DE VRIES, TJERK HIDDES (1622–1666) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Born in the village of Sexbierum, in Frisia, Tjerk Hiddes de Vries was at sea by 1634. By 1654 he was master and by 1658, captain of the troop transport Judith, taking part in the Northern War (1656– 1658) between Sweden and Russia as part of the force of Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam (1610–1665) sent to relieve Copenhagen from the Swedes. He emerged from the Battle of the Sound — near the Sound of Oresund, just south of the Danish capital, Copenhagen — on November 8, 1658, with great credit; the Judith’s Marines captured three Swedish vessels. The Dutch intervention forced Charles X of Sweden (1622–1660) to lift the siege. De Vries was rewarded with promotion to extraordinary captain with the Admiralty of Frisia; Frisia was one of the five autonomous Dutch admiralties. Appointed full captain in 1665, he commanded d’Elff Steden at the Battle of Lowestoft on 13 June 1665, at the start of the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667); Lowestoft is forty miles east of the port of Lowestoft in Suffolk, England. Again he emerged with great credit, having shown outstanding courage and leadership by freeing his ship from several blazing Dutch ships. Although this was a British victory, the Dutch sailors were hailed as heroes, and de Vries was appointed lieutenant admiral of Frisia on June 29, 1665. When the squadron commander, Lieutenant Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Elder (see Evertson, Cornelis) was killed in the Four Days’ Battle of June 11–14, 1666, de Vries took command and led the fleet to victory. The British won the Battle of St. James’s Day (August 4–5, 1666); in spite of los-

100 ing an arm and a leg de Vries still tried to save his ship. He died the day after the battle ended. Sources: “Battle of the Sound” (April 13, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:00, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Battle_of_the_Sound&oldid=205255274. “Tjerk Hiddes de Vries” (June 7, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:20, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tjerk_Hiddes_de_Vries&oldid=217777780.

DE WITH, WITTE CORNELISZOON (1599–1658) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Born near Brielle, Western Netherlands, Corneliszoon de With went on his first sea voyage to the Dutch East Indies when he was seventeen, as a cabin boy on board a ship of the Dutch East India Company, and saw action in Jakarta, Indonesia, in the Baltic and in the Mediterranean. In July 1622 he became flag captain of the Delft, commanded by Vice Admiral Geen Huygenszoon Schapenham (1615–?1625), in their circumnavigation of the globe. On the way, de With raided Spanish possessions on the west coast of America, crossed the Pacific, and in the summer of 1625, sacked Ternate in the Spice Islands (Maluku Islands) in what is now Indonesia. De With returned in 1626, and with Schapenham having died, he was in charge of the fabulously wealthy Spice Fleet. He was vice admiral in the service of the Dutch East India Company in 1626 and vice admiral of Holland and West Frisia (1637). He was flag captain to Admiral Piet Heyn (1577–1629) at the capture of a Spanish treasure fleet near Cuba; his share was some 500 guilders, although he thought he should have received more for the significant part he played in the action. He fought at the Battle of the Downs on October 31, 1639 (see Banckert, Joost van), in the Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648) against the Spanish. From all accounts, de With was not the soul of discretion and made an enemy of Admiral Maarten Tromp (see entry) because he thought Tromp’s naval skills to be inferior to his own, and of Vice Admiral Johan Evertsen (1600– 1666) by accusing him of cowardice and greed. In 1640 de With was court-martialed when, his fleet having been dispersed by a storm, he returned alone. Although acquitted, he was convinced that Admiral Tromp, as president of the court, had tried to influence witnesses against him. In 1645 de With, escorting a large convoy, forced the Sound — the strait that separates the Danish island Zealand from the south Swedish province Scania — against the Danes, who had tried to impose higher toll rates. In 1649 he faced a second courtmartial, this time for insubordination and desertion, which would have meant execution. The

101 States of Holland intervened, pointing out they had the exclusive right to condemn their admirals to death. De With had no more successes and was killed at the Battle of the Sound on November 8, 1658. He was buried in the church of St. Lawrence, Rotterdam. His long-standing feud with Tromp possibly dates from their growing up in the same town, Tromp being one year older. Sources: “Witte Corneliszoon de With” (August 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:06, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Witte_Corneliszoon_de_With&oldid=2298 21258. “Witte Corneliszoon de With.” The Kentish Knock Company. www.kentishknock.com/officers2.sh tml.

DELAVALL, SIR RALPH (d. 1707) (BRITAIN)

No certain details are known of Ralph Delavall’s early life, but that he served in the Restoration navy from 1660 and into the reign of William III and Mary II (1689–1702). By 1666, he was lieutenant. He was made captain (1673); rear admiral (?1689); knight and vice admiral (1690); and lord of the Admiralty (1693–1694). There is little of consequence in his naval service until he commanded the Blue or rear squadron at the Battle of Beachy Head on July 10, 1690. The blue squadron fought a five-hour fierce battle against the superior French fleet, and the battle was a resounding French victory against the combined British and Dutch fleets. He was president of the court-martial that acquitted Arthur Herbert, Lord Torrington (see entry) of any wrongdoing during the Battle of Beachy Head. On the inquiry made by the lords-commissioners of the Admiralty, following an official Dutch complaint about Torrington, Delavall’s evidence was to the effect that the Dutch losses were due to their own conduct, and to the disorderly way in which they bore down onto the enemy. He was vice admiral at the Battle of Barfleur on May 19, 1692. Following Barfleur, Edward Russell (see entry) was temporarily removed from office and Delavall was one of the three admirals to whom the command of the fleet was jointly entrusted (see Ashby, Sir John). Public opinion criticized Delavall, implying that his sympathies lay with the restoration of the deposed King James II to the throne and that maybe he didn’t do enough to capture the French fleet. Thus it was that Delavall was removed from his position in 1693. From 1695 to 1698, he was Tory member of Parliament for Great Bedwin, Wiltshire, but afterward lived in retirement at Seaton Delaval, Northumberland, where he died. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online.

Deloach www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7455. “Ralph Delavall” (July 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:07, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Delaval&oldid=226197099.

DELOACH, JAY A. (1955–) (USA)

Born in San Diego, California, Jay A. DeLoach graduated as ensign with a bachelor of science degree in marine engineering from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1978), and was lieutenant junior grade (1980); lieutenant (1983); acting lieutenant commander (1984); lieutenant commander (1988); commander (1993); rear admiral (2003); and retired (2007). DeLoach has earned three master’s degrees in national security and strategic studies, United States Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island; nuclear engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia; and business management, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Michigan. From 1978 to 1986, DeLoach entered training and service in submarines, and completed 10 strategic deterrent patrols, in the Mediterranean, South China Sea, and Northern Atlantic. He served as engineer officer in the latter two and was awarded three Battle Efficiency “E” awards. From 1987 to 1989, he was the sonar transducer branch chief at Naval Sea Systems Command in Washington, D.C. In his career he completed two extended active duty assignments with the Joint Staff J7 working on joint doctrine and professional military education initiatives. His first flag assignment was deputy commander, Submarine Forces, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, and director of the Submarine Reserves. He also served as vice chairman of the National Naval Reserve Policy Board. Upon completing active duty, he became affiliated with the Navy Reserve and served in a number of different assignments. DeLoach’s role in implementing a visionary “Memorandum of Understanding” between the Submarine Force Active component and the Reserve component is considered to have pioneered many key initiatives that have since been adopted Navy-wide. His decorations include Legion of Merit; Defense Meritorious Service Medal; Meritorious Service Medal (2); Joint Service Commendation Medal; Navy Commendation Medal (3); and Navy Achievement Medal (3). Sources: “Jay A. DeLoach” (July 16, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:03, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Jay_A._DeLoach&oldid=225976425. “Rear Admiral Jay A. DeLoach: Assistant Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Resources, Requirements and Assessments (N8R).” Navy.mil: United States Navy Biography. www. navy.mil/navydata/bios/navybio.asp?bioID=94. “Rear Admiral Jay A. DeLoach.” Naval Historical Centre. www.history.navy.mil/branches/director-bio.htm.

Denis DENIS, SIR PETER (1713?–1778) (BRITAIN)

The son of a Huguenot refugee, Peter Denis joined the Royal Navy as a young man and was a midshipman in HMS Centurion under the command of George Anson (see entry). He was lieutenant (1739); captain (1745); rear admiral (1770); and vice admiral (1775). He was on the Centurion during Anson’s famous circumnavigation of 1740– 1744. On November 5, 1741, in the South Seas, Denis captured a Spanish vessel which was bound from Guiaquil, Ecuador, to Callao, Peru; information from the captured crew led to the attack on the town of Paita, Peru, soon afterward. Captain Denis, under the command of Admiral Anson, took Centurion into action at the Battle of Cape Finisterre on May 14, 1747. Expecting the French fleet to try to escape under cover of darkness, Anson signaled a general chase. Denis came out of the action with honor, and he brought the news of Anson’s victory back to a delighted England. The action won Anson a peerage and further strengthened the bond between him and Denis. From 1754 to 1768, Denis was member of Parliament (MP) for Hedon, Yorkshiire, throughout which time the other MP was Sir Charles Saunders (see entry). Denis continued his naval career as part of the fleet of Edward Hawke (see entry) and was captain of the 70-gun HMS Dorsetshire, in which he captured, in 1758, the French 64-gun Raisonnable, then was at the Battle of Quiberon Bay on November 20, 1759, a decisive victory over the French. In August 1761, Denis commanded the yacht Charlotte, as flag captain to Lord Anson, on the occasion of bringing over George III’s (reigned 1760–1820) bride, the Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg (1744–1818). Denis continued to command the yacht until October 18, 1770. In 1767 he was created a baronet, but as he left no male heir, the title became extinct on his death. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7484. “Sir Peter Denis, 1st Baronet” (June 27, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:26, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sir_Peter_ Denis%2C_1st_Baronet&oldid=140922915.

DENNING, SIR NORMAN EGBERT (1904–1979) (BRITAIN)

Norman Egbert Denning was born at Whitchurch, Hampshire. “Ned” Denning joined the navy as a special entry cadet in 1921, but owing to indifferent eyesight that prevented him becoming an executive officer, he joined the paymaster (later supply and secretariat) branch. He was

102 lieutenant-commander (1937); commander (1941); captain (1951); rear admiral (1958); director, Royal Naval College, Greenwich (1956–1958); deputy chief of naval personnel (1958); director of manpower in the Admiralty (1959); director of naval intelligence (1960–1964); and deputy chief of defense staff (intelligence) (1964–1965). He joined the Admiralty’s intelligence division in 1937 and drew attention to how unprepared Britain was for the war that was looming. Having studied how successful the cryptographic office known as Room 40 OB had been in World War I, and encouraged by his senior officers, he set up the Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC). Soon a dedicated team was recruited to man and operate the OIC throughout the war, operating from a concrete bunker on the west side of the main Admiralty building, Whitehall, London. The OIC was closely linked with the Government Code and Cipher School at Bletchley Park, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, and it became the brain center of war at sea. When the German machine cipher Enigma was broken in 1941, intelligence flooded into the OIC, and it was able to keep track of all Allied and German shipping. Denning advised all branches of the armed forces on the most effective ways to protect Allied shipping and where to intercept the enemy. He retired in 1967 and was secretary of the services, press, and broadcasting committee, known as the DA Notice Committee, which provides guidance to the British media on the publication or broadcasting of national security information. He was made officer, Order of the British Empire (1945); Companion, Order of the Bath (1961); and Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire (1963). Sources: “Denning, Sir Norman (Egbert) (1904– 1979), Vice Admiral.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/ locreg/DENNING.shtml. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 31026. “The Enigma Cipher Machine.” Codes and Ciphers in the Second World War. www.codesandciphers. org.uk/enigma/index.htm.

DENNY, SIR MICHAEL MAYNARD (1896–1972) (BRITAIN)

Born in Kempley, Gloucestershire, Michael Maynard Denny entered Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, and was midshipman (1913); commander (1930); captain (1936); rear admiral (1945); vice admiral (1948); third sea lord and controller of the Navy (1949–1953); admiral (1952); commander-in-chief, Home Fleet, with command of the NATO Eastern Atlantic area (1954–1956); and

103 chairman of the British Joint Services Mission in Washington and British representative on the NATO military committee (1956–1959). Denny served some of World War I on the cruiser HMS Neptune, which hit a minefield on the night of 19 December 1941 in the Mediterranean off Tripoli and sank with the loss of 764 officers and men, and on the battleship HMS Royal Sovereign. In 1920 he was the top student in gunnery and then served aboard the battleships HMS Emperor of India and HMS Nelson. Denny’s contribution to the naval ordnance department as it prepared for World War II was significant. In May 1940, he took part in the evacuation of troops from Norway and was one of the last to leave. Denny commanded the cruiser Kenya, which escorted Arctic and Mediterranean convoys, and operated against German raiders and in raids on the Norwegian coast. He joined the aircraft carrier Victorious toward the end of 1943, whose aircraft struck against the German battleship Tirpitz on April 3, 1944 (Tirpitz was sunk by Royal Air Force Lancaster bombers on November 12, 1944) and against Japanese-held islands in the East Indies. It has been recorded that when he was chief of naval personnel (1945), the orderly demobilization of the fleet — accomplished as it was without organizational breakdown — was attributed to Denny’s enormous capacity for work. His twenty-four hour day was interrupted by only three or four hours sleep a night. Denny introduced the Daring class destroyers and Ton class minesweepers. He was placed on the retired list in July 1959 and was chairman of Cammell Laird, Shipbuilders and Engineers, Birkenhead, Merseyside (1959–1964), but deteriorating health forced his resignation. Denny was made Companion, Order of the Bath, awarded the Norwegian Order of St. Olaf (1st class), mentioned in dispatches (1940); Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (1945); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1950); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1954). Sources: “HMS Victorious.” Fleet Air Arm Archive, 1939–1945. www.fleetairarmarchive.net/Ships/Victori ous.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31027.

DER ZAAN, VAN WILLEM (1621–1669) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Van Willem der Zaan was born in Amsterdam, but there is no record of when he joined the Dutch Navy. He was acting captain (1652); captain (1655); temporary rear admiral (1664); and rear admiral (1667). Der Zaan fought at the Battle of Dungeness on December 10, 1652, near the cape of Dungeness in Kent, England, a victory for the Dutch. He was

Dewa in the Battle of Portland (February 28–March 2, 1653), in which two of his brothers were killed and the English regained control of the English Channel. He also saw action in the Battle of the Gabbard ( June 12–13, 1653), in which the English fleet regained control of the North Sea, and the Battle of Scheveningen (August 8–10, 1653), the final naval battle of the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654). In 1657 he captured the French warship Chasseur in the Mediterranean. This caused some embarrassment, as the Chasseur was acting as a privateer on some clandestine mission from the French government. In 1661, when he was captain of the Middelburg, it looked as if der Zaan and the champion of the bey of Algiers would engage in a ship duel; the Middelburg was all set, but the bey’s champion failed to show. The states-general of The Netherlands awarded der Zaan four golden chains: in 1661 for his action with the Chasseur; also in 1661, for capturing a pirate ship and liberating 36 Christian slaves; in 1663 for capturing another privateer and freeing 21 Christians; and in 1665, for his actions against the English in West Africa and America. He fought in the Four Days’ Battle ( June 11–14, 1665); Battle of St. James’ Day (August 4–5, 1666); and the Medway Raid ( June 1667). During an action against the pirates of Algiers on March 17, 1669, off Cape Tres Forcas, Morocco, der Zaan was killed when a one-pound cannonball hit him in the chest. In 1798 his great-granddaughter donated some family heirlooms to the Amsterdam naval training school, including three of the golden honorary chains, and the cannonball that killed the admiral. The Dutch mine layer Willem Van Der Zaan was launched in 1938. Sources: “Willem van der Zaan” (July 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:29, August 6, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Willem_van_der_Zaan&oldid=227873195.

DEWA, BARON SHIGETO (1856–1930) (JAPAN)

Shigeto Dewa was born in the Aizu domain (present day Fukushima Prefecture). At a young age he served in the military and saw action at the Battle of Aizu (October–November 1868) in the Boshin War (1868–1869). He graduated from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, Tokyo (1872), and was midshipman (1878); sub-lieutenant (1880); lieutenant (1886); lieutenant commander (1890); director of the personnel section in the Navy Ministry (1892); captain (1894); rear admiral (1900); vice admiral (1904); commander-in-chief of the IJN Third Fleet (1905); director of the Naval Education Bureau (1906); created baron (1907); made admiral (1912); and entered the second reserve (1920). Between graduating and reaching the rank

Dewey of captain, Dewa served on corvettes, warships, cruisers and gunboats, and served in the First SinoJapanese War (1894–1895). During the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), fought over Manchuria and Korea, Dewa took part in the Battle of Chemulpo Bay (February 9, 1904) off present day Inchon, Korea; in the Battle of Port Arthur (February 8–9, 1904); and in the Battle of the Yellow Sea (August 10, 1904). He led the Third Squadron of the 1st Fleet from his flagship, the cruiser ship Kasagi, in the Battle of Tsushima (May 27–28, 1905), the last and most decisive sea battle of the Russo-Japanese War. Japanese casualties were 117 killed, 583 wounded, and three torpedo boats sunk. Russian casualties were 4,380 killed, 5,917 captured, 21 ships sunk, seven captured, and six disarmed. In 1914 he was chairman of the navy committee to investigate the Siemens-Vickers navy armament scandal, involving several high ranking members of the Imperial Japanese Navy and the German industrial conglomerate of Siemens AG. He set up courts-martial that convicted high-ranking navy officers and contributed to the fall of the cabinet in March 1914. He was Japan’s special envoy at the San Francisco Panama-Pacific Exposition (1915). Dewa retired from active service in 1925. Sources: “Dewa Shiget” (April 19, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:00, August 6, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Dewa_Shiget%C5%8D&oldid=206664181. “Dewa, Sigeto.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Graduates of Naval Academy Class 5th. http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishi dah/e/px05.htm#a001. “Tokyo Orders Naval Trial.” The New York Times, February 16, 1914. http://query.ny times.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E01EFDE113FE 633A25755C1A9649C946596D6CF. “Japan’s Envoy to the Fair.” The New York Times, January 5, 1915. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r =1&res=9802E4DF1538E633A25756C0A9679C9464 96D6CF&oref=slogin.

DEWEY, GEORGE (1837–1917) (USA)

George Dewey was born in Montpelier, Vermont. He graduated as a midshipman from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1858), and was lieutenant (1861); lieutenant commander (1865); commander (1872); commodore (1896); and rear admiral (1898). An Act of Congress on March 2, 1899, created the rank of admiral of the Navy. It provided that when such office became vacant either by death or otherwise, the office would cease to exist, thus Dewey was the only officer to hold the rank in the United States Navy. Dewey was lieutenant under Admiral David Farragut (see entry) in the American Civil War (1861–1865), seeing action in Louisiana and along the Mississippi River. Dewey was appointed to the

104 command of the United States Asiatic Squadron a few weeks before the start of the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898). He captured the whole of the Spanish fleet of Admiral Patricio Pasarón (see entry) at the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898); not a single American life was lost in the battle, although one man died of heat stroke. When the news broke, Dewey was hailed as a national hero in the United States. Following the Battle of Manila Bay, the Philippines were placed under American control on August 13, 1898. Dewey withdrew from the race for the White House and endorsed the Democrat William McKinley (1843–1901), who became twenty-fifth president of the United States (1897–1901). Although buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia, in 1925, his body was re-interred in the crypt of Bethlehem Chapel at the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral, Mount Saint Alban, Washington, D.C. In 1933 his mausoleum at Arlington was sold and moved to Clarendon Cemetery, Virginia. Admiral Dewey earned the Civil War Medal; the Spanish Campaign Medal; and the Philippine Campaign Medal. A special one-time only military decoration — the Dewey Medal — was named in his honor, as was the destroyer USS Dewey (DD-349), which earned thirteen battle stars for operations in the Pacific Theater (1941–1945) during World War II. Sources: “Admiral of the Navy George Dewey, USN, December 26, 1837–January 16, 1917.” Naval Historical Center: Biographies in Naval History. www.history. navy.mil/bios/dewey_george.htm. American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00154. html?a=1&n=DEWEY%2C%20GEORGE%20&d=10 &ss=0&q=1. “George Dewey” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160440/Geo rge-Dewey. “George Dewey” (July 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:56, August 6, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= George_Dewey&oldid=227958105. “The Life of Admiral George Dewey.” The Spanish-American War Centennial Website. www.spanamwar.com/dewey.htm.

DEWOLF, HARRY (1903–2001) (CANADA)

The most decorated Canadian naval officer of the Second World War, Harry DeWolf, born in Bedford, Nova Scotia, joined the Royal Naval College of Canada at Esquimalt, British Columbia, at age 14. He was lieutenant commander (1935); captain (1944); rear admiral (1948); flag officer, Pacific Coast (1948–1950); vice chief of naval staff (1950– 1952); principal military advisor to the Canadian ambassador in Washington, D.C. (1952–1956); and vice admiral (1956). In 1935–1936, DeWolf helped negotiate the acquisition of four destroyers from

105 the British and studied gunnery, torpedoing and navigation at the Royal Navy Staff College in Greenwich, London. He was commanding officer aboard the destroyer HMCS St. Laurent from the start of World War II; his first job was to escort convoys from Halifax, Nova Scotia to Murmansk in the Soviet Arctic. Laurent, which is said to have fired the Royal Canadian Navy’s first shots of the war, took part in the evacuation of British and French troops from France following Dunkirk evacuation (May 1940). In July 1940 the Laurent helped save 860 German and Italian prisoners of war and interned aliens when a German U-boat sank the British liner Arandora Star on its way from Liverpool to Newfoundland. He took command of the destroyer HMCS Haida (G63) in August 1943. In September 1944, DeWolf became assistant chief of naval staff. On June 8–9, 1944, following the June 6 invasion of Normandy, Haida engaged a powerful German destroyer, Z-32, and ran it aground. From January 1947 to September 1948 DeWolf commanded both aircraft carriers HMCS Warrior and HMCS Magnificent, with additional appointment of senior Canadian naval officer afloat. He was made chief of naval staff before retiring in 1960. His awards include the Distinguished Service Order, Distinguished Service Cross (1944); Companion, Order of the Bath (U.K.) (1946); United States Legion of Merit (1947); Cross of the Legion of Honor (France) (1947); and Cross of Liberation (Norway) (1948). On September 23, 1992, a large park on the Bedford (Nova Scotia) waterfront was named the Admiral Harry DeWolf Park. The Haida is now a floating museum on the Toronto waterfront. Sources: Goldstein, Richard. “Harry DeWolf, Canada War Hero, Dies at 97.” The New York Times, January 14, 2001. www.mishalov.com/DeWolf.html. “Harry DeWolf” (July 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:16, August 5, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_DeWolf&o ldid=228104962. “History of Nova Scotia, With Special Attention Given to Communications and Transportation: Chapter 73, 2000 December 1–19. Nova Scotia’s Electronic Attic. www.alts.net/ns1625/nshist73. html. “Vice Admiral Harry DeWolf: A Canadian Naval Legend.” Friends of the H.M.C.S. Haida. www.hmcsh aida.ca/dewolf.html.

DIAZ, ALBERTO (1943–) (USA)

Rear Admiral Alberto Diaz, born and raised in Puerto Rico, gained a bachelor of arts degree from George Washington University, Washington, D.C., a master’s degree in psychology from Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana, and a medical degree from Barcelona Medical School in Barcelona, Spain. He joined the U.S. Navy in 1976 and did

Donaho his internship and residency in psychiatry at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Washington, D.C. Diaz has specialized in psychiatry and was chief resident at the Naval Center, Bethesda, Maryland; psychiatrist and clinical director of the Alcohol Rehabilitation Service at the Naval Medical Regional Clinic, Marine Corps Development and Education Command, Quantico, Virginia; chief, Department of Psychiatry, and fleet liaison officer and chairman of the executive committee of the medical staff, Naval Hospital, Rota, Spain. He established and served as director of the Navy’s only alcohol rehabilitation service in Europe. During Operation Desert Storm (the First Gulf War (August 2, 1990–February 28, 1991), he was ordered to the First Medical Battalion, First Force Service Support Group, at Camp Pendleton, California. From 1998 to 2002, Diaz was commander of the Naval Medical Center, San Diego, becoming its first Hispanic commander. His role was to provide leadership and management of the command, planning, directing and administering the operations of medical center, as well as being responsible for the professional care and services provided to the patients. Another function was as lead agent, TRICARE Region Nine; his role was to advance the partnership and communication between the military health system and the civilian community. He was chief of staff and program executive officer, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, at Washington, D.C. (2002–2003). Admiral Diaz’s retirement from the Navy on June 13, 2003, was marked by at a ceremony held at the National Naval Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland. Admiral Diaz has been awarded the Legion of Merit with Gold Star; the Meritorious Service Medal with Gold Star; and the Navy Commendation Medal. Sources: “Alberto Diaz, Jr.” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:22, August 6, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Alberto_Diaz%2C_Jr.&oldid=228554946. “Alberto Diaz, Jr., Career Profile.” www.medalofhonor.com/Al bertoDiazAd.htm.

DONAHO, GLYNN ROBERT (1905–1986) (USA)

Born in George, Texas, Glynn R. Donaho graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1927, and was lieutenant junior grade (1931); lieutenant (1936); lieutenant commander and commander (1942); director of the Navy’s Recruiting Division (1940s); commander, Submarine Squadron 3 (1948); head of the Foreign Military Aid Branch of the Office of Chief of Naval Operations (1952); chief of staff and aide to commander, Seventh Fleet (1955–1956); rear admiral (1957); director of the Logistics Plans Division

Dönitz (1957–1962); assistant vice chief of naval operations/director of naval administration (1959–1962); Navy’s inspector general (1962); vice admiral (1963); commander, Fleet Activities Command (1963–1964); and commander, Military Sea Transportation Service (1964). He retired from active service in 1967. Donaho received the Navy Cross four times, the Silver Star twice, and the Bronze Star twice for his outstanding service as a submarine commander during World War II. He was the commander of the submarine USS Flying Fish (SS-229) in the Pacific) (1941), then was staff officer of a battleship force (1941–1945). After the war, Donaho was a witness at the court-martial of captain Charles Butler McVay III (1898–1968), commander of the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis (CA-35), which was sunk in the Pacific by Japanese submarine I-58 on July 30, 1945. Of 1,199 crew members, 317 survived. McVay was accused of not taking evasive action. Both Donaho and the Japanese commander of I-58, Commander Mochitsura Hashimoto, testified that zigzagging would not have saved the Indianapolis (McVay was posthumously exonerated by the United States Congress in 2000). Sources: “Glynn R. Donaho” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:47, August 6, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Glynn_R._Donaho&oldid=228554719. “HIJMS Submarine I-58: Tabular Record of Movement.” Stories and Battle Histories of the IJN’s Submarines. www. combinedfleet.com/I-58.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Charles Butler McVay III, From Statement Submitted at September 1999 Senate Hearing by Florian Stamm, USS Indianapolis Survivor, Including Details of the Court-martial.” USS Indianapolis Website. www.ussindianapolis.org/mcvay.htm. “Vice Admiral Glynn R. Donaho, USN (1905–1986).” Naval Historical Center Website. www.history.navy.mil/pho tos/pers-us/uspers-d/g-donaho.htm.

DÖNITZ, KARL (1891–1980) (GERMANY)

Born in the Berlin suburb of Grünau, Karl Dönitz entered the Imperial German Navy (1910) and was midshipman (1911); acting sub-lieutenant (1913); sub-lieutenant (1916); prisoner of war (1918–1919); lieutenant (1921); lieutenant commander (1928); commander (1933); captain (1935); commander of submarines (1936); commodore and rear admiral (1939); vice admiral (1940); commander-in-chief of the navy (1943) and the equivalent of admiral of the fleet. He was president of Germany for 23 days after Adolf Hitler’s suicide on April 30, 1945. During World War I, Dönitz served as a submarine officer in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean and was later imprisoned in a

106 British prisoner of war camp. In 1934 he took command of the cruiser Emden, which was in effect a school for young officers. After Hitler came to power, Dönitz secretly supervised the creation of a new U-boat fleet; thus flaunting the absolute ban on German submarine construction in Treaty of Versailles (1919). Thinking of war, he proposed attacking only the soft target supply vessels; depriving the Royal Navy of vital oil would achieve the same result with less cost to Germany. During World War I the German used the strategy of the “wolf pack,” the grouping together of several submarines that attacked in much the same way as a wolf pack would attack; Dönitz revived this strategy in World War II. He did as much damage to the Allies as any German commander through his leadership of the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945). The Allies developed new strategies and new technology, such as radar, to help defeat the U-boat dominance of the Atlantic. In 1946 he was sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment by the Nürnberg International Military Tribunal on several counts. He was released from prison in 1956 and retired on a government pension. Dönitz was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd class (1914, with clasp, 1939); Iron Cross 1st class (1916, with clasp, 1939); Submarine war badge (1940); Knights Cross (1940); and Knights Cross with Oak Leaves (1943). He has been portrayed in several films. Sources: “Dönitz, Karl” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http:// original.britannica.com/eb/article-9030924. “Karl Dönitz” (August 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:13, August 6, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl_D%C3%B6nitz &oldid=230118488. “Karl Dönitz, Biography and Career.” www.karl-doenitz.com. “Karl Dönitz.” DMOZ Open Directory Project. www.dmoz.org/Society/His tory/By_Region/Europe/Germany/Third_Reich/Offici als/D%C3%B6nitz,_Karl.

DOORMAN, KAREL WILLEM FREDERIK MARIE (1889–1942) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Born in Utrecht, Karel Willem Frederik Marie Doorman graduated from the Royal Netherlands Naval College in Den Helder (1910) and was lieutenant (1915); captain (1937); commander of the Navy Aviation in Dutch East Indies (1938–1940); rear admiral and commander of the Netherlands Squadron in the East (1940). During World War I, Doorman served in the Netherlands East Indies, after the war he helped develop the Dutch naval air force and was one of the first officers to gain his pilot’s license. He had various commands on shore and at sea, serving as a commanding officer on board destroyers and cruisers. He was serving on the

107 warship HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën when mutiny broke out among the Dutch and Indonesian crew on February 5, 1933. On the authorization of the Dutch defense minister, a military aircraft attacked the ship, and when twenty-three mutineers were killed, the rest surrendered. On February 25, 1942, he was appointed tactical commander of the combined ABDA fleet — American, British, Dutch, and Australian — that was ordered by ABDA Commander General Sir Archibald P. Wavell (1883–1950) to defend the Java Sea against the Japanese invasion fleet. Though greatly outnumbered, his 13-ship fleet sank many Japanese ships in a futile attempt to stop the invasion of Java. Allied naval resistance collapsed, however, when he went down with his flagship, ship De Ruyter. His rallying cry, “Ik val aan, volgt mij” (“I attack, follow me,” sometimes given as “All ships follow me”), served as a battle slogan during the remainder of World War II. He was made the Royal Knight in the Order of Orange Nassau (1922) and was awarded the Military Order Willems, a Dutch military award and also the oldest and most senior Dutch chivalric order, which was presented to Admiral Doorman’s eldest son by Prince Bernhard in 1942. The Royal Netherlands Navy Multi-purpose (M-Class) or Karel Doorman Class frigates were named in his honor. Sources: “HIJMS Naka: Tabular Record of Movement.” Imperial Japanese Navy Page. www.combined fleet.com/naka_t.htm. “HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën (1909)” (July 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:58, August 6, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=HNLMS_De_Zeven_Pro vinci%C3%ABn_%281909%29&oldid=227404224. “Karel Doorman” (June 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:53, August 6, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karel_Doorman&oldid=221348477. “Karel Doorman” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ 169276/Karel-Willem-Frederik-Marie-Doorman. “Rear Admiral Karel W.F.M. Doorman.” The Netherlands East Indies 1941–1942. www.geocities.com/dutch eastindies/doorman.html.

DOUGLAS, SIR JAMES (1703–1787) (BRITAIN)

Born in England, James Douglas became a captain in the Royal Navy in 1744, and at the attack on the Louisbourg Fortress, Nova Scotia, he commanded the 40-gun Mermaid (1745) and the 64gun Vigilante (1746). In 1746, Douglas was appointed commodore of Newfoundland; his task was to protect the fisheries and make reports on about all aspects of the fishing trade. He was not governor; the position had been vacant between

Dowling 1745 and 1747 when Charles Watson (see entry) became governor, so Douglas could not administer justice, a fact that only led to disputes among the islanders. Douglas was knighted in 1759 for his part in the capture of Québec (1759). Douglas served as a member of Parliament for Orkney and Shetland, Scotland (1764–1768), during which time he was member of the court-martial which tried and convicted Admiral George Byng (see entry) in 1757. He was absent from Parliament on active service during the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763) off the coasts of Havana, Jamaica, and the West Indies, and was vice admiral (1770); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1773–1776); admiral (1782); and baronet (1786). Sources: “Douglas, James, 1703–1787, Papers, 1738– 1787.” William L. Clements Library: The University of Michigan. www.clements.umich.edu/Webguides/Arle nes/D/Douglas.html. “Douglas, James (1703–1787) Governor (Commodore), 1746.” Government House: The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador. www. heritage.nf.ca/govhouse/governors/g13b.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/7901?docPos=4&_fromAuth=1.

DOWLING, SIR ROY RUSSELL (1901–1969) (AUSTRALIA)

Born in Condong, New South Wales, Roy Russell Dowling entered the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, Federal Capital Territory, in 1915 and was midshipman (1918); lieutenant (1923); commander (1936); captain, deputy chief of naval staff (1944); commodore, chief of naval personnel (1950); rear admiral (1953); vice admiral, first naval member, Australian Commonwealth Naval Board, and chief of staff of the Royal Australian Navy (1955); and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (1959). In 1919 Dowling trained in gunnery at Portsmouth, England, and witnessed the scuttling of the German High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands, on June 21, 1919. He taught gunnery at Flinders Naval Depot (HMAS Cerberus), Westernport, Victoria (1928), and took charge in 1935. He escorted Earl Gowrie (governor general of Australia) and Lady Gowrie on the sloop Swan on their tour of Papua New Guinea (1937). In 1941 he was executive officer of the anti-aircraft cruiser Naiad as part of the Mediterranean Fleet. During operations off Crete in May, the cruiser was bombed and badly damaged. When she was repaired, Naiad escorted convoys to Malta. On December 17, 1941, as the flagship of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Philip Vian (see entry), Naiad was part of a British force that won the First Battle of Sirte against much stronger Italian force. Naiad was torpedoed by U-565 about 50 nautical miles off the

Drake coast of Egypt on March 11, 1942. It sank in twenty minutes and 82 men died. Between March and July 1945, commanding the cruiser Hobart, Dowling helped liberate Cebu Island, Philippines, Tarakan Island, Borneo, Wewak, New Guinea, and Brunei and Balikpapan, Borneo. The Hobart shared in the surrender of the Japanese forces in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945, and became the flagship of the Australian Squadron. Dowling escorted the royal yacht Gothic during Queen Elizabeth II’s tour of Australia in 1954. He retired in 1961, and in July 1962 was given the task of planning the forthcoming royal tour of Australia. In November 1962 he was appointed permanent Australian secretary to the queen. Admiral Dowling was Companion, Order of the Bath; Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order; Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire; and Companion of the Distinguished Service Order. Sources: Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition. www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A140028b. htm?hilite=DOWLING%3BSIR%3BROY%3BRUS SELL.

DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (1540?–1596) (BRITAIN)

Born in Tavistock, Devon, Francis Drake went to sea at about age 13 and was master of a cargo barque at age 20. Drake and his cousin Sir John Hawkins (1532–1595) made their fortunes through the slave trade between West Africa and the “New World,” where the slaves were exchanged for goods of high value back in England. On another slave expedition (1567), his fleet was attacked by the Spanish and Drake lost all but two of his ships. Thereafter the Drake declared war on all Spanish ships; as far as the Spanish were concerned, Drake was nothing more than a pirate and they hunted him mercilessly. In fact, King Philip II of Spain (1527– 1598) offered a reward of 20,000 ducats (about $10 million by 2006 standards) for his life. In 1577, at the command of Queen Elizabeth (1558–1603), Drake set out to plunder the Spanish colonies on the American Pacific coast. By the time he reached the Pacific Ocean in October 1578 only one of his five ships was left: his flagship Pelican, renamed the Golden Hind. To avoid going all the way around Cape Horn Drake navigated the Straits of Magellan, the first Englishman to do so, The Straits of Magellan is a navigable sea route immediately south of mainland Chile, South America, and north of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, successfully navigated by Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521) in 1519. The Golden Hind sailed north alone along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and rifling towns as she went. Drake cap-

108 tured several Spanish ships, carrying enormous wealth; one of 25,000 pesos of pure, fine gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money and one carrying 80 pounds of gold and a golden crucifix, countless jewels, 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver. He arrived back in England in September 1580 with a rich cargo of spices and Spanish treasure and the distinction of being the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. It is said that the queen’s half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown’s income for that entire year. Seven months later, Elizabeth knighted him aboard the Golden Hind, to the annoyance of the king of Spain. In 1587, war with Spain was imminent and Drake entered the port of Cadiz and destroyed 30 of the ships the Spanish were assembling against the British. He was a vice admiral and second-incommand of the fleet that defeated the Spanish Armada on August 8, 1588. Drake and Hawkins’ last expedition to the West Indies ended in disaster; the Spanish were prepared for them and both men died of dysentery off the coast of Puerto Bello, Panama, and were buried at sea. Drake is one of England’s national heroes and legend has it that whenever England is in dire trouble, his drum will be heard again and he will lead England to victory. The worn drum, with Drake’s coat of arms painted on one side, is currently located in the Drake, Naval and West Country Folk Museum at Buckland Abbey near Yelverton, Devon, England, Drake’s former home and now a site owned by the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty. Places in California named after Sir Francis Drake, all said to have connections with him, are Sir Francis Drake Boulevard in Marin County, Drakes Bay, and Sir Francis Drake High School in Anselmo. Sources: “Drake’s Drum.” BBC Homepage. www. bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A14017817. “Drake, Sir Francis” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/ eb/article-9031135. “Francis Drake” (August 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:24, August 7, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Francis_Drake&oldid=229794794. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/8022?docPos=1. “Sir Francis Drake (c.1540– c.1596)” Historic Figures, BBC History. www.bbc.co.uk/ history/historic_figures/drake_francis.shtml.

DREW, MARIANNE BLACKBURN (USA)

Born in Annapolis, Maryland, Marianne Blackburn gained a bachelor’s degree in journalism (advertising) at the University of Washington, Seattle

109 (1967). Commissioned in 1967, she was one of the first women in an aviation squadron at Naval Air Station North Island, San Diego. She was then assigned to the secretary of the navy’s Office of Legislative Affairs as a reporter in the U.S. Senate. In 1970 she was the first woman naval social aide to the president of the United States. In 1973 she was the first woman naval officer in Thailand as foreign military sales officer for the Joint Military Advisory Group. From 1974 she served in the Naval Reserve, having held command five times. During the George H.W. Bush Administration (1989–1993), Drew was deputy assistant secretary of the navy for force support and families for the Navy and Marine Corps, responsible for all areas of health and welfare. Before she retired she was the first line female rear admiral in the Naval Reserve and now presides over her own company, Living Leadership. She was recalled for duty twice after the terrorist attack on the Pentagon (September 11, 2001); and for Operation Iraqi Freedom (the invasion of Iraq (March 20, 2003). Her numerous military decorations include three Legions of Merit; two Meritorious Service Medals; two Navy Commendations; a Joint Service Commendation; and Superior Public Service Medal (civilian). She was named an Alpha Xi Delta Fraternity Woman of Distinction in 2000. Sources: “Conference Agenda.” Marine Corps Community Services: 10th Anniversary Conference. www. usmc-mccs.org/smp/conference/2005/agenda.htm.

DREYER, SIR FREDERIC CHARLES (1878–1956) (BRITAIN)

Born in Parsonstown (now Birr) in King’s County (now County Offaly), Ireland, Frederic Charles Dreyer entered Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon (1891), and was midshipman (1893); lieutenant (1898); commander (1907); flag commander to Sir John Jellicoe (see entry) (1910); captain (1913); commodore (1919); rear admiral (1923); vice admiral (1929); admiral (1932); and commander-in-chief, China Station (1933– 1936). He came first in his class of three in the advanced course for gunnery and torpedo lieutenants at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich (1901), after which he was posted to the staff of the gunnery school at Sheerness, Kent. Dreyer was gunnery officer on several ships and gunnery advisor to Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson (see entry), commanderin-chief, British Home Fleet, aboard his flagship the battleship HMS Exmouth (1904). He was posted on “Special Service” to assist with gunnery trials on the HMS Dreadnought’s experimental cruise in 1907. In 1908 he patented his fire control system, which helped gunners hit targets more accurately. Upon the advice of John Jellicoe

Drummond (see entry), commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet, Dreyer was made flag captain of the battleship HMS Iron Duke and fought at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). In 1917 Dreyer was appointed director of naval operations at the Admiralty, where he formed a committee to design and produce a new type of armor-piercing shell, and in 1918, was appointed to the naval staff as director of naval artillery and torpedoes. He was director of the Gunnery Division at the Admiralty (1920– 1922). In 1924 he became a lord commissioner of Admiralty as assistant chief of the naval staff and instituted the tactical school at Portsmouth. He joined the Cruiser Squadron (1927) as rear admiral on HMS Hood. Although he retired in 1939, he became a volunteer commodore of convoys in the Royal Naval Reserve when World War II war broke out, and was then on the staff of the general officer commanding-in-chief, Home Forces, as an advisor on anti-invasion measures; inspector of merchant navy gunnery (1941–1942); chief of naval air services (1942); and deputy chief of naval air equipment until 1943, when he finally retired. His memoirs were published as The Sea Heritage: A Study in Maritime Warfare (London: Museum Press, 1955). Admiral Dreyer was Companion, Order of the Bath (civil) (1914); Companion, Order of the Bath (military) (1916); Commander, Order of the British Empire (1919); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1932); and Knight, Order of the British Empire (1937). Sources: Bevand, Paul. “Biography of Admiral Sir Frederic Charles Dreyer.” HMS Hood Association. www. hmshood.com/crew/biography/dreyer_bio.htm. “Frederic Charles Dreyer” (July 22, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:06, August 7, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederic_Cha rles_Dreyer&oldid=227182894. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/32893. “The Papers of Admiral Sir Frederic Charles Dreyer.” Churchill Archives Centre. http://janus. lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2F0014 %2FDRYR.

DRUMMOND, DAME MARGARET (1917–1987) BRITAIN

Born in Kilmarnock, Ayrshire, Scotland (Edith) Margaret Drummond gained a master of arts from Aberdeen University, Scotland (1938), joined the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS) as a writer in April 1941 and was commissioned in September. By early 1944 she was first officer on the staff of the commander-in-chief, Plymouth command. As administrator for Operation Neptune, the Allied landings in Normandy in June 1944, she was given

Du Pont the responsibility for guarding twenty copies of the naval plans for invasion in the strong room, one of the cellars under Mount Wise, the headquarters of the commander-in-chief, Plymouth. From mid– 1944 Drummond was assistant secretary to the flag officer, India, where she organized the training of the WRNS of the Indian navy; superintendent on the staff of the commander-in-chief, East Indies; officer in charge of the HMS Dauntless, the WRNS’ basic training shore establishment at Burghfield, near Reading in Berkshire; superintendent of the WRNS officers’ training course at Greenwich, London; superintendent of training and drafting. She became an officer, Order of the British Empire (1960), and was appointed director of WRNS (1964) (equivalent to rear admiral). As director, Drummond saw the development of WRNS units in Singapore and Mauritius; gave evidence before a Commons select committee on the position of WRNS vis-à-vis the Naval Discipline Act. At that time a member of the WRNS could leave the service on request; the situation changed in 1977 when Wrens were brought under the Naval Discipline Act and a further dramatic change took place in 1993 when the WRNS was disbanded. Women now join the Royal Navy on an equal footing with men. Drummond was created Dame Commander, Order of the British Empire in 1966 and retired in 1967. She was life member and vice President of the Association of Wrens and of the WRNS Benevolent Trust. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/63368. Interview with Dame Margaret Drummond, Recorded on September 5, 1986. Special Libraries and Archives, Aberdeen University. www.abdn.ac.uk/historic/Oral_ history_a_to_z_individuals.shtml. “The WRNS and DDay, HMS ‘Dauntless’ Collection.” Nmm.ac.uk. www. nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.14005.

DU PONT, SAMUEL FRANCIS (1803–1865) (USA)

Born in Bergen Point (now Bayonne), New Jersey, Samuel Francis Du Pont became midshipman (1815); lieutenant (1826); commander (1842); captain (1855); and rear admiral (1862). Du Pont joined the navy in the days when skills were learned at sea; by 1825 he was an accomplished navigator and sailing master (a ship’s officer in charge of navigation). Between 1825 and 1846 Du Pont served aboard the USS North Carolina, USS Porpoise, USS Ontario, USS Constellation, USS Warren, USS Ohio, and USS Congress. During the MexicanAmerican War (1846–1848) Du Pont carried out a successful campaign against Mexican ships; the USS Cyane not only captured or destroyed thirty ships, she made the Gulf of California safe for

110 American ships. The Cyane also shared in the capture of San Diego by Major John Fremont (1813– 1890). On February 15, 1848, his amphibious force carried out the daring relief of a besieged squadron three miles inland from San José del Cabo. The Naval School was established at Annapolis, Maryland, on October 10, 1845, and became the Academy in 1850. Du Pont’s curriculum at the academy included engineering and mathematics; he also studied the feasibility of steam power. At the start of the American Civil War (1861–1865), he took decisive action to protect the landing of Union troops at Annapolis by sending a fleet to Chesapeake Bay. He was appointed flag officer and commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron in September 1861 and captured the forts at Port Royal, South Carolina on November 7, 1861, thus establishing an effective blockade of much of the waters of Georgia and the eastern coast of Florida. In his attack on Charleston, South Carolina, of his nine ironclads, five were disabled and one was lost. Du Pont blamed himself for this ignominious defeat and on July 5, 1863, asked to be relieved of his command; that was virtually the end of his career. Fort du Pont near Delaware City, Delaware, and the destroyers USS Du Pont DD-152 and DD-941 were named in his honor. Sources: “A Brief History of the United States Naval Academy.” United States Naval Academy. www.usna. edu/VirtualTour/150years. American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/04/04-00329.html ?a=1&n=DU%20PONT%20SAMUEL%20FRANCIS %20&d=10&ss=0&q=1. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Samuel Francis Du Pont” (July 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:32, August 7, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit le=Samuel_Francis_Du_Pont&oldid=223254267.

DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS (1748–1817) (BRITAIN)

Born in Leatherhead, Surrey, England, John Thomas Duckworth was midshipman (1759); lieutenant (1770); commander (1779); captain (1780); rear admiral (1799); commander-in-chief, Barbados and Leeward Islands (1800–1802); knighted (1801); commander-in-chief, Jamaica (1801–1805); vice admiral (1804); commander-in-chief and governor of Newfoundland and commander-in-chief of the squadron there (1810–1812); admiral (1810); baronet of Topsham in the County of Devon (1813); and commander-in-chief, Plymouth (1815). In the West Indies Campaign (1793–1798), Duckworth saw action in three battles and was one of eighteen commanders honored with a gold medal and ribbon and thanks of both houses of Parliament, as well as a yearly pension of £1,000 from the House of Commons and the freedom of the

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Dufek

City of London. He served as commodore in Santo Domingo in 1796 and was commodore at the capture of Minorca in 1798. In April 1800, Duckworth intercepted a large and rich Spanish convoy off Cadiz, and his share of the prize money was said to have been £75,000. In the Battle of San Domingo (February 6, 1806) off the coast of Hispaniola (1806), Duckworth’s fleet defeated the French fleet. Although Duckworth was governor of Newfoundland for only a short time, he made sweeping changes by leasing land to the people so that they had more rights; ensuring that new houses would be of stone or brick and not earth, and with an adequate sewage system; insisting that new streets be wide enough for traffic; encouraging new church building; having the Anglican Church in St. John’s enlarged; petitioning the archbishop of Canterbury to try to encourage more Anglican missionaries to settle on the island; and giving full-hearted support to the building of a public hospital. Fearing that the Beothuk Indians faced extinction, Duckworth offered to reward anyone who could make friends with the Indians. He sponsored Royal Navy Lieutenant David Buchan’s expedition up the Exploits River in 1810 to make contact with the Beothuks. When the War of 1812 (1812–1815) broke out, Duckworth revived the militia — renamed the St. John’s Volunteer Rangers—to protect the city. The secondary forts were strengthened, and only a few communities suffered attacks from American privateers. The government ships captured many of the privateers. After he left Newfoundland, Duckworth became a member of Parliament for New Romney, Kent. Duckworth Street in St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, is named in his honor. He was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1801) and Companion, Order of the Bath (1803).

commissioned into the Nurse Corps of the United States Navy Reserve in 1943 and worked at the Naval Hospital, Portsmouth, Virginia; at the Naval Hospital, Bethesda, Maryland; and in the hospital ship USS Benevolence, anchored off Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands. The ship remained in the area helping in the repatriation of prisoners of war before bringing back casualties to the United States toward the end of 1945. For the first six months of 1946, Durek worked at the Naval Hospital, Great Lakes, Illinois, then was placed on reserve. She gained a bachelor of science degree in ward management and teaching, medical and surgical nursing, from the Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing at Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio (1948), and was recalled to active service in 1951. Between then and when she was promoted to rear admiral in 1972, she worked at naval hospitals in various parts of the world and in various capacities, and was chief of the Navy Nurse Corps (1970–1975). She is a veteran of the Korean War and the Vietnam War. In addition to her combat duty, Duerk was the first Nurse Corps officer to be assigned as special assistant to the assistant secretary of defense for health and environment (1966–1967). She received the Distinguished Alumni Award of Case Western Reserve University’s Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing (1974). When she retired from the Navy in 1975 (still as director of the Nurse Corps), Duerk became director of United Services Life Insurance Company in Florida, where she also was director of the Visiting Nurses Association and Foundation for Central Florida. Among her awards are the Legion of Merit and honorary degrees from Bowling Green University, Ohio; Marymount College of Arlington, Virginia; Iowa Wesleyan College; and Medical College of Ohio.

Sources: “Duckworth, Sir John Thomas (1748– 1817), Governor, 1810–1812.” Government House: The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador. www.heritage.nf.ca/govhouse/governors/g38.html. “Duckworth, Sir John Thomas.” Dictionary of Canadian Encyclopedia. www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36502. “John Thomas Duckworth” (May 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:28, August 7, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= John_Thomas_Duckworth&oldid=213828556. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/8137. “Buchan, David.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www.biographi.ca/EN/Sh owBio.asp?BioId=37395.

Sources: Patrick, Bethanne Kelly. “Admiral Alene B. Duerk.” Military.com. www.military.com/Content/Mo reContent/1,12044,ML_duerk_bkp,00.html. “Alene B. Duerk” (August 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:08, August 7, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alene_B._Duerk&old id=229616111.

DUERK, ALENE B. (1920–) (USA)

Alene B. Duerk from Ohio was the first female rear admiral in the United States Navy. She was

DUFEK, GEORGE JOHN (1903–1977) (USA)

Born in Rockford, Illinois, George John Dufek entered the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1921 and graduated as ensign in 1925. He was lieutenant junior grade (by 1930); lieutenant (1934); lieutenant commander (1939); commander (1942); captain (1943); and rear admiral (1955). Dufek started his career aboard the battleship USS Maryland, graduated as a naval aviator from the naval air station, Pensacola, Florida

Duguay-Trouin (1933), and was navigator and executive officer (second in command) on three different ships. In World War II he commanded a flight training squadron; was senior naval aviator during the invasion of North Africa (May 1942); took part in the planning of the invasion of Sicily and Salerno (1943); and commanded the escort aircraft carrier USS Bogue (1944). During the Korean War (1950– 1953) he commanded the aircraft carrier USS Antietam and the Naval Air Station Whidbey Island in Oak Harbor, Washington. Dufek spent much of his career in Antarctica, first with Richard Byrd (see entry) and later as supervisor of U.S. programs in Antarctica. He was navigator of the USS Bear, the flagship of Byrd’s third expedition to Antarctica (1939–1941) and was awarded the Antarctic Expedition Medal. In 1940 Dufek flew over Thurston Island, the third largest island of Antarctica, situated off the northwest end of Ellsworth Land. He took part in “Operation Highjump” (1946–1947), officially titled the U.S. Antarctic Developments Project, a naval expedition to Antarctica under the command of Admiral Byrd. The operation had several aims: to set up bases, train personnel to live in cold climates, and conduct scientific studies. He commanded “Operation Deep Freeze,” the code name for the U.S. Navy’s ongoing involvement in Antarctica, from 1954 to 1997. The USA’s involvement was purely scientific, and thus sent down scientists. But these scientists had to have places to live, food, tools, tractors, clothing, doctors, the list goes on. The support, the logistical end of the operation, was handled by the Navy. It was called U.S. Support Force, Antarctica. Deep Freeze was a massive operation, and Dufek headed the Navy part of it every season from 1954 to 1959. On October 31, 1956, Admiral Dufek and a crew of six landed at the South Pole by airplane and were the first men to plant the American flag there. Dufek was appointed Antarctic Projects Officer when Richard Byrd died in 1957. He retired in 1959 and was Director of the Mariners’ Museum in Virginia. Included among Dufek’s many awards and campaign medals are the Legion of Merit with two Gold Stars; the Croix de Guerre; the Korean Presidential Citation; the Navy Distinguished Service Medal. Sources and Selected Publications: “George J. Dufek” (July 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:22, September 2, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_J._Dufek&ol did=223678521. “George Dufek Papers: An Inventory of His Papers at Syracuse University.” Syracuse University Library. http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/d/du fek_gj.htm. “South Pole Station: The first 10 Years.” www.southpolestation.com/trivia/igy1/igy1.html. Stewart, John. Antarctica: An Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2009. Dufek, George John. Op-

112 eration Deepfreeze. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957. _____. Through the Frozen Frontier: The Exploration of Antarctica. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959.

DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENÉ (1673–1736) FRANCE

Born in Saint Malo, Brittany, Northern France, where his family operated a shipping business, René Duguay-Trouin joined the French Navy at sixteen, and during the first three months experienced a violent tempest, an imminent shipwreck, the boarding of an English ship, and the threatened destruction of his own vessel by fire. By age eighteen he had displayed such bravery that he was made captain of the 14-gun Danycan. During the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697), on June 6, 1692, Louis XIV (1613–1715) gave Duguay-Trouin command of a 40gun ship, the Hermine, with which he captured five enemy ships at the entrance of the English Channel. In 1694 Louis XIV presented him with a sword of honor for his part in playing havoc with the English and Dutch navies and merchantmen. On April 12, 1694, in command of the Diligente, he was defeated by a six-ship squadron commanded by Admiral David Mitchell (1650?–1710) and forced to surrender. Imprisoned at Plymouth, two months later he escaped by capturing a small ship and returned to Saint-Malo. He and Claude de ForbinGardanne (see entry) defeated the English at the Battle at the Lizard (near Lizard Point, Cornwall) on October 21, 1707. He commanded the Bellone and the Railleuse during the War of the Spanish Succession (1710–1714). For capturing Rio de Janeiro (at that time the capital city of Brazil, now the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro) in 1711, Duguay-Trouin was promoted to lieutenant general of the naval armies of the king (i.e., admiral). In his later career, he commanded the fleets at Saint-Malo, at Brest, and at Toulon harbor. Louis XIV made him a nobleman in 1709 with the motto Dedit haec insignia virtus (“Bravery gave him nobility”) and a commander in the Order of Saint-Louis (1728). Ten ships of the French Navy have been named in his honor. Sources: ”Duguay-Trouin, René.” The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001–07. http://209.10. 134.179/65/du/DuguayTr.html. “Pirates Wrote the History of the Region.” Virtual Seaside. www.litoralvir tual.com.br/litoral/piratas_i.htm. “René DuguayTrouin” (2008, July 16). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:38, August 7, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_DuguayTrouin&oldid=226093831.

DUNCAN, ADAM, VISCOUNT DUNCAN (1731–1804) (BRITAIN)

Born in Lundie, Angus, Scotland, Adam Duncan entered the Royal Navy (1746) and was lieuten-

113 ant (1755); commander (1759); captain (1761); rear admiral (1787); vice admiral (1793); admiral (1795); and commander-in-chief, North Sea (1795). Duncan served with Augustus Keppel (see entry) aboard the HMS Centurion in the Mediterranean, HMS Norwich on the coast of North America, the HMS Swiftsure, and the HMS Torbay. In January 1779 he sat as a member of Keppel’s court-martial and made himself something of a nuisance by stopping the prosecutor when he asked irrelevant and leading questions, or when he twisted answers. Hoping to keep him out of the way at the court-marital of Sir Hugh Palliser (see entry), the Admiralty ordered him to take HMS Monarch to St. Helens on the Isle of Wight. However, when the crew refused to sail until they have been paid in advance, Duncan did sit on Palliser’s court-martial at Portsmouth. In 1779 the Monarch took part in the relief of Gibraltar, during the Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779–1783), and at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent (February 14, 1797). Whatever Duncan achieved was small by comparison to his victory against the Dutch at the Battle of Camperdown on 11 October 1797 aboard the Venerable, with Vice Admiral Richard Onslow (1741–1817) in the Monarch. Contrary to fighting instructions, Duncan gave the signal to pass through the enemy’s line and engage to leeward, a bold move which was crowned with complete success. Duncan was awarded the Naval Gold Medal, and an annual pension of £3,000 to himself and the next two heirs to his title—the biggest pension ever awarded by the British government. He was created Baron Duncan of Lundie and Viscount Duncan of Camperdown. Additionally, he was given the freedom of Dundee and London. Several ships have been named HMS Duncan in his honor; also Duncan Street in Leeds town center is named after him. His son, Earl of Camperdown, built the magnificent mansion now in Camperdown Country Park, Dundee. Duncan was 6 ft. 4 inches in height and of corresponding breadth. His handsome figure attracted crowds of admirers when he walked through the streets of Chatham. A statue by Sir Richard Westmacott (1775–1856) was erected at the public expense in St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. A statue of Duncan was erected in 1997 on the corner of High Street and Commercial Street, Dundee, Scotland. Sources: “Adam Duncan.” Royal Naval Museum. www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_adam_dun can.htm. “Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan” (July 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:09, August 8, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Adam_Duncan%2C_1st_Viscount_ Duncan&oldid=227812089. “Admiral Adam Duncan (1st Viscount Camperdown) 1731—1804.” Gazetteer for Scotland. www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/famousfirst 313.html. “Admiral Lord Duncan, Hero of Camper-

Duquesne down, August 1997, Local History Section.” www.tay net.co.uk/users/mcgon/bglink3.htm. “Famous Scots: Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Camperdown (1731– 1804).” Rampant Scotland. www.rampantscotland.com/ famous/blfamduncan2.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8 211.

DUPERRÉ, GUY-VICTOR (1775–1846) (FRANCE)

Born in La Rochelle, Western France, GuyVictor Duperré enlisted on the Henri IV, a French East Indiaman (1791), and joined the French Navy a year later. He was auxiliary ensign (1796); ensign (1798); lieutenant (1804); commander (1806); captain (1808); Knight of the Légion d’Honneur and commodore (1809); Baron of the Empire (1810); rear admiral (1811); vice admiral (1823); grand officer of Légion d’Honneur and Commander of the Order of Saint Louis (1824); maritime prefect of Brest and inspector of the 5th military district (1827); peer of France (1830); admiral and chief of the council of the Admiralty (1831); and naval minister at various times (1834–1843) until he retired on health grounds. As a young sailor he served against the Netherlands and Britain aboard the corvette Maire-Guiton, and later aboard the frigate Tortu. He was captured by the British while serving aboard the Virginie; exchanged two years later, he took command of the corvette Pélagie. He completely destroyed a British squadron at the Battle of Grand Port, Mauritius on August 23, 1810, although he was wounded. He was hailed as hero in France. He commanded the French and Italian naval forces in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic (1812 -1814). In 1814, he defended Venice against Austria. In February 1830, Charles X (1757– 1836, king of France from 1824–1830) put him in command of the expeditionary force, along with Marshal Louis-Auguste-Victor Bourmont (1773– 1846), that seized Algiers. His name is carved on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris and there is a statue to him in La Rochelle. Sources: ”Guy-Victor Duperré” (April 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:19, August 8, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Guy-Victor_Duperr%C3%A9&oldid=2083 05068.

DUQUESNE, ABRAHAM, MARQUIS DU BOUCHET (1610?–1688) (FRANCE)

Born in Dieppe, France, Abraham du Bouchet Duquesne served in the French Navy until 1643 and was captain (1635). In 1637, Duquesne cap-

Durham tured the Lérins Islands — off the French Riviera, near Cannes — from the Spanish. His dislike of the Spaniards grew after his father died fighting the Spaniards; between 1638 and 1643 his son fought several battles with them. In 1643, Duquesne joined the Swedish navy, and in July 1644, as part of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), he fought the Danish fleet at the inconclusive Battle of Colberger Heide ( July 1, 1644) just north of the German island of Fehmarn in the Baltic Sea. King Christian IV (1577–1648) himself was in command of the Danish fleet in the frigate Regina 34. At the Battle of Fehmarn (October, 23, 1644), the Danes were defeated by a combined Swedish-Dutch fleet, their admiral killed and his ship taken. When peace was reached between Denmark and Sweden, Duquesne returned to France in 1645. Part of the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) was the French Civil War, the Fronde (1648–1653). In 1650 the town of Bordeaux in Western France joined in the revolt against the harsh administration of the chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin (1602–1661), during the minority of Louis XIV (1638–1715). Duquesne blockaded the Gironde Estuary, forcing Bordeaux to surrender. He was promoted to rear admiral and was awarded a castle and the entire Indre department in Central France. In 1667 he was promoted vice admiral and distinguished himself in the Third Dutch War (1672–1674)— an alliance of France and England against the Dutch, part of the larger Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678). The fact that he was a Protestant (Calvinist) and not a Catholic barred his promotion to admiral. On May 28, 1672, he was second-in-command of the French squadron at the Battle of Sole Bay, which marked the opening of that war. He fought two battles against the combined Dutch-Spanish fleet: the Battle of Stromboli, Sicily, on January 8, 1676, and the Battle of Agosta, Italy, on April 22, 1676, in which Michiel de Ruyter (see entry) was killed. He was second in command of the French fleet in the victory against the Spanish-Dutch fleet at the Battle of Palermo, Italy ( June 2, 1676); this ensured French domination of the Mediterranean. In thanks, Louis XIV wrote him a personal letter and in 1681 he created Duquesne Marquis du Bouchet. He ended his naval career still fighting the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean. Several ships have been named in his honor. Sources: “Abraham Duquesne” (March 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:45, August 8, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Abraham_Duquesne&oldid=198832746. “Abraham Duquesne.” The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001–07. www.bartleby.com/65/du/Duquesne A.html. “Duquesne, Abraham, Marquis du Quesne” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved

114 August 21, 2008, from http://original.britannica.com/ eb/article-9031540.

DURHAM, SIR PHILIP CHARLES HENDERSON CALDERWOOD (1763–1845) (BRITAIN)

Born in Largo, Fifeshire, Scotland, Philip Charles Henderson Calderwood Durham entered the Royal Navy in 1777 and was lieutenant (1782); commander (1790); captain (1793); rear admiral (1810); knighted (1815); vice admiral (1819); admiral (1830). He saw his first action on the HMS Edgar during the Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779– 1783), where he gained the attention of Admiral Richard Kempenfelt (see entry) with whom he served on HMS Victory and HMS Royal George. Durham was watch officer on August 29, 1782, when, through no fault of his own, the Royal George, which was under repairs at Spithead, Hampshire, suddenly and catastrophically sank. Durham was picked up by a boat and taken on board the Victory, but Admiral Kempenfelt and over 800 men perished. The enquiry found that the ship sank because it was rotten and a great piece of the bottom fell out. When war with France broke out in 1793, Durham, in commanded of the small brig HMS Spitfire, captured the French privateer ship Afriqu. Commanding the frigate HMS Hind, he brought in a convoy of 157 merchant ships from the Mediterranean in the face of enemy opposition, a feat that brought praise and rewards. In 1796 he took command of the frigate HMS Anson, the biggest frigate in the Navy; it was in the Battle of Donegal, Western Ireland (October 12, 1798), when the French attempted to land troops in Ireland in support of the Irish Rebellion. Durham was given the HMS Defiance and participated in the second battle of Cape Finisterre on July 22, 1805. He was informally reprimanded by Sir Robert Calder (see entry) for letting his enthusiasm run away with him when pursuing the enemy. Durham, still in command of the Defiance, was at the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805. When the French ship Berwick attempted to block the Defiance from attacking the Spanish flagship Principe de Asturias, Durham deliberately rammed the Berwick and ended up fighting both her and the Aigle. The Berwick sank after the battle; he captured the Aigle, even though the Defiance was severely damaged and suffered 70 casualties and Durham was twice wounded in hand-to-hand combat. He was a banner-bearer at Horatio Nelson’s state funeral on January 8, 1806, at St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Durham then had command of the Caribbean Leeward Islands (1813–1815) and ac-

115 cepted the surrender of the French West Indies at the end of the War of 1812 (1812–1815) war. He was member of Parliament for Queenborough, Isle of Sheppey, Kent (1830), and for Devizes, Wiltshire (1834), and naval commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1836–1839). He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815), and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1930). Sources: “Philip Charles Durham” (July 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:31, August 8, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Philip_Charles_Durham&oldid=223171183. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/8316.

EBERLE, EDWARD WALTER (1864–1929) (USA)

Born in Denton, Texas, Edward Walter Eberle graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1885 and was ensign (1887); lieutenant junior grade (1896); lieutenant (1899); captain (1912); and rear admiral (1919). He was turret officer aboard the battleship USS Oregon and distinguished himself as a fire direction officer against the Spanish cruiser Cristobal Colon at the blockade of Santiago de Cuba during the SpanishAmerican War (April–August, 1898); flag lieutenant and acting chief to staff commander-in-chief of the U.S. Asiatic Fleet during the PhilippineAmerican War (1899–1902); aide to the superintendent at the Naval Academy, where he authored a manual, Guns and Torpedo Drills for the United States Navy (1900); and gunnery officer on the battleship USS Indiana (1901–1902). As aide to the commander-in-chief, Atlantic Fleet, Lieutenant Commander Eberle wrote instructions for operating the wireless ashore and afloat and for devising and using naval codes in order to speed up communications and to facilitate the operations of the fleet. He was executive officer (1907–1908) of the battleship USS Louisiana during the Great White Fleet’s tour around the world (December 16, 1907, to February 22, 1909). He was commandant, U.S. Naval Training Station, San Francisco (1908–1910), and commander of the gunboats USS Wheeling and the USS Petrel on a world cruise (1910–1911). Commander Eberle was the first commanding officer of the newly established Atlantic Torpedo Fleet (1911); developed and successfully implemented the use of smokescreen tactics, which later became standard throughout the fleet (1911–1913); was superintendent, the Naval Academy (1915–1919); commanded Battleship Division 5, then Battleship Division 7 of the Atlantic Fleet (1919–1921); and was commander-in-chief of the Pacific Fleet (temporary admiral) (1921–1923).

Ellsberg He emphasized naval gunnery and fire control and perfected a tactical system for the use of airplanes in fleet operations. He was chief of naval operations (1923), in which he pushed for the maintenance of naval strength; however, he failed to fully recognize the potential of the airplane in warfare, stressing the need for more battleships. Eberle retired in 1928, died in Washington, D.C., and was buried with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1918. Two ships were named after him: the USS Eberle (DD-430), launched in 1940; and the USS Admiral E.W. Eberle (AP-123), launched in 1944. Sources: “Edward Walter Eberle.” (July 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:07, August 8, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Edward_Walter_Eberle&oldid=228737054. “Edward Walter Eberle.” Conservapedia. www.conservape dia.com/admiral_E._W._Eberle. “Edward Walter Eberle.” The Handbook of Texas Online. www.tshaon line.org/handbook/online/articles/EE/feb1.html. “Edward Walter Eberle.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/eweberle.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

ELLSBERG, EDWARD (1891–1983) (USA)

Born in New Haven, Connecticut, Edward Ellsberg graduated with a B.S. from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1914), gained an M.S. (1920) from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was awarded an honorary doctorate in engineering (1929) from the University of Colorado, Boulder. He was commander (1925); captain (1942); and rear admiral (?1946). Ellsberg, an expert in undersea salvage and rescue, raised the Navy submarine S-51, which was involved in an accident on the night of September 25, 1925, while operating on the surface in Long Island Sound near Block Island, New England. So pleased was Congress with Ellsberg that they passed a special act that made him a commander, and the Navy Department awarded him the Distinguished Service Medal. Although retired, Ellsberg rejoined the Navy immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. At the port of Massawa — then in Ethiopia, now in Eritrea—he salvaged a large floating dry dock and the German and Italian ships that had been sunk to block the harbor to stop the port from being used by the Allies. Ellsberg made good out of bad; the port was made operative and the ships salvaged became part of the Allies’ merchant fleets. Ellsberg was principal salvage officer in the North Africa Theater, working under Admiral Andrew Cunningham (see entry).

Elphinstone In 1943, suffering from fatigue, Ellsberg recuperated at home and moved to England in time for the Normandy Invasion on June 6, 1944. Unlike his previous tasks of bringing sunken ships up, he made artificial harbors by scuttling nearly 100 ships that were damaged or too old for service. For his services he was awarded the Order of the British Empire. He authored seventeen books; his Pigboats (1931) was the basis for the movie Hell Below (1933). Ellsberg’s inventions include the underwater cutting torch, stabilized pontoons, and a system to rapidly raise a sunken submarine. He finally retired in 1951. Sources and Selected Publications: “Edward Ellsberg” (2008, April 30). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:20, August 8, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Ellsberg&oldid= 209151835. The Official Website of Naval Salvage Expert, RADM Edward Ellsberg. www.edwardellsberg.com/ index.htm. Ellsberg, Edward. On the Bottom. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1929. _____. Under the Red Sea Sun. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1946. _____. No Banners, No Bugles. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1948.

ELPHINSTONE, GEORGE KEITH, VISCOUNT KEITH (1746–1823) (BRITAIN)

Born near Stirling, Scotland, George Keith Elphinstone entered the Royal Navy in 1761 and was lieutenant (1770); commander (1772); captain (1775); commodore (1769); rear admiral (1794); vice admiral and commander-in-chief, Indian Waters (1795); created Baron Keith of Stonehaven Marischal (1797); admiral (1801); commanderin-chief, North Sea (1803–1807); commanderin-chief, Channel Fleet (1812); and created viscount (1814). In 1767 he made a voyage to the East Indies in the British East India Company’s service and put £2000 lent him by a relative to such good purpose in a private trading venture that laid the foundation of a handsome fortune. During the American Revolution (1775–1783) he waged war on privateers and was part of a naval brigade at the occupation of Charleston, South Carolina (1780). In January 1781, in command of HMS Warwick (50 guns), he captured a Dutch 50-gun ship as a sort of revenge, for that same ship had escaped from a British vessel a few days earlier. After peace he was a member of Parliament for Dunbartonshire, and Stirlingshire in Scotland. In 1793 Elphinstone was appointed to the HMS Robust (74 guns), in which he took part in the Siege of Toulon (September 18–December 18, 1793) led by Samuel Hood (see entry). The siege resulted in French casualties of 2,000 killed or wounded, 14 French ships of the line sunk in harbor, and 15 captured by the British, who suffered some 4,000 casualties. He played a large share in the capture of the Cape of

116 Good Hope (September 16, 1795), and captured a Dutch squadron in Saldanha Bay, South Africa (August 1796). In 1800, as commander-in-chief, Mediterranean, he cooperated with the Austrians in the siege and capture of Genoa from the French, for which he received from the king of Sardinia the Grand Cross of the Order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus (1821). Elphinstone’s final task was at Plymouth in 1815 when Napoleon surrendered to Frederick Maitland (see entry), who brought him to England aboard HMS Bellerophon; Elphinstone conveyed to Napoleon the British government’s terms of surrender. Sources: “George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith” (March 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:35, August 8, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=George_Elphinstone%2C_1st_V iscount_Keith&oldid=201449785. “George Keith Elphinstone, Viscount.” The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–07. www.bartleby.com/65/ke/KeithGK. html. “Significant Scots: George Keith-Elphinstone.” ElectricScotland.com. www.electricscotland.com/histo ry/other/keith-elphinstone.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/8742?docPos=1.

EVANS, EDWARD RATCLIFFE GARTH RUSSELL (1880–1957) (BRITAIN)

Edward Ratcliffe Garth Russell “Teddy” Evans was born in London, and after a shaky start being expelled from school for truancy, he entered the Royal Navy on a cadetship in 1897 and was sublieutenant (1900); lieutenant (1902); commander (1912); captain (1917); rear admiral (1928); vice admiral (1932); commander-in-chief, Africa Station (1933); commander-in-chief, The Nore (1935); admiral (1936); and created Baron Mountevans of the Broke (1945). Evans served as second officer of the Morning, the relief ship sent out in 1900 by the Royal Geographical Society to find captain Robert Falcon Scott’s (1868–1912) first Antarctic expedition. He supplied the Discovery with food but was obliged to leave the icebound ship there for a second winter. The Morning (with the Terra Nova) returned to Antarctica in January 1904. A month later the Discovery broke free of the ice and the three ships came home. In June 1910 Evans sailed as Scott’s second-incommand and captain of the Terra Nova of the second expedition. In January 1912, Evans went within 150 miles of the South Pole before turning back. He nearly died from scurvy (a disease caused by insufficient vitamin C), but Chief Stoker, William Lashley and Petty Officer Tom Crean refused his

117 order to leave him behind and saved his life. Although Evans raised money to look for Scott he found that Scott had died in March 1912. On 20 April 1917, Evans, in command of the destroyer HMS Broke, with the HMS Swift engaged six German destroyers off Dover in the English Channel. He sank one by ramming it and engaged in handto-hand fighting at close quarters; Broke lost forty men. This was action at close quarters reminiscent of the old-style navy; “Evans of the Broke” was the British hero. He took command of the Australian squadron (1929) with his flag in the cruiser Australia. His unconventional ways made him popular with the Aussies, and when he left in 1931, instead of inspecting each ship with pomp and ceremony, he entertained some 2,000 men and their wives at a cinema. At the outbreak of World Wart II he was made a regional commissioner for London responsible for civil defense, a post he held until the end of the war, although he officially retired from the navy in 1941. Evans was Companion, Order of the Bath, civil (1913); Distinguished Service Order (1917); Companion, Order of the Bath, military (1932); and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1935). He received the freedom of Dover (1938) and Chatham (1939). Sources: “Edward Evans, 1st Baron Mountevans” (July 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:31, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Evans,_1st_Baron_Mo untevans&oldid=223920013. “Evans, Edward Ratcliff Garth Russell (1881–1957), 1st Baron Mountevans of Chelsea, Admiral.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lh cma/locreg/EVANS1.shtml. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 33036.

EVANS, MARSHA JOHNSON (USA)

Marsha Johnson Evans grew up in Springfield, Illinois, the daughter of a U.S. Navy chief petty officer. In 1968 she graduated from Occidental College, Los Angeles, and was commissioned as an ensign. She served as a White House fellow (1979– 1980) in the U.S. Department of Treasury. During her nearly 30-year naval career, Evans held a variety of command positions overseeing multi-million dollar budgets and thousands of employees. She gained a reputation for forging new ground for women in the military. She was the first woman to command a U.S. naval station (Treasure Island in the San Francisco Bay), and in 1992 she chaired the task force that developed a strategy to address the gender-based issues that followed in the wake of the infamous

Evans sexual harassment Tailhook scandal involving U.S. Navy aviation officers (1991). She also led the worldwide navy recruiting effort (1993–1995) in which where she managed 6,000 employees in 1,200 locations and recruited more than 70,000 officers and sailors annually. Evans was the highest ranking woman in the navy at the time and was superintendent of the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California. Promoted to rear admiral in 1994, she retired from the Navy in 1998 and assumed leadership of the Girl Scouts of the USA. She received a White House Fellows Foundation Legacy of Leadership Award in 2002. From 2002 to 2005, Evans was the 13th president and chief executive officer of the American Red Cross. For her leadership of the Red Cross hurricane response, Non-Profit Times named her “Executive of the Year” for 2005. She is a director of the U.S. Naval Academy Foundation, a senior advisor for Changing Our World, a philanthropic services advisory firm, and a director of Lehman Brothers Holdings. She is a Companion of Naval Honor, the oldest exclusively naval American society. Sources: “Marsha J. Evans.” Forbes.com. www.forbes. com/finance/mktguideapps/personinfo/FromPersonId PersonTearsheet.jhtml?passedPersonId=936175. “What a Relief.” Washington Flyer, May-June 2005. www.wash ingtonflyer.com/article/2005/May_June/What%20a% 20Relief. “The 2003 American Woman Award: Marsha Johnson Evans.” Women’s Research and Education Institute. www.wrei.org/AWA2003.htm. “The Red Cross’s Marty Evans: Prepared for the Unexpected.” Hire Vets First. www.hirevetsfirst.gov/emptestimonials/ marty.asp.

EVANS, ROBLEY DUNGLISON (1846–1912) (USA)

Robley Dunglison “Fighting Bob” Evans, born in Floyd County, Virginia, joined the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1860. He was acting ensign (1863); lieutenant (1867); lieutenant commander (1868); captain (1893); rear admiral (1901); commander-in-chief, Asiatic Fleet (1902–1904); and commander-in-chief, Atlantic Fleet (1905). In 1863, during the American Civil War (1861–1865), Evans carried out an attack on the Confederate held Fort Fisher, North Carolina, in 1865. He led his landing party of Marines through heavy fire to charge the Confederate defenses. Evans continued to fight even after being wounded in his legs for the fourth time; he threatened to shoot any surgeon who attempted to amputate his leg when he was evacuated. They didn’t and he suffered pain for the rest of his life. Between then and 1898 he served with the European Squadron; had two terms at the Washington Navy Yard; had two years as commanding

Evan-Thomas officer of the training ship Saratoga; had assignments as a lighthouse inspector and member of the lighthouse board; and was commanding officer of the gunboat Yorktown (1891–1893) in the Pacific. His reputation was further enhanced in 1892 by his energetic efforts to stop illegal seal hunting off Alaska. During the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898), he commanded the battleship Iowa in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, 1898, the largest naval engagement of the war, which resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (also known as the Flota de Ultramar). As rear admiral, Evans commanded the Great White Fleet (1907–1908) as it sailed from the Atlantic through the Straits of Magellan to the Pacific, but was relieved of command because of ill health. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The destroyers USS Evans (DD-78) and USS Evans (DD-552), were named in his honor. Sources: American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/05/05-00224.html?a=1&n=EVANS% 2C%20ROBLEY%20DUNGLISON%20&d=10&ss= 0&q=1. “Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, USN (1846– 1912).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-e/rdevans.htm. McSherry, Jack L., Jr. “Rear Admiral Robley Evans (1846–1912).” The Spanish-American War Centennial Website. www.spanamwar.com/evans.htm. “Robley Dungliston Evans, Rear Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/rdevans.htm. “Robley Dunglison Evans” (May 10, 2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:35, August 9, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robley_Dunglison_E vans&oldid=129797219. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

EVAN-THOMAS, SIR HUGH (1862–1928) (BRITAIN)

Born at Llwynmadoc, Brecknock, Wales, Hugh Evan-Thomas entered the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, as a naval cadet in 1876 and was sub-lieutenant (1879); lieutenant (1884); commander (1897); captain (1902); captain, Britannia Training-ship (1910); rear admiral (1912); vice admiral (1917); and admiral and commander-in-chief at The Nore (1921–1924). In 1877 the Princes Albert Victor (Duke of Clarence, 1864–1892) and George (afterwards King George V, reigned 1910– 1936) joined Britannia, and when they were sent on their three years’ cruise in the corvette HMS Bacchante, Evan-Thomas was chosen as one of the midshipmen to accompany them. He was flag lieutenant to Admiral Sir Michael Culme-Seymour (1836–1920) in the Ramillies,

118 Mediterranean (1894–1897); in charge of the Signal School at HMS Victory, Portsmouth (1898– 1900); and assisted the Second Sea Lord Lord John Fisher’s (see entry) reforms of the naval personnel (1902). He was in command of the fifth battle squadron, with his flag on the battleship HMS Barham at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). The Barham was hit by six large caliber projectiles during the battle, killing four officers and 22 men, and wounding one officer and 36 men. The damage inflicted on the German battle fleet wrecked Admiral Reinhard Scheer’s (see entry) hopes of success. During the last four years of his life EvanThomas suffered from ill-health, which was exacerbated by the distress he felt at the attack on his handling of the fifth battle squadron at Jutland, particularly criticism by Winston Churchill (1874– 1965). Evan-Thomas was Companion, Order of the Bath (1916); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1916); Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1919); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1924). He was given the French Legion of Honor; the first class of the Russian order of St. Anne; the second class of the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun; and the Order of the Crown of Italy. Sources: “British Losses at Jutland May 31–June 1, 1916.” North East Medals. www.northeastmedals.co.uk/ britishguide/jutland/jellicoe_dispatch_1916.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/33031.

EVERTSEN, CORNELIS (1642–1706) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Born into a long line of naval families at Flushing, Cornelis Evertsen started sailing with his father — Cornelis Evertsen the Elder — at age ten; he became privateer in 1665 and was captured by the English in April in the first year of the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667). Evertsen was considered worthy of royal interest, no doubt on account of his illustrious father and his uncle, Lieutenant Admiral Johan Evertsen (1660–1666). An anecdote is told about his interrogation by the brother of King Charles I (reigned 1629–1649), Lord High Admiral James, the Duke of York (King James II, reigned 1685–1688). James asked Evertsen to forgive the English for damaging his hat, which had a bullet hole in it. The story goes that Cornelis grumpily replied that although he was proud of the hole, he would rather have been shot than made a prisoner. Evertson’s wit so charmed the king that he ordered his release on March 24, 1665.

119 In July he became captain with the Admiralty of Zealand, and was captain of his father’s flagship Walcheren during the Four Days’ Battle ( June 11–14, 1666). He saw his father killed from a chance shot from HMS Henry while it was escaping. He also saw his uncle killed at the Battle of St. James’ Day (August 4–5, 1666). In 1673, as vice admiral of a fleet in service of the Dutch West India Company, in his flagship the Swaenenburgh, he regained, from the English, New Netherland, a Dutch colony in North America along the Hudson and lower Delaware Rivers). In January 1675 he became rear admiral of Zealand, and two years later, commanded a blockade against the Dunkirk Raiders, privateers in the service of the Spanish Empire operating from the port of Dunkirk, France. He was vice admiral of Zealand (1679); lieutenantadmiral of Zealand and supreme commander of the confederate Dutch fleet (1684); and commanded the vanguard of the invasion fleet of William III during the Glorious Revolution (1688), which ended the Stuart dynasty and set William and Mary on the throne in 1689. He took part in the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690), though with not much success. This was his last major battle. Sources: “Cornelis Evertsen.” Virtual American Biographies. http://famousamericans.net/cornelisevertsen. “Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest (April 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:18, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Cornelis_Evertsen_the_Youngest&oldid=206408536.

FAIRBORNE, SIR STAFFORD (?1666–1742) (BRITAIN)

Stafford Fairborne, the son Sir Palmes Fairborne, governor of Tangiers, joined the Royal Navy at an unknown date but was lieutenant of the HMS Bonaventure at Tangiers in 1685. There are no details of his promotions until rear admiral and being knighted in 1702. He was vice admiral (1703); admiral (1707); admiral of the fleet (1708); and commissioner for disbanding the marine regiments (1713). In lieu of half-pay a special pension of £600 a year was settled on him. While on the Bonaventure, during the illness of the captain, Fairborne commanded the ship in a successful encounter with some pirate vessels from Tangiers. Fairborne took part in the Battle of Beachy Head on July 10, 1690, and three months later, in the siege of Cork. When King William III came to the English throne in 1689 he saw as his first task to rout out the Jacobite supporters mainly in Scotland and Ireland, those who would have the Stuarts back on the throne. In 1689, William invaded Ireland and laid siege to several cities, including Cork. In September 1690, Cork surrendered after a fierce struggle to

Fallon the Williamite General John Churchill, afterwards the celebrated Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722). In June 1693 he was in command of the Monck of 52 guns in the fleet under Sir George Rooke (see entry). Off Cape St. Vincent the French fleet scored a resounding victory and the English fleet was scattered. In 1705, during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), with his flag on board the Shrewsbury, Fairborne accompanied Sir Clowdisley Shovell (see entry) to the Mediterranean and was at the siege and capture of Barcelona in September and October. Britain, Austria and The Netherlands backed the Austrian claimant to the Spanish throne, Archduke Charles VI, King of Bohemia (1685–1740), against Philip V of Spain (1683– 1746), backed by France and Spain. The FrancoSpanish alliance lost 14,000 dead or wounded and the Anglo-Austrian alliance lost 7,000 dead or wounded. Fairborne was member of Parliament for Rochester, Kent, in 1705–1708. In June 1707 he was appointed a member of the Council of the Lord Admiral, retiring in June 1708. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/9069. “Sir Stafford Fairborne.” Naval Sailing Warfare History (1650–1850). http://3decks.pbwiki.com/Stafford+Fairborne.

FALLON, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1944–) (USA)

Although the only date available for Fallon’s promotions is to four-star admiral in 2000, he reached admiral long before that. Born in East Orange, New Jersey, William J. Fallon received his commission through the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps and was designated a naval flight officer (1967). Fallon is a graduate of the Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, the National War College in Washington, D.C., and has a master of arts degree in international studies from Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. He saw active service in the Vietnam War (1959–1975), and then spent twenty-four years in flying assignments with attack squadrons and carrier air wings operating from aircraft carriers in all the major oceans of the world. He has completed several hundred landings on carriers and almost 5,000 flight hours. Fallon commanded Attack Squadron 65 (U.S. Navy) during combat deployment to the Persian Gulf for Operation Desert Storm, the first Gulf War (August 2, 1990–February 28, 1991); Theodore Roosevelt Battle Group in the Mediterranean (1995); and Battle Force Sixth Fleet (CTF 60), NATO’s combat Operation Deliberate Force in Bosnia (1995). He was commander, Second Fleet,

Farncomb and commander, Striking Fleet Atlantic (November 1997–September 2000); 31st vice chief of naval operations. He was presidential special envoy to Japan (February 2001) to apologize on behalf of President George W. Bush for the accidental sinking of fishing vessel Ehime Maru by the submarine USS Greeneville (SSN-772), in which nine people died, including four high school students, two teachers and three crewmen. He was commander, U.S. Fleet Forces Command and U.S. Atlantic Fleet (October 2003–February 2005), and commander, Pacific Command (February 2005–March 2007), his third four-star assignment. In March 2007 Fallon began his fourth four-star command as commander of the United States Central Command, the first navy admiral in the post. His awards include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal; Distinguished Service Medal; Defense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit; Bronze Star; Meritorious Service Medal; Air Medal, Navy Commendation Medal, and various unit and campaign decorations. Sources: “Adm. William J. Fallon: An Experienced Naval Officer and a Diplomat.” New York Times, January 8, 2007. www.nytimes.com/2007/01/08/world/ middleeast/08fallon.html. “Bush Apologizes for Japanese Trawler’s Sinking.” Cable News Network, February 13, 2001. http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/ asiapcf/east/02/13/japan.substrike.02/index.html. “William J. Fallon” (August 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:40, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_J. _Fallon&oldid=229886752.

FARNCOMB, HAROLD BRUCE (1899–1971) (AUSTRALIA)

Born in North Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, Harold Bruce Farncomb graduated from the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, Federal Capital Territory, in 1916. He was midshipman (1917); lieutenant (1920); lieutenant commander (1927); commander (1932); captain (1937); and rear admiral (1947). After World War I, he trained in gunnery at HMS Excellent on Whale Island, Portsmouth, England, and was then gunnery officer on HMAS Stalwart in Australian waters. From August 1935, Farncomb was attached to the Naval Intelligence Division at the Admiralty. In 1937 he spent some time in Germany improving his language skills, which would be used to good advantage in the war that was looming. On March 4, 1941, southeast of the Seychelles Islands, the cruiser HMAS Canberra attacked the enemy supply ship Coburg and the tanker Ketty Brovig, both of which were scuttled. Intelligence gleaned from his interrogation of the German prisoners led Farncomb to warn the Admiralty of the likely movements of the pocket battleship Admi-

120 ral Scheer. He was commanding officer and chief staff officer to John Crace (see entry) on the battle cruiser HMAS Australia that, without air cover, set out to intercept Japanese troop ships headed for Port Moresby, New Guinea. This was during the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8, 1942) and the flagships survived heavy bombing and aerial torpedo attacks. Farncomb was mentioned in dispatches for his part in the battle. He took part in the Battle of Guadalcanal on November 12–15, 1942, and the Battle of Cape Gloucester, New Britain, Papua, New Guinea, from December 26, 1943 to April 22, 1944. On August 15, 1944, in command of the escort-carrier HMS Attacker, he took part the invasion of the south of France, and in October swept the Aegean Sea clear of German ships and helped in the liberation of Greece; he was twice mentioned in dispatches for his work in the Mediterranean. In October 1944 Farncomb replaced the wounded John Augustine Collins (see entry), commander of the Australian Squadron, aboard HMAS Australia. Off Luzon in the Philippines between January 5 and January 9, 1945, Australia was hit by five kamikaze aircraft; although Farncomb was wounded, he remained on duty. After his retirement (1951) he studied for the Barristers’ Admission Board examinations, was admitted to the bar on June 6, 1958, and did well as a lawyer in Sydney. His body was cremated with Anglican rites and his ashes were scattered at sea from his last flagship, HMAS Sydney. His awards were member, Royal Victorian Order (1935); Distinguished Service Order (1942); Companion, Order of the Bath (1945); U.S. Navy Cross (1944); and U.S. Legion of Honor (1945). Sources: Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition. www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A140148b. htm. “Harold Farncomb” (July 27, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:07, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Harold_Farncomb&oldid=228104303. “Rear Admiral H.B. Farncomb.” Digger History: An Unofficial History of the Australian and New Zealand Armed Forces. www.diggerhistory.info/pages-heroes/farncomb.htm. “The Battle of the Coral Sea.” Battle for Australia. www. battleforaustralia.org.au/2902/Overview/Coral_Sea.

FARQUHAR, NORMAN VON HELDREICH (1840–1907) (USA)

Born at Pottsville, Pennsylvania, Norman von Heldreich Farquhar graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1859 and was midshipman and acting master (1859–1861); lieutenant (1861); lieutenant commander (1865); commander (1872); commodore (1897); and rear admiral (1898). After graduating from the academy, he served with the Africa Squadron until September 1861 off the coast of

121 Africa, suppressing the slave trade. He captured the slaver The Triton and, as the only officer, with a crew of ten brought his prize back to the United States. He spent most of the American Civil War (1861–1865) off the U.S. Atlantic coast and in the West Indies and was at the Battle of Fort Fisher ( January 13–15, 1865), a Confederate fort that protected vital trading routes of the port at Wilmington, North Carolina. He was on duty at the U.S. Naval Academy from then until 1868. For the rest of the 1860s and into the next decade, Farquhar served in the warship Swatara; was executive officer of the sloop Severn and the frigate Powhatan; was commanding officer of the gunboat Kansas; and was executive officer at the Boston Navy Yard. Farquhar altogether spent ten years at the U.S. Naval Academy. On March 16, 1889, a cyclone swept over the harbor of Apia, Samoa, where several warships of other nations were also anchored. In spite of the Trenton being wrecked, all of his crew of 450 men and officers except one were saved by Captain Farquhar’s efforts. He commanded the Norfolk Navy Yard (1897–1899) and the North Atlantic Station (1899–1901); and was chairman of the Lighthouse Board (1901–1902) when he retired. He was buried in Section 1 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. Two ships have been named USS Farquhar in his honor. Sources: “Norman von Heldreich Farquhar” (June 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:30, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Norman_von_Heldreich_Farquhar &oldid=220646733. “Norman von Heldreich Farquhar.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/farquhar.htm. “Rear Admiral Norman Von H. Farquhar, USN (1840–1907).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy. mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-f/n-farqhr.htm.

FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW (1801–1870) (USA)

Born near Knoxville, Tennessee, David Glasgow Farragut was adopted by U.S. Navy Commodore David Porter (1780–1843) in 1808, which made him the brother of future Civil War Admiral David Dixon Porter (see entry). Farragut entered the U.S. Navy as a midshipman in 1810 and was lieutenant (1825); commander (1841); captain (1855); rear admiral (1862); vice admiral (1864); and admiral (1866). Young Farragut served under Captain Porter aboard the frigate Essex in the War of 1812 (1812–1815); this vessel captured so many British whaling vessels that Farragut was put in charge of one of the prize ships. Still on the Essex, he was wounded and captured by the HMS Phoebe in Valparaiso Bay, Chile, on March 28, 1814, but was exchanged in April 1815.

Farragut In 1823, already a seasoned ship’s officer, he served in a squadron commanded by Porter putting down pirates in the Caribbean. Within a year he had his first independent command. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), Farragut fought on the Union side. In April 1862, in command of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron, with his flag on the sloop of war USS Hartford, he ran past Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip and the Chalmette, Louisiana, batteries on the Mississippi River to take the city and port of New Orleans, Louisiana. In July 1862 Farragut was not successful in silencing the batteries defending Vicksburg, Mississippi, where one makeshift Confederate ironclad forced his flotilla of 38 ships to withdraw. Similarly, at the Siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana (May 21–July 9, 1863) Farragut’s battle group was forced to retreat with only two ships able to pass the heavy cannon of the Confederate bastion. Although the Confederates held out for 48 days before surrendering, some 5,000 Union men and 700 Confederate soldiers were killed or wounded during the siege. On August 5, 1864, Farragut won a great victory in the Battle of Mobile Bay in the Gulf of Mexico. His possibly apocryphal order at the Battle of Mobile Bay is often quoted: “Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!” (Tethered naval mines were known as torpedoes at the time.) Farragut then triumphed over the opposition of heavy batteries in Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines, Alabama, to defeat the squadron of Admiral Franklin Buchanan (see entry). With the end of the war, Farragut served briefly as president of the Board of Visitors at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland. Admiral Farragut’s last active service was in command of the European Squadron, with the screw frigate Franklin as his flagship. He died while on a visit to Portsmouth Naval Base, New Hampshire. Five ships of the U.S. Navy have been named in his honor, as was the Farragut Career Academy, Chicago, Illinois. In 1903 a postage stamp was issued by the U.S. Post Office to commemorate David Farragut. He made history as the first rear admiral, vice admiral and admiral of the United States Navy. Not wishing to follow the European titles, prior to that they were known as flag officers. Sources: American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/04/04-00361.html?a=1&f=%22FAR RAGUT%2C%20DAVID%20GLASGOW%20%22 &d=10&ss=0&q=1. “David Farragut” (July 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:18, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=David_Farragut&oldid=226435881. “David Farragut” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EB checked/topic/202099/David-Farragut. “David Glasgow Farragut.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgibin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=327. “David Glasgow Far-

Fechteler ragut.” Vicksburg National Military Park. www.nps.gov/ archive/vick/visctr/sitebltn/farragut.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

FECHTELER, WILLIAM MORROW (1896–1967) (USA)

Born in San Rafael, California, William Morrow Fechteler graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1916 and was ensign aboard the battleship USS Pennsylvania in the Atlantic Fleet (1916–1919); aide on the staff of Atlantic Fleet (1919–1921); lieutenant aboard the destroyer USS Barney (1921–1922); regimental officer, Naval Academy (1922–1924); executive officer in the USS Israel, Asiatic Fleet (1924–1926); lieutenant commander and executive officer in the destroyer USS Shirk (1926–1927); instructor, electrical engineering and physics, Naval Academy (1927–1929); aide and flag lieutenant to commander, Battle Fleet (1929–1930); assistant gunnery officer of the battleship USS West Virginia (1930–1932); aide and flag secretary, Battleship Division Three (1932); Division of Fleet Training, Naval Operations, Navy Department (1932–1935); commander of the destroyer USS Perry (1935– 1936); gunnery officer, Scouting Force (1936–1937). He was on the staff of postgraduate school, Naval Academy (1937–1939) and operations officer, staff of commander destroyer flotilla, Battle Force (1939–1940); and chief of staff and aide, Destroyers Battle Force (1940–1942). Fechteler was named captain (1941); worked in the Officer Personnel Division, Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department (1942–1943); was captain of the Battleship USS Indiana BB-58 (19432– 1944); made rear admiral (1944); commander Amphibious Group 8 (1944–1945); and assistant chief of naval personnel of Atlantic Fleet Battleship and Cruiser Forces (1946). In 1947 he was named vice admiral, and in 1950 was admiral and commanderin-chief, Atlantic Fleet and U.S. Representative to NATO’s Planning Group. He was commander-inchief, Allied Forces Europe in 1953 and chief of naval operations and member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1953 to 1956. As amphibious group commander, he participated in ten amphibious operations against Japanese bases in New Guinea and the Philippines. He received the Distinguished Service Medal for his work in planning and coordinating joint assault operations in the Southwest Pacific while serving as commander, Amphibious Group 8. As chief of naval operations, Fechteler kept up the momentum during the Korean War (1950–1953). Following retirement in 1956, Fechteler served on a special Defense Department study committee

122 on personnel compensation and worked for the General Electric Company. He died at Bethesda Naval Hospital, Maryland, and was buried in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. Sources: “Admiral William M. Fechteler, USN (1896–1967).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspe rs-f/w-fechtr.htm. “William Fechteler” (July 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:19, August 10, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=William_Fechteler&oldid=227528993. “William Morrow Fechteler.” Arlington National Cemetery Website www.arlingtoncemetery.net/wfetch.htm.

FELT, HARRY DONALD (1902–1992) (USA)

Born in Topeka, Kansas, Harry Donald Felt graduated as an ensign from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1923), and was lieutenant (1931); commander (1942); captain (1943); chief of staff (1950); rear admiral, commander, Middle East Force in the Persian Gulf, and assistant director, Strategic Plans Division, Navy Department (1951); commander, Carrier Division 15 (1953–1954); commander, Carrier Division Three (1954); assistant chief of naval operations (fleet readiness) (1954–1956); and admiral and vice chief of naval operations (1956); commanderin-chief, Pacific Command (1958), which involved the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis between Communist China and Taiwan. His early career was spent aboard the battleship Mississippi and the destroyer Farenholt in the Pacific and Caribbean. After qualifying as a Navy pilot at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida (1929), where he taught flying (1931–1934), he served on the cruiser Houston (CA-30) (1934–1936) and midway in the tour became senior aviator. He was at Naval Air Station (NAS) San Diego (North Island) (1936– 1939) as superintendent; in command of Bombing Two on the aircraft carrier Lexington in the Pacific (1939); and commander of the carrier Saratoga’s air group in the Guadalcanal landings (August 7, 1942). Felt led an air strike that sank the Japanese carrier ship Ryujo at the Battle of the Eastern Solomon Islands. He was commanding officer of Daytona Beach NAS, Florida, and of NAS Miami (1943); member of the American naval mission to the Soviet Union (March 1944); commanding officer of the escort carrier Chenango (CVE-28), which was heavily involved in the Okinawa campaign (March through June 1945), and the Magic Carpet service, ferrying servicemen home during the autumn. He headed a huge force of Army, Navy and Air Force in the Vietnam War (1959–1975) from its start until he retired in 1964 to spend his

123 later years in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is buried beside his wife in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. His awards include the Navy Distinguished Service Medal; Navy Cross; Distinguished Flying Cross; Legion of Merit; Order of the Rising Sun, First Class ( Japan); and the Medal of Cloud and Banner with Special Grand Cordon (China). Sources: “Admiral Harry Felt.” Time, January 6, 1961. Marolda, Edward J. “Admiral Harry D. Felt, USN.” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/wars/vietnam/felt.htm. “Harry D. Felt” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:14, August 9, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_D._Felt&oldid=22 8551242. “Harry Donald Felt.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/hdfelt. htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

FERNANDO, CLANCY (1938–1992) (SRI LANKA)

Clancy Fernando was appointed cadet officer in the Royal Sri Lankan Navy in December 1953, after which he was trained at the Britannia Royal Naval College at Dartmouth, Devon, England. He was midshipman (1959); acting sub-lieutenant (1960); sub-lieutenant (1962); lieutenant (1963); lieutenant commander (1971); commander (1978); captain (1984); commodore (1986); and rear admiral (1991). He was promoted to chief of staff of navy and vice admiral on appointment to the office of the commander of the Sri Lanka Navy shortly before he was assassinated. He was a member of the British Institute of Management and of the Nautical Institute of the U.K and held a master’s Degree in Defense Studies. Fernando introduced the Sinhala communication system into the Navy (Sinhala, earlier called Singhalese, is the mother tongue of the Sinhalese, the largest ethnic group of Sri Lanka). Admiral Fernando was assassinated by a Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam suicide bomber on a motorcycle on November 16, 1992, at 8:35 A.M. on the Galle Face Centre Road in the heart of Colombo. He had just returned from discussions in India on naval cooperation between the two countries. He was posthumously promoted to admiral. Among his awards were the Vishista Seva Vibhushanaya medal, presented to Sri Lankan senior military officers who have served no less than 25 years and possess a flawless record of moral and military conduct. Sources: “Admiral W.W.E.C. Fernando.” Sri Lanka Navy. www.navy.lk/index.php?id=40. “Clancy Fernando” (2008, July 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:36, August 9, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clancy_Fernando&oldid= 226657076.

Field FIELD, SIR ARTHUR MOSTYN (1855–1950) (BRITAIN)

Born at Braybrooke, near Market Harborough, Leicestershire, England, Arthur Mostyn Field entered the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon (1869), and was lieutenant (1875); commander (1889); captain (1895); hydrographer of the navy (1904–1909); fellow of the Royal Society (1905); rear admiral (1906); vice admiral (1910); and admiral on the retired list (1913). Field became a specialist in hydrography (the study of seas, lakes and rivers) and from 1875 to 1884 worked with William Wharton (1843–1905), hydrographer of the navy, on the surveying ships Fawn and Sylvia. He carried out surveys in the Red Sea, east coast of Africa, Mediterranean, and Sea of Marmora, an inland sea in Northwestern Turkey. Field charted the approaches to the Oil Rivers on the west coast of Africa. He surveyed the east coast of South America, the Magellan Straits (see Drake, Sir Francis), and the east coast of Africa north of Natal. In 1884 in command of the Dart and in collaboration with the Royal Society, he surveyed the coasts of Australia with particular attention to the Barrier Reefs, and from 1890 to 1893, in command of the Egeria on the China Station, he carried out surveys in British North Borneo, Hong Kong, Singapore, the Anambas Islands, and Indonesia. From 1896 to 1899, Field made surveys of the Friendly, New Hebrides and Phoenix Islands and Funafuti Island in the South Pacific. From 1900 to 1904 he made surveys of lochs and harbors in Scotland and Ireland. Field was Admiralty representative on the newly formed Port of London Authority (1909–1925), a nautical assessor to the House of Lords, and acting conservator of the Mersey (northwest England) (1910–1930). He represented the British government at a scientific congress at Buenos Aires in 1910 and was a fellow of the Royal Astronomical and Geographical Societies. He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1911). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33122.

FIELD, SIR FREDERICK LAURENCE (1871–1945) (BRITAIN)

Born in Killarney, Ireland, Frederick Laurence Field joined the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1884 and was lieutenant (1900); commander (1902); captain (1907); superintendent of signal schools (1912–1914); rear admiral and director of torpedoes and mines at the Admiralty (1919); vice admiral (1923); and admiral and lord commissioner of the Admiralty (1928). Field went

Fieldhouse to sea in 1886 and was torpedo lieutenant on HMS Barfleur. During the Boxer Rebellion (1900) he was mentioned in dispatches for leading a small raiding party and repairing damaged armored trains at Tientsin. A bullet hit him in the head during the capture of Tientsin city, although no lasting serious damage was done. Between 1904 and 1916 he served twice at HMS Vernon Torpedo School, Portsmouth, the second time in command; he commanded the Defiance, the branch torpedo school at Devonport, Plymouth; and was commended by the Admiralty for designing a submersible target and for the design and production of special wireless signaling devices for torpedo craft. As flag captain to Martyn Jerram (1858–1933), Field commanded the King George V in the Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916) and was again mentioned in dispatches. From November 1916 to April 1918 he was chief of staff to Sir Charles Madden (see entry), commanding the First Battle Squadron. In 1923, he took command of the Battle Cruiser Squadron with the Hood as his flagship, and from November to September 1924, he commanded a special service squadron that sailed around the world. Much of the success of tour was attributed to Field’s personal charm and organization. He scored another success in 1928, when the British fleet visited Turkish waters and was entertained by Kemal Ataturk (1881–1938), founder of the Republic of Turkey and its first president (1923–1928). Field’s term as first sea lord of the Admiralty, chief of naval staff and admiral of the fleet (1930) is marked by a financial crisis brought on by the Great Depression, which led to the Invergordon Mutiny (15–16 September 1931), in which around a thousand sailors in the British Atlantic Fleet at Invergordon, Scotland, were in open mutiny over a proposal for drastic pay cuts. Compromises were made on both sides, although a number of the organizers of the strike were jailed; 200 sailors from the Atlantic Fleet were discharged from the service and a further 200 were purged from elsewhere in the navy, accused of attempting to incite similar incidents. Field was Companion, Order of the Bath (1916); Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1919); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1923); Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1924); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1930). He was also awarded the American Distinguished Service Medal (gold) and was an officer of the Legion of Honor. Sources: “Frederick Field (Royal Navy Officer)” (July 28, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:54, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.

124 org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Field_(Royal_Navy_ officer)&oldid=228448983. Bevand, Paul. “Biography of Admiral Sir Frederick Laurence Field.” Battle Cruiser Hood. www.hmshood.com/crew/biography/field_bio. htm. “Invergordon Mutiny (1931).” Sea Your History. www.seayourhistory.org.uk/content/view/147/234. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/33123.

FIELDHOUSE, BARON JOHN DAVID ELLIOTT (1928–1992) (BRITAIN)

Born in Leeds, Yorkshire, John David Elliott Fieldhouse was a cadet at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon (1941); sub-lieutenant (1947); captain (1967); commodore, the NATO Standing Naval Force Atlantic (1972); deputy director of naval warfare in February, Ministry of Defense (1973); rear admiral (1974); flag officer, submarines, and commander, Submarines Eastern Atlantic (1976); vice admiral and controller of the navy (1979); admiral and commander-in-chief fleet, commander-in-chief of the NATO Eastern Atlantic Area, and Allied commander-in-chief, Channel (1981). Fieldhouse was commander of the Task Force, the Falklands War (April 2–June 14, 1982); first sea lord, chief of the naval staff, and first and principal naval aide-de-camp to the queen (1982); admiral of the fleet (upon relinquishing his appointment as first sea lord) (1985); and chief of the defense staff (1985–1988). Fieldhouse served in submarines from his time as a sub-lieutenant and took command of his first submarine, the Acheron, in 1956. In 1959 he completed the nuclear reactor course at Royal Naval College, Greenwich, London, and was accepted as a member of the Institute of Nuclear Engineers. He commanded the nuclear powered submarine HMS Dreadnought in 1964–1965. For a short time in 1967 he was second in command of the first all-missile aircraft carrier Hermes, which was involved in withdrawal of British troops from Aden. In December 1967 he took command of the newly formed 10th Submarine Squadron of Polaris submarines at Faslane, Gare Loch, 25 miles from Glasgow, Scotland. He retired in 1988 and London University awarded him an honorary doctorate of science in engineering (1989). In the New Years Honors List (1990) he was made a life peer as Baron Fieldhouse of Gosport in the County of Hampshire. His honors were Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1981); and Knight, Order of the British Empire (1983). The John Fieldhouse Building at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum, Gosport, Hampshire, has history galleries, inter-

125 active zones and X24, the last surviving midget submarine from World War II. Sources: “The First Captain of HMS Diomede: Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fieldhouse.” HMS Diomede. www.diomede.demon.co.uk/homepag6.htm. “John Fieldhouse, Baron Fieldhouse” (August 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:53, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= John_Fieldhouse,_Baron_Fieldhouse&oldid=22982221 8. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/51033. Royal Navy Submarine Museum. www.rnsubmus.co.uk/contact/con tact.htm.

FISHBURNE, LILIAN ELAINE (1949–) (USA)

The first African American woman to hold the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy, Lilian Elaine Fishburne was born at Patuxent River, Maryland. She gained a bachelor of arts in sociology in 1971 from Lincoln University, Oxford, Jefferson City, Missouri; a master’s degree in management in 1980 from Webster College, St. Louis, Missouri; and a master of science degree in telecommunications systems management in 1982 from the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. She is a 1993 graduate of the Industrial College of the Armed Forces at Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. Fishburne graduated from the Women Officers School at Newport, Rhode Island, as ensign in 1973. Her assignments have been: personnel and legal officer, Naval Air Test Facility, Lakehurst, New Jersey; officer programs recruiter, Navy Recruiting District, Miami, Florida; officer in charge of the Naval Telecommunications Center, Great Lakes, Illinois; assistant head, Joint Allied Command and Control Matters Branch, Command, Control, Communications Directorate, Chief of Naval Operations (OP-940), Washington, D.C.; executive officer, Naval Communication Station, Yokosuka, Japan; special projects officer, Command, Control, and Communications Directorate, Chief of Naval Operations (OP-942), Washington, D.C.; commanding officer, Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station, Key West, Florida; chief, Command and Control Systems Support Division ( J6C) Command, Control, Communications and Computer Systems Directorate, the Joint Staff, Washington, D.C.; command of Naval Computer and Telecommunications Area Master Station, Eastern Pacific, Wahiawa, Hawaii (later renamed Naval Computer and Telecommunications Area Master Station Pacific); director, Information Transfer Division for the Space, Information Warfare, Command and Control Directorate, Chief of Naval Operations, Washington, D.C. In 1998, U.S. President Bill Clinton (president,

Fisher 1993–2001) appointed Fishburne to the rank of rear admiral. She retired in 2001. Admiral Fishburne’s awards and decorations include the Defense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit; Meritorious Service Medal (2); Navy Commendation Medal (2); and the Navy Achievement Medal. Sources: “Lillian E. Fishburne” (August 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:12, August 9, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Lillian_E._Fishburne&oldid=229690562. “Rear Admiral Lillian Fishburne.” Real African American History. www.raahistory.com/military/navy/fishburne.htm.

FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT, FIRST BARON (1841–1920) (BRITAIN)

John Arbuthnot Fisher was born in Rambodde, Sri Lanka (his father, Captain William Fisher, a British Army officer in the 78th Highlanders, was aide-de-camp to the governor). Fisher’s long naval career was highly influential and took him from sailing ships to aircraft carriers. He entered the navy in 1854 and was midshipman (1856); lieutenant (1860); gunnery lieutenant on the HMS Warrior, the first all-iron seagoing armored battleship (1863); commander (1869); captain (1874); naval aide-decamp to Her Majesty Queen Victoria (1887); rear admiral (1890); director of naval ordnance and torpedoes (1891); admiral superintendent, Portsmouth Dockyard (1892); comptroller of the navy (1892– 1897); knighted (1894); vice admiral (1896); commander-in-chief, North America and West Indies Station (1897); naval delegate at the Hague Peace Conference (1899); commander-in-chief, Mediterranean (1899–1902); admiral (1901); second sea lord (1902); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1903); first sea lord (1904–1910); first and principal aide-de-camp to King Edward VII (1904); admiral of the fleet (1905); created Baron Fisher of Kilverston in the County of Norfolk (1909); president of Royal Commission on Oil Fuel and Engines (1912); first sea lord (1914); and on the Board of Invention and Research (1914–1918). When Fisher came to the Admiralty in 1904, he was given the task of reforming the navy; in the process he ruthlessly cut costs by getting rid of worn out ships, leaving more men to man the seaworthy ships. His name is linked to the production of the Dreadnought, upon which most other big ships were modeled, even by the German navy. When the competition with the German navy became acute, Fisher constructed eight Invincibletype battle cruisers. Although lightly armored, they carried heavy armaments, but speed was to be their defense. However, as it proved, the heavily armored German battle cruisers were more than a match for the British cruisers. Although Fisher retired in 1910, he was recalled

Fisher in 1914 as first sea lord to serve under the first lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill; he resigned in protest at Churchill’s mismanagement of the Admiralty in the Dardanelles’ campaign (1915). His awards were Companion, Order of the Bath (1882); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1894); Grand Cordon of the Imperial Ottoman Order of the Osmanieh (Turkey) (1900); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1902); Order of Merit (1905); Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honor (France) (1906?); and Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order (1908). Sources: “Admiral of the Fleet, the Right Honourable Sir John Arbuthnot Fisher.” Royal Navy Flag Officers, 1904–1945. www.admirals.org.uk/admirals/ fleet/fisherja.php. “Biography: John ‘Jacky’ Fisher.” Royal Navy Museum. www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_ sheets_john_fisher.htm. “John Arbuthnot Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/208665/John-ArbuthnotFisher-1st-Baron-Fisher-of-Kilverstone. “Jackie Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher” (August 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:55, August 10, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jackie_Fishe r,_1st_Baron_Fisher&oldid=229418625. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/33143.

FISHER, SIR WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1875–1937) (BRITAIN)

Born at Seaford, Sussex, William Wordsworth Fisher was a Cadet at Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon (1888), and midshipman (1890); sub-lieutenant (1894); lieutenant (1896); commander (1906); captain (1912); director, Admiralty Anti-submarine Division (1917–1918); chief of the staff, Mediterranean Fleet (1919–1922); naval aide-de camp to King George V (1921–1922); rear admiral (1922); chief of the staff, Atlantic Fleet (1922–1924); rear admiral, 1st Battle Squadron, Mediterranean Fleet (1924–1925); fourth sea lord (1927–1928); vice admiral and deputy chief of naval staff (1928–1930); vice admiral commanding 1st Battle Squadron and second in command of the Mediterranean Fleet (1930–1932); admiral (1932); commander-in-chief, Mediterranean Fleet (1932– 1936); and commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1936). Fisher served in the Mediterranean before qualifying as a gunnery lieutenant (1900). In 1906, he was appointed executive officer of the Albemarle, flagship of the Atlantic Fleet. Within a few months he had transformed a slack and discontented ship into an efficient one that won the praise of Cap-

126 tain Robert Falcon Scott (1868–1912), as well as from the rear admiral and the commander-in-chief. From 1912 to 1916, Fisher commanded the battleship St. Vincent in the Home Fleet, then the flagship of rear Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe (see entry). Vincent (no longer a flagship) at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916) was in the 5th Division and 20th in the line of battle, and engaged a German battleship believed to have been of the König class. Fisher’s credit for the final defeat of the U-boat campaign was recognized in the dedication to him of Sir Henry Newbolt’s unofficial Naval History of the War, 1914–1918 (London: Imperial War Museum, 1920). That the Mediterranean Fleet, of which he was in command in 1931, did not suffer the discontent that led to the Invergordon Mutiny (15–16 September 1931) (see Sir Frederick Field) was attributed largely to Fisher’s personal influence on all those under his command. In the summer of 1935 Fisher brought the Mediterranean Fleet home for the Silver Jubilee review of King George V and Queen Mary at Spithead, Hampshire, at which he was the senior admiral afloat. Two years later, while taking the salute at a king’s birthday parade on Southsea Common, Hampshire, Fisher collapsed from fatigue and died a few days later in London. He was buried at sea with full naval honors. Fisher’s honors include member, Royal Victorian Order (1908); Companion, Order of the Bath (1818); Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1924); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1929); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1935); Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order (1935); Officer of the Legion of Honor and Order of the Rising Sun of Japan, 3rd Class; and the United States Distinguished Service Medal. Sources: “HMS St. Vincent (1908).” In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_ St._Vincent_(1908). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33147. “The Papers of Admiral Sir William Fisher.” http:// janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2 F0014%2FWWFI.

FISKE, BRADLEY ALLEN (1854–1942) (USA)

Born in Lyons, New York, Bradley Allen Fiske graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1874 and was ensign (1875); master (1881); lieutenant (1887); lieutenant commander (1899); commander (1903); captain (1907); rear admiral (1911); and chief of naval operations (1913–1915). From the mid–1870s on Fiske became possibly the greatest inventor of any navy. Among his many inventions and innovations are:

127 electrical and gun control systems; an electric log (to measure the distance a ship covered); a sounding machine (fathometer); a flashing light communications apparatus; an electric range finder; electric ammunition hoists and gun-turret motors; a naval telescope mount; a sight and radio system for the control of torpedoes; and electrical control systems that kept naval batteries aimed at their targets while firing continuously. Throughout the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898) Fiske was navigator of the gunboat Petrel, and he communicated the ranges of enemy ships to American gunners by means of his invention: the stadimeter, an optical range finder. In 1886–1888 he supervised the installation of ordnance on USS Atlanta, one of the first of the navy’s modern steel warships. Between 1888 and 1890 Fiske installed electric lighting in the new cruiser ship Philadelphia with the compressed-air guns of USS Vesuvius. Fiske resigned from the U.S. Navy in 1916 over a major clash with Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels (1862–1948); for some time Fiske had been pushing for a stronger navy to prepare for war; Daniels dug his heels in and the navy lost a good man. Fiske saw many of his inventions developed and used successfully in World Wars I and II, including the stadimeter. After retirement, until 1923, he continued to serve as president of the U.S. Naval Institute, a non-profit, professional organization in the United States. It is based in Annapolis, Maryland, and publishes several magazines and books devoted to the navy. Fiske has been credited with originating the strategic war game and for being the father of American naval aviation. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The USS Fiske (DE-143), 1943–1944, and the USS Fiske (DD-842), 1945– 1980, were named in his honor. Sources: American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00187.html?a=1&n= FISKE%2C%20BRADLEY%20ALLEN%20&d=10&s s=0&q=1. “Bradley A. Fiske” (July 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:06, August 10, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Bradley_A._Fiske&oldid=227674483. “Bradley Allen Fiske” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EB checked/topic/208752/Bradley-Allen-Fiske. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “USS Fiske (DE-143).” Navsource Online. www.navsource.org/archives/06/143. htm. “Who’s Who: Bradley Allen Fiske.” Firstworldwar. com. www.firstworldwar.com/bio/fiske.htm.

FITCH, AUBREY WRAY (1883–1978) (USA)

Born in Saint Ignace, Michigan, Aubrey Wray Fitch graduated from the United States Naval

Fitzgerald Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1906 and was ensign in 1908 and lieutenant in 1910. After that the dates of his promotions are uncertain, but by 1940 he was rear admiral, and by 1944 vice admiral. He was given the rank of admiral upon retirement in 1947. During his career, Fitch served several times at the academy; the last time as superintendent (1945–1947). For mosst of World War I, Fitch was gunnery officer of the dreadnought battleship Wyoming (BB-32), operating with the 6th Battle Squadron, Grand Fleet. Fitch was designated a naval aviator at the Naval Air Station (NAS) Pensacola, Florida, in 1930, and in 1931 was commanding officer of the Navy’s first aircraft carrier, Langley (CV-1), and took command of NAS Pensacola (1938). In the spring of 1940, he took command of Patrol Wing 2 at Pearl Harbor; later that year he became commander of the Saratoga (CV-3), the second aircraft carrier of the United States Navy, which was hit by a torpedo off Oahu, Hawaii, on 11 January 1942, but was not destroyed. During the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8, 1942), Fitch was commander of Task Group 17.5; although the battle saved Port Moresby, New Guinea, the aircraft Lexington was sunk on the final day of the battle. In September 1942, Fitch assumed command of highly successful Aircraft, South Pacific Force, which played a vital role in the run-up to the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands (October 26, 1942) and during the Battle of Guadalcanal (November 12–15, 1942). Fitch became deputy chief of naval operations (air) in Washington in mid–1944, and after the war ended in the Pacific he was superintendent at the academy (August 1945 to January 1947). Fitch was instrumental in establishing the Department of Aeronautics authorized by the navy on 28 November 1945. His awards are Distinguished Service Medal; Distinguished Flying Cross; Gold Star in lieu of a second Distinguished Service Medal; and Legion of Merit. In 1981, the guided-missile frigate USS Aubrey Fitch (FFG-34) was named in his honor. Sources: “Admiral Aubrey W. Fitch, USN (1883– 1978).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-f/awfitch.htm. “Aubrey Fitch.” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. http://history.navy.mil/danfs/ a14/aubrey_fitch.htm. “Aubrey Fitch” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:22, August 10, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Aubrey_Fitch&oldid=228550134. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

FITZGERALD, MARK P. (USA)

Born in Winchester, Massachusetts, Mark P. Fitzgerald gained a master’s degree in aeronautical

Flagg systems engineering from the University of West Florida in 1975 and attended the Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, in 1983–1984. Designated a naval aviator in October 1975, he has logged over 4,800 flight hours and made over 1,100 carrier arrested landings from the decks of 13 aircraft carriers. He was promoted to rear admiral in 1998 and saw action in the first navy strike on Baghdad during the opening hour of Operation Desert Storm (the First Gulf War, August 2, 1990– February 28, 1991) and in Operation Southern Watch in the Persian Gulf aboard the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson (CVN 70). Carrier Air Wing 14 (1994–1995) monitored and controlled airspace south of the 33rd Parallel in Iraq following the Gulf War until the 2003 invasion of Iraq. He was executive assistant to the Supreme Allied commander, Europe (1996–1998) and deputy commander, U.S. Naval Forces Central Command. Fitzgerald commanded Joint Task Force “Determined Response” in Aden, Yemen (October 18, 2000), after the terrorist attack on the guided missile destroyer USS Cole in the port of Aden on October 12, 2000, in which seventeen sailors died in an explosion and more than 35 were injured. Following the terrorist attack on the United States on September 11, 2001, Fitzgerald took command of Carrier Group 8 (2001) and launched “Operation Enduring Freedom” (2001–2002). He was director, air warfare, and director, Naval Warfare (2003–2004); commander, 2nd Fleet, and director, Combined Joint Operations from the Sea Center of Excellence, Norfolk, Virginia (2004– 2006); and director, Navy Staff (2006). He was promoted to four-star admiral in 2007 and was named commander, Allied Joint Force Command Naples, and commander, U.S. Naval Forces Europe. His awards include the Navy Distinguished Service Medal; Defense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit (4); Distinguished Flying Cross with Combat V (2); Bronze Star; Defense Meritorious Service Medal (2); Air Medals, and numerous individual, campaign, and unit awards. Sources: “Admiral Mark P. Fitzgerald.” Navy.mil: United States Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/ navybio.asp?bioID=111. “Admiral Mark Fitzgerald, U.S. Navy.” JFC Naples: Biographies. www.afsouth.nato.int/ JFCN_Biographies/COMJFCN/Mark%20Fitzgerald/ComJFCN.htm. “Mark P. Fitzgerald” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:40, August 10, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Mark_P._Fitzgerald&oldid=229112312. “USS Cole (DDG 67) Memorial.” Navy.mil. www.cole.navy. mil/Site%20Pages/Memorial.aspx.

FLAGG, WILSON (1939–2001) (USA)

Wilson Flagg graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1961, and

128 from 1963 to 1967 he served three tours as a naval air fighter pilot in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War (1959–1975). In 1967 he left active duty and joined and Naval Reserves, after which he had dual careers as an American Airlines captain and an officer in the Naval Reserve, retiring from the Navy in 1995 as a rear admiral and from the airline in 1998. Among his Navy assignments, he was commander of the Naval Reserve Readiness Command Region II; assistant chief of naval operations–air warfare; special assistant to the Honorable Fred Davidson, deputy assistant secretary of the Navy. He was rear admiral (lower half ) (1986) and rear admiral (upper half ) (1990). In 1991 Flagg was caught up in the recriminations following the Tailhook Association scandal (see Evans, Marsha Johnson); this harmed his career. Three top officials received written censure for not putting a stop to the sexual harassment at the association’s convention in Las Vegas. Flagg, his wife, Darlene “Dee” Flagg, and friend Barbara G. Edwards died when American Airlines flight 77 crashed into the Pentagon in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Wilson Flagg and Darlene Flagg met at high school in Long Beach and married in 1961. Their remains were buried in the cemetery of the United States Naval Academy Cemetery, Annapolis, Maryland. His decorations included the Distinguished Service Medal; the Meritorious Service Medal; the Air Medal; and the Navy Commendation Medal with Combat V. Sources: “Wilson Flagg” (July 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:42, August 10, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Wilson_Flagg&oldid=226920750. “Wilson F. Flagg, September 11 Memorial.” Washingtonpost.com, September 11, 2001. http://projects.washingtonpost.com/911vic tims/wilson-f-flagg. “What Was the Tailhook Scandal?” WiseGeek. www.wisegeek.com/what-was-the-tailhookscandal.htm.

FLAHERTY, KAREN (1951–) (USA)

Karen Flaherty, from Winsted, Connecticut, joined the United States Navy as a nurse corps candidate (1973); graduated from Officer Training School in Newport, Rhode Island (1974); and holds an master of science degree from the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. She has experience at ward level in almost every branch of nursing, including obstetric and gynecology, mainly at Quantico Naval Hospital, Bremerton, Washington, and at Clinic Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Naval Medical Center (until 1977). She was officer programs officer for Naval Recruiting Command, Navy Recruiting District, New Jersey (1979), and transferred to the Naval Reserve in 1982. Her reserve appointments included several fleet hospitals, where she was executive officer,

129 commanding officer, officer-in-charge, training officer, and director of nursing services. Recalled to active service in February 1991 during Operation Desert Storm, the First Gulf War (August 2, 1990–February 28, 1991), she served with Fleet Hospital 15 in Al Jubail, Saudi Arabia. She was deputy commander, Force Integration National Capital Area, and the deputy chief of the Navy Nurse Corps. She was most recently associate director for patient and nursing services at the Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center. She was promoted to rear admiral in 2003. Her awards are Legion of Merit; Meritorious Service Medal; Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal (2), Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal; Meritorious Unit Citation (2); National Defense Service Medal (2); Humanitarian Service Medal; Armed Forces Reserve Medal; Navy and Marine Corps Overseas Service Ribbon; and Saudi Arabia and Kuwait Liberation Medals. Sources: “Rear Admiral Karen Flaherty.” Navy.mil: United States Navy Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/ bios/navybio.asp?bioID=112.

FLETCHER, FRANK FRIDAY (1855–1928) (USA)

Frank Friday Fletcher, the uncle of World War II Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher (see entry), was born at Oskaloosa, Iowa. Fletcher graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1875 and was ensign (1876); lieutenant junior grade (1883); lieutenant (1889); captain (1908); and rear admiral (1911). From 1887 to 1893 he worked at the Bureau of Ordnance and contributed to the efficiency of weapons; for example, he invented the Fletcher breech-closing mechanism that increased the speed of rapid-fire guns and a lighting device for ships to help avoid collisions at sea. He wrote a set of guidelines on torpedo warfare while commanding the torpedo boat Cushing in 1893. In 1910, Fletcher was appointed aide to the secretary of the Navy, and between 1911 and 1913 he commanded several different divisions of the Atlantic Fleet. February 1913 saw a period of increased tension between the U.S. and Mexico, made all the more tense when President Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) refused to recognize the government of General Victoriano Huerta. Fletcher was commander of U.S. naval forces in the Gulf of Mexico, and in 1914 participated in the Occupation of Vera Cruz, for which he was later awarded the Medal of Honor. Fletcher was commander of the Atlantic Fleet (September 1914) and promoted to temporary full admiral (March 1915); after the war he reverted to rear admiral.

Fletcher For his service on the Navy General Board and on the War Industries Board during World War I, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. Although he retired in November 1919, twice he was recalled for temporary active duty and in 1925 sat on a board that explored how aircraft could be most effective in national defense. He is buried in the Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The destroyer USS Fletcher (DD-445), named in his honor, was launched in 1942. Sources: “Admiral Frank F. Fletcher, USN (1855– 1928).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-f/fffltr.htm. American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/06/06-00192.html?a=1&n=FLET CHER%2C%20FRANK%20FRIDAY%20&d=10&ss =0&q=1. “Frank Friday Fletcher” (August 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:59, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Frank_Friday_Fletcher&oldid=230122427. “Frank Friday Fletcher, Admiral.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/ff-fletc.htm. “Frank Friday Fletcher.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/ cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6215393. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

FLETCHER, FRANK JACK (1885–1973) (USA)

Born in Marshalltown, Iowa, nephew of Frank Friday Fletcher (see entry), Frank Jack Fletcher graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1906 and was commissioned ensign in 1908. In 1909 he gained his first command on the destroyer USS Dale in America’s Asiatic Squadron. In 1914, Fletcher won the Medal of Honor for rescuing refugees on the transport ship Esperanza during the occupation of Vera Cruz (April 1914). During World War I he commanded the USS Benham, a destroyer on submarine patrol. Fletcher graduated from the Naval War College in 1930 and from the Army War College in 1931. From 1933 to 1936 he was an aide to Secretary of the Navy Claude A. Swanson (1862–1939), then on the staff of the Bureau of Personnel (1936–1939), and on promotion to rear admiral (1930) was given the command of Cruiser Division III, Atlantic Fleet. In late 1941, before America entered World War II, following the attack on Pearl Harbor of December 7, 1941, Fletcher was given the command of the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown. In February 1942, he took part in raids on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, the first offensive American campaigns in World War II. Shortly after, Fletcher was promoted to vice admiral and given the command of Task Force 17, spearheaded by the Yorktown at the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8, 1942). At the Bat-

Fluckey tle of Midway ( June 4–7, 1942), Yorktown was sunk — hit by bombs and torpedoes from planes and submarines. Fletcher’s force was badly damaged at the Battle of the Eastern Solomons (August 24–25, 1942); his critics believed that he had been too cautious in his tactics. In late 1942, he became commander, Thirteenth Naval District, and commander, Northwestern Sea Frontier. A year later, he was placed in charge of the Northern Pacific area, holding that position until after the end of World War II, when his forces occupied northern Japan. He then served as chairman of the General Board of the Navy until his retirement in May 1947, when he was appointed admiral. Fletcher has the distinction of commanding the first carrier-versus-carrier battle, whereby no ship from the opposing forces saw one another and where planes, primarily launched from carriers like the USS Lexington, did all the fighting. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The second USS Fletcher (DD 992), a destroyer launched 1979, was named in his honor. Sources: “Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher, USN (1885– 1973).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-f/fjfltr.htm. “Admiral Frank Jack ‘Black Jack’ Fletcher, 1885–1973.” Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. www.historyofwar.org/articles/people_fletcher_frank.ht ml. American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/ articles/06/06-00816.html?a=1&n=FLETCHER% 2C%20FRANK%20JACK%20&d=10&ss=0&q=1. “Frank Jack Fletcher” (August 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:53, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frank_ Jack_Fletcher&oldid=230123337. “Frank Jack Fletcher.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?pag e=gr&GRid=6623703. “Frank Jack Fletcher, Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/fj-fletc.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

FLUCKEY, EUGENE BENNETT (1913–2007) (USA)

Born in Washington, D.C., Eugene B. Fluckey was commissioned ensign from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1935. His first appointments were to the battleship Nevada and the destroyer McCormick before he attended the submarine school at Groton, New London, Connecticut. In December 1938, he completed five war patrols on the submarine Bonita (SS-165); he was again on the Bonita in 1941–1942 on patrols off Panama. From 1944 Fluckey commanded the submarine Barb (SS 220) in the Pacific. The Barb sank 34 merchant ships and 5 warships, conducted one of the first submarine missile bombardments, and her crew performed the

130 only landing of U.S. troops on Japanese soil, where they blew up a 16-car train. The crew of the Barb won six Navy Crosses, 23 Silver Stars, and 23 Bronze Stars. His eleventh patrol has become famous; he invented the night convoy attack from astern and attacked two large convoys anchored on the China coast. Two frigates chased the Barb which (it is said) set a world speed record for a submarine, 23.5 knots, and made it back to base. He was the U.S. naval attaché and naval attaché for air to Portugal in 1950–1953. The Portuguese government, for his distinguished service, decorated him with the Medalha Militar, noting that this was the first time this decoration was awarded to a naval attaché of any other nation. He was promoted to rear admiral in 1960 and in 1961 he became the president of the Naval Board of Inspection and Survey, Washington, D.C. He was commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (1964–1966). In July 1966, he became the director of naval intelligence. Two years later he became chief of the Military Assistance Advisory Group, Portugal. He retired in 1972, and after his wife died in 1979, he with his second wife ran an orphanage in Portugal for a number of years. He died at Anne Arundel Medical Center in Annapolis, Maryland, of complications from Alzheimer’s disease and is buried at the United States Naval Academy Cemetery, Annapolis. As well as various campaign medals, his awards were Medal of Honor; Navy Cross with three gold stars; Presidential Unit Citation Ribbon; Navy Unit Commendation Ribbon; and American Defense Service Medal with Fleet Clasp. His book Thunder Below! The USS Barb Revolutionizes Submarine Warfare in World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) was published in 1992. Sources: “Eugene B. Fluckey” (August 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:12, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Eugene_B._Fluckey&oldid=230115279. “Eugene B. Fluckey.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgibin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=20227660. “Rear Admiral Eugene Fluckey.” Fleetsubmarine.com. www.fleetsubma rine.com/fluckey.html. “Rear Admiral Eugene Fluckey, Obituary.” Telegraph.co.uk, July 10, 2007. www.telegra ph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1556953/rearadmiral-EugeneFluckey.html. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “USS Barb (SS-220)” (June 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:38, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS_ Barb_(SS-220)&oldid=217429168.

FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757–1833) (BRITAIN)

Born possibly at Ridgeway, Pembrokeshire, Wales, Thomas Foley entered the Royal Navy in

131 1770 and was lieutenant (1778); commander (1782); captain (1790); rear admiral (1808); vice admiral (1812); and admiral (1825). As midshipman, Foley saw a good deal of active service in the West Indies against American privateers in the early stages of the American Revolution (1775–1783). He served under Admiral George Rodney (see entry) at the defeat of General Juan Francisco de Lángara y Huarte Langara (1736?–1806) at the Moonlight Battle — so called because it was unusual for sailing ships to engage in battle at night — off Cape St. Vincent near Gibraltar, Spain, on January 16, 1780. This was followed by the Relief of Gibraltar a few days later. Still under Rodney’s command, Foley went to the West Indies and took part in the operations that culminated in the victory at the Battle of the Saintes (April 12, 1782). Between 1793 and 1795, in the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), Foley fought in several battles around the French Riviera and at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, Portugal (February 14, 1797). He emerged as hero from the Battle of the Nile on August 1–2, 1798). Captain Foley, in command of the Goliath, led the squadron around the French vanguard as it lay at anchor and engaged it on the inside; the ships immediately following did the same, a maneuver that contributed greatly to the victory, although some naval historians maintain that this was planned by Horatio Nelson (see entry) himself. At the Battle of Copenhagen (April 2, 1801), HMS Elephant carried Nelson’s flag and Foley acted as his chief of staff. Legend has it Nelson, holding his telescope to his blind eye, said to Foley, “I really do not see the signal!” Nelsons’ action was approved in retrospect. Foley was one of Nelson’s “Band of Brothers” (see Capel, Sir Thomas Bladen); however, ill-health prevented Foley from accepting Nelson’s personal invitation when starting out for the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October, 1805. Foley was commanderin-chief, the Downs (an area of sea in the English Channel off the coast of Kent) in 1808–1815 and commander-in-chief, Portsmouth, from 1930 until he died. When Elephant was broken up, Foley kept bits from which his coffin was made; he was buried in the Garrison Chapel, Portsmouth. Foley was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1820). Sources: “Goliath at Battle of the Nile: The Chase.” Broadside. www.nelsonsnavy.co.uk/broadside1.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/9791. “Royal Garrison Church: Admiral Sir Thomas Foley.” Memorials and Monuments in Portsmouth. www.memorials.inportsmouth.co.uk/ churches/royal_garrison/foley.htm. “Thomas Foley (Royal Navy Officer)” (July 2, 2008). In Wikipedia,

Foote The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:42, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tho mas_Foley_(Royal_Navy_officer)&oldid=223031391.

FOOTE, HULL ANDREW (1806–1863) (USA)

Born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of a U.S. senator and governor of Connecticut, Andrew Hull Foote attended the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York, and was appointed acting midshipman, United States Navy (1828). He was made lieutenant in 1830. From 1837 to 1841 he cruised in the Mediterranean and around the world. He was commander, United States Naval Asylum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1841– 1843) and then first lieutenant on the frigate Cumberland (1843), where he formed a temperance society and made this the first temperance ship in the U.S. Navy. He commanded the brig Perry, a ship in the United States African Squadron, patrolling the coast of Africa to suppress the slave trade (1849– 1851). His book, Africa and the American Flag (New York: D. Appleton, 1854), is considered to have influenced public opinion away from slave trafficking. He was promoted to commander in 1852 and commanded the sloop of war Portsmouth, patrolling the seas of China and the East Indies when the Second Anglo-Chinese War broke out in October 1856. He captured the four barrier forts below Canton, China, as punishment for attacks on the American flag (1856–1858). He was in charge of Brooklyn Navy Yard in New York and promoted to captain in 1861, and was in command of naval operations on the upper Mississippi River. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), Foote took part in the Battle of Fort Henry (February 6, 1682) and Battle of Fort Donelson (February 12, 1862) in Tennessee (1861–1862) and was promoted to rear admiral. At Fort Donelson his flotilla was heavily damaged, and Foote sustained injuries. He went on to help capture Island Number Ten (about 55 miles below Cairo, Illinois), in the Mississippi, but his injuries and additional ailments soon forced him to relinquish all but nominal command. He was rear admiral and chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting (1862). Foote died en route to Charleston, South Carolina, to take command of the South Carolina Squadron. Three ships have been named in his honor. Sources: American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/04/04-00385.html?a=1&n=Hull&d= 10&ss=1&q=13. “Andrew H. Foote (The Gunboat Commodore).” eHistoryArchive. http://ehistory.osu. edu/world/PeopleView.Cfm?PID=31. “Andrew Hull Foote” (April 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:40, August 21, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrew_Hull_Foote

Forbes &oldid=208362785. “Andrew Foote” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/212880/ Andrew-Hull-Foote. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Foote.” Dictionary of Naval Fighting Ships: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/danfs/f3/footeiii.htm.

FORBES, SIR CHARLES MORTON (1880–1960) (BRITAIN)

Born in Colombo, Sri Lanka, Charles Morton Forbes graduated as a midshipman from the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1896 and was lieutenant (1900); commander (1912); captain (1917); rear admiral (1928); vice admiral (1933); admiral (1936); and admiral of the fleet (1940). From 1902 to 1912, Forbes was a gunnery officer, serving on various cruisers and battleships, at the gunnery schools, and as first lieutenant and gunnery officer of the battleship Superb in the Home Fleet. During the early part of World War I, he was gunnery officer aboard the battleship HMS Queen Elizabeth, part of the combined French and British fleet that attacked the Turkish Gallipoli forts at the start of the Dardanelles Campaign in February 1915. Later in 1915 he joined the staff of Sir John Jellicoe (see entry), commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet, as flag commander in the battleship HMS Iron Duke, in which he saw action at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916). He was commander of the cruiser Galatea and was at the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow, Scotland (November 1918). Shortly before the end of the war he was awarded the Russian Order of St. Stanislaus. After the war Forbes had successive shore appointments, serving as naval member of the Ordnance Committee (1919–1921) and then as deputy director of the Staff College, Greenwich, London (1921–1923). Forbes became third sea lord and controller of the Admiralty, an appointment which placed him in charge of the materiel side of the service (1932). He was second in command to Roger Backhouse (see entry), commander-in-chief, Mediterranean Fleet (1934), and was commanderin-chief, Home Fleet (1938–1940), with his flag in HMS Nelson. The Germans exploited British naval bases’ vulnerability when a U-boat penetrated Scapa Flow and sank the HMS Royal Oak on October 14, 1939, with the loss of 833 lives; bombers attacked Rosyth, Scotland, two days later; the flagship Nelson was damaged in December by a mine laid by a U-boat in Loch Ewe, located in the north west Highlands of Scotland about 80 miles west of Inverness. Forbes was commander-in-chief, Plymouth

132 (1941); Plymouth at that time was one of the cities subject to the most savage air attacks. Three main activities Forbes and Coastal Command were engaged in were harassing U-boats wherever and whenever they appeared from their base in Brest, intercepting vital supplies getting to Germany, and attacking enemy destroyers and shipping passing along the French coast. His final task was helping to prepare for the Normandy invasion in June 1944, although he retired in August 1943. He was Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (1916); Companion, Order of the Bath (Military) (1929); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1935); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1940). Sources: “Admiral of the Fleet Sir Charles Morton Forbes.” Royal Navy Flag Officers 1904–1945. www.admi rals.org.uk/admirals/fleet/forbescm.php. “Charles Forbes (Royal Navy Officer)” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:38, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Charles_Forbes_(Royal_Navy_officer) &oldid=22857 4350. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33190. HMS Royal Oak. www.hmsroyaloak.co.uk.

FOWLER, JEFFREY (1956–) (USA)

Born in Bismarck, North Dakota, Jeffrey Fowler received his commission from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1978 and was promoted to rear admiral (upper half ) in 2006. In June 2007, he was appointed to serve as the 60th superintendent of the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland. Part of his message upon taking over was to stress that a midshipman’s first duty is to learn to lead sailors and Marines in combat. Everything else has to be secondary, optional, and conditional. Fowler gained a B.S. in mechanical engineering from the Naval Academy (1978); master of business administratio, Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii (1985); and a master of public administration, John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts (1990). He completed national security studies, Syracuse University, New York, and was military fellow, Council on Foreign Relations, New York, 2002–2003. Fowler has served much of his time on various submarines, deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian and Arctic oceans. He has commanded nuclear-powered fast attack submarines; was a submarine tactics instructor at Naval Submarine Training Center, Pacific, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; was a junior member on the Nuclear Propulsion Examining Board on the staff of the commander-inchief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet; was head of the Submarine Programs Section of the Programming

133 Division (N80) on the staff of the chief of naval operations; was deputy executive assistant to the deputy chief of naval operations (N8) and the vice chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff; was the Pacific submarine force prospective commanding officer instructor; and was the executive assistant to the commander, U.S. Strategic Command. Following promotion to rear admiral, he was commander, Navy Recruiting Command, and director, Naval Europe/Sixth Fleet Plans and Operations; deputy commander, Sixth Fleet; commander submarines, Allied Naval Forces South; commander, Submarine Group 8; and commander, Task Forces 164/69. Vice Admiral Fowler has been awarded the Defense Superior Service Medal; the Legion of Merit (4); the Meritorious Service Medal; the Joint Service Commendation Medal; the Navy Commendation Medal (5); the Navy Achievement Medal, and various campaign and unit awards. Sources: “Jeffrey Fowler” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:03, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Jeffrey_Fowler&oldid=228941062. “Vice Admiral Jeffrey L. ‘Jeff’ Fowler, Superintendent, U.S. Naval Academy.” United States Navy Biography. www.navy.mil/ navydata/bios/navybio.asp?bioID=114.

FOX, MARK I. (1956–) (USA)

Born in Abilene, Texas, Mark I. Fox was commissioned from the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1978 and two years later was designated a naval aviator. During his career, Rear Admiral Fox has flown the A-7E Corsair II (a carrierbased subsonic light attack aircraft) and FA-18 Hornet (a modern all-weather carrier-capable strike fighter jet) in over 100 missions over Lebanon and Libya, the Balkans and Iraq. During Operation Desert Storm (the First Gulf War (August 2, 1990 to February 28, 1991), he was credited with downing the first Navy MiG (a Russian military aircraft) before dropping his bombs on an airfield in western Iraq. He led the opening “Shock and Awe” strike of Operation Iraqi Freedom on March 20, 2003, the day after the invasion of Iraq. His commands include Carrier Air Wing 2; the Strike Fighter Wing, U.S. Pacific Fleet; service as the first commanding officer of Strike Fighter Squadron 122 (the Navy’s first FA-18E/F Super Hornet squadron); and Strike Fighter Squadron 81. In October 2006, Rear Admiral Fox completed a tour as deputy assistant to the president and director of the White House Military Office, responsible for overseeing all military support to the president and spokesman for the Multi-National Force–Iraq in Baghdad. His military awards include the Silver Star; Legion of Merit; Distin-

Franklin guished Flying Cross with Combat V; Bronze Star; five individual Air Medals with Combat V; six Strike Flight Air Medals, as well as various other meritorious service, commendation and achievement medals. Sources: “Mark I. Fox” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:47, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_ I._Fox&oldid=229112216. “Rear Admiral Mark I. Fox, Commander, Carrier Strike Group 10.” United States Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/navybio.asp? bioid=115.

FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786–1847) (BRITAIN)

Born in Spilsby, Lincolnshire, John Franklin entered the Royal Navy at age 14 and was lieutenant (1808); commander (1821); and captain and elected a fellow of the Royal Society (1822). He accompanied his cousin, the navigator and cartographer Matthew Flinders of the Royal Navy (1774–1814), on his exploratory voyage to Australia (1801–1803); served at the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805); and at the Battle of New Orleans ( January 8, 1815), the final battle of the War of 1812 (1812–1815). For the next decade, Franklin explored the Arctic and conducted overland expeditions that surveyed part of the coast to the east of the Coppermine River in northwestern Canada and the North American coast westward from the mouth of the Mackenzie River, in northwestern Canada, to Point Beechey, now in Alaska (1825–1827). His explorations added new knowledge of over 1000 miles of the northwest rim of the North American coastline. He was knighted in 1828. The Geographical Society of Paris awarded Franklin their gold medal, and the University of Oxford awarded him an honorary degree. Franklin was lieutenant governor of Van Diemen’s Land, now Tasmania (1836–1843), where he established a college and scientific society and set about making social and moral improvement of the colony, then mostly a convict station. Franklin started searching for the Northwest Passage through the Arctic Ocean on May 19, 1845. He sailed from England with two steam-powered ships, the Erebus and the Terror, with 128 officers and men. Nothing was seen of the vessels after late July, just north of Baffin Island at the entrance to Lancaster Sound. Unaware of Franklin’s fate, the Admiralty promoted Franklin rear admiral in October 1852. It was not until 1859 that it became clear what had happened. Around April 1848, Franklin and 23 others perished in the ice in Victoria Strait, off King William Island — which is about midway between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans — having been stranded there for eighteen months; the re-

Fraser maining 105 perished trying to make it to the Back River. It is said that they resorted to cannibalism. Franklin was never credited with discovering the Northwest Passage, but his fate was later discovered by Francis Leopold McClintock (see entry). It has been suggested that poisoning from food sealed with lead solder in tin cans may have led to the premature death of Franklin and his men. Franklin’s other awards were the Redeemer of Greece and the Hanoverian Guelphic Order. There is a memorial to him in the chapel of St. John the Evangelist, Westminster Abbey. Sources and Selected Publications: Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www.biographi.ca/EN/ ShowBio.asp?BioId=37516. “John Franklin” (August 7, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:00, August 11, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=John_Franklin&oldid=230376625. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/10090. “Sir John Franklin (1786– 1847).” National Maritime Museum, London. www. nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.144. “Sir John Franklin” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/217376/Sir-John-Franklin. “Official Guide.” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition. Franklin, Sir John. Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1819, 20, 21 and 22. London: John Murray, 1823. _____. Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827–1828. London: John Murray, 1828.

FRASER, BRUCE AUSTIN (1888–1981) (BRITAIN)

Born in Acton, London, Bruce Austin Fraser entered the Navy in 1902 and was midshipman (1904); sub-lieutenant (1907); lieutenant (1908); lieutenant-commander (1916); commander (1919); captain (1926); rear admiral (1938); chief of staff, Mediterranean Fleet (1938–1939); vice admiral (1940); admiral (1944); first and principal naval aide-de-camp to the King George VI (reigned 1937–1952) (1946–1948); created Baron Fraser of North Cape (1946); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1947–1948); admiral of the fleet (1948); first sea lord of the Admiralty and chief of naval staff (1948–1951). In 1911 Fraser joined the HMS Excellent, the Royal Navy’s school of gunnery at Whale Island in Portsmouth harbor, where he qualified as a specialist gunnery officer. He was gunnery officer in the cruiser Minerva (1914–1916) during the Gallipoli Campaign (1915). In April 1920 he commanded a detachment of thirty-one men who were sent to assist the White Russian fleet against the Bolsheviks. The detachment was caught up in a local Bolshe-

134 vik coup and imprisoned until November. He was director of naval ordnance (1933–1935) and was responsible for devising the armament for the 14inch King George V class of battleships. This was to be Britain’s last generation of this class. At the start of World War II he was controller of the navy and was in large part responsible for directing its expansion during the period 1939– 1941. Fraser then became commander-in-chief of the Home Fleet and was chiefly concerned with the protection of Arctic convoys to the U.S.S.R. Possibly his greatest triumph was the sinking of the German battleship Scharnhorst off Norway’s North Cape on the night of December 26, 1943; this battle was conducted with the aid of radar from his flagship Duke of York. His title reflects that victory. He was commander-in-chief of the British Pacific fleet when he signed the Japanese surrender papers for Great Britain on September 2, 1945, in Tokyo Bay. He retired from the Royal Navy in April 1952. His honors and awards are officer, Order of the British Empire (1919); Companion, Order of the Bath (Military) (1938); Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire (1941); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1943); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1943); honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford, Edinburgh and Wales; the American Distinguished Service Medal; member of the Russian Order of Suvarov; member of the Grand Order of Orange Nassau (Netherlands); chevalier of the Legion of Honor and holder of the Croix de Guerre with palm (France); the Grand Cross, Order of St. Olav (Norway). Sources: “Admiral of the Fleet Sir Bruce Austin Fraser.” Royal Navy Flag Officers 1904–1945. www.admirals.org.uk/admirals/fleet/fraserba.php. “Bruce Fraser, 1st Baron Fraser of North Cape” (June 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:08, August 12, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=Bruce_Fraser,_1st_Baron_Fraser_of_N orth_Cape&oldid=222488589. “Bruce Austin Fraser, 1st Baron Fraser” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/217517/Bruce-Austin-Fraser-1stBaron-Fraser-of-North-Cape. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 31121.

FREMANTLE, SIR CHARLES HOWE (1800–1869) (BRITAIN)

Born in Buckinghamshire, England, the son of admiral Thomas Fremantle (see entry), Charles Howe Fremantle entered the Royal Navy in 1812 and was lieutenant (1819); commander (1822); captain (1826); rear admiral (1854); vice admiral (1860); and admiral (1864). In 1824 he helped res-

135 cue the survivors of a shipwreck off the coast of England. The year 1829 is significant in the history of Western Australia. Three years earlier, a convict settlement had been established at the site of present-day Albany. Captain Fremantle, commanding the Challenger, landed the the first group of colonists from England at the mouth of the Swan River on May 2, 1829, to form the Swan River Colony. He claimed the whole of the western coast of Australia in the name of King George IV (reigned 1830–1837), some 1 million square miles of inland territory, and proclaimed it Western Australia. A city is named for Admiral Fremantle. Sir James Stirling, the colony’s governor, arrived in early June; however, the Parmelia ran aground on the rocks in the Swan River estuary and the ship and its occupants were saved from disaster by the swift action of Fremantle and the crew from the Challenger. In August 1929, Fremantle left Australia and stayed at Trincomalee, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), for a few years. Fremantle was superintendent of Balaclava port during the Crimean War (1853–1856); commander-in-chief, Channel Squadron (1856– 1858); commander-in-chief, Devonport (1863– 1866); Knight Commander of the Bath (1857); and Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (1867). Sources: “Charles Fremantle” (May 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:57, August 12, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Charles_Fremantle&oldid=213214745. “Charles Howe Fremantle.” www.celebratewa.com.au/files/gen eric_sidebar/Charles_Howe_Fremantle.pdf. “Charles Howe Fremantle.” William Loney [Royal Navy] Victorian Naval Surgeon Website. www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog. php?id=570. “Fremantle, Sir Charles Howe.” Microsoft Encarta 2007 [DVD]. Microsoft Corporation, 2006.

FREMANTLE, SIR EDMUND ROBERT (1836–1929) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, the great-grandson of Sir Thomas Francis (see entry), Edmund Robert Fremantle joined the Royal Navy around 1849 and was acting lieutenant (1855); lieutenant (1857); commander (1861); captain (1867); rear admiral (1885); vice admiral (1890); commander-in-chief, China Station (1892–1895); admiral (1896); commanderin-chief, Devonport (1896–1899); and retired (1901). While serving on the China Station, Fremantle was involved in the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852–1853), which ended in 1853 with the British annexation of Pegu province, renamed Lower Burma. In May 1873, Fremantle was senior officer of a squadron of seven small vessels with a small detachment of Marines sent to reinforce Cape Coast Castle, whose job it was to protect the ports in the Gold Coast Protectorate (present day Ghana)

Fremantle threatened by an Ashanti army; he was wounded there. In February 1888, as commander of the East India station, he commanded a blockade on the east coast of Africa in an attempt to stamp out the slave trade. In October 1890 with a force of 700 seamen and Marines, 400 troops from Lamu, Kenya, and 150 Indian police, with 400 porters, he launched a punishment attack against the sultan of Vitu in British East Africa for the murder nine Europeans. Fremantle received four gallantry awards, two from the Royal Humane Society; the Bronze Medal for rescuing a boy from drowning who had fallen from the rigging (1877); the Silver Medal for rescuing a man who had fallen overboard in Alexandria Harbor (1880); and for this rescue he also received the Stanhope gold medal and the gold medal of the Shipwrecked Fishermen and Mariners’ Royal Benevolent Society. His other awards are Companion, Order of the Bath (1874); Star of the Order of the Crown (Prussia) (1890); Star of the Order of the Brilliant Star (Zanzibar) (1890); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (military) (1899); and Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1894). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33268. Fremantle, Edmund. The Navy as I Have Known It: 1849–1899. London: Cassell and Company, 1904.

FREMANTLE, SIR THOMAS FRANCIS (1765–1819) (BRITAIN)

Born possibly at Aston Abbots, Buckinghamshire, great-grandfather of Edmund Fremantle (see entry), Thomas Francis Fremantle joined the Royal Navy in 1777 and was midshipman (1779); lieutenant (1782); commander (1790); captain (1793); captain of the royal yacht William and Mary (1807); rear admiral (1810); commander-inchief, Mediterranean (1818); and vice admiral (1819). He was in HMS Phoenix when she was lost on the coast of Cuba in a hurricane on October 4, 1780. Captain Sir Hyde Parker, the elder, and most of the officers and men went safely ashore with provisions, four guns, and ammunition. By the 15th they were all landed in Montego Bay, Jamaica. Fremantle served in the Jamaica Station until 1787. During the early stages of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), Fremantle commanded several ships in the Mediterranean fleet under Samuel Hood (see entry). As captain of the Tartar he led the way when Hood captured Toulon on August, 27, 1793. He served under Horatio Nelson (see entry) in the capture of Bastia, Corsica, in 1794, and won high praise from William Hotham

Friedeburg (1722–1848) for his handling of the frigate Inconstant in the action off Toulon on 13 March 1795 by so hampering the retreat of the French 80-gun ÇaIra as to lead to her capture. Later, attached to Nelson’s squadron on the coast of Genoa, the Inconstant took part in these extended operations and helped capture a number of enemy’s gunboats at Languelia, Italy (August 26, 1795); capture the corvette Unité (April 20, 1796); evacuate British personnel from Leghorn, Italy ( June 27, 1796); capture Elba ( July 10, 1796); and capture Piombino, Tuscany (November 7,1796). Fremantle was severely wounded at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife on July 25, 1797. He was captain of the Ganges in Nelson’s victory at the Battle of Copenhagen (April 2, 1801), and in command of the Neptune, he was third ship in the weather line at the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805). He died at Naples. Fremantle was Knight commander of the Bath (1815); Knight Commander Order of Maria Theresa; Baron of the Austrian Empire and Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit (1816); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1818). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10159. “Thomas Fremantle (Royal Navy Officer)” (May 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:47, August 12, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Thomas_Fremantle_(Royal_Navy_officer)&oldid =209735664. “Sir Thomas Francis Fremantle.” The Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos. www.dukesofbuck ingham.org.uk/people/contemporaries/fremantle/thom as_fremantle.htm.

FRIEDEBURG, HANS-GEORG VON (1895–1945) (GERMANY)

Hans-Georg Von Friedeburg, born in Strassburg, Alsace, entered the German Imperial Navy in 1914 and was lieutenant (1920); instructor at the torpedo school (1925); lieutenant commander and marine adjutant (1933); captain (1939); staff officer to Karl Dönitz (see entry); rear admiral and commandant, submarines (September 1942); vice admiral of submarines (September 1943); and general admiral (May 1945) with effect from 1 February 1944. Friedeburg was strongly pro-Nazi in spite of being of Jewish descent. Heinrich Himmler (1900– 1945) knew this and shielded Friedeburg from the persecution that was meted out to Jews. As deputy commander of the German U-boat fleet from 1941, he was responsible for the training and deployment of the U-boat bases in France and for U-boat attacks on the Atlantic convoys. Ordered by Dönitz to negotiate a truce, Friedeburg met with Field Marshal Montgomery (1877–1976) at his headquarters in Lüneburg, Germany, on May

136 2, 1945, and signed the surrender documents, to take effect from midnight of 8–9 May 1945. He committed suicide on May 23, 1945. Included in his awards was the Knight Cross of the Iron Cross with Swords (1945). Sources: “General Admiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg.” www.geocities.com/~orion47/WEHRMACHT/ KRIEGSMARINE/Generaladmirals/FRIEDEBURG_ HANS-GEORG.html. “Hans-Georg von Friedeburg” (July 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:44, August 12, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Hans-Georg_von_Friedeburg& oldid=223770738. “Instrument of Surrender.” ANESI. com. www.anesi.com/GermanySurrenders.htm.

FUKUDOME, SHIGERU (1891–1971) (JAPAN)

Born in Tottori prefecture, Shigeru Fukudome graduated from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, Hiroshima, as an ensign in 1913 and was sublieutenant (1915); lieutenant (1918); lieutenant commander (1924); commander (1929); captain (1933); rear admiral (1939); and vice admiral (1942). Between 1913 and 1939, Fukudome trained in naval artillery; served in patrol boats, cruisers, destroyers and battleships; visited the United States as executive officer on the Kamoi (1921–1922); graduated from the Japanese Naval War College (1924); was chief navigator on the cruiser Iwate, then joined the Imperial Japanese Navy general staff. When Fukudome joined the Combined Fleet in 1940, he and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (see entry) launched aerial torpedo exercises that were clearly aimed at the attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941). He was chief of staff to Yamamoto (1942) and to his successor, Admiral Mineichi Koga (see entry) (May 1943 to March 1944). On March 31, 1944, while carrying plans from the island of Palau to Japanese headquarters near British North Borneo, which detailed the Japanese counterattack against the Pacific Marianas Islands (code named “Z-Plan”), the plane crashed in a storm near Cebu Island in the Philippines. He thus became the first flag officer in Japanese history to be captured by the enemy and the plans fell into American hands. To avoid further bloodshed of civilians by Japanese forces as retaliation for his capture, the Americans released him. Although he commanded the 10th Area Fleet, Singapore, from January 16, 1945, to the end of the war, he was unable to contribute much to the outcome of the war. He was effectively stranded there for the simple reason that the Americans had supreme control of air and sea. Although Fukudome cooperated with the American interrogators and with the British, taking charge of repatriating Japanese nationals from the Singapore area, he was accused of war crimes. He was tried by a military

137

Furse

tribunal in Singapore and found guilty of negligence in the performance of his duties. He was released in 1950 and was a member of a commission set up to advise the Japanese government on the most effective way to organize the Japanese Selfdefense Force. His grave is at the Tama Reien Cemetery outside of Tokyo.

Service Order (1916); Commander, Order of the Bath (1919); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1928), Commander, Legion of Honor; Commander, Order of the Crown of Italy; member, Order of the Rising Sun of Japan; Croix de Guerre, France; Distinguished Service Medal of the United States; and Board of Trade medal for life saving.

Sources: “Interrogation of Vice Admiral Fukudome, Shigeru, IJN.” Hyperwar: A Hypertext History of the Second World War. www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USS BS/IJO/IJO-115.html. “Fukutome [sic], Shigeru, Vice Admiral.” Imperial Japanese Navy. http://homepage2. nifty.com/nishidah/e/px40.htm#v023. “Shigeru Fukudome” (June 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:57, August 12, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shigeru_Fukudome &oldid=219830530. “Shigeru Fukudome.” World War II Data Base. http://ww2db.com/person_bio.php?per son_id=174. Bradsher, Greg. “The ‘Z Plan’ Story: Japan’s 1944 Naval Battle Strategy Drifts into U.S. Hands.” The National Archives. www.archives.gov/pub lications/prologue/2005/fall/z-plan-1.html.

Sources: Bevand, Paul. “Biography of Admiral Sir Cyril Thomas Moulden Fuller.” Battle Cruiser Hood. www.hmshood.com/crew/biography/fuller_bio.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxford dnb.com/view/article/33289.

FULLER, SIR CYRIL THOMAS MOULDEN (1874–1942) (BRITAIN)

Cyril Thomas Moulden Fuller, born at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, entered the Royal Navy in 1887 and was midshipman (1889); sub-lieutenant (1893); lieutenant (1894); commander (1903); captain (1910); rear admiral (1921); vice admiral (1926); and admiral (1930). Fuller was senior naval officer, Togoland and Cameroons expedition forces (1914– 1916); commanding officer of the cruisers HMS Cumberland, Challenger, and Astraea, and the battle cruiser Repulse (1914–1917); director of Plans Division, Naval War Staff (1917–1920); head of British Naval Section, Peace Conference, Paris, France (1919–1920); aide-de-camp to King George V (1920–1921); chief of staff, Atlantic Fleet (1920– 1922); assistant chief of naval staff (1922–1923); third sea lord and controller of the navy (1923– 1925); commander, Battle Cruiser Squadron, Atlantic Fleet, with his flagship HMS Hood (1925– 1927). He was also commander-in-chief, America and West Indies Station (1928–1930); second sea lord and chief of naval personnel (1930–1932); and retired (1935). Fuller was a gunnery specialist and gunnery officer of the battleship Canopus in the Mediterranean Fleet in 1899. In 1902, he joined the senior staff of the gunnery school at Portsmouth. He was still in office as second sea lord when the financial crisis of 1931 led to the naval mutiny at Invergordon (see Field, Sir Frederick Laurence), and because he was a member of the Board of Admiralty, his career suffered along with that of many others. Fuller’s awards were Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1915); Companion of the Distinguished

FURSE, DAME KATHARINE (1875–1952) (BRITAIN)

Katharine Symonds was born at Clifton, Bristol, the daughter of poet and writer John Addington Symonds (1840–1893). Owing to her father’s ill health, she spent most of her youth at Davos, Switzerland. After her father died, she started nursing in London, where she married the painter Charles Wellington Furse (1868–1904). In 1909 Furse joined the newly formed Red Cross Voluntary Aid Detachments (VAD) attached to the Territorial Army. In October 1914 she headed the first official VAD unit of twenty volunteers sent to France to install rest stations on the lines of communication at Boulogne, where they changed bandages and provided refreshments for soldiers en route to the front lines. She and her team tended to the needs of thousands of wounded men before the year ended. Furse was recalled to London in January 1915 to take charge of the Central VAD Headquarters office of the British Red Cross VADs at Devonshire House, Piccadilly. She was decorated with the Royal Red Cross (1916) and was appointed commandant-in-chief of the combined VAD British Red Cross Society and the order of St. John of Jerusalem. She was appointed Dame Commander, Order of the British Empire (1917). In November 1917, dissatisfied with her lack of power to institute change, she resigned and was offered the post, with the equivalent rank of rear admiral, of the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS). These women took over the role of cooks, clerks, wireless telegraphists, code experts and electricians. When the Armistice was signed in November 1918, the WRNS had 5,000 ratings and nearly 450 officers. Although the service was disbanded in 1919, Furse laid the foundation for its re-formation in 1938. After World War I, Furse worked for the travel agency of Sir Henry Lunn (1859–1939) (now Lunn Polly). She worked mainly in Switzerland, where in winter she was a skiing representative of the Ski

Gallery Club of Great Britain. She also took up Girl Guide work, and at her suggestion the Association of WRNS, of which she was president, affiliated to the Girl Guides Association. She also became head of the Sea Guides, later known as Sea Rangers. She was also for ten years director of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts. Sources: “Furse, Katharine Dame.” World War I Biographical Dictionary. http://net.lib.byu.edu/estu/wwi/ bio/f/furse.html. “Imperial War Museum (Information Sheet No. 38).” The Women’s Royal Naval Service in The First World War. www.iwm.org.uk/upload/package/30/women/downloads/Info38.pdf. “Katharine Furse” (July 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:34, August 12, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katharine_Furse&oldid=2 27006942. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33300. Spartacus Educational. www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Wwrns.htm. Michaelsen, Kaarin. “Women, War and Society, Medical Services.” International Organizations. www.tlemea. com/Michaelsen.asp.

GALLERY, DANIEL VINCENT (1901–1977) (USA)

Born in Chicago, Illinois, Daniel Vincent Gallery graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1920 and was part of the U.S. wrestling team in the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. Gallery’s promotion dates are unclear but he was lieutenantcommander (by 1935); commander (by 1941); captain (by 1944); and rear admiral in 1945. An early naval aviator, Gallery flew seaplanes, torpedo planes, and amphibians, and flew a Douglas Devastator torpedo plane that took first place at the National Air Races in the late 1930s. Before America entered World War II in December 1941, after the Japanese bombarded Pearl Harbor, he was the naval attaché at the U.S. Embassy in Great Britain. While in Britain, he ferried Spitfires from the factory to Royal Air Force aerodromes; fought in the Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945); and commanded the Fleet Air Base in Reykjavík, Iceland (1942). He was awarded the Bronze Star for action against German submarines there. With the sinking of several U-boats to his credit, on June 4, 1944, off the coast of West Africa, he captured the damaged U-505 with a landing party from the destroyer escort USS Pillsbury (DE-133) and retrieved the sub’s Enigma coding machine and current code books. The sub is now on exhibition at the the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. This was a tremendous breakthrough in breaking the German codes. This was the first time since the War of 1812 that a United

138 States Navy ship had captured a foreign man-of-war on the high seas. For this historic capture, Task Group 22.3 was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation and Gallery received the Distinguished Service Medal. The crew was sworn to secrecy about the finding, lest the Germans alter the codes. He was assistant to the chief of naval operations and later commanded Carrier Division Six during the Korean War (1950–1953). In 1949, Gallery went into print in what became known as the “Revolt of the Admirals,” the dispute between the Navy and the Air Force over whether U.S. armed forces should concentrate on aircraft carriers or strategic bombers. Gallery almost faced a court-martial, and certainly further promotion was blocked. After ill health forced his retirement in 1960, he made his home in Oakton, Virginia, and was a prolific writer on naval subjects, both factual and fictional. He was buried with full military honors in Section 3 of Arlington National Cemetery adjacent to his two brothers. The guided-missile frigate USS Gallery was named for him and his two brothers. Sources: American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/07/07-00437.html?a=1&n=GALLER Y%2C%20DANIEL%20VINCENT%20&d=10&ss=0 &q=1. “Daniel V. Gallery” (August 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:14, August 12, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Daniel_V._Gallery&oldid=229913356. “Daniel Vincent Gallery, Rear Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtonceme tery.net/dvgallery.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Unterseeboot 505” (August 9, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:29, August 12, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Unterseeboot_505&oldid=230778286.

GAMBIER, BARON JAMES (1756–1833) (BRITAIN)

James Gambier was born in the Bahamas, where his father, John Gambier, was lieutenant governor. He entered the Royal Navy (1767) and was lieutenant (1777); master and commander and captain (1778); colonel of the Marines (1794); rear admiral and lord of the Admiralty (1795); vice admiral (1799); admiral (1805); baron (1807); and admiral of the fleet (1830). He was governor and commanderin-chief of Newfoundland (1802–1804). A deeply religious man, Gambier assisted schools and charities and encouraged religious worship. His goodwill extended to the Beothuk wife of one of the local fisherman, trapper, and lumberman William Cull (circa 1792–1823). By that time Newfoundland was in the process of dramatic change; the previous population made of up of fisherman and their families was giving way to settlers of a more permanent nature. To ac-

139 commodate this change, Gambier changed the whole land tenure system; smallholding became more widespread and empty properties that had been used for fisherman were leased to local inhabitants. What had been a precarious existence now took on a certain degree of stability; local government also benefited from rents. In his short time on the island, Gambier achieved a great deal. He ran into difficulties in April 1809, during the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) in the Battle of the Basque Roads (April 11, 1809), a sheltered bay on the Biscay, off Spain. Alexander Cochrane (see entry), a junior captain, had driven aground almost the entire fleet at Rochefort. Gambier refused to allow the Channel Fleet to shell the French. Cochrane (and others) heavily criticized Gambier, who demanded a court-martial and was exonerated. It is possible that Gambier’s religious scruples prevented him from annihilating the French. Although it was one of the Royal Navy’s biggest embarrassments, it was also one of its most cherished victories. Gambier was part of the team that negotiated The Treaty of Ghent between Britain and the United States, signed on December 24, 1814. Although Gambier was friendly with the family of William Pitt, First Earl of Chatham (1708–1778) and his son William Pitt the Younger (1759–1806), both of whom were prime ministers of Great Britain, there is no evidence that this relationship in any way influenced Gambier’s naval career, although some might have suggested it. Gambier is one of the founding benefactors of Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, in the United States, founded in 1824. The town is named for him, as are the Gambier Islands in the Polynesian Archipelago. He was made Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1815). Sources: “Gambier, James, 1st Baron Gambier.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www.biographi. ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=2881&interval= 25&&PHPSESSID=ee7n79d5a3ithnj8aqgh81h570. “Gambier, James (1756–1833), Governor, 1802–1804.” The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador. www. heritage.nf.ca/govhouse/governors/g35.html. “James Gambier, 1st Baron Gambier” (August 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:29, August 13, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =James_Gambier,_1st_Baron_Gambier&oldid=229199 065. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.ox forddnb.com/view/article/10321?docPos=2.

GARDNER, BARON ALAN (1742–1809) (BRITAIN)

Born at Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, Alan Gardner entered the Navy in 1755 and was lieutenant (1760); commander (1762); captain (1766); commanderin-chief, Jamaica (1786–1790); member of the Ad-

Gehman miralty Board (1790–1795); rear admiral (1793); created a baronet and vice admiral (1794); admiral (1799); commander-in-chief on the coast of Ireland (1800); created Baron Gardner in the Irish peerage (1801); and created Baron Gardner of Uttoxeter (1806). He was aboard the Dorsetshire at the Battle of Quiberon Bay (November 20, 1759). From 1766 to 1790, Gardner served most of his time on the West Indies Station and in North America under Sir William Edward Parry (1790– 1855) and Richard Howe (see entry). In 1778, on the American coast, Gardner brought to Howe the first intelligence of the approach of the French fleet. On November 3, 1778, he captured a large and heavily armed French merchant ship, which he took with him to Antigua. Admiral John Byron (see entry) appointed Gardner to the Sultan of 74 guns and in which he was one of the seconds to Byron in the Battle of Grenada ( July 6, 1779). He was part of the fleet of Sir George Rodney (see entry) at the Battle of the Saintes (April 12, 1782), and was attached to the Grand Fleet at the Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794), between Richard Howe and the French Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse; Gardner’s flagship Queen was lost in the battle. During the Spithead Mutiny (April 16 to May 15, 1797), Gardner’s negotiations with the mutineers were going well until exasperation got the better of him and he threatened to hang the lot of them, which resulted in him being threatened in like manner. Tempers cooled and eventually the mutiny was settled. One year after being appointed commander-in-chief, Channel Fleet (1807) illhealth forced his resignation and he died a few months afterward. Mount Gardner in southwestern Australia, the Gardner Channel (or Canal) in Columbia and Port Gardner Bay in Puget Sound, on the Pacific Northwest of the United States, were named in his honor, as was The Admiral Gardner, an East Indiaman, wrecked January 24, 1809 on the Goodwin Sands. Sources: “Alan Gardner, 1st Baron Gardner” (June 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:29, August 13, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Alan_Gardner,_1st_Baron_Gard ner&oldid=219848665. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10371 ?docPos=3. “Admiral Gardner: English East India Company Ship.” East India Company Ships. www.eic ships.info/ships/s815/s815_index.html.

GEHMAN, HAROLD W., JR. (1942–) (USA)

Born in Norfolk, Virginia, Harold Gehman graduated with a bachelor of science in industrial

Gherardi engineering in 1965 from Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia, and was commissioned into the navy from the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps. A surface warfare officer, Gehman served in every rank up to four star admiral (1996) and commanded guided missile destroyers and cruisers. He served in patrol boats during the Vietnam War (1959–1975) and then four tours on the staff of the chief of naval operations in Washington, D.C. In 1996 he was appointed the 29th vice chief of naval operations and as such he was a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which was responsible for the Navy’s multi-billion budget and for developing and implementing policies that governed the whole of the Navy personnel. His last appointment (1997–2000) was supreme allied commander, Atlantic, and commander-inchief, United States Atlantic Command, which is now Joint Forces Command, responsible for all United States armed forces, and serves as one of NATO’s two military commanders. Upon retirement, Gehman was co-chairman of the Department of Defense review of the terrorist attack on the USS ship Cole in Aden Harbor, Yeman (see Fitzgerald, Mark P.). He was chairman of the space shuttle Columbia Accident Investigation Board, which reported its findings to the nation on August 26, 2003. In 2004 he was asked to review the safety of having shuttle astronauts refurbish the Hubble Space Telescope. Gehman was appointed to the Board of Visitors (prisons) (2004); nominated by President George W. Bush to serve on the independent commission charged with closing military bases (2005); and currently serves on the Academic and Research Advancement and Institutional Advancement committees of Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. Admiral Gehman’s many awards and campaign medals include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal (2); Legion of Merit (4); Bronze Star with Combat V; Meritorious Service Medal; Joint Service Commendation Medal; Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal with two gold stars; Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation; and Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal. Sources: “Board of Visitors.” Old Dominion University. www.odu.edu/ao/bov/committees. “Shuttle Investigator Will Review Hubble Decision.” New York Times, January 30, 2004. http://query.nytimes.com/ gst/fullpage.html?res=9D03E2DD1138F933A05752C0 A9629C8B63. “Bush Names Panel on Closing Bases.” New York Times, March 16, 2005. www.nytimes.com/ 2005/03/16/politics/16commish.html. “Harold W. Gehman, Jr.” (July 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:45, August 13, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_W._Gehm an,_Jr.&oldid=228764835.

140 GHERARDI, BANCROFT (1832–1903) (USA)

Born in Jackson, Louisiana, Bancroft Gherardi was acting midshipman in 1846 and served on the Ohio during the Mexican-American War (1846– 1848). He graduated from United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1852) and was lieutenant (1855); commodore (1884); rear admiral (1887); commander-in-chief, Naval Review Fleet on the Hudson River (1893), then commandant, New York Navy Yard. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), Gherardi served in the steam sloop Lancaster and was executive officer of the steamer gunboat Chippewa and the screw sloop Mohican in the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron; he was promoted to lieutenant commander during this time. While in the Gulf of Mexico beginning in August 1863, he commanded gunboats Chocorua and Port Royal and served with in the Battle of Mobile Bay (August 5, 1864) under David Farragut (see entry). From then until he retired in 1894 he served at the Naval Observatory and the Hydrographic Office in Washington, D.C; commanded the gunboat Tahoma off Mexico; was commanding officer of the sloop of war Jamestown in the Pacific; commanded the receiving ships Colorado and Lancaster (receiving ships are used in harbor to house newly recruited sailors before they are assigned to a crew); and was president of the Naval Examining Board and governor of the Naval Asylum at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The destroyer USS Gherardi (DD637) (1942) was named in his honor. Sources: “Bancroft Gherardi” (May 25, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:36, August 13, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Bancroft_Gherardi&oldid=214841576. “Gherardi, Bancroft.” Virtual American Biographies. http://famous americans.net/bancroftgherardi. “Rear Admiral Bancroft Gherardi, USN (1832–1903).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/ photos/pers-us/uspers-g/b-gherdi.htm. “USS Gherardi (DD-637 / DMS-30).” NavSource Naval History. www. navsource.org/archives/05/637.htm.

GHORMLEY, ROBERT LEE (1883–1958) (USA)

Born at Portland, Oregon, Robert Lee Ghormley graduated as an ensign from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1906. After the academy, he served in cruisers during the next five years, and from 1911 to 1913, as a lieutenant, was aide and flag lieutenant to the commander-in-chief, Pacific Fleet, participating in the occupation of Nicaragua by U.S. Marines (1912); the aim was to maintain stability in a time of unrest. Lieutenant Commander Ghormley spent most of World War I in the battleship Nevada and

141 as a flag aide, then assistant director of the Naval Overseas Transportation Service. As commander (1941), Ghormley was aide to the assistant secretary of the navy (1923–1925); executive officer of the battleship Oklahoma (1925–1927); and secretary of the Navy’s General Board in Washington, D.C. As captain he was chief of staff to the commanders of the Battle Force and U.S. Fleet during the early 1930s. He was rear admiral director of the War Plans Division and assistant chief of naval operations. In August 1940 he was special naval observer to Britain. This was an unusual appointment, as America was still at peace (America did not enter World War II until after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941). With the transport ship Argonne as his headquarters, first in Auckland, New Zealand, then Nouméa, New Caledonia, Vice Admiral Ghormley was commander, South Pacific Area and South Pacific Force ( June–October 1942) during the push to capture and hold onto the islands of Guadalcanal and Tulagi; he was commandant, 14th Naval District, Hawaii; commander, U.S. Naval Forces, Germany (December 1944–Decemeber 1945) and retired in 1946. He was buried in Section 30 of Arlington National Cemetery. Arlington, Virginia. Sources: “Robert L. Ghormley” (July 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:04, August 13, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Robert_L._Ghormley&oldid=227678878. “Robert Lee Ghormley, Vice Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtonceme tery.net/ghormley.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

GIAMBASTIANI, EDMUND (1948–) (USA)

Born in Canastota, New York, Edmund Giambastiani graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1970 and progressed through the grades to vice admiral. Early sea assignments included the submarine USS Puffer, in which he was a 1973 winner of the fleet commander’s junior officer submarine ship handling competition. He served in the ballistic missile submarine USS Francis Scott Key, the only ship of the U.S. Navy to be named for Francis Scott Key (1779–1843), the author of the poem “The Defense of Fort McHenry,” which became as the song “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Giambastiani’s commands include the nuclear powered deep diving ocean engineering and research submarine Deep Submergence Craft the NR-1; the submarine USS Richard B. Russell, which garnered three consecutive Battle Efficiency “E”s, three Navy Unit Commendations, and two fleet commander Silver Anchors; and Submarine De-

Giffen velopment Squadron Twelve, an operational submarine squadron. All his other assignments have been connected with submarines at high command level. He was NATO’s first supreme allied commander transformation (SACT) and the commander, U.S. Joint Forces Command (2002–2005). Giambastiani was vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 2005 to 2007. Before he retired he went on an official visit to the North Africa American Cemetery and Memorial to pay tribute to the many U.S. soldiers who died during the Tunisia campaign of 1942. Giambastiani retired from the Navy in June 2007. Among his awards are the Defense Distinguished Service Medal with bronze oak leaf cluster (2); Navy Distinguished Service Medal with 4 gold award stars (5); Legion of Merit with 3 gold award stars (4); Meritorious Service Medal (5); Commander of the National Order of Merit, Republic of France; Gallantry Cross with Palm Unit Citation, Republic of Vietnam; Civil Actions Honor Medal Unit Citation, Republic of Vietnam; and the Meritorious Service of Canada. The last citation reads: “An innovative planner, Adm. Giambastiani, of the United States Navy, has provided outstanding leadership and creativity to ensure that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is ready to meet the challenges of the future. In 2004, he developed new approaches to ensure the advances in technology serve Alliance requirements well into the future. Adm. Giambastiani’s personal involvement and skilful execution of his Commands’ vital functions have contributed in an outstanding manner to collective security. His achievements have been of great benefit to Canada.” Sources: “Admiral Edmund P. Giambastiani, Jr.” Armed Forces Communications and Electronics Association. www.afceadc.org/events/luncheon-speaker-series/ past-luncheons/2006-2007-season/luncheondocs/biogiambastiani. “Edmund Giambastiani” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:35, August 13, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Edmund_Giambastiani&oldid=228954994. “Governor General Announces Awarding of Meritorious Service Decorations.” Governor General of Canada: Media. January 24, 2006, www.gg.ca/media/doc.asp? lang=e&DocID=4653.

GIFFEN, ROBERT CARLISLE (1886–1962) (USA)

Born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, Robert Carlisle Giffen attended the University of Notre Dame, Indiana, and graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1907. For the next two years, Giffen served in the battleship USS Virginia, in which he voyaged around the world with the Great White Fleet (1907–1909). Lieutenant Junior Grade Giffen

Glass served at the Washington Navy Yard from 1913 to 1915 and then on the destroyer USS Wainwright. Soon after America entered World War I in 1917 and until 1919, he was lieutenant commander in command of the destroyers USS Trippe and USS Schley, serving with the British Home Fleet in the North Sea and in the Mediterranean Sea. He qualified as a naval aviator in 1935 and took command of the new Atlantic Patrol Force (1940). Until early 1941, Giffen had various appointments, including two periods at the naval academy and attendance at the Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. He was director of the Naval Reserve Policy Division of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, in Washington, D.C. In March 1941, Rear Admiral Giffen became commander of a cruiser division and prepared for war when America declared war after Japan bombed Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941). He once again cooperated with the British Home Fleet and escorted convoys to Russia. His ships engaged enemy warships and aircraft around Casablanca, North Africa, in 1942 in Operation Torch, and his battleship and cruiser task forces were part of the action to secure Guadalcanal. Not all was success; he lost the Battle of Rennell Island ( January 29–30, 1943). Vice Admiral (March 1944) Giffen was commandant of the Tenth Naval District and commander, Caribbean Sea Frontier, with headquarters at San Juan, Puerto Rico (May 1944), then commander Service Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet from 1945 until he retired in 1946. He was buried at the United States Naval Academy Cemetery. Sources: “Giffen, Robert Carlisle ‘Ike’ (1886–1962).” History and the Headlines, September 17, 2007. www. historyandtheheadlines.abc-clio.com/ContentPages/ ContentPage.aspx?entryId=1145389¤tSection= 1130224&productid=3. “Stormy Man, Stormy Weather.” Time CNN, June 02, 1941. www.time.com/time/mag azine/article/0,9171,790090-2,00.html. United States Naval Academy Cemetery and Columbarium. www.usna. edu/cemetery/PDF%20Files/Section%207/1618-% 20Giffen,%20R.%20C.pdf. “Vice Admiral Robert Carlisle Giffen, USN (29 June 1886–10 December 1962).” Biographies in Naval History: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/bios/giffen_r.htm.

GLASS, HENRY (1844–1908) (USA)

Born in Hopkinsville, Kentucky, Henry Glass graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1863 and was master (1865); lieutenant (1866); lieutenant commander (1868); commander (1879); captain (1894); rear admiral (1901); and retired (1906). In 1863, as an ensign, Glass participated in the bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, a minor engagement of the American Civil War (1861–1865). In 1865, he participated in the cap-

142 ture of Georgetown, South Carolina. In 1874, he received his first command, the USS Jamestown, which sailed in May 1879 from San Francisco for Alaska to protect American lives and property threatened by unrest and to survey the waters and bays adjacent to Sitka Sound. Glass was the senior naval officer in Alaskan waters in charge of Indian affairs in that territory in 1880. During the Spanish-American War (April 25– August 12, 1898), Glass commanded the cruiser USS Charleston. Following the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898), and acting upon orders, he captured the Pacific island of Guam, took the Spanish governor, Juan Marina, as a prisoner of war, raised the American flag, and for all of two days became the first American military governor of Guam. The Island was ceded to America as part of the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish-American War and was purchased from Spain in 1899. Named in honor of Admiral Glass are: Glass Breakwater in Apra Harbor on the western side of Guam, and Admiral Glass, a wooden-hulled ferryboat launched on July 26, 1916. The admiral wrote a reference work for naval officers titled Marine International Law (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1885). Sources: “Admiral Glass.” Dictionary of American Fighting Ships: Naval Historical Center. www.history. navy.mil/danfs/a3/admiral_glass.htm. “Guam History and Culture.” Guam-OnLine.com. www.guam-online. com/history/history.htm. “Helping the Alaska Indians: What Commander Glass has Been Doing to Improve Their Condition.” The New York Times, April 3, 1881. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9407E 7DD133CEE3ABC4B53DFB266838A699FDE. “Henry Glass” (July 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:51, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Glass&oldi d=223097771.

GLEAVES, ALBERT A. (1858–1937) (USA)

Born in Nashville, Tennessee, Albert A. Gleaves graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1877 and was ensign (1881); lieutenant (?1893); captain (1910); rear admiral (1915); vice admiral (1918); and admiral (1919). After a most distinguished career, he retired in 1922. After assignments on many ships and stations, he commanded the torpedo boat Cushing during the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898) and later the battleship North Dakota. When Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) was assistant secretary of the navy in the late 1890s, he became good friends with Gleaves, and when Roosevelt became president (1901–1909), Gleaves took command of the training ship Dolphin and the steam yacht ship Mayflower (1901–1904); both boats used as presidential yachts.

143 From 1904 to 1908 Gleaves distinguished himself as commander of the Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, Rhode Island, and will go down in naval history as the man whose skill and determination transformed torpedoes from hit-and-miss weapons into ones of deadly accuracy, as was evident in both world wars. While conducting a survey in the Dolphin, about ninety miles northwest of Puerto Rico, he discovered the deepest spot in the Atlantic Ocean known at the time, some 27,984 feet deep. When the United States entered World War I 1917, his cruiser and transport force guarded the ships that carried the American Expeditionary Force to France in June. During that convoy not one single man was lost to enemy action, although German U-boats took their toll on other ships; all this enhanced Admiral Glass’s growing reputation as an outstanding naval leader. He was awarded the Army and Navy Distinguished Service Medals. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The destroyer USS Gleaves (DD423) (1938) was named for him. Books he wrote include The Admiral: The Memoirs of Albert Gleaves, Admiral, USN (Pasadena, Calif.: Hope, 1985). Sources: “Albert A. Gleaves.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/aagleaves. htm. “Albert Gleaves (1859–1937).” The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture. http://tennesseeency clopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=G020. “Albert Gleaves” (August 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:13, August 14, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albert_Gleaves&oldi d=229894439. American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00219.html?a=1&f= GLEAVES%2C%20ALBERT%20&ia=-at&ib=-bib &d=10&ss=0&q=1. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

GODFREY, JOHN HENRY (1888–1971) (BRITAIN)

Born in Handsworth, Birmingham, John Henry Godfrey entered Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1903 and was lieutenant (1909); lieutenant commander (1916); commander (1920); captain (1928); rear admiral (1939); vice admiral (1942); and admiral on the retired list (1945). Godfrey sailed with Rosslyn Wemyss (see entry) in the armored cruiser Euryalus, taking part in the Battle of Gallipoli (April to December 1915). From then until 1936, Godfrey served in the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Home Fleet; was mentioned in dispatches and awarded the Legion of Honor (chevalier) and the Order of the Nile; was on the directing staff of the Staff College, Greenwich; on the New Zealand Station; deputy director, Staff College; and served on the China Station. Following his successful command of the battle cruiser

Goldsborough Repulse in the Mediterranean (1936–1938), he was award the Companion, Order of the Bath. He was appointed to the key post of director of naval intelligence, which he held until December 1942. It was in this role that Godfrey made a major contribution to the success of World War II. He repaired years of neglect of intelligence; expanded the division tenfold by recruiting many talented civilians; streamlined the information coming from the code-breakers at Bletchley Park (see Denning, Sir Norman Egbert) and how the information was passed on; and made the Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC) the nerve center of the war at sea. Godfrey’s single-mindedness and that intelligence should be scientific and to some extent, independent, brought him into head-on clashes with the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill (1874–1965). Godfrey was possessed of an abrasive personality and his colleagues complained; in February 1943 he was moved to the position of flag officer commanding the Royal Indian Navy (RIN). Godfrey brought the navy up to fighting standard and it played a gallant and valuable part in the war in the Far East. Although he officially retired in 1945, he continued to serve until 1946, during which time he quelled a revolt in the Indian navy, brought about because of the need to drastically reduce the size of the peace-time navy. After his retirement, Godfrey devoted his energies to hospital charities. Sources: “John Henry Godfrey” (August 14, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:17, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=John_Henry_Godfrey&oldid=231829181. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/31153. “The Papers of Admiral John Henry Godfrey.” Churchill College, Cambridge. http:// janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2 F0014%2FGDFY.

GOLDSBOROUGH, LOUIS MALESHERBES (1805–1877) (USA)

Born in Washington, D.C, Louis Malesherbes Goldsborough was appointed midshipman in the United States Navy in 1812, but did not begin serving until 1816. He was acting lieutenant (1824); lieutenant (1825); master commandant (1841); captain (1857); and rear admiral (1861). As a young lieutenant on the schooner Porpoise in the Mediterranean he rescued the British merchant brig Comet from pirates. From 1830 to 1832 he was first officer in charge of the newly created Depot of Charts and Instruments in Washington, D.C., the forerunner of the United States Hydrographic Office. Goldsborough did much to gather into one place instruments, books and charts scattered among several Navy yards. In 1833 he took leave from the Navy

Goodenough to take part in the Second Seminole War (1835 to 1842, between the United States and groups of Native Americans in Florida). He was senior officer of a commission that explored California and Oregon (1849–1850) and was superintendent of the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1853–1857). During the American Civil War (1861–1865), in command of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron from October 1861 to September 1862, he led his fleet off North Carolina, where in cooperation with troops under General Ambrose Burnside (1824– 1881) he captured Roanoke Island in Dare County on the coast and destroyed a small Confederate fleet. In May 1862, his James River Squadron was defeated at Drewrys Bluff in the Peninsular Campaign in Southern Virginia (March-July 1862). Goldsborough clashed with the Department of the Navy over lack of support in trying to capture Richmond, Virginia. He maintained that the troops of Major General George B. McClellan (1826– 1885) were essential; the authorities didn’t agree and gave command of the James River Squadron to captain Charles Wilkes (1798–1877). Goldsborough may well have been correct in his appraisal, for Richmond fell to Union troops on April 3, 1865. Although relieved of his command at his own request on two occasions (in 1862 and in 1869), his requests to retire were denied. He finally retired in 1873. The United States Navy has named three ships USS Goldsborough in his honor; USS Goldsborough (DDG-20), a guided-missile destroyer, was launched in 1961. Sources: “Capture of Richmond, Virginia.” Civil War Harper’s Weekly, April 22, 1865. www.sonofthe south.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1865/April/capturerichmond.htm.“Goldsborough, Louis Malesherbes.” The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001–07. www.bartleby.com/65/go/GoldsborL.html. “Louis M. Goldsborough” (July 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:53, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_M._Golds borough&oldid=228765636. “USS Goldsborough (DDG-20)” (2008, March 2). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:02, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS_Goldsbor ough_(DDG-20)&oldid=195236648. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

GOODENOUGH, SIR WILLIAM EDMUND (1867–1945) (BRITAIN)

Born in Portsmouth, Hampshire, William Edmund Goodenough was a naval cadet in the Britannia Training-ship in 1880, and the following year joined the Northampton on the North America and West Indies Station. He was midshipman (1882); sub-lieutenant (1886); lieutenant (1889); com-

144 mander (1900); captain (1905); captain of the new Dartmouth College, Devon (1905–1907); commodore (1913); rear admiral (1916); admiral superintendent, Chatham Dockyard (1919); vice admiral and commander-in-chief, Africa Station (1920); commander-in-chief, The Nore (1924–1927); admiral (1925); principal naval aide-de-camp to King George V (1930). His years between 1889 and 1900 were spent in the Trafalgar and in the Surprise (commander-in-chief ’s yacht), both in the Mediterranean, and in the Hermione, China station. He was commodore of the light cruiser Southampton when World War I broke out in 1914 and took part in the sinking of the German light cruiser Mainz in the Battle of Heligoland Bight (August 28, 1914). He was also at the Battle of the Dogger Bank ( January 24, 1915), which involved the loss of the German cruiser Blücher. In 1916 Goodenough saw action at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916) and was mentioned in dispatches. In the course of the battle, the Southampton sustained very heavy damage and casualties but sank the German light cruiser Frauenlob. In his retirement (1930), Goodenough was president of the Royal Geographical Society (1930– 1933). As chairman of the British Sailors’ Society he wrote several letters to The Times, drawing attention to the urgent need to improve the conditions of the Merchant Service; he was the Corporation of London’s representative the on the Port of London Authority. He was Member, Royal Victorian Order (1913); Companion, Order of the Bath (1916); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1919); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1930). He was also awarded the Russian Order of St. Vladimir, third class with swords; the Order of the Rising Sun of Japan, second class; the French Croix de Guerre (bronze palm). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33452?docPos=2. Rickard, J. (22 October 2007). “Sir William Edmund Goodenough, 1867–1945, British Admiral.” Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. www.historyofwar. org/articles/people_goodenough_w_e.html.

GOODRICH, CASPAR FREDERICK (1847–1925) (USA)

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Caspar Frederick Goodrich graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1864 and was ensign (1866); lieutenant commander (1871); commander (1884); captain (1897); and rear admiral (1904). He was executive officer of the steam sloop Lancaster, which took part in the

145 British bombardment of Alexandria, Egypt, during the Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882. (At that time Egypt was part of the British Empire and on 6 June 1882, a riot broke out in Alexandria; property was destroyed and a few Europeans, including three sailors of the Royal Navy, were killed. The Navy bombarded the forts that were being built by the Egyptians to give them power over the Suez Canal; several nations joined in the action and the war ended on September 13.) Goodrich taught physics at the naval academy from 1871 to 1874, and in those three years, helped to found the U.S. Naval Institute, of which he became a key member in its early years and served as its president (1904–1909). He was commander of the Pacific Fleet when the San Francisco earthquake struck at 5:12 A.M. on Wednesday, April 18, 1906. His ships traveled full speed ahead to reach the disaster zone and help in the rescue. He served at the Naval Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode Island (1878–1880), and helped found the Naval War College there, serving as its president in 1889 and 1897–1898, and was a lecturer there on naval history during the periods 1895–1897 and 1900–1901. Early in 1898, Goodrich founded the Coast Signal Service. During the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898), he commissioned the auxiliary cruiser St. Louis and performed valuable duty off the coast of Cuba, engaging Cuban shore batteries and landing troops during the Battle of Santiago Bay ( July 3, 1898). In August 1898, he transferred to the cruiser Newark and shelled Manzanillo, Mexico, in the last action of the war. Although he retired in January 1909, during World War I he resumed duties as commander of the Naval Training Unit (1918) and Pay Officers Material School (1918–1919), both at Princeton University. After finally retiring he became widely noted as author of scholarly historical and doctrinal essays, and was president of the Naval Historical Society (1914–1916). Sources: “Caspar F. Goodrich” (July 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:27, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Caspar_F._Goodrich&oldid=228765610. “Caspar F. Goodrich Papers.” William L. Clements Library, the University of Michigan. www.clements.umich.edu/Web guides/G/Goodrich.html. “Goodrich for Navy Yard: Rear Admiral Commanding the Pacific Fleet is to Succeed Coghlan.” The New York Times, March 1, 1907. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B03E FDB1439E733A25752C0A9659C946697D6CF. “Rear Admiral Caspar F. Goodrich, USN (1847–1925).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-g/cfgoodrh.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

Gorshkov GORE, SIR JOHN (1772–1836) (BRITAIN)

Born at Kilkenny, Ireland, John Gore joined the Navy in 1781 and was lieutenant (1789); captain (?1799); knighted (1805); rear admiral (1813); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); commanderin-chief, The Nore (1818–1821); vice admiral (1825); and commander-in-chief, East Indies (1831–1835). His first ship was the Canada, under the command of William Cornwallis (see entry). During the American Revolution (1775–1783), Gore saw action at the Battle of the Saintes (April 9–12, 1782). He served with Cornwallis in several other stations until 1791, then with Alexander Hood (see entry) at the surrender of Bastia, Corsica, on May 22, 1794. Gore commanded the Triton, a 32-gun frigate, in the English Channel (1796–1801), during which time he captured many Spanish small cruisers and privateers. He assisted in the capture of the Santa Brigida and the Thetis, two Spanish ships bringing treasure from Vera Cruz, Mexico; as a captain his share amounted to more than £40,000. Although injured by a bursting gun, Gore was back in action, sailing under Horatio Nelson (see entry) in the Medusa. When war with France broke out again in 1803, Nelson sent Gore to Gibraltar to keep a lookout for French ships of war on their way to strengthen the fleet at Toulon. He was part of the squadron commanded by Graham Moore (1764–1843) which, on October 5, captured three more Spanish frigates; his share of the prize money was probably in the region of another £40,000. In 1808, he was chosen to convey the Spanish commissioners for peace and alliance to England. In 1827 Gore was sent by the Duke of Clarence (1827–1828, later William IV) to the Mediterranean to investigate the part Sir Edward Codrington (see entry) played at the Battle of Navarino (October 20, 1827); his report was wholly in Codrington’s favor. While commanding the East Indies Station, his only son, who was as his flag-lieutenant, died trying to save an overboard seaman from drowning. Sources: “John Gore (Royal Navy Officer)” (June 22, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:34, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=John_Gore_(Royal_Navy_officer)& oldid=220955013. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/11094. “Vice Admiral John Gore.” Peerage.com. www.thepeerage. com/p11031.htm#i110308.

GORSHKOV, SERGEY GEORGYEVICH (1910–1988) (RUSSIA)

Sergey Georgyevich Gorshkov joined the Soviet navy at age 17, graduated from Frunze Naval College, St. Petersburg, in 1931, and between then and

Gough-Calthorpe World War II his time was spent patrolling the Black Sea. In World War II he commanded Azov and Danube flotillas as part of the Black Sea fleet, and played a prominent role in landings on the Kerch Peninsula, Crimea, in November 1943; this was preparation for the successful Russian offensive of 8 April 1944 to 12 May 1944, the aim of which was to free the Crimea region from the Germans. After the war he commanded a destroyer squadron and was chief of staff, Black Sea Fleet (1948–1951) and commander (1951–1955). He was the youngest admiral in Soviet history (1953) and in 1956, was appointed by Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) as commander-in-chief of the Soviet Navy. Under Leonid Brezhnev (1906– 1982) he oversaw a massive naval build-up of surface and submarine forces. He was granted full membership in the Central Committee of the Communist Party in 1961. He was then in a strong position to argue (and he did forcefully) that Russia needed a strong modern navy. This was highlighted during the Cuban Missle Crisis of 1962, when America challenged the Soviets’ plan to base missiles on Cuba and won. To this end Russia entered upon a massive program of building all manner of ships of war, including nuclear-powered submarines, as well as building up their global deep sea fishing fleet. Gorshkov received the title of Hero of the Soviet Union in 1965 and almost every other decoration, including five Orders of Lenin. He retired in 1985. The fact that his book The Sea Power of the State (Oxford: Pergamon, 1976) was published in Britain says much for his standing in the wider navy world. Sources: “Sergey Georgyevich Gorshkov” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/239406/ Sergey-Georgyevich-Gorshkov. “Sergey Gorshkov” (June 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:22, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Sergey_Gorshkov&oldid=22140 1058.

GOUGH-CALTHORPE, SIR SOMERSET ARTHUR (1864–1937) (BRITAIN)

Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe entered the Royal Naval College, Britannia, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1878 and was lieutenant (1886); commander (1896); captain (1902); naval attaché to Russia, Norway and Sweden (1902–1905); rear admiral (1911); commander, 1st Battle Squadron (1912– 1913); commander, 2nd Battle Cruiser Squadron (1914–1916); second sea lord (1916–1917); British commander-in-chief, Mediterranean (1917–1918); British commissioner, Constantinople, Turkey (1918–1919); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth

146 (1920–1923); first and principal aide-de-camp to King George V (1924–1925); admiral of the fleet (1925) and retired (1930). In 1895 he joined naval brigades and saw action ashore on the east and west coasts of Africa. During his period in command of the 2nd Battle Cruiser Squadron he hunted the Norwegian fjords for secret German U-boat bases and protected the first Canadian troop convoy in October 1914. From August 1917 onward, Gough-Calthorpe took control of the multi-national trade protection squadrons in the Mediterranean. The combination of his experience as a naval attaché and his fluent French no doubt influenced his appointment. Although he was under the overall command of the French commander-in-chief, Mediterranean, Gough-Calthorpe dealt with French, Italian, Japanese, American and Greek admirals. Although he was reluctant to engage in convoys, he did and ran regular convoys through the Mediterranean, which drastically reduced the number of shipping casualties by April 1917; after that a regular convoy system was set up. GoughCalthorpe negotiated the final armistice with Turkey and was the senior officer present at Mudros, a small Greek port on the Mediterranean island of Lemnos. After the armistice was signed on October 30, 1918, Gough-Calthorpe’s flagship HMS Superb sailed the allied fleets through the Dardanelles to Constantinople. A British administration was set up and Gough-Calthorpe was appointed military adviser to Istanbul. He was British naval representative at the permanent armaments commission of the League of Nations. He was Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath; Knight, Order of St. Michael and St. George; and Commander, Royal Victorian Order. Sources: “Occupation of Istanbul” (August 7, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:24, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Occupation_of_Istanbul&oldid=230427644. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/32253. Rickard, J. “Sir Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe, 1864–1937, British Admiral.” Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. www.his toryofwar.org/articles/people_gough_calthorpe.html. “Somerset Gough-Calthorpe” (July 28, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:18, August 14, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Somerset_Gough-Calthorpe&oldid=228449188.

GRAVELY, SAMUEL L., JR. (1922–2004) (USA)

Born in Richmond, Virginia, Samuel L. Gravely spent two years at Virginia Union University, Richmond, enlisted in the Naval Reserves (1942), and

147 worked as a fireman. In 1943 he was selected to train as an officer and graduated as ensign from the Midshipmen School at Columbia University, New York, in 1944, the first African American officer commissioned from the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps. He was lieutenant in 1949, and his early seagoing career was aboard the submarine chaser USS PC-1264, whose ships’ complement was largely African American men. He was released from active duty in 1946, completed his bachelor’s degree in history at Virginia Union, and was recalled to active duty in 1949 in response to the desegregation of the armed services as a result of changes brought about by an executive order from President Harry S Truman (1884–1972). This was a dramatic change; even as an officer he experienced racial discrimination, like not being able to enter the Officers’ Club at Key West, Florida. His first job was as a navy tecruiter, recruiting African Americans in the Washington, D.C., area. Gravely was the first African American to command a U.S. Navy warship (Theodore E. Chandler); command an American warship under combat conditions (Taussig) since the American Civil War (1861–1865); command a major naval warship (Jouett); rise to the rank of vice admiral; and command a U.S. Fleet (U.S. 3rd Fleet). His last tour of duty before retirement in August 1980 was as director of the Defense Communications Agency (now the Defense Information Systems Agency [DISA]) in Washington. The agency was set up in 1960 and its function was to facilitate communication between the different armed forces and armed forces of allied nations. His decorations include Legion of Merit; Bronze Star; Meritorious Service Medal; and Navy Commendation Medal. After suffering a stroke, Gravely died at the National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The guided missile destroyer USS Gravely (DDG-107) was named in his honor (2002), as is a street on the east side of Richmond, Virginia. Sources: “Defense Information Systems Agency” (July 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:32, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Defense_Information_Systems_ Agency&oldid=227693257. “Samuel L. Gravely, Jr.” (August 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 04:52, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Samuel_L._Gravely,_Jr.&oldid= 229688998. “Samuel Lee Gravely, Jr., Vice Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/samuel-gravely.htm. “Vice Admiral Samuel L. Gravely, Jr., USN.” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history. navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-g/s-gravly.htm.

Graves “Samuel Lee Gravely, Jr., Biography.” http://biogra phy.jrank.org/pages/2456/Gravely-Samuel-L-Jr.html.

GRAVES, THOMAS, BARON GRAVES (1725–1802) (BRITAIN)

Born at Thanckers, Cornwall, Thomas Graves entered the Royal Navy around 1739 and was lieutenant (1743); captain (1755); commodore governor of Newfoundland (1761–1764); rear admiral (1779); commander-in-chief, North American squadron (1781); vice admiral (1787); and admiral and created Baron Graves, an Irish peerage (1794). In his early career, Graves saw action at the unsuccessful Battle of Cartagena (March–May 1741) and the Battle of Toulon (February 22–23, 1744). In the first year of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), Graves was tried by court-martial and reprimanded for not engaging a French ship that had challenged him. His first duty as governor of Newfoundland was to convoy the annual fleet of West Country fishing ships safely across the Atlantic. He spent the first few months settling minor disputes and keeping a watchful eye on what was happening in the fishing community. He convoyed 66 merchant vessels to Portugal and then back to England, and in 1762, while he was still at sea, French ships captured the port of St. John’s. Graves, Admiral Alexander Colville (1717–1770) and Colonel William Amherst (1732–1781) retook the city. During the American Revolution (1775–1783), commanding the Unicorn in the squadron of George Rodney (see entry), he was present at the bombardment of Havre de Grace, Maryland, Chesapeake Bay (1759). His fleet was defeated by the Comte de Grasse at the Battle of the Chesapeake at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on September 5, 1781, leading to the surrender of Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown. In September 1782, a fleet under his command was caught in a violent storm off the banks of Newfoundland. The captured French ships Ville de Paris and Glorieux and the British ships HMS Ramillies and HMS Centaur foundered, along with other merchant ships, with the loss of 3,500 lives. During the French Revolutionary Wars (1792– 1802), in the Royal Sovereign, as second in command to admiral Richard Howe (see entry), Graves defeated three enemy ships of the line in the Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794). This battle marked the end of his long sea career; badly wounded in the right arm, he was forced to retire to his estate in Devon. On retirement he received the gold medal and chain and an annual pension of £1,000. Sources: “Graves, 1st Baron Thomas (1725–1802).” The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador.

Graydon www.heritage.nf.ca/govhouse/governors/g21.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/11319?docPos=2. “Thomas Graves” (June 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:03, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Graves&oldid=216469 776.

GRAYDON, JOHN (d. 1726) (BRITAIN)

Although some of John Graydon’s dates are uncertain, he was lieutenant (1685); rear admiral (1702); vice admiral and commander-in-chief of a West Indies squadron (1703). Graydon commanded the Saudadoes at Bantry Bay, County Cork, Ireland (May 11, 1689). This indecisive battle — part of the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697)— was an attempt by the French to reinstate the deposed King James II (1633–1701, reigned 1685–1688). Graydon commanded the Hampton Court at the Battle of Barfleur off the Cotentin Peninsula, or the Cherbourg Peninsula, in Normandy, Northern France, on May 19, 1692. As a flag officer during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), he took part in the British victory at the Battle of Vigo Bay in Galicia, Spain, October 23, 1702, and was responsible for conveying the captured ships back to England. On March 18, 1703, with five ships, while on the way to capture the French settlement of Placentia, Newfoundland’s French capital, he fell in with a squadron of four French ships. His force was superior, but obeying the letter of his instructions — to proceed with haste — he allowed the French ships to escape. He arrived at Barbados on May 12 and at Jamaica on June 4, but the available ships were in such a sad state of repair, and stores were in such short supply, that he only reached Newfoundland at the beginning of August. A whole month of dense fog and sickness among the crews hampered any action, and after a council of war the planned siege was aborted; the fleet reached England in October. Despite protests from some of his supporters, the House of Lords recommended that Graydon’s actions in not challenging the French ships amounted to prejudice to the queen’s service and a great dishonor to the nation, and he should not be re-employed. So, without a court-martial, he was virtually cashiered, his pension was stopped, and he was not reinstated. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/11359.

148 GRAYSON, CARY TRAVERS (1878–1938) (USA)

Born in Culpeper, Virginia, Cary Travers Grayson completed his medical studies and was appointed acting assistant surgeon, United States Navy (1903). A variety of posts led Grayson to Washington, where on December 12, 1912, he was assigned to the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery with additional duty as aide to the White House. Commissioned rear admiral on August 29, 1916, he served as medical officer for presidents Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), William Howard Taft (1857–1930), and Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924). The relationship between Wilson and Grayson was close and started on the day of Wilson’s inauguration as president, when Wilson’s sister fell and cut her head and Grayson attended to her. Grayson retired in 1928. Included in his awards are the Navy Cross for exceptionally meritorious service to President Wilson and commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honor of France. He was chairman of the American Red Cross from 1935 until his death. He was buried in Section 24 of Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, awarded him an honorary doctor of laws in 1926. The destroyer USS Grayson (DD-435) was named in his honor (1940). In his latter years he owned a horse farm and took an interest in researching race horses. Sources: “Cary Travers Grayson.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/cgray son.htm. “Cary Travers Grayson.” Dictionary of American Navy Fighting Ships: Naval Historical Center. www. history.navy.mil/danfs/g8/grayson.htm. “Cary Travers Grayson” (June 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:52, August 15, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cary_Travers_Grayso n&oldid=219849980. Grayson-Jockey Club Research Foundation. www.grayson-jockeyclub.org/aboutDis play.asp?section=12&story=141.

GREENERT, JONATHAN W. (USA)

Born in Butler, Pennsylvania, Jonathan W. Greenert graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1975 with a bachelor of science in ocean engineering. For almost twenty years, Greenert served in all the ranks up to captain and in various roles in different types of submarines, including nuclear-powered ones. He had command of Submarine Squadron 11 based at Point Loma Submarine Base, San Diego, California, and was commander, Submarine Forces Pacific, representative to the West Coast (Pearl Harbor) ( July 1996–June 1997). He subsequently was commander, U.S. Pacific Command, representative to Micronesia, and commander, U.S. Naval

149 Forces, Marianas, based in Honolulu, Hawaii, on the island of Oahu (October 1998 through December 1999). Only the president of the United States, who is commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and the secretary of defense, advised by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, have greater authority. He served as director, Operations Division in the Navy Comptroller Office Fiscal Management Division, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington, D.C. ( January 2000–August 2002). Promoted to rear admiral (upper half ) in 2001, he was deputy and chief of staff, U.S. Pacific Fleet (Pearl Harbor) (August 2002–July 2004). Promoted to vice admiral in 2004, Greenert assumed command of U.S. Seventh Fleet at Yokosuka, Japan, and on September 29, 2007, took over the U.S. Fleet Forces Command, with a global responsibility for all U.S. naval forces around the world. Greenert’s decorations include the Distinguished Service Medal (2); Defense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit (4); the Meritorious Service Medal (2); the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal (4); the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal (3). In 1992, he was awarded the Vice Admiral Stockdale Award by commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet. Sources: “Admiral Jonathan W. Greenert, Commander, U.S. Fleet Forces Command.” United States Naval Biography: Navy.mil. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/ navybio.asp?bioID=130. “Jonathan W. Greenert” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:21, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ w/index.php?title=Jonathan_W._Greenert&oldid=229 082914. “Vice Admiral Jonathan W. Greenert.” Seventh Fleet Leadership. www.c7f.navy.mil/pages/VADM_ Greenert_preview.htm.

GREGORY, FRANCIS HOYT (1780–1866) (USA)

Francis Hoyt Gregory was born in Norwalk, Connecticut, and was impressed (press-ganged) from the merchant ship where he worked to serve on a British ship. It was this practice of pressganging that was partly responsible for a later war. After making his escape, he was appointed a midshipman (1809) to the schooner Revenge. He was acting master in 1811. As captain of the Gun Boat 162, Gregory helped capture an English brig smuggling slaves into New Orleans as well as three Spanish pirate ships. During the War of 1812 (1812–1815) he served on Lake Ontario and took part in attacks on Toronto, Kingston, and Fort George. From August 1814 to June 1816, Gregory was a prisoner in England. From 1821 to 1823 he captained the schooner Grampus, suppressing piracy in the West Indies, capturing or destroying several pirate ships. In 1824, he sailed a 64-gun frigate to Greece to sup-

Greig port the revolutionary government during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) from Turkey. He served at the New York Navy Yard in 1824–1828; was promoted to commander in 1828; commanded of the sloop of war Falmouth in the Pacific Station (1831–1834); and was commander of the station for one year. In 1838 Captain Gregory commanded the North Carolina and Raritan at the blockade of the Mexican coast during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). He was recalled from retirement when the American Civil War broke out in 1861, was promoted to rear admiral (1862), and served until 1865. The destroyer USS Gregory (1918) was named for him. A story relates to Gregory’s “house arrest” at a country estate in England. His gentleman’s agreement not to escape was bounded by a marker stone. Wishing to attend a dinner party at another estate beyond the set boundary, Captain Gregory surprised the gathering when he turned up. When he was accused of violating the gentleman’s agreement, he called his accusers outside and pointed to a wheelbarrow containing the large marker stone, parked well beyond the front door. Sources: “Francis Gregory” (July 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:34, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Francis_Gregory&oldid=228766226. “Francis Hoyt Gregory.” Virtual American Biographies. http://fa mousamericans.net/francishoytgregory. “USS Gregory (DD-82/APD-3).” Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/ships/dafs/ APD/apd3.html. “USS Gregory (DD-82)” (July 28, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:11, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=USS_Gregory_(DD-82)&oldid=228316519. “Francis Hoyt Gregory.” Gregory Central. http://gre gorycentral.com/Misc%20Records/USS-Gregory.htm.

GREIG, ALEXIS SAMUILOVICH (1775–1845) (RUSSIA)

Alexis Samuilovich Greig was born at Cronstadt, Russia, the son of Sir Samuel Greig (see entry), who enrolled him at birth into the Russian navy. Not much is recorded about his early career, but he was a rear admiral in the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812, which was a part of Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815). Greig blockaded the Gulf of Monte Santo, Portugal, so well that the Turkish admiral was forced to burn his vessels and retreat overland. In the later Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829), Greig was part of a two-pronged attack against Turkey; Field Marshal Wittgenstein (1769–1843) invaded Turkey by land while Greig blasted the fortresses on the coast of Bulgaria and Rumelia (now part of Bulgaria) and wreaked havoc along the eastern shore of the Black Sea. Acting on the orders of Emperor Nicholas I (1796–1855), after fierce and pro-

Greig longed bombardment from land and sea, Anapa, on the Black Sea coast, surrendered on June 12, 1828. Three months later, following a long siege, Varna garrison (on the Black Sea) with its 9,000 defenders, surrendered. Emperor Nicholas boosted the morale of the fleet by visiting it and was entertained board Greig’s flagship, the Paris. After the Peace of Adrianople (September 14, 1829), Greig’s main task was to reorganize the Russian navy. The czar made him an admiral; a member of the Imperial Council; a Knight of the Order of St. George of the second class, together with other decorations. A monument was erected to his memory at Nicolaev, Province of Rostov. He was buried in the Smolensk cemetery, St. Petersburg. Sources: “From Anapa to Adrianopol.” RUSnet. www.neva.ru/EXPO96/book/chap7-4.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/11478?_fromAuth=1.

GREIG, SIR SAMUEL (1735–1788) (BRITAIN)

Samuel Greig (Samuil Karlovich Greig, as he was known in Russia), was born at Inverkeithing in the Kingdom of Fife, Scotland. His son was Alexis Samuilovich Greig (see entry). After serving some years at sea in merchant ships he entered the Royal Navy as master’s mate and saw action during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) at Goree (Dakar, Senegal) (1758); the blockade of Brest and the Battle of Quiberon Bay (November 20, 1759); and the capture of Havana, Cuba (August-September, 1762). In 1763, the Russian court asked the British government to send out some British naval officers of skill to improve their navy. Greig was one; he was promoted to lieutenant (1764) and very quickly to captain. During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), Greig was at the Battle of Chesma Bay ( July 5–7, 1770) in the area between Asia Minor and the island of Chios, the fifth largest of the Greek islands, at which the Turkish fleet was defeated. Commodore Grieg’s role was by means of fire-ships. This dangerous procedure involved Greig driving the fireship among the enemy fleet, setting the fire-ship alight, diving overboard and swimming to his own ship, all the while being shot at. The town of Chesma and its fortifications were bombarded to rubble. Greig was immediately promoted to admiral. He set about improving the Russian fleet, remodeling its code of discipline, thus making the Russian Navy a formidable force in Europe. Several days after winning the Battle of Hogland (17 July 1788) during the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790), Greig was attacked by a violent fever

150 and died three months later on board of his own ship, the Rotislaw. His body lay in state in the hall of the admiralty and he was given a funeral of great pomp: bells tolled and cannon fired from the castle and ships; the Russian Empire was expressing great sorrow at the passing of one of its heroes. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/11480. “Samuel Greig” (June 12, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:37, August 15, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Greig&oldid=218 797557. “Sir Samuel Greig.” Electric Scotland: Significant Scots. www.electricscotland.com/History/ other/greig_samuel.htm.

GRENFELL, JOHN PASCOE (1800–1869) (BRITAIN)

Born at Battersea, London, John Pascoe Grenfell was in the service of the East India Company in 1811–1819, then joined the navy of the Chilean republic under Thomas Cochrane, Tenth Earl of Dundonald (see entry). He was made a lieutenant and was present at most of Cochrane’s exploits in the Chilean War of Independence (from Spain, 1810–1818). During the capture of the Esmeralda from the Spanish — the last major Spanish warship in the South Pacific — Grenfell was severely wounded and spent time convalescing in England. Chile supported Brazil’s struggle for independence from Portugal and sent Cochrane, accompanied by the now Commander Grenfell, to assist their navy. In August 1823, in command of the small brig Dom Miguel, Grenfell sailed to Pará, a state in northern Brazil, and forced the surrender of the junta government by using a trick he picked up from Cochrane — he created the illusion that a larger fleet was following. Grenfell lost his right arm during a conflict at Buenos Aires on July 29, 1826, and spent two years recuperating in England. In 1828 he returned to Brazil, and during 1835– 1836, commanded a squadron of ships on the lakes of Rio Grande do Sul against rebel flotillas and forced the surrender of the rebel army. He was rear admiral (1841) and Brazilian consul general to England (1846) and lived in Liverpool. In 1848 when supervising the Brazilian warship Alfonzo, he was involved in rescuing passengers from the Ocean Monarch off the coast of England. The ship, carrying immigrants from Liverpool to Boston, Massachusetts, caught fire, with the loss of 178 lives. The Alfonzo got close enough to the Ocean Monarch to fasten a rope to her, allowing for rapid ferrying of passengers via boats; he received the thanks of Liverpool Corporation and the gold medal of the Liverpool Shipwreck Society. When war broke out between Brazil and Ar-

151 gentina (1851), Grenfell was posted to Brazil to take control of their navy. In December 1851 he successfully forced the passage of the Paraná, the secondlongest river in South America. After the conflict ended he was promoted to vice admiral and then finally admiral. He again returned to Liverpool to resume his role as consul-general and remained there until his death. Sources: “John Pascoe Grenfell” (June 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:04, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =John_Pascoe_Grenfell&oldid=221159838. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/11485.

GRIGGS, STANLEY DAVID (1939–1989) (USA)

Born in Portland, Oregon, Stanley David Griggs graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, with a bachelor of science in 1962. He gained his United States Navy pilot wings in 1964 and a master’s degree in administration in 1970 from George Washington University, Washington, D.C. From 1967 he was a U.S. Navy test pilot on various types of aircraft, and in 1970, he resigned his regular commission and affiliated with the Naval Air Reserve; at the time of his death he was a rear admiral. He was a research pilot at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas (1970), testing programs for NASA and test flying space shuttles ready for the real thing in 1976. He completed a one-year training and evaluation period to become eligible for space in 1979. He was then involved in various space shuttle engineering activities such developing on-flight software. On April 12–19, 1985, Griggs flew as mission specialist on flight STS-51-D — the sixteenth flight of a space shuttle and the fourth flight of Discovery. He performed the first space walk—of three hours — of the space program, and plans were developed for how to rescue a satellite. During his career, he flew nearly 10,000 hours, almost 80 percent in jet aircraft, and flew over 45 different types of aircraft from single engine propeller planes to the space shuttle; he was also a certified flight instructor. At the time of his death, Griggs was training for a dedicated Department of Defense mission due to launch in August. He died in June near Earle, Arkansas, when his vintage World War II airplane crashed. Included in his many awards were 15 Air Medals; three Navy Commendation Medals; Distinguished Flying Cross; Meritorious Service Medal; Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal; Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry; NASA Space Flight

Hacker Medal; NASA Achievement Award; and NASA Sustained Superior Performance Award. His private memorial is in Section 7-A of Arlington, National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia, near that of Michael John Smith (1945–1986) of the shuttle Challenger. Sources: “Stanley David Griggs, Rear Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/sdgriggs.htm. “Stanley David Griggs.” Encyclopedia Astronautica. www.ast ronautix.com/astros/griggs.htm. “S. David Griggs” (July 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:36, August 15, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=S._David_Griggs&oldid=22732 9644.

HACKER, BENJAMIN THURMAN (1935–2003) (USA)

Born in Washington, D.C., Benjamin Thurman Hacker — a pioneering black naval officer in the Fleet Aircraft Maintenance Unit — gained a bachelor of science degree (1957) from Wittenberg University, Springfield, Ohio, and an M.S. in administration (1978) from George Washington University, Washington, D.C. He completed the Navy’s Aviation Officer Candidate School in Pensacola, Florida (1958), was commissioned ensign and later designated naval flight officer. Between then and 1968, Hacker gained experience as a tactical coordinator in patrol bombers in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and Mediterranean Sea. Some of his commands were the U.S. Naval Facility, Barbados, West Indies (1968); the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps Unit (NROTC) at Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University in Tallahassee, Florida, where he was its first commanding officer and professor of naval science (1972); Patrol Squadron Twenty-Four (VP-24), a maritime patrol aircraft “Orion” squadron stationed in Jacksonville, Florida; Naval Air Station, Brunswick, Maine (1978); as rear admiral, U.S. Military Enlistment Processing Command with headquarters in Fort Sheridan, Illinois (1980); Fleet Air Mediterranean, Maritime Surveillance and Reconnaissance Forces, and Sixth Fleet, Maritime Air Forces Mediterranean, with headquarters in Naples Italy (1982). He was at Naval Training Center, San Diego, and was commander, Naval Base San Diego, from 1986 until he retired from the Navy in 1988. Hacker was the first naval flight officer to be selected for flag rank in the United States Navy. During his career held ten commands. From 1988 to 1998 he worked for the financial services firm United Services Automobile Association in various administrative capacities, and for two years was director of the California Department of Veterans Affairs. For the last twelve years of his life, Hacker

Haddock battled leukemia. He was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. Among his personal decorations are the Defense Superior Service Medal; the Legion of Merit with three Gold Stars; and the Meritorious Service Medal. George Washington University awarded him an honorary doctor of education in 1986. On November 3, 2005, the “Commander, Task Force 67” headquarters building in Sigonella, Sicily, was dedicated in his honor. Sources: “Benjamin T. Hacker, Rear Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/bthacker.htm. “Benjamin Thurman Hacker” (August 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:20, August 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Benjamin_Thurman_Hacker&oldid=229146162.

HADDOCK, NICHOLAS (1686–1746) (BRITAIN)

Nicholas Haddock, the youngest son of Admiral Sir Richard Haddock (1629–1715), joined the Royal Navy in 1699 and was midshipman (1702); lieutenant (1704); captain (1707); commander-inchief, The Nore (1732); rear admiral (October 23, 1734); commander-in-chief, Mediterranean (1738); vice admiral (1740); and admiral (1744). Haddock was midshipman in the Ranelagh at the Battle of Vigo Bay, Galicia, Spain (October 23, 1702) and was the first man to board one of the enemy galleons. In 1706, during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), he was at the relief of the siege of Barcelona under Sir John Leake (see entry). On December, 30, 1707, while cruising in the North Sea, he recaptured the frigate Nightingale, which the French had taken a few months earlier. A certain Englishman, Thomas Smith, fitted her out and was captured with the ship, taken to London and hanged as a traitor. In 1718, sailing under Sir George Byng (see entry) in the Mediterranean, Haddock’s action in the fire ship Grafton, the leading ship at Battle of Cape Passaro, Sicily (August 11, 1718), contributed largely to the success of the battle. When the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748) (see Edward Boscawen) broke out, rear Admiral Haddock, commanderin-chief, Mediterranean, blockaded the Spanish coast, more especially Barcelona and Cadiz, taking many rich prizes, including two treasure ships reputed to be worth around one million pounds sterling. Around 1742, his health began to deteriorate badly, which forced his resignation. Although had no further naval employment, he was a member of Parliament for the City of Rochester, Kent, in 1734 and 1741. Sources: “Nicholas Haddock” (April 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:11, Au-

152 gust 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Nicholas_Haddock&oldid=203834574. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/11848.

HALL, SIR WILLIAM KING (1816–1886) (BRITAIN)

William King Hall, born in London, entered the Royal Navy in 1829 and was lieutenant (1841); commander (1848); captain (1853); rear admiral (1869); superintendent, Devonport Dockyard (1871–1875); vice admiral (1875); commander-in-chief, The Nore (1877–1879); admiral (1879); and retired (1881). Hall was mate of the Benbow under Houston Stewart (1791–1875) on the coast of Syria and at the Battle of St. Jean d’Acre (now Akko in modern Israel) (1840) during the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815), when French troops unsuccessfully tried to capture the town. Hall served in the Mediterranean and on the North Africa Station, and from 1849 to 1851 he was in charge of the coastguard in the Scilly Islands, off the southwest coast of England. In July 1851 he commanded the cargo ship Styx at the Cape of Good Hope during the Eighth Kaffir War, South Africa (1852–1852). In 1854 Hall commanded the Bulldog paddlesteamer in the Baltic and took part in the capture of the Bomarsund fortress (1854) during the Crimean War (1853–1856) (see also, Chads, Sir Henry Ducie). In 1856 Hall was appointed to the Calcutta of 84 guns, the flagship of Sir Michael Seymour (see entry) who was going out to China to take up his appointment as commander-in-chief, China Station. The Calcutta’s arrival in Hong Kong almost coincided with the outbreak of the Second Opium War (1856–1860), and Hall was virtually the captain of the fleet. In 1859, Hall took command of the Indus as flag captain to Houston Stewart on the North America Station. A deeply religious man, and in the absence of a chaplain, Hall fulfilled this role in every respect. He upheld the temperance movement in the Navy and became a prominent advocate of total abstinence. He was Companion of the Bath (1855); and Knight Commander of the Bath (1871). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/11999. “William King-Hall (1816–1886): His Diaries and Other Documents.” King-Hall Family and Its Connections. www. kinghallconnections.com/wkh.html.

HALLOWELL, SIR BENJAMIN CAREW (1760–1834) (BRITAIN)

Born in Canada (although some authorities cast doubt on this), Benjamin Carew Hallowell entered

153 the Royal Navy at an early age. Sir Samuel Hood (see entry) appointed him acting lieutenant of the Alcide (1781), and he was aboard at the Battle of the Chesapeake (September 5, 1781). Hallowell was lieutenant (1783); commander (1790/91); captain (1793); commodore (1810); rear admiral (1811); vice admiral (1819); and admiral (1830). On July 13, 1795, Hallowell commanded the Courageux in the victorious Battle of Hyères Islands ( July 13, 1795) (a group of islands off the French Mediterranean coast, about 15 miles east of Toulon). He was on board the Victory the flagship of John Jervis (see entry) at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, Portugal (February 14, 1797). Jervis strongly recommended the young officer, and Hallowell was given command of the frigate Lively and ordered back to the Mediterranean. Hallowell, on Swiftsure, was part of Horatio Nelson’s (see entry) squadron at the Battle of the Nile (August 1–2, 1798) and the capture and destruction of the French fleet in Aboukir Bay on August 1 and 2, 1798. On the 10th, Hallowell captured the French corvette La Fortune. Early in 1801 Hallowell, having left a convoy in order to reinforce Sir John Borlase Warren (see entry) at Tripoli, on June 24, Swiftsure was captured by a French squadron. Released on parole, on August 18 Hallowell was tried by a court-martial at Port Mahon, Menorca, but honorably acquitted. He was commander-inchief at The Nore with his flag in the Prince Regent (1821–1824). On the death of his cousin, Anne Paston Gee (March 28, 1828), Hallowell succeeded to the estates of the Carews of Beddington, Surrey, and in accordance with her will, assumed the name and arms of Carew. He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); Knight Companion of the Most Honorable Military Order of the Bath (now extinct), and Commander of the Royal Sicilian Order of St. Ferdinand and of Merit (1828); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1831). At the Battle of the Nile, Hallowell, on Swiftsure, so battered the French ship L’Orient that she blew up. Hallowell salvaged a piece of her main-mast and out of it he had a coffin made which he presented to Nelson. It is said that ever afterward Nelson kept this grim reminder of glory and death in his cabin, even having it placed behind his chair when he was dining. When Nelson was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, this coffin contained his body. Hallowell was one of Nelson’s Band of Brothers. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4624. “Sir Benjamin Hallowell (1761–1834).” Archives and Collection Society, Ontario, Canada. www.aandc.org/research/sir_benjam in_hallowell_bio1.htm.

Halsey HALSEY, SIR LIONEL (1872–1949) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, Lionel Halsey joined the Royal Navy as a cadet at the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1885 and was sub-lieutenant (1891); lieutenant (1893); commander (1901); captain (1905); and flag captain (1905–1908) of the cruiser Powerful, flagship of commander-in-chief, Australia, Sir Wilmot Fawkes (1846–1926) on the Australia Station. He was lieutenant commodore (1915); fourth sea lord (1916); rear admiral and third sea lord (1917); knighted and commander-in-chief, Australian Navy (1918); vice admiral (1921); retired (1922); and admiral on the retired list (1926). Halsey commanded a 4.7-inch naval gun that became part of Princess Victoria Battery in the defense of Ladysmith in the South African War (1899–1902). In 1912 Halsey commissioned the battle cruiser HMS New Zealand, a gift from New Zealand to the Royal Navy, and sailed from Portsmouth on February 8, 1913, on a world cruise of more than 50,000 miles, and arrived at Wellington, New Zealand on April 12, 1913. A Maori chief once made a present of his father’s warrior costume to Halsey. The chief said that his father had never lost a battle, and neither would Halsey if he wore it. At Battle of Heligoland Bight (August 28, 1914) Halsey wore the costume, much to the amusement of his men, one of whom was heard to remark, “The old man has gone dippy!” Dippy or not, the New Zealand emerged unscathed and with no fatalities. In January 1915 he was mentioned in dispatches for services in the Battle of Dogger Bank ( January 24, 1915). During the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916), Halsey was captain of the fleet on board the HMS Iron Duke under John Jellicoe (see entry), commander of the Grand Fleet. As commander of the second Australian battle cruiser squadron of the Grand Fleet, in the Australia as his flagship, he was present at the surrender of the German Fleet at Scapa Flow, the Orkney Islands (November 1918). From 1920 to 1922 he was equerry to the prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) and to King George VI, who reigned 1937–1952. Halsey was Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1913); Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1918); Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order and Distinguished Service Medal of the United States (1919); Knight Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order (1920); Knight Commander, Order of the Indian Empire (1922); and Knight, Order of St. Michael and St. George (1925). Sources: “Admiral Sir Lionel Halsey: The Maori Warrior.” The Dacorum Heritage Trust. www.dacorum heritage.org.uk/ww1-halsey.htm. “Admiral Sir Lionel

Halsey Halsey.” Naval Historical Society of Australia. www. navyhistory.org.au/admiral-sir-lionel-halsey-gcmggcvo-kcie-cb-dljp-1872-1949. “Lionel Halsey” (July 28, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:18, August 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Lionel_Halsey&oldid=228446538. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/33661. “The Siege of Ladysmith.” Britishbattles.com. www.britishbattles.com/great-boerwar/siege-ladysmith.htm. “Who’s Who: Sir Lionel Halsey.” Firstworldwar.com. www.firstworldwar.com/ bio/halsey.htm.

HALSEY, WILLIAM FREDERICK, JR. (1882–1959) (USA)

Born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, William Frederick Halsey graduated as a midshipman from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland in 1904 and was ensign (1906); lieutenant (1909); lieutenant commander (1916); commander (1918); captain (1927); rear admiral (1938); vice admiral (1940); admiral (1942); fleet admiral (1945, a 5-star rank very few men have held); and retired from active duty (March 1947). Halsey spent his early service years in battleships and destroyers, and he specialized in torpedoes. He commanded the First Group of the Atlantic Fleet’s Torpedo Flotilla (1912–1913) and the destroyer USS Shaw in 1918. He was naval attaché to Berlin, Germany (1922– 1925), and in 1934, having taken a naval aviator course, he commanded the carrier USS Saratoga, and at a later date, the Naval Air Station at Pensacola, Florida. He commanded the carrier divisions until 1941, and as a vice admiral, was commander, Aircraft Battle Force. Halsey was at sea in his aircraft carrier flagship, USS Enterprise, at the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941). During the first six months of the war, his carrier task force took part in raids on enemy-held islands and in the Doolittle Raid (April 18, 1942). The raid, planned and led by lieutenant Colonel James “Jimmy” Doolittle of the United States Air Force (1896–1933) struck the Japanese home island of Honsh¨. By this time Halsey had acquired the nickname “Bull,” after his slogan, “Hit hard, hit fast, hit often.” Halsey commanded the South Pacific Area from mid–October 1942, and his forces spent the rest of 1943 in battles around the Solomon Islands. Rabaul, the capital of New Britain in the Solomon Islands, fell to the Japanese in January 1942, and in October Halsey captured vital positions in the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), thus isolating Rabaul, which the Japanese had turned into a fortress. In the Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 23– 26, 1944), Halsey’s Third Fleet scored a decisive

154 victory. The formal Japanese surrender took place on the deck of his flagship, USS Missouri, on September 2, 1945. Halsey was interred in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The guided missile frigate (later cruiser) USS Halsey (CG-23) (launched 1962) and the guided-missile destroyer USS Halsey (DDG-97) (launched 2004) were named in his honor. Included in his many awards are Navy Cross; Navy Distinguished Service Medal with three gold stars; Army Distinguished Service Medal; Presidential Unit Citation (U.S.); and Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire. Sources: American National Biography Online. www. anb.org/articles/07/07-00117.html?a=1&f=%22 HALSEY%2C%20WILLIAM%20FREDERICK %20%22&d=10&ss=0&q=1. “Fleet Admiral William Frederick Halsey, Jr.” Navy.mil: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-5.htm. “Japanese Fortress of Rabaul.” Essortment. www.essortment.com/ all/rabauljapanpac_rnzi.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “William Halsey, Jr.” (August 14, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:57, August 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=William_Halsey,_Jr.&oldid=23199400 5. “William Frederick Halsey, Jr., Fleet Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/halsejr.htm.

HAMBY, JANICE M. (1958–) (USA)

Janice M. Hamby, from Medina, Ohio, was commissioned from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Navy Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program in 1980. She was computer systems analyst, the technical control facility division officer and the deputy UNIVAC operations officer at Naval Regional Data Automation Center, Washington, transferring to Hawaii in 1983. She was foreign ship liaison and fleet support officer for commander, Naval Base Pearl Harbor, and Plans and Project Management department head at the Data Processing Center, Pearl Harbor. Hamby gained a master of science degree in information systems management and a master of business administration from Boston University, Massachusetts, graduating from both programs with highest honors; was assistant professor of computer sciences at the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York; gained a master of arts in national security and strategic studies from the College of Naval Warfare at the U.S. Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island; and was associate fellow on the Chief of Naval Operations’ Strategic Studies Group, where she conducted research in future operational concepts and organizational theory. She was in command of the Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station, Jacksonville,

155 Florida, and was program manager for information technology, reporting to commander, Navy Region Southeast (1998). Hamby graduated from the Joint Forces Staff College, Norfolk, Virginia, and was winner of the National Defense University Foundation Writing Award for best essay on joint matters (2001). She was command liaison to the commander, Sixth Fleet staff, and special assistant for information management and information operations issues on the staff of commander, Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe; in command of U.S. Naval Computer and Telecommunications Area Master Station, Europe Central, Naples, Italy (2002); director of knowledge and information management on the staff of the Multi-National Force–Baghdad, Iraq; director of global operations, Naval Network Warfare Command (2006); and rear admiral (2007). Rear Admiral Hamby is currently the director, Command Control Systems, for the North American Aerospace Defense Command and United States Northern Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado. Her awards include the Defense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit with one Gold Star; Defense Meritorious Service Medal; Navy Meritorious Service Medal with three Gold Stars; Navy Commendation Medal with Gold Star; Navy Achievement Medal with Gold Star; and the Army Achievement Medal. Sources: “Rear Admiral Janice M. Hamby, Director, Command Control Systems NORAD and U.S. Northern Command, United States Navy.” Navy.mil. www.navy. mil/navydata/bios/navybio.asp?bioID=393. “Rear Admiral Janice M. Hamby, Director of Operations.” Naval Network Warfare Command. www.netwarcom. navy.mil/hamby.html.

HAMILTON, SIR CHARLES (1767–1849) (BRITAIN)

Charles Hamilton graduated from the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth in 1779 and was lieutenant (1781); commander (1789); captain (1790); rear admiral (1810); commander-in-chief in the Thames (1810–1814); vice admiral (1814); governor and commander-in-chief, Newfoundland (1818–1823); and admiral (1830). After leaving the academy he was appointed to the Hector, commanded by his father, Captain Sir John Hamilton (he succeeded to his father’s baronetcy in 1784), then served in several other ships until 1793. In 1795 as captain of the frigate Dido, he took part in various actions in the Mediterranean. He was senior officer at the occupation of Goree, Senegal, West Africa (1800); and in the West Indies he carried out the duties of commissioner at Antigua in July 1802. While he was still a serving officer at sea,

Hamilton he was Member of Parliament for Dungannon, Ireland (1801), and for Honiton, Devon (1807–1812). St. John’s (now the provincial capital of Newfoundland and Labrador) had been devastated by fire just prior to Hamilton’s arrival. His main task was reconstruction, and in spite of his best efforts, regulations were difficult to enforce. St. John’s suffered two more serious fires during his five years as governor. Some of the other changes he introduced or approved were construction of a courthouse and a jail, building of a theater, construction of Anglican churches, and providing money to help the destitute. He did all he could to encourage the fisheries but was less enthusiastic about the future of agriculture. However forward-looking, he did not support constitutional change and this brought him into conflict with those who wanted it. He did try to establish contact with the Beothuk Indians (see Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, and Gambier, Baron James) and left provisions for his successor, Sir Thomas John Cochrane (see entry) to build a new governor’s residence. When Hamilton left Newfoundland he held no further appointments. He died at Iping, his family home near Midhurst, West Sussex. He was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath, in 1833. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12055?docPos=1. “Hamilton, Sir Charles (1767–1849), Governor.” The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador. www.heri tage.nf.ca/govhouse/governors/g41.html.

HAMILTON, SIR RICHARD VESEY (1829–1912) (BRITAIN)

Born at Sandwich, Kent, Richard Vesey Hamilton entered the Royal Navy in 1843 and was lieutenant (1851); commander (1857); captain (1862); superintendent, Pembroke Dockyard, Wales (1875– 1877); rear admiral (1877); director of naval ordnance (1878); commander, coast of Ireland (1880– 1883); vice admiral (1884); commander-in-chief, China Station (1885–1887); admiral (1887); second naval lord, then first sea lord (1889–1891); president of Royal Naval College, Greenwich (1891– 1894); and retired as admiral (1894). Between 1850 and 1854 Hamilton was part of two expeditions searching for the missing Arctic explorer Sir John Franklin (see entry); first under Erasmus Ommanney (1850–1851), second under Henry Kellett (see entry) (1851–1854). For a total of fifty-four days he traveled 663 miles by sledge and on the way discovered the northern end of Melville Island, Canada. He served with the Baltic fleet (1855–1856) and in the Second Opium War in China (1856–1860). In 1888 he was on a committee of three admirals

Hamond whose report prepared the way for Lord George Hamilton’s (1845–1927) Naval Defense Act of 1889, the starting-point of modern naval policy. During his term as first sea lord he protested against the giving up of Heligoland, in the southeastern corner of the North Sea, to Germany (1890), but found that the cabinet, before consulting him, had committed itself too far to draw back. Hamilton was Companion of the Bath (1875); Knight Commander of the Bath (1887); and Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (1895). Sources and Selected Publications: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/33671. “Richard Vesey Hamilton R.N.” William Loney [Royal Navy] Background. Victorian Naval Surgeon Website www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog.php?id=1142. Hamilton, Sir Richard Vesey. Naval Administration: The Constitution, Character and Functions of the Board of Admiralty. London: Bell, 1896. _____. Letters and Papers of Admiral Sir Thomas Byam Martin, GCB. 3 Vols. London: Navy Records Society, 1898–1903.

HAMOND, SIR GRAHAM EDEN (1779–1862) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, Graham Eden Hamond entered the Royal Navy as a captain’s servant to his father, Sir Andrew Snape Hamond, 1st Baronet, 1738–1828 (1785) and was midshipman (1793); lieutenant (1796); captain (1798); rear admiral (1825); commander-in-chief, South America Station (1834–1838); vice admiral (1837); admiral (1847); and admiral of the fleet (1862). In January 1793, as a midshipman in the Phaeton, he assisted in the capture of the privateer Le Général Dumourier and other ships and received his portion of a large amount of prize money. On board the Queen Charlotte of 100 guns, the flagship of Earl Richard Howe (see entry), he shared in the victory at the Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794). From then until 1801 he served in the Mediterranean. On April 2, 1801, in command of the Blanche of 36 guns, he was present at the Battle of Copenhagen and held Nelson’s prayer book as the admiral gave thanks for the victory. In October 1804 while commanding the 38-gun frigate Lively, he captured three Spanish frigates laden with treasure, and in December he captured the treasure ship San Miguel. When Portugal requested British mediation with Brazil, Sir Charles Stuart (1779–1845), a diplomat of great experience, was selected to head a special mission to Portugal and Brazil to arrange the terms. Hamond conveyed Stuart and his team to Brazil in 1824, then carried the treaty of separation between Brazil and Portugal to King John VI of Portugal (1767–1826). The king created Ha-

156 mond a Knight Commander of the Tower and Sword, an order he was not permitted to wear, as it was not obtained for war service. Upon the death of his father, Sir Andrew Snape Hamond (1738–1828)— captain, Royal Navy, and British governor of Nova Scotia (1781–1782)— he succeeded as the second baronet. He was Companion, Order of the Bath (1815); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1831); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1855). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12166. “Sir Graham Hamond, 2nd Baronet” (July 28, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:49, August 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sir_ Graham_Hamond,_2nd_Baronet&oldid=228449287. “Stuart mss.” Lilly Library Manuscript Collections. www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/lilly/mss/html/stuart.html.

HARDY, SIR CHARLES (1716?–1780) (BRITAIN)

Born in Portsmouth, England, Charles Hardy entered the Royal Navy in 1731 and was lieutenant (1737); captain (1741); knighted and governor of New York (1755); rear admiral (1756); vice admiral (1762); member of Parliament for Rochester, Kent (1764–1768) and for Portsmouth (1774); admiral (1770); and admiral of the fleet (1778). From 1741 to 1743 he helped protect the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia against Spanish privateers. Although Hardy was appointed governor of Newfoundland in 1744, fierce weather for two months forced him to return to England; he was court-martialed for neglect of duty but acquitted. In 1745, Hardy brought troop reinforcements from Gibraltar to Louisbourg, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada. In 1758, he was second in command under Admiral Edward Boscawen (see entry) at the Second Siege of Louisbourg ( June 8–July 26, 1758). Later in 1758, General James Wolfe (1727–1759), aided by ships commanded by Hardy, carried out fierce attacks on the French around the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, along the northern shores of what is now New Brunswick, and along the Gaspé Peninsula. In 1759, with his flag in the Union, he was second in command of the Grand Fleet under Sir Edward Hawke (see entry) during the long blockade of Brest and in the decisive Battle of Quiberon Bay off the coast of France (November 20, 1759) during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). Hardy was appointed governor of Greenwich Hospital, London (1771), and was brought out of retirement in 1779 to be commander-in-chief, Channel Fleet, seemingly an appointment no younger admiral wanted to fill. In August of that year, a combined

157 French and Spanish fleet set out to invade England. Wind and weather favored the smaller British fleet and without engaging in any fighting, the enemy fleet sailed back to Brest. He died soon afterward from a stroke. Sources: “Charles Hardy” (August 9, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:11, August 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Charles_Hardy&oldid=230902058. “Hardy, Sir Charles (c. 1714–1780), Governor.” The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador. www.heritage.nf.ca/gov house/governors/g12.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 12282?docPos=2.

HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN (1769–1839) (BRITAIN)

Born (it is thought) in Portisham, Dorset, Thomas Masterman Hardy entered the Royal Navy in 1781 and was lieutenant (1793); commander (1797); captain (1798); created baronet (1806); rear admiral (1825); first sea lord of the Admiralty (1830); governor of Greenwich Hospital (1834); and vice admiral (1837). In December 1796, Hardy was in the Minerve with Horatio Nelson when the Spanish frigate Sabina was captured. Hardy was one of two officers of the prize crew who took possession and hoisted the British flag. He then drew the other Spanish ships away from Minerve, but he and Lieutenant Culverhouse were captured as prisoners of war and were at once exchanged for Don Jacobo Stuart, the captain of the Sabina, and rejoined the Minerve at Gibraltar. Hardy in the Minerve took part in the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, Portugal (February 14, 1797), and captured a French brig of war, the Mutine, in which he was present at the Battle of the Nile (August 1–2, 1798), immediately after which he was promoted to Nelson’s flagship Vanguard. Hardy remained with Nelson and was in command of the Victory at the blockade of Toulon and the pursuit of the combined fleet to the West Indies (see de Villeneuve, Pierre-Charles), just prior to the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805). Hardy, a witness to Nelson’s last will, was walking with Nelson on the Victory’s quarter-deck when the admiral received his mortal wound from a French sniper, and was frequently in attendance with Nelson during his dying hours till within a few minutes of his death. Nelson’s famous remark of “Kiss me Hardy” was directed at him, but there is doubt that these were his last words. After Trafalgar, Nelson’s body was sent home in the Victory, and at the Nelson’s funeral ( January 9, 1806) at St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, Captain Hardy bore the “banner of emblems.”

Hargood In 1811 the rank of commodore in the Portuguese navy was conferred on Hardy. He was commodore and commander-in-chief, South American Station (1811–1824). During the War of 1812 (1812–1815), Hardy’s fleet escorted and transported the army commanded by John Coape Sherbrooke (1764– 1830) that captured significant portions of eastern coastal Maine (then part of Massachusetts), including Eastport, Machias, Bangor, and Castine. Hardy was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1831). Hardy Island on the Sunshine Coast, British Columbia, Canada, is named after him. The Hardy Monument Hardy near Portisham was erected in 1844. Sources: “Biography: Thomas Masterman Hardy.” The Royal Navy Museum. www.royalnavalmuseum.org/ info_sheets_thomas_hardy.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/12293. “Sir Thomas Hardy, 1st Baronet” (July 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:34, August 16, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/in dex.php?title=Sir_Thomas_Hardy,_1st_Baronet&oldid =228825859. “Vice Admiral Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy.” The Martinstown Village Website. www.martin stown.co.uk/WEBSITE/VILLAGE/WHO/admiral hardy.htm. “Monument to Vice Admiral Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy.” Titanite’s Gallery. http://commu nity.dcmag.co.uk/photos/titanitiess_gallery/picture 198423.aspx.

HARGOOD, SIR WILLIAM (1762–1839) (BRITAIN)

William Hargood entered the Royal Navy in 1773 and was lieutenant (1780); commander (1789); captain (1790); rear admiral (1810); vice admiral (1814); admiral (1831); and commander-in-chief, Plymouth (1833–1836). In 1776 Hargood was involved in the bombardment and landing at Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina. In 1781, Hargood was serving on the sloop HMS Port Royal when Pensacola, Florida, was captured by the Spanish. He was taken prisoner and returned to England. In April 1792, he was in command of the frigate Hyena when she was captured by the powerful French frigate Concorde off Cape Tiberonm, Haiti. His ship the Leopard was involved in the Spithead Mutiny (April 16–May 15, 1797) and he was put ashore at Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, by the mutineers. He took part at the Battle of the Saintes (April 9–12, 1782) during the American Revolution (1775–1783). After the war, while still in American waters, he served with Captain William Henry (1765–1837), who would succeed his brother George IV as King William IV of Great Britain

Harman from 1830–1837. They remained friends until the king died and Queen Victoria came to the throne. In 1803, Hargood took command of the Belleisle — captured from the French in 1795—and under Horatio Nelson (see entry) at the Siege of Toulon (1795) and took part in the chase of the French fleet (see de Villeneuve, Pierre-Charles) across the Atlantic and back. At the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), the Belleisle, following in the wake of the Royal Sovereign, was one of the ships earliest in action. Belleisle was engaged continuously during the action, often fighting alone against numerous enemy ships before finally attaching herself to the Argonauta, which she boarded and captured. She lost thirty-three men killed and ninety-four wounded, including Hargood, besides being totally dismasted and having her hull sorely battered. In command of the Channel Islands squadron he carried out a strenuous campaign against French ships, collecting a huge amount of prize money in the process. In 1806 Hargood, still in the now repaired Belleisle, captured the French ship Impétueux off the mouth of the Chesapeake River in the District of Columbia. She was taken possession of and burned; her officers and crew were sent on board the English ships. Hargood was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath, and Knight Grand Cross, Hanoverian Order (1831). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12312. “William Hargood” (August 12, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:28, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Hargood &oldid=231351456.

HARMAN, SIR JOHN (d. 1673) (BRITAIN)

John Harman possibly came from Suffolk. The first mention of him is during the First AngloDutch War (1652–1654), when he had command of the Welcome at the Battle of Kentish Knock (October 8, 1652) and repulsed the Dutch fleet attempting to sail up the River Thames to attack London. He was next in the Welcome at the Battle of Portland (February 28–March 2, 1653) (see der Zaan, Van Willem). In 1665 Harman was captain of the flagship Royal Charles of James, Duke of York (1633–1701, later James II, 1618–1688), at the Battle of Lowestoft on June 13, 1665. In the battle, the Dutch flagship, the Eendracht, was blown up while engaged with the Royal Charles. A total rout followed; the Dutch fled in confusion and might have been utterly destroyed had they been vigorously pursued. Henry Brouncker, the duke’s gentleman-

158 in-waiting, told Harman that the duke ordered him not to pursue. A great scandal ensued and a parliamentary inquiry ruled Harman blameless, the whole blame being laid on Brouncker’s shoulders. A few days after the battle, Harman was knighted and promoted to be rear admiral. In 1666, with his flag in the Henry, Harman took a prominent part in the Battle of St. James’ Day (August 4–5, 1666) near North Foreland off the Kent coast, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667). Sir George Ayscue was captured, Sir William Berkeley was killed (see entries), and Harman’s leg was broken by a falling spar. In 1667, as commander-in-chief in the West Indies, and although he failed to recapture St. Christopher, which had just been taken by the French, he silenced the forts at Martinique and destroyed 20 of the 24 French ships there. The rest sank themselves to escape the destruction; two or three alone escaped. Also in 1667, Harman took possession from the Dutch of Cayenne, French Guyana and Suriname in the same region. In the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), he fought at the Battle of Sole Bay (May 28, 1672), the Battle of Texel (August 11, 1673), and the Battles of Schooneveld ( June 7 and June 14, 1673). At these battles, the weak and sick Vice Admiral Harman is said to have had a chair put up on the quarterdeck, where he sat unmoved in the storm of shot. On the death of Sir Edward Spragge (see entry), he was appointed admiral, but died soon afterward. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12351.

HARMEYER, KAREN (USA)

Karen Harmeyer graduated from Creighton Memorial St. Joseph Hospital School of Nursing in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1975. She earned a bachelor of science degree in nursing from the University of Iowa and gained a master of arts degree in management from Webster University, St. Louis, Missouri. Throughout her nursing career, Harmeyer served in the U.S. Naval Reserve with assignments as commanding officer at ranks of lieutenant commander, commander, and captain, and as executive officer, special projects manager, training and administrative officer for hospital augment units and the National Disaster Medical System. She held positions on the command staff of three Naval Reserve Readiness Command Regions: Charleston, South Carolina; Great Lakes, Illinois; and New Orleans, Louisiana. She was twice director, Health Services (highest medical position) for the multi-state commands. She was promoted to rear admiral (lower half ) in 1997.

159 As deputy director of the Navy Nurse Corps, she represented more than 2,000 naval reserve nurses worldwide. She has effectively promoted nursing and women’s roles in the military and has testified before Congress on the state of Navy nursing; the first time a Navy Reserve Nurse Corps officer has been asked to do this. In June 2000, Harmeyer became the interim director of the Navy Nurse Corps with responsibility for over 5000 active duty and reserve Navy nurses Her most recent deployment was at the Naval Medical Center, Portsmouth, Virginia, in the Healthcare Quality Improvement Department with professional nursing duties in utilization, quality and case management. She was promoted to rear admiral (upper half ) in 2000. Source: “Karen Harmeyer, Alumni Award for Distinguished Achievement.” Iowa University: College of Nursing. www.nursing.uiowa.edu/alumni_friends/Alu mniAwardforOutstandingAchievement.htm.

HARRIS, HARRY B., JR. (USA)

Born in Yokosuka, Japan, to a Japanese mother and reared in Tennessee and Florida, Harry B. Harris, Jr., graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1978. Upon commissioning and completion of flight training he was assigned to Patrol Squadron (VP) 44 based in Brunswick, Maine. He was a tactical action officer on board the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga (CV 60) based in Mayport, Florida, where he participated in strike operations against Libya. He was operations officer in VP-4 during Operation Desert Storm, the First Gulf War (August 2, 1990–February 28, 1991); had three tours with Patrol and Reconnaissance Wing 1/Task Force 57/C Task Force 72, based in Kami Seya, Japan; and participated in Operation Enduring Freedom (the war in Afghanistan, began October 2001). He gained an M.A. in public administration (1992) from John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and an M.A. in national security studies (1994) from Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. He was assistant chief of staff for Operations, Plans, and Politico-Military Affairs at U.S. Naval Forces Central Command, and commander, U.S. 5th Fleet (2002), where he was involved in the naval component of Operation Iraqi Freedom, the Second Gulf War (began 2003). He was promoted to rear admiral in 2004, when he was assistant chief of staff for operations, plans and political-military affairs, U.S. Naval Forces Central Command, Manama, Bahrain. In August 2004, he became director, Information, Plans and Security Division, on the staff of the chief of naval operations, with special responsibility for developing an anti-terrorism and force protection policy.

Hart He commanded Joint Task Force Guantanamo, Cuba (2006–2007), with responsibility for the Guantanamo Bay prison. In June 2007, Harris became director of operations for U.S. Southern Command, and one year later was deputy chief of Naval Operations for Communication Networks and the deputy Department of the Navy chief information officer. Vice Admiral Harris’s decorations and awards include Defense Superior Service Medal (3); Legion of Merit (3); Bronze Star (2); Meritorious Service Medal (4); Navy League’s Stephen Decatur Award for Operational Competence; the Navy Commendation Medal (5); and Navy Achievement Medal. Sources: “Harry Harris (Admiral)” (July 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:30, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Harry_Harris_(admiral)&oldid=223093932. “Vice Admiral Harry B. Harris, Jr., Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Communication Networks.” Navy.mil: United States Navy Biography. www.navy.mil/ navydata/bios/bio.asp?bioID=136.

HART, THOMAS CHARLES (1877–1971) (USA)

Born in Davidson, Genesee County, Michigan, Thomas Charles Hart graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1897 and was ensign (1899); lieutenant (1902); lieutenant commander (1909); commander (1917); graduated from the United States Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island (1923) and from the Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania (1924); was rear admiral (1929); superintendent of the naval academy (1931–1934); and admiral and commander-in-chief of the Asiatic Fleet (1939). He served aboard the messenger boat USS Vixen as part of the blockade at the Battle of Santiago, Chile, during the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898), the largest naval engagement of the war. Hart was commander of two submarine divisions, protecting shipping around Britain and the Azores (1917–1918); director of submarines at the Navy Department in command of submarine operations in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (1918–1922); commanded the battleship USS Mississippi (BB-41); commanded Submarine Divisions, Battle Fleet, and Submarine Force, U.S. Fleet; and was commander, Cruiser Division 6 ( June 1934). Admiral Hart was recalled from retirement in August 1942 and was a member of the U.S. Navy’s General Board, then chairman of the U.S. Navy’s Board of Awards. For three months in early 1944, he traveled all over the Pacific Ocean, a one-man member of the “Hart Inquiry,” which investigated the Pearl Harbor attack by the Japanese on December 7, 1941. He finally retired in February 1945 and

Harvey became a U.S. senator for Connecticut, serving until January 3, 1947. He did not seek re-election. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia (Section 8, Grave 5184-A). The frigate USS Thomas C. Hart (DE-1092), launched in 1972, was named in his honor; it was redesignated as frigate (FF1092) in 1975. The United States Naval Academy named its former library and current midshipmen lounge the Hart Room. In addition to several campaign medals, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for World War I service, a Gold Star in lieu of the Second Distinguished Service Medal, and the Order of the Orange-Nassau with sword by the government of the Netherlands. Wesleyan College awarded him an honorary doctor of laws in 1945. Sources: “Hart, Thomas Charles.” Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. http://bioguide. congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000293. “Pearl Harbor Attack, Proceedings of Hart Inquiry.” Ibiblio: The Public’s Library and Digital Archive. www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/hart/hart-00.html. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “Thomas C. Hart.” Naval Historical Center: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. www.history.navy.mil/danfs/t4/thomas_c_ hart.htm. “Thomas Charles Hart, Admiral, United States Navy, United States Senator.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/tchart. htm. “Thomas C. Hart” (July 24, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:19, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_C. _Hart&oldid=227675110. “USS Thomas C. Hart (DE1092).” Navsource: Naval History. www.navsource.org/ archives/06/06021092.htm.

HARVEY, SIR ELIAB (1758–1830) (BRITAIN)

Born on the family estate at Chigwell, Essex, Eliab Harvey went to sea at thirteen and spent the 1770s off the Eastern Seaboard of the United States of America. He was lieutenant (1779); commander (1782); captain (1783); rear admiral (1805); vice admiral (1810); and admiral (1819). He was member of Parliament for Essex in 1780–1781, 1802–1812, and 1820–1830. Harvey served in both the American Revolution (1775–1783) and the French Revolutionary War (1792–1802). In the spring of 1798 he was appointed to the command of the Sea Fencibles in the Essex district; this was a naval force that worked to protect the United Kingdom from invasion by France during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars of 1799–1815. Harvey had the reputation of being an habitual gambler and rake, frequently running up debts he could not pay and on one occasion only avoiding bankruptcy by the canceling of a debt by his creditor; he was known to bet thousands of pounds on a throw of the dice.

160 At the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805), commanding the HMS Temeraire, his hotheadedness brought a swift rebuke from Horatio Nelson after he deliberately tried to race ahead of the Victory. When within hailing distance, Nelson said, “I will thank you, Captain Harvey, to keep your proper station, which is astern of the Victory.” His fearless action in battle resulted in the wrecking of at least four warships and he was praised above all other captains by Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood (see entry). He received the thanks of Parliament, a gold medal, and a Sword of Honor from Lloyd’s Patriotic Fund. He was also one of Nelson’s pall-bearers. Harvey resigned his commission in 1809 when Thomas Cochrane (see entry), junior to Harvey, was given command of the attack on Basque Roads (a sheltered bay on the Biscay shore of France). He vowed never to return to the Navy, but a year later, with soaring debts, he was reinstated, though he never served at sea again. Harvey was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1815); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1825). Sources: “Eliab Harvey” (June 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:44, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Eliab_Harvey&oldid=222541846. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/12516.

HARWOOD, SIR HENRY HARWOOD (1888–1950) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, Henry Harwood joined the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon (1903), and was midshipman (1904); lieutenant (1908); lieutenant commander (1916); commander (1921); captain (1928); commodore and commodore-in-chief of the South American division of the fleet’s America and West Indies Station (1936); rear admiral (1939); chief of naval staff (1940); acting admiral (1942); vice admiral (1942); and invalided from the Navy in 1945 in the rank of admiral. A torpedo specialist, between the wars Harwood held numerous staff posts, studied at various service schools, and was fleet torpedo officer in the Mediterranean. When war began in 1939, the Admiralty sent him additional vessels with orders to seek and destroy the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee, which was raiding British merchant shipping in the South Atlantic. On December 13, 1939, in his flagship the heavy cruiser Exeter, accompanied by the cruisers Ajax and Achilles, Harwood located his opponent and a resounding victory followed at the Battle of the River Plate (December 13, 1939) off the

161 coast of Argentina and Uruguay in South America. Harwood’s ships sustained major damage, particularly the Exeter; Captain Hans Wilhelm Langsdorff (1894–1939) scuttled the Graf Spee and killed himself with a gunshot in a Naval Hotel room in Buenos Aires. The action was portrayed in a 1956 film, The Battle of the River Plate. Harwood provided flank cover and logistical support to the British Eighth Army in North Africa in its campaigns against the German forces of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel (1891–1944), on occasion entering and occupying ports abandoned by German troops even before Allied land forces arrived. For a few months before poor health forced his retirement, he was flag officer commanding the Orkneys and Shetlands. His honors include officer, Order of the British Empire (1919); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1939); Gold Medal of Concepcion (Chile) (1939) for rescue work during the Chilean earthquake ( January 24, 1939); Grand Officer, Order of Merit (Chile) (1940); and Greek War Cross (1943). He received the freedom of city of Exeter, Devon (1940). A road on the Bridgemary estate, Gosport, Hampshire, was named after him, as was an avenue in the new town of Ajax, Ontario, Canada. In South America two streets were named after him, one in Punta Del Este and one near Carrasco, Montevideo. Sources: “Henry Harwood” (April 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:04, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Henry_Harwood&oldid=208959243. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/33750. “Sir Henry Harwood: Ranks.” StateUniversity.com. encyclopedia.stateuniversity.com/ pages/20442/Sir-Henry-Harwood.html.

HAUS, ANTON (1851–1917) (AUSTRO-HUNGARY)

Born into a Slovenian-speaking family in Tolmin, Southern Germany, Anton Haus entered the Austro-Hungarian navy in 1869. He taught at the Naval Academy in Fiume (or Rijeka, the principal seaport of Croatia, on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea) and published Oceanography and Maritime Meteorolog y (1891). In command of a corvette, he led the marine invasion of China during the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) and remained in China until 1902. As vice admiral (1907), Haus was the Austro-Hungarian delegate to the Second Peace Conference in The Hague that year. The first peace convention of 1899 set out to ban the use of certain types of modern technology in war — bombing from the air, chemical warfare, and hollow point bullets. The Permanent Court of Arbitration Convention was set up. The focus of

Hawke the Second Conference was mainly on naval warfare. Haus was inspector of the fleet (1912) and the following year, Franz Josef, emperor of Austria and king of Hungary (1830–1916), appointed him chief of the naval group in the Ministry of War and commander of the Austro-Hungarian naval fleet. As great admiral (1916), Haus was in favor of Admiral von Tirpitz’s (see entry) program of unrestricted submarine warfare; a minority view among the Austro-Hungarian navy commanders. He commanded the fleet from the beginning of World War I until near the end. He died of pneumonia while still in command. He was the only Austrian (except for members of the imperial family) to ever achieve the rank of grand admiral. He was awarded the Military Merit Cross (first class) on May 3, 1915. Sources: “Anton Haus” (August 8, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:57, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title =Anton_Haus&oldid=230647239. “Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)” (June 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:15, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hague_Con ventions_(1899_and_1907)&oldid=220590468. “The Military Merit Cross.” Austro-Hungarian Land Forces 1848–1918. www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/mvk. htm. “Who’s Who: Anton Haus.” Firstworldwar.com. www.firstworldwar.com/bio/haus.htm.

HAWKE, BARON EDWARD (1705–1781) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, Edward Hawke entered the Royal Navy (1719/1720) and served on the North America and West Indian Station. He was lieutenant (1729); captain (?1743); rear admiral (1747); member of Parliament for Portsmouth (1747); vice admiral (1748); admiral (1757); vice admiral of Great Britain (1765); first lord of the Admiralty (1766); and created Baron Hawke of Towton (1776). Hawke’s career was beset by personal animosity from members of the government and the Admiralty. Though the reasons are unclear, one possible explanation is that in 1746, King George II (reigned 1727–1760) intervened when the Admiralty was all set to pass Hawke over, hence his promotion to rear admiral. In 1747 he captured six ships of a French squadron in the Bay of Biscay in the Battle of Cape Finisterre. In 1759, he commanded the fleet during the six-month blockade of the French naval station of Brest, and by stopping French reinforcements from reaching Canada he played a vital role in the British conquest of Canada. During the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), the French decided to invade Great Britain to take revenge for the defeat in Canada. Hawke’s fleet caught up with Admiral Hubert de Brienne, Count de Conflans, and drove

Hazard his squadron into Quiberon Bay (off the coast of France near St. Nazaire). After a three hour battle (November 20, 1759) and the destruction of nine French ships, the French fleet virtually lost any fighting power. The following places are named after Hawke: Cape Hawke, New South Wales; Hawke Bay, New Zealand (North Island); Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand, a region adjacent to Hawke Bay. Sources: “Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke” (April 30, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:37, August 17, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org /w/index.php?title=Edward_Hawke,_1st_Baron_Hawk e&oldid=209194408. Rickard, J. “Edward Hawke, First Baron Hawke, Admiral of the Fleet (1705–1781).” Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. www.historyof war.org/articles/people_hawke.html. “Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britan nica.com/EBchecked/topic/257490/Edward-Hawke1st-Baron-Hawke-of-Towton. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 12651?docPos=2.

HAZARD, ROBERTA (1934–) (USA)

A native of Boston, Massachusetts, Roberta Hazard graduated from Boston College with majors in history and education; gained an M.A. in history from Boston College, and then taught high school history. She was commissioned ensign from the Officer Candidate School, Naval Station Newport, Rhode Island (1960), and was lieutenant junior grade (1962): lieutenant (1967); lieutenant commander (1970); commander (1976); captain (1980); and rear admiral (lower half, 1984, and upper half, 1988), the first woman to be so promoted. Hazard was division officer and researcher-writer within the Naval History Division, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (1960–1962); education, training, and leadership officer at Jacksonville Naval Air Station in Florida; instructor and academic department head of the Woman Officer Candidate School in Newport, Rhode Island; protocol officer in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (1967– 1969); manager of a computer-assisted instruction project at the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland (1969–1971); special project/action officer within the Middle East, African Section, and assistant secretary for joint Chiefs of Staff Matters in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (1971–1974); special assistant, speech writer and political-military advisor to the commander-inchief, Allied Forces Southern Europe in Naples, Italy. She graduated from the National War College (1978) and became head of the women’s program section at the Military Personnel and Training Di-

162 vision, Bureau of Personnel, with responsibility for developing policy and career opportunities for women officers and enlisted personnel. Hazard was also commanding officer, the Naval Technical Center at Treasure Island, San Francisco (1980); commanding officer of the Naval Training Station, San Diego; commander of the Naval Training Center, Great Lakes, Illinois, the Navy’s largest training facility; director, Human Resources Management, and director, Personnel Excellence Program, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. Her awards are Legion of Merit (with gold star in lieu of second award); Meritorious Service Medal (with two gold stars in lieu of a subsequent award); Navy Commendation Medal (with one gold star in lieu of a second award); Navy Achievement Medal; and National Defense Service Medal. Sources: “Papers of Rear Admiral Roberta L. Hazard (1970–1992).” Navy.mil: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/ar/hotel/hazard.htm. “Rear Admiral Roberta Hazard, Director, Human Resources Management, U.S. Navy.” Women’s International Center. www.wic.org/bio/rhazard.htm. “Roberta L. Hazard” (August 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:53, August 18, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roberta_L._Hazard&oldi d=229296014.

HEIN, PIET PIETERSZOON (1577–1629) (THE NETHERLANDS)

Piet Pieterszoon Hein (Heyn) was born in Delfshaven (now part of Rotterdam) and was a sailor from a young age. He was captured twice: once by the Spanish and was a galley-slave for around four years, and again by the Spanish near Cuba and again held for four years and was released in 1607. He joined the Dutch East India Company in 1607. By the time he returned from Asia in 1612, he was captain. He sailed to the West Indies as vice admiral of the new Dutch West India Company in 1624. Between then and 1627 he captured the Portuguese settlement of Salvador; attacked Luanda in Angola, but his attempt to capture the city failed; and captured over thirty Portuguese ships carrying sugar. In 1628 he captured a Spanish treasure fleet worth an immense fortune in gold and silver, thus providing the Dutch Republic with money to continue its struggle to free the southern, or Spanish, Netherlands (now Belgium and Luxembourg) from Spain. In 1628 he captured part of a fleet carrying the annual shipment of precious metals mined in Mexico and Peru to Spain in Matanzas Bay, Cuba. This was a huge boost to the Dutch morale, and when he returned to the Netherlands in 1629, the nation feted him as a hero. No one before or after him ever captured such a

163 huge haul of Spanish silver being brought from the Americas. His planned retirement to live on his prize money was cut short very soon; he was recalled to active duty in the rank of lieutenant admiral of Holland to command the republic’s entire fleet, with the express order to clear the Dunkirk pirates from the English Channel; these pirates were in the pay of King Philip IV of Spain (1605–1665). In June 1629 his fleet destroyed the pirates but Hein was killed in the battle. The 1997 Piet Hein Tunnel in Amsterdam is named in his honor, as is the former Dutch frigate ship Hr. Ms. Piet Heyn. Sources: “Piet Heyn” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.bri tannica.com/EBchecked/topic/264709/Piet-Heyn. “Piet Pieterszoon Hein” (July 31, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:49, August 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piet_ Pieterszoon_Hein&oldid=229033919. “Piet Hein, Dutch Admiral.” Timeline. www.timelineindex.com/ content/view/1333.

HEPBURN, ARTHUR JAPY (1877–1964) (USA)

Born in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Arthur Japy Hepburn graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1897 and was immediately caught up in the Spanish-American War (April 25–August 12, 1898). In the following year he was present when the Spanish Squadron of Admiral Cervera (1839–1908) was defeated off Santiago, Cuba. He was commissioned ensign in 1899. Though his other dates of promotion are uncertain, by 1918 he was captain, and by 1936 as admiral he was commander-in-chief of the entire U.S. Fleet. From 1899 until America entered World War I (the first wave of the American Expeditionary Force landed in France on July 3, 1917), Hepburn assisted in making oceanic surveys in the Pacific. During World War I he commanded the German liner Kaiser Wilhelm II, which was seized in April 1917 and used as a troop transporter. He commanded the submarine chaser base at New London, Connecticut, until ordered to Europe in July 1918 to command the chaser base at Queenstown, Ireland. After the war, in the cruiser USS Chester, he was involved in ascertaining that German naval ships and aircraft were keeping to the terms of the Armistice Treaty (November 11, 1918). He was assistant chief of the Bureau of Steam Engineering (1919–1922), then chief of staff of the American Naval Detachment in Turkey. He has a special place in the memory of the Armenian people; when the Turks burned the Smyrna compound (September 1922), Hepburn evacuated

Herbert thousands of Armenian refugees. He was director of naval intelligence; commanded submarine forces, U.S. Fleet; and was a member or adviser on disarmament in Geneva and London. The Hepburn Board Report, presented to the House of Representatives on December 27, 1938, was the main impetus for the massive expansion of naval defenses in the U.S leading up to World War II. He was chairman of the General Board of the Navy from 1942 and throughout the war. He was a delegate to the Dumbarton Oaks Conference (an international conference, held August 21 to October 7, 1944, in Dumbarton Oaks, a mansion in Washington, D.C.), which established guidelines for founding the United Nations. Hepburn retired in December 1945. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. The destroyer Hepburn (DE-1055) was launched in 1967 and was sunk as a target in 2002. Sources: “Arthur Jepy Hepburn, Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/ajhepburn.htm. “Arthur Japy Hepburn” (April 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:39, August 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Japy_Hep burn&oldid=207170441. “Arthur Japy Hepburn.” Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy. mil/danfs/h5/hepburn.htm. “Kaiser Wilhelm II 1903– 1940 [ship].” Greatoceanliners.net. www.greatoceanlin ers.net/kwII2.html. “The Decline and Renaissance of the [U.S.] Navy, 1922–1944.” Ibiblio. www.ibiblio.org/ pha/USN/77-2s202.html.

HERBERT, ARTHUR, EARL OF TORRINGTON (1647–1716) (BRITAIN)

Arthur Herbert entered the Royal Navy (1663) and was lieutenant in 1666; after that his dates are uncertain. He served in the Dutch wars (1652– 1657) of the reign of Charles II (1660–1685), as well as against the Barbary pirates (see Blake, Robert). In 1672, Herbert was appointed to the Dreadnought, which he commanded in the Battle of Sole Bay on May 28, 1672. He was severely wounded at the Battle of Texel (August 11, 1673), and his ship, the Cambridge, was so damaged that she had to be sent for repair. From then until 1683 Herbert served in the Mediterranean in the rank of vice admiral. In 1678 in the Rupert, he captured a large Algerian ship of 40 guns, with the loss of nineteen killed and thirty or forty wounded; Herbert lost one eye by the accidental explosion of some cartridges. In December 1679 he had moved into the Bristol, and in 1680, with the squadron under his orders, took an active part in the defense of Tangier, then besieged by the Moors. In July 1680 Herbert was appointed admiral and commander-in-chief within the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1683 he was nominated

Hernández rear admiral of England; appointed Master of the Robes, and returned as member of Parliament for Dover, Kent. In 1688 he was cashiered (dismissed with ignominy) by King James II (reigned 1685– 1688) for refusing to serve under Catholic officers. Disguised as a simple sailor, Herbert carried to The Hague the “Invitation to William,” a document for William III of Orange asking him to depose King James II. As a reward he was made commander of William’s invasion fleet during the Glorious Revolution (1688). During the reign of William and Mary (1689–1702), Herbert served as lord high admiral (1689) and then first lord of the Admiralty (1689–1690). He failed in his attempt to beat the French at Battle of Bantry Bay, Ireland, on May 11, 1689. He was created Earl Torrington (1689) and commanded the English and Dutch fleets at the Battle of Beachy Head ( July 10, 1690), but his attack on the French was judged halfhearted; he kept his own ship out of fire while his allies suffered severe losses. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London, court-martialed for retreating from the French, and although acquitted, he was never again employed. Sources: “Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington” (August 16, 20089). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:39, August 18, 2008, from en.wikip edia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Herbert,_1st_Earl_ of_Torrington&oldid=232273533. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/13017?docPos=1.

HERNÁNDEZ, DIEGO E. (1930–) (USA)

Born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, Diego E. Hernández gained a degree in physics from Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, and was commissioned an ensign in the United States Navy (1955). He was designated a naval aviator (1956), served in carrier-based fighter squadrons and took part in combat during the Vietnam War (1959– 1975). He was aide and flag lieutenant to commander, Carrier Division 14, and commander of a fighter squadron and a carrier air wing. From 1980 to 1981 Captain Hernandez commanded the supercarrier USS John F. Kennedy (CVA/CV-67), nicknamed “Big John.” On September 19, 1980, planes from USS John F. Kennedy were involved in an incident with Libyan Air Force planes over international waters. In 1988, Vice Admiral Hernández, commander, Third Fleet, coordinated the massive naval Rim of the Pacific Exercise, of ships, aircraft, sailors, airmen and Marines from the United States, Japan, Australia and Canada. For his last assignment on active duty he wore two hats — deputy commander-in-chief U.S. Space Command and

164 vice commander, North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD)— the first Hispanic to be so appointed. In 1987, Hernández was presented a Lifetime Achievement Award by the National Puerto Rican Coalition. In 1988, he was named the distinguished graduate of his class by Illinois Institute of Technology and presented the Institute’s Professional Achievement Award. He retired from the Navy in 1991. Others among his many decorations are the Legion of Merit and Distinguished Flying Cross. He is a member of the Companions of the Naval Order, the oldest exclusively naval American society. Sources: “Diego E. Hernández” (August 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:44, August 18, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Diego_E._Hern%C3%A1ndez&oldid=229457150. “Distinguished Members, Current and Former Companions of the Naval Order.” Naval Order of the United States. www.navalorder.org/companions.htm. “Vice Admiral Diego E. Hernández, USN.” Association of Naval Services Officers. www.ansomil.org/node/257.

HEWETT, SIR WILLIAM NATHAN WRIGHTE (1834–1888) (BRITAIN)

Born at Brighton, East Sussex, William Nathan Wrighte Hewett entered the navy in March 1847 and served as a midshipman in the Second Burma War (1852–1853). He was lieutenant (1854); commander (1858); captain (1872); commodore and commander-in-chief, Africa West Coast (1876); rear admiral (1878); commander-in-chief, East Indies (1882); vice admiral (1884); and commander, Channel Fleet (1886–1888). He was acting mate in charge during the Crimean War (1853–1856) and was one of 112 soldiers, sailors and Marines who earned the Victoria Cross. On October 26, 1854, at Sevastopol he disobeyed orders (deeming them either wrong or mistaken) to spike his gun and retreat; he and some of his soldiers turned the gun on the enemy and won the day. After the Battle of Inkerman on November 5, 1854, he was promoted to lieutenant. Between the Crimean War and 1882, he served on the royal yacht, on the North America, West Indies and China stations; and in the Mediterranean and the Sea of Marmora (an inland sea in Northwestern Turkey). During the Anglo-Egyptian War (1882), he conducted the naval operations in the Red Sea, especially the occupation of Suez and the seizure of the canal in August. On February 6, 1884, Hewett landed with a force of seamen and Marines for the defense of Suakim, Sudan, and on the 10th was formally appointed governor. Hewett died in Royal Naval Hospital Haslar, Gosport, Hampshire, and was buried at the Highland Road Cemetery, Portsmouth, Hampshire. His

165 funeral was carried out with full military honors, with a guard of honor. Queen Victoria and the Empress of Germany sent wreaths; among the mourners were six admirals. Buried in this cemetery are eight servicemen, all recipients of the Victoria Cross, the highest award during Victoria’s reign. Hewett was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath; Knight Commander, Order of the Star of India; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor of the Medjidie (Turkey). Sources: “Grave Location for Holders of the Victoria Cross in the County of Hampshire.” www.home users.prestel.co.uk/stewart/hampshir.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/13146. “The Victoria Cross Awarded to Men of Portsmouth: Sir William Nathan Wrighte Hewett, VC.” Memorials and Monuments in Portsmouth. www.memo rials.inportsmouth.co.uk/vc/hewett.htm. “William Nathan Wrighte Hewett” (July 5, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:49, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wil liam_Nathan_Wrighte_Hewett&oldid=223743432.

HEWITT, HENRY KENT (1890–1971) (USA)

Born in Hackensack, New Jersey, Henry Kent Hewitt graduated as a midshipman from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1907 and sailed around the world on board the battleship Missouri as part of the Great White Fleet (1907–1909). He was ensign (1910); watch and division officer in the battleship Connecticut (1911); lieutenant, executive officer and navigator in the destroyer Flusser (1913); mathematics instructor, U.S. Naval Academy (1913–1916); commander of the Eagle (converted yacht) for survey and patrol work in the Caribbean (1916); lieutenant commander (1917); commander of the destroyer ship Cummings escorting convoys in Europe (1918). Hewitt was instructor in electrical engineering and physics, U.S. Naval Academy (1919–1921); gunnery officer aboard the battleship Pennsylvania (1921); commander (1922); student, then staff, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island (1928–1931); commander, Destroyer Division Twelve, Battle Fleet (1931); and head of the Department of Mathematics, U.S. Naval Academy (1933–1936). He was commander of the cruiser Indianapolis and carried President Franklin D. Roosevelt to the Pan-American Conference at Buenos Aires, Argentina, of November-December 1936. He was made a rear admiral in 1939 and then was commander, Atlantic Fleet Task Groups, carrying out neutrality patrols and convoy escorts (1941–1942). Hewitt became vice admiral, commander, Amphibious Force Atlantic Fleet; commander, West-

Hight ern Naval Task Force; established United Stated Army troops ashore in Morocco (1942); and won a violent and decisive battle off Casablanca in November 1942. He established and commanded the United States Naval Forces in North West African Waters (Eighth Fleet) headquartered in Algiers, and was commander, American half of the invasion of Sicily, Italy. Hewitt also commanded the Allied Combined Forces that established the Allied Army at Salerno, Italy (1943); carried out the assault landing of troops at Anzio, Italy; and moved Eighth Fleet headquarters to Naples, Italy. He was commander, Allied Forces, which established the Seventh Army on shore in southern France (1944). He was made admiral in 1945 and was on special duty with a Pearl Harbor investigation (1945–1947); was advisor, Naval War College (1947–1949); was head, American Naval Mission to the United Nations, serving on the Military Staff Committee of the Security Council (1949); and retired in 1972. Sources: “Henry Kent Hewitt” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1355287/ Henry-Kent-Hewitt. “H. Kent Hewitt” (August 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:16, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=H._Kent_Hewitt&oldid=229432743. “H. Kent Hewitt, A Register of His Papers in the Naval Historical Foundation Collection in the Library of Congress.” Library of Congress. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2001/ms001023.pdf. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

HIGHT, ELIZABETH A. (USA)

Elizabeth A. Hight graduated in psychology, sociology and social work from Huntingdon College, Montgomery, Alabama, in 1974. She is a graduate of the Defense Systems Management College, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; the Naval Post-graduate School, Monterey, California, with a master’s degree in telecommunications systems; and George Washington University, New York, with a master’s degree in information systems. She joined the United States Navy in 1977 and specialized in communications and space communications. She was a member of the USSPACECOM Commander-inchief ’s Group (1988); executive officer to director, Communications Security Material Systems (1989); program executive officer for Space, Communications and Sensors, where she served as the assistant program manager for operations (1991); commanding officer, Fleet Surveillance Support Command (1993); assistant branch head, Fleet Support Assignments Office, Bureau of Naval Personnel (1995–1997); U.S. space command liaison officer to the U.S. European Command, Stuttgart, Ger-

Hill many (2000); and commanding officer, Naval Computer and Tele-communications Area Master Station Atlantic, and program manager for MidAtlantic Region Information Technology (2001). Hight was promoted to rear admiral in 2006. She was principal director for operations and deputy commander, Joint Task Force–Global Network Operations, Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) (2006–2007). As principal director, she was responsible for providing command, control, communications, computer and intelligence support to the nation’s war fighters. As deputy commander, JTF-GNO, she was responsible to United States Strategic Command for directing the operation and defense of the global information grid. Admiral Hight’s awards include the Defense Superior Service Medal (with Oak Leaf Cluster); Legion of Merit (with Gold Star in lieu of second award); Defense Meritorious Service Medal; Meritorious Service Medal (with Gold Star in lieu of third award); Navy Commendation Medal; Navy Achievement Medal; and Air Force Master Space Badge. Source: “Rear Admiral Elizabeth A. Hight, Vice Director, Defense Information Systems Agency.” United States Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/navy bio.asp?bioID=144.

HILL, HARRY WILBUR (1890–1971) (USA)

Born in Oakland, California, Harry Wilbur Hill graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1911 and was aide and flag lieutenant to the commander, Division Seven, Atlantic Fleet, in 1919. He was commander (by 1935): captain (1938); rear admiral (1942); vice admiral (1945); and admiral on retirement (1952). He was engineer officer aboard the warship USS Texas ( January 1917); served with the British Grand Fleet during World War I; witnessed the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet in November 1918 while on the battleship USS Wyoming; was gunnery officer of the battleship USS Maryland (1928– 1931) when she won the 1929 Gunnery Trophy; and was force gunnery officer on the staff of commander, Battle Force, U.S. Fleet in the Pacific (1933–1934). Hill fitted out of the destroyer USS Dewey and was its commanding officer in 1934–1935; he was commanding officer of the heavy cruiser Wichita with the British Home Fleet on convoy duty to Murmansk in Northern Russia after the United States entered World War II following the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese (December 7, 1941). Subsequent posts were commander, Battleship Division Four (1942–1943) in the South

166 Pacific with his flagship USS Maryland, and commander of a new type of task force comprising battleships and escort carriers. Hill achieved great success commanding various amphibious operations in the Pacific: the Battle of Tarawa (November 20–23, 1943); against the Gilbert Marshalls, Marianas, Iwo Jima Islands; at the Battle of Okinawa (late March through June 1945); and landing the Sixth Army in Southwestern Japan for occupation duty in August 1945. He was commandant, Army-Navy Staff College (November 1945); commandant of the National War College (1946); chairman of the General Board, Navy Department (1949); superintendent of the Naval Academy and commandant (1950); and Severn River Naval Command (1950). Admiral Hill retired in May 1952 and was governor of the Naval Home, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, until 1954. The destroyer USS Harry W. Hill (DD 986) was launched in 1978 and was sunk as a target in 2004. Sources: “Harry W. Hill” (July 2, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:00, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Harry_W._Hill&oldid=223095165. “Papers of Vice Admiral Harry W. Hill, 1942–1950.” Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/ar/hotel/hill.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. “USS Harry W. Hill (DD 986).” www.navysite.de/dd/dd986.htm.

HIPPER, FRANZ RITTER VON (1863–1932) (GERMANY)

Born in Weilheim, Bavaria, Franz Ritter von Hipper joined the German Imperial Navy in 1881 as a cadet, serving on the frigates Niobe and Leipzig. Until 1913 Hipper commanded torpedo boats and the armored cruiser Friedrich Karl and was then commander of the High Seas Fleet Scouting Forces. Hipper boldly led raids upon the Yorkshire seaport towns of Scarborough, Hartlepool, West Hartlepool, and Whitby on December 16, 1914, resulting in 137 fatalities and 592 casualties, many of whom were civilians. This resulted in him being known in Britain as the “the baby killer of the German navy.” His battle cruisers met Admiral David Beatty (see entry) at the Battle of the Dogger Bank ( January 24, 1915) and Admiral John Jellicoe (see entry) at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916), in which he sank two British battle cruisers. Toward the close of the battle, Hipper saved the German fleet by a remarkably bold charge toward Jellicoe’s battleships. His flawless performance won him praise both in Germany and in Britain. King Ludwig III of Bavaria (1845–1921) knighted Hipper shortly after Jutland. Hipper was promoted to admiral (August 1918) and replaced Admiral Rein-

167 hard Scheer (see entry) as commander-in-chief of the High Seas Fleet. His efforts to quell the Kiel Mutiny (November 4, 1918) proved fruitless. (The Kiel Mutiny was an expression of the mutinous feelings rife in Germany toward the end of the war. When the German High Seas Fleet was ordered to sail to the North Sea for a major battle against the British, the German sailors in Kiel refused to go and took up arms. Major disturbances occurred in several cities; Bavaria declared itself a democratic and socialist republic; the emperor was forced to abdicate, and on November 11, 1918, the war ended.) After the Armistice, in his last days of active service, Hipper organized the fleet’s transfer to Scapa Flow, Scotland. He retired from active service in December 1918. The German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper was launched in 1937,and was scuttled in the dock at Kiel in 1945.

Holland part in the destruction of the fortress at Bomarsund (1854). Possibly on account of boredom, he retired from the British Navy and became a blockaderunner during the American Civil War (1861–1865); traveling to Charleston he would carry war material, and on the return journey, cotton. His first task in the Turkish Navy was the suppression of the Cretan rebellion by intercepting supplies from Greece. During the Russo-Turkish war (1877– 1878), his Turkish squadron completely dominated the Black Sea, blockading the ports of South Russia and the mouths of the Danube, and paralyzing the action of the Russian fleet. Twice HobartHampden was struck off the British Navy list: in 1867 for his action against Greece (restored 1874), and in 1877 for his action against Russia. He was restored in the rank of vice admiral in 1885. He died in Milan.

Sources: “Battles: Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, 1914.” Firstworldwar.com. www.firstworldwar.com/battles/scarborough.htm. “Franz von Hipper” (July 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:08, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Franz_von_Hipper&oldid=226 507286. “Who’s Who: Franz von Hipper.” Firstworld war.com. www.firstworldwar.com/bio/hipper.htm. Feld grau.com. www.feldgrau.com/ahipper.html.

Sources: “Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden” (August 19, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:37, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Augustus_Charles_HobartHampden&oldid=232876491. “Hobart Pasha” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ 268442/Hobart-Pasa. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13398

HOBART-HAMPDEN, AUGUSTUS CHARLES (1822–1886) (BRITAIN)

HOLLAND, LANCELOT ERNEST (1887–1941) (BRITAIN)

Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden, commonly known as Hobart Pasha, was born at Walton-onthe-Wolds, Leicestershire, the son of the sixth earl of Buckinghamshire. He entered the Royal Navy in 1835 and was acting mate (1841); lieutenant (by 1853); commander (1855); captain (1863); rear admiral in the Turkish Navy (1867); admiral, with the title of pasha (1869); and mushir or marshal of the empire (1881, the first Christian to hold that position). Hobart-Hampden was born out of time. He was an adventurer, a buccaneer, more suited to the Elizabethan than to the Victorian era. As a midshipman he took part in the suppression of the slave trade along the coast of Brazil, where his gallantry became the stuff of legend. (Much of what we know about his exploits comes from his book Sketches from My Life. New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1887, and it has been suggested that some of these tales are highly romanticized.) His last genuine exploit during the slave-hunting period was to carry a slaver prize into Demerara, South America, in May 1844. Upon returning to England, HobartHampden was appointed to the queen’s yacht as a reward for gallant conduct. During the Crimean War (1853–1856), he took

Lancelot Ernest Holland came from the Banbury area of Oxfordshire and graduated midshipman from the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon (1903), and was sub-lieutenant (1905); lieutenant (1906); commander (1919); flag captain to the Second Cruiser Squadron, aboard the heavy cruiser HMS Hawkins (1929–1931); headed the British Naval Mission to Greece (1931–1932); was flag captain aboard the battleship HMS Revenge (1934–1935); naval aide-de-camp to King George VI (1937); rear admiral (1938); vice admiral and commanded the Seventh Cruiser Squadron, serving in the Mediterranean (1940). Between 1903 and 1911, Holland served on the China Station, then in the Admiralty surveying ship HMS Research. In 1911 Holland joined HMS Excellent, the Royal Navy’s gunnery school at Whale Island, Portsmouth. After taking the advanced gunnery course at Greenwich, he spent the years of World War I teaching gunnery aboard the Excellent. He led the Seventh Cruiser Squadron in the Battle of Cape Spartivento, Italy (November 27, 1940). In May 1941, Holland, with his flag in the battle cruiser HMS Hood, accompanied by the new battleship HMS Prince of Wales, led a squadron against the German battleship Bismarck. In the en-

Holland-Martin suing Battle of Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, the Hood blew up as a result of a magazine explosion at 06:01 on May 24, 1941. The admiral and all but three of the 1,416 officers and men of the Hood were lost. Prince of Wales made her escape with some damage, including a hit on her bridge that killed most of her officers. One of the salvos from Prince of Wales damaged Bismarck’s fuel tanks and prompted her to make for France; she was sunk three days after by British warships. The Hood Memorial Chapel at St. John the Baptist at Boldre in the New Forest, Hampshire, England was dedicated in honor of those who died on the Hood. A Book of Remembrance containing the names of the 1,417 officers and men of HMS Hood was written and illuminated by Daisy Alcock, who was also responsible for the Royal Air Force Book of Remembrance in Westminster Abbey. Admiral Holland was a Companion, Order of the Bath. Sources: “H.M.S. Hood Crew Information, H.M.S. Hood Rolls of Honour Memorials to Men Lost in the Sinking of Hood, 24th May 1941.” HMS Hood Association. www.hmshood.com/crew/memorial/h/Holland LE.htm. “HMS Hood Memorial.” Boldre Church Trust. www.bsbb.org.uk/history/page4.html. “Holland, Lancelot Ernest.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/ cgi-bin/fg.cgi?GRid=11372643&page=gr. “Lancelot Holland” (August 10, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:43, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lancelot_Hol land&oldid=231098690. “Vice Admiral Lancelot Ernest Holland.” Royal Navy Flag Officer 1904–1945. www.admirals.org.uk/admirals/individual.php?RecNo=1.

HOLLAND-MARTIN, SIR DOUGLAS ERIC (DERIC) (1906–1977) (BRITAIN)

Douglas Eric Martin was born in London; the family name was changed to Holland-Martin in 1923. He entered the Royal Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight in 1920 and was midshipman (1924); commander (1940); captain (1946); naval attaché in Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay (1947–1949); captain in the battleship Agincourt (1949–1950); director of plans in the Admiralty (1952–1953); rear admiral (1955); acting vice admiral and deputy chief of naval personnel (officers) and second sea lord (1957), the youngest and most junior second sea lord in the history of this post; vice admiral (1958); Companion, Order of the Bath (1958); flag officer air (Home) (1960); admiral, commander-in-chief, Mediterranean, and commander-in-chief, Allied Forces, Mediterranean (1961); first sea lord (1963); commandant, Imperial Defense College (1964); and vice admiral of the United Kingdom and lieutenant of the Admiralty (1973–1976). At the outbreak of World War II, Holland-

168 Martin was executive officer of the destroyer HMS Tartar, based at Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands, Scotland. When his captain was taken ill in October 1939, Holland-Martin was given command of Tartar in North Sea operations until January 1940. Later that month he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross — one of the earliest of the war. In December 1942, Holland-Martin commanded the destroyer Nubian as Force K in Malta to harass Field Marshal Erwin Rommel’s (1891–1944) supplies to North Africa. Nubian participated in the capture of the central Mediterranean islands and the landings on Sicily and at Salerno, August to September 1943. For this he won a bar to his Distinguished Service Cross. As rear admiral, Holland-Martin was flag officer, flotillas, Mediterranean, during which he trained and commanded the assault forces in the landings of the Royal Marine commandos at Port Said during the Suez War (November 1956); he commanded a British contribution of over 100 ships to the British, French and Israeli force. HollandMartin was vocal in his criticism of Admiralty policy in the run-down of the British bases in Malta, Cyprus, and Gibraltar. He also believed that the United Kingdom could not afford to continue with an independent nuclear deterrent. Had he not been so outspoken, he might well have succeeded as first lord of the Admiralty earlier than 1963. He was commandant of the Imperial Defence College, London (1964). On his retirement in 1966, among other things, Holland-Martin was a trustee of the Imperial War Museum and its vice president and chairman (1967–1977). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31246.

HOLMES, SIR ROBERT (1622–1692) (BRITAIN)

In the period that covers the life of Robert Holmes, ranks were not clearly identified as they later were. However, there is little doubt that Holmes was rear admiral and vice admiral. Born in Mallow, County Cork, Ireland, in 1643, he was a junior cavalry officer on the Royalist (Cavaliers) side of the English Civil War (1642–1651), and when the Cavaliers were defeated, he went in exile to Holland. In 1648, Holmes joined the fleet of Charles II, exiled to the court of Mary and William II, Prince of Orange (who became joint monarchs of England, 1689–1702). Holmes was part of cruise of the Royalist fleet of 1649–1652 to Kinsale, Ireland, the Mediterranean, West Africa, and the West Indies. Immediately before the Restoration (1660),

169

Hood

Holmes acted as a courier between Charles II and Edward Montagu (1625–1672), by whose commission he obtained his first command in the navy, the Medway guard ship Bramble. In late 1663, Holmes was with a small squadron sent out to the coast of Africa to support the Royal African Company, whose bases had been invaded by the Dutch. The Dutch, refusing to negotiate, fired on the British ships; a local war broke out and Holmes captured some of the Dutch settlements. The Dutch protested; Holmes was sent to the Tower of London, pending investigations. He received a general pardon, though it was not long before the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) broke out, in which he took part at the Battle of St. James’ Day (August 4–5, 1666). (It is said that his actions in Africa sparked this war.) In 1668 he was made admiral of Portsmouth. On 13 March 1672, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), in the English Channel, Holmes attacked the Smyrna Convoy, a yearly convoy of Dutch merchants from the Levant sailing with a flotilla to protect them from the Barbary Pirates (see Blake, Robert). Holmes was beaten back by Cornelis Evertsen (see entry) and captured only a limited number of prizes. His career ended abruptly after the Battle of Sole Bay (May 28, 1672) and he spent his time fulfilling his role as Governor of the Isle of Wigh,t to which he had been appointed in 1660 by Charles II. He was entombed in Yarmouth Church, Isle of Wight.

Warwick, which had been captured by the French ship Atlante in 1756. In 1778 he was appointed to the Robust under Augustus Keppel (see entry) and fought at the battle First Battle of Ushant ( July 27, 1778). Hood gave evidence at Keppel’s court-martial and disclosed that because he considered the Robust’s logbook had been carelessly written, he judged it proper to revise and correct it. His explanation was accepted by the court, though public opinion was critical, and the word “hooded” was for a short time in general use as an epithet applicable to false testimony. During the American Revolution (1775–1783) in HMS Queen, in 1782 he took part in Richard Howe’s relief of the Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779–1783). In the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797)— of most of the major European powers to contain Revolutionary France — Hood, in HMS Royal George, was third in command to Richard Howe at the Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794). On June 23, 1795, with his flag in Queen Charlotte, Hood fought Louis Thomas de Villaret (see entry) off the Île de Groix, Britanny, and captured three French ships. The navy’s criticism of him for failing to win a more resounding victory was muted by the acclaim of the British public. He was involved in attempting to resolve the Spithead Mutiny (April 16–May 15, 1797), which was resolved by Richard Howe. He supervised the Brest blockade from 1798 until he retired in 1800.

Sources: “Isle of Wight Shipwrecks: Sir Robert Holmes.” BBC Homepage. www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A 894198. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13600. “Robert Holmes (Royal Navy officer)” (July 14, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:12, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Robert_Holmes_(Royal_Navy_officer)&oldid=225 496652.

Sources: “Admiral Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport.” Book Rags. www.bookrags.com/wiki/Alexan der_Hood,_1st_Viscount_Bridport. “Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport” (August 13, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:29, August 19, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alex ander_Hood,_1st_Viscount_Bridport&oldid=2316862 98. “History of H.M.S. Hood: Origin of the Name ‘Hood.’” The Great Naval Hood Family, HMS Hood Association. www.hmshood.com/history/family.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/13671?docPos=1. “Mosterton and the Hood Family.” Dorset Online Parish Clerks. www.opcdo rset.com/MostertonFiles/MostertonHoodFamily.htm.

HOOD, ALEXANDER, VISCOUNT BRIDPORT (1726/7–1814) (BRITAIN)

Alexander Bridport Hood entered the Royal Navy in 1741 and was midshipman (1743); lieutenant (1746); commander and flag captain for Sir Charles Saunders (see entry) (1756); rear admiral (1780); vice admiral and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1787); created Baron Bridport (1794); vice admiral of England (1795); commander-in-chief, Channel Fleet (1795–1780); and created Viscount Bridport (1801). Hood, in the frigate Minerva, fought at the Battle of Quiberon Bay on November 20, 1759, and two years later after a long struggle, recaptured the 60-gunship

HOOD, SIR HORACE LAMBERT ALEXANDER (1870–1916) (BRITAIN)

The great-great-grandson of Admiral Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood (see entry), Horace Lambert Alexander Hood was born in London and graduated from HMS Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon (1885). He was lieutenant (1890); commander (1898); captain (1903); naval attaché to Washington, D.C. and the Common-

Hood wealth (1907–1909); officer commanding, Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight (1910–1913); rear admiral (1913); and naval secretary to the first lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill ( June 1914). Hood served in the Mediterranean Squadron and was aboard the small cruiser HMS Calliope during the Samoan Hurricane (March 15–16, 1889), in which the Calliope was the only survivor of seven foreign warships in Apia Harbor. On account of his gunnery expertise he was recommended to the Egyptian government, which provided him with a gunboat to command the Nile Campaign of 1898 in the Mahdist War (1881–1899) between the Mahdist Sudanese and the Egyptian and later British forces. During these operations, Hood was second in command to David Beatty (see entry) and provided artillery support at the Battle of Atbara (April 8, 1898) and the Battle of Omdurman (September 2, 1898), commanded by General Sir Horatio Kitchener (1850–1916). In April 1904, Hood led a force of 754 sailors, Marines and soldiers of the Hampshire Regiment against the Ilig Dervishes of Somaliland, driving the dervishes into the hinterland. Soon after the outbreak of World War I (1914), Hood played a part in helping Belgian forces hold the coastline against the Germans. At the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916), commanding three battle cruisers and with his flag in the HMS Invincible, Hood’s forces rescued the light cruiser HMS Chester, which had been ambushed by four German cruisers and was in danger of sinking. A shell from the SMS Derfflinger hit Invincible’s main magazine and the resulting explosion blew the ship in two. Hood was not among the six survivors of Invincible’s crew of 1,021. The wreck is now a protected war grave. Hood’s name, with all those lost on Invincible, is inscribed on the Portsmouth Naval Memorial on Southsea Common, which is administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. In 1818, Hood’s widow launched the ill-fated battle cruiser HMS Hood, named for Horace Hood’s ancestors. The ship with 1,415 hands was lost in the Denmark Strait on 24 May 1941 fighting the German Battleship Bismarck. Admiral Hood was Distinguished Service Order; Member, Royal Victorian Order; and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (posthumously). Sources: “Hurricane at Apia, Samoa, 15–16 March 1889.” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/ev-1880s/ev1889/sam-hur.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33967. “Portsmouth Naval Memorial.” Stephen’s Study Room.

170 www.stephen-stratford.co.uk/portsmouth.htm. “Who’s Who: Sir Horace Hood.” Firstworldwar.com. www.firstworldwar.com/bio/hood.htm.

HOOD, SAMUEL, VISCOUNT HOOD (1724–1816) (BRITAIN)

The son of Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in Somerset, Samuel Hood entered the Royal Navy in 1741 and was midshipman (1743); lieutenant (1746); commander (1754); captain (1756); commander-in-chief, North America (1767); created a baronet, commissioner at Portsmouth and governor of the naval academy (1778); rear admiral (1780); member of Parliament for Westminster (1784); vice admiral (1787); commander-in-chief, Mediterranean (1793–1794); and admiral (1794). Hood saw early service in the North Sea, on the North America Station, in the English Channel, and in the Mediterranean. On November 19, 1746, while on the frigate Winchelsea cruising off the Isles of Scilly (west of England), he helped in the capture of the French frigate Subtile, in the course of which he was wounded in the hand. In 1757, while in temporary command of the Antelope, he drove the French gunship Aquilon ashore over a reef in Audierne Bay, Brittany. A week later he captured two privateers, the crews of which he brought in as prisoners, and was rewarded by being given the command of the frigate Bideford. He was engaged under George Rodney (see entry) in 1759 by putting an end to the French invasion of England (Battle of Lagos Bay, August 18, 1759). On 12 February 1759, en route to North America, Hood, commanding the frigate Vestal off Cape Finisterre, Spain, engaged the French frigate Bellona. After a three-hour battle, the Bellona, having been completely dismasted, struck her colors. The Vestal was so badly damaged she was forced to return with her prize to England. In 1780, during the American Revolution (1775– 1783), Hood became second in command under George Rodney, West Indies and the North America Station. Hood joined Thomas Graves (see entry) in the unsuccessful effort to relieve the army at Yorktown when the British fleet was driven off by the French Admiral Comte de Grasse at the Battle of the Chesapeake (September 5, 1781). Hood was in independent command — because of Rodney’s absence in England — when de Grasse attacked the British islands of St. Kitts and Nevis. After initial defeats, on April 9 and 12 near Dominica, Hood, was victorious. He was made an Irish peer for his share in this victory. He had no more service at sea and was governor of Greenwich Hospital (1796– 1816). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press,

171 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13678?docPos=1. “Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood” (July 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:20, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Samuel_Hood,_1st_Viscount_Hood&oldid=22589 0538. “Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ 271200/Samuel-Hood-1st-Viscount-Hood-of-Whitley.

HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762–1814) (BRITAIN)

Samuel Hood entered the Royal Navy in 1776 on board the Courageux with his cousin Viscount Samuel Hood (see entry). In 1778 he was moved into the Robust with another cousin, Viscount Alexander Hood (see entry), and was at the Battle of Ushant ( July 27, 1778). In 1780 he was appointed to the Barfleur, again with Viscount Samuel Hood, going out to the West Indies to take part in several actions against Comte de Grasse (see entry, de Grasetilly), including the Battle of the Saintes (April 9 and 12, 1782) and the subsequent capture of the French squadron a few days later. On February 3, 1791, while lying in St. Anne’s Harbor, Jamaica, he rescued three men from a wreck during a violent storm. The House of Assembly of Jamaica voted a hundred guineas for a sword to be presented to him, to mark their appreciation of this gallant act. Early in 1793, after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), Hood entered Toulon Harbor not knowing that his cousin Viscount Samuel Hood had withdrawn. With a display of brilliant seamanship he extricated his ship; that particular engagement of the war was a French victory. At the Battle of the Nile (August 1, 1798), in the Zealous, Hood took on the French ship Guerrier, which within twelve minutes was completely beaten, most of her guns disabled, and half her ship’s company killed or wounded. He saw further action at the Battle of Algeciras Bay, near Gibraltar ( July 8–12, 1801), and the action in the Straits of Gibraltar. He was commissioner in Trinidad and Commodore, the Leeward Islands, responsible for the garrisoning of Diamond Rock, a 570-foot high basalt island located south of Fort-de-France, the main port of the Caribbean island of Martinique. (Dudley Pope’s 1976 book Ramage’s Diamond portrays Hood’s extraordinary feat of swinging guns to the top of Diamond Rock.) He lost an arm in the blockade of Rochefort in 1805 and was awarded an annual pension of £500. He was made Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (1804) and promoted to rear admiral (1805). With his flag in the Centaur, Hood took part in the Russo-Swedish

Hopper War (1805). King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (1778–1837) rewarded Hood with the Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword. He was created a baronet (1809) and made vice admiral (1811). His last command was of the East Indies Station; he died in Madras, India. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13677. “Sir Samuel Hood, 1st Baronet” (March 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:25, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sir_ Samuel_Hood,_1st_Baronet&oldid=200371359.

HOPPER, GRACE MURRAY (1906–1992) (USA)

Born Grace Brewster Murray in New York City, Grace Hopper gained a bachelor of arts in mathematics and physics from Vassar College, New York (1928). From Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, she gained a master of arts (1930) and Ph.D., both in mathematics (1934). Hopper was associate professor, Vassar College (1931–1943); mathematical officer, U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordinance (1944–1946); senior mathematician, EckertMachly Computer Corporation (1949–1967); systems engineer, Sperry Corporation (1952–1964); and senior consultant, Digital Equipment Corporation (1986–1988). Hopper joined the Naval Reserve in 1943. As lieutenant she was assigned to the Bureau of Ordnance’s Computation Project at Harvard University (1944), where she worked on Mark I, the first largescale automatic calculator and a precursor of electronic computers. At the end of the war she remained in the reserves and continued to work on the development of the Mark II and the Mark III calculators. She later returned to the Navy, where she worked on validation software for the programming language COBOL: common business-oriented language. Her philosophy was that computer programs could and should be written in a language that was close to English rather than in machine code; COBOL reflected that philosophy. She was promoted to captain in 1972 and retired from the Navy with the rank of commander in 1966, but she was recalled to active duty the following year to help standardize the Navy’s computer languages. At the age of 79, she was the oldest officer on active U.S. naval duty and when she finally retired in 1986 she was rear admiral. She was elected a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (1962), was named the first computer science Man of the Year by the Data Processing Management Association (1969), and was awarded the National Medal of Technology (1991).

Horton Her honors and awards include Phi Beta Kappa (1928); Legion of Merit (1973); Distinguished Fellow, British Computer Society (1973); Navy Meritorious Service Medal (1980); Defense Distinguished Service Medal (1986); and 47 honorary degrees. In 1986, President Ronald Reagan awarded Hopper the prestigious National Medal of Technology at a ceremony in the White House. Admiral Hopper was buried with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia; Section 59, grave 973. Because of the breadth of her accomplishments and her naval rank, she is sometimes referred to as “Amazing Grace.” Sources: “Grace Hopper” (August 3, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:57, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Grace_Hopper&oldid=229616436. Norman, Rebecca. “Grace Murray Hopper.” Agnes Scott College: Biographies of Women Mathematicians. www.agnesscott. edu/LRIDDLE/WOMEN/hopper.htm. “Grace Murray Hopper.” Yale University: Computer Science. http: //cs-www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/hopperstory.html. “Grace Murray Hopper.” Distinguished Women of Past and Present. www.distinguishedwomen. com/biographies/hopper.html. “Grace Murray Hopper, Rear Admiral, United States Navy.” Arlington National Cemetery Website. www.arlingtoncemetery.net/ ghopper.htm.

HORTON, SIR MAX KENNEDY (1883–1951) (BRITAIN)

Born at Maelog, Anglesey, Wales, Max Kennedy Horton joined the Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1898 and was sub-lieutenant (1903); lieutenant (1905); lieutenant-commander (1912); commander (1917); captain (1920); rear admiral (1932); vice admiral (1937); and admiral and flag officer, submarines (1940). Although Horton served most of his naval career in submarines, in 1910, in the cruiser Duke of Edinburgh, Horton was awarded the Board of Trade silver medal for heroism in saving life when the P&O liner Delhi was wrecked in a gale off Cape Spartel, Morocco. During World War I he commanded the submarine E9 of 800 tons, one of the first ocean-going submarines. His first “kill” was on September 13, 1914, when he sank the German light cruiser SMS Hela, about six miles south of the Heligoland Bight — the first enemy warship to be destroyed by a British submarine. In early October he sank the German destroyer S116 off the mouth of the heavily guarded German river Ems. These incidents characterize Horton’s daring and inspiring leadership during World War I. In the inter-war years, Horton made his main task to bring the reserve fleet up to full strength for the war he saw coming, and by midsummer 1939 the whole fleet was ready to sail. At the end of

172 March 1940, he concentrated all his submarines in the southern approaches to the Norwegian coast with orders to sink at sight; twenty-one enemy transports and supply ships were sent to the bottom, two cruisers were sunk and a pocket battleship was severely damaged. In June, the battle cruiser Gneisenau was put out of action when it was badly needed for the proposed invasion of England. Later in the Mediterranean his submarines helped to bring Erwin Rommel’s army to a standstill by wrecking transports and disrupting seaborne supplies. Horton established a school of sea-air co-operation in Northern Ireland, and by April 1943 the offensive to destroy U-boats near their bases in the Bay of Biscay was started The success was shared equally by warships and aircraft, mainly by British and Canadian sea and air forces, and at the end of May, Karl Dönitz (see entry), withdrew his U-boats from the mid–Atlantic. Horton was named to the Distinguished Service Order (1914, with first bar, 1917, and second bar 1920); and was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1939) and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1945). His foreign awards: from Russia, the Order of St. Vladimir with swords, the Order of St. Ann with swords and diamonds, and the Order of St. George; and from France, Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Sources: “Fighting the U-boats, Allied Naval officers, Admiral Sir Max Kennedy Horton, RN, 29th November 1883–30th July 1951. Uboat.net. http:// uboat.net/allies/personnel/horton.htm. “Horton, Sir Max Kennedy (1883–1951), Admiral.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/locreg/HORTON1.shtml. “Max Kennedy Horton” (August 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:56, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Kenne dy_Horton&oldid=232048894. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/34001.

HOSOGAYA, BOSHIRO (1888–1964) (JAPAN)

Boshiro Hosogaya was born in Nozawa, Nagano Prefecture, and graduated as midshipman from the Japanese Imperil Naval Academy, Hiroshima (1908). He was sub-lieutenant (1910); lieutenant junior grade (1911); lieutenant (1914); lieutenant commander (1920); commander (1924); captain (1929); rear admiral (1935); commandant of both the communications and torpedo schools (1935– 1936); vice admiral and commander-in-chief, Ryojun Naval District (1939); commander, First China Expeditionary Fleet (1940); and commanderin-chief, Imperial Japanese Navy 5th Fleet (1941).

173 Hosogaya served as a staff officer on the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff (1920) and on the martial law headquarters for the KantÉ region after the Great KantÉ Earthquake (September 1, 1923). This was one of the world’s worst earthquakes, estimated between 7.9 and 8.4 on the Richter scale and thousands of fatalities with many thousands missing, presumed dead. Hosogaya visited the United States and Europe in 1927–1928 and was then executive officer on the battleship Hy¨ga, and next captain of the cruiser ChÉkai until 1934, when he assumed command of the battleship Mutsu. Hosogaya directed the Battle of the Aleutian Islands, part of Alaska ( June 3, 1942–August 15, 1943). At the Battle of the Komandorski Islands (in the Aleutian Islands) (March 27, 1943) Hosogaya, unable to defeat the smaller American force led by Charles H. McMorris (see entry), abruptly broke off the action and fled. Hosogaya had thought that shell splashes from colored dye shells meant he was under bomber attack. He was removed from command and from active service; his retreat from an inferior American force was interpreted as cowardice. He saw out the war as governor of the Japanese territory South Seas Agency on the Island of Truk. Sources: “1923 Great Kant_ Earthquake” (August 18, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:48, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=1923_Great_Kant%C5%8D_ea rthquake&oldid=232737963. “Hosogaya, Boshiro, Vice Admiral.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Graduates of Naval Academy Class 36th. http://homepage2.nifty. com/nishidah/e/px36.htm#v010. “Great Kant_ Earthquake.” Schauwecker’s Guide to Japan. www.japan-gui de.com/a/earthquake.

HOWARD, CHARLES, EARL OF NOTTINGHAM (1536–1624) (BRITAIN)

Charles Howard, a cousin of Elizabeth I (reigned 1558–1603), is said to have served at sea under his father, Baron Howard of Effingham and first earl of Nottingham (1536–1624) during the reign of Queen Mary (1553–1558). In 1573 he succeeded to his father’s title of Lord Howard of Effingham and was installed a Knight of the Garter. In 1566 he was one of the commissioners appointed for the trial of Mary Queen of Scots (born 1542 and executed 1567) and it was he who urged Elizabeth to finally sign Mary’s death warrant. In 1585 he was made lord admiral of England, despite having only limited experience at sea, and hoisted his flag on board the Ark. He was in command of Elizabeth’s navy when the Spanish Armada was defeated by the English

Howard naval force (August 8, 1588). Although he was not as talented a seaman as his second in command, Sir Francis Drake (see entry), his prudent leadership at the helm of his flagship, the Ark, contributed to the eventual defeat of the armada. After the victory, Howard made sure that Drake got a large share of the credit. In spite of the great victory, Elizabeth dallied in paying the sailors and many of them starved or died of disease. Howard drew heavily on his own resources to help the survivors and proposed the setting up a fund to pay mariners a pension, which was founded by the queen in 1590 and was known as the “Chatham Chest”; it was possibly the first occupational pension. In 1596, he and the Earl of Essex (1566–1601) forestalled another Spanish attack, this time with an assault on Cadiz. Howard was created earl of Nottingham in recognition of his services — an honor that fuelled the resentment of Essex against him. In 1599, at a time of yet further anxiety over Spain, Howard was given the highly exceptional office of lord lieutenant general of England. During the reign of James I (1603–1625), Howard served on many missions, including a spectacularly stylish peace delegation to Spain in 1605. He was on the commission for the trial of the men implicated in the Gunpowder Plot. On November 5, 1605, a group of Roman Catholics led by Guy Fawkes plotted to blow up the Houses of Parliament and with them James I ( James VI of Scotland), the first of the Stuart Kings who was a Protestant. On February 14, 1613, when Princess Elizabeth (1596–1662, daughter of James I) married Frederick V Elector Palatine (1596–1632), King of Bohemia from 1620, she was escorted to Flushing by a squadron under Howard’s command. This was Howard’s last naval service. Sources: “Charles Howard.” Spartacus Educational. www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDhowardLHA.htm. “Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham” (July 7, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:20, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=Charles_Howard,_1st_Earl_of_Not tingham&oldid=224198527. “Charles Howard of Effingham, 10th (1st Howard) Earl of Nottingham (1536–1624).” BBC Home. www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/howard_charles.shtml. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ar ticle/13885?docPos=1 “Gunpowder Plot of 1605.” History Learning Site. www.historylearningsite.co.uk/gun powder_plot_of_1605.htm.

HOWARD, MICHELLE JANINE (1960–) (USA)

Michelle J. Howard was the first African American woman to command a ship in the United

Howe States Navy, and when she was promoted to rear admiral lower half in 2006, she was the first woman graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy to gain this rank. She earned a master’s degree in military arts and sciences from the Army’s Command and General Staff College in 1998. She took on difficult engineering assignments in the fleet and commanded men who had seldom worked with a woman and probably had never taken orders from a female. Howard first served on a submarine supply and repair ship, then went on to attend engineering training for surface warfare officers in Coronado, California. Within a few years, the Navy opened up ammunition and fuel ships to women, and Howard was chief engineer of the USS Mount Hood in Operation Desert Shield (1990–1991) and Operation Desert Storm (starting in 2003), both in Iraq. Combat ships were opened to women in 1993, and in 1996 she was the first woman to become second in command in one. She was executive officer USS Tortuga (LSD-46) (1996) as part of Operation Joint Endeavor to Bosnia. In 1999, Howard became the first black woman to take the helm of a Navy ship as captain of USS Rushmore. She led an amphibious squadron that deployed to support tsunami relief in Indonesia 2004–2005. She was deputy director of the Navy’s expeditionary warfare division, managing a $5 billion annual budget that provides resources to various communities in the fleet. Since December 2006 she has been senior military assistant to the secretary of the navy. Included in her awards are Secretary of the Navy/ Navy League Captain Winifred Collins Award, 1987; Navy Commendation Medal (four awards); Navy Achievement Medal; National Defense Medal; Armed Forces Service Medal; NATO Medal; Kuwaiti Liberation Medal; and Saudi Arabia Defense Medal. Sources: “Michelle Howard.” Answers.com. www.ans wers.com/topic/michelle-howard. “Michelle J. Howard” (April 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:31, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Michelle_J._Howard&oldid=20 7197131. “Rear Admiral (Select) Michelle Howard, Senior Military Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy.” Navy.mil: United States Biography. www.navy.mil/navy data/bios/navybio.asp?bioID=356.

HOWE, RICHARD, EARL HOWE (1726–1799) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, Richard Howe succeed to the tile of fourth viscount after the death of his elder brother Brigadier George Howe, killed at the Battle Ticonderoga on July 8, 1758, at the southern tip of Lake Champlain in the United States. Richard Howe joined the Royal Navy in 1740 and was lieutenant (1745); captain (1746); rear admiral

174 commander-in-chief, Mediterranean (1770); vice admiral (1775); commander-in-chief, North America Station (1776); admiral (1782); first lord of the Admiralty (1783–1788); vice admiral of England (1792–1796); and admiral of the fleet and general of Marines (1796). Richard Howe earned the nickname “Black Dick;” some say it was because of his swarthy looks, others that he was said never to smile unless a battle was about to begin. His mastery of combat on the high seas meant he rarely lost a battle. He was credited with firing the first shots of the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756– 1763), and he led the English fleet to victory over the French at the Battle of Quiberon Bay (November 20, 1759) off the coast of France near St. Nazaire. He commanded the British sea forces during the American Revolution (1775–1783); his younger brother, William (1729–1814, and later fifth viscount on the death of Richard) commanded the land forces. During this campaign, Richard Howe successfully resisted a superior French force led by Charles d’Estaing (see entry) and forced the passage of the Delaware River. Howe rescued the Gibraltar garrison from Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779–1783) by a combined French-Spanish fleet. At the Battle of the First of June (May 28–29 and June 1, 1794), Howe’s fleet clashed with a similar-sized French force off the coast of France. Howe’s ships captured six of the enemy and sunk two more, without incurring a single loss. The English fleet returned in triumph to Portsmouth to be greeted by King George III (reigned 1760–1820), who asked Admiral Howe to name his reward, suggesting that a dukedom might be appropriate. Howe asked instead to be made a Knight of the Garter. The king agreed, but as there is a fixed membership, he had to wait for a vacancy, which duly arrived on June 1, 1797. Howe played a vital part in resolving the Spithead Mutiny (April 16– May 15, 1797, see Colpoys, John). Horatio Nelson (see entry) paid tribute to Howe as great master in tactics and bravery. Places named after Howe include Cape Howe, on the New South Wales–Victoria border, Australia; Lord Howe Island, off the east coast of Australia; and Howe Sound, British Columbia, Canada. Sources: “Admiral Richard Howe.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GScid= 658444&GRid=12452562&. “Howe, Richard.” Answers.com. www.answers.com/topic/earl-howe. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/13963. “Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe” (July 29, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:06, August 20, 2008, from en. wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Howe,_1st_ Earl_Howe&oldid=228519344. “Richard Howe, Earl

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Howe” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/273523/Richard-Howe-Earl-HoweBaron-Howe-of-Langar.

Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/14067.

HUGHES, SIR EDWARD (1720?–1794) (BRITAIN)

HUGHES-HALLETT, JOHN (1901–1972) (BRITAIN)

Born at Hertford, Hertfordshire, Edward Hughes entered the Royal Navy in 1735 and was lieutenant (1740); captain (1748); commodore and commander-in-chief, East Indies (1773–1783); rear admiral (1778); vice admiral (1780); and admiral (1793). He saw action at the capture of Porto Bello, Panama (November 21, 1739); the Battle of Cartagena (March-May, 1741); the indecisive Battle of Toulon (February 22–23, 1744); the Battle of Louisbourg, Nova Scotia ( July 26, 1758); and the storming of the Fortress of Louisbourg and the subsequent Battle of Quebec (September 13, 1759). In 1778 on his return journey to the East Indies Station with a large squadron, he recaptured the English settlements at Goree, Senegal, in West Africa from the French. At Mangalore — the chief port city of the state of Karnataka, India — he destroyed a number of armed vessels fitted out by Hyder Ali to prey on English commerce (December 1780). (Hyder Ali, 1722–1782, was the ruler of the kingdom of Mysore in southern India.) In November 1781, Hughes cooperated with the troops under General Sir Hector Munro (1726– 1805) in capturing the coastal town of Negapatnam (now Nagapattinam) on the Bay of Bengal from the Dutch. In January 1782 Hughes captured the fort of Trincomalee (Sri Lanka) just before the squadron of the French Admiral Pierre Andrew de Suffren (see entry) arrived in the neighborhood. The fort has an uneven history, at various times held by the Dutch, English, and French, and finally in 1795 the British recaptured and held it until Sri Lanka’s independence in 1948. Indian waters in 1782 were the scene of one of the most famous of naval campaigns. No fewer than five fiercely contested general actions (four of them within seven months) were fought by the English and French fleets, neither gaining a decisive advantage. Hughes returned to England in 1783, having acquired in India a huge fortune estimated at over £40,000 a year, with which he supported many worthy causes. Sources: Charnock, John. “Admiral Sir Edward Hughes” in Biographia Navalis or Impartial Memoirs of the Lives and Characters of Officers of the Navy of Great Britain. Vol. 6, 1798, page 65. www.jjhc.info/hughesad miralsiredward1794.htm. “Edward Hughes (Royal Navy Officer)” (March 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:32, August 20, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Hu ghes_(Royal_Navy_officer)&oldid=199489877. Oxford

Born in Ealing, West London, John HughesHallett received his naval education at the Royal Naval Colleges at Osborne, Isle of Wight, and at the Britannia Training-ship Dartmouth, Devon. He served briefly in World War I as a midshipman in the battle cruiser Lion in 1918. As a lieutenant he entered the torpedo branch; this branch had overall responsibility for torpedoes, mines, and all electrical installations in ships. When he was torpedo officer of the aircraft carrier Courageous (1933–1935) he helped design a night deck-landing system, but the Admiralty rejected his idea for a gliding torpedo that could be dropped from an airplane. At the start of the World War II he was executive officer of the cruiser Devonshire and was mentioned in dispatches for his part in the Norwegian campaign (April–June 1940). In 1940, then a captain, he was an ideas man on how to defend British ports and beaches. He was also chairman of a committee studying the use of radar; he was again mentioned in dispatches in March 1941. Lord Louis Mountbatten (later Earl Mountbatten of Burma) (see entry) recommended Hughes-Hallett as naval adviser to combined operations in December 1941; he helped plan the St. Nazaire Raid (March 28, 1942) and commanded the naval side of the disastrous Dieppe Raid (August 19, 1942) in which Canadian troops bore the brunt of the massacre. He also helped develop the Mulberry Harbors — two prefabricated or artificial military harbors, which were taken across the English Channel from Britain with the invading army in sections and assembled off the coast of Normandy as part of the Normandy (D-Day) invasion of France ( June 1944). Hughes-Hallett was commodore commanding the Channel Assault Force and naval chief of staff (X) (1942–1943), and head of the naval branch at Supreme Allied Command (1943). Promoted to rear admiral (1950), he was vice controller of the navy (1950–1952) and as vice admiral was flag officer, Heavy Squadron, Home Fleet (1952–1953). He resigned in September 1954 and was a member of Parliament for East Croydon (1954–1955) and for North East Croydon (1955–1964), and was parliamentary secretary (transport) 1961–1964. His honors included Distinguished Service Order (1942) and Companion, Order of the Bath (1945). Sources: ”Hughes-Hallett, John (1901–1972), Vice Admiral.” King’s College London: Liddell Hart Centre

Hunter for Military Archives. http://clearingatkings.com/lhcma/ locreg/HALLETT.shtml. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31261. Greenwood, Gavin. “The Dieppe Raid: A Tragedy in 1942.” Culture 24. www.24hourmuseum.org.uk/trlout_ gfx_en/TRA13494.html. “Mulberry Harbor.” Combined Operations. www.combinedops.com/Mulberry %20Harbours.htm.

HUNTER, CHRISTINE S. (USA)

Christine S. Hunter, from Worcester, Massachusetts, gained a bachelor of arts and doctor of medicine degrees from Boston University, Massachusetts (1980), and was senior medical officer aboard the submarine tender USS Hunley (AS-31) in Holy Loch, Scotland. She gained certificates in internal medicine and completed a fellowship in hematology and oncology at Naval Medical Center San Diego, California (1983). Hunter was assistant chairman of internal medicine and assistant program director for the internal medicine residency at San Diego (1992–1995), and director, Medical Services (1995–1998). While she was commanding officer at Naval Hospital Bremerton, Washington (2000–2002), her staff was involved in evacuating casualties from the Seattle earthquake (2000), and she was deployed with Fleet Hospital 8 in the early stages Operation Iraqi Freedom, the Second Gulf War (began 2003). While Pacific Fleet surgeon (2003–2004), she developed the concept of operations, which means the ability to carry out resuscitative surgery aboard small combatant ships; the Expeditionary Resuscitative Surgical System is now carried out in the Navy. She was made rear admiral in 2004. Some of her many responsibilities as chief of staff, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery in Washington, D.C. (2004–2006), were the deployment of medical personnel in support of the Global War on Terrorism, organizing medical support for the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia, and other hurricane relief missions. She became the first female commanding officer of Navy Medicine West and Naval Medical San Diego in 2007. Included in her awards are the Legion of Merit (5); Defense Meritorious Service Medal; Meritorious Service Medal; Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal (2); Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal (2); and the 2008 Athena Pinnacle President’s Award. Sources: “Christine Hunter.” San Diego Magazine, May 2007. www.sandiegomagazine.com/media/SanDiego-Magazine/May-2007/Christine-Hunter. “Commander of NMW Wins Top Athena Pinnacle Award.” Naval Medical Center San Diego, May 20, 2008. www nmcsd.med.navy.mil/news/news_view.cfm?nrid=359. “Rear Admiral Christine S. Hunter, Commander, Navy

176 Medicine West, Naval Medical Center San Diego.” United States Navy Biography. www.navy.mil/navydata/ bios/navybio.asp?bioID=151.

HYDE, SIR GEORGE FRANCIS (1877–1937) (AUSTRALIA)

George Francis Hyde was born at Southsea, Portsmouth, England. After two years in the Merchant Navy, he was commissioned as a midshipman in the Royal Naval Reserve (1896) and was sub-lieutenant (1901); lieutenant (1902); lieutenant, Royal Navy (1905, with seniority from 1902); commander, Royal Australian Navy (1912); commander of the light cruiser HMS Adventure, Coast of Ireland Command, and captain of the fleet to Vice Admiral Sir Lewis Bayly (see entry) (1915– 1917). In 1917 he was mentioned in dispatches and promoted to captain; he then was senior naval officer, Mercantile Movements Division in the Admiralty, and director of the war staff, Naval Office, Melbourne (1918–1919). In further duty, Hyde was commander of the light cruiser HMAS Brisbane (1919–1921); second naval member of the Australian Naval Board (1923–1924); aide-de-camp to the governor general (1919–1924); commodore, Australian Squadron (1926); honorary aide-de-camp to King George V (reigned 1910–1926), the first Australian naval officer so appointed; rear admiral (1928); commander, 3rd Battle Squadron of the British Home Fleet (1930); first naval member of the Australian Naval Board (1931); vice admiral (1932); head of the Royal Australian Navy (1931); and admiral (1936). In 1913 Hyde joined the new battle-cruiser dreadnought HMAS Australia in England and sailed to Australia. In 1914, Australia’s objective was to seek out and destroy the German Pacific Squadron. At the London Naval Conference in 1930, Hyde was an adviser to the Australian delegate James Fenton (1864–1950). When Hyde took over as professional head of the Royal Australian Navy (1931), his unshakable belief was that it was essential to strengthen the Royal Australian Navy in line with the developments in the Royal Navy. Hyde died of pneumonia and, in accordance with his wishes, was given a private funeral service and cremated instead of a ceremonial naval funeral. Hyde was commander, Order of the British Empire (1926); Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1927); and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1934). Sources: Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition. www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A090416b. htm. “George Hyde” (August 1, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:44, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George _Hyde&oldid=229285296.

177 IJUIN, BARON MATSUJI (1893–1944) (JAPAN)

Born in Tokyo, the son of Fleet Admiral Baron Ijuin GorÉ, Matsuji Ijuin graduated as a midshipman from the Japanese Imperil Naval Academy, Hiroshima (1915), and was ensign (1916); sub-lieutenant (1918); created baron on the death of his father and promoted to lieutenant (1921); lieutenant commander (?1929); commander (1934); captain (1938); rear admiral (1943); and vice admiral (posthumously). By 1926, Ijuin had sailed to most parts of the world. He specialized in torpedoes and submarine tactics and held several destroyer commands in the early 1930s. He was executive officer on the light cruiser Abukuma (1935) and was given command of the heavy cruisers Nachi (1939) and the Atago (1941). At the end of December 1942, he was given command of the battleship KongÉ. In 1943, Ijuin commanded Destroyer Squadron 3, based at Rabaul, New Britain, during the Solomon Islands Campaign ( January 1942–August 21, 1945). He was the main Japanese commander at the minor Battle off Horaniu (August 17–18, 1943) and the larger Naval Battle of Vella Lavella (October 6, 1943) in the Solomon Islands, during which time he successfully evacuated the 600 man Japanese garrison from the island of Vella Lavella while repulsing attacks by American naval forces under Admiral Frank R. Walker (1899–1976). During the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay (November 2, 1943), near the island of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, Ijuin survived the sinking of the cruiser Sendai. He was killed in combat off of the island of Saipan in the Pacific Ocean when his flagship, the patrol boat Iki, was torpedoed and sunk. Sources: “Matsuji Ijuin” (June 13, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:57, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Matsuji_Ijuin&oldid=219162317. “Ijuin, Matsuji.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Graduates of Naval Academy class 43rd. http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px43. htm#v002.

INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1820–1894) (BRITAIN)

Born at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, Edward Augustus Inglefield graduated from Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, in 1834 and was lieutenant (1842); commander (1845); captain (1853); rear admiral (1869); second in command, Mediterranean, and superintendent, Malta dockyard (1872–1875); vice admiral (1875); knighted (1877); commanderin-chief, North America Station (1878–1879); admiral (1879); and retired (1885). On November 20, 1845, in command of the sloop Comus he took part in the Battle of Vuelta de Obligado between the Argentine Confederacy and an Anglo-French fleet.

Inoue The objective was to force a passage up the River Parana, Argentina. Although the Anglo-French fleet did breach the blockade, the effect was that the Argentineans proved their point — that foreign fleets needed their permission to sail their rivers. In 1852 he commanded Lady Franklin’s yacht Isabel on her cruise to Smith Sound — an Arctic sea passage between Greenland and Canada’s northernmost island, Ellesmere Island, which links Baffin Bay with Kane Basin and forms part of the Nares Strait. Lady Hamilton was the widow of the Arctic explorer Sir John Franklin (see entry); she was searching for her husband, who went missing while searching for the North-West Passage. From 1852 to 1854 Inglefield made several more trips to the Arctic and in 1853 brought home the news of the discovery of the Northwest Passage by Robert McClure (1807–1873). In 1843 Inglefield was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; awarded the silver medal of the Paris Geographical Society; and presented with a diamond snuff box by the emperor of France. During the Crimean War (1853–1856) he was captain of HMS Firebrand and took part in the siege of Sevastopol (September 1854–September 1855) and in the Battle of Kinburn (October 17, 1855) and the capture of the fort there. Inglefield was the inventor of the hydraulic steering gear, which was highly thought of in the navy till superseded by steam. He was Companion, Order of the Bath (1869) and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1877). Sources: “Edward Augustus Inglefield” (August 7, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:24, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/in dex.php?title=Edward_Augustus_Inglefield&oldid=230 417443. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14395. Inglefield, E.A., George Dickie, and Peter C Sutherland. A Summer Search for Sir John Franklin; With a Peep into the Polar Basin. London: T. Harrison, 1853.

INOUE, SHIGEYOSHI (1889–1975) (JAPAN)

Shigeyoshi Inoue came from the Tohoku region of Japan and graduated as a midshipman from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, Hiroshima (1909), and was ensign (1910); sub-lieutenant (1912); lieutenant (1915); lieutenant commander (1921); commander (1925); captain (1929); rear admiral (1935); vice commander, Imperial Japanese Navy, Third Fleet, which covered the China theater of operations (1939); commander, Aviation Bureau (1940); commander, Fourth Fleet (1941); and commander, Imperial Japanese Naval Academy (1942).

Inoue Inoue was vice minister of the Navy in the closing stages of World War II, was promoted to full admiral on 15 May 1945, and officially retired on October 15, 1945. As a midshipman, Inoue spent a whole year cruising in the Far East with the Imperial Japanese Navy–protected cruiser the Soya, and as ensign aboard the heavy cruiser Kurama he attended the coronation ceremonies for King George V in London in 1911. In World War I, Japan fought against Germany but Inoue was not involved in combat. Between 1918 and 1921 he was military attaché to Switzerland and to France. He learned both German and French and in 1919 was among the diplomatic delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, where he made use of his knowledge of German. He was naval attaché to Italy in 1927–1929. Like his mentor Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (see entry), he came out strongly against any alliance with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany and opposed any form of fascism and overseas expansionism. As with Yamamoto, he was a strong advocate of naval aviation. A brilliant strategist, Inoue contributed greatly to the planning that preceded the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and in the subsequent Pacific War (1941–1945). The site of his home in Yokosuka, where he taught English and music to children, is now a public park. He was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun (first class) in 1940. Sources: “Inoue, Shigeyoshi.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Graduates of Naval Academy class 37th. http:// homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px37.htm#a001. “Shigeyoshi Inoue” (August 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:34, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shige yoshi_Inoue&oldid=232138590. “Shigeyoshi Inoue.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page =gr&GRid=6133992.

INOUE, YOSHIKA (1845–1929) (JAPAN)

Born in what is now part of Kagoshima City, Yoshika Inoue took part in the Anglo-Satsuma War (August 15–17, 1863) (see Ito, Sukeyuki). After recovering from wounds, he enlisted in the Satsuma domain Navy, and as commander of the Satsuma warship Kasuga, played an important role in the naval campaigns of the Boshin War (1868–1869) to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate. He then joined the Imperial Japanese Navy and was lieutenant (1871); lieutenant commander (1872); executive officer of the ironclad Ryujo (1872); and commanding officer of the Kasuga (1872). On the gunboat Unyo he attacked the Korean fortress of Choji-jin in September 1875, which resulted in many Korean casualties. It was alleged that the Koreans had insulted the Japanese flag. Inoue was commander (1876); commanding officer of the

178 sloop Seiki (1876); the ironclad Azuma (1879); the corvette Asama (1880); captain (1882); commanding officer of the ironclad Fuso (1882); the ironclad Kongo (1884); the Fuso and chief of staff, Readiness Flotilla (1886); rear admiral and director, Bureau of Naval Affairs (1886–1889); and created a baron (1887). Inoue was first director of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy in its new location at Hiroshima (1888); commander-in-chief, Readiness Fleet (1889); chief of Naval General Staff (1891); vice admiral and commander-in-chief, Sasebo Naval District (1892). He was commander-in-chief of the Yokosuka Naval District (1893 and 1900), the West Fleet and Readiness Fleet (1895), and Kure Naval District (1896). He was named Navy Councilor (1905); had his title upgraded to viscount (1907); and was fleet admiral (1911). His grave is in his hometown of Kagoshima. Sources: “Inoue, Yoshika” (April 19, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:01, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Inoue_Yoshika&oldid=206664454. “Inoue, Yoshika.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Deck Officers in the Cradle Era. http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px 00.htm#f002. “The Unyo Maru Incident.” Korea in the Eye of the Tiger. www.koreanhistoryproject.org/Ket/ C23/E2303.htm.

ITO, SUKEYUKI (1843–1914) (JAPAN)

Born in what is now part of Kagoshima City, Sukeyuki Ito served in the Satsuma domain’s navy, where he studied naval engineering and gunnery and participated in the Anglo-Satsuma War (August 15–17, 1863), the British retaliation for the Namamugi Incident in 1862 (see Kabayama, Count Sukenori). He also fought in the Boshin War (1868–1869), and in the Imperial Japanese Navy he served aboard the frigate Fujiyama, the guard ship Musashi, and the gunboat Kenko, of which he was executive officer (1870). Ito was lieutenant and executive officer of the frigate Kasuga (1871); commanding officer of the gunboat Daiichi Teibo (1871); lieutenant commander and commanding officer of the Kasuga and of the ironclad ship Azuma (1872); commanding officer of the corvette Nisshin (1875); and commander and commanding officer of the transport ship Takao-maru. Between 1876 and 1881 he was commanding officer of the ironclads Fuso and Hiei and the corvette Tsukuba. He was then captain (1882); rear admiral (1886); commander-in-chief, Readiness Fleet (1886 and 1893); director, Bureau of Naval Affairs (1889–189); director, Naval College (1889); and vice admiral and commander-in-chief, Yokosuka Naval District (1892). He was commanderin-chief, Combined Fleet, in 1894 at the time of the First Sino-Japanese War (August 1, 1894–April

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17, 1895), in which he won several naval battles against the Chinese Empire’s Beiyang Fleet led by admiral Ding Ruchang, who was killed at the Battle of the Yalu River (September 17, 1894). Ito was also chief of Naval General Staff and was created a viscount in 1895. He was admiral (1898); fleet admiral (1905); count (1907); and awarded the Order of the Golden Kite (1st class) and the Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum (1907). His grave is at the temple of Kaianji in Shinagawa, Tokyo.

rank of admiral of the flotilla and in 1946 gained his doctor of naval sciences. He was the Stalin Prize Laureate (1951); admiral of the Soviet Union Fleet (1955); corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1958); and named Hero of the Soviet Union (1965). Named after him is Admiral Isakov Avenue in Yerevan—the largest city in Armenia; the Admiral Isakov Medal; a Soviet/Russian naval vessel lost possibly in 1995; and the Admiral Isakov School in Yerevan.

Sources: “Ito Sukeyuki” (August 6, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:24, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Itoh _Sukeyuki&oldid=230101141. “Ito, Sukeyuki.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Deck Officers in the Cradle Era. http:// homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px00.htm#f001.

Sources: “Isakov I.S. (1894–1967), _dmiral.” Saint Petersburg Encyclopedia. www.encspb.ru/en/article.php? kod=2804021502. “Ivan Stepanovich Isakov.” Find a Grave. www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&G Rid=27034137. “Ivan Isakov” (August 16, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:00, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti tle=Ivan_Isakov&oldid=232369114.

ISAKOV, IVAN STEPANOVICH (1894–1967) (ARMENIA/RUSSIA)

Born into an Armenian family living in Russia, Ivan Stepanovich Isakov graduated in mathematical and science studies at Tiflis, Georgia (1913), then studied in the Technological Institute in St. Petersburg. Conscripted to the Russian Navy in 1917, he graduated from special midshipman courses, and in 1918 and 1919 he saw action with the Baltic Fleet and underwent advanced training at the naval academy, Leningrad (1928). He was senior lecturer of the Department for Strategy and Operational Tactics of the Naval Academy (1932–1935) and chief of staff of the Baltic Fleet (1933–1935). Though dismissed from office after the loss of a B-3 submarine in training maneuvers, he was reappointed in 1937. Isakov was instructor then lecturer of the Command Department of the naval academy (1935– 1937) and gained his Ph.D. (1937) for his dissertation on the routing of German forces by the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Battle of Tsingtao in China (October 31–November 7, 1914). He was commander of the Baltic Fleet until 1938; deputy people’s commissar of naval forces and acting chief of the naval academy (1938–1939); and first deputy people’s commissar of the naval forces (1939–1946). During the Winter War (1939–1940), Isakov coordinated operations of the Baltic Fleet and the Lake Ladoga Military Flotilla with the operations of the army of the Northwestern Front. He was chief of general naval staff of Naval Forces and coordinator of the Baltic Fleet, Ladoga and Chudskoy Military Flotillas and with the land forces (1940–1942). On October 4, 1942, Isakov was injured in a German bombing raid on the town of Tuapse on the Black Sea and had his foot amputated; he spent the remainder of the war in a field hospital. On May 31, 1944, he was promoted to the

IWABUCHI, SANJI (1893–1945) (JAPAN)

Sanji Iwabuchi, born in Niigata Prefecture, graduated as midshipman from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, Hiroshima (1915) and was sublieutenant (1916); lieutenant junior grade (1918); lieutenant (1921); lieutenant commander (1927); commander (1933); captain (1937); rear admiral and commander of the 31st Naval Special Base Force in Manila (1943); vice admiral (posthumous) (1945); and killed in action. Between 1919 and 1924, Iwabuchi undertook several courses in gunnery, torpedo training and aviation; the bulk of his service was as gunner or chief gunner. Iwabuchi served much of his career in cruisers and battleships but also in seaplane tenders, a submarine tender, and a destroyer. He was chief executive officer of the training cruiser Kashii and of the cruiser ship Akitsushima (1941); and was commanding officer of the seaplane tender Kamoi (1941) and of the battlecruiser Kirishima (1942). Kirishima took part in the Battle of Midway ( June 4–7, 1942) and the campaign for the Solomon Islands during 1942. On November 15, 1942, in the naval Battle of Guadalcanal, the Kirishima was destroyed by gunfire from the U.S. battleship Washington and had to be scuttled. In November 1944, he was assigned 4,000 army personnel and named commander of the Manila Naval Defense Force. Iwabuchi refused to obey the orders of General Yamashita Tomoyuki (1885–1946), commander of Japanese forces in the Philippines, to leave Manila and conduct a protracted struggle in the mountainous regions of northern and central Luzon as well as east of Manila. Iwabuchi chose to fight to the death defending Manila, though his body was never found. Iwabuchi’s actions resulted in the trial

Jackson and execution of General Yamashita Tomoyuki as a war criminal; his lack of effective control over Iwabuchi and the 31 Base Force led to the Manila massacre of several thousand civilians by Japanese sailors. Sources: “Iwabuchi, Sanji.” Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. http://pwencycl.kgbudge.com/I/w/Iwabuc hi_Sanji.htm. “Iwabuchi Sanji (1893–1945).” History and Headlines, September 26, 2007 www.historyand theheadlines.abc-clio.com/ContentPages/ContentPage. aspx?entryId=1145551¤tSection=1130224&pro ductid=3.

JACKSON, SIR HENRY BRADWARDINE (1855–1929) (BRITAIN)

Born in Barnsley, Yorkshire, Henry Bradwardine Jackson joined the Royal Navy in 1868. He was lieutenant (1881); commander (1890); captain (1896); naval attaché in Paris (1897); elected as a fellow of the Royal Society in recognition of his work in the field of wireless telegraphy (1901); assistant director of torpedoes at the Admiralty (1902); third sea lord and controller of the navy (1905); commander of the Third (afterwards known as the Sixth) Cruiser Squadron in the Mediterranean (1908); representative of the Admiralty at the International Conference on Aerial Navigation in Paris (1910); director, Royal Navy War College, Portsmouth (1911); chief of the war staff at the Admiralty (1913); first sea lord (1915); president of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich (1916); admiral of the fleet (1919); principal naval aide-de camp to King George V (1917–1919); and retired from the Royal Navy (1924). Jackson’s interests were problems of navigation, torpedo mechanisms, and ship-to-ship wireless communication; by 1895 Jackson succeeded in transmitting radio signals from one end of a ship to the other. Jackson met Signor Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937) and the two had much in common; Marconi wanted to communicate over land and sea, while Jackson wanted to improve the communications within the navy. By 1900 his efforts resulted in a British government contract with the Marconi Company to install wireless mechanisms on ships of the Royal Navy. In 1920 Jackson was named chairman of the Radio Research Board of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. There he directed studies on atmospheric interference with radio transmission, direction finding, and radio-frequency measurement. He also conducted pioneering work on shortwave radio reception. During his time as controller of the navy, Jackson’s recommendations were approved for building the first turbine battleships (dreadnoughts) and the famous Invincible class of battle cruiser. In 1926,

180 the Royal Society presented him the Hughes Medal in recognition of the great merit of his work. Jackson was Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1906); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1910); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1916). He received honorary degrees from Oxford, Cambridge and Leeds universities and awards from Spain, Japan, Russia and France, and for his scientific expertise, he was made honorary vice president of the Institution of Naval Architects. Sources: “Henry Jackson (Royal Navy Officer)” (August 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:36, August 21, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Jackson_(Royal_Navy_o fficer)&oldid=232442879. Dillon, Cynthia. “Henry Bradwardine Jackson.” Barnsley Family History Society, 1994. www.barnsleyfhs.co.uk/jackson.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/ article/34134. “Sir Henry Bradwardine Jackson” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/135 6325/Sir-Henry-Bradwardine-Jackson.

JELLICOE, JOHN RUSHWORTH (1859–1935) (BRITAIN)

Born in Southampton, Hampshire, the son of a captain in the mercantile marine, John Rushworth Jellicoe entered the Royal Navy as a cadet at Britannia Training-ship, Dartmouth, Devon, in 1872. He was lieutenant (1880); assistant to director of naval ordnance (1888–1891); commander (1891); naval assistant to controller of the navy (1902–1904); captain (1905); director of naval ordnance and torpedoes (1905–1907); aide-de-camp to King Edward VII (reigned 1901–1910) (1906–1907); rear admiral (1907); rear admiral in the Atlantic Fleet, secondin-command (1907–1908); lord commissioner of the Admiralty and controller of the navy (1908); vice admiral commanding Atlantic Fleet (1911); admiral and commander-in-chief, Home Fleets (1914); first sea lord (1916). He was sacked, on December 24, 1917, and created Viscount Jellicoe, of Scapa in 1918. He became admiral of the fleet and was awarded £50,000 pounds in 1919. Jellicoe was also governor general of New Zealand (1920–1924) and created earl (1925). Jellicoe’s first active service was during the Egyptian War (1882). In 1893 he was the executive officer (second in command) of the battleship HMS Victoria when she collided with the battleship HMS Camperdown near Tripoli, Lebanon, during maneuvers. The Victoria quickly sank, taking 358 crew with her, including the commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet, Vice Admiral Sir George Tryon (1832–1893). In 1898 Jellicoe was appointed to the command of HMS Centurion of

181 the China Station, and in 1900 took part in relieving the British in Beijing during the Boxer Rebellion (November 1899–September 7, 1901). On June 21, while leading an attack at Peitsang, Jellicoe received a bullet in the left lung and fell dangerously wounded. After an injection of morphia he wrote his will on the battlefield and was placed in a sampan to die; nonetheless he recovered. Although Jellicoe commanded the British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916), historians have different views of whether he or David Beatty should be blamed for the failure to make it a more resounding victory. It is thought that Jellicoe was sacked as first sea lord because his pessimism about the ability to win the war caused Prime Minister David Lloyd George (1863–1945) to lose confidence in him. After his death in 1935 he was buried at St. Paul’s Cathedral alongside Horatio Nelson and Cuthbert Collingwood. Jellicoe was Companion, Order of the Bath (1900); decorated by the German Emperor, William II, with 2nd class of the Red Eagle, with Crossed Swords (1902); Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (1904); Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1907); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1911). Sources: “John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe” (July 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:05, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/in dex.php?title=John_Jellicoe,_1st_Earl_Jellicoe&oldid=2 26194812. “John Rushworth Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, Viscount Brocas of Southampton” (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/302441/John-Rushworth-Jellicoe-1stearl-Jellicoe-Viscount-Jellicoe-of-Scapa-ViscountBrocas-of-Southampton. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34171.

JENNINGS, SIR JOHN (1664–1743) (BRITAIN)

John Jennings, son of Philip Jennings of Duddleston Hall, Shropshire, was lieutenant (1687); captain (1690); commander-in-chief, Medway (Kent) (1698); knighted (1704); rear admiral (1705); vice admiral and appointed commander-in-chief, Thames and Medway (1707); admiral (1708); commanderin-chief, Mediterranean (1711–1713); lord commissioner of the Admiralty (1714–1720); ranger of Greenwich Park and governor of Greenwich Hospital (1720); and rear admiral of England (1733). In February 1700, Jennings was appointed to the 70gun Kent, one of the fleet under Commander-inchief Sir George Rooke (see entry) at the Battle of Cadiz ( July 1702) and on the Torbay at the Battle of Vigo Bay (October 23, 1702).

Jervis In 1704 he was one of the seconds to Rooke at the capture of Gibraltar during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) and the Battle of Malaga (August 24, 1704). Under George Byng (see entry), he took part in the Relief of Barcelona (April 30, 1706), besieged by the French. Shortly after, Jennings was sent to the West Indies in the hope of persuading the Spanish settlements to declare in favor of King Charles (later Charles III, reigned 1759–1788). However, the governor of Cartagena, a large city seaport on the northern coast of Colombia, refused and Jennings arrived back in England on April 22, 1707. As commander-in-chief, Mediterranean, he protected transports or storeships from the French as they traveled through the Straits of Gibraltar to and from Britain. This was virtually his last seagoing assignment. He was member of Parliament for Queenborough, Rochester (Kent), and Portsmouth (Hampshire), all constituencies with strong naval connections. Sources: “John Jennings (Naval Lord)” (August 14, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:21, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/in dex.php?title=John_Jennings_(Naval_Lord)&oldid=23 1941610. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14760.

JERVIS, JOHN, EARL OF ST. VINCENT (1735–1823) (BRITAIN)

Born at Meaford, Staffordshire, John Jervis entered the Royal Navy in 1748 or 1749 as able seaman on board the Gloucester. He was midshipman (1752); lieutenant (1755); captain (1760); rear admiral (1787); admiral (1795); commander-in-chief, Mediterranean (1796–1799); created Baron Jervis of Meaford in the County of Stafford and earl of St. Vincent (1797); first lord of the admiralty and created Viscount St. Vincent (1801); commander-inchief, Channel Fleet (1806–1807); and admiral of the fleet (1821). As a young lieutenant during the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763), Jervis took part in the Battle of Quebec (September 13, 1759), served throughout the American Revolution (1775– 1783), and fought in the Battle of Ushant ( July 27, 1778) (see Berkeley, George Cranfield). From 1792 to 1795, During the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), Jervis cooperated with the army in capturing the French islands in the West Indies. Afterward he took command in the Mediterranean, where he maintained the blockade of Toulon and aided the allies of Great Britain in Italy. Jervis was the hero of the Battle of Cape St. Vincent (February 14, 1797), and it is from this battle that his title of viscount is derived. In 1797, The Nore and Spithead mutinies threatened the Navy.

John Jervis prevented any outbreak in his command through foresight and severity, including the flogging and hanging of sailors and public berating of his officers, one of whom, Sir John Orde (see entry), challenged him to a duel, which was denied him by King George III. Jervis went on to play a significant part in the victory of the Battle of the Nile (August 1–2, 1798). One example of Jervis’ determined leadership was evident when he was captain of the Alarm, sailing in the Mediterranean. Two slaves from a Turkish galley escaped and found refuge in the Alarm. The Turkish guard forcibly removed them; Jervis threatened the consul with action for insulting the British flag unless the slaves were returned. A day later the slaves were returned; the guard was arrested and thrown into prison. Nothing more was heard of this incident. Jervis was Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1782). Sources: “Admiral Sir John Jervis.” St. Vincent College. www.stvincent.ac.uk/Heritage/1797/people/jervis. html. “John Jervis, 1st Earl of St. Vincent” (August 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:43, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=John_Jervis,_1st_Earl_of_St_Vincent &oldid=233074083. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14794? docPos=1.

JOHN, SIR CASPAR (1903–1984) (BRITAIN)

Born in London, Caspar John was educated at the Royal Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight, and at the Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, Devon, from where he graduated as midshipman in 1920. Subsequently he was lieutenant (1925); lieutenant commander (1933); commander (1936); appointed to the Admiralty’s naval air division (1937); captain (1941); naval air representative in the British Admiralty delegation in Washington, D.C., and naval air attaché at the British embassy (1943–1944); deputy chief of naval air equipment, then director of air organization and training at the Admiralty and commander of Naval Air Station Lossiemouth, Elgin, Scotland (1948– 1951); rear admiral (1951); vice admiral (1954) admiral and vice chief of naval staff to Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma (see entry) (1957); First sea lord (1960–1963); admiral of the fleet (1962); and retired (1963). Soon after qualifying in gunnery and torpedoes, John trained as a pilot in the Fleet Air Arm. At that time it was under the dual administration of the navy and Royal Air Force — dual control ended in 1937 and devolved to the Royal Navy. He qualified as a pilot (1926) and from then on he did all he

182 could to turn the Fleet Air Arm into an effective fighting arm of the Royal Navy. In the aircraft carrier Hermes, John served in the China Station (1927–1929) during the conflict between the nationalist army of Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975) and the communist army. John eventually became involved with the design of naval aircraft and bought his own airplane, an open cockpit Avro Avian. He was second in command of the cruiser York on patrol duty in the North Sea and took part in the Norwegian campaign ( June 1940). He transported arms to Egypt for the campaign in the western desert during World War II. He was in America in 1943–1944 helping to purchase American naval aircraft to boost the strength of the Fleet Air Arm. At the same time he established training sites for British pilots in the USA and Canada. After his retirement he was chairman of the Star and Garter Home for disabled servicemen, and he himself had both legs amputated because of circulation problems in 1978. John was Companion, Order of the Bath (1952); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1952); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1960). In 1962 he declined a peerage offered to him by the then Prime Minister Sir Alec Douglas-Home (later Lord Home of the Hirsel) (1903–1995). Sources: “Caspar John” (July 28, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:10, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Caspar_John&oldid=228449553. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/art icle/31287.

JONES, JOHN PAUL (1747–1792) (USA)

John Paul Jones, the “Father of the American Navy,” was born John Paul in Arbigland, Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. His career at sea started at age 13, and he sailed aboard a number of different British merchant and slaver ships, but disgusted with the cruelty in the slave trade, he left his last slaver at Jamaica. He adopted the alias John Jones when he fled to his brother’s home in Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1773 to avoid the hangman’s noose in Tobago after an incident when he was accused of murdering a sailor under his command. Jones was the first man to be assigned to the rank of first lieutenant in the Continental Navy at the start of the American Revolution (1775–1783) on December 22, 1775. It was aboard the frigate USS Alfred, commanded by Commodore Esek Hopkins (1718–1802), the Navy’s commander-in-chief, that Jones hoisted the first U.S. ensign over a naval vessel. On November 1, 1777, Jones sailed for France

183 with orders to assist the American cause however possible. On February 6, 1778, France signed the Treaty of Alliance with America, formally recognizing the independence of the new American republic. Captain Jones’ Ranger became the first American Navy vessel to be saluted by the French on February 14, 1778. Although his naval career never saw him above the rank of captain in the Continental Navy, after his victory over the British frigate Serapis with the frigate Bonhomme Richard at the Battle of Flamborough Head (23 September 1779) off the Yorkshire coast in the North Sea, England, Jones emerged as an American national hero. During his engagement with the Serapis, Jones uttered, according to the later recollection of his first lieutenant, the legendary reply to a quip about surrender from the British captain: “I have not yet begun to fight!” He was, however, a rear admiral in the Russian Navy. In 1788 Jones (who took the name Pavel Dzhones) entered the service of the Empress Catherine II of Russia (1729–1796) as rear admiral aboard the 24-gun flagship Vladimir. He successfully repulsed Ottoman forces in the naval campaign in the Liman (an arm of the Black Sea, into which flow the Southern Bug and Dnieper Rivers). His success aroused the jealousy of certain Russian officers and he remained in idleness in St. Petersburg. The Empress awarded Jones the Order of St. Anne on June 8, 1788, but he left in July an embittered man. He retired to Paris, where he died and was buried at the Saint Louis Cemetery, which belonged to the French royal family. In 1905 Jones’ body was ceremonially brought to the United States aboard the USS Brooklyn, escorted by three other cruisers. On approaching the U.S. coast, seven U.S. battleships joined the procession escorting Jones’ body home. In 1913, Jones’ remains were finally re-interred in a magnificent bronze and marble sarcophagus at the United States Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis, Maryland. The ceremony was presided over by President Theodore Roosevelt. Sources: American National Biography Online. http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00198.html?a= 1&n=John%20Paul%20Jones&d=10&ss=0&q=1. “Captain John Paul Jones.” Naval Historical Center: Biographies in Naval History. http://www.history.navy. mil/bios/jones_jp.htm. “John Paul Jones” (May 27, 2009). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:14, May 29, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=John_Paul_Jones&oldid=292757592. “Life of John Paul Jones.” John Paul Jones Birthplace Museum Trust. http://www.jpj.demon.co.uk/jpjlife. htm. “New Light Upon the Career of John Paul Jones.” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, Vol. 33, Part I, 1907. http://www.jpj.demon.co.uk/Newlightex.pdf.

Joy JOY, CHARLES TURNER (1895–1956) (USA)

Charles Turner Joy was born in St. Louis, Missouri, and graduated as ensign from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1916. He served throughout World War I in the battleship Pennsylvania (BB-38). He undertook graduate education in engineering and was aide and flag lieutenant to commander, Yangtze Patrol, part of the U.S. Navy’s Asiatic Squadron (1923– 1925). He was executive officer, Asiatic Fleet destroyer Pope (DD-225); worked at the Bureau of Ordnance; served in the battleship California (BB44); was lieutenant commander, the Naval Mine Depot at Yorktown, Virginia (1925 to mid–1930s); commanding officer of the destroyer Litchfield (DD-336) and on the staff of commander destroyers, Battle Force (1933–1935); instructor at the naval academy (1937–1940); executive officer of the heavy cruiser Indianapolis (CA-35) (1940); and operations officer for commander, Scouting Force, Pacific Fleet (1941). After the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) and the United States entered World War II, he was involved in planning and carrying out attacks against Japan. He commanded the heavy cruiser Louisville (CA-28) (September 1942–June 1943) in the Aleutians and South Pacific theaters of war. Promoted rear admiral in 1944, Joy was commanding an amphibious group when Japan surrendered in August 1945. He was in charge of the Naval Proving Ground at Dahlgren, Virginia (1946–1949). As vice admiral he was commander, Naval Forces, Far East (1949–1952), during the first two years of the Korean War (1950– 1953) and was the senior United Nations delegate to the Korean armistice talks (1951). Joy was superintendent of the naval academy from 1952 until he retired as admiral in 1954. He was awarded the Legion of Merit in 1942. He was buried at the United States Naval Academy Cemetery. The destroyer USS Turner Joy (DD-951), named in his honor, was launched in 1958. Turner Joy Road at the U.S. Naval Academy was named for him. He wrote How Communists Negotiate (New York: MacMillan, 1955). Sources: “Admiral Charles Turner Joy, USN (Retired) (1895–1956).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/us pers-j/ct-joy.htm. “C. Turner Joy” (August 22, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:04, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=C._Turner_Joy&oldid=233503070. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

Kabayama KABAYAMA, COUNT SUKENORI (1837–1922) (JAPAN)

Born in Satsuma, Sukenori Kabayama fought in the Anglo-Satsuma War (15–17 August 1863) when the British fleet bombarded the town of Kagoshima in retribution after the Namamugi Incident (1862). This was an attack on four British nationals resulting in the death the Shanghai merchant Charles Lennox Richardson. The naval bombardment claimed five lives among the people of Satsuma and 11 lives among the British. Kabayama also fought in the Boshin (civil) War (1868–1869). In 1871, he enlisted in the new Imperial Japanese Army with the rank of major and helped defend Kumamoto Castle during the Satsuma Rebellion ( January–September 1877). Estimated casualties were 60,000 in the Japanese Army killed and about 30,000 in the Satsuma army killed. Kabayama rose to the rank of major general in charge of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police. In 1883, he transferred to the navy as senior vice minister and rear admiral, and was created viscount under the hereditary peerage of Japan that existed between 1869 and 1947. In 1884 he was promoted to vice admiral, and as vice navy minister (1886) he visited the United States and Europe in 1887–1888 and was navy minister in 1890–1892. Although he retired in 1892, Kabayama was recalled from the reserves during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894– 1895). He was at the Battle of the Yalu (September 17, 1894), the largest naval engagement of the war, and at the Battle of Weihaiwei, a 23 day siege with a major land and naval component ( January 20– February 12, 1895). The superior Japanese naval force annihilated the Northern Chinese Fleet and gained absolute control of the Gulf of Bohai, the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea on the coast of northeastern China. Kabayama commanded the Japanese invasion force that invaded Taiwan, and on May 10, 1895, he was the first Japanese governor general of Taiwan, with the seat of government in Taipei. He was made a count in 1895 and ws awarded the Order of the Rising Sun (first class). His thirteen month as governor was a time of great unrest and it is estimated that some 3000 Taiwanese were killed. He subsequently served on the Privy Council, as home minister, and as education minister, and was promoted to the honorary rank of fleet admiral in 1903. Kabayama retired again from duty in 1910. His grave is at the Somei Reien Cemetery, in Sugamo, Tokyo. Sources: “Colonization and Modernization under Japanese Rule,” in A Brief History of Taiwan; A Sparrow Transformed Into a Phoenix. www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/history/tw07.html. “Kabayama Sukenori” (April 19, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:22, August 22, 2008, from

184 en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kabayama_Sukeno ri&oldid=206662271. “Kabayama, Sukenori.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Deck Officers in the Cradle Era. http:// homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px00.htm#a002.

KARANNAGODA, WASANTHA (1953–) (SRI LANKA)

Wasantha Karannagoda joined the Sri Lankan Navy in 1971. He is the first Sri Lankan naval officer to be conferred two master’s degrees, in business administration and defense studies. He is a member of the Royal Institute of Navigation and of the Nautical Institute, both based in London, England. He is a graduate of the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, Hawaii; the Near East-South Asia Center for Strategic Studies at the National Defense University in Washington, D.C.; the Royal Naval Staff College in the United Kingdom; and National Defense College of Pakistan. He has held many senior commands, including four operational naval commands on seven occasions: Northern, Eastern and Western Commands twice each and North Central once, for a span of six years. He was the first director general (operations) at Naval Headquarters. Karannagoda was also director, naval projects and plans, director naval personnel and training, commandant of the Naval and Maritime Academy, and deputy area Commander (West, North and East). A specialized navigator, his sea career ended in 1992 as the Commander of the 7th Surveillance Command Squadron. He was appointed Commander of the Sri Lankan Navy, the most senior serving officer in the Sri Lanka Navy (2005–2008) and the only officer to have been appointed straight from a Naval Area Command. After assuming command of the Navy, Karannagoda changed the way navy operations worked by increasing capabilities for deep sea operations against arms smuggling by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, which resulted in the destruction of eight of their ships in one year. On 11 September 2007, the Sri Lankan navy sank three of their large ships more than 750 miles off Sri Lanka’s southeast coast in a remote part of the Indian Ocean. His awards are the Rana Sura Padakkama medal for gallantry, the Uttama Seva Padakkama, a distinguished service medal, and several other service and campaign medals. Sources: “Wasantha Karannagoda” (August 12, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:51, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/in dex.php?title=Wasantha_Karannagoda&oldid=231553 218. “Sri Lanka Navy Destroy Three LTTE Ships and Demolish Their Arms Shipment Capabilities.” Sri Lanka Navy Home Page. www.navy.lk/index.php?id=41 0. “Sri Lanka Navy Sinks Suspected Rebel Gun-run ning Ships.” Lankanewspapers.com. www.lankanewspa pers.com/news/members/space/news_archive.jsp?year= 2007&month=9&id=Rapaport.

185 KATARI, RAM DASS (1911–1983) (INDIA)

Born in Chinglenut (about 40 miles from Madras), Ram Dass Katari was the first cadet to join the training ship Dufferin, Bombay (Mumbai), when it was founded in 1927. During World War II he served in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and held a variety of appointments both afloat and ashore. Having specialized in anti submarine work, he was for a while instructor in the Anti-submarine Warfare School, Bombay. After the war, as lieutenant commander, he was responsible for clearing the mines he had laid down in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean. As captain he took over as chief of personnel at Naval Headquarters, New Delhi, in December 1948. From December 1951, he was the captain of the Indian Navy Destroyer Squadron and commanding officer of INS Rajput, the senior ship of the Squadron. He attended a course at the Imperial Defense College in London in 1953 and as commodore he became deputy chief of the Naval Staff (1954). Also in 1954 he became the first Indian officer commander-in-chief of the Indian Navy. In March 1956 as rear admiral, he took over as the flag officer commanding the fleet, a post until then held by British officers. He was promoted to vice admiral in April 1958, when he assumed the command of Navy. This was a momentous occasion; for over three hundred years British officers had been in charge, and now less than eleven years after independence, an Indian officer was in charge of a navy of 41 ships and 8,800 men. His vision was to foster a strong naval tradition of defense, and part of this was to develop the Indian navy as a fighting force. He commissioned India’s first aircraft carrier, INS Vikrant, and the Indian Navy liberated Goa from the Portuguese in December 1961. He retired as chief of naval staff in April 1962, then was India’s ambassador to Burma (1964–1969). The tradition of burial at sea among the Navy in India was established when the ashes of Vice Admiral Katari were consigned to the sea off Visakhapatnam. Sources: “And On the Sea.” Time, Monday, May 5, 1958. www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863 326,00.html?promoid=googlep. “Ram Dass Katari” (July 23, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:14, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Ram_Dass_Katari&oldid=2274 73557. “Vice Admiral R.D. Katari, CNS, 22 April 1958–04 June 1962.” Chiefs of the Indian Navy. www. bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/Navy-Chiefs/ChiefsNavy05.html.

KATO, TOMOZABURO (1861–1923) (JAPAN)

Born in Hiroshima, Aki Province, Tomozaburo (or Tomosaburo) Kato graduated as a midshipman

Keating from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, Tokyo, in 1880, having served in the corvette Tsukuba (1879). He was sub-lieutenant (1883); lieutenant, acting gunnery instructor at the naval academy (1886); adjutant, naval college (1888); lieutenant Commander (1895); instructor, naval college (1896); commander (1897); executive officer of the battleship Yashima (1897); commanding officer of the gunboat Tsukushi (1898); captain (1899); chief of staff, Second Fleet (1903); rear admiral (1904); chief of staff, First Fleet and General Fleet, and director, Bureau of Naval Affairs (1905); vice minister of the navy (1906); vice admiral (1908); commander-in-chief, Kure Naval District (1909); commander-in-chief, First Fleet (1913); admiral (1915); created a baron (1920); delegate to the Washington conference (1921); and prime minister (1922). Kato specialized in gunnery and navigation, and between leaving the academy and 1897 he had experience on gunboats, training ships, and ironclads, often as gunner or chief gunner and navigator. He was chief of staff to admiral Heihachiro TÉgÉ (see entry) in the battleship Mikasa at the Battle of Tsushima (May 27–28, 1905) during the RussoJapanese War (1904–1905). During his short tenure as prime minister, Kato oversaw the implementation the provisions of the Washington Naval Agreement (1922), which placed an obligation on many seafaring nations of the world to reduce the size of their ships of war. In accordance with the agreement, Japan withdrew its forces from Shantung in China and from Siberia; Japan decided in 1930 to withdraw from that agreement. He was given the honorary rank of fleet admiral the day before his death and was posthumously awarded the Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum and his title was raised to Viscount. Kato’s grave is at Aoyama Cemetery, Tokyo. Sources: “Kato, Tomozaburo.” Imperial Japanese Navy: Graduates of Naval Academy Class 7th. http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/px07.htm. “Kato Tomosaburo.” (August 21, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:05, August 22, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kat%C5%8D_Tomosa bur%C5%8D&oldid=233380629. “Transition of U.S.– Japan Relations.” The U.S.-Japan War Talks. www.jacar. go.jp/english/nichibei/negotiation/index2.html.

KEATING, TIMOTHY J. (1949–) (USA)

Timothy J. Keating was born in Dayton, Ohio, and graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1971. He completed flight training in 1973 and saw service in the Mediterranean aboard the super carrier USS Nimitz (CVN-68). He was staff landing signal officer aboard the super carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) in the western Pacific/Indian Ocean (1978); administrative officer, operations officer and maintenance officer aboard the

Keats world’s first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CVN-65) in the western Pacific (1982–1984); and aide and flag lieutenant to the commander-inchief, U.S. Pacific Command (1985–1986). In 1987 Keating was commander of Strike Fighter Squadron VFA-87, deployed with Carrier Air Wing Eight (CVW-8) aboard the super carrier USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) to the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. He was next head of the Aviation Junior Officer Assignments Branch, Naval Military Personnel Command in Washington, D.C.; deputy commander, Carrier Air Wing Seventeen, and from the super-carrier USS Saratoga (CV-60) supported Operation Desert Storm (the First Gulf War) (August 2, 1990-February 28, 1991); chief of naval operations fellow with the Strategic Studies Group in Newport, Rhode Island; deputy commander, Carrier Air Wing Nine aboard the Nimitz in the Persian Gulf (1993); Keating was commander of the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center at Naval Air Station Fallon, Nevada; director, Aviation Officer Distribution Division, Naval Military Personnel Command (1995); and deputy director for operations (current operations/J33), Operations Directorate, the Joint Staff, Washington (1996–1998). He commanded Carrier Group Five, home ported in Yokosuka, Japan (1998); was deputy chief of naval operations for Plans, Policy and Operations (N3/N5, Washington, D.C. (2000); commanded the U.S. Naval Forces Central Command and U.S. Fifth Fleet (2002); was director, Joint Staff (2003–2004); and commanded the North American Aerospace Defense Command and United States Northern Command (2004). He was promoted to admiral in 2004 and named commander, United States Pacific Command, Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii, on March 26, 2007. His awards include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal with 3 Oak Leaf Clusters; Navy Distinguished Service Medal with Gold Star; Legion of Merit with three Gold Stars; Defense Meritorious Service Medal; Meritorious Service Medal with Gold Star; three Air Medals; Navy Commendation Medal with two Gold Stars, and Combat V; Navy Achievement Medal with Silver Star and various unit and campaign awards. Sources: “Admiral Timothy J. Keating, USN, Commander.” U.S. Pacific Command: Leadership Biographies. www.pacom.mil/leadership/j0/j0bio.shtml. “Timothy J. Keating” (August 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:21, August 22, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timothy_J._Keating&oldid=229802281.

KEATS, SIR RICHARD GOODWIN (1757–1834) (BRITAIN)

Born at Chalton, Hampshire, Richard Goodwin

186 Keats entered the Royal Navy in 1770 and was lieutenant (1777); captain (1789); rear admiral (1807); vice admiral (1811); governor of Newfoundland and the neighboring islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon and commander-in-chief of the ships on the station (1813–1816); governor of Greenwich Hospital for seamen (1821); and admiral (1825). Keats was a conspicuous figure in the naval history of England; Horatio Nelson (see entry) regarded Keats as “a treasure to the service.” In June 1779 Keats was lieutenant in the Prince George in which Prince William Henry, afterwards King William IV (reigned 1830–1837), was one of his midshipmen; the two men developed a lifelong friendship. Keats saw action at the Siege of Gibraltar (1780) and in the North America Station during the American Revolution (1775–1783). In the Nore Mutiny (May-June 1797) Keats was one of the captains put on shore. In March 1801 he commanded the gunship Superb in what was acknowledged as unparalleled action in naval history. On a dark night off Cadiz, Spain, as part of the squadron commanded by James Saumarez (see entry), Keats fired a broadside at a Spanish ship, which missed and hit another Spanish ship, which, assuming it was hit by a British ship, returned fire. Aided by more broadsides from Superb, both Spanish ships were destroyed. During his term as governor of Newfoundland, he persuaded the British government to allow settlers to lease land for cultivation. However, it was still not legal to own property, or to enclose property for any other reason besides the fishery. Keats punished those who did not obey the law and had two Bell Island inhabitants’ property destroyed because of it. In 1815, 6,000 Irish immigrants arrived, which alarmed many Newfoundland inhabitants, coinciding as it did with the post-war depression. He was buried in the mausoleum of Greenwich Hospital, his funeral being, at the express desire of the king, conducted with all military honors and attended by the lords of the Admiralty, the naval officers of the king’s household, and very many other naval officers. Keats was made Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1808). One of the Howe Sound Islands, Canada. was named Keats Island in 1860 by captain George Richards, in the sloop Plumper. Sources: “Keats, Sir Richard Goodwin.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. www.biographi.ca/00 9004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=2950. “Keats, Sir Richard Goodwin.” Government House: The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador. www.heritage.nf.ca/gov house/governors/g39.html. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 15230. “Richard Goodwin Keats” (August 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 05:59, Au-

187 gust 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Richard_Goodwin_Keats&oldid=232460465.

KELLETT, SIR HENRY (1806–1875) (BRITAIN)

Born at Clonabody, Tipperary, Ireland, Henry Kellett entered the Royal Navy in 1822 and was lieutenant (1828); commander (1841); captain (1842); commodore, Jamaica (1855); rear admiral (1862); admiral superintendent, Malta Dockyard (1864–1867); vice admiral (1868); and commanderin-chief, China Station (1869–1871). Kellett’s early service was in the West Indies, on survey vessels on the west coast of Africa; in the East Indies, and in the Opium War (1840–1841). From 1835 to 1848 he took part various coastal surveys of America under Frederick William Beechey (1796–1856) and Sir Edward Belcher (1799–1877). In 1848, in command of the survey ship HMS Herald, he was ordered to the Bering Straits to help search for Sir John Franklin (see entry), which was unsuccessful; on this trip he discovered Herald Island in the Russian Arctic and saw Wrangel Island in the distance. In 1852 in command of HMS Resolute, he sailed as second in command in the expedition led by Belcher, whose orders were to continue the search for Franklin by way of Lancaster Sound—a body of water lying between Devon Island and Baffin Island in Nunavut, Canada, forming the eastern portion of the Northwest Passage. In March 1853, Kellett rescued Robert McClure (1807–1883) from his ice-bound ship Investigator, which was abandoned on Kellett’s order. Her starving and scurvy-ridden crew trekked over the ice to Dealy Island, there they constructed a storehouse that held sufficient supplies to last 66 men for nearly three months. Two of Kellett’s officers were Francis Leopold McClintock (see entry) and Lieutenant George Frederick Mecham (1828–1858), who sledged many miles without finding trace of Franklin, but added Eglinton and Prince Patrick Islands to the map of the Arctic. In 1854 Belcher ordered Kellett to abandon his ice-bound ships and take their crews, with the men of Investigator, on foot to the depot at Beechey Island. In his court-martial for losing his ships, Kellett was acquitted. In the autumn of 1855, James Buddington, an American whaling skipper, found Resolute drifting in Baffin Bay. The United States Congress purchased the derelict and gave her, refitted, to Queen Victoria. To commemorate this act of generosity, the Queen presented to the White House the “Resolute desk” made from one of the oak beams of the ship. In addition to the rescue of McClure and the survey work done by McClintock and Mecham under his command, Kellett is credited by Soviet writers with doing the first hydrographic work in the eastern Russian Arctic. He was Companion,

Kelso Order of the Bath (1842) and Knight Commander, Order of the Bath (1869). He died at his home in Clonabody. Sources: “Kellett, Sir Henry.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography. www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.ph p?&id_nbr=5072. “Kellet’s Storehouse.” Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Center. www.pwnhc.ca/exhibits/nv/ kellet.htm. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15288. “Sir Henry Kellett.” Virtual American Biographies. www.famousam ericans.net/sirhenrykellett.

KELSO, FRANK BENTON (1933–) (USA)

Born in Fayetteville, Tennessee, Frank Benton Kelso graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1956. He was promoted through the grades to rear admiral (1980); admiral and commander-in-chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (1986); supreme allied commander, Atlantic; commander-in-chief, U.S. Atlantic Command (1988–1990); and chief of naval operations (1990–1994). Between graduating from the academy and 1969, Kelso was engineering officer of the Daniel Webster (SSBN-626), a ballistic missile submarine; commanding officer, U.S. Naval Nuclear Power School in the U.S. Naval Training Center Bainbridge, Port Deposit, Maryland (1969–1971); executive assistant to the commander-in-chief, U.S. Atlantic Command and U.S. Atlantic Fleet, and supreme allied commander, Atlantic (1975–1977); division director, Submarine Distribution Division in the Naval Military Personnel Command, and head of the Submarine Programs Section in the Office of the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Manpower, Personnel and Training) (1978); director, Strategic Submarine Division, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations; and director, Office of Program Appraisal, Office of the Secretary of the Navy. As commander, Sixth Fleet, and NATO commander, Naval Striking Force and Support Forces Southern Europe, Kelso launched raids on Libya in defiance of Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi’s claim that Libya’s territorial waters extended 200 miles into the Gulf of Sidra in 1981 and launched a second attack in 1989. Kelso attended the 1991 Tailhook Association meeting in Las Vegas to gain first-hand information from aviators who were part of Operation Desert Storm following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. Subsequently, 83 women and seven men stated that they had been victims of assault and sexual harassment by naval aviators during the meeting. The Tailhook Scandal (1991) was never truly resolved, but the careers of several officers were ruined and Kelso was forced to retire. Senator Bar-

Kempenfelt bara Boxer’s attempt to punish Kelso by having him reduced in rank from full admiral to rear admiral (upper half ) failed. Boxer claimed that Kelso was deserving of punishment on the grounds that as the Navy’s top officer, he bore ultimate responsibility for what happened at Tailhook. Kelso’s awards include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal; the Navy Distinguished Service Medal (three awards); Legion of Merit (four awards); Meritorious Service; Navy Commendation Medal; Navy Achievement Medal; the Army, Air Force and Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal; Legion d’Honneur rank of Commander from France; Japan’s Order of the Rising Sun; Norway’s Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit; Sweden’s Royal Order of the Polar Star; and Thailand’s Most Noble Order of the Crown. The state of Tennessee named a section of Highway 50 in Lincoln County “Admiral Frank B. Kelso Highway.” Sources: “Admiral Frank B. Kelso II ’56, USN (Ret.).” United States Naval Academy Alumni Association and Foundation. www.usna.com/NetCommunity/Page.aspx?pid=4720&srcid=4721. “Admiral Frank B. Kelso, Chief of Naval Operations (July 1, 1990–April 23, 1994). Navy.mil. www.navy.mil/navydata/navy_ legacy_hr.asp?id=237. “Frank B. Kelso II” (July 26, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:01, August 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=Frank_B._Kelso_II&oldid=22808490 5.

KEMPENFELT, RICHARD (1718–1782) (BRITAIN)

Born in Westminster, London, of Swedish descent, Richard Kempenfelt was lieutenant (1741); captain (1757); and rear admiral (1780). Kempenfelt saw service in the West Indies, and in 1739 took part in the capture of Porto Belo, Panama, during the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1748, see Edward Boscawen). From 1746 to 1780, he saw active service in the East Indies and in various quarters of the world. On September 10, 1759, during the Seven Years’ War (1754 and 1756–1763) against the French, he was flag captain under Charles Steevens (1705–1761) at the indecisive Battle of Pondicherry (September 10, 1759) off the Carnatic coast of India. His account of this battle was printed in issue 482 of Gentleman’s Magazine in 1846. He won the Battle of Ushant ( July 27, 1778) (see George Berkeley) against a vastly superior force, defeating the French fleet under Comte de Guichen (see entry, De Bouexic, Luc Urbain, Comte de Guichen) and captured twenty ships in what was hailed the most dashing and brilliant feat of the whole Seven Years’ War. In 1782, Kempenfelt, as junior admiral, took command of the Royal George, which badly needed

188 repairs at Spithead, Hampshire, before proceeding to Gibraltar. A leak had been detected a few inches below the waterline that necessitated giving the Royal George a slight tilt to effect repairs. This was done on August 29 by running the guns over to the other side. The ship was old and rotten, and the disturbance of the weights brought so much strain on the structure that a large piece of the bottom fell out. The ship went down at once. Only 320 were saved, and according to the Hampshire Chronicle, about 1400 drowned, including hundreds of visitors, family, friends and trades people, amongst them Rear Admiral Richard Kempenfelt. The incident is commemorated in William Cowper’s poem of 36 lines “On the Loss of the Royal George.” In 1783 a medallion was struck commemorating the sinking of the Royal George. Kempenfelt’s hymns were published (under the pseudonym Philotheorus) in Original Hymns and Poems by Philotheorus (Exeter, England: B. Thorn, 1777). Kempenfelt Bay on Lake Simcoe in Ontario, Canada, is named for him. A monument to him stands in the Chapel of St. Micheal, Westminster Abbey. Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15338. “Official Guide.” Westminster Abbey, London, 2002 edition. “Richard Kempenfelt” (February 20, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:59, August 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Richard_Kempenfelt&oldid=192834136. “Some Selected Reports from the Hampshire Chronicle: Home News, Saturday, Aug. 31 [1782].” Rootsweb. http://free pages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~dutillieul/ZOtherPa pers/HCSep21782.html.

KEPPEL, VISCOUNT AUGUSTUS (1725–1786) (BRITAIN)

Augustus Keppel went to sea at the age of ten and was acting lieutenant (1742); lieutenant (1744); rear admiral (1762); vice admiral (1770); admiral and commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet (1778); first lord of the Admiralty, created Viscount Keppel and Baron Elden, and member of the Privy Council (1782); and member of Parliament (1761– 1780). From 1740 to 1744, Keppel sailed around the world in the Centurion commanded by Admiral Lord Anson (see entry), and at the capture of Paita, Peru (November 13, 1741), he narrowly escaped being killed when a musket bullet shaved off the peak of his cap. On that trip he also lost many of his teeth to the scurvy (a vitamin C deficiency). In 1747 he ran his ship, the Maidstone, ashore near Belle Isle in the Bay of Biscay while chasing a French vessel. Keppel and his men were made prisoners. After a few weeks he was permitted to re-

189 turn to England on parole, and, on being exchanged, was tried by court-martial and honorably acquitted. In 1748, Commodore Keppel, commanding the Centurion, was sent to remonstrate with the dey of Algiers and his corsairs (pirates). The story goes that the dey said he was surprised that the king of Great Britain should have sent a beardless boy to treat with him (Keppel was then aged 23). Keppel’s reply was along the lines, “Had my master supposed that wisdom was measured by the length of the beard, he would have sent your deyship a he-goat.” The dey threatened him with instant death, but Keppel, pointing to the squadron in the bay, said that there were Englishmen enough there to make him a glorious funeral pyre; the dey signed the treaty in 1751. In 1757, Keppel sat as member of the court-martial on Admiral John Byng (see entry). He commanded the Torbay, the leading ship in the inconclusive Battle of Quiberon Bay (November 20, 1759). During the Anglo-Spanish War (1761–1763), Keppel was second in command at the two-month siege by land and sea of Havana. The prize money was estimated to be more than three million sterling, of which nearly £25,000 was Keppel’s share. Following the indecisive First Battle of Ushant ( July 27, 1778), Sir Hugh Palliser (see entry) accused Keppel of dereliction of duty. The court-martial pronounced the charge against Keppel to be malicious and ill-founded and acquitted him. Palliser was also tried, and though acquitted, riots broke out. The Admiralty gates were torn down; the windows of the official residences were smashed; Palliser’s house in Pall Mall was gutted, and his effigy was burned. Bonfires blazed in Keppel’s honor; the rioters drank to Keppel’s health; and the publicans painted Keppel’s head on their signs. Places named after Keppel include Great Keppel Island, Queensland, Australia: Keppel Island, one of the Falkland Islands; Keppel Bay, Queensland, Australia; North Keppel Island, Queensland, Australia; and Keppel’s Column, near Rotherham, South Yorkshire. Sources: “Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel.” British History Online. www.british-history.ac.uk/ report.aspx?compid=68108. “Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel” (August 17, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:46, August 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Augustus _Keppel,_1st_Viscount_Keppel&oldid=232580695. “Biography: Augustus Keppel.” The National Museum, Royal Navy: Research. www.royalnavalmuseum.org/ info_sheets_augustus_keppel.htm. “Augustus Keppel, Viscount Keppel” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 23, 2008, from www.britan nica.com/EBchecked/topic/315287/Augustus-KeppelViscount-Keppel-of-Elvedon-Baron-Elden. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dic-

Keyes tionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/15439.

KEYES, ROGER JOHN BROWNLOW (1872–1945) (BRITAIN)

Roger John Brownlow Keyes was born at Tundiani Fort on the North-West Frontier Province of India, where his father commanded the Punjab Frontier force. He joined the Royal Navy in 1884 and was lieutenant in 1893. In 1900 he became commander, then was captain and naval attaché at Rome, Vienna, Constantinople (Istanbul) and Athens, with his office at the British Embassy in Rome in 1905. He was commodore, submarine service (1912); rear admiral (1917); vice admiral (1921); commander-in-chief, Mediterranean Fleet (1925–1928); admiral (1926); commander-in-chief, Portsmouth (1929); admiral of the fleet (1930); member of Parliament for North Portsmouth (1934); and created Baron Keyes of Zeebrugge and of Dover (1943). In 1890 aboard the HMS Turquoise, he was operating out of Zanzibar trying to suppress the slave trade. In April 1899, while on the China Station aboard the destroyer HMS Fame, he routed a force of Chinese who had surrounded a small British force. He played a crucial part in the capture of the Taku forts and the seizure of four Chinese destroyers during the Boxer Rebellion (November 1899– September 7, 1901). He led a sortie ashore and captured the dry dock, dispersing snipers; he then took the captured ships to Tongku. In a daring attack he captured the strategic fort at Hsi-cheng. During the advance on Peking, Keyes was aide-de-camp to General Sir Alfred Gaselee (1844–1918) and was the first man over the Peking walls, planting a Union flag on the top. In the early stages of World War I, Keyes was commander of the submarine force at Harwich, Essex, and was involved in the first Battle of Heligoland Bight (1914). His attempt to force the Dardanelles in 1915 was a massive disaster; the Turkish mobile artillery pieces caused serious damage to four of the six trawlers and HMS Amethyst had her steerage badly damaged. In the first month after taking command of the Dover Patrol in January 1918, the patrol sank five U-boats. In 1918 he planned and led the daring (though unsuccessful) raids on the German submarine pens in the Belgian ports of Zeebrugge and Ostend (see Crutchley, Victor Alexander Charles). For his war services he was given the title of baronet and £10,000. From July 17, 1940, to October 27, 1941, Keyes was the first director of Combined Operations, the Commandos, and laid strong foundations for their later successes. Keyes and his wife spent the year 1944–1945 on a goodwill tour of the United States,

Kimmel Canada, Australia and New Zealand, as well as touring war zones in the Pacific, logging 35,000 miles. Admiral Keyes was buried in the Zeebrugge corner of St. James’s Cemetery at Dover. A plaque set in the wall of the Nelson chamber of the crypt of St. Paul’s Cathedral commemorates him and his elder son, Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Charles Tasker, killed in action at Beda Littoria, Libya in 1941. Admiral Keyes’ honors included the Distinguished Service Order; Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George; and Commander, French Legion of Honor (1915); Knight Commander, Order of the Bath; French Croix de Guerre; Legion of Honor and Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold; the American Distinguished Service Medal, and Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order (1918); and Knight Grand Cross, Order of the Bath (1930). Sources: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Electronic Edition, version 1.1. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34309. “Roger John Brownlow Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes” (2008). In Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Retrieved August 23, 2008, from www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315912/ Roger-John-Brownlow-Keyes-1st-Baron-Keyes-of-Zee brugge-and-of-Dover. “Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes” (August 15, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:08, August 23, 2008, from en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Roger_Keyes,_1st_Baron_Keyes &oldid=232058674.

KIMMEL, HUSBAND EDWARD (1882–1968) (USA)

Born in Henderson, Kentucky, Husband Edward Kimmel graduated from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1904. He was wounded in the Occupation of Veracruz, Mexico, on April 9, 1914. He worked mainly on destroyers, and after promotion to rear admiral in 1937, he commanded Cruiser Division Seven on a diplomatic cruise to South America and then became commander of cruisers, Battle Force, in 1939. In 1941 he was promoted over several senior officers to the post of commander-in-chief, U.S. Fleet, with the temporary rank of admiral. He was the highest ranking naval officer present when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941), during World War II, and ten days later while he was in the midst of planning and executing retaliatory moves, he was suspended from command pending investigation. A presidential board of inquiry in 1942 found Kimmel and Lieutenant General Walter C. Short (1880–1949) guilty of dereliction of duty, but a naval court of inquiry in 1944 and a congressional investigation in 1946 found no dereliction of duty. No court-martial was held and Kimmel retired in 1942 with the rank of rear admiral. He spent much of his time defending himself in

190 front of various hearings, pointing out that all the key information which would have enabled him to anticipate the attack was never made available to him. A 1995 Pentagon study concluded that other high-ranking officers were responsible for the failure at Pearl Harbor, but did not exonerate Kimmel. On May 25, 1999, the U.S. Senate, by a vote of 52–47, passed a nonbinding resolution exonerating Kimmel and Short and asking the president to posthumously promote Kimmel, and others, to the admiral rank. No action was taken. In the 1970 film Tora! Tora! Tora! Kimmel was portrayed positively as a commander who operated competently considering the inadequate communication of intelligence and the errors of subordinates. He was also portrayed in a 2001 movie, Pearl Harbor. Kimmel wrote his own defense in Admiral Kimmel’s Story (Chicago: Henry Regency Company, 1955). Sources and Selected Publications: American National Biography Online. www.anb.org/articles/07/0700157.html?a=1&n=KIMMEL,%20HUSBAND%20E DWARD%20&d=10&ss=0&q=1. “Husband E. Kimmel” (August 4, 2008). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:09, August 23, 2008, from en.wiki pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Husband_E._Kimmel&ol did=229760045. “Rear Admiral Husband Edward Kimmel, USN (1882–1968).” Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center. www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-k/h-kimml.htm. Reynolds, Clark G. Famous American Admirals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

KING, ERNEST JOSEPH (1878–1956) (USA)

Born in Lorain, Ohio, Ernest Joseph King graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1901 and was ensign (1903); lieutenant (1906); lieutenant commander (1913); commander (1917); captain (1918); head of the Postgraduate School at the Naval Academy (1919); in command of the Submarine Base at New London with additional duty as naval inspector of ordnance in charge of the mine depot (1923); rear admiral and chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics (1933–1936); vice admiral (1938); commander-in-chief, Atlantic Fleet (1940); admiral and commander-in-chief, U.S. Fleet (1941) combined with chief of naval operations — the only person to hold this combined command (1942–1945); and fleet admiral (1944–1945). In his senior year at the academy, he attained the rank of cadet lieutenant commander. During the Spanish-American War (1898) he was a cadet aboard the USS San Francisco, flagship of the Northern Patrol Squadron, for which he received